Faculty of Classical and Modern Philology

Irish Studies

The Celtic Element in Irish

Nadezhda Stephanova Geshanova,

1
 The Celtic Element in Irish Identity

It is an indisputable fact that the Celtic element is among the three most important aspects
of Irish identity, the other two being Roman Catholicism and colonisation.
The Celts were a people who originated in central Europe from Indo-European stock and
became a distinct people in the Iron Age. The earliest found archaeological evidence
associated with the Celts places them in what is now France and western Germany in the late
Bronze Age around 1200 BC. They are distinct from their predecessor peoples,
archaeologically named the Urnfield cultures, principally in their use of iron, their art style,
the role of the horse in their lives, and the social stratification of their society.
In the early Iron Age, they are associated with the Halstatt culture (8th-6th cent.BC)
named for an archaeological site in Upper Austria. The later Iron Age phase of Celtic Culture
is called La Tene, after a site in Switzerland and dates from the previously mentioned 5th to
1st centuries BC. The La Tene culture, with its distinctive art style of abstract geometric
designs and stylized bird and animal forms, had begun to emerge among the Celts centered on
the middle Rhine. Between the 5 and 1 centuries BC The La Tene culture accompanied the
migrations of Celtic tribes into Eastern Europe and westward into the British Isles.
Opinions differ regarding whether the Irish Celts arrived via Britain, around Scotland
directly to Ireland, or north from or around the Iberian peninsula. However, it seems apparent
that whichever route they took, the first true Irish Celts arrived during the early Hallstatt
period. The expansion of the Roman Empire put great pressure on the continental and British
Celts, whose culture was eventually wiped out through a combination of outright destruction
and assimilation into Roman culture. Ireland was never directly impacted by Rome and
retained its Celtic identity well into the fifth century A.D. Christianity spread in Ireland in that
century and although it was altered by exposure to and acceptance of the Christian faith, much
of the Celtic identity remained, and still does to this day.
Most of what we know about Celtic life comes from Ireland — the largest and most
extensive of the Celtic populations. The Gauls in central and Western Europe we only know
about through Roman sources—and these sources are decidedly unfriendly to the Gauls.
The various Celtic tribes were bound together by common speech, customs, and religion,
rather than by any well defined central governments.
The smallest unit in Celtic society was the FINE, a close, extended family kinship group.
The fine, not the individual, was what was important. Legally the individual did not exist,

2
except as a member of the fine and was responsible for his set share of the fine's property and
obligations. The TUATH, a group which is most closely equivalent to the modern concept of
tribe or clan, could be made up of one or several fine and was led by the RI, or king.
Eligibility for leadership was based on blood relationship but was not directly inherited.
Within the tuath, society was basically divided into three classes: the Nobility, composed
of landowners and warriors; the Aes Dana, men of art and learning, craftsmen, and included
the druids; and the Commoners or Churls who owned no land but were free not slaves.
The Nobility, or warrior class, was that group which we know the most about from the
epics and mythology of the Celts. They were the landowners and in control of most, if not all,
of the land, herds, and flocks and most of the physical wealth of the tuath.
Craftsmanship and technical skills were highly regarded by the Celts and mastery of a
craft could alter one's social status. The possessors of those skills, the Aes Dana, were free of
other tribal obligations. They owed no military service to lord or tuath, and were free to travel
between the lands controlled by different tuaths.
The Commoners as a group were free but did not own land and would generally have
been farmers and animal husbandmen, and perhaps less skilled craftsmen.
Celtic society was based almost entirely on pastoralism and the raising of cattle or sheep;
there was some agriculture in the Celtic world, but not much. The importance of cattle and the
pastoral life created a unique institution in Celtic, particularly Irish, life: the cattle-raid. The
stealing of another group’s cattle was often the proving point of a group of young warriors;
the greatest surviving Irish myth, the Táin Bó Cualingne, or ‘The Cattle Raid of Cooley’,
centers around one such mythically-enhanced cattle-raid.
The Celts were by far the tallest race in the world, noticeable also for their white skin and
fair hair. Some of them shave off their beards but others let them grow moderately: the nobles
shave their cheeks but let their moustaches grow freely so as to cover their mouths. They had
unusual styles of hairdressing; they used to smear their hair with limewater and then pull it
back to the top of their head and over the neck to produce something like a horse's mane. All
this elaborate hairdressing was intended to give them greater height and to terrify their
enemies in battle.
An outstanding characteristic of the Celtic people was their love of decoration and
ornament. They collect a great quantity of gold and use it for decoration, not only the women
but also the men. For they wear bracelets on the wrists and arms, necklaces of solid gold,
rings of great worth and even gold corslets. The torc was one of the most important ornaments
worn by the Celts. It was a neck ring made of a rod of metal, of bronze or gold according to

