Microelectronics: Jun-Hong Weng

Microelectronics
Chapter 8 Operational
Amplifier as a Black Box
Jun-Hong Weng
Tunghai University
Department of Electrical Engineering
Chapter 8 Operational Amplifier as A Black Box
 8.1 General Considerations
 8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits
 8.3 Nonlinear Functions
 8.4 Op-Amp Nonidealities
 8.5 Design Examples
Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Basic Op Amp
運算放大器符號: 非反相輸入兩輸入 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 , 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 :

大小相等，方向相反。
一輸出(𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ):
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 )
反相輸入
開迴路(電壓)增益輸入差
*開迴路電路架構
等效電路:
 Op amp is a circuit that has two inputs and one output.

 It amplifies the difference between the two inputs.

Inverting and Non-inverting Op Amp
 非反向放大器:
正端輸入，負端接地。
 當𝑉𝑖𝑛2 = 0 → 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 和𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 同相→ 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 非反相
正斜率(增益)
 反向放大器:
負端輸入，正端接地。
 當𝑉𝑖𝑛1 = 0 → 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛2
𝑉𝑖𝑛2 和𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 反相→ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 反相
負斜率(增益)
 If the negative input is grounded, the gain is positive.

 If the positive input is grounded, the gain is negative.
Ideal Op Amp
 Infinite gain (𝐴𝑉 = ∞)
 Infinite input impedance (𝑅𝑖 = ∞)

𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ≈ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 (稱虛短路，但𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ≠ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 )
 Zero output impedance (𝑅𝑜 = 0) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 )
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
 Infinite speed (𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = ∞) 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 = ≈0≠0
𝐴0
𝑽𝑪𝑪
𝑹𝒐 = 𝟎 𝑹𝒐 = 𝟎
𝑨𝑽 = ∞ 𝑨𝑽 = ∞
𝑹𝒊 = ∞ 𝑽𝑬𝑬 𝑹𝒊 = ∞

Unity Gain Amplifier (單增益放大器又稱單增益緩衝器)
If Vin= +1 V , A0=1000,求Vout=?
Sol:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 )………………….(公式)
= 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝐴0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
⟶ 𝐴0 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1
Razavi 8.1
⟶ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴0 + 1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛1
*閉迴路電路架構 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ⟶ = = …..……….(公式)
:閉迴路增益 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 1+𝐴0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1000
⟶ = =0.999 V
1 1+1000

Noninverting Amplifier (非反向放大器)
情況一: A0 Infinite (A0無限大)
A0:開迴路增益
(𝑅上 ) 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖𝑛2 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
(𝑅下 ) 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 ≈ 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 (虛短路)
*閉迴路電路架構 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉
:閉迴路增益 𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝑅1
= =1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉 𝑅
= 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 1 …..……….(公式)
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑅
口訣: 正1 + 𝑅上 (正1 + 𝑅
𝑅𝑢𝑝
)
下 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛
 A noninverting amplifier returns a fraction of output signal thru a

