Chemistry Lecture Notes

CHEMISTRY
B.Tech I Semester – R20
LECTURE NOTES
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021
Prepared By
Dr. V Anitha Rani, Associate Professor
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
Autonomous
Dundigal, Hyderabad - 500 043
SYLLABUS
MODULE-I ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CORROSION

Electro chemical cells: Electrode potential, standard electrode potential, Calomel electrode and Nernst equation; Electro
chemical series and its applications; Numerical problems; Batteries: Primary (Dry cell) and secondary batteries (Lead-
acid storage battery, Li-ion battery). Corrosion: Causes and effects of corrosion: Theories of chemical and
electrochemical corrosion, mechanism of electrochemical corrosion; Corrosion control methods: Cathodic protection,
sacrificial anode and impressed current Cathodic protection; Surface coatings: Metallic coatings- Methods of coating-
Hot dipping- galvanization and tinning, electroplating.
MODULE -II WATER TECHNOLOGY
Introduction: Hardness of water, causes of hardness; types of hardness: temporary and permanent hardness, expression
and units of hardness; estimation of hardness of water by complexometric method; potable water and its specifications,
Steps involved in the treatment of water, disinfection of water by chlorination and ozonization; External treatment of
water; Ion-exchange process; Desalination of water: Reverse osmosis, numerical problems.
MODULE -III ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Polymers-classification with examples, polymerization-addition, condensation and co-polymerization; Plastics:
Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics; Compounding of plastics; Preparation, properties and applications of
polyvinyl chloride, Teflon, Bakelite and Nylon-6, 6; Biodegradable polymers. Elastomers: Natural rubber, processing
of natural rubber, vulcanization; Buna-s and Thiokol rubber; Lubricants: characteristics of lubricants, mechanism of
lubrication – thick film, thin film, extreme pressure lubrication, properties – flash and fire point, cloud and pour point,
viscosity and oiliness of lubricants.
MODULE -IV GREEN CHEMISTRY AND FUELS
Introduction: Definition of green chemistry, methods of green synthesis: aqueous phase, microwave method, phase
transfer catalyst and ultra sound method. Fuels: definition, classification of fuels ; Solid fuels: coal; analysis of coal:
proximate and ultimate analysis; Liquid fuels: Petroleum and its refining; Gaseous fuels: Composition, characteristics
and applications of LPG and CNG; Calorific value: Gross Calorific value(GCV) and Net Calorific value(NCV),
numerical problems.
MODULE -V NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Natural resources: Classification of resources, living and nonliving resources; Water resources: Use and over utilization
of surface and ground water, floods and droughts, dams, benefits and problems; Land resources; Energy resources:
renewable and non-renewable energy sources, use of alternate energy source. Environmental pollution: Causes, effects
and control measures of air pollution, water pollution, soil pollution and noise pollution.
MODULE - 1
ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CORROSION
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module I :
Students will be able to:
Blooms
CO Course Outcomes
taxonomy
CO 1 Recall the operation of electrochemical systems for the production Remember
of electric energy, i.e. batteries.
CO 2 Utilize electrochemical cell parameters, electrochemical active Apply
surface area, current and over potential under given condition for
calculating the electromotive force and electrode potential.
CO 3 Explain the chemical and electrochemical corrosion in metals by Understand
influencing the nature of environment.
CO 4 Make use of the basic electrochemical knowledge of corrosion Apply
processes and apply the concept for protection of different metals
from corrosion.
Program Outcomes And Program Specific Outcomes Mapped To Module I :

Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering
fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
PO 7 Environment and sustainability: understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and Environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Mapping of CO(s) With PO(s) , PSO(s) For Module I:

Program
Program Outcomes Specific
Course
Outcomes
Outcomes
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 1 √
CO 2 √ √
CO 3 √
CO 3 √
ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CORROSION
Introduction:
Chemistry is the Study of matter, its properties and the changes it may undergo. All matter is electrical in
nature. An atom is made up of sub atomic particles like electors, protons and neutrons etc.
Electro chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the transformation of electrical energy into
chemical energy or chemical into electrical energy.
Concept of electrochemistry:
Electrical Conduction: The substances are divided into 4 types depending upon their capability of flow of electrons.
Conductors: The Substances which allows electricity to pass through them are called
conductors.
Ex: - Metals, metal sulphides, acids, alkalis, salt sol. and fused salts The electrical conductors are of two
types.
1. Metallic or Electronic conductors.
2. Electrolytic conductors
i) Non-conductors: The substances which do not allow electricity are called non-conductors. Ex: Pure water, dry wood,
rubber, paper, non-metals etc.
ii) Semi-conductors: The substances which partially conduct electricity are called semi- conductors. The conducting
properties of semi-conducting properties are increased by the addition of certain impurities called “dopping”.
Ex: „si‟ and addition of V group elements like „p‟ „si‟ produces n-type semi- conductor. On addition of iii group element
like „B‟, Al, „si‟ produces p-type of semi-conductor.
Electro chemical cell (or) Galvanic cell:
Galvanic cell is a device in which chemical energy is converted into electrical energy. These cells are called
Electrochemical cells or voltaic cells. Daniel cell is an example for galvanic cell.
Fig1.1.1 Galvanic cell
This cell is made up of two half cells. One is oxidation or anodic half cell. The other is reduction or catholic half-
cell. The first half cell consists of „Zn‟ electrode dipped in ZnSO4solution and second half cell consists of „Cu”
electrode dipped in Cuso4 solution. Both the half cells are connected externally by metallic conductor. And
internally by „salt bridge‟ salt bridge is a U- tube containing concentrated solution of kCl or NH4 NO3 in agar-agar
gel contained porous pot. It provides electrical contact between two solutions.
The following reactions take place in the cell.
At cathode:
Zn → Zn+2 + 2e- (oxidation)

At cathode:
Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu (Reduction)
The movement of electrons from Zn to cu produces a current in the circuit. The overall cell
reaction is: Zn + Cu Zn+2 + Cu
The galvanic cell can be represented by
Zn ZnSO4 CuSO4 Cu
The passage of electrons from one electrode to other causes the potential difference between them which is
called E.M.F.
EMF
The difference of potential which causes flow of electrons from an electrode of higher potential to an electrode of
lower potential is called Electro motive force (EMF) of the cell.
The E.M.F of galvanic cell is calculated by the reduction half – cell potentials using to following ex.
Ecell = E (right) - E(left)
Ecell = EMF of the cell.
E right = Reduction potential of right hand side electrode.
Eleft = Reduction potential of left hand side electrode.
Applications of EMF measurement:-
1. Potentiometric titrations can be carried out.

2. Transport number of ions can be determined.
3. PH can be measured.
4. Hydrolysis const, can be determined.
5. Solubility of sparingly soluble salts can be found.
Differences between Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell.
Galvanic cell / Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell
1. In this cell, chemical energy is converted in 1. In this cell electrical energy is

to electrical energy. converted in to chemical energy.
2. In this cell anode is –ve electrode and 2. In this cell anode is +ve electrode
cathode is +ve electrode. and cathode is –ve electrode.
3. Salt bridge is required. 3. Salt bridge is not required.
4. This process is reversible and 4. This process is irreversible and
spontaneous. not spontaneous.
5. EMF of the cell is +ve. 5. EMF of the cell is–ve.
Single electrode potential : (E)

When a metal rod dipped in its salt solution, the metal atom tends either to lose electrons (oxidation) or to accept
electrons (reduction). The process of oxidation or reduction depends on the nature of metal. In this process, there
develops a potential between the metal atom and it‟s corresponding ion called the electrode potential. There is a
dynamic equilibrium between the metal and metal ion and the potential diff. between the two is called electrode
potential. It is measured in volts.
Standard electrode potential:(E0)
The potential exhibited by single at unit concentration of its metal ion at 25 0c is called standard electrode
potential (E0)
Eg: E of cu+2 / cu = E0 when concentration of cu+2 is IM. E0 value of single electrode is determined experimentally
by combining the single electrode with standard hydrogen electrode.
Electrochemical series:
The electrode potentials of different electrodes can be finding using standard hydrogen electrode. The potential
of hydrogen electrode is assumed as zero volts. So the measured Emf. Itself is the standard electrode potential
of that electrode.
The arrangement of different electrode potential s of different electrodes from highest

-ve to highest +ve are called electrochemical series.
Electrode Half-cell reaction E0volts (standard

reduction potential
L i+/Li Li++e- Li -3.04
K+/K K++e- K -2.9
Ca+2/Ca Ca+2+2e- Ca -2.8
Na+/Na Na++e- Na -2.7
Mg+2/Mg Mg+2+2e- Mg -2.3
Zn+2/Zn Zn+2 +2e- Zn -0.76
Fe+2/Fe -0.4
Fe+2 +2e- Fe
H+/H2,pf +0
H+ + e-H2
Cu+2/Cu +0.15
Cu+2 + 2e- Cu
Ag+/Ag Ag+ + e- Ag +0.7
Pt,Cl2/Cl - Cl2+ 2e- 2Cl- +1.3
Pt,F2/F- F2+2e- 2F-- +2.8
From the above series we can understand that the metals with higher –ve potentials are stronger reducing agents,
and the metals with higher +ve potentials are stronger oxidizing agents. The metals with higher –ve potentials
displaces a metals with lower –ve potentials.
Nernst Equation:
It tells us the effect of electrolyte concentration on electrode potential
Consider a general electrode reaction
Mn+ + ne- → M (s)
For this electrode reaction, free energy change (∆G) can be calculated provided standard free energy change (∆G0)
Gas constant (R), temperature (T), activity of product and activity of reactant are known using the following equation.
∆G = ∆G0 + RT ln ( a product / a reactant)
Since ∆G = - nFE and ∆G0 =

- NFE0
Hence
E = E0 - 2.303 RT / nF log ( a product / a reactant)
This is Nernst equation where
E = Electrode potential
E0 = Standard electrode potential
F = faraday of electricity (96500 C)
T = temperature at 298k
R = Gas constant (8.314 k-1 mol-1)
a = activity
at 298k
putting the value of F = faraday of electricity (96500 C ) and R = Gas constant (8.314 k-1 mol-1)
we get
E = E0 - 0.0591/n log ( a product / a reactant)
In dilute solutions, activities may be replaced by molar concentrations terms,
E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log ( [M(s)] / [M n+ (aq)] )

For pure solid ( [M(s)] = 1
E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log ( 1 / [M n+ (aq)] )
E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log [M n+ (aq)]
The above equation is Nernst equation for the electrode at 298 k
Nernst studied the theoretical relationship between electrode reaction and the corresponding cell
e.m.f. This relationship generally Known as Nernst equation.
Consider a galvanic cell
aA + bB cC +dD.
Where a,b,c,d represents no. of moles respectively at equilibrium.
E = E0 - 2.303 RT / nF log ( [C]c [D]d /[Aa][Bb])
Thus Nernst equation is applicable for the determination of Emf of cell
Similarly, for the cell reaction.
E = E0 - 2.303 RT / nF log ( [Zn+2(1m) /Cu +2(1m)])

Reference Electrode:
Because of the inconveniences in the usage of Hydrogen electrode like maintenance of accurate pressure, inconvenience in
handling gas secondary electrodes were developed.
Standard calomel electrode (SCE):
The calomel electrode consists of a glass tube having two side tubes. A small quantity of pure mercury is placed at
the bottom of the vessel and is covered with a paste of Hg and Hg 2 Cl2. KCl solution of known concentration is
filled through side tube, Shown on the right side of the vessel. The KCl sol. is filled in the left side tube which
helps to make a connection through a salt bridge with the other electrode, which potential has to be determined.
A „pt‟ wire is sealed into a glass tube as shown in the fig which is in contact with Hg.
When the cell is set up it is immersed in the given solution. The concentration of KCl. The electrode
potentials of calomel electrode of different concentrations at 250c are
Standard calomel electrode
0.1 M KCl/ Hg2cl2 (s) / Hg,pt 0.33v 1M
KCl / H g2cl2 (s) / Hg,pt 0.28v Saturated
kcl /Hg2 cl2 (s) /Hg, pt 0.24v The
corresponding electrode reactionis
Hg2 Cl2+2e- 2Hg +2cl-

Merits :
• Concentration of Cl- remains constant.

• Potential of electrode remains constant with temperature.
• Ease of oxidation-reduction reactions.
• Construction is simple and easy to maintain.
• Inexpensive.
• pH can be measured by combining with hydrogen or quinhydrone or glass electrodes.
Demerits :
• Solubility of KCl is sensitive.

