TECTONICS, VOL. 22, NO. 5, 1051, doi:10.

1029/2002TC001460, 2003

Tectonic shortening and topography in the central High Atlas

(Morocco)
Antonio Teixell, Maria-Luisa Arboleya, and Manuel Julivert
Departament de Geologia, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain

Mohammed Charroud
Département de Géologie, Faculté des Sciences et Techniques Fès-Saı̈ss, Université Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah,
Fez, Morocco
Received 24 September 2002; revised 13 May 2003; accepted 26 June 2003; published 9 October 2003.
[1] Three cross sections of the Moroccan High Atlas 1. Introduction
illustrate the structural geometry and relationship
between tectonic shortening and topography in this [2] The Atlas Mountains of North Africa are considered
as type examples of intracontinental chains [Mattauer et
Cenozoic intracontinental mountain range. The al., 1977; Rodgers, 1987; Ziegler et al., 1995]. They
structure is dominated by thick-skinned thrusting and formed during Cenozoic times in the interior of the African
folding, essentially by inversion of Mesozoic plate ahead of the Rif-Tell plate boundary orogenic belt
extensional faults and by buckling of both pre- (Figure 1a). Like other intracontinental chains, the Atlas
Mesozoic basement and its sedimentary cover. experienced moderate crustal shortening and exhumation.
Detached, thin-skinned thrusting is limited and However, they have a very high topography, with peaks of
apparently related to basement underthrusting, which over 4000 m.
did not always create structural relief. Despite the high [3] Many earlier studies have dealt with aspects of the
topography, tectonic shortening is moderate, with evolution of the Atlas system from rift or transcurrent
faults and folds being spaced and separated by broad sedimentary troughs during the Mesozoic, to compressional
tabular areas. Section restoration indicates that belts of tectonic inversion in Cenozoic to recent times
[Choubert and Faure-Muret, 1962; Mattauer et al., 1977;
shortening decreases along strike from east to west Schaer, 1987; Laville, 1988; Jacobshagen et al.,
in the High Atlas, while topographic elevation 1988; Laville and Piqué, 1992; Beauchamp et al., 1996,
generally increases. This inverse correlation suggests 1999; Frizon de Lamotte et al., 2000; Gomez et al., 2000]
that crustal thickening does not fully explain the (among others). However, some important tectonic ques-
observed topography and suggests a mantle contri- tions are still unsolved, including the compressional struc-
bution to uplift. This is supported by geophysical tural style, whether it is thin-skinned or thick-skinned, the
indications of a thin lithosphere and by alkaline mode of basement involvement, the total orogenic shorten-
volcanism in the vicinity. Mantle-related uplift, which ing, the origin of the elevated topography, and the reasons
occurs in a broad region, may also explain the for the scarce development of peripheral foreland basins.
scarce foreland basin record adjacent to the High Our discussion of these points is based on three new cross
Atlas. The relief of the Atlas Mountains is inter- sections through the High Atlas of Morocco combined
with geological and geophysical considerations from
preted as a combination of crustal isostatic and neighboring areas (the Moroccan Meseta, the western
dynamic topography. INDEX TERMS: 8005 Structural end of the Algerian High Plateau and the Anti-Atlas,
Geology: Folds and folding; 8010 Structural Geology: Fractures Figure 1a). The modes of compressional deformation in
and faults; 8110 Tectonophysics: Continental tectonics—general the interior of the continent and the contribution of crust and
(0905); 9305 Information Related to Geographic Region: Africa; mantle to topography are addressed more generally in the
KEYWORDS: intraplate tectonics, inversion, folding, topography, discussion.
High Atlas, Morocco. Citation: Teixell, A., M.-L. Arboleya,
M. Julivert, and M. Charroud, Tectonic shortening and
topography in the central High Atlas (Morocco), Tectonics, 2. Geological Cross Sections
22(5), 1051, doi:10.1029/2002TC001460, 2003.
[4] The Alpine foreland in front of the Rif-Tell orogen
consists of several intracontinental mountain belts and
plateaux. The High Atlas forms the most prominent moun-
tain chain (Figure 1a), extending for 2000 km in a roughly
west-east direction from Morocco into Algeria and Tunisia,
where the range is known as the Saharan Atlas and the
Copyright 2003 by the American Geophysical Union. Tunisian Atlas respectively. This belt, together with its
0278-7407/03/2002TC001460$12.00 NE-SW branch in Morocco known as the Middle Atlas, is

6-1
6-2 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 1. (a) Location sketch map of the Atlas Mountains in the North African foreland. (b) Geological
map of the central High Atlas, indicating the section lines of Figure 2. ATC, Ait Tamlil basement
culmination; SC, Skoura basement culmination; MC, Mougueur basement culmination; FZ, Foum Zabel
thrust.