resistor divider to the negative input.
 With a high Ao, Vout/Vin depends only on ratio of resistors, which is
very precise.
Extreme Cases of R2 (Infinite A0)
𝑅1 Τ𝑅2 = ∞
→ 𝑅2 ≈ 0
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Τ𝑉𝑖𝑛 ≈ ∞
1 + 𝑅𝑢𝑝 ΤR 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 1 + ∞ = ∞
物理意義:無部分輸出電壓迴受制輸入端。
Razavi 8.2
𝑅1 Τ𝑅2 = 0
→ 𝑅2 ≈ ∞
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 Τ𝑉𝑖𝑛 ≈ 1
1 + 𝑅𝑢𝑝 ΤR 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 1 + 0 = 0
物理意義:𝑅1 零跨壓(因輸入無電流)，𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 。
 If R2 is zero, the loop is open and Vout /Vin is equal to the intrinsic gain
of the op amp.
 If R2 is infinite, the circuit becomes a unity-gain amplifier and Vout /Vin
becomes equal to one.
Noninverting Amplifier (非反向放大器)
情況二: A0 finite (A0有限非無限大→有增益誤差)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2
𝑅1
= 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
1 2
𝑅1
= 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝐴0 𝑅 +𝑅 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
1 2
𝑅
→ (1+𝐴0 2 ) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴0
→ = =
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅
(gain error) 1+𝐴0 𝑅 +2 𝑅
1 2
𝐴0 𝑅2 𝑅1 1
(1)無增益誤差，且 ≫1時 (2)當有增益誤差 1+ 時，
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐴0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴0
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1+𝐴0𝑅 𝑅+𝑅
2
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴0 𝑅 𝑅1 1
1 2 = ≈ (1+ 1)[1 − 1+ ]
≈
𝐴0
≈
𝑅1 +𝑅2 𝑅
=1+ 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1+𝐴0𝑅 𝑅+𝑅
2 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐴0
𝑅2 1 2
𝐴0
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑅2 𝑅2 ……………….(公式)
對照PPT. p13
 The error term indicates the larger the closed-loop gain, the less
accurate the circuit becomes.

Razavi 8.3
 A noninverting amplifier incorporates an op amp having a gain of 1000.
Determine the gain error if the circuits is to provide a nominal gain of (a)
5, or (b) 50.
Sol:
(a) 1 + 𝑅1 ΤR 2 = 5
𝑅1 1
→ 1+ = 5Τ1000 = 0.5%
𝑅2 𝐴0
(b) 1 + 𝑅1 ΤR 2 = 50
𝑅1 1
→ 1+ = 50Τ1000 = 5%
𝑅2 𝐴0
* 物理意義:
在有增益誤差的情況下(精準度)，閉迴路增益的提高並不會改善
有所改善。
對照PPT. p14 電路含意

Inverting Amplifier (反向放大器)
 反向放大器:負端輸入，正端接地。
 ∵虛短路→X點虛接地(並非真的接地)。
𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝑉𝑋 𝑉𝑖𝑛 −0 𝑉𝑖𝑛
 𝑖R2 = = =
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝑅2
𝑉𝑋 −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 0−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
 𝑖R2 = 𝑖R1 = = =−
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑅1
 𝑖R1 = 𝑖R
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
⟶ =−
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1
⟶ =− ………………….(公式)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑅
口訣: 負𝑅右
左
 Infinite A0 forces the negative input to be a virtual ground.

Another View of Inverting Amplifier
 Noninverting Amplifier  Inverting Amplifier

非反向放大器反向放大器
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1
=1+ =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2

Gain Error Due to Finite A0
(1)無增益誤差時
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2
= 𝐴0 𝑉𝑖𝑛+ − 𝑉𝑖𝑛−
X = 𝐴0 0 − 𝑉𝑥 = −𝐴0 𝑉𝑥
𝑉 −𝑉 𝑉 −𝑉
利用流過電流相等 𝑖𝑛 𝑋 = 𝑋 𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑅2 𝑅1
𝑉 𝑉
𝑉𝑖𝑛 − (− 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) (− 𝑜𝑢𝑡 ) − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝐴0 𝐴0
→ =
𝑅2 𝑅1
1 𝑅1
→− =−
𝑅2 1 𝑅1 𝑅2
+ 1+
𝑅1 1 𝑅1 𝐴0 𝑅2
(2)當有增益誤差 1+ ≪ 1時，
𝑅2 𝐴0
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 𝑅1 𝑅1 1
=− ≈ − [1 − 1+ ]……………….(公式)
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐴0
+ 1+ 對照PPT. p9
𝑅1 𝐴0 𝑅2

