Target Tracking Devices PDF

TARGET
TRACKING
DEVICES
TARGET
TRACKING
DEVICES
A VIDEOTEL PRODUCTION
AUTHOR
Sheila Brownlee
84 NEWMAN STREET, LONDON W1T 3EU

TELEPHONE +44(0)20
7299 1800
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[email protected]
www.videotel.co.uk
TARGET TRACKING DEVICES
A VIDEOTEL PRODUCTION
THE PRODUCERS WOULD LIKE TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE ASSISTANCE OF
THE MASTERS, OFFICERS AND CREWS OF PRIDE OF CANTERBURY AND MAERSK DUNKERQUE
ExxonMobil Shipping Co Ltd

International Maritime Organization (IMO)
Lairdside Maritime Centre
Liverpool John Moore’s University
Norfolkline BV
Northrop Grumman Sperry Marine
P&O Ferries Ltd
SpeedFerries Ltd
The Maersk Company Ltd
The Nautical Institute (NI)
Captain Derek Richards
RTM Star Centre
CONSULTANT: Dr Andy Norris
PRODUCER: Peter Wilde
WRITER/DIRECTOR: Michael Cain
PRINT AUTHOR: Sheila Brownlee
Diagrams and charts on pages 18, 19, 20, 25 and 27 supplied courtesy of Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann.
WARNING
Any unauthorised copying, hiring, lending, exhibition, diffusion, sale, public performance or other exploitation of this video is strictly
prohibited and may result in prosecution.
© COPYRIGHT Videotel 2006
This workbook and accompanying video/DVD training package is intended to reflect the best available techniques and practices at the
time of production, they are intended purely as comment. No responsibility is accepted by Videotel, or by any firm, corporation or
organisation who or which has been in any way concerned, with the production or authorised translation, supply or sale of this video for
accuracy of any information given hereon or for any omission here from.
TARGET TRACKING DEVICES VIDEOTEL PRODUCTIONS
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION 4
2 WHAT RADAR DOES 5
3 TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK 7
4 TRIAL MANOEUVRE 13
5 CHECKING INFORMATION 15
6 GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION 16
7 TARGET ACQUISITION 18
8 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS) 23
9 SYSTEM INTEGRATION 26
10 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 27
11 SAFETY FIRST 29
12 GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS 32
13 FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES 33
14 ANSWERS 34
3
INTRODUCTION
New International Maritime Organization (IMO) performance standards come into force for radar
equipment on new ships constructed after 1 July 2008. Under these standards, all radar equipment must
be capable of displaying Automatic Identification System (AIS) information, and the term ARPA (Automatic
Radar Plotting Aid) will be replaced with ‘target tracking device’.
There is a wide range of target tracking devices now available on the market, and personnel will need to
be given equipment-specific familiarisation training when boarding.
This book accompanies the Target Tracking Devices video. It is aimed at navigation
officers as a way of reinforcing target tracking learning for cadets, and as a reminder for
junior and senior officers about the issues involved in target tracking for collision
avoidance and what they should be finding out when they join a new ship.
4
WHAT RADAR DOES
BACKGROUND
With basic radar, mariners had to track the movement of other ships by manually
plotting their positions over time. They had to calculate the course, speed and aspect of
other vessels by constructing vector triangles. This approach was slow and laborious,
and computer technology has speeded up the process.
RADAR
Maritime radar enables the ship to pinpoint other vessels and find its own position in relation to
landmarks. Beamed pulses of radio waves are sent out, and the returning echoes amplified, processed
and displayed, allowing the operator to ‘see’ vessels which may not be visible to the naked eye, either
because of fog or mist, or because they are unlit at night. However, some targets do not return a strong
enough echo to be displayed, and some are obscured by unwanted ‘clutter' from waves and rain.
Today, mariners have a number of tracking devices available to them, which use radar, VHF (Very High
Frequency) and/or satellite navigation systems. Radar and other tracking devices must be used with care.
AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)

Manual radar plotting was developed and implemented from the 1960s, following several collisions,
including the sinking of the cruise liner Andrea Doria off the coast of Massachusetts after it had collided
in dense fog with the Stockholm in 1956, despite the fact that both ships had radar.
Later, with the introduction of computer technology, Automatic Radar Plotting Aids (ARPA) were
developed, to monitor many vessels at the same time, processing the data in seconds. These are
computers with a radar component, and use vector analysis to calculate each target’s course and speed.
Current IMO performance standards state that radar tracking devices must identify a vessel’s motion
trend within a minute and predict its track within three minutes of ‘acquisition’.
5
WHAT RADAR DOES

AUTOMATIC TRACKING AIDS (ATA)
Automatic Tracking Aids (ATA) are more basic than ARPAs. They have fewer features and are used on
smaller ships or as extra plotting devices on larger ships.
AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)