3
the wealth and status of the wearer. The two ends of the torc almost met, but the metal was
pliant, for it had to open sufficiently to let it on or off. Men almost always wore a belt and
women would frequently wear girdles of chain. Brooches were used to fasten cloaks and
tunics and in multiples as decoration.
The Celts were fond of bright colors and wore colorful clothing, often in plaids or stripes
and frequently edged with fringes. Tunics were worn by both men and women, generally floor
length for the women and shorter, to the knee, for men. BRACCAE, a trouser like garment,
were also sometimes worn, but generally only by the lower class. The BRAT, a large
rectangular piece of cloth, which was variously wrapped about the shoulders and body as a
cloak, was an integral part of any Celtic wardrobe. Leather shoes and sandals were worn but
headwear was not. Linen and wool were the common clothing fabrics.
Wealth within Celtic society was based on land and stock ownership. There is evidence
that in mainland Europe land was more highly valued, but in Ireland cattle was of greater
significance in determining one's wealth.
Boasting of one's achievements and victories in battle, as well as the achievements and
victories of one's ancestors, was an integral part of Celtic society. Display of physical wealth,
such as an abundance of gold and jewelry was also very important.
The Irish Celts, generally speaking, did not live in communities or villages as have
peoples in later times. Each fine would have had its own homestead, self-sufficient and
independent. Each homestead would have its own defensive embankment or palisade for
protection against raiders surrounded by the fields and pastorage it owned.
Each homestead might have consisted of such structures as the main house or hall, a
bread oven, a cheesehouse, drying racks for grain, a husking/winnowing area, a smithy or
woodshop, livestock pens, and a granary or storage area - perhaps underground. The main
house or hall where sleeping, eating, and cooking took place was simple in plan, generally
circular and sometimes half sunk in the ground. Stone, or more commonly wood, would have
been used in the construction of the buildings.
Beds were simple pallets of furs, perhaps a thin mattress stuffed with grass or moss,
arranged on ledges or benches which hugged the perimeter of the hall. The Celts did not use
chairs and squatted or sat on cushions and furs on the floor with a few low tables scattered
about.
Their pottery ranged from crude, utilitarian items made within each household to the fine
quality work produced by skilled potters. A rotary hand mill was also a fixture in every Celtic
home, as was a loom for the weaving of cloth.

4
 The Celts were skilled metalworkers and fashioned the majority of their metal goods
themselves. They not only worked metals, but if the location were suitable, they mined it as
well. In addition to iron, they worked bronze and precious metals, used for decorative
purposes. Gold and silver, even more rare, were used for jewelry and ornamentation. The
Celts were adept woodworkers also. They practiced agriculture. They were also shrewd
businessmen and traders.
The Celts were renowned for their love of good food and drink. They brewed their own
mead, beer, and ale and imported wine from Mediterranean peoples. The principal dish at
feast was meat, either boiled or roasted on a spit. A certain etiquette and precedence were
observed at table, and good eating habits were even noted. Though they were accustomed to
eat voraciously, raising up whole limbs in both hands and biting off the meat, they did it in a
cleanly fashion. No one started to eat without looking first to see if the chief had touched what
was set before him.
The early Celtic societies were organized around warfare. Among the Celts, warfare
seems to have mainly been a sport, focussing on raids and hunting. In Ireland, the institution
of the fianna involved young, aristocratic warriors who left the tribal area for a time to
conduct raids and to hunt.
Chariots were an important part of Celtic warfare, a method which was very effective
against the Romans. Warrior and driver were a strong team. The driver would bring the
chariot to the point of battle, at which the warrior would leap from the chariot and engage the
enemy. The driver would then wheel off to one side, ready to come sweeping in to retrieve the
warrior when needed. Another Celtic tactic in warfare was to begin a confrontation with
almost ritual taunting and hurling insults at the enemy before engaging in battle. The Celts'
principal weapons were the slashing sword and spear or javelin. Shields were common and
were made of wicker or wood, sometimes covered with leather.
The Celts were said to challenge their enemies, announcing before battle the fate awaiting
them – excruciating pain, instant death, and decapitation--and sometimes offering to settle
matters by having each side choose a single champion and fight to the death – sort of an early
form of psychological warfare. They generally charged on horse and foot, beating drums,
screaming at the top of their lungs, heaving javelins and spears with such fury that it
sometimes brought victory before the battle had really begun.
The Celt was a warrior in the heroic sense. He lived for war. His glorification of bravery
often led him to recklessness. Part of a warriors ritual was to boast of his victories, and
fighting between warriors was an important part of life. Most Celts scorned the use of armour