composed at the surface of folded and thrust Paleozoic and marginal basins in our transects is constrained by the high
Mesozoic rocks, mostly Jurassic in age. Flanking the High structural elevation of the basement, which either crops out
and Middle Atlas, the Moroccan Meseta, the Moulouya or lies at shallow depth (Figures 1b and 2).
Plain and the Anti-Atlas are wide uplifts with much less
Alpine deformation, but reaching altitudes of over 2000 m.
In this section we will focus on the geology of the central 2.1. Regional Stratigraphy and Sedimentary Evolution
High Atlas, a ca. 100 km wide belt concentrating most of [6] The location of the High Atlas coincides with a
the Alpine deformation (Figure 1b). Triassic-Jurassic trough [Choubert and Faure-Muret,
[5] We describe here three transects of the High Atlas that 1962; Piqué et al., 2000]. The chain is essentially made
illustrate the structural variation along the range (Figure 2). up of Jurassic rocks in outcrop (Figure 1b). Pre-Mesozoic
The cross sections are oriented NNW-SSE, perpendicular to basement, formed by rocks affected by the Hercynian and/or
the general trend of the belt, and parallel to the direction of Panafrican orogenies, crops out in some culminations
regional convergence in the African plate during the Ceno- (Mougueur, Ait Tamlil, Skoura, Figure 1b) and in a large
zoic [Mattauer et al., 1977; Gomez et al., 2000]. They are massif in the High Atlas of Marrakesh called ‘‘Massif
based on detailed field data acquisition along a stripe Ancien’’ [Jenny, 1985; Froitzheim et al., 1988; El Kochri
of geological mapping some km wide following the lines and Chorowicz, 1988].
of section, and were originally constructed at a scale of [7] During most of the Mesozoic, the High Atlas domain
1:50,000. The sections use a simplified stratigraphy, based experienced extension and rifting, first during the Triassic,
on the lithostratigraphic units of larger rank, which have a as recorded by red beds and tholeiitic basalts, and later
tectonosedimentary significance. Surface data were extrap- during the Jurassic, with the deposition of marine carbo-
olated to the pre-Mesozoic basement using the parallel fold nates and shales capped by continental red beds. Though
methods and taking into account stratigraphic variations largely hidden below the Jurassic, the Triassic is thickest
when detected. There is a lack of seismic or well informa- around the Massif Ancien, the Skoura culmination, and the
tion for most of the range. Subsurface data are restricted southern Middle Atlas (up to 1000 m). The reactivation of
to bordering basins [e.g., Jabour and Nakayama, 1988; previous Hercynian faults has been considered responsible
Beauchamp et al., 1996, 1999]; the structure of these for the location of the Triassic basins, under a NW-SE
 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 2. Serial geological cross sections through the High Atlas of Morocco (location in Figure 1b): (a) Midelt-
Errachidia section, (b) Imilchil section, and (c) Demnat section. Segment x – x0 in 2c is adapted from Errarhaoui [1997].
RL, reference lines for restoration (see Figure 6). See color version of this figure at back of this issue.
6-3
6-4 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