Razavi 8.4
 Design the inverting amplifier of Fig. for a nominal gain 4, a gain error of
0.1%, and an input impedance of at least 10 kΩ.
Sol:
𝑅1 𝑅1 1
= 4, 1+ = 0.1%
𝑅2 𝑅2 𝐴0
→ 𝐴0 = 5000
又𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝑅2 = 10𝐾Ω → 𝑅1 = 40𝐾Ω
* 電路含意:
在有增益誤差的情況下(精準度)，較高的閉迴路增益會有較高的
增益誤差。對照PPT. p10電路含意

 運算放大器為理想，𝑉1 = 1𝑉、𝑉2 = 2𝑉、𝑅1 = 10 𝑘Ω、𝑅2 = 20 𝑘Ω、
𝑅3 = 30 𝑘Ω、𝑅𝐹 = 10 𝑘Ω，求V𝑜𝑢𝑡 ?
RF
R1
V1 - Vout
R2 +
V2
R3
108 台聯
①+②=③
V1 V 0 𝑉−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
RF → + 2=
R1 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹
0V 1 2 0 𝑉−𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
V1 - Vout → + =
R2 10 𝑘 20 𝑘 10 𝑘
+ −𝑉
V2
→0.2 mA = 𝑜𝑢𝑡
10 𝑘
R3
→𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −2 V

 For the circuit given in Figure, an operational amplifier with limited
differential gain 𝐴𝑑 = 100 is used. If 𝑅1 = 1𝑘Ω， 𝑅2 = 4𝑘Ω， 𝑅3 = 1𝑘Ω，
𝑅4 = 4𝑘Ω， 𝑉1 = 1𝑉 and 𝑉2 = 4𝑉 ，find the output voltage 𝑉0 .
R4
R3
V1 - Vout
+
V2 R1 𝑅2
𝑉 + = 𝑉2 × = 3.2 V
R2 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
108 中央 −
𝑉1 − 𝑉 𝑉 − − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 4
= →𝑉 =
R4 𝑅3 𝑅4 5
R3
V+ →𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑑 × 𝑉 + − 𝑉 − = 100 × 𝑉 + − 𝑉 −
V1 - Vout
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 +4
V- = 100 × 3.2 −
+ 5
V2 R1 240 80
→𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = V
R2 21 7

 Consider an operational rectifier as show in Fig. with R=1kΩ. Assume that
the op amp is ideal and that its output saturates at ±12V. The diode has a
0.7-V drop at 1-mA current. Find the voltage (𝑉𝐴 and 𝑉𝑜 ) that result at the
rectifier output (𝑉𝑜 ) and at the opamp output (𝑉𝐴 ) under the conditions:
(a) 𝑉𝐼 = 10𝑚𝑉
(b) 𝑉𝐼 = 1𝑉
(c) 𝑉𝐼 = −1𝑉
108 成大
VI
+ VA
VO
R

(a) Diode on 負迴授成立
10mV
𝑉𝑜 = 10 𝑚𝑉 (虛短路) + VA
10𝑚 +
I= = 10 𝜇𝐴 -
1𝐾 VD
1𝑚 -
0.7 − 𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 VO
0.01𝑚
𝑉𝐷 = 0.585𝑉 I 1k
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑉𝐴 =0.595V
(b) Diode on 負迴授成立 1V
+ VA
𝑉𝑜 = 1𝑉 (虛短路)
1 - +
I= = 1𝑚 VD
1𝐾 -
𝑉𝐷 = 0.7𝑉 VO
𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐷 + 𝑉𝐴 =1.7V I 1k