5
and before about 300 BC preferred to fight naked. Their only protection was a large shield
which was usually oval. In battle, the Celts whirled their swords above their heads, slashing
the air from side to side, and then struck downwards at their enemies as if chopping wood. It
was this use of the sword that so terrified their enemies. The Celt was a head-hunter. In battle
he would cut off the head of his fallen enemy and often hang it from his horse’s neck. After
battle he would display the severed head at the entrance to his temple. The severed head is a
constant theme in Celtic art. After a battle, the Celts would often dedicate their enemies’
weapons to the gods and throw them into a river or lake.
The ancient Celts had a form of writing called ogham (pronounced OH-yam). It was the
writing of Druids and Bards. Ogham is also called ‘Tree Alphabet’ because each letter
corresponds to a tree and an associated meaning. The letters were, in fact, engraved onto
sticks as well as larger standing stones.
In keeping with Druidic concepts, each of the Ogham’s twenty letters bears the name of a
tree. A-Ailim (Elm), B-Bithe (Birch), C-Coll (Hazel), for example. The Celts had an oral
tradition so it was not used to write stories or history as these were memorized.
The Ogham alphabet contains twenty letters and is read from the bottom up. The letters
are constructed using a combination of lines placed adjacent to or crossing a midline. An
individual letter may contain from one to five vertical or angled strokes. Ogham was named
after the Celtic god of literature, Ogma. It was used on the edges of burial stones and
boundary markers. They usually held the name of a person. Examples exist to this day.
Only the messages on stone survived. There are 369 verified examples of Ogham writing
surviving today. These exist in the form of standing stones concentrated in Ireland. Ogam can
still be seen inscribed on hundreds of large and small stones, on the walls of some caves, but
also on bone, ivory, bronze and silver objects. Ogam was adopted and further developed by
the first monks in Ireland. They were not sure as to where Ogam came from. The script was
used by the monks as a monument script between 450 and 800 A.D. and they used it for
literary purposes between 650 and 900 A.D. Over 500 Ogam inscriptions are known from
Ireland.
There are many questions arising as to what calendrical practice was used by the Celtic
people. Regarding this issue there are three primary schools of thought. These three theories
all attempt to offer us a better understanding of the Celtic calendar. In fact, itt were the Druids
who were primarliy concerned with calendar-keeping.
One of the most commonly accepted beliefs holds that the year was divided into thirteen
months with an extra day or so the end of the year was used to adjust the calendar. This theory