tensional field [Laville and Petit, 1984; Beauchamp, 1988; pressional deformation and uplift, and are found essentially
Piqué et al., 2000]. in the plains bordering the High Atlas [Monbaron, 1982;
[8] Sedimentation of transgressive lower Liassic platform Görler et al., 1988; Fraissinet et al., 1988; Morel et al.,
carbonates, a continuous key level consisting of a few 1993; El Harfi et al., 1996]. They reach a maximum
hundred meters of limestone and dolomite, sealed the thickness of 1200 m in the Ouarzazate syncline (Figure 1b).
Triassic rift basins [Laville et al., 1995; Piqué et al., Younger Quaternary terrace gravels are still affected by
2000]. During the late Liassic, the platform was drowned compressional deformation, as shown in the northern borders
and disrupted [Brechbühler et al., 1988; Warme, 1988; of the High Atlas of Marrakesh and Midelt by Dutour and
Igmoullan, 1993; Poisson et al., 1998; Souhel et al., Ferrandini [1985] and Morel et al. [1993, 2000]. Despite
2000]. Consequently, subsiding basins started to differenti- these occurrences, large areas of the plains bordering the High
ate, essentially coinciding with the trace of the present-day Atlas lack Cenozoic deposits, being the Mesozoic or even the
High and Middle Atlas. The Jurassic basins can be grouped Paleozoic rocks exposed at the surface. (Figure 1b). The
into two main provinces located on either side of an limited foreland basin record contrasts with the high topogra-
emerged Massif Ancien [Choubert and Faure-Muret, phy of the Atlas. Interestingly, small conglomerate and
1962; Du Dresnay, 1971; Warme, 1988; Stets, 1992]. To lacustrine limestone inliers attributed to the Neogene are
the west, the basin was open to the Atlantic and related to its preserved in the interior of the High Atlas [Zouine, 1993],
passive margin, and to the east there were several epicon- occasionally tens of km away from the borders (i.e., Rocher
tinental troughs connected to the Tethys. From Toarcian to La Cathédrale, Jebel Tizza, Tasraft, etc.). These may reach
Bajocian times up to 5000 m of open marine shales (marls), thicknesses of over 500 m, and suggest that part of the High
calciturbidites and reefal limestones accumulated in the Atlas may once have been buried by synorogenic sediments
central High Atlas, while to the west, in the area adjacent but was later reexhumed.
to the Massif Ancien, emersion and terrestrial sedimentation
dominated. Red beds indicating generalized filling and 2.2. Structural Geometry and Kinematics
regression became widespread in the Bathonian [Choubert [12] The rocks exposed in the High Atlas were deformed
and Faure-Muret, 1962; Jenny et al., 1981]. in upper crustal conditions, with very weak or no metamor-
[9] During this period, the Atlas troughs were character- phism. Compressional deformation is heterogeneously dis-
ized by a complex fault pattern, developed under a NW-SE tributed: narrow deformation bands constituted by anticlines
tensional field. Two models have been proposed to explain or thrust faults are frequently separated by broad synclines
the overall basin structure: (1) a basin system dominated by or tabular plateaux [Schaer, 1987]. Variations in Mesozoic
movement along ENE-WSW strike-slip faults, with the stratigraphy and thickness across many thrust faults attest to
generation of a complex set of compressional and tensional their origin as synsedimentary extensional faults, which
stepovers and pull-apart basins [Mattauer et al., 1977; later experienced tectonic inversion. The trend of the main
Laville, 1988; Laville and Piqué, 1992], and (2) a transten- individual thrusts and folds is NE-SW, slightly oblique to
sional (oblique) rift, with internal NE-SW oriented exten- the general trend of the range (Figure 1b). Consistent with
sional faults, oblique to the basin axis [Warme, 1988; El the original dip of the Mesozoic basin-bordering faults, the
Kochri and Chorowicz, 1996]. Fanning of beds and low- present High Atlas is a doubly-verging chain, although an
angle unconformities are common in Jurassic sediments uplifted central axis or internal zone cannot be defined. In
[Jenny et al., 1981; Laville, 1988]. Crustal thinning was fact, due to the moderate degree of inversion, in much of the
accompanied by alkaline gabbroic intrusions, dated as mid interior of the range, the basement is at lower structural
to late Jurassic [Hailwood and Mitchell, 1971]. elevation than in the peripheral forelands (Figure 2). A
[10] Jurassic rocks are usually absent beyond the south- somewhat homogeneous erosion level in the central
ern and northern borders of the Atlas ranges. The Creta- High Atlas results in Jurassic rocks dominating in outcrop
ceous is composed of a basal red bed unit followed by a (Figure 1b). West of Demnat, due to a thinner cover, the
platform limestone level dated as Cenomanian-Turonian. erosion has reached the level of the Paleozoic, that crops out
Although largely eroded in the interior of the High Atlas, extensively (‘‘Massif Ancien’’). An inspection of the geo-
these sediments form a tabular, expansive body that we logical map in this area reveals that basement is involved
believe covered the entire Atlas domain and overlapped the in the compressional deformation (Figure 1b), in a domi-
basement of its margins (Saharan platform, Anti-Atlas and nantly thick-skinned tectonic style characterizing the
Meseta), representing a postrift setting. This view is con- Moroccan Atlas [Frizon de Lamotte et al., 2000]. The cross
sistent with the geophysical imaging of the equivalent sections described below constitute the first series of
Jurassic basins in the American Atlantic margin, which detailed transects which cross the entire High Atlas and
are overlain by a marked postrift unconformity close to illustrate the structural variation along strike.
the Jurassic/Cretaceous boundary [i.e., Hutchinson and 2.2.1. Midelt-Errachidia Section
Klitgord, 1988]. The uppermost Cretaceous again consists [13] This easternmost section shows many of the com-
of terrigenous red beds, indicative of the beginning of the mon characteristics of the transects (Figure 2a). The south-
Alpine compression to some authors [Laville et al., 1977; ern thrust front overrides a much reduced Mesozoic
Froitzheim et al., 1988; Amrhar, 1995]. succession characteristic of the Saharan platform. South of
[11] Upper Paleogene to lower Quaternary continental the cross section, in the Tafilalet valley, Cretaceous sedi-
deposits are contemporary with the main episode of com- mentary rocks directly overlie the Precambrian or Paleozoic
 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO 6-5

Figure 3. Field photograph of the western end of the Mougueur basement culmination, showing a tight
anticline defined by Mesozoic beds, with Paleozoic slates occupying the core. The photograph is looking
west; north is to the right.