An Automatic Identification System (AIS) is a VHF radio system which continuously exchanges
navigational information between ‘stations’, i.e. ships, shore stations and navigational marks such as
lighthouses, offshore platforms and large navigational buoys.
It helps not only with target tracking but also with the identification of vessels and assists with situational
awareness. From 1 July 2008, all vessels of more than 300 tonnes will have to be fitted with AIS.
ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM (ECDIS)

An Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) shows information from Electronic
Navigational Charts and satellite navigation systems. It integrates with AIS, bringing everything together
in one display.
A COMMON TERM FOR ALL

New IMO performance standards now use the term ‘Target Tracking Devices’ for ALL ARPA, ATA and AIS.
QUESTION
1A Performance standards state that radar tracking devices must identify a vessel’s motion
trend within:
A. 1 minute?
B. 2 minutes?
C. 3 minutes?
6
TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

There are important choices to be made in setting up and using radars and target
tracking devices.
ORIENTATION: NORTH UP AND SHIP’S HEAD UP

There are two basic displays, either ‘north up’ (north on the compass at the top of the screen) or ‘ship’s
head up’ which makes it easy to relate the information to the area around the ship. ‘North up’ makes the
screen easy to relate to the chart.
All north up displays are ‘stabilised’ using an input from the ship’s gyro compass. When the ship turns,
the heading line moves to the new course and north stays at the top of the screen. Bearings taken are
true bearings.
With unstabilised displays, the ship’s head remains at the top of the screen and the radar ‘picture’
rotates. Bearings taken are relative bearings. They should not be used in collision avoidance
assessments.
Using the bearing and range, a target tracking device monitors targets, works out their past relative track and
from this predicts their Closest Point of Approach (CPA) and Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA). It also
calculates each target’s course and speed, using vector analysis. This uses the input of own ship’s course and
speed from the ship’s gyro and speed log or other device such as Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS). If
these inputs contain errors, the results will be wrong.
RELATIVE MOTION AND TRUE MOTION

Radar and target tracking devices offer a choice of ‘relative’ and ‘true’ motion:
• With relative motion, own ship stays at one position on screen and other objects move past.
• With true motion, own ship tracks across screen. The screen needs an occasional reset,
which may be automatic or manual.
7
RELATIVE VECTORS AND TRUE VECTORS

Radar and target tracking devices offer a choice of ‘relative’ and ‘true’ vectors:
• Relative vectors predict the movement of targets in relation to own ship. They show risk of
collision very clearly. The prediction depends on the fact that neither your own ship nor the
target alters course or speed.
• True vectors predict the true motion of targets and your own ship. They make it easier to
assess the overall traffic situation, but more difficult to assess the risk of collision. They
depend upon accurate inputs of own ship’s course and speed.
Note: The accuracy of relative vectors depends mainly on the accuracy of heading only, i.e. the gyro. The
accuracy of true vectors is dependent on the accuracy of the gyro and log.
RANGE SCALES
The new IMO performance standards state that there should be at least three display range scales – 3, 6
and 12 nm – though many target tracking devices will have many more than that.
The range scale selected should be indicated at all times.
8
VECTOR TIME LENGTH

The operator can see how a situation will develop by adjusting the vector time length. The longer the
vector at any given timescale, the faster the ship is travelling.
With relative motion, any vector pointing to own ship represents a collision risk. The example in the video
shows how, by extending the predictive timescale, it is possible to see that the target and own ship will
collide in ten minutes unless avoiding action is taken.
Selecting ‘true’ vectors helps the operator to gain a more complete picture of what is going on. On the
other hand, the possibility of a collision is not represented as clearly. It is only by increasing the timescale
that we can see the tracks coming together.
TIMESCALES FOR HIGH SPEED CRAFT

In the case of high speed craft travelling up to 60 knots and operating in busy shipping lanes there is less
time to make decisions. Extending the timescale is obviously inadvisable and shorter timescales should
be selected.
Depending on the distance of CPA and TCPA, the device’s alarms can be set to identify threats to the ship,
so that navigation officers are alerted when a target comes within the set distance and time limits.
9
TRAILS
The new IMO performance standards stipulate that historical information should be available in the form
of symbols that show at least four equally time-spaced positions over the past eight minutes. This might
either be dots or variable length trails, or both. For example, if dots are drawing further apart, this
indicates that the target is accelerating, and similarly, if they are closer together, the target is slowing
down.
Trails on the other hand are represented by a synthetic afterglow and, in most manufacturers’ equipment,
may be displayed as either relative or true, sea or ground stabilised.
A trail simply gives an instant view of where a target has been, whereas its history gives more
intelligence as to what the ship is doing.
INFORMATION PROVIDED ON TARGETS