• KCl has to be replaced from time to time.
• Mercury is toxic and poses health hazar
Batteries:
When two or more electrochemical cells are electrically interconnected, each of which containing two
electrodes and an electrolyte is called a Battery.
Batteries are classified into a two categories depending on their recharging capabilities.
Primary Batteries:“These are non-rechargeable and are meant for single use and to be discarded after
use”.
These are non-reversed and are less expensive and are offer used in ordinary gadgets like torch lights, watches
and toys.
Eg: Leclanche cell, Dry cell.
Secondary Batteries: - These are rechargeable and are meant for multi cycle use. After every use the electrochemical
reaction could be reversed by external application fades or lost due to leakage or internal short circuit. Eg: Lead-acid cell,
Ni/cd cell.
Differences between Primary and secondary batteries:
Primary cells Secondary cells
1. These are non-rechargeable and 1. These are rechargeable and meant

meant for a single use and to be for multi cycle use.
discarded after use. 2. Cell reaction can be reversed.
2. Cell reaction is not reversible. 3. Can be rechargeable.
3. Cannot be rechargeable. 4. Expensive.
4. Less expensive.
5. Can be used as long as the 5. Can be used again and again by
materials are active in their recharging the cell.
composition. Eg; Lead- acid cell, Ni-cd cells.
Eg: Leclanche cell, „Li‟ Cells.
Primary Batteries:
Dry cell (Leclanche cell):
Anode: Zinc
Cathode: Graphite rod
Electrolyte: paste of NH4Cl and ZnCl2
Emf: 1.5V.
Dry cell consists of a cylindrical Zinc container which acts as an anode. A graphite rod displaced in the center. The
graphite rod does not touch the base and it acts as a cathode. The graphite rod is surrounded by powdered MnO2 and
carbon. The remaining Space in between cathode and anode is filled with a paste of NH 4Cl and ZnCl2.The graphite
rod is fitted with a Metal cap and the cylinder is sealed at the top with a pitch.
The reactions takes place in the cell are:

At anode: Zn → Zn+2+2e–
At cathode: 2MnO2 + 2H2O +2e-→2Mn2O3 + 2OH-
Overall cell reactios: Zn + 2MnO2 + 2H2O → Zn +2 + 2Mn2O3 + 2OH-
2NH4Cl+2OH-→2NH3+2Cl-+2H2O
Zn+2+ 2NH3+Cl- → [Zn (NH3)2] Cl2 Diaminedichlorozinc

The EMF of the cell is about 1.5volts.
Dry Cell
Secondary Batteries:
Lead – acid cell:
Anode: Sponge metallic lead
Cathode: Lead dioxide pbo2
Electrolyte: Aqueous H2SO4. Emf: 2V
Cell reactions:
Pb + SO4-2 PbSO4 + 2 e- +0.356v
PbO2 +SO4-2 +2e- PbSO4+ 2 H2o +1.685v.
The e.m.f. produced by the cell is 2v

Applications
i. Automobile and construction equipment.

ii. Standby system for engine batteries
Advantages:
Low cost, long life cycle, Ability to withstand mistreatment, perform well in high and low
temperature.
Lithium-ion battery:
• Lithium-ion cell is a secondary cell.
• It can be recharged.
• Anode is a intercalated lithium compound such as layered lithium cobalt (III) oxide – LiCoO2.
• Cathode is Lithium doped graphite.
• The liquid electrolyte consists of complex lithium compound such as lithium hexafluoro phosphate dissolved in an
organic solvent such as dimethyl carbonate.
• Provide lightweight, high energy density power sources for variety of devices.
• At Anode: LinC -> nLi+ + ne- + C
• At Cathode: Li1-nCoO2 + nLi+ + ne- -> LiCoO2
• Cell Reaction (Discharging): LinC + Li1-nCoO2 -> C + LiCoO2
• Cell Reaction (Charging): C + LiCoO2 -> LinC + Li1-nCoO2

Uses:
• Lithium-ion batteries are commonly used for portable electronics and electric vehicles and are
growing in popularity for military and aerospace applications.
• Used in mobile phones, notebook PC‟s, cameras, camcorders, MP3, PDA‟s
• Used in power tools such as cordless drills, sanders, saws and variety of garden equipment
including whipper-snippers and hedge trimmers.
• Secondary non-aqueous lithium batteries provide reliable backup power to load equipment in a
network environment of telecommunications provider.
Corrosion
The surface of almost all the metals begin to decay more or less rapidly when exposed to atmospheric gases,
water or other reactive liquid medium.
The process of decay metal by environmental attack is known as corrosion.

Metals undergo corrosion and convert to their oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, sulphides etc.
E.g. Iron undergoes corrosion to form reddish brown colour rust [Fe2O3. 3H2O].
Copper undergoes corrosion to form a green film of basic carbonate [CuCO3 + Cu (OH) 2]
Causes of corrosion:
1. The metals exist in nature in the form of their minerals or ores, in the stable combined forms as
oxides, chlorides, silicates, carbonates, sulphides etc.
2. During the extraction of metals, these ores are reduced to metallic state by supplying
considerable amounts of energy.
3. Hence the isolated pure metals are regarded as excited states than their corresponding
ores. So metals have natural tendency to go back to their combined state (minerals/ores).
When metal is exposed to atmospheric gases, moisture, liquids etc., and the metal surface reacts and forms
more thermodynamically stabled compounds.
Effects of corrosion
1. Wastage of metal in the form of its compounds.

2. The valuable metallic properties like conductivity, malleability, ductility etc. are lost due to
corrosion.
3. Life span and efficiency of metallic parts of machinery and fabrications is reduced.
Theories of corrosion
Dry corrosion or Chemical corrosion
This type of Corrosion occurs mainly through the direct chemical action of atmospheric gasses like O2, halogens,
H2S, SO2, N2 or anhydrous inorganic liquid with the metal surface.
There are three types of chemical Corrosion:

(1) Oxidation corrosion
(2) Corrosion due to other gases
(3) Liquid metal corrosion
Oxidation Corrosion: This is carried out by the direct action of oxygen in low or high temperatures on metals in absence
of moisture. Alkali metals and Alkaline earth metals are rapidly oxidized at low temperatures. At high temperature all
metals are oxidized (except Ag, Au, and Pt).
M →M2+ + 2e- (Oxidation)
O2 + 2e →2O2- (Reduction)
M + O2 M →M2+ + 2O2- (Metal oxide)
Fig.1.8.2.1 Oxidation corrosion
Mechanism: Initially the surface of metal undergoes oxidation and the resulting metal oxide scale forms
a barrier which restricts further oxidation. The extent of corrosion depends upon the nature of metaloxide.
i.If the metal oxide is stable, it behaves has a protective layer which prevents further Corrosion.
E.g., the oxide films of Al, Sn, Pb, Cu, Cr, W etc. are stable and therefore further corrosion is prohibited.
ii.If the metal oxide unstable, the oxide layer formed decomposes back into metal and oxygen. Oxidation corrosion
is not possible.
E.g., Ag, Au and Pt do not undergo oxidation corrosion.
iii.If the metal oxide layer is volatile, then the oxide layer volatilizes after formation and leaves the underlying
metal surface exposed for further attack. This causes continuous corrosion which is excessive in molybdenum
oxide (MoO3).
iv.If the metal oxide layer is porous, the oxide layer formed has pores or cracks. In this case the atmospheric
oxygen penetrates through the pores or cracks and corrode the underlying metal surface. This cause continuous
corrosion till conversion of metal into its oxide is completed.
Ex: Alkali and alkaline earth metals (Li, Na, K, Mg etc.)
Corrosion due to other gases: This type of corrosion is due to gases like SO2, CO2, Cl2, H2S, F2 etc. In this
corrosion, the extent of corrosive effect depends mainly on the chemical affinity between the metal and the gas
involved. The degree of attack depends on the formation of protective or non protective films on the metal surface
which is explained on the basis of Pilling Bed worth rule.
i.If the volume of the corrosion film formed is more than the underlying metal, it is strongly adherent; non-porous
does not allow the penetration of corrosive gases.
Ag + Cl2→2AgCl (protective film)
ii.If the volume of the corrosion film formed is less than the underlying metal, it forms
Pores/cracks and allow the penetration of corrosive gases leading to corrosion of the underlying metal.
Ex. In petroleum industry, H2S gas at high temperature reacts with steel forming a FeS scale. Fe (steel) + H 2S FeS
(porous)
Liquid metal corrosion: This corrosion is due to chemical action of flowing liquid metal at high temperatures on
solid metal or alloy. The corrosion reaction involves either dissolution of a solid metal by a liquid metal or internal
penetration of the liquid metal into the solid metal.
Eg. Coolant (sodium metal) leads to corrosion of cadmium in nuclear reactors.
Wet corrosion or electrochemical corrosion
This type of Corrosion occurs where a conducting liquid is in contact with the metal. This corrosion occurs due to
the existence of separate anodic and cathodic parts, between which current flows through the conducting solution.
At anodic area, oxidation reaction occurs there by destroying the anodic metal either by dissolution or formation of
compounds. Hence corrosion always occurs at anodic parts.
Mechanism: Electrochemical corrosion involves flow of electrons between anode and cathode. The anodic
reaction involves dissolution of metal liberating free electrons.

M→ Mn+ +ne-
The cathodic reaction consumes electrons with either evolution of hydrogen or absorption of oxygen which
depends on the nature of corrosive environment.
Evolution of hydrogen: This type of corrosion occurs in acidic medium.
E.g. Considering the metal Fe, anodic reaction is dissolution of iron as ferrous ions with Liberation of
electrons.
Hydrogen evolution
Anode: Fe → Fe2+ + 2e-(Oxidation)
The electrons released flow through the metal from anode to cathode, whereas H+ ions of acidic solution are
eliminated as hydrogen gas.
Cathode: 2H+→+2e → H2 (Reduction)

The overall reaction is: Fe + 2H+ → Fe2+ + H2
This type of corrosion causes displacement of hydrogen ions from the solution by metal ions. All metals above
hydrogen in electrochemical series have a tendency to get dissolved in acidic solution with simultaneous evolution
of H2 gas. The anodes are large areas, whereas cathodes are small areas.
Absorption of oxygen: For example, rusting of iron in neutral aqueous solution of electrolytes in presence of
atmospheric oxygen. Usually the surface of iron is coated with a thin film of iron oxide. If the film develops
cracks, anodic areas are created on the surface. While the metal parts act as cathodes. It shows that anodes are
small areas, while the rest metallic part forms large Cathodes. The released electrons flow from anode to cathode
through iron metal.
At anode: Fe → Fe 2+ + 2e
-
At cathode: ½ O2 + H2O + 2e →2OH (Reduction)
Overall reaction: Fe2+ + 2OH → Fe (OH)2
If oxygen is in excess, ferrous hydroxide is easily oxidized to ferric hydroxide.
4Fe (OH) 2 + O2 + 2H2O → 4Fe (OH) 3
The product called yellow rust corresponds to Fe2O3.3H2O.
Fig.1.8.2.2 Oxygen absorption corrosion

Corrosion control methods:
Cathodic protection
The method of protecting the base metal by making it to behave like a cathode is called as cathodic
protection.
There are two types of cathodic protection
(a) Sacrificial anode method

(b) Impressed current method.
Sacrificial anode method:
In this protection method, the metallic structure to be protected (base metal) is connected by a wire to a more
anodic metal so that all the corrosion is concentrated at this more anodic metal.
The more anodic metal itself gets corroded slowly, while the parent structure (cathodic) is protected. The more
active metal so employed is called sacrificial anode. The corroded sacrificial anode is replaced by a fresh one,
when consumed completely.
Metals commonly employed as sacrificial anode are Mg, Zn, Al and their alloys which possess low reduction
potential and occupies higher end in electrochemical series.
Eg. A ship-hull which is made up of steel is connected to sacrificial anode (Zn-blocks) which undergoes corrosion
leaving the base metal protected.
Eg. The underground water pipelines and water tanks are also protected by sacrificial anode method. By referring
to the electrochemical series, the metal with low reduction potential is connected to the base metal which acts as
anode.
Sacrificial anode method: ship hull and underground water pipeline
Impressed current method:
In this method, an impressed current is applied in opposite direction to nullify the corrosion current, and convert
the corroding metal from anode to cathode.
The impressed current is slightly higher than the corrosion current. Thus the anodic corroding metal becomes
cathodic and protected from corrosion.
The impressed current is taken from a battery or rectified on A.C. line. The impressed current protection method is
used for water tanks, water & oil pipe lines, transmission line towers etc.
Impressed current method
Metallic coatings
The surface of the base metal is coated with another metal (coating metal). Metallic coatings are broadly
classified into anodic and cathodic coatings.
Anodic coating: the metal used for the surface coating is more anodic than the base metal which is to be
protected.
For example, coating of Al, Cd and Zn on steel surface are anodic because their electrode potentials are lower
than that of the base metal iron. Therefore, anodic coatings protect the underlying base metal sacrificially.
The formation of pores and cracks over the metallic coating exposes the base metal and a galvanic cell is formed
between the base metal and coating metal. The coating metal dissolves anodically and the base metal is protected.
Cathodic coating:
 Cathodic coatings are obtained by coating a more noble metal (i.e. metals having higher
electrode potential like Sn, Au, Ag, Pt etc.) than the base metal. They protect the base metal as
they have higher corrosion resistance than the base metal due to cathodic nature.
 Cathodic coating protects the base metal only when the coating is uniform and free from pores.
 The formation of pores over the cathodic coating exposes the base metal (anode) to
environment and a galvanic cell is set up. This causes more damage to the base metal.
Methods of application of metallic coatings:
Hot dipping
Hot dipping process is applicable to the metals having higher melting point than the coating metal. It is
carried out by immersing a well cleaned base metal in a bath containing molten coating metal and a flux
layer.
The flux cleans the surface of the base metal and prevents the oxidation of the molten coating metal.
Eg. Coating of Zn, Pb, Al on iron and steel surfaces.
The most widely used hot dipping processes are galvanizing and tinning.
Galvanizing:
Galvanizing is a process in which the iron article is protected from corrosion by coating it with a thin layer of zinc.
It is the anodic protection offered by the zinc. In this process, at first iron or steel is cleaned by pickling with
dilute sulphuric acid solution at a temperature range of60-90oC for 15 to 20 minutes. Therefore, it removes scale,
rust and other impurities present and then washed well in a water bath and dried.
Then after dipped in the bath containing molten zinc which is at 425-450oC. To prevent it from oxide formation,
the surface of bath is covered with a ammonium chloride flux. When the iron sheet is taken out it is coated with a
thin layer of zinc.
To remove excess zinc, it is passed through a pair of hot rollers and then it is annealed at a temperature of 450oC
followed by cooling.
Galvanizing is widely used for protecting iron exposed to the atmosphere (roofs, wire fences, pipes etc.)
Galvanized metallic sheets are not used for keeping eatables because of the solubility of zinc.
Tinning:
The process of coating tin over the iron or steel articles to protect them from undergoing corrosion is known as
tinning.
Tin is a noble metal and therefore it possess more resistance to chemical attack. It is the cathodic protection
offered by the tin. In this process, iron sheet is treated in dilute sulphuric acid (pickling) to remove any oxide
film, if present.
A cleaned iron sheet is passed through a bath ZnCl2 molten flux followed by molten tin and finally through a
suitable vegetable oil. The ZnCl2 flux helps the molten metal to adhere to the base metallic surface.
Palm oil protects the tin coated surface against oxidation. Tinning of mild steel plates is done mostly for the
requirements of the food stuff industry.
Tinning
Electroplating:
Electroplating is the process of coating metals and protects them from corrosion, wear and chemical attack.
Electroplating is the method of electro-deposition of metal by means electrolysis over surface of metals and
alloys.
The base metal is first subjected to acid pickling to remove any scales, oxides etc. The base metal is made as
cathode of the electrolytic cell and the coating metal is made as anode.
The two electrolytes are dipped in the electrolyte solution which contains the metal ions to be deposited on the
base metal.When a direct current is passed from an external source, the coating metal ions migrate towards
cathode and get deposited over the surface of base metal in the form of a thin layer.Low temperature, medium
current density, low metal ion concentration conditions are maintained for better electro-plating.
MODULE - II
WATER TECHNOLOGY
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module II :