of the craton, although at Errachidia, the Ks-1 well drilled a the northern border of the range, north-vergent thrust faults
thin Triassic and Jurassic carbonatic to evaporitic series coexist with Jurassic normal faults that were not reactivated
[Jossen and Filali-Moutei, 1992] (Figure 2a). The two (Figure 2a). The High Atlas is separated from the Moulouya
frontal thrust sheets of the High Atlas contain a dominantly Plain (western end of the Algerian High Plateau) by a
carbonatic Jurassic succession that is about 1000 m thick, frontal thrust that overrides the overturned limb of a
overlain by mid to late Jurassic red beds. The southernmost syncline in Cretaceous beds. This corresponds to footwall
unit shows a frontal overturned fold that was interpreted as a ramp geometry, and thus limits the degree of superposition
fault propagation fold detached along the Triassic by Saint and slip along the frontal thrust. The reduced and tabular
Bezar et al. [1998], whereas the second thrust is associated Mesozoic succession of the Moulouya Plain, with a few
to a persistent shift of the regional elevation of Jurassic beds hundreds of meters of Triassic and Jurassic rocks, can be
and must already involve the basement. Farther north, the traced from the Paleozoic outcrop of the Mibladen mining
Foum Zabel thrust carries a much thicker Jurassic succes- district.
sion (at least 4000 m of shales with minor limestones), 2.2.2. Imilchil Section
which describes the kilometric-scale Kerrando syncline [15] In this transect, the southern frontal thrust also brings
(Figure 2a). The stratigraphic variation and the presence Jurassic rocks over the Cretaceous cover of the Saharan
of basement slivers along the thrust indicate that it derives platform. The southern part of the High Atlas in this transect
from the inversion of a basement-involved extensional fault. is made up of a 20 km wide thrust imbricate fan that is
Triassic rocks along the sole of the fault define a hanging detached from the basement at the Triassic level. This
wall flat. Beds in the footwall are truncated in a high-angle detachment is evident in outcrop (expressed by hanging
ramp, but the relationships between hanging wall and wall flats) and in cross-section construction, since the top of
footwall (where Jurassic beds are at much higher regional the basement keeps the same structural elevation below the
elevation) suggest that the Kerrando syncline cannot be successive thrust sheets (Figure 4). However, there are
attributed to this footwall ramp, but must have been stratigraphic variations across each of the imbricate thrusts,
inherited from the Mesozoic extension instead. A gentle and the frontal of them carries a small Paleozoic shortcut
unconformity within Jurassic beds in the northern part of the [Hadri, 1997; Poisson et al., 1998]. This indicates reacti-
syncline supports this view. vation of Mesozoic extensional faults, but their lower parts
[14] North of the Kerrando syncline there is a marked were probably left beneath the thin-skinned imbricate
increase in structural relief, and lower Liassic limestones system.
define a large anticlinorium that represents the western [16] North of the frontal imbricates, there is a broad
continuation of the basement culmination of Mougueur tabular region at a mean topographic altitude of over
(Figures 1b and 2a). As seen in the culmination, the 2000 m (Figure 2b). This tabular area is only disrupted by
individual folds, although tight, involve the basement a Triassic salt diapir at Toumliline, which originated during
(Figure 3). In some cases, competence contrast between the Jurassic extension and was later slightly deformed
basement and cover may result in disharmony at the during the Alpine compression. There is a surprising
Triassic level and large-scale hinge collapse of the lower absence of a basement culmination that could act as a root
Liassic carbonates (e.g., Jebel Aouja, Figure 2a). Finally, on zone of the frontal, detached imbricates described above
6-6 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 4. Cross section of a thin-skinned thrust system at the southern margin of the High Atlas north
of Tinejdad. This section is a blowup of Figure 2b (see text for explanation). FZT, Foum Zabel thrust.

(Figure 2b). One possible explanation is that basement was turned Cretaceous beds of the Tizza footwall syncline,
shortened at the rear of the cover imbricate fan by under- Neogene sediments are also cut by the thrust fault, indicat-
thrusting (the footwall moving down), without creating ing their syntectonic nature. This footwall unit is in conti-
much structural relief. nuity with the Middle Atlas, and to the NNW is bordered by
[17] The central part of the section, close to Imilchil, is the frontal thrust that overrides the Tadla Plain, where, in a
characterized by more regular, open folding (Figure 2b).
Variations in structural elevation suggest that basement must
be involved. Late Jurassic red beds are preserved in syn-
clines, and show large-scale bed fanning and thickness
variations indicative of growth folding. Comparable fea-
tures in the same formation were described to the west of
the transect by Jenny et al. [1981], and in older, Dogger
marine sediments by Laville [1988]. This author relates
them to synsedimentary shortening within a strike-slip
system, whereas Jenny et al. [1981] interpret them as
formed within an extensional regime, an interpretation we
tentatively retain. Jurassic elongate gabbro plutons and
dykes are occasionally found in cores of the intervening
anticlines or faults (Figures 1b and 2b). These were
intruded along Jurassic extensional openings [Laville,
1988], their dominant trend being NE-SW. Although some
doming in host rocks may have been produced during Figure 5. Detailed section of the Tizi n’Isly-Jebel Tizza
intrusion, in our view the tight folding of sedimentary area (northern part of section 2b), illustrating a long-lived
layers around the magmatic bodies was essentially pro- fault history characteristic of High Atlas. The thrust fault is
duced during the later compressional episode. Bedding- of Cenozoic age because it involves an outlier of lacustrine
perpendicular dykes in fold limbs irrespective of bedding limestone, conglomerate, and shale which, by correlation
dip supports this view. with similar outcrops described by Zouine [1993], can be
[18] This folded area is bordered to the north by a north- attributed to the Neogene. However, these rocks are
vergent thrust, associated to a marked stratigraphic change unconformable on the Cretaceous of the overturned limb
[Fadile, 1987] (Figure 2b). Jurassic sediments pass from of the footwall syncline, indicating a previous episode of
over 6500 m in the hanging wall to some 2000 m in the thrusting, and in addition, the thrust derives from the
footwall, where they are overlain by Cretaceous and Neo- inversion of a major Jurassic extensional fault, as indicated
gene rocks (Figure 5). Although unconformable on over- by thickness variations of the upper Lias-Dogger sediments.
 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO 6-7