Target tracking devices and ARPAs will always provide six key pieces of information on tracked targets.
TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AND ARPAS WILL ALWAYS PROVIDE SIX KEY PIECES OF
INFORMATION ON TRACKED TARGETS
1A Predicted Closest Point of Approach (CPA)
2 Predicted Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA)
3 Bearing
4 Range
5 True track
6 Speed
Some manufacturers also provide Bow Crossing Time and Distance and/or Relative Course and Relative
Speed. If an ARPA is ground stabilised, the information displayed on targets could be COG (Course Over
Ground) and SOG (Speed Over Ground) as opposed to heading and speed, but CPA is not affected.
10
CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

CPA is a prediction based on the past history of tracked targets. True track and speed are calculated by
vector analysis and are subject to an understanding of the course and speed of own ship, through GPS
(Global Positioning System), manual, log, and echo reference.
Unfortunately, even with the most advanced equipment, CPA calculation errors of more than 0.5 nm can
occur in some situations such as converging traffic where there is a reasonably low relative speed. Over-
reliance on data should be avoided, and cross checking should be performed.
TYPES OF INTERFACE
Most pieces of equipment are operated using a computer mouse and joystick, though some systems have
a tracker ball instead of the joystick. Some devices have a touch-screen function, but this is not ideal as
targets can be located extremely close together and finger tips may be too large for the purpose.
There are many adjustable controls for contrast, brilliance, focus, tuning, clutter, pulse length, and so on.
ECDIS (ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM)

Radar data can be transferred into ECDIS but these systems are not designed for collision avoidance so
may not be the best option. Only radar is recognised in IMO’s ColRegs (International Regulations for
Preventing Collisions at Sea) as being an aid to collision avoidance.
In the future, most radars will have the capability of accepting electronic navigational charts, as GNSS
and ECDIS are integrated with ARPAs.
11
QUESTIONS
1 What are the three required display range scales for ARPAs:
A. 6, 12 and 24 nm?
B. 12, 18 and 36 nm?
C. 3, 6 and 12 nm?
2 History is indicated on displays by:

A. a vector?
B. dots or synthetic afterglow?
3 The prediction for CPA is based on the past history of tracked targets. True or false?
4 Which of the following pieces of information is not provided by ARPAs on tracked targets:
A. CPA?
B. TCPA?
C. vessel length?
D. bearing?
E. range?
F. true track?
G. speed?
5 ECDIS is recognised by IMO as an aid for collision avoidance. True or false?
12
TRIAL MANOEUVRE
Another facility designed to help officers navigate through traffic is the trial manoeuvre
or simulation facility. This enables the operator to try out a planned alteration of course
and see what its effect will be on all the tracked targets, before actually performing the
change.
It is an IMO requirement for all target tracking devices on vessels over 10,000 gt to include a trial
manoeuvre facility.
EXAMPLE
Using the example from the video of a target approaching from the starboard side on a collision course,
we can see that a large change of course of 25° to starboard will ensure that the target will pass clear
ahead. When the other ship is well clear, the prediction facility can be used to determine when to
resume own ship’s course.
ACTING ON THE TRIAL MANOEUVRE INFORMATION

Course alterations must be large enough to be detected on other vessels’ radar, so that they do not take
unnecessary avoiding action.
COLREGS RULE 8A AND B (ACTION TO AVOID COLLISION) SPECIFIES THAT:
1A Any action taken to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the case admit, be
positive, made in ample time and with due regard to the observance of good seamanship
2A Any alteration of course and/or speed to avoid collision shall, if the circumstances of the
case admit, be large enough to be readily apparent to another vessel observing visually
or by radar; a succession of small alterations of course and/or speed shall be avoided
13
TRIAL MANOEUVRE
DISABLING THE TRIAL FUNCTION

After the trial has been completed, the trial function should be disabled in order to avoid possible
confusion between trial and reality, though equipment defaults back to normal mode if no adjustments
are made by the operator after a certain period of time.
The screen will have a ‘T’ or ‘Trial’ to indicate that it is in trial manoeuvre mode. Some manufacturers’
equipment offer additional graphics such as symbols to show PCPs (Potential Collision Points) in true
vectors and CPAs in relative vectors.
QUESTION
1A The IMO requires there to be a trial manoeuvre facility included in all target tracking
devices on:
A. ships over 500 gt?
B. ships over 10,000 gt?
C. no ships: it is just an optional extra?
14
CHECKING INFORMATION
Target trackers comprise of an impressive array of features and alarms, which can lull the operator into a
false sense of security. The truth is that target tracking devices are only one source of information and
cannot make a decision for you. They are only as good as the data fed into them from other systems, and
can create a false picture.
For example, how accurate are the speed or the gyro readings, particularly when
displaying true vectors? If the operator is in doubt about speed input, using relative
vectors will give a more accurate determination of risk of collision.
Target tracking devices should be used with care, cross checked with information from other instruments
and backed up with the visual evidence of what can be seen from the ship.
15
GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION

One of the issues that needs taking into account with target tracking devices is speed
input. All data, including log and gyro errors, are passed on to the ARPA and will form
part of its calculations. Because the ARPA’s display changes slowly the underlying cause
may be far from obvious to the operator.
One method of overcoming these errors is to reference own ship’s position to the ground.
GROUND STABILISATION
Ground stabilisation can be done in coastal waters by selecting a fixed radar conspicuous target or
through input from GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems) such as: the Global Positioning System
(GPS); the Russian Global Navigation Satellite System GLONASS; or – when it is fully operational – the
European system, Galileo.
Ground stabilised true vectors are ideal for navigating around fixed objects, such as land, buoyed
channels etc. This is especially useful when the vectors are overlaid on to ECDIS or other map functions.
The down side of ground stabilisation is that all tracking is based on own ship’s track over ground.
Targets will show their ground tracks, not their headings and aspect, and this can be misleading for
collision avoidance purposes. However, it should be noted that relative vectors are identical in both
ground and sea stabilised modes, so that relative vectors can be viewed with confidence in every mode.
In the example from the video (below), tidal flow is read by a target tracking device as part of an
approaching target’s course and speed. Although it looks as if the target will pass down the starboard
side, the two ships are crossing on a near collision course.
16
GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION
SEA STABILISATION
Sea stabilisation shows own ship and all targets referenced to the sea, using gyro heading and single axis
log water speed or manual speed inputs.
By selecting sea stabilisation display mode, the true headings and aspects of target vessels are shown.
This ensures the correct interpretation of ColRegs in a collision situation.
The recommended procedure is to cross check continually using sea stabilisation and ground
stabilisation to gain a better understanding of the situation.
Checking the situation with relative vectors is also good policy because these are not affected by course
and speed errors other than during short updating periods.
QUESTIONS
1 Ground stabilised true vectors are ideal for navigating around fixed objects.
True or false?
2 Sea stabilisation shows own ship and all targets referenced to the sea, using input from
satellite navigation systems. True or false?
17
TARGET ACQUISITION
The ARPA process starts with the acquisition of a target. This is done either ‘manually’,
by using a screen marker controlled by a joystick, or ‘automatically’, where the computer
is set to acquire targets which enter specified boundaries.
When a target is acquired, the computer starts collecting information about it. There are two pre-
requisites for effective tracking, neither of which can be relied upon:
1. A CLEAR RADAR SIGNAL

Heavy rain, waves or even storm clouds can block and distort radar signals. A target can
be lost when it manoeuvres, because its radar return will fade.
2. THE COMPUTER HAS TO UNDERSTAND THE DATA IT IS RECEIVING

There are various instances when target tracking devices become confused by the
incoming information. If two targets pass close by each other, the ARPA can swap tracks,
lose one track altogether or give two tracks to the same target. The alarm will warn the
operator if it loses a target, but may not if it has confused two tracks.
The operator will need to be vigilant to ensure that tracking is working well.
MANUAL ACQUISITION
Manual acquisition is recommended for restricted coastal waters or in bad weather
conditions.
Pressing the ‘acquire’ button will enter the target
into the computer memory and pressing ‘cancel’
will delete it, after the risk of collision has
passed. It must be appreciated that using
manual acquisition requires more radar
display observation time by the operator.
18
TARGET ACQUISITION
AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION
The automatic acquisition facility is best used in open waters and good weather
conditions, when it can help to ensure that no target is missed in zones specified by the
operator. Note however that, because of its limitations, it will never constitute
maintaining a safe lookout. Any target deleted in this area
will be acquired and will also
Automatic acquisition should always be used activate an alarm
with care because small targets can still be
missed. It can also collect clutter, noise and
interference, which will cause alarms to go off
unnecessarily. This can happen almost
continually, which is why there are only a few
occasions when it will be of any real use.
As the target tracking system has a finite
number of targets that it can plot and monitor,
a further risk is that, if you use the automatic
acquisition option, this finite number can be
reached and some targets which might be
important will not be acquired. Manual deletion
of unimportant targets is an essential part of
automatic acquisition.
The facility for auto acquisition of targets is required for all ships or craft of more than 10,000 gt.
GLOBAL AND ZONAL AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION ZONES

Automatic acquisition zones may be ‘Global’ or ‘Zonal’.
With global automatic acquisition, the search area is all around own ship, with its dimensions adjustable
by the operator. All targets entering this area are acquired automatically.
19
TARGET ACQUISITION
With zonal automatic acquisition, targets are only acquired when they enter specific detection zones.
THE GUARD ZONE

Most target tracking devices incorporate guard zones, whereby a target entering the zone
activates an alarm which both makes a sound and shows up on screen with a flashing
symbol or other means of display.
There are usually up to two zones available and their arc and depth are defined by the operator.
Consideration must always be given to the possibility of radar returns from small targets (e.g. a yacht or
small fishing vessels). These can appear inside the inner limit of a guard zone and subsequently will not
set off any warning alarms.
Zones remain relative to

ship’s head, even when
course is altered
20
TARGET ACQUISITION
OPERATIONAL WARNINGS
GUARD ZONE VIOLATION