CO Course Outcomes Blooms
taxonomy
CO 5 Describe the hardness of water for finding the hardness causing salts Understand
in water.
CO 6 Utilize the main desalination processes for producing potable Apply
water from saline or brackish sources.
Program Outcomes And Program Specific Outcomes Mapped To Module II:
Program Outcomes
PO 1 Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science,
engineering fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of
complex engineering problems.
PO 2 Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences
Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s), PSO(s) For Module II:

Course Program Specific
Program Outcomes (POs)
Outcomes Outcomes (PSOs)
(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 5 √ √
CO 6 √
Introduction:
The pure water is composed of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume and dissolves
many substances. These dissolved salts are the impurities in water. Water is a very good solvent. So it is
called as universal solvent.
Disadvantages of hard water in domestic and industrially
In Domestic use:
(a) Washing
Hard water, when used for washing purposes, does not producing lather freely with soap. As a
result cleaning quality of soap is decreased and a lot of it is wasted.
(b) Hard water reacts with soap it produces sticky precipitates of calcium & Mg soaps. These are insoluble
formations.
(c) Bathing
Hard water does not produce lather freely with soap solution, but produces sticky scum on the bath-tub
and body. Thus, the cleaning quality of soap is depressed and a lot of it is wasted.
(d) Cooking
The boiling point of water is increased because of presence of salts. Hence more fuel and time are
required for cooking.
(e) Drinking
Hard water causes bad effects on our digestive system. Moreover, the possibility of forming calcium
oxalate crystals in urinary tracks is increased.
Industrial use:
(a) Textile industry: Hard water causes wastage of soap. Precipitates of calcium and magnesium soaps
adhere to the fabrics and cause problem.
(b) Sugar Industry: Water containing sulphates, nitrates, alkali carbonates etc. if used in sugar refining,
causes difficulties in the crystallization of sugar. Moreover, the sugar so produced may be de-liquiscent.
(c) Dyeing industry: The dissolved salts in hard water may reacts with costly dyes forming precipitates.
(d) Paper Industry: Calcium, magnesium, iron salts in water may affect the quality of paper.
(e) Pharmaceutical Industry:Hard water may cause some undesirable products while preparation of
pharmaceutical products.
(f) Concrete making: Water containing chlorides and sulphates, if used for concrete making, affects the
hydration of cement and the final strength of the hardened concrete.
(g) Laundry:-Hard water, if used in laundry, causes much of the soap used in washing to go as waste iron
salts may even causes coloration of the cloths.
Hardness of water:
The water which does not give lather with soap is called Hard water. The Hard water contains dissolved
calcium & magnesium salts.
Soft water: - The water which can give lather with soap easily is called as softwater.
Na-stearate + H2O → NaOH + stearic acid
Soap (softwater)
Stearic acid + Na-stearate formation of lather
2 Na –stearate + ca2+ ca-stearate + 2Na+
(Soluble salt)
Hard water
Types of Hardness:
Hardness in water is of two types.
i. Temporary hardness and

ii. permanent hardness
Temporary hardness:- The hardness that can be removed simply by boiling is called the temporary hardness. It is
due to the presence of boiling. On boiling Ca(Hco3)2, Mg(Hco3)2 are precipitated as insoluble salts. Which can
remove through filtration?
Ca(HCO3)2 ∆ CaCO3 +H2O+ CO2

Mg(HCO3)2 ∆ Mg(OH)2 + 2CO2
Permanent Hardness:- Permanent hardness cannot be removed by boiling . It is due to CaCl2, CaSO4, MgCl2,
MgSO4 and nitrates in H2O. These salts cannot remove this hardness. Fe3+, Al3+& Mn2+ also cause hardness in
water.
Units of Hardness:
i. Parts per million (ppm):- It is the number of parts of equivalents of CaCO3 hardness causing salt present in one
million parts (106 parts ) of water.
ii.Miligram per litre (mg/l):-It is the number of milligrams of equivalent of CaCO3 per litre of hard water.
E.g.:- 1mg/li means 1 mg of equivalent caco3 present in litre of hard water.
iii.Degree Clarke (o cl):-It is the number of grains of equivalent CaCO3 equivalents of hardness causing salt in
70,000 parts of water.
iv. Degree French (o Fr):- It is a French unit. The number of parts of caco3 equivalent hardness causing substance
in 105 parts of water.
Inter conversion: - 1ppm=1mg/l == 0.07 o cl = 0.10Fr
1ocl=1.43oFr = 14.3 ppm=14.3 mg/l
Determination of Hardness of Water
EDTA method:-In EDTA methods, the known water sample is titrated against standard EDTA solution using
EBT as indicator in the presence of basic buffer solution(PH=10). At the end point the wine red color changes to
blue.
Principle:- The ca2+&Mg2+ ions present in water are responsible for hardness. These icons form selectable
complexes with the indicator (EBT) and these metal icons forms stable complexes with EDTA. This fact is used to
estimate the hardness of water sample.
The metal ions ca2+& Mg2+ react with the EBT indicator and forms a stable complex at PH-10.
PH 9-10
M2+ + EBT M2+ EBT (or) M- In
Ca2+ orMg2+ Indicator less stable wine red color

Whenever we are adding EDTA solution to the wine- red color (M-In) solution, the metal ions form more stable
complex with EDTA. When all the metal ions in the sample complexed with EDTA, further addition of EDTA
liberates the free indicator solution at PH-10 which in blue color indicates the end point of the titration
Metal ion-EDTA complex
Experimental procedure:
A known volume of Hardware sample is titrated with about 3 ml of buffer solution and 4- 5 drops of EBT
indicator. This solution is treated against a standard EDTA solution. The end point is the color change from wine –
red to blue.
Let the titer value = v1 ml (End point) 1ml of EDTA
(0.01m) = 1 mg of CaCO3 V1ml of EDTA(0.01m) =
v1mgofCaCO3
So v1 mg of equivalent CaCO3 hardness is presented in v ml of hard water
The total hardness of sample = ------ppm
A known volume of water sample is taken in a beaker and boiled for half an hour, after cooling it is filtered and the
filtrate titrated against EDTA by adding EBT indicator & PH-10 buffer solution. Here the volume of EDTA
consumed v2ml gives us the permanent hardness of water.
Permanent hardness of water = --------ppm
The total hardness of water = (Temporary hardness + permanent hardness) Temporary
hardness = (Total hardness-permanent hardness)

Effects of hardness:
1. Hard water is harmful for drinking due to the presence of excess of Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions
2. Hard water used in boilers forms scales & sludge and results in corrosion, priming caustic
embrittlement of the boilers.
3. Hard water used does not give lather with soap, so it sticks to clothes and body.
(4)Hardness in water causes blockage in holes.
4. Hard water is not suitable for laboratory analysis, because hardness producing icons interfere in
various reactions.
Treatment of boiler feed water (Softening of water):
Treatment of Boiler feed water is of two types.
External treatment Internal treatment
Lime-soda Ion-exchange
1. Process process
zeolite Process
Na2Ze + Ca2+ CaZe + 2Na+
Naturally occurring Zeolite is Natrolite –Na2 O.Al2 O3.SiO2.2H2O.The Synthetic Zeolites are also
prepared with the help of feldspar &China clay on heating.
Ion exchange process (or) deionization or demineralization:

Ion exchanges are of two types. Anionic & Cationic. These are co-polymers of styrene & di vinyl benzene.i.e. Long chain
organic polymers with a micro porous structure.
cation exchange resins
The resins containing acidic functional groups such as -COOH,-SO3H etc. are capable of exchanging their H+ ions
with other cations are cation exchange resins represented as RH+
Anion exchange resins:
The resins containing amino or quaternary ammonium or quaternary phosphonium(or) Tertiary sulphonium
groups, treated with “NaoH solution becomes capable of exchanging their oH- ions with other anions. These are
called as Anion exchanging resins represented as R OH-
Cation exchange resin Anion exchange resin
Process: The hard water is passed first through cation exchange column. It removes all the cation (ca2+& Mg2+)
and equivalent amount of H+ icons are released from this column.
2RH+ + Ca2+(or)Mg2+ R2 Ca2++2H+
(Or)
R2Mg2+
After this the hard water is passed through anion exchange column, which removes all the anions like SO 2-,Cl-,CO
2-
etc and release equal
4
amount3
of OH- from this column.
R1OH+Cl- R1Cl +OH-
2R1OH+SO2- 4 R12SO 4 +2OH-
The output water is also called as de -ionised water after this the ion exchanges get exhausted. The cation
exchanges are activated by mineral acid (HCl) and anion exchanges are activated by dil NaOH solution.
R2Ca +2H+ 2RH +Ca+
R 2 1 SO+2OH
4
-
2R1O H + SO2-4
Ion exchanger
Advantages:
i.The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline waste.
ii.It produces water of very low hardness. So it is very good for treating for use in high pressure boilers.
Disadvantages:
i.The equipment is costly and common expensive chemicals required.
ii.It water contains turbidity, and then output of this process is reduced.
iii.The turbidity must be below 10 ppm
Disinfection: The process of destroying/killing the disease producing bacteria, microorganisms, etc, from the
water and making it safe are, is called Disinfection.
Disinfectants: The chemicals or substances which are added to eater for killing the bacteria. The disinfection of water can
be carried out by following methods.
(a) Boiling:-Water for 10 -15 min. boiled, all the disease producing bacteria are killed and water become safe
for use.
(b) Bleaching powder:
It is used to purity the drinking water from micro organisms. The purification process is achieved by
dissolving 1 kg of bleaching powder in 1000 kilo litres of water. This dissolved water solution is left
undisturbed for many hours when bleaching powder is mixed with water, the result of chemical reaction
produces a powerful Germicide called Hypochlorous acid. The presence of chlorine in the bleaching
powder produces disinfection action, kills germs and purifies the drinking water effectively.
CaOCl2+H2O → Ca(OH)2+Cl2
H2O+Cl2→HCl+HOCl
HOCl+ germs → germs are killed → water purified.
(c) Chlorination:
Chlorination is the process of purifying the drinking water by producing a powerful Germicide
like hypochlorous acid. When this chlorine is mixed with water it produces Hypochlorous acid which kills
the Germs present in water.
H2O+Cl2→ HOCl+HCl
Chlorine is basic (means PH value is more than 7) disinfectant and is much effective over the
germs. Hence chlorine is widely used all over the world as a powerful disinfectant. Chlorinator is an
apparatus, which is used to purity the water by chlorination process.
(d) Ozonisation:
Ozone is powerful disinfectant and is readily dissolved in water. Ozone being unstable
decomposes by giving nascent oxygen which is capable of destroying the Bacteria.This nascent oxygen
removes the colour and taste of water and oxidizes the organic matter present in water.
O3 → O2+ [O]
Break- Point Chlorination:
Break Point Chlorination is a controlled process. In this process suitable amount of chlorine is added to
water. In order to kill all the bacteria present in water, to oxidize the entire organic matter and to react
with free ammonia the chlorine required should be appropriate.
Break point determines whether chlorine is further added or not. By chlorination, organic matter and
disease producing bacteria are completely eliminated which are responsible for bad taste and bad odour in
water. When certain amount of chlorine is added to the water, it leads to the formation of chloro-organic
compounds and chloramines.
The point at which free residual chlorine begins to appear is terms as “Break-Point”.
Desalination:
The removal of dissolve solids (NaCl) from water is known as desalination process. It can be carried out by
Reverse osmosis process:
The membrane process used in the water purification system has been of much use now a days. Electro dialysis
and reverse osmosis are part of the membrane process.
In osmosis, if a semi-permeable membrane separates two solutions, solvent from the lower concentration passes to
the higher concentration to equalize the concentration of both. But in the reverse osmosis, pressure higher than
osmotic pressure is applied from the higher concentration side so that the path of the solvent is reversed, i.e. from
higher concentration to lower concentration.
Reverse Osmosis
This method is applicable mainly for the desalination of sea water. Sea water and pure water are separated by a
semi-permeable membrane made up of cellulose acetate fitted on both sides of a perforated tube. Inventions are in
progress to search for better membrane. Polymethylmethacrylate and polyamides have been proved to be better
membranes.
The process is very easy. It is used to make pure water. It removes the ionic and non ionic substances in the water.
It also can remove suspended colloidal particles. The life of a membrane is nearly 2 years and it should be replaced
after this period. By this process, sea water is made to fit for drinking water obtained after being treated by this
process is used in boilers.
38
MODULE - IV
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
39
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module III :

taxonomy
CO 7 Describe different types of polymerization reactions for synthesizing Understand
polymers from monomers.
CO 8 Classify different types of lubricants and their mechanism for Understand
understanding to reduce friction between two moving surfaces.
Program Outcomes And Program Specific Outcomes Mapped To Module III :
Program Outcomes
Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s), PSO(s) For Module III:

(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 5 √
CO 6 √
40
Polymers
Introduction:
Polymers form very important components in our daily life. The polymers are highly useful in domestic industrial &
medical fields. The following are the reasons for the extensive use of polymers.
1) Most of the polymers are non-toxic & safe to use

2) They have low densities (light in weight) so transportation polymers will be easy.
3) They posses good mechanical strength.
4) These are resistant to corrosion and will not absorb moisture when exposed to the atmosphere.
5) These can function as good thermal & electrical insulators.
6) These can be moulded and fabricate easily.
7) They posses esthetic colors
It is also interesting to note that many carbohydrates, Proteins & enzymes, DNA & RNA are natural polymers. Polymers
can be defined as the large molecules (macro molecular) formed by the linkage of small molecules called monomers. (In
Greek language poly means many & mer means units)
E.g.:- poly ethylene
nCH2 = CH2 polymerization (CH2 - CH2 )n
Thus the repeated unit of polymer is called monomer. The number of repeating units in a polymer chain is called degree of
polymerization. For e.g.:- if 100 molecules of ethylene polymerize to give the polymer chain, the degree of polymerization
is 100.
Homopolymer:
Polymer made up of only one type of monomer. e.g.:- polyethylene
(-M-M-M-M-) n
Copolymer:
Polymer formed by the reaction between different monomers
eg: buna-s (M1- M2 – M1 - M2 )n
Types of Polymerisation:
There are two types of polymerization. They are
(1) Condensation polymerization:- Condensation polymers are those in which two like or unlike monomers join
each other by the elimination of small molecules such as H2O, HCl, etc.
When the same kind of monomers joins, the polymer is called homopolymer. E.g.:- Nylon -6
41
It is prepared by the self condensation of w-amino caproic acid which is produced from caprolactum.
4 5 H O
3 NH H2N – (CH2)5 – COOH polymerization ( N – (CH2)5 – C )n
2 CO -H2O
Caprolactum ω -amino caproic acid Nylon-6
Two or more different monomers join to form copolymer
Eg: - (1) Polyamide (Nylon 6,6)
n H2N – (CH2)6 – NH2 + n HOOC – (CH2)4 – COOH
Hexa methylene di amine Adipic acid
[NH-(CH₂)6- NH – CO – (CH2)4 - CO] n + ZnH2O
Nylon 6, 6
Mechanism:
A general mechanism for condensation polymerization involves a simultaneous combination of any two monomers
to give dimers. Which in turn combine to give tetramers and soon and finally grow into a polymer in a step wise manner.
H H O O
H – N – (CH2)6 – N – H + HO – C – (CH2)4 – C – OH
Hexamethylene diamine Adipic acid
H H O O
42
H – N – (CH2)6 – N – C – (CH2)6 – C – OH
Amide bond
H H O O H H O
…. N – (CH2)6 – N – C – (CH2)4 – C – N – (CH2)6 – N – C - ….. etc
Amide Bond Amide bond Amide Bond
Poly (hexa methylene adipamide) or Nylon – 6, 6.
(2) Chain Polymerization: (Addition Polymerization)

Addition polymers are formed by adding monomer units without any loss of atoms or groups.
E.g.:- (1) n CH2 = CH2 [CH2 – CH2] n
Ethene polythene
(2) n CH2 = CH – Cl [ CH2 – CH ]n
Cl
Vinyl Chloride Polyvinyl chloride
Difference between condensation of additional polymerisation:-
Condensation polymerization Additional polymerisation
(1) It is also known as step growth (1) It is also known as chain growth
polymerization polymerization
(2) It takes place in monomers having (2) It takes place only in monomers having
reactive functional groups multiple bonds.
(3) It takes place with elimination of simple (3) It takes place without elimination of
molecule like H2O,NH3,HCl etc., simple molecule.
(4) Repeat units of monomers are different (4) Repeat units & monomers are same.
(5) The polymer is formed in gradual steps (5) Reaction is fast and polymer is formed at
43
once.
(6) The molecular mass of polymer increases (6) There is very little change in the
throughout the reaction molecular mass throughout the reaction
(7) Product obtained may be (7) Product obtained are thermoplastic

thermosetting/thermoplastic
(8) E.g.:- Bakelite, polyester ,polyamides etc., (8) E.g:-Polyethylene, PVC, poly styrene.
Plastics: Plastic is a substance that can be easily formed or moulded into a desired shape.
Plastic can be formed in a desired shape by the effect of mechanical force & heat.
In the manufacture of plastic raw materials like coal, petroleum, cellulose, salt, sulphur, limestone, air, water etc are
used.
Plastics as engineering materials:-
Advantages of plastics over other engineering materials.
(1) Low fabrication cost, low thermal & electrical conductivities, high resistance to corrosion & solvents.
(2) The stress – strain relationship of plastics is similar to that of the metals.
(3) Plastics reduce noise & vibration in machines
(4) Plastics are bad conductors of heat are useful for making handles used for hot objects, most plastics are inflammable.
(5) Plastics are electrical insulators & find large scale use in the electrical industry.
(6) Plastics are resistance to chemicals.
(7) Plastics are clear & transparent so they can be given beautiful colours.
Types of Plastic: - (1) Thermoplastics
(2)Thermosetting plastics.
Difference between thermoplastic & thermosetting resins:-
44
Thermoplastic resins (or) Polymers Thermosetting resins
(1) These are produced by additional (1) These are produced by condensation
polymerization polymerization.
(2) The resins are made of long chains (2) The resins have three dimensional
attached by weak Vander Waal‟s force of network structure connected bonds.
attraction
(3) On heating they soften and on cooling (3) On heating they become stiff & hard. No
become stiff chemical nature won‟t change on cooling. Chemical nature
change changes.
(4) They can be remoulded (4) They cannot be remoulded because once
set means they are permanently set
(5) Scrap (waste product) can be used (5) Scrap cannot be used
(6) The resins are soft, weak and less brittle (6) The resins are usually hard, strong tough
& more brittle
(7) These are easily soluble in some organic (7) Resins are not soluble in organic solvents
substances
E.g.:- Nylon, Bakelite etc.,
E.g.:- PVC, polyethylene etc.,
(8) Contain long chain polymer with no cross (8) They have 3D network structure.
linkage.
Compounding of plastics:
Compounding of plastics:- Compounding of plastics may be defined as the mixing of different materials like
plasticizers, fillers of extenders, lubricants, pigments to the thermoplastic & thermosetting resins to increase their useful
properties like strength, toughness, etc.
Resins have plasticity or binding property, but need other ingredients to be mixed with them for fabrication into
useful shapes.
Ingredients used in compounding o plastics are
(1)Resins (2) Plasticizers (3) fillers (4) pigments (5) Stabilizers.
45
(1) Resins: The product of polymerization is called resins and this forms the major portion of the body of plastics. It is
the binder, which holds the different constituents together. Thermosetting resins are usually, supplied as linear –
polymers of comparatively low molecular weight, because at this stage they are fusible and hence, mouldable. The
conversion of this fusible form into cross-linked infusible form takes place, during moulding itself, in presence of
catalysts etc.
(2) Plasticizers: Plasticizers are substances added to enhance the plasticity of the material and to reduce the cracking on
the surface.
Plasticizers are added to the plastics to increase the flexibility & toughness. Plasticizers also increase the flow
property of the plastics.
e.g.:- Tricresyl phosphate, Dibutyle oxalate, castor oil
(3) Fillers (or) extenders: Fillers are generally added to thermosetting plastics to increase elasticity and crack resistance.
Fillers improve thermal stability, strength, non combustibility, water resistance, electrical insulation properties &
external appearance.
E.g.:- Mica, cotton, carbon black, graphite, BaSO4 etc.
(4) Dyes and pigments: These are added to impart the desired colour to the plastics and give decorative effect.
e.g.:- Lead chromate (yellow), ferro cyanide (blue)
(5) Stabilizers: Stabilizers are used to improve the thermal stability of plastics, e.g.:- PVC. At moulding temperature,
PVC undergoes decomposition & decolourisation. So during their moulding, stabilizers are used. E.g.:- white lead,
head chromate.
Chemistry of some important thermoplastic & thermoset Resins:-
(1) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC): The monomer used for the manufacture of PVC is vinyl chloride.Vinyl chloride is
prepared by treating acetylene with HCl at 60-800c and in presence of a metal oxide catalyst
Metal oxide
CH CH + HCl CH2 = CHCl
Acetylene 60 – 800c Vinyl chloride
Poly vinyl chloride is produced by heating vinyl chloride in presence of benzyl peroxide or H2O2.
Benzoyl peroxide
n CH2 = CH ( CH2 – CH )n
46
Cl Polymerisation Cl
vinylchloride at 30 – 800c PVC
There are two kinds of PVC plastics
(a) Rigid PVC: (Unplasticized PVC):- It is chemically inert & non-inflammable powder having a high softening
point of 1480c.
This PVC is used for making safety helmets, refrigerator components, tyres, cycle & motor cycle mud guards.
(b) Plasticizers PVC: It is produced by mixing plasticizers like disbutyl phthalate with PVC resin uniformly. It is
used for making rain coats, table-cloths, handbags curtains & electrical insulators, radio, T.V components. All
PVC – shoes for beach wear.
(2) Teflon (poly tetra fluoro ethylene): Teflon is obtained by polymerization of water-emulsion tetrafluoroethylene
under pressure in presence of benzoyl peroxide as catalyst
Polymerisation
n F2C = CF2 ( F2c– CF2 )n
benzoyl peroxide / H2O Teflon
Properties:
Teflon is also known as Fluon. Due to the presence of highly electronegative fluorine atoms. There are strong attractive
force is responsible for high toughness & high chemical resistance towards all chemicals except hot alkali metal & hot
fluorine.
Uses:-It is used in making seals & gaskets, which have to withstand high temperature. It is also used for insulation of
electrical items and for making non-sticky surface coating, particularly for cooking utensils. Teflon used as insulating
material for motors, transformers, cables, wires, fitting etc.
Some examples for Thermosetting Resins:
Bakelite (or) phenol formaldehyde Resin:
47
Preparation of Bakelite:
Bakelite is the commercial name for the polymer obtained by the polymerization of phenol and formaldehyde.
When novalac resin is further heated in presence of HCHO producer i.e. hexamethelenediamine (curing agent) a cross
linked polymer Bakelite can be obtained.
Properties of bakelite:
1) It can be quickly molde.
2) Very smooth molding can be obtained from this polymer.
3) Bakelite moldings are heat-resistant and scratch-resistant.
4) They are also resistant to several destructive solvents.
5) Owing to its low electrical conductivity, bakelite is resistant to electric current.
48
Applications:
1) It is used for making electric insulator parts like switches, plugs, switch boards etc.
2) For making moulded articles like telephone parts cabinet of radio and television
3) As an anion exchanger in water purification by ion exchange method in boilers
4) As an adhesive (binder) for grinding wheels etc.,
5) In paints and varnishes
6) For making bearings used in propeller shafts, paper industry and rolling mills
Nylon (Poly amide resin):
Nylon is a polyamide resin containing recurring amide groups (-NH CO-) in its structure produced by
copolymerization of diamine with acid. Depending on the number of C atoms in diamine & dioxide there are different
types of nylons like nylon 6, 6, nylon 6, 10 etc., where the first number indicates number of carbon atoms in diamine & the
second number indicates the number of „c‟ atoms in diacid.
Nylon 6, 6: It is prepared by condensation polymerization of adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine in the absence of air.
nHOOC−(CH2)4−COOH+nH2N−(CH2)6−NH2→[−OC−(CH2)4−CO−NH−(CH2)6−NH−]n+(2n−1)H2O
Properties:
The structures of nylons are linear that permits side by side alignment. Moreover, the molecular chains are held together by
hydrogen bonds. Thus, nylons have high crystalline which imparts high strength, high melting point, elasticity, toughness,
abrasion resistance and retention of good mechanical properties up to 1250C. They are polar polymers, they have good
hydrocarbon resistance.
Applications:
(1) The major application is in textile industry.
(2) Because of its high thermal & abrasion resistance nylons are used in mechanical engineering applications like gears,
bearings, machine parts where greater friction is there.
(3) Flexible tubing‟s for conveying petrol etc are made from nylons
(4) Nylons are used as electrical insulators.
(5) Nylon 6 is used for making tire cords.
(6) Nylons are used in automobile industry and telecommunication industry for making radiator parts and coil formers
respectively.
49
Biodegradable polymers:
Biodegradability is defined as the ability of being chemical transformation by enzymatic action of bacteria which are
capable of further degradation.
polymers are popular materials as they are not attacked by environmental conditions including biological attack.To some
extent polymers are degraded slowly by oxidation,u.v. radiation etc.,but not by bacteria .this property creates difficulty in
disposing the polymer wastes. Biodegradation of polymers not only aimed at eliminating landfills but also compostable
bags for collection of leaf and yard waste. Those polymers which degrade by enzymatic action of naturally occuring micro
organisms and bacteria are called biodegradable polymers.
Biodegradable polymers were used in the times of Romans where they used catgut for sutures which slowly degrades as
the wound heals
The basic requirement of biodegradable polymers should be
(a) production of non toxic products
(b) capable of maintaining good mechanical integrity until degradation and
(c) controlled rates of degradation
The Biodegradation polymers are classified as naturally occuring and synthe sised polymers.
(a) Naturally ocurring Biodegradable polymers
There is a belief that anything that comes from nature goes back to nature .Hence it is assumed that these natural
polymers are beautiful for environmental degradation .The rate of dergradation and the formation of metabolites depend
very much on the structural complexity of material and the environmental conditions selected for degradation .
There are four groups of naturally occurring biodegradable polymers.
1.Polysaccharides -Eg:starch and cellulose
2.Proteins-Eg:Gelatin,casein ,silk,wool
3.polyesters -Eg:Polyhydroxy alkanoates
4.others-Eg:Lignin ,shellac ,natural rubber etc.
(a) Synthetic biodegradable polymers
These polymers are produced from chemicals or biological sources that are biodegradable.
The following are some types of Synthetic biodegradable polymers.
1)Polylactic acid / polyactide(PLA):This is a biodegradable thermoplastic polyester belonging to the class of poly
hydroxy alkanoates ,derived from renewable sources such as starch topioca or sugar cane possess the following structure.
50
Polylactic acid / polyactide(PLA)
Properties of PLA:
i. The glass transition temperature of PLA is 60-65 oC