symmetrical disposition with respect to the southern margin, Detached, thin-skinned thrusting is limited, restricted to a
the Cretaceous lies directly over the Paleozoic basement. narrow belt in the southern margin of the chain (Figures 2b
2.2.3. Demnat Section and 2c), and not always related to basement culminations
[19] This westernmost transect has the highest topographic hinterlandward. In general, section construction results in a
relief, and also shows a deeper erosional level, the less shortened basement compared to the cover; additional
Pre-Mesozoic basement being exposed in two large culmi- shortening mechanisms such as ductile flattening must have
nations (Skoura and Ait Tamlil) (Figures 1 and 2c). Base- occurred in the former. Owing to this and the occurrence of
ment is covered by a reduced Mesozoic succession buckling, we believe that there are no simple angular
preserved in some synclines, where the Jurassic red beds relationships between folds and basement faults. The east-
(here starting in the Toarcian) directly overlie the lower ern, Midelt-Errachidia cross section shows relatively closely
Liassic carbonates [Le Marrec, 1985]. The structure of the spaced folds and thrusts, which to the west become more
High Atlas at this transect is characterized by open folds, cut spaced and separated by broad, undeformed units. However,
by high-angle thrust and normal faults (Figure 2c). From the the most conspicuous variation between the cross sections
Mesozoic beds preserved in the highest mountain peaks concerns the erosional level. Exhumation appears greater in
near the section line, it can be deduced that the top of the the westernmost section, where basement is frequently
basement culminations had a tabular structure, with very brought to the surface. This occurs without a correlative
little internal shortening. The High Atlas overrides the increase of apparent compressional deformation (actually it
Ouarzazate Tertiary basin toward the south. In the northern becomes milder), and is largely because the Mesozoic
margin of this basin, the Jurassic is absent and there is a succession was originally thinner in this segment of the
complex system of thin-skinned forethrusts and back chain. The relationship between these features and
thrusts which involve Cretaceous and Cenozoic rocks the amount of tectonic shortening is further discussed in
[Laville et al., 1977; Fraissinet et al., 1988; Errarhaoui, the following sections.
1997; Beauchamp et al., 1999; Frizon de Lamotte et al.,
2000]. North of Demnat, the relief of the High Atlas
2.3. Section Restoration and Shortening Estimates
experiences a marked recess, passing to the Haouz erosional
plain. The plain is covered by a thin Neogene to Quaternary [21] The cross sections of the High Atlas have been
veneer (Figure 2c), which, although unconformable and restored to the precompressional state, to gain insight into
largely undeformed, is thrust by the High Atlas [Dutour the two-dimensional configuration of the Mesozoic basin
and Ferrandini, 1985; Petit et al., 1985]. Paleozoic rocks and to evaluate the magnitude of the Alpine contraction
appear again at the surface in the Jebilet Massif (Figure 1b), (Figure 6). Restoration is based on bed lengths, essentially
which according to Chellaı̈ and Perriaux [1996] and Morel et from competent lower Liassic strata, and assumes a basin
al. [2000] is bordered to the north by a buried thrust fault. system dominated by inclined extensional faults with mod-
Boreholes located north of the Jebilet drilled the top of the erate dip. Evidence of low-angle normal faulting was not
basement at some 1000 m below sea level, under a Triassic, found. The reference horizontal is placed at the top of the
Cretaceous and Neogene cover in continuity with the Tadla Jurassic rift sequence, since the overlying Cretaceous has
Plain [Jabour and Nakayama, 1988]. This cover shows a homogeneous facies and thickness wherever present. The
gentle dip to the south, and east of the transect it is clearly geometry of Triassic sediments is poorly constrained in the
thrust by the High Atlas mountain front at Beni Mellal eastern transects, and they are represented as forming a
(Figure 1b), of which the Jebilet is the western continuation. tabular body with thickness based on the outcrops at the
The Jebilet is a chain of low hills, and from a geomorphic Mougueur culmination and the Ks-1 well at Errachidia.
point of view the High Atlas is considered to begin at the Some uncertainty concerning bed lengths and translations
latitude of the town of Demnat. arises from the obliquity of internal structures with respect
2.2.4. Comparison of the Sections to the general High Atlas trend, which may have induced
[20] The comparison of the three cross sections shows out of the plane movements. However, Zouine [1993]
several common features and some differences. Along the evaluated these potential movements to be minor (of the
three transects, the inverted Triassic and Jurassic basins of order of 4%, which was within the margin of error of his
the High Atlas are thrust outward over Cretaceous postrift measurements), making restorations admissible. Jogs in the
rocks which overlie basement or very reduced Triassic- section lines (Figure 1b) are located in areas with tabular or
Jurassic remains. Within the chain, there is a predominantly very simple structure, and hence they have no significant
thick-skinned tectonic style, and most thrust faults and effect on the calculations.
buckle folds, not necessarily fault-related, involve base- [22] Thickness variations of Jurassic rocks define a rather
ment. Folds are markedly noncylindrical, occasionally with symmetrical extensional basin in profile, with central,
strong axial plunges, making correlations of individual rapidly subsiding zones (essentially during late Liassic to
structures between transects difficult. Displacement along Dogger times), flanked by marginal zones of reduced
individual thrust faults is moderate, as faults show common thickness and, occasionally, rift shoulders without Jurassic
ramp-over-ramp relationships and die out laterally within a between the basement and the postrift, expansive Creta-
few kilometers. This does not favor the low-angle thrust ceous (Figure 6). Maximum basin width and depth is
interpretations for the northern margin of the High Atlas inferred in the Imilchil section (Figure 6b). The thickest
proposed by Lowell [1995] and Beauchamp et al. [1999]. accumulation preserved in the Midelt-Errachidia transect is
6-8 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 6. Restored versions of the cross sections of Figure 2 to the precompressional state: (a) Midelt-
Errachidia section, (b) Imilchil section, and (c) Demnat section. Figure 6c corresponds to the High Atlas
segment of Figure 2c, i.e., to the area located south of the mountain front at the town of Demnat (the
Haouz Plain and Jebilet Massif are not included). The Jurassic red beds were drawn based on their
geometry and thickness in neighboring outcrops because of their discontinuous preservation. NAF,
northern High Atlas front; SAF, southern High Atlas front; RL, reference lines for restoration.