6
states that the months correspond to the vowels of the Ogham or Celtic Tree Alphabet. For
every of the months there was a designated tree. From this a ‘tree calendar’ wheel emerged.
Most archaeologist and historians accept another calendar. This calendar is represented
by the surviving fragments of a great bronze plate, the Coligny Calendar. This plate, found in
eastern France, was engraved in the Gaulish language in Roman-style letters and numerals. It
depicts a system of time keeping by lunar months, showing 62 consecutive months with 2
extra months inserted to match the solar timetable.
The third school of thought is an amalgam of both of the others. The proponents of this
last theory believe that the first calendar pre-dates the Coligny discovery.
The Celts measured time by nights followed by days, not the reverse as we do today.
Months, as well as days within each month, were believed to be auspicious or inauspicious
and feasts, raids, and other activities would have been planned accordingly.
Ancient Celtic philosophy believed that existence arose from the interplay between
darkness and light, night and day, cold and warmth, death and life, and that the passage of
years was the alternation of dark periods (winter, beginning November 1) and light periods
(summer, starting May 1). The Druidic view was that the earth was in darkness at its
beginning, that night preceded day and winter preceded summer a view in striking accord
with the story of creation in Genesis and even with the Big Bang theory. Thus, Nov. 1 was
New Year's Day for the Celts, their year being divided into four major cycles.
Their seasons were separated and identified by four major religious festivals. Imbolc,
held in February, celebrated the coming into milk of the ewes and was a pastoral festival of
fertility and growth. Beltaine, celebrated in May, was also related to the fertility of cattle and
crops and honored the Druids. Beltaine is commonly associated with fire rites. Today the
most well known of the Beltaine fire rites had to do with driving the herds between bonfires,
through their smoke, for purification and protection against evil spirits.
Lugnasa, celebrated from mid July to mid August, was the harvest festival. It lasts for a
whole moon and was a celebration of the Gods providing all that was needed. The
culmination of the festival is Harvest Home. This is the last load coming in from the fields,
and the capturing of the goddess of the cereal. The hang-over from this is the making of a
'corn dolly', originally in the shape of a woman. This was the home of the goddess over the
winter and was put back into the ground in the first furrow of the plough in the spring.
Samhain heralded the start of the new year. It was celebrated on October 31 and
commemorated the creation of order out of chaos and the beginning of the world. During this

7
celebration the division between this world and the Otherworld dissolved and the spirits
roamed the earth.
The Celts measured the Solar year on a wheel, circle or spiral, all of which symbolize
creation and the constant movement of the universe growth and development. The continuous
spirals with seemingly no beginning or end signified that as one cycle ended another began
eternal life. The spiral’s never-ending, always expanding, motion also symbolized the ever-
increasing nature of information and knowledge.
Celtic art is considered the first great contribution to European art made by non
Mediterranean peoples. Its roots go back to the artisans of the Urnfield culture and the
Hallstatt culture (8th-6th cent. bc) at the beginning of the Iron Age. It flowered in the period
of the La Tene culture. Although Celtic art was influenced by ancient Persian, Greek,
Etruscan, and Roman art and by that of the nomads of the Eurasian steppes it developed
distinctive characteristics. These are evident in its major artefacts-weapons, vessels, and
jewelry in bronze, gold, electrum and occasionally silver. Many of these objects were made
for chieftains in southern Germany and France and were recovered from their tombs.
The Celtic style is marked by a preference for stylised plant motifs, usually of Greek
origin, and fantastic animals, derived from the Scythians and other steppe peoples; however
the human figure tended to play a secondary role. Other favourite motifs are elliptical curves
and opposing curves. spirals, and chevrons, also derived from steppe art. These elements were
combined in dynamic yet balanced, intricate geometrical patterns carried out in relief
engraving, or red, yellow, blue, and green champleve enamel on shields, swords, sheaths,
helmets, bowls, and jewelry. They also appeared on painted pottery cinerary urns, food
vessels, incense bowls, and drinking cups. Examples of Celtic art include torcs, or neck rings,
with the two open ends ornamented with animal heads, the silver repousse Cundestorp
cauldron, a bronze lozenge-shaped shield with circular medallions and small enamel circles,
and a bronze mirror with enamelled decoration. Also surviving are roughly carved stone
monuments and wooden objects. During the period of Roman domination of Western Europe
in and after the 1st century bc the art of Celtic peoples on the Continent gradually lost its
distinctive style. The Celts of Ireland continued to work with traditional motifs but as
Christianity took hold, they combined them with Christian motifs and employed their skills in
the service of the church.
There is a distinction between two fundamentally different styles of artistic expression.
One is what is called naturalistic art – art which attempts to represent or to imitate what is
seen in nature. The other is abstract or geometric art. It imitates nothing; it constructs