When a target enters a zone, the target tracking device should warn the operator with an alarm which
may be visual and/or audible. However, it should be possible to de-activate this capability if required.
Most operators set up the equipment with two zones: one which is pre-set, and another which can be
customised as required.
It is unwise to rely too heavily on a guard zone. Vessels, especially high speed ones, may miss the zone
and still be on a collision course.
Similarly, a target may not be acquired at all if it is hidden behind another vessel, or if it has a poor radar
return.
PREDICTED CPA/TCPA VIOLATION/DANGEROUS TARGET

The equipment can be set to trigger an alarm if both the specified CPA and TCPA are violated.
LOST TARGET
If a tracked target fails to return an echo, the ARPA continues to search for it. If no target is detected
after five out of ten scans, the ‘target lost’ warning is activated.
TRACKING LARGE NUMBERS OF TARGETS

All new radars fitted from 2008 on ships over 10,000 gt must be able to track 40 targets at the same time.
21
TARGET ACQUISITION
QUESTIONS
1 Manual acquisition is recommended for restricted coastal waters or in bad weather

conditions. True or false?
2 How many targets should radars fitted on ships over 10,000 gt from 2008 be able to
track:
A. 10?
B. 20?
C. 40?
3 In a guard zone, the arc and depth are pre-set by the manufacturer. True or false?
22

AIS is a Very High Frequency (VHF) radio system which can be used in conjunction with target tracking
devices. It not only helps with target tracking but also:
• Identifies vessels
• Assists in situational awareness
• Simplifies safety-related information exchange between vessels and between vessels
and the shore
AIS is mandatory on all SOLAS vessels over 300 gt and they must have Class A AIS equipment onboard.
Class B standard has been agreed for other vessels.
HOW AIS WORKS

AIS systems operate on two separate channels in the VHF band. The ship’s equipment consists of two
VHF receivers and one transmitter which alternates its transmissions between the two frequencies.
There is also a GNSS receiver which fixes position and timing.
The AIS system continuously exchanges navigational information between own ship, other vessels, and
shore stations.
The information it exchanges includes:
• ‘Static’ parameters such as MMSI (Maritime Mobile Service Identification) number, vessel’s
name, call sign, IMO number, type, length, cargo, position of aerials, draught and route plan
• ‘Dynamic’ data including position, heading and SOG
The MMSI number is used by AIS receivers to link the static data from targets sent every six minutes,
with the dynamic data sent several times in a minute. When a target is first picked up by AIS it will
probably be showing only MMSI number and dynamic data.
23
BENEFITS OF AIS
The information exchanged helps identify the target and simplify communications when required. This is
invaluable when vessels need to agree on what action to take to avoid a collision, such as in narrow
channels.
The information about the target’s length and the position of antennas allows other vessels to decide on a
safe passing distance. Navigating ports and coastal waters also becomes easier with AIS partly because it
can display the target’s length and partly because it more accurately predicts a target’s path by taking
into account its rate of turn during course changes.
Because positioning data is acquired through GNSS, clutter and bad weather does not affect it. AIS is also
less affected by line-of-sight obstructions, because it uses VHF frequencies.
AIS systems are increasingly used in tandem with moving chart displays from stored digital charts.
LIMITATIONS OF AIS
AIS is a useful tool for providing additional information for collision avoidance. However, it has some
limitations. It cannot help with some of the main causes of collisions, i.e. driving too fast in conditions of
poor visibility, not keeping a proper lookout, making small reductions in speed or minor alterations of
course when the ship should slow right down or make a drastic alteration of course.
Other disadvantages are:
• The receiver has no control over the information, because it does not originate from their
ARPA which has been calibrated to own ship, and so there is no way of knowing whether the
information is accurate or not
• The quantity of extra data can cause ‘information overload’
• The Master of the transmitting vessel may decide to turn the AIS off in port or for security
reasons
• No AIS information is transmitted by obstructions such as lost containers, buoys or small
vessels
Radar on the other hand searches out targets and tracks them. Information can be checked on the ARPA
by switching display modes. Taking all these issues into account, AIS should be considered
complementary to radar and not a replacement for it.
Note: Most ships do not yet have a graphical display or integrated radar display, but an AIS text screen not
much larger than a mobile phone, called a MKD (Minimum Keyboard Display). This makes it an ineffective tool
for identifying other ships, and most of the advantages of AIS do not apply to navigators on these ships. The
situation will very slowly improve from 2008 as new installations will need to have radar/AIS integration.
24

COMPARISON OF ARPA/ATA AND AIS DATA FOR ANTI-COLLISION PURPOSES
ARPA/ATA radar derived data AIS/VHF derived data