ii. PLA posses melting point is 173-178 oC
iii. PLA is a chiral compound existing as poly l -lactic acid (PLLA)
Applications of PLA:
1.PLA is widely used for making medical implants like anchors,screws,pins ,mesh etc.
2.For making compostable packing material,disposable garments,food packing etc.
2)Polyvinylacetate(PVA): Polyvinyl acetate is a water soluble and biodegradable polymer;possessing excellent

mechanical properties and compatibility with starch.
The structure of PVA is
Polyvinylacetate(PVA)
PVA is another class of innovative biodegradable polymer produced from starch which is totally biodegradable in a wide
variety of environment as it can be hydrolysed to glucose by microorganisms or enzymes and then metabolised to CO2 and
H2O. Biodegradable PVA is produced from acetic acid and acetaldehyde produced from molasses by fermentation.
Properties of PVA:
1.It belongs to the class of vinyl polymers
2.It is water souble
3.Posses excellent mechanical properties.
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4.It is compatible with starch i.e starch mole can be introduced into the backbone for quick biodegradability.
Application :
1.Polyvinyl acetate is used in food industry as a packing material, food storage and catering ,mailing,compost bags.
Rubbers
Rubbers also known as elastomers, they are high polymers, which have elastic properties in excess of 300%.
Natural Rubber:
Natural Rubber is a high molecular weight hydrocarbon polymer represented by the formula (C 5H8)x. it is obtained
from a milk emulsion called latex by tapping the bark of the tree. “Hevea brasiliensis”. It is a polymer of isoprene units.
n H2C = C – CH = CH2 Polymerisation ( H2C – C = C – CH2 )n
CH3 CH3
Isoprene Natural Rubber
The polymer chain of natural rubber is made of 2000 to 3000 monomer units.
Processing of Natural Rubber:
By cutting the bark of rubber tree the milky colloidal rubber milk is obtained. The main constituent of rubber latex
is 25-45% of rubber and the remaining are water, protein & resinous materials. The rubber latex is coagulated by using
5% acetic acid and made in to sheets. The rubber sheets are cured under mild heat and then subjected to further
processing.
Crepe rubber:
To the rubber latex a small amount of sodium bisulphate is added to bleach the colour and feed in to roller which
produce 1mm or more thickness sheets which are dried in air at about 40-500C. the dried thin sheet of rubber are known
as “smoked crepe rubber”.
Mastication:
Rubber becomes soft and gummy mass when subjected to severe mechanical agitation. This process is known as
mastication. Mastication followed by the addition of certain chemical (compounding) which is carried out on roll mills or
internal mixers. After mastication is complete, the rubber mix is prepared for vulcanization.
Vulcanization:
Vulcanization process discovered by Charles good year in 1839.It consists of heating the raw rubber at 100-1400C
with sulphur.The combine chemically at the double bonds of different rubber spring and provides cross-linking between
52
the chains. This cross linking during vulcanization brings about a stiffening of the rubber by anchoring and consequently
preventing intermolecular movement of rubber springs.
The amount of sulphur added determines the extent of stiffness of vulcanized rubber.
For eg, ordinary rubber (say for battery case) may certain as much as 30% sulphur.
Vulcanized Rubber
Advantages of vulcanization:-
(i) The tensile strength increase

(ii) Vulcanized rubber has excellent resilience
It has better resistance to moisture, oxidation & abrasion
(iii) It is resistance to organic solvents like CCl4, Benzene petrol etc.

(iv) It has only slight thickness
(v) It has low elasticity
Applications
(i) The major application of natural rubber is in the manufacture of tyres.

(ii) In heavy duty tyres, the major portion of the rubber used is natural rubber.
53
(iii) The tank linings in chemical plants where corrosive chemicals are stored are prepared from rubber.
(iv) To reduce machine vibrations, rubber is used for sandwiching between two metal surfaces.
(v) Foam rubber is used for making cushions‟, matrices, padding etc. toys and sports items are manufactured from
natural rubber.
(vi) Gutta percha is used for making submarine cables, golf ball covers, tissue or adhesive etc.
Synthetic Rubber:
(1) Styrene rubber or Buna-s-Rubber:

It is a copolymer of butadiene (75%) and styrene (24%). In the early days of its synthesis sodium was used as the
catalyst. Hence the name bu (butadiene), na (symbol Nafor sodium) and S (for styrene). It is also called GRS (government
rubber styrene) or SBR (styrene butacliene Rubber). The Buna-S-Rubber is the first synthetic rubber developed during the
second time of world war by US in order to overcome the scarcity of natural rubber. It is prepared by the
copolymerization of butadiene & styrene.
Properties:
(1) It is a strong & tough polymer.

(2) The rubber can be vulcanized similar to natural rubber using either sulphur ot sulphur mono chloride.
(3) It is a good electrical insulator.
(4) It possess excellent abrasion resistance
(5) It is resistance to chemicals but swell in oils and attacked by even traces of ozone present in the atmosphere
(6) It possess high load bearing capacity and resilience
Applications:
(1) Major application of styrene rubber is in manufacture of tyres.

(2) It is used in foot wear industry for making shoe soles and footwear components
(3) It is also used for making wires and cable, insulators.
(4) It is also used for the production of floor files, tank linings in chemical industries.
(1) Thiokol rubber (or) poly sulphide rubber (or) GR-P:
Thiokol is prepared by the condensation polymerization of sodium poly sulphide (Na 2Sx) and ethylene dichloride (Cl
CH2 CH2 Cl).
54
In these elastomers, sulphur forms a part of the polymer chain.
Cl – CH2 – CH2 – Cl + Na – S – S – Na + Cl – CH2 – CH2 – Cl
1, 2 dichloroethane sodium poly sulphide 1,2 dichloro ethane
Polymerization
(CH2 – CH2 – S – S – CH2 – CH2)n + NaCl
Thikol (ethylene poly sulphide polymer) Sodium Chloride
Properties:
(1) These rubbers possess strength and impermeability to gases.

(2) This rubber cannot be vulcanized because its structure is not similar to natural rubber and it cannot form hard rubber.
(3) It possesses extremely good resistance to mineral oils, fuels, oxygen, solvents ozone & sunlight.
Applications:
(1) Fabrics coated with Thiokol are used for barrage balloons
(2) It is mainly used as solid propellant fuel for rocket
(3) It is also used for making gaskets, hoses, cable linings, tank linings etc.
(4) It is also used for printing rolls
(5) Containers for transporting solvents
(6) Diaphragms and seats in contact with solvents.
Lubricants:
A lubricant is a substance, usually organic, introduced to reduce friction between surfaces in mutual contact, which
ultimately reduces the heat generated when the surfaces move. It may also have the function of transmitting forces,
transporting foreign particles, or heating or cooling the surfaces. The property of reducing friction is known as lubricity.
55
A good lubricant generally possesses the following characteristics:
1) A high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide range of temperature)
2) A high viscosity index.
3) Thermal stability.
4) Hydraulic stability.
5) Demulsibility.
6) Corrosion prevention.
7) A high resistance to oxidation.
Mechanisam of Lubrication:
Lubrication film between the two contact surfaces is thick enough and two contact surfaces are separated
completely by viscous oil film. At this time, frictional force of two contact surfaces are determined by viscous resistance
of lubricant and it can be take a very small value (coefficients of friction can be 0.0001).
Thick film:
Thick film or Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs when non-parallel rigid bearing surfaces lubricated by a film-fluid
slide over each other, forming a converging wedge of fluid and forming a lifting pressure.
Thin film:
It is formed where thick film lubrication fails, thin film lubrication is done. Thin film or boundary lubrication is done for
those cases in which the continuous film of lubrication cannot persist and direct metal to metal contact is possible.
56
Extreme pressure lubrication:
The fast moving or sliding metallic surfaces under very high pressure produce a large amount of heat and
temperature becomes very high. At high temperature the ordinary liquid lubricants decompose or even vaporizes at such a
high temperature and fail to stick over the metallic surfaces. To face such conditions Extreme pressure additives are added
to the mineral oil.
Properties of Lubricants:
Cloud and Pour Points:
Cloud Point: The temperature at which the impurities being to separate from the solution and lubricating oil becomes
cloudy or hazy in appearance is called cloud point.
Pour Point: The temperature at which the oil ceases to flow and pour is called pour point.
Apparatus:
57
Determination of Cloud Point:
Bring the sample to a temperature of at least 15 0Cabove the approximate cloud point and pour it into the jar to a
height of 51 to 57 mm and close the jar with the cork so that the thermometer bulb rests on the centre of the bottom of the
jar. Fit the gasket on to the jar 25 mm from the bottom and insert the jar into gasket. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical
position in the bath so that not more than 25 mm projects from the cooling medium. At each thermometer reading of one
degree centigrade, remove the jar from the jacket quickly but without disturbing the oil, inspect the material for cloud, and
replace the jar, this complete operation shall not take more than 3 sec. If the sample does not show a cloud when it has
been cooled 10 0C. Place the jar and jacket in another bath maintained at a temperature of -15 0C to -18 0C. If the sample
does not show a cloud when it has been cooled to -7 0C. Place the jar and jacket in another bath maintained at a
temperature of -32 0C to -35 0C. When an inspection of the sample first reveals a distinct cloudiness or haze at the bottom
of the jar, record the reading of the thermometer as the cloud point after correcting the thermometer errors if necessary.
58
Determination of Pour Point:
The sample has cooled enough to allow the formation of the crystals. Maintain the bath temperature at -1 0Cto 2
0
C. Support the jacket and jar in a vertical position in the bath so that not more than 25 mm projects from the cooling
medium. Beginning at a temperature 12 0C above the expected pour point, at each thermometer reading which is a multiple
of 3 0C, remove the jar from the jacket carefully, and till it just enough to see whether the oil will move and the replace it,
this complete operation shall not take more than 3 sec. As soon as the sample ceases to flow when the jar is tilted, hold the
jar in horizontal position for exactly 5sec. If the sample shows any movement replace the jar in the jacket and cool down
the sample for another 3 0C. If the oil shows no movement during the 5 sec, record the reading of the thermometer. Add 3
0
C to the temperature recorded above and corrected forthermometer errors if necessary, and note down the result as the
pour point.
Flash point: The flash point of a volatile material is the lowest temperature at which vapors of the material will ignite,
given an ignition source.
Fire point: The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to burn for at
least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame.
Apparatus:
Determination of Flash and Fire points:
Description:
The apparatus consists of a brass cup and cover fitted with shutter mechanism without shutter mechanism (open
cup), test flame arrangement, hand stirrer (closed cup), thermometer socket, etc., heated with energy regulator, a
thermometer socket made of copper.
Procedure:
Clean the oil cup thoroughly and fill the oil cup with the sample oil to be tested up to the mark. Insert the
thermometer into the oil cup through a provision, which measures the rise of oil temperature. Using the Energy regulator,
control the power supply given to the heater and rate of heating. The oil is heated slowly when temperature of oil rises, it is
59
checked for the flash point for every one degree rise in temperature. After determining the flash point, the heating shall be
further continued. The temperature at which time of flame application which causes burning for a period at least 5 seconds
shall be recorded as the fire point. Repeat the experiment 2 or 3 times with fresh sample of the same oil. Take the average
value of flash and fire points.
Viscosity:
Viscosity is the property of a fluid that determines its resistance to flow. It is an indicator of flow ability of
lubricating oil. The lower viscosity greater the flow ability. If temperature increases viscosity of the lubricating oil
decreases and pressure increases viscosity of lubricating oil increases.
Oiliness of lubricants:
The term “oiliness” is defined as that property of lubricants by virtue of which one fluid gives lower coefficients of
friction than another fluid of the same viscosity.
It is the property of the lubricant to stick on to the surface under the conditions of high speed and heavy load. It is
an important property in selecting a lubricant for a particular application. Generally under the conditions of high speed and
heavy load, the oil may be squeezed out from the sliding surfaces and the oil film may be reduced in thickness, with the
result, the lubricating action will stop and direct metal to metal contact will take place. A lubricant which does not squeeze
out from the sliding surface under the conditions mentioned above and maintains a continuous film is known as oil having
high degree of oiliness. Normally fatty oils have high degree of oiliness than those of lubricating oils obtained from
petroleum. Further the degree of oiliness of lubricating oils obtained from petroleum can be improved by adding little
quantity of oleic acid, stearic acid etc.
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MODULE - IV
GREEN CHEMISTRY AND FUELS
61
Course Outcomes Mapped To Module IV :

taxonomy
CO 9 Explain the importance of green synthesis for understanding to Understand
minimize the generation of hazardous substances.
CO10 Choose different types of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels in terms of Apply
calorific value for utilizing in industries and automobiles.
Program Outcomes And Program Specific Oucomes Mapped To Module IV :
Program Outcomes
Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s), PSO(s) For Module IV:

(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 9 √
CO 10 √ √
62
Green Chemistry
Introduction:
To meet the demands of modern civilization, variety of chemical products and industries have evolved which lead to
the formation of hazardous substances. In order to prevent or minimize the formation and use of such hazardous
substances, the chemists are required to develop the novel technologies which has inspired the generation of new branch of
chemistry called green chemistry.
Basic idea of green chemistry is a new approach which provides the design of chemical products and process that
minimize the use and formation of hazardous substances so that it is inherently of less risk to human health and the
environment.
Laboratory chemistry plays a key role to develop green chemical methods to prevent the pollution in the environment.
Now, the revolution of green chemistry begins with new challenges for chemists involved with the discovery, manufacture
and use of chemicals.
Definition:
A branch of chemistry which designs the chemical products and processes that minimize the use and formation of
hazardous substances is known as green chemistry.
The Need of Green Chemistry:
The 20th century is very successful and highest scientific development with respect to various benefits to the
mankind, but all this was responsible for a number of environmental problems at the local and global levels.
1. Industrial discharges, pesticides and herbicides fill the skies and seas.
2. Our technological power is increased day by day but the side effects and potential hazardous also increased.
3. Our environment, which is endowed by nature, needs to be protected from ever increasing chemical pollution
associated with contemporary life styles and emerging technologies.
4. Green chemistry concept is to avoid toxic substance, reduce energy requirement, and use renewable materials.
5. Green chemistry includes any chemical process or technology that improves the environment and thus our quality
of life.
6. The rise of human health and environment can be eliminated through fundamental chemical methodologies in
green chemistry.
7. To maintain our current standard of living and improve our quality of life, society has come to depend on the
products of chemical industry.
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The Principles of Green Chemistry:
The green chemistry concept applies innovative scientific solutions to solve environmental issues posed in the
laboratory. Paul T. Anastas, an organic chemist working in the Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxins at the EPA, and
John C. Warner developed the Twelve Principles of Green Chemistry in 1991. These principles can be grouped into
"Reducing Risk" and "Minimizing the Environmental Footprint."
1. Prevention
It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created.
Example: Certain lipid kits for life science research
2. Atom Economy
Synthetic methods should be designed to maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final
product.
3. Less Hazardous Chemical Syntheses
Wherever practicable, synthetic methods should be designed to use and generate substances that possess little or no
toxicity to human health and the environment.
4. Designing Safer Chemicals
Chemical products should be designed to affect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity.
Example: Biorenewable solvent Cyrene
5. Safer Solvents and Auxiliaries
The use of auxiliary substances (e.g., solvents, separation agents, etc.) should be made unnecessary wherever possible and
innocuous when used.
Example: Greener solvents
6. Design for Energy Efficiency
Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and
should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperature and pressure.
Example: Greener antibodies and certain biostabilization agents
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7. Use of Renewable Feedstocks
A raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever technically and economically practicable.
Example: Greener solvents
8. Reduce Derivatives
Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/ deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical
processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate
waste.
9. Catalysis
Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents.
Example: Synthetic reagents, organometallics and building blocks
10. Design for Degradation
Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation
products and do not persist in the environment.
11. Real-time analysis for Pollution Prevention
Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to
the formation of hazardous substances.
12. Inherently Safer Chemistry for Accident Prevention
Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for
chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires.
Methods of Green Synthesis or Green Reactions:
Chemistry plays an important role to develop our quality life and achieving sustainability on earth. All over the
world using advanced knowledge to develop new synthetic conditions like aqueous phase, solvent free, microwave
induced, etc.these are produced pollution free environment.
Following are given some of the methods for greener synthesis:
1. Aqueous Phase Method for Green Synthesis:
Environmental pollution is mainly caused by organic solvents. So now all over the world have been trying to carry
out organic reaction in aqueous phase. The advantages of using water as a solvent is its low cost, non-flammable, devoid of
any carcinogenic effects, high specific heat resistance, unique enthalpic and entropic properties and easily handling.
Example: Knoevenagel reactions:
65
The condensation of carbonyl compounds with active methylene compounds in presence of weak base like
ammonia/amine/pyridine is known as knoevengel reaction.
The knoevenagel reaction has been carried out in water medium between aromatic aldehydes and acetonitrile.
2. Microwave Induced Method for Green Synthesis:
Microwaves have wavelength range from 1 cm to 1 m in the electromagnetic spectrum and are located between the
infrared and radio/radar-frequencies.
 The main purpose of microwaves is used for heating.

 According to Planck‟s law (E=hv), the quanta energy involved can be evaluated to 0.3cal/mole. This
energy is too low to induce a molecule for extraction of any reaction. The main source to exposure ahead
under microwaves is microwave interactions.
 Polar molecules can involve in selective absorption of electromagnetic microwaves but non polar
molecules are being inert to microwaves.
 In the absence of electric field, the dipoles are oriented randomly; in the presence of electric field dipoles
are oriented in same direction.
Advantages:
1. It is a clean, economical, efficient and safe procedure, which can lead to substantial saving in money,
time and products.
2. Better yields are obtained.
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Unlike conventional methods for heating the reaction, it is possible to activate processes by physical
methods such as ultrasonic sounds, pressure or microwaves.
The reactions can be carried out under microwaves method. Whether in solvent medium or non-solvent
medium. Limited reactions in solvent medium, and most of the reactions in solvent free medium.
There are three different types in using microwave reactions.
(i) Microwave solvent-free reactions (solid state reactions): Solvent free technique hold a strategic position as
a solvent is very often toxic, expressive and problematic to use and to remove. It is the main reason for
development of such modern technologies. These approaches can also enable experiments avoiding the use of
strong safety and pollution problems. These acids can be replaced by solid recyclable acids such as clays.
These types of reactions are known as solid state reactions.
(ii) Microwave-assisted reaction in organic solvents: Microwaves have been used for synthesis of chalcones
and related enones in presence of organic solvents.
(iii) Microwave assisted reactions in aqueous phase Hoffman elimination reactions: In normal method
quaternary ammonium salts are heated at high temperature and the yield of the products is low. Use of
microwave irradiation has led to high yielding synthesis of a thermal sensitive Hoffman elimination product in
waer-chloroform system.
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3. Phase transfer catalyst (PTC):
Phase transfer catalyst is heterogeneous catalyst, which is used to solubilise salts which are insoluble in organic
phase solvent. The PTC catalyst can facilitate the migration of the reactants from one phase into another phase where
reaction occurs.
 By using PTC, one can achieve faster reactions obtained higher yield by convection of products, make less by
products to eliminate the need of expensive and dangerous solvents. So, PTC is especially need for green
chemistry.
For example, quaternary ammonium salts like benzyl tri methyl ammonium chloride, phosphonium salts like Hexa
decyl tri butyl phosphonium bromide and crown ethers.
Involvement of PTC in reactions given below,
Example:
Aqueous NaCN solution reaction with 1-bromo octane does not readily occur due to poor solubility of 1-bromo
octane in aqueous phase, but by the addition of small amount of hexadecyl tributyl phosphonium bromide (PTC), a rapid
reaction occurs to give nonyl nitrile.
68
CH3-(CH2)6-CH2-Br + NaCN → CH3-(CH2)6-CH2-CN + NaBr + R4 P Br (PTC)
1-bromo octane Sodium cyanide Nonyl nitrile
4. Ultrasound Assisted Method for Green Synthesis:
Sound waves having high frequencies are known as ultrasound waves. (about 20-100 kHz). The ultrasound is
generated with an instrument having an ultrasonic transducer, a device by which electrical or mechanical energy can be
converted into sound energy.
Commonly used ultrasonic transducer is “quartz” but in modern ultrasonic equipment, ceramic impregnated
barium titanate used as transducer which converts. Over 95% of electrical energy into ultrasound.
These are worked based on the “piezoelectric effect” it is nothing but an equal and reversing charges are applied to
opposite faces of the transducer resulted generation of vibrations by expansion and contraction of transducer which emits
ultrasonic waves.
The term sonochemistry is used to describe the effect of ultrasound waves on chemical reactivity. This depends
upon phenomenon of “sonic cavitations or acoustic cavitations”.
Upon irradiation with high intensity sound or ultrasound waves, which are propagated a series of compressing
refraction cycles; pass through a liquid medium results oscillation of molecules takes place. Under appropriated condition,
the attractive forces of the molecules may be overcome, causing formation of bubbles, growth and collapsed which is due
to great internal forces in the bubbles. Bubble collapse in liquid produces enormous amount of energy from the conversion
of K.E. of the liquid into heating the contents of the bubble. Experimental results have shown that these bubbles have
temperature around 5000K, pressure of roughly 1000 atm and heating, coling rates above 1010 K/s.
69
Advantages:
1. It can enhance chemical reactivity.

2. It can effectively activate the catalyst by excitation of the atomic and molecular modes of the system.
3. It can increase solid surface area of the system through cavitation, it increases the observed rate of reaction.
Example:
(i) Esterification:
This is generally carried out in presence of acid catalyst like H2 SO4, gives low yield and takes longer time. But by
using ultrasound it gives high yiled and takes short time.
Engineering Applications of Green Chemistry:
1. Application of ecofriendly engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and combusting processes to
reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels.
2. Improving industrial processes to eliminate waste and reduce consumption of organic solvents.
3. New methodology has developed by engineers that the conversion of lignin into useful chemicals, antioxidants,
medical compounds.
4. Engineers established chemical production processes, which have led to reduce energy, water consumption,
minimized by products and even noise reduction.
5. The engineers provided chemical processes, which give adverse array of valuable products and materials for health
care.
Fuels:
Introduction:
Fuels are the main energy sources for industry and domestic purposes.
“A fuel is a substance containing carbon as the major substituent which provides energy on combustion
for industry and domestic purposes”.
The combustion is the process of oxidation that provides heat energy. Every combustion is an oxidation
but every oxidation is not combustion.
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Ex: - Combustion of wood, Petrol and kerosene gives heat energy.
Classification of Fuels:
Classification of fuels is based on twofactors.
1. Occurrence (andpreparation)
2. The state ofaggregation
On the basis of occurrence, the fuels are further divided into two types.
A. natural or primary fuels: - These are found in nature such as Wood, peat,coal,
Petroleum, natural gasetc.
B. artificial or secondary fuels: - These are prepared artificially from the primaryfuels.
Ex: - charcoal, coke, kerosene, diesel, petrol, coal gas, oil gas, producer gas, blast Furnace gas
et
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Characteristics of a good fuel:
i. The fuel should be easily available.
ii. It should be dry and should have less moisture content. Dry fuel increases its calorific
value.
iii. It should be cheap, easily transportable and has high calorific value.
iv. It must have moderate ignition temperature and should leave less ash after combustion.
v. The combustion speed of a good fuel should be moderate.
vi. It should not burn spontaneously to avoid fire hazards.
vii. Its handling should be easy and should not give poisonous gases after combustion.
viii. The combustion of a good fuel should not be explosive.
The second classification is based upon their state of aggregation like:
a) Solid fuels;
b) Liquid fuels and
c) Gaseous fuels.
Type of fuel Natural or primary fuel Artificial or secondary fuel
Solid Wood, peat, lignite, dung, Charcoal, coke etc.

bituminous coal and anthracite
coal
Liquid Crude oil Petrol, diesel and various other fractions of petroleum
72
Gaseous Natural gas Coal gas, oil gas, bio gas, water gas etc.
Characteristic properties of solid, liquid and gaseous fuels:
S.NO Characteristic Solid fuels Liquid fuels Gaseous fuels

property of a
fuel
example Coal Crude oil Coal gas

1
2 Cost Cheap Costlier than solid Costly

fuels
3 Storage Easy to store Closed containers should Storage space required is

be used for storing huge and should be
leakproof.
4 Risk towards Less More Very high, since these

firehazards fuels are highly
inflammable
5 Combustion It is a slow Fast process Very rapid and efficient

rate process
6 Combustion Cannot be Cannot be controlled or Controlled by

control controlled stopped when necessary Regulating the supply of
air
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7 Handling cost High since labouris Low, since the fuel can Low, similar to liquid
required intheir be transported fuels, these can be
storage &transport. throughpipes transported through pipes
8 Ash Ash is produced and No problem of ash No problem of ash

its disposal also
possess
problems
9 Smoke Produce smoke Clean, but liquids Smoke is not produced

invariably associated with high
carbon and aromatic
fuels produce smoke
10 Calorific value Least High Highest
11 Heat efficiency Least High Highest efficiency
Solid Fuels:
The main solid fuels are wood, peat, lignite, coal and charcoal.
Coal: Coal is a fossil fuel which occurs in layers in the earths crust. It is formed by the partial decay of
plant materials accumulated millions of years of ago and further altered by action of heat and pressure.
The process of conversion of wood into coal can be represented as
Wood → Peat→ Lignite →Bituminous Coal → Anthracite
1) Peat:- Peat is brown-fibrous jelly like mass.