8
ornamental designs by means of a pleasing combination of flowing lines and decorative
patterns. It is full of fancy and imagination, and depends in a special way on a keen sense of
rhythm, balance and proportion.
The objects produced by Celtic craftsmen were of elegant form and proportions.
Decorations were always appropriate, applied with restraint and not over-loaded.
The strongest surviving proof of Celtic art, in spite of its origins throughout the
European continent, is to be found in the westernmost parts of Europe – Ireland. In Ireland the
Celtic populace remained largerly undisturbed. They carried the old traditions in their art, and
archieved their greatest masterpieces in the form of illuminated manuscripts.
In the quiet and seclusion of the Irish Christian monasteries, the Celtic artist-craftsmen
could continue to evolve their decorative schemes of flowing lines and graceful curves by
beautifying the pages of the Gospels. One of the most important and best preserved
manuscript which has survived to this day is the Book of Kells, which is an amazing example
of early western art and one of the finest surviving illuminated manuscripts in the whole of
Europe.
Seemingly in opposition to their warlike demeanor was the Celts' love of music and their
religion, which was very much in harmony with their natural surroundings.
The Celts were highly ritualistic and religious. Their elaborate burials, under a mound, in
a wooden chamber usually made of oak, furnished with highly decorated weapons, food,
drink, and personal ornaments point to powerful beliefs about the nature of life after death.
The bodies of the wealthy dead were laid out, burnt or unburnt, on four-wheeled wagons in
the earliest of Celtic peoples, and later in lighter, two wheeled wagons.
The Otherworld of Celtic belief was the dwelling place of the gods and other supernatural
beings. It was a place of feasting and joy. It was not a heaven, a reward such as some modern
religions believe in, but a magical counterpart of the natural world which every person,
regardless of behavior in life, would enter after death. The Otherworld was as real to the Celts
as the natural world.
The Celts do not seem to have had a hierarchy of divinity in the sense of a coherent
pantheon dwelling in some remote place. The human world and the Otherworld formed a
unity in which the human and divine interact.
Water sources were especially sacred, whether or not they were enclosed in a ritual site.
They frequently were believed to possess healing powers and were also believed to be
entrances to the Otherworld. Gifts were given in exchange for the use of sacred waters. Gifts
of carven figures were often given for healing and perhaps other types of divine intervention.

9
Such votive offerings were tossed into springs, rivers, or down sacred wells as gifts to the
gods. The Celts also believed that it was dangerous to name a sacred thing by its correct
name, the result being that sacred things are often referred to in a roundabout way.
Celtic religion featured many female deities such as mother goddesses and war
goddesses. The Mother Goddess of the Celts was often conceived as a warrior, fighting with
weapons and instructing the hero in superior secrets of warfare. Celtic deities were tribal by
nature, and each tribe or clan would have its own names for particular gods and goddesses.
Many of the smaller gods and goddesses were location specific, having dominion over a
certain spring, river, clearing, wood, or hill. Lugh was a very versatile god. He was believed
to be skilled at and have dominion over all the arts and horsemanship, a warrior god, inventor
of games, patron of travellers and commerce. He is the most universal of the Celtic gods.
Cernunnos, known more often as the Horned God or Antlered God, was the ruler and
protector of the animals. He was intimately linked with fertility and prosperity, especially of
herds and flocks, but also of men. There was also Ogmios/Oghma, the patron of eloquence,
and Donn, the god of the dead and ruler of the Otherworld.
Goddesses in Celtic belief were generally triads and most often their influence was tied to
a specific geographic area. Brigid was one triadic goddess for whom we have a name. Her
influence was widespread as a mother goddess, patroness of arts and crafts, healing, poetry
and traditional learning, and the rites of spring. Another named goddess, sometimes triadic,
sometimes not, was Epona, also referred to as the Horse Goddess. She was variously depicted
with, seated on, or as a horse and her influence was widespread.
Shapeshifting was common among Celtic gods and goddesses who often took the form of
their favored animals. Animals held great significance in the religious beliefs of the Celts.
Birds were linked with the gods as bringers of omens and messengers. Ravens were special
favorites as messengers of the gods and their calls were considered prophetic. The boar, often
symbolizing strength and power, and the pig, favored as food by both men and gods, both had
ritual significance as well. The salmon was regarded as the holder of Otherworld wisdom and
a symbol for sacred rivers and pools.
The Celtic gods and goddesses were not omnipotent or incorruptible as the modern,
western religious usage of the word implies. They were simply supernatural, immortal or near
immortal counterparts to humanity with the added power of magical abilities. They were
subject to the same whims, desires, and jealousies as humans. They were not believed to
normally intervene in man's affairs, but could be persuaded to do so by appropriate sacrifices
and entreaties.