(c) Diode off 負迴授不成立
𝑉𝑜 = 0𝑉
-1V
𝑉𝐴 = −12 𝑉 + VA
- +
VD
-
補充 VO
1k
指數運算
𝑚
1.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑚𝑛 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑚 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑛 2.𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑚 − 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑏 𝑛
𝑛
𝐼𝐷 1𝑚𝐴 0.01𝑚𝐴
𝑉𝐷 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 → 𝑉𝐷 = 0.7 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 , 𝑉𝐷1 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆 𝐼𝑆
0.01𝑚𝐴 0.01𝑚𝐴 0.7V 𝑉𝐷1
𝑉𝐷1 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝐼𝑆
𝑙𝑛 𝐼𝑆
= 1𝑚𝐴 = 1𝑚𝐴 × 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 1𝑚𝐴 − 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 0.01𝑚𝐴 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 1𝑚𝐴
0.7 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 𝐼 𝑙𝑛 𝐼 𝐼 𝑆 𝐼 𝑆 0.01𝑚𝐴
𝑆 𝑆

Complex Impedances Around the Op Amp
Inverting Amplifier (反向放大器)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1 𝑍1
=− =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 𝑍2
電阻表示阻抗表示
元件複數表示 S參數(拉式)
R ZR =R ZR =R
C 1 1
ZC = ZC =
𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑠𝐶
L Z𝐿 = 𝑗𝜔𝐿 Z𝐿 = 𝑠𝐿
s為頻率的函數
 The closed-loop gain is still equal to the ratio of two impedances.

Integrator
◇s表示頻率對照PPT P.26
1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑍右 𝑠𝐶1 1
=− =− =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍左 𝑅1 𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1
在原點(s=0)有極點
𝑐在低頻時變大，近似開路 s在分母且等於零→代表有極點
對應先前: ◇s轉成時域
直流開路 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
交流短路 =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1
1 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =−
𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
1 →積分器
=− න 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑠 = 𝑗𝜔, 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓
Integrator with Pulse Input
脈衝輸入 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=−
1 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉 =−
𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑖𝑛 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝑇𝑏
Razavi 8.5 1
𝑅1 𝐶1 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑏
=− ቤ
𝑅1 𝐶1 0
𝑉𝑖𝑛
=− 𝑡, 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑇𝑏
𝑅1 𝐶1

Comparison of Integrator and RC Lowpass Filter
步階輸入
𝑉1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 → → 𝑉𝐶1
𝑅1
 The RC low-pass filter is actually a “passive” approximation to an

integrator.
 With the RC time constant large enough, the RC filter output
approaches a ramp.
Lossy Integrator
𝐴0 ≠ ∞ →無虛短路 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
1 ………………(1)
𝑅1
𝑠𝐶1
+ −
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 (𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 )
= 𝐴0 (0 − 𝑉𝑥 )
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ………………(2)
→ 𝑉𝑥 =
𝐴0
(1)(2) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −1
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 1
+ (1 + )𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
𝐴0 𝐴0
頻率=0→直流(大訊號) → −𝐴0
−1
→交流(小訊號) → pole(極點) 𝑠𝑝 = 0 → 𝑠𝑝 =
(1+𝐴0 )𝑅1 𝐶1

Lossy Integrator
−1 −1
𝑠𝑝 = =
𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥 (1 + 𝐴0 )𝑅1 𝐶1
→ 𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥 =(1 + 𝐴0 )𝑅1 𝐶1
Razavi 8.6
𝑅𝑥 = 𝑅1
→൝
𝐶𝑥 =(1 + 𝐴0 )𝐶1
電路意義:
使用op當低通濾波器可以將C提高
 When finite op amp gain is considered, the integrator becomes lossy as

the pole moves from the origin to -1/[(1+A0)R1C1].
 It can be approximated as an RC circuit with C boosted by a factor of
A0+1.
Differentiator (微分器) 對照PPT P.21
◇s表示頻率
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑍右 𝑅1
=− =− = −𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑍左 1
𝑠𝐶1
在原點(s=0)有零點
s在分子且等於零→代表有零點
◇s轉成時域
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
= −𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑉𝑖𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
= −𝑅1 𝐶1
◇利用電流相等求𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑑𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝐶1 =− → 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑑𝑡 𝑅1 𝑑𝑡
Lossy Differentiator
𝐴0 ≠ ∞ →無虛短路 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝑉𝑥 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
1
= ………………(1)
𝑅1
𝑠𝐶1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ………………(2)
𝑉𝑥 = −
𝐴0
(1)(2) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −1 Integrator =
= 𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 1 + 1 + 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
+ (1 + )𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠 𝐴0 𝐴0
𝐴0 𝐴0
1 (1 + 𝐴0 )
𝑠𝑝 = − 𝑠𝑝 = −
(1 + 𝐴0 )𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝐶1
 When finite op amp gain is considered, the differentiator becomes
lossy as the zero moves from the origin to –(A0+1)/R1C1.
 It can be approximated as an RC circuit with R reduced by a
factor of (A0+1).