2) Lignite:- these are soft, brown coloured, lowest rank coals
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3) Bituminous coals:- These are pitch black to dark grey coal
4) Anthracite:- It is a class of highest rank coal
Fuel Percentage of Calorific value Applications

carbon (k.cal/kg)
Wood 50 4000-4500 Domestic fuel

Peat 50-60 4125-5400 Used if deficiency of high rank
coal is prevailing
Lignite 60-70 6500-7100 For steam generation in thermal

power plants
Bituminous 80-90 8000-8500 In making coal gas and

Metallurgical coke
Anthracite 90-98 8650-8700 In households and for steam
raising
Analysis of Coal:
The analysis of coal is helpful in its ranking.
The assessment of the quality of coal is carried out by these two types of analyses.
A) Proximateanalysis
B) Ultimateanalysis
A. Proximate analysis: In this analysis, the percentage of carbon is indirectly determined. It is a

quantitative analysis of the followingparameters.
1. Moisturecontent
2. Volatilematter
3. Ash
4. Fixedcarbon
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1. Moisture Content: About 1 gram of finely powdered air-dried coal sample is weighed in a
crucible. The crucible is placed inside an electric hot air-oven, maintained at 105 to 1100C for
one hour. The crucible is allowed to remain in oven for 1 hour and then taken out, cooled in
desiccators and weighed. Loss in weight is reported as moisture.
Percentage ofMoisture = Lossinweight X 100
Weight of coal taken
2. Volatile Matter: The dried sample taken in a crucible in and then covered with a lid and placed
in an electric furnace or muffle furnace, maintained at 925 + 20C. The crucible is taken out of the
oven after 7 minutes of heating. The crucible is cooled first in air, then inside desiccators and
weighed again. Loss in weight is reported as volatile matter on percentage-basis.
Percentage of Volatile matter = Lossinweight X 100
3. Ash: The residual coal sample taken in a crucible and then heated without lid in a muffle furnace
at 700 + 50 C for ½ hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccators
and weighed. Hearing, cooling and weighing are repeated, till a constant weight is obtained. The
residue is reported as ash onpercentage-basis.
Thus,
Percentage of ash = Weight of ash left X 100
4. Fixed carbon:
Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of (Moisture + Volatile matter + ash)
Significance of proximate analysis: Proximate analysis provides following valuable

information‟s in assessing the quality of coal.
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1. Moisture: Moisture is coal evaporates during the burning of coal and it takes some of the liberated heat
in the form of latent heat of evaporation. Therefore, moisture lowers the effective calorific value of coal.
Moreover over, it quenches the fire in the furnace, hence, lesser, the moisture content, better the quality of
coal as a fuel. However, presence of moisture, up to 10%, produces a more uniform fuel-bed and less
of“fly-ash”.
2. Volatile matter: a high volatile matter content means that a high proportion of fuel will distil over as
gas or vapour, a large proportion of which escapes un-burnt, So, higher volatile content in coal s
undesirable. A high volatile matter containing coal burns with a long flame, high smoke and has low
calorific value. Hence, lesser the volatile matter, better the rank of thecoal.
3. Ash: Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal. Moreover,
ash causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. Also, it often
causes trouble during firing by forming clinkers, which block the interspaces of the grate, on which coal
is being burnt. This in-turn causes obstruction to air supply; thereby the burning of coal becomes
irregular. Hence, lower the ash content, better the quality of coal. The presence of ash also increases
transporting, handling and storage costs. It also involves additional cost in ash disposal. The presence of
ash also causes early wear of furnace walls, burning of apparatus and feedingmechanism.
4. Fixed carbon: Higher the percentage of fixed carbon, greater is it‟s calorific and betters the quality
coal. Greater the percentage of fixed carbon, smaller is the percentage of volatile matter. This also
represents the quantity of carbon that can be burnt by a primary current of air drawn through the hot bed
of a fuel. Hence, high percentage of fixed carbon is desirable. The percentage of fixed carbon helps in
designing the furnace and the shape of the fire-box, because it is the fixed carbon that burns in the
solidstate.
B. Ultimate analysis: This is the elemental analysis and often called as qualitative analysis of coal. This
analysis involves the determination of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, suphur and oxygen.
1. Carbon and Hydrogen: About 1 to 2 gram of accurately weighed coal sample is burnt in a current of
oxygen in a combustion apparatus. C and H of the coal are converted into CO2and H2O respectively. The
gaseous products of combustion are absorbed respectively in KOH and CaCl2 tubes of known weights.
The increase in weights of these are thendetermined.
C + O2 CO2
2KOH + CO2 K2CO3 + H2O H2
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+ ½ O2 H2O
CaCl2 + 7 H2O  CaCl2.7H2O
Percentage ofC = Increase in weight of KOH tube X 12 X100
Weight of Coal sample taken X 44 Percentage
of H = Increase in weight of CaCl2 tube X 2 X 100
Weight of Coal sample taken X 18
2. Nitrogen: About 1 gram of accurately weighed powdered coal is heated with concentrated H2SO4
along with K2SO4 (catalyst) in a long-necked Kjeldahl‟s flask. After the solution becomes clear, it is
treated with excess of KOH and the liberated ammonia is distilled over and absorbed in a known volume
of standard acid solution. The unused acid is then determined by back titration with standard NaOH
solution. From the volume of acid used by ammonia liberated, the percentage of N in coal is calculated as
follows:
Percentage of N = Volume acid X Normality of acid X_1.4
3. Sulphur: Sulphur is determined from the washings obtained from the known mass of coal,
usedinbombcalorimeterfordeterminationofacalorificvalue.Duringthisdetermination,Sis
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converted in to Sulphate. The washings are treated with Barium chloride solution, when Barium- sulphate
is precipitated. This precipitate is filtered, washed and heated to constant weight.
Percentage of Sulphur = Weight of BaSO4 obtained X 32 X 100_
Weight of coal sample taken in bomb X 233
4. Ash: The residual coal taken in the crucible and then heated without lid in a muffle furnace at 700 +
500c for ½ hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccators and weighed.
Hearing, cooling and weighing are repeated, till a constant weight is obtained. The residue is reported as
ash on percentage-basis.
Thus,
Percentage of ash = Weight of ash left X 100
Weight of coaltaken
5. Oxygen: It is determined indirectly by deducting the combined percentage of carbon, hydrogen,

nitrogen, sulphur and ash from100.
Percentage of Oxygen = 100 – percentage of (C + H + S + N + Ash)
Significance of ultimate analysis:
Carbon and Hydrogen: Greater the percentage of carbon and hydrogen better is the coal in quality and
calorific value. However, hydrogen is mostly associated with the volatile mater and hence, it affects the
use to which the coal is put.
Nitrogen: Nitrogen has no calorific value and hence, its presence in coal is undesirable. Thus, a good
quality coal should have very little Nitrogen content.
Sulphur: Sulphur, although contributes to the heating value of coal, yet on combustion produces acids
like SO2, SO3, which have harmful effects of corroding the equipments and also cause atmospheric
pollution. Sulphur is, usually, present to the extent of 0.5 to 0.3% and derived from ores like iron, pyrites,
gypsum, etc., mines along with the coal. Presence of sulphur is highly undesirable in coal to be used for
making coke for iron industry. Since it is transferred to the iron metal and badly affects the quality and
properties of steel. Moreover, oxides of sulphur pollute the atmosphere and leads to corrosion.
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Ash: Ash is a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of coal. Moreover, ash
causes the hindrance to the flow of air and heat, thereby lowering the temperature. Hence, lower the ash
content, better the quality of coal. The presence of ash also increases transporting, handling and storage
costs. It also involves additional cost in ash disposal. The presence of ash also causes early wear of
furnace walls, burning of apparatus and feeding mechanism.
Oxygen: Oxygen content decreases the calorific value of coal. High oxygen-content coals are
characterized by high inherent moisture, low calorific value, and low coking power. Moreover, oxygen is
a combined form with hydrogen in coal and thus, hydrogen available for combustion is lesser than actual
one. An increase in 1% oxygen content decreases the calorific value by about 1.7% and hence, oxygen is
undesirable. Thus, a good quality coal should have low percentage of oxygen.
LiquidFuels
Liquid fuels are the important commercial and domestic fuels used these days. Most of these fuels are
obtained from the naturally occurring petroleum or crudeoil.
Primary Petroleum:
Petroleum or crude oil is a dark greenish brown, viscous oil found deep in the earth crust. Crude oil is a
source of many liquid fuels that are in current use. The composition of crude petroleum approximately is
C = 80-85%, H= 10-14%
S= 0.1-3.5% and N=0.1-0.5%.
Refining of Petroleum:
Crude oil obtained from the mine is not fit to be marked. It contains a lot of soluble and insoluble
impurities which must be removed. Previously the purification of crude oil is done by simple fractional
distillation. Further treatment of the products is done by refining. Refining can be defined as the process
by which petroleum is made free of impurities, division of petroleum into different fractions having
different boiling points and their further treatment to impart specific properties.
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Refining of petroleum is done in different stages:
a. Removal of solid impurities: The crude oil is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous substances. This
is allowed to stand undisturbed for some time, when the heavy solid particles settle down and gases
evaporate. The supernant liquid is then centrifuged where in the solids getremoved.
b. Removal of water (Cottrell‟s process): The crude oil obtained from the earth‟s crust is in the form of
stable emulsion of oil and brine. This mixture when passed between two highly charged electrodes
will destroy the emulsion films and the colloidal water droplets coalesce into bigger drops and get
separated out from theoil.
c. Removal of harmful impurities: In order to remove sulphur compounds in the crude oil. It is treated
with copper oxide. The sulphur compounds get converted to insoluble copper sulphide, which can be
removed by filtration. Substances like NaCl and MgCl2 it present will corrode the refining equipment
and result in scale formation. These can be removed by techniques like electrical desalting
anddehydration.
d. Fractional distillation: Heating of crude oil around 4000C in an iron retort, produces hot vapor which
is allowed to pass through fractionating column. It is a tall cylindrical tower containing a number of
horizontal stainless trays at short distances and is provided with small chimney covered with loose
cap. As the vapors go up they get cooled gradually and fractional condensation takes place. Higher
boiling fraction condenses first later the lower boilingfractions.
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Refining of Petroleum
Gaseous Fuels:
The gaseous fuels are most preferred because of their ease of storage, transport, handling
and ignition. These are classified into two types.
i. Primary fuels Ex:- Natural gas

ii. Secondary fuels ex: - Coal gas, producer gas, water gas.
LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
The gas is obtained from natural gas or as a byproduct in refineries during cracking of heavy
petroleum products. Nowadays LPG has been a common fuel for domestic work and also in
most of the industries. The main components of LPG are n-butane, isobutane,
butylenes and propane (traces of propene and ethane). The hydrocarbons are in
gaseous state at room temperature and 1 atmospheric pressure but can be liquefied
under higher pressure.
LPG is kept in metallic cylinder attached with burner through pipe. It has two
stoppers, one at the cylinder and other at burner. LPG has special odour due to the
presence of organic sulphides which are added specially for safety measure.
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Characteristics of LPG:
1. It has high calorific value (27,800kcal/m3)
2. It gives less CO and least unburnt hydrocarbons. So it causes least pollution.
3. It gives moderate heat which is very good for cooking
4. Its storage is simple. It is colourless
5. It has tendency to mix with air easily
6. Its burning gives no toxic gases though it is highly toxic
7. It neither gives smoke nor ash content
8. It is cheaper than gasoline and used as fuel in auto vehicles also
9. It is dangerous when leakage is there
Applications:
1. In Food industry: LPG is widely used in the food industry like hotels, restaurants,
bakeries, Canteens etc. Low sulphur content and controllable temperature makes
LPG the most Preferred fuel in the foodindustry.
2. In Glass & Ceramic: The use of a clean fuel like LPG enhances the product
quality thereby reducing technical problems related to the manufacturing activity
of glass and ceramic products.
3. In Building Industry: LPG being a premium gaseous fuel makes it ideal for
usage in the Cement manufacturingprocess.
4. In Automotive Industry: The main advantage of using automotive LPG is, it is
free of lead, Very low in sulphur, other metals, aromatics and othercontaminants.
5. In Farming industry: LPG in the farming industry can be used for thefollowing:
 Drying ofcrops
 Cerealdrying
 Curing of tobacco andrubber
 Soil conditioning
 Horticultureetc
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6. LPG is used in metal industry, aerosol industry, textile industry and it can also
be usedinSteamrising.
CNG (Compressed Natural Gas):
Natural gas contains mainly CH4. When natural gas is compressed at high pressure
(1000atm) or cooled to -160oC, it is converted to CNG. It is stored in cylinder made of
steel. It is now replacing gasoline as it releases less pollutant during its combustion. In
some of the metro cities, CNG vehicles are used to reduce pollution.
Characteristics of CNG:
1. Natural Gas being lead/sulphur free, its use substantially reduces harmful engine emissions.
2. Natural gas being lighter than air, will rise above ground level and disperse in the
atmosphere, in the case of a leakage.
3. Natural Gas in the gaseous state, and is colourless.
4. Predominantly Methane is available in the lean gas, hence CNG contains mostly methane
Applications:
1. It was used to generate electricity, heat buildings, fuel vehicles, power industrial
furnaces and Air conditioners.
2. Natural gas is also consumed in homes for space heating and for water heating
3. It is used in stoves, ovens, clothes dryers and other appliances.
4. In some of the metro cities, CNG vehicles are used to reduce pollution.
Calorific value:
The prime property of a fuel is its capacity to supply heat. Fuels essentially consist of
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and some hydrocarbons and the heat that a particular fuel can
give is due to the oxidation of carbon and hydrogen. Normally when a combustible
substance burns the total heat depends upon the quantity of fuel burnt, its nature, air
supplied for combustion and certain other conditions governing the combustion. Further
the heat produced is different for different fuels and is termed as its calorific value.
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Calorific value of fuel may be defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a unit
mass (or volume) of a fuel is burnt completely”.
Or
“Calorific value is the amount of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit
weight of the fuel and in usually expressed as cal gm-1 or kcal gm-1 or B.Th.U.
Or
The calorific value of a fuel can be defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated when a
unit mass of the fuel is completely burnt in air or oxygen”.
There are different units for measuring the quantity of heat. They are:
1. Calorie 3. British thermal unit(B.Th.U)
2. Kilocalorie 4. Centigrade heat unit(C.H.U)
1. Calorie: It is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 gram of

water through one degree centigrade.
2. Kilocalorie: This is the unit of heat in metric system, and is defined as the quantity of
heat required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water through one degree
centigrade.
1 k.cal = 1000 cal
1 k.cal = 3.968 B.Th.U
3. British thermal unit (B.Th.U): This is the unit of heat in English system, it is defined
as “the quantity of heat required to increase the temperature of one pound of water
through of one degree of Fahrenheit.
1 B.Th.U = 252 cal = 0.252 k.cal