in the Kerrando syncline (Figure 6a), which is interpreted as these results were claimed to be underestimations by
a crustal-scale extensional ramp basin caused by inflections Gomez et al. [2000]. Beauchamp et al. [1999] presented
of the normal faults at depth [e.g., Guimerà et al., 1995]. On a restored transect drawn west of Beni Mellal, where they
the other hand, the Demnat transect has a much thinner arrived at a much higher shortening value of 36 km
Jurassic sequence; red beds directly overlie the lower (25%).
Liassic carbonates, and, in nearby outcrops where the [24] Comparison of our present-day and restored sections
succession is more complete, these red beds have a maxi- yields a total shortening of 26 km (24%) for the Midelt-
mum thicknesses of close to 1000 m or less [Jenny et al., Errachidia section, almost 30 km at Imilchil (which repre-
1981]. As mentioned earlier, these beds have fanning sents 18% as shortening is distributed across a wider area),
geometries, where thickness increases away from the major and some 13 km (15%) for the High Atlas of Demnat (i.e.,
faults (Figures 6b and 6c), suggesting gentle extensional the part of section 3c located to the south of the mountain
fault propagation or drape folding predating inversion [e.g., front at the town of Demnat). The basement parts of the
Mitra, 1993]. latter section are restored on the basis that, in remaining
[23] A few studies deal with the amount of shortening in Jurassic outliers nearby, the beds show always a tabular
the High Atlas. Brede et al. [1992] gave different values of disposition (e.g., Jebel Rat [Jenny, 1985]). The values
percentage shortening across the range (decreasing from obtained cannot be gross underestimations as (1) there are
20 % at Midelt to 10% west of Beni Mellal), although these no indications of regionally significant internal deformation
authors neither documented actual, complete sections nor in Jurassic competent strata, (2) most thrust faults appear in
restored versions to preorogenic times for comparison. ramp-over-ramp configurations, thus precluding the possi-
Zouine [1993] calculated total shortening values of bility of overlooking hidden footwall flats or eroded hang-
10 –15% (in this case decreasing from west to east) based ing wall leading edges.
on excess area estimations of a Neogene erosional surface. [25] The scarce preservation of Jurassic red beds adds
Again, no documenting cross sections were provided, and some uncertainties concerning basin thickness or the
 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO 6-9

Figure 7. Serial topographic profiles of the High Atlas, showing the general increase of relief from east
to west along the range (see Figure 8 for location). (a– c) Profiles coinciding with the Midelt-Errachidia,
Imilchil, and Demnat geological cross sections, respectively, the latter including only the High Atlas part.
(d) Profile running from the Massif Ancien of the High Atlas to the Siroua volcanic massif in the Anti-
Atlas, in a zone where there is no clear boundary between these mountain chains. For reference, the
percentage of the profile that is above 1500 m (shaded) is 59% at Midelt; it is comparable in the Imilchil
and Demnat profiles (83% and 80%, respectively) and increases farther west to profile d (93% above
1500 m).

amount of extension and shortening. For this unit, we have would represent a shortening decrease of 1.1, 1.8 and
used average thicknesses from the nearest outcrops in each 1 km, respectively.
section, but have calculated the error margins in the [26] We suggest that the higher shortening value in the
shortening calculations that would have arisen from a Beauchamp et al. [1999] section, which was traced in
50% error in the thickness assigned, finding these to be between our Imilchil and Demnat sections, is probably an
minor. If red bed thickness was 50% greater than assigned, overestimation arising from poor imaging of fault cutoffs in
shortening would then have been underestimated by 1.2, the seismic lines of the marginal zones. These admit
1.8 and 0.7 km for the Midelt, Imilchil and Demnat alternative, more conservative interpretations [e.g., Zouine,
sections respectively (that is, 0.8, 0.9 and 0.7%). Con- 1993], especially considering that some of their far-traveled
versely, if the thickness was 50% smaller, shortening thrusts die out laterally after short distances [e.g., Choubert
would have been overestimated by 0.5, 0.2 and 0.7 km et al., 1977].
(0.3, 0.2 and 0.6%) in the three sections. Similarly, we [ 27 ] Our data indicate that percentage shortening
have evaluated the effect of varying the dip of the major decreases from east to west along the High Atlas. This
faults within the restored sections. A systematic decrease of tendency is further supported by the fact that the western
10
would represent an extra shortening of 1, 2.3 and High Atlas (the Massif Ancien and farther west) shows less
1.2 km in the Midelt, Imilchil and Demnat sections, Alpine deformation structures, without major thrust faults
whereas a systematic increase of the same magnitude [Froitzheim et al., 1988], and in addition, in a section of the
6 - 10 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 8. Topographic map of northwest Africa, showing the intracontinental mountains and elevated
plateau in front of the Rif orogen (derived from the U.S. Geological Survey GTOPO30 database,
available at http://edcdaac.usgs.gov/gtopo30/gtopo30.html). Indicated are the High Atlas profiles of
Figure 7 and a tectonic interpretation of the Anti-Atlas and Meseta upwarps as large (lithospheric-scale)
buckle folds. MA, Middle Atlas.