Lossy Differentiator
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅𝑥 𝑠𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥
= =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥
𝑅𝑥 +
𝑠𝐶𝑥
→ 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜: 𝑠 = 0
1
Razavi 8.8 𝑝𝑜𝑙𝑒: 𝑠 = −
𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥
1 (1 + 𝐴0 )
𝐴0 ≠ ∞ →無虛短路 =
𝑅𝑥 𝐶𝑥 𝑅1 𝐶1
𝑅1
(1 + 𝐴0 )
→ 𝑅𝑥 =
𝑠𝑝 = − 1 + 𝐴0
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐶𝑥 = 𝐶1
 When finite op amp gain is considered, the differentiator becomes
lossy as the zero moves from the origin to –(A0+1)/R1C1.
 It can be approximated as an RC circuit with R reduced by a
factor of (A0+1).

Op Amp with General Impedances
對照PPT P.7
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅上 𝑍上
=1+ =1+
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅下 𝑍下
This circuit cannot operate as ideal integrator or differentiator.

Why?
對照PPT P.11
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅右 𝑍右
=− =−
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅左 𝑍左

Voltage Adder (電壓加法器)
𝑉𝑥 = 0
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
+ =−
Ao 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝐹
𝑉1 𝑉2
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑅𝐹 ( + )
𝑅1 𝑅2
當𝑅1 = 𝑅2 = 𝑅
𝑅𝐹
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − (𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )
𝑅
 If Ao is infinite, X is pinned at ground, currents proportional to V1 and

V2 will flow to X and then across RF to produce an output proportional
to the sum of two voltages.

Precision Rectifier (精密整流器)
參考:PPT CH.3 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 0.7 → 𝐷 𝑂𝐹𝐹
單增益緩衝器(PPT p.6, p.7)

0 +R
𝑅上 R 上
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 下
=1+ = =1
𝑉𝑖𝑛 R下 𝑅下
𝑉𝑥 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡

Precision Rectifier (精密整流器)
1.𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 0 → 𝑉𝑌 ≈ 𝑉𝐷1,𝑜𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑥 ≈ 0
2. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 ≅ 0+ → 𝑉𝑌 ↑
→ 𝑉𝐷1,𝑜𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛
 When Vin is positive, the circuit in b) behaves like that in a), so the
output follows input.
 When Vin is negative, the diode opens, and the output drops to zero.
Thus performing rectification.
Inverting Precision Rectifier
 When Vin is positive, the diode is on, Vy is pinned around VD,on, and Vx
at virtual ground.
 When Vin is negative, the diode is off, Vy goes extremely negative, and
Vx becomes equal to Vin.

Logarithmic Amplifier
𝑉𝑖𝑛 Τ𝑅1
𝑉𝐵𝐸 = 𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ………………(1)
𝐼𝑆
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝐵𝐸 ………………(2)

𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑅1
𝑉𝑖𝑛
(1)(2) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝑇 𝑙𝑛
𝐼𝑆 𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣. 𝑠 𝑉𝑖𝑛 成指數比例
 By inserting a bipolar transistor in the loop, an amplifier with

logarithmic characteristic can be constructed.
 This is because the current to voltage conversion of a bipolar transistor
is a natural logarithm.