Overall accuracy (see Chapter 9) Similar to AIS at close range but Positional errors 10-30 metres
accuracy reduces linearly with
range, due mainly to bearing
accuracy
Framework for calculations Relative to ship Ground based
Derivation of aspect Derived by calculation and depends Obtained directly from compass of
on accurate knowledge of own ship’s target ship (when available)
course and speed through water
Detection of changes in Takes several minutes Immediate (when compass available)
target course and speed as soon as gyro starts to change.
Otherwise will be apparent when
ground track changes
Identification of target size Can be misleading Good, if static data is transmitted
Reliance on other equipment All necessary equipment on own ship GPS systems
Requires compass and log Sensors on other vessels
Programming on other vessels
Reliability of detecting other vessels Dependent on echo strength and Only if fitted with AIS
in the vicinity weather conditions Not significantly weather dependent
Target swap Possible No
Interference and false echoes A possibility Unlikely
Reduced coverage due to Can occur depending on aerial Unlikely
own-ship obstructions position
Reduced coverage due to land mass Line of sight only Unlikely
obstructions (the’fjord’ effect)
Range Typically 10 – 20 miles, depending on Typically 20 – 40 miles depending on
aerial heights and environmental aerial heights and environmental
factors factors
Transmission and target response Unlikely A possibility
density causing overload
QUESTIONS
1 AIS is mandatory on all SOLAS vessels over 300 gt. True or false?
2A AIS uses:
A. radar and GNSS?
B. radar and VHF frequencies?
C. VHF frequencies and GNSS?
25
SYSTEM INTEGRATION
Information from ARPA and AIS comes from very different technologies. Often the target data differs
slightly, and AIS information is faster to update.
The differences in the data are brought together in the equipment through ‘target association’ whereby
the information from different sources combine to create a single picture on the screen. To do this, the
computer, aided by user-set parameters, has to make assumptions about targets with very similar
positions, tracks and speed, and it then decides whether they are in fact the same vessel.
There are inherent risks in this process, so the operator needs to be alert to possible anomalies. Targets
which are visible on one system but not on another clearly need investigating.
26
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

ARPA, ATA and AIS target tracking technologies are being brought together in IMO Resolution MSC
192(79), ‘Performance Standards for radar equipment for new ships constructed after 1 July 2008’. A key
element of the standards is that all radar displays will have to be capable of displaying AIS targets. Also
covered are:
• Types of warnings and mode information displayed

• Minimum performance standards for managing clutter, weather effects and echoes
• How automatic tracking identifies acquisition areas
• Screen dimensions and visibility according to vessel size
• What information must be available
• The minimum number of targets that can be tracked
• Trial manoeuvre facilities
DIFFERENCES IN THE PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS FOR VARIOUS SIZES/

CATEGORIES OF SHIP/ CRAFT TO WHICH SOLAS APPLIES
Size of ship/craft <500 gt <500 gt to <10 000gt All ships/ craft
and HSC<10 000 gt >10 000g t
Minimum operational 180mm 250mm 320mm
display area diameter
Minimum display area 195x195mm 270x270mm 340x340mm
Auto acquisition of targets _ _ Yes
Minimum acquired 20 30 40
radar target capacity
Minimum activated 20 30 40
AIS target capacity
Minimum sleeping 100 150 200
AIS target capacity
Trial manoeuvre _ _ Yes
TARGET TRACKING DEVICE SPEED HANDLING CAPABILITY

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES ON VESSELS CAPABLE OF UP TO 30 KNOTS
To be capable of handling craft with relative speeds of up to 100 knots.
TARGET TRACKING DEVICES ON VESSELS CAPABLE OF UP TO 70 KNOTS

To be capable of handling craft with relative speeds of up to 140 knots.
DETECTION PERFORMANCE
The standards state that all available means for the detection of targets should be used and should cover
detection in clear conditions, at close range and in clutter conditions.
27
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS
QUESTIONS
1 All new radar displays must be capable of displaying AIS targets from:
A. 1 July 2002?
B. 1 July 2005?
C. 1 July 2008?
2 Vessels capable of up to 70 knots must be able to handle craft with relative speeds
of up to:
A. 100 knots?
B. 140 knots ?
C. 160 knots?
28
SAFETY FIRST
Even when target tracking equipment is being used correctly and the watch keeper is
being alert to all possibilities, there is always the chance that something can go wrong.
The following are the most common causes of problems:
NOT CHECKING MODE, SETTINGS AND DISPLAYS

When taking over a watch it is crucial to discuss any changes to settings and displays. For example, is the
ARPA ground or sea stabilised? The operator may assume that the device is in a particular mode, or that
the settings are the same as when they were left, even though this may not be the case. True vectors can
create a misleading picture if target tracking is ground stabilised and not sea stabilised, for example.
Always check settings left by the previous watch keeper!
NOT CHECKING DATA FROM OTHER SYSTEMS