southern and most deformed part of the High Atlas of exceed 3000 m, although there are deep valleys as well, and
Agadir, near the Atlantic coast, Frizon de Lamotte et al. the mean elevation is comparable to that of the Imilchil
[2000] estimated a shortening of about 10%. profile. The relief increases conspicuously farther west, to
the high peaks of the Tizi n’Tichka and Toubkal massifs
(Figures 7 and 8).
3. Crustal Shortening and Topography [30] This topographic trend correlates inversely with the
[28] The topographic elevation of the Moroccan High tectonic shortening recorded along the High Atlas. As is
Atlas increases along strike from east to west, from the particularly evident between the Midelt-Errachidia and
Tamlelt area, close to the Algerian border, where the range Imilchil sections, while the topography increases, the per-
is at a mean elevation of about 1000 m, to the Massif centage shortening (and presumably, crustal thickening)
Ancien, where summits such as the Jebel Toubkal surpass decreases. This indicates that not all the observed topogra-
4000 m. This trend is illustrated by the topographic profiles phy can be directly related to tectonic convergence and
shown in Figure 7, some of which follow the geological crustal thickening, and there must be an additional factor
cross-section lines. contributing to the uplift of this mountain chain.
[29] The Midelt transect is mostly at a mean elevation of [31] Seismic refraction studies of the Atlas system failed
more than 1500 m above sea level, whereas much of the to detect large crustal roots [Wigger et al., 1992], and based
Imilchil section lies at an altitude close to 2500 m (Figure 7). on gravity and isostatic anomaly maps, some authors have
In the Demnat area, the relief is stronger; several summits suggested that much of the High Atlas is isostatically
 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO 6 - 11