Square-Root Amplifier
𝑉𝑖𝑛 1 𝑊
= 𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 (𝑉𝐺𝑆 − 𝑉𝑡ℎ )2……………(1)
𝑅1 2 𝐿
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ………………(2)

𝑅1
2𝑉𝑖𝑛
(1)(2) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 =− − 𝑉𝑇𝐻
𝑊
𝜇𝑛 𝐶𝑜𝑥 𝑅1
𝐿
 By replacing the bipolar transistor with a MOSFET, an amplifier with

a square-root characteristic can be built.
 This is because the current to voltage conversion of a MOSFET is
square-root.
Op Amp Nonidealities: DC Offsets
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑅1
= =1+ ……………參考PPT p.7
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2
𝑅1
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 𝑉
理想OP 𝑅2 𝑖𝑛
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 → 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 𝑅1
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + (𝑉𝑖𝑛 +𝑉𝑂𝑆 )
𝑅2
偏移電壓(offset vltage)
 Offsets in an op amp that arise from input stage mismatch cause the
input-output characteristic to shift in either the positive or negative
direction (the plot displays positive direction).

Consider the circuit in Fig.
(a) For ideal op-amp, find the transfer function 𝑇(𝑠) ≡ 𝑉𝑜 Τ𝑉𝑖𝑛 .
(b) If the op-amp has a finite voltage gain 𝐴0 = 100, find the transfer
function.
107台大

(a) (R上)
R 𝑉𝑜 𝑅上 𝑅
=1+ =1+ 對照PPT P.29
(R下) 𝑉 + 𝑅下 𝑅
R
- 𝑅 +
Vo
→ 𝑉𝑜 = 1 + 𝑉 = 2𝑉 +
+ 𝑅
𝑉
+ 𝑉+ = 𝑜
V 2
VI
2R 2R
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉 + 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉 + 𝑉 +
C (R上) + =
R
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑍𝐶
(R下) 𝑉 𝑉 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑜 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑜
R
→ 2+ 2 = 2
- Vo 2𝑅 2𝑅 1
+ 𝑠𝐶
𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜
𝑉𝐼 − + 𝑉𝑜 − = 𝑉𝑜 × 𝑠𝑅𝐶
+ 2 2
V
VI 𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑜 × 𝑠𝑅𝐶
2R 2R 𝑉 1
C
𝑇 𝑠 = 𝑜=
𝑉𝐼 𝑠𝑅𝐶

(b) 𝑉𝑜
(R上) 𝑉− = ………(𝑉 + = 𝑉 − )
R 2
𝑉𝑜
(R下) 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 × 𝑉 + − ….𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴𝑜 × (𝑉 + − 𝑉 − )
R 2
- Vo +
𝑉𝑜
Vo/2 → 𝑉𝑜 = 100 × 𝑉 −
+ 2
+
51𝑉𝑜 = 100 × 𝑉
2R +
V=Vo/2
2R 51
VI 𝑉+= × 𝑉𝑜
100
C
51 51 51
𝑉𝐼 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉𝑜 − 𝑉𝑜 𝑉 + + +
100 + 100 = 100 𝑜……𝑉𝐼 −𝑉 + 𝑉𝑜 −𝑉 = 𝑉
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑍𝐶
2𝑅 2𝑅 1
𝑠𝐶
51 1
𝑉𝐼 = 𝑉𝑜 × × 𝑠𝑅𝐶 +
50 50
𝑉𝑜 1
𝑇 𝑠 = =
𝑉𝐼 1 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶
Offset in Integrator
對照PPT P.26
Vos
≅∞ ≅ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (circuits saturation)
Vin=0 ≅ −∞ ≅ 𝑉𝐸𝐸 (circuits saturation)
解決偏移直流問題 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑍上
=1+
𝑉𝑂𝑆 𝑍下
𝑍上 1ൗ
𝑠C1
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 1 + 𝑉𝑂𝑆 = (1 + )𝑉𝑂𝑆
𝑍下 𝑅1
1 1 𝑡
= 𝑉𝑂𝑆 + 𝑉 = 𝑉𝑂𝑆 + ‫׬‬ 𝑉 𝑑𝑡
𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑂𝑆 𝑅1 𝐶1 0 𝑂𝑆
𝑉𝑂𝑆
= 𝑉𝑂𝑆 + 𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶1
 A resistor can be placed in parallel with the capacitor to “absorb” the