If incorrect input is taken from other systems, for example, speed through water is incorrect, true vector
calculations will be inaccurate.
NOT TAKING ERRORS INTO ACCOUNT

Closest Point of Approach (CPA) calculations are made on the basis of both the ship and target being a
point. Due allowance should be made for own ship and target ship size, and the fact that CPAs can be out
by more than 0.5 nm. Calculating the closest safe passing distance is dependent on the length of the
vessels. Two ships passing which are each 300 metres long may be at risk of collision without this being
apparent from the radar CPA distances.
There is a tendency to reduce the safe passing distance in busy shipping lanes, but this is
a risky procedure.
29
SAFETY FIRST
IMO performance standards stipulate that measurements from own ship (e.g. range rings, target range
and bearing, cursor, tracking data) should be made in relation to the Consistent Common Reference
Point (CCRP). When the picture is centred, the position of the CCRP should be at the centre of the bearing
scale.
RAPID MANOEUVRING
Watch keepers often forget that target tracking devices can be confused by rapid manoeuvres. The risk
can be minimised by manoeuvring in ‘bold’ discrete stages as required by ColRegs rather than in a
continuous series of incremental manoeuvres.
Bear in mind the fact that the picture may not be accurate for up to three minutes after a rapid
manoeuvre.
NOT VERIFYING INFORMATION VISUALLY

Trusting the picture on the screen without verifying information visually can lead to increased risk. It is
important to use the different technologies including ECDIS in combination.
What you see on the screen may not correspond to reality. Always check the situation
using binoculars or with the naked eye.
NOT BEING FAMILIAR WITH THE SYSTEM

Target tracking systems all have slightly different features, menus and displays. Newer systems are
highly customisable and can be set up in many different ways with different vectors, ranges, and
stabilisation modes. Therefore, it’s vital for anyone joining a ship to familiarise themselves with the
system before they take over a watch, so that they do not misinterpret a screen.
Familiarisation training is in fact required under the ISM Code (The International Management Code for
the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention).
30
SAFETY FIRST
QUESTIONS
1 It is advisable to check settings to see whether the previous watch keeper has altered
the mode, vectors or scale. True or false?
2A The CCRP should be:

A. at the centre of the bearing scale?
B. offset?
3 If the speed through water input is incorrect, the true vector calculations will self-adjust.
True or false?
4 After a manoeuvre, the radar picture may not be accurate for up to:
A. 1 minute?
B. 2 minutes?
C. 3 minutes?
31
GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS

AIS – Automatic Identification System
ARPA – Automatic Radar Plotting Aid
ATA – Automatic Tracking Aid
CCRP – Consistent Common Reference Point
COG – Course Over Ground
ColRegs – IMO Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972
CPA – Closest Point of Approach
EBL – Electronic Bearing Line
ECDIS – Electronic Chart Display and Information System
Galileo – European satellite navigation system
GNSS – Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS – Global Positioning System
GLONASS – GLObal NAvigation Satellite System
Ground stabilisation – a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are referenced to the ground using ground track or
set and drift inputs or through input from GNSS or similar systems.
Heading – the direction in which the bows of a ship are pointing expressed as an angular displacement from north
Head-up display – a mode of display whereby the information is directed so that the ship’s heading is always pointing upwards.
ISM Code – The International Management Code for the Safe Operation of Ships and for Pollution Prevention
MMSI – Maritime Mobile Service Identification
nm – nautical miles
North-up display – an azimuth stabilised display in which a line connecting the centre of own ship with the top of the display is
north true bearing
PCP – Potential Collision Point
Relative motion – the combination of relative course and relative speed
Relative vector – the predicted movement of a target relative to own ship
Sea stabilisation – a mode of display whereby own ship and all targets are referenced to the sea, using gyro heading and single
axis log water speed or manual speed inputs
SOG – Speed Over Ground
Target – any object fixed or moving whose position and motion is determined by measurements of range and bearing on radar
Trails – tracks displayed by the radar echoes of targets in the form of a synthetic afterglow. The trails may be either relative or
true. The true trails may be sea or ground stabilised.
TCPA – Time to Closest Point of Approach
True motion – the combination of true course and true speed
True vector – the predicted true motion of a target calculated using own ship’s direction and speed input. The true vector may be
either displayed with reference to the water or to the ground
VHF – Very High Frequency
VRM – Variable Range Marker
32
FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES
IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS AND OTHER REGULATIONS