uncompensated [Van den Bosch, 1971; Makris et al., 1985]. current elevated area of the North African foreland
According to Wigger et al. [1992], the crustal thick- exceeds the extent of the Atlas folded belts (Figure 8).
ness beneath the High Atlas of Midelt-Errachidia is about The High Plateaux and part of the Moroccan Meseta are
35 –38 km, being about 33– 36 km in the peripheral plains higher than 1000 m, whereas the Anti-Atlas reaches
[Makris et al., 1985; Wigger et al., 1992; Sandvol et al., altitudes of 2000 m. All these regions are generally under
1998]. Comparable values were estimated from combined a positive isostatic anomaly [Van den Bosch, 1971;
gravity and seismic data for the western segments of the Makris et al., 1985].
chain [Makris et al., 1985; Tadili et al., 1986]. This supports [35] The Meseta and the Anti-Atlas basement massifs
the fact that tectonic thickening cannot explain all the did not escape Alpine orogeny completely, although they
observed elevation, and also precludes crustal thickening were deformed very mildly. Their geometry conforms to
by magmatic addition. very large (100 km scale), gentle undulations that, accord-
[32] The isostatic state of the High Atlas Mountains can ing to their wavelengths can be attributed to crustal or
be evaluated by calculating the changes in crustal thickness lithospheric-scale folding [e.g., Cloetingh et al., 1999].
during the Jurassic rifting and the Cenozoic compression, This geometry can be perceived from the surface
and comparing the values to the present topographic ele- morphology shown in Figure 8. In the case of the Anti-
vation. The crustal thickness after Jurassic rifting is given Atlas, the disposition of Paleozoic and Cretaceous strata
by indicates that large-scale buckle folding had a long history:
it started during late Paleozoic times (when the complex
tcr ¼ tco 1=b þ ts ; ð1Þ doming of the Anti-Atlas and the synformal Tindouf basin
were formed), and persisted until recent times, as indicated
where tco is the original crustal thickness, ts is the basin by the geomorphologic evidence of uplift presented by
sedimentary thickness and b is the stretching factor, that Stablein [1988]. This folding process represents an alter-
gives the crustal thinning [Bickle and Eriksson, 1982]: native deformation mechanism of the continental interior,
in addition to the fault zone reactivation that occurred in
1=b ¼ 1  ½ts ðrs  rm Þ=tco ðrc  rm Þ; ð2Þ the High Atlas, and its recent activity in the Meseta and
Anti-Atlas may partly explain the relatively high topogra-
where rs, rc and rm are the average densities of sediments, phy of these areas.
crust and mantle respectively. Simplifying to one-dimen- [36] Other geological and geophysical data shed light on
sional calculations, we can take 5 km to be the average the origin of relief in the North African foreland. Analyses
thickness in the Jurassic basin center and an original crustal of seismic wave travel times by Hoernle et al. [1995] and
thickness of 34 km, based on the stable areas outside the Seber et al. [1996] revealed low velocities in the upper
Atlas chains [Tadili et al., 1986; Wigger et al., 1992]. Mean mantle suggesting that the lithosphere is relatively thin
density values of 2.5, 2.8 and 3.3 g/cm3 for sediments, crust beneath the Atlas ranges. This is consistent with localized
and mantle, yield a preorogenic crustal thickness (tcr) of high values of heat flow [Ramdani, 1998], and with the
about 31 km. presence of strongly subsaturated alkaline volcanism, of
[33] Assuming plane strain, 24% of Cenozoic average Tertiary and Quaternary age, which even includes carbo-
shortening at the Midelt-Errachidia transect gives a com- natite occurrences [Agard, 1973; Harmand and Cantagrel,
pressional crustal thickness of over 40 km, and 18% at 1984]. This volcanism, although scarce in the High Atlas, is
Imilchil gives 38 km, values that, combined with erosion, abundant in the peripheral Meseta, Middle Atlas, Moulouya
are reasonably close to the published geophysical results. and Anti-Atlas areas. These two lines of evidence suggest
According to Airy isostatic principles, the relationship that topography may at least be partially supported thermally,
between the elevation (h) and the thickness of the crustal thus indicating a mantle source for uplift in the North
root (tr) under a mountain range is given by African foreland of Morocco. It is worth noting that neo-
tectonic features [Dutour and Ferrandini, 1985; Harmand
tr ¼ rc h=rm  rc ; ð3Þ and Moukadiri, 1986; Morel et al., 2000] and earthquake
fault plane solutions [Coisy and Frogneux, 1980; Medina
which with the above densities means some 4.5 km of root and Cherkaoui, 1991] all indicate a compressional stress
to support each km of elevation above sea level. With a field in recent times, so extension can be ruled out as a
mean elevation of over 1500 m, great part of the Atlas of cause for lithospheric thinning.
Midelt-Errachidia is close to a compensated state or only [37] In the light of these facts we suggest that, in addition
slightly uncompensated (in terms of Airy-type mecha- to moderate crustal thickening and lithospheric folding,
nisms), whereas most of the Imilchil transect is over 1 km which can account for the difference in elevation between
too high, an imbalance that would be even larger in the the mountains and peripheral high plains, the residual
higher segment of the Demnat transect. topography may ultimately be caused by a mantle upwelling
(a mantle plume?) and thus be dynamically supported. A
strong positive geoid anomaly in the Atlas system (after
4. Origin of Topography data from the TOPEX 2 min grids, available at http://
[34] To understand the origin of the topography of the topex.ucsd.edu), supports this view. We further suggest that
High Atlas, it must be taken into account the fact that the mantle-related uplift, together with lithosphere folding, has
6 - 12 TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

counterbalanced the flexural subsidence associated to the with relatively lower mean elevation, higher percentage
High Atlas thrust loads, and explains the poor development shortening and an uppermost crust composed of Mesozoic
or preservation of foreland basin sedimentary deposits. sedimentary rocks may be closer to isostatic equilibrium
than segments located to the west. Gravity modeling is in
progress to test this. The potential degree of isostatic
5. Conclusions uncompensation increases westward in the central High
[38] The principal modes of compressional deformation Atlas, as does the abundance of volcanism in the surround-
and uplift in the interior of continents are well illustrated by ings, all suggesting an increasing role of a thermally
the High Atlas and surrounding mountains: (1) the reacti- anomalous mantle in elevating topography. This, coupled
vation of older discontinuities (in this case the inversion of with geophysical data supporting a thin lithosphere, indi-
rift-transtensional troughs), and (2) crustal-scale or litho- cates that both crust and mantle contributed to surface
spheric-scale buckling of more intact portions of cratons. uplift: a combination of crustal isostatic and dynamic
During High Atlas inversion, crustal shortening and thick- topography may explain the origin of the mountains of
ening took place to a certain degree, and this might explain northwest Africa.
differential topography with respect to the flanking plains.
Crustal thickening also explains the gap of recent volcanism
in the High Atlas, which on the other hand is abundant in [39] Acknowledgments. We thank J. Guimerà and F. Sàbat for
the peripheral areas. However, the moderate values of revision of the original manuscript, and J. Escuer for assistance in the
shortening and their poor correlation with the surface preparation of Figure 8. The comments by D. Frizon de Lamotte are also
acknowledged. Financial support was provided by project BTE2000-0159
elevation suggest that crustal thickening cannot explain (Spain) and by the Interuniversitary Cooperation Program between Spain
the full topographic pattern. The Midelt-Errachidia transect, and Morocco.

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TEIXELL ET AL.: TECTONIC SHORTENING IN MOROCCO

Figure 2. Serial geological cross sections through the High Atlas of Morocco (location in Figure 1b): (a) Midelt-
Errachidia section, (b) Imilchil section, and (c) Demnat section. Segment x – x0 in 2c is adapted from Errarhaoui [1997].
RL, reference lines for restoration (see Figure 6).