offset. However, this means the closed-loop transfer function no
longer has a pole at origin.
Offset in Integrator
為遠離飽和解決偏移直流問題
R上
= 1+ 𝑉𝑂𝑆
R下
低頻時，電容開路
R
直流:當上 ↓ ⟹ 𝑉 影響越小
𝑂𝑆
參考課本舉例 R
下
對照PPT P.26 解決偏移交流(頻率)問題

Vos
𝑍右
= − 𝑉𝑖𝑛
𝑍右 𝑍左
= − 𝑉
𝑍左 𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 1
= ∙
1 𝑅1 1 + 𝑠𝑅2 𝐶1
=− 𝑉
𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑖𝑛 1
有極點在原點有極點在(− 𝑅 )
2 𝐶1
交流:𝑅2 𝐶1 ↑ ⟹frequency 影響越小

Input Bias Current
IB1 無影響偏移電流問題
Vin1 Vo
Vin2
IB1 IB2
IB2 有影響
𝑹𝟏
= −𝑰𝑩𝟐 𝑹𝟐 (− )
𝑹𝟐
= 𝑰𝑩𝟐 𝑹𝟏
𝑽𝒊𝒏 = −𝑰𝑩𝟐 𝑹𝟐
 The effect of bipolar base currents can be modeled as current sources

tied from the input to ground.
Input Bias Current Cancellation
解決偏移電流問題
𝑅1
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 1 + + 𝐼𝐵2 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
→ 0 = 𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 + 𝐼𝐵2 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = −𝐼𝐵2 𝑅1
𝑅2
𝑅2
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = −𝐼𝐵2 𝑅1
𝑅1 +𝑅2
𝑉𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟 = −𝐼𝐵2 𝑅1 ∥ 𝑅2
 We can cancel the effect of input bias current by inserting a correction

voltage in series with the positive terminal.
 In order to produce a zero output, Vcorr=-IB2(R1||R2).
Effects of Input Bias Currents on Integrator
對照PPT P.21
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1
=−
1 1 𝑉𝑖𝑛
→ 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = − 𝑉𝑖𝑛 =−
𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑅1 𝐶1 𝑠
1
𝑅1 𝐶1
1
=+ 𝐼 𝑅 𝑑𝑡
𝑅1 𝐶1 𝐵2 1
𝐼𝐵2
= 𝑑𝑡
𝐶1 對照PPT P.40
≅∞ ≅ 𝑉𝐶𝐶 (circuits saturation)
≅ −∞ ≅ 𝑉𝐸𝐸 (circuits saturation)
 Input bias current will be integrated by the integrator and eventually

saturate the amplifier.
Speed Limitation
𝑨𝟎
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴0 (𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 )

𝐴0 : 開迴路增益 = 𝑨𝟎 𝒇𝟏
(𝑠) = 𝑠
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 1+
𝜔1
𝜔1 = 2𝜋𝑓1
𝑠
→ ≪ 1 → 𝐴0
𝜔1
𝑠
→ ≫ 1 → 𝜔𝑢 = 𝐴0 𝜔1
𝜔1
 Due to internal capacitances, the gain of op amps begins to roll off.