See the following IMO performance standards for more information:
• The IMO resolution MSC 192(79), Performance Standards for radar equipment for new ships
constructed after 1 July 2008.
This covers the operational requirements for the radar system, ergonomic criteria, design and
installation, interfacing and back-up and fallback arrangements.
• The IMO resolution MSC 191(79), Performance Standards for the presentation of navigation-
related information on shipborne navigational displays for new ships constructed after 2008.
This covers general requirements (such as readability, colours, symbols and alarms), operational
displays and physical requirements.
Also relevant are:
• Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, 1972 (ColRegs)
• SOLAS (International Convention for the Safety of Life At Sea)
• STCW (Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping)
• ISGOTT (International Safety Guide for Oil Tankers and Terminals)
PUBLICATIONS
Radar and ARPA Manual by Alan Bole, Bill Dineley and Alan Wall, second edition 2005.
ICS (International Chamber of Shipping) Bridge Procedures Guide.
Automatic Identification Systems (AIS), code no. 926 (Videotel training course).
RELEVANT WEBSITES
International Maritime Organization: www.imo.org
The UK Maritime & Coastguard Agency: www.mcga.gov.uk
United States Coast Guard: www.uscg.mil
Transportation Safety Board of Canada: www.tsb.gc.ca
Transport Canada: www.tc.gc.ca
Australian Maritime Safety Authority: www.amsa.gov.au
Nautical Institute: www.nautinst.org
Videotel: www.videotel.co.uk
33
ANSWERS
PAGE 6 QUESTION 1 A. 1 minute
PAGE 12 QUESTION 1 C. 3, 6 and 12 nm

QUESTION 2 B. dots or synthetic afterglow
QUESTION 3 TRUE.
QUESTION 4 C. vessel length
QUESTION 5 FALSE. Only radar is recognised by IMO for collision avoidance
PAGE 14 QUESTION 1 B. ships over 10,000 gt
PAGE 17 QUESTION 1 TRUE.

QUESTION 2 FALSE. The data is from gyro heading and single not from
satellite navigation systems

QUESTION 2 C. 40
QUESTION 3 FALSE. Their arc and depth are defined by the operator

QUESTION 2 C. VHF frequencies and GNSS
PAGE 28 QUESTION 1 C. 1 July 2008

QUESTION 2 B. 140 knots

QUESTION 2 A. at the centre of the bearing scale
QUESTION 3 FALSE. The calculations will be incorrect
QUESTION 4 C. 3 minutes
34
NOTES
35
NOTES
36
p r o d u c t i o n s
84 NEWMAN STREET, LONDON W1T 3EU
TELEPHONE +44(0)20 7299 1800
FACSIMILE +44(0)20 7299 1818
E-MAIL [email protected]
WEB www.videotel.co.uk

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TARGET

84 NEWMAN STREET, LONDON W1T 3EU

THE PRODUCERS WOULD LIKE TO ACKNOWLEDGE THE ASSISTANCE OF

ExxonMobil Shipping Co Ltd

CONSULTANT: Dr Andy Norris

PRODUCER: Peter Wilde

WRITER/DIRECTOR: Michael Cain

PRINT AUTHOR: Sheila Brownlee

2 WHAT RADAR DOES 5

3 TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK 7

6 GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION 16

8 AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS) 23

10 IMO PERFORMANCE STANDARDS 27

12 GLOSSARY AND ACRONYMS 32

13 FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES 33

WHAT RADAR DOES

AUTOMATIC RADAR PLOTTING AIDS (ARPA)

WHAT RADAR DOES

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)

ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM (ECDIS)

A COMMON TERM FOR ALL

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

ORIENTATION: NORTH UP AND SHIP’S HEAD UP

RELATIVE MOTION AND TRUE MOTION

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

RELATIVE VECTORS AND TRUE VECTORS

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

VECTOR TIME LENGTH

TIMESCALES FOR HIGH SPEED CRAFT

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

INFORMATION PROVIDED ON TARGETS

1A Predicted Closest Point of Approach (CPA)

2 Predicted Time to Closest Point of Approach (TCPA)

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

CLOSEST POINT OF APPROACH (CPA)

ECDIS (ELECTRONIC CHART DISPLAY AND INFORMATION SYSTEM)

TARGET TRACKING DEVICES AT WORK

2 History is indicated on displays by:

5 ECDIS is recognised by IMO as an aid for collision avoidance. True or false?

ACTING ON THE TRIAL MANOEUVRE INFORMATION

COLREGS RULE 8A AND B (ACTION TO AVOID COLLISION) SPECIFIES THAT:

DISABLING THE TRIAL FUNCTION

GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION

GROUND AND SEA STABILISATION

1. A CLEAR RADAR SIGNAL

2. THE COMPUTER HAS TO UNDERSTAND THE DATA IT IS RECEIVING

GLOBAL AND ZONAL AUTOMATIC ACQUISITION ZONES

THE GUARD ZONE

Zones remain relative to

GUARD ZONE VIOLATION

PREDICTED CPA/TCPA VIOLATION/DANGEROUS TARGET

TRACKING LARGE NUMBERS OF TARGETS

1 Manual acquisition is recommended for restricted coastal waters or in bad weather

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)

HOW AIS WORKS

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)

Other disadvantages are:

AUTOMATIC IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS (AIS)

ARPA/ATA radar derived data AIS/VHF derived data