10
 The cult of the head, as the universal celtic practice of head collecting has come to be
called, was only semi religious. The head was believed to be the seat of the soul or essence of
a person. It was a symbol of divinity and the seat of all desirable qualities. The head of a
fallen enemy could be a talisman of victory and power, the magic inherant in the head could
increase one’s personal power and/or avert evil, or the possession of an enemy’s head could
prevent that enemy from being reborn, either physically or spiritually. The heads of one's
ancestors could be good luck talismans, avert evil, and offer advice or entertainment.
The most important legacy that the Irish bequeathed to Europe was Irish Christianity.
When Patrick came to Ireland in the fifth century, Christianity had spread across the face of
Celtic culture but hadn't really penetrated the various Celtic cultures. It was spread very thin
and practiced by a perishingly small minority in Gaul and Britain. It was also assuming a new,
distinct character among the Celts, who combined Christianity not only with native Celtic
institutions and religions, but with a plethora of eastern mystery religions. It was this
Celticized version of Christianity that Patrick brought with him to Ireland.
As far as Celtic mythology is concerned, animal symbolism is of great importance.
Animal symbolism found in Celtic myths include boars, birds, serpents, fish, horse and cattle.
Boars symbolise courage and strong warriors. Power and strength is attached to the bristles of
the boar, which was held in high esteem by the Celts. There are many examples of
supernatural boars and their adventures in the literary traditions of the Irish. The otherworld
feast is supposed to be sustained by magical pigs which, no matter how many times they are
cooked and eaten, are alive again the next day to be cooked again.
Fish, especially salmon are associated with knowledge and secrets. Serpents and dragons
are portents of trouble, strife and infertility. Birds also may presage bad luck or bloodshed.
Horse and cattle represent fertility, as do many occurrences of animals in Celtic legend.
Foliate head images were central to Celtic cultures, also symbolizing fertility. Horns were a
powerful symbol of virility and divine power. The Celts not only gave their gods horns, but
enhanced their chances of success in battle by wearing horned helmets. In Celtic mythology
powerful opponents may use the magic of shape shifting into different animal forms during
battle.
The number three was sacred to the Celts, and deities were sometimes portrayed in
groups of three, or as having three heads or faces. In mythological tales, the deities or semi-
divine heroes are described as being one of three people of the same name, or as having been
born three times in succession.

11
 Manannan Mac Lir is one of the most popular deities in Celtic mythology. Manannan
Mac Lir is Lord of the sea and of the three great waves of Ireland, and son of the mystical god
Lir, ruler of Time and Deep Space. While very little is known of Lir himself, his son
Manannan appears in many of the old legends. It is said that he travelled around Ireland in
many different shapes and guises. As a master of tricks and illusions (which he enjoyed acting
out on mortals) he was known as Gille Decair, the Bad Servant, an apparently foolish clown
who could disappear at will. Despite his trickery, however, he never brought harm to any
mortal. . He was guardian of the Blessed Isles of the Celts. To the Celts, the Blessed Isles that
lie beyond the sea are the gateways to the Otherworlds, where the soul journeys to after death.
Manannan is the guardian of these gateways between the worlds. He is the Ferryman, who
comes to transport the souls of the dead through the veils. Manannan’s cloak, like the mist
with which he is associated, signifies the veil between the worlds. Manannan is immortal, and
will live forever in the hearts of the Celts.
The legends of Cu Chulainn and other epic tales of Celtic life, although portraying the
lives of heroes and divine or semi-divine persons, provide us with a window into the world of
the Celts. These legends, maintained over the centuries by word of mouth until written down
by Irish clerics in the 8th and 9th centuries, can be established as having been a living part of
Celtic life and belief until the fourth and fifth centuries A. D. Although somewhat altered by
the attitudes of the priests and clerics who committed them to writing, the picture they give us
of the lifestyle of the Celts is supported in a limited way by archaeological evidence.

12