Bandwidth and Gain Tradeoff
對照PPT P.9 情況二: A0 finite (A0有限非無限大→有增益誤差)
=
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑅2 ………閉迴路增益
1+𝐴0 𝑅 + 𝑅
1 2 𝐴0 : 開迴路增益
(𝑠) = 𝑠
𝑉𝑖𝑛1 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 1+
𝜔1
𝐴0
𝑠
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 1+𝜔
1
開迴路增益 → (𝑠) =
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴0 𝑅2
1+ 𝑠 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
1+
𝜔1
開/閉迴路頻寬 𝐴0
=
閉開迴路pole 𝑠 𝑅2
𝜔1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐴0 + 1
+
迴 : 閉迴路pole
路 𝑅2
𝜔𝑝,𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 = (1 + 𝐴 )𝜔
增 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 0 1
益
*OP可藉由閉迴路增加工作頻寬範圍(改變pole位置)，增益會降低，且單一增益頻寬不變

Slew Rate of Op Amp
(𝑠) == ………閉迴路增益
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑅2
+ (1 + 𝐴 )
𝜔1 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 0
𝑅2
𝜔𝑝,𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 = (1 + 𝐴0 )𝜔1 ………閉迴路極點
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
Ideal
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = ∆𝑉 → 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦: 𝜔𝑝,𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒
−1
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒: 𝜔𝑝,𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 頻率的倒數→週期→X軸為時間
(𝜔)−1 → (𝑓)−1 → 𝑇
 In the linear region, when the input doubles, the output and the output
slope also double. However, when the input is large, the op amp slews
so the output slope is fixed by a constant current source charging a
capacitor.
 This further limits the speed of the op amp.
Comparison of Settling with and without Slew Rate
In True
EX: Razavi 8.17
2∆𝑉 EX: Razavi 8.18

∆𝑉
Linear
Setting
Slop
(SR: slew rate)
Time (slew)
 As it can be seen, the settling speed is faster without slew rate (as
determined by the closed-loop time constant).
 8-11
 8-23
 8-28
 8-42
 8-47

49

Microelectronics: Jun-Hong Weng

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Microelectronics

 8.1 General Considerations

 8.2 Op-Amp-Based Circuits

 8.3 Nonlinear Functions

 8.4 Op-Amp Nonidealities

 8.5 Design Examples

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

運算放大器符號: 非反相輸入 兩輸入 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 , 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 :

 Op amp is a circuit that has two inputs and one output.

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 If the negative input is grounded, the gain is positive.

 Infinite gain (𝐴𝑉 = ∞)

 Infinite input impedance (𝑅𝑖 = ∞)

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Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

情況一: A0 Infinite (A0無限大)

 A noninverting amplifier returns a fraction of output signal thru a

情況二: A0 finite (A0有限非無限大→有增益誤差)

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對照PPT. p14 電路含意

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 Infinite A0 forces the negative input to be a virtual ground.

 Noninverting Amplifier  Inverting Amplifier

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Inverting Amplifier (反向放大器)

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

 The RC low-pass filter is actually a “passive” approximation to an

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 When finite op amp gain is considered, the integrator becomes lossy as

(1)(2) 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 −𝑠𝑅1 𝐶1

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

This circuit cannot operate as ideal integrator or differentiator.

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

 If Ao is infinite, X is pinned at ground, currents proportional to V1 and

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參考:PPT CH.3 𝑉𝑖𝑛 < 0.7 → 𝐷 𝑂𝐹𝐹

單增益緩衝器(PPT p.6, p.7)

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = −𝑉𝐵𝐸 ………………(2)

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑣. 𝑠 𝑉𝑖𝑛 成指數比例

 By inserting a bipolar transistor in the loop, an amplifier with

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𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝐺𝑆 = −𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 ………………(2)

 By replacing the bipolar transistor with a MOSFET, an amplifier with

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

Microelectronics jhw@ thu.edu.tw

 A resistor can be placed in parallel with the capacitor to “absorb” the

運算放大器符號: 非反相輸入兩輸入 𝑉𝑖𝑛1 , 𝑉𝑖𝑛2 :