4. Centigrade heat unit (C.H.U): It is the quantity of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water through one degree centigrade.
1 k.cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
Inter conversion of various units of heat:
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On the basis that 1 kg = 2.2 lb and 1 0C = 1.8 0F we have
1 k.cal = 1000 cals = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U
B.Th.U = 252 cals Units of
calorific value:
For solid or liquid fuels: cal/g or
k.cal/kg, B.Th.U/lb For gaseous fuels:
k.cal/cubic meter or k.cal/m3B.Th.U/ft3
or B.Th.U/cubic feet
Relation between various units:
1 k.cal/kg = 1.8 B.Th.U/lb = 1 cal/g
1 k.cal/m3 = 0.1077 B.Th.U/ft3
1 B.Th.U/ft3 = 9.3 k.cal/m3
Gross calorific value is the heat liberated when a unit quantity of fuel is completely burnt
and the products of combustion are cooled to room temperature. This heat includes the
latest heat of condensation of water. Because when a fuel containing hydrogen is burnt,
the hydrogen present is converted to steam. As the products of combustion are cooled to
room temperature, the steam gets condensed into water and the latent heat is evolved.
Thus the latent heat of condensation of steam, so liberated, is included in the gross
calorific value.
Higher calorific value (HCV) or gross calorific value is defined as the total amount of
heat liberated, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel has been burnt completely and
the products of combustion are cooled down to 60 0F or 15 0C.
Net calorific value or lower calorific value (LCV): lower calorific value is defined as
“the net heat produced, when unit mass or unit volume of the fuel is burnt completely
and the combustion products are allowed to escape.
Net calorific value is the gross calorific value excluding the latent heat of condensation of
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water (the weight of water formed is nine times the weight of hydrogen in the fuel).
Therefore,
LCV or NCV = HCV – Latent heat of water vapour formed
Net calorific value = Gross calorific value – (Mass of hydrogen per weight of fuel burnt x
9 x latent heat of vaporization of water).
Latent heat of steam is 587 kcal/g.
Net calorific value = Gross calorific value –
52.83 x %H Where % H = percentage of
hydrogen.
The gross and net calorific values of coal can be calculated by bomb calorimeter.
Calorific value of a fuel may be defined as “the total quantity of heat liberated, when a
unit mass (or volume) of a fuel is burnt completely”.
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MODULE - V
NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
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Course Outcomes Mapped To Module V :

taxonomy
CO 11 Classify different types of natural resources and their applicability Understand
for understanding the proper utilization of non-renewable
resources.
CO 12 Describe the effect of pollutants on air, water and soil that cause the Understand
environmental pollution.
Program Outcomes And Program Specific Outcomes Mapped To Module V :
Program Outcomes
PO 7 Environment and sustainability: understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and Environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
Mapping Of CO(s) With PO(s), PSO(s) For Module V:

(COs) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3
CO 11 √
CO 12 √
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Introduction:
The word resource means a source of supply. The natural resources include water, air, soil, minerals, coal,
forests, crops and wildlife are examples. All the resources are classified based on quantity, quality, re-
usability, men‟s activity and availability.
Classification of Resource:
The natural resources can be classified into two major categories.
(1) Renewable resources: The renewable resources are the resources which regenerate through natural
process within a reasonable time period. Eg: Forests, wild life, water air, grass lands.
(2) Non-renewable resources: Non-renewable resources are not capable of regenerating. These resources
have fixed quantity of stock in the earth‟s crust.
Eg: i) Energy resources – coal, oil, natural gas etc..
ii) Metal resources – iron copper, aluminum etc..
iii) Non-Metal resources – salt, clay, sand etc..
A few mineral resources, which occur in the earth‟s, crust namely copper, aluminum, mercury, gold etc..,
minerals of asbestos, clay and mica are considered as non-renewable resources. Fossil fuels are derived
from organic matter that accumulated during hundreds of millions of years of early bio-geological history.
There is no way of recycling the energy in fossil fuels.
Inexhaustible Resources: These resources are present in unlimited quantity in the nature and they are not
likely to be exhausted by human activities.
Eg: solar energy, wind power, tidal power, rainfall, atomic energy etc…
It is very important to protect and conserve the natural resources. Natural resources are to be used in a
judicious manner so that they cannot be exhausted. It does not mean that we should stop using them.
Natural resources are to be used in such a way that we can make use for future generations. Among the
natural resources, Water resources; Mineral resources; Energy resources; Land resources are the major
ones to discuss.
Living and Non-living Resources
Resources can also be classified as:
1) Living or biotic resources such as forest, agriculture, fish, and wildlife.

2) Non-living or abiotic resources such as land, water and minerals.
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Water Resources:
The Water Cycle Or Hydrologic Cycle: Due to the solar heat, water evaporates or water is lost to the
atmosphere as vapor from the seas / oceans which is then precipitated back in the form of rain, snow, frost
etc.. The evaporation and precipitation continues forever, and thereby a balance is maintained between the
two. This process is known as Hydrologic cycle.
Water is next to air that man requires for his survival and existence. Water is needed for daily use by
organisms, for irrigation, industrial electricity production and domestic use. Hence, water is an important
resource in all economic activities ranging from agriculture to industry. The distribution of water
resources is not uniform over the earth‟s surface. About 97% of it is salt water in the seas & oceans, 2.6%
is trapped in polar ice caps & glaciers. Only 0.4% is available as fresh water.
Solar radiation and earth‟s gravitational pull are the main driving forces of water cycle.
Evaporation, condensation and precipitation are the main processes involved in water cycle. These
processes alternate with each other.
Fresh water occurs mainly in two forms as.
1. Ground water
2. Surface water
The distribution of fresh water is geographically uneven varying greatly from country to country
& even one region to another region.
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Fresh water resources
Surface water
The water stored on the surface of the water is called as surface water.
The surface water is a very small portion of fresh water readily available for human use.
The surface water is largely used for irrigation, industrial use, public water supply, navigation etc,. A
county‟s economy is largely dependent upon its rivers.
Underground water
The water source available deep in the ground due to percolation (Filtration of a liquid through a porous
substance) of surface water is called as underground water.
Underground water is the major source of fresh water. It is pure and used for various domestic and
industrial purposes.
Eg: Aquifers
Aquifers: A layer of sediment or rock that is highly permeable and contains water is called aquifer.
Layers of sand and gravel are good aquifers while clay and crystalline rocks (like granite) are not since
they have low permeability. Aquifers are of two types:
Unconfined aquifers: Unconfined aquifers are overlaid by permeable earth materials and they are
recharged by water seeping down from above in the form of rainfall and snow melt.
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Confined aquifers: Confined aquifers which are sandwiched between two impermeable layers of rock or
sediments and are recharged only in those areas where the aquifer intersects the land surface. Sometimes
the recharged area is hundreds of kilometers away from the location of the well.
Uses of surface and groundwater:
Two major types of uses of water are:
Consumptive use: In consumptive use of water, it is fully utilized and it is not reused.
Eg: Domestic, industrial and irrigation purpose.
Non-consumptive use: In non-consumptive use of water, it is not fully utilized and it is reused.
Eg: Hydropower application.
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Other uses of water:
1. Domestic use: Water used in the houses for the purposes of drinking, bathing, washing clothes,
cooking, sanitary & other needs. The recommended value according to Indian standard
specification for domestic use is 135 liters/day
2. Industrial use: Water is required for various industries such as cement, mining, textile, leather
industries.
3. Public use: This includes water used for public utility purpose such as watering parks, flushing
streets; jails etc.
4. Fire use: Water is used in case of accidents and to prevent the fire issues.
5. Irrigation: To grow crops this is the main sources for food.
6. Other uses: Hydro electric power generation requires water.
Overutilization of surface and groundwater
The demand of water resources is increasing due to rapid growth in population and industry. After using
all available surface water resources to the maximum, human beings began using groundwater to meet
their needs.
Huge amount of water is utilized in industry and irrigation. Much of the water used in irrigation is lost
through evaporation in the atmosphere and therefore it is referred to as consumed.
Effects of overutilization of water
1. Overutilization of groundwater disturbs the state of equilibrium of reservoir. This results in

lowering the water level, decreased pressure in aquifers.
2. When the groundwater withdrawal is more than its recharge rate, the sediments in aquifer get
compacted. This results in sinking of overlaying land surface and called as ground subsidence.
3. Ground subsidence causes change in speed and direction of water flow, it could disturb the
hydrological cycle in the region, triggering several negative environmental impacts.
4. Over utilization of groundwater in coastal areas leads to rapid intrusion of salt water from the sea
thereby rendering it unusable for drinking and agriculture.
5. Overutilization of groundwater lads to decrease in water level thereby causing earthquake,
landslides and famine.
6. Overutilization of groundwater leads to drying-up of dug wells as well as bore wells.
7. Overutilization near agriculture land decreases the water level. The surface water containing
fertilizers, pesticides and animal wastes containing nitrate percolates rapidly into ground and
pollute the groundwater. When nitrate concentration exceeding 45 mg/L, water becomes
unsuitable for drinking.
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Floods:
An overflow of water, whenever the magnitude of water flow exceeds the carrying capacity of channel
within its banks is called as flood.
Causes of Floods
Various causes of floods are..
1. Heavy rainfall and sudden melting of ice.

2. Insufficient water channel capacity of rivers.
3. Construction of buildings, roads which prevents infiltration of water into soil.
4. Deforestation, overgrazing and mining increases the runoff from rains and hence increases the
flood level.
5. Soil erosion and loss of vegetation would lead to flooding due to heavy rain.
Effects of Floods
1. Flood water brings various diseases, flood kills human lives.

2. Aquatic and wildlife habitats are destroyed by floods. This leads to loss of bio-diversity due to
migration of wildlife species to the adjoining areas.
3. Flood causes economic loss, loss of crops, loss of livestock and property damage.
4. Drainage system and public transport systems gets disrupted causing inconvenience and
discomfort to common public.
5. Flood can cause slitting of dams, damage of bridges and damage of hydropower plants.
6. Agriculture produce can be submerged under flood water causing financial loss to community.
Flood Management
1. Construction of dams and reservoirs is an effective method of controlling floods.

2. Advance metrological information can give enough time to active disaster management systems.
3. Hydroengineering operations in flood affected areas for proper diversion of flood water.
4. Construction of floodways and reserving green zone on the river banks.
Drought
Drought is scarcity of water. Drought occurs due to inadequate rainfall, late arrival of rains overutilization
of ground water.
The condition of dryness for prolonged period is called drought due to drop of average rainfall. Drought
cause famine and starvation of human & animal population of region concerned. Drought is the most
serious physical hazard to agriculture. Shortage of water for even the basic needs is the main problem in
the drought areas. Shallow rooted plants don‟t grow. Infiltration wells, construction of dams, water sheds
are being taken up in drought prone areas. Clouds seeding techniques, artificial rains etc., are to be
implemented.
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Drought – damages
Direct
1. loss of income
2. social dislocation
3. famine/malnutrition/death
Indirect
1. loss of rural and urban revenues

2. fire hazard, loss of water access
Dams benefits & problems
The construction of dams has their own benefits & drawbacks. Dams are built for storing water. The
stored water is used for irrigation, hydroelectric power generation and flood control.
Advantages of Dams
1. Dams are built for generating electricity.

2. Dams are used for irrigation of agriculture land efficiency.
3. Dams can provide drinking water for the community.
4. Dams can store flood water thereby control of flood threat.
5. Dams have saved countless millions of lives from floods
6. Dams can divert flow of water from river into a channel.
7. Drought control
Problems in constructing dams
1. Constructing dams would leads to an environmental degradation

2. Deforestation can cause loss of habitat and loss of biodiversity
3. Constructing dam results in displacement of several villages, communities, loss of agriculture
land
4. Dams harm the environment
5. Water is lost through evaporation and seepage
6. Dams fill with sediment and change the geomorphology of the river
7. Dams can be unsafe; have killed thousands
Land Resources
Land is the major part of the lithosphere. Land is made up of soils / rocks and are considered as very
important resources of earth. Land plays a major role for growth of crops, vegetation, forests etc., Land
represents an important resource for the economic life of a majority of people in the world. The way
people handle and use land resource is decisive for their social and economic well-being as well as for the
sustained quality of land resources. Land use however is not only an area of those directly using it; it is
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exposed to a part of the wider reality of social and economic development and change. Land use therefore
is a highly dynamic process.
Land is a physical entity which includes natural resources like forest, water, minerals, food, energy and
etc. Land is the biggest resources for biotic community to reproduce, live, sustain, grow, exploit and
many life supporting activities.
The land is used for building homes, cultivating food, maintain pastures for domestic animals, industrial
use etc. It is equally important to protect forests, grasslands, wetlands, mountains, coasts etc. in order to
presence biodiversity. Soils are formed due to disintegration of rocks by various physical processes like
change in temperature, pressure, blowing wind and flow of water. The top layer of soil consists of
mixtures of Humus (dead leaves & plants), some of the living organisms and Inorganic components
which supply nutrients to the soil.
Soil composition: Soil fertility depends four major components of soil are mineral materials, organic
matter, water and air.
Mineral materials:
Mineral materials elements (Si, Fe, O, Mg, Al, Ca, Na, K and etc..), quartz (SiO 2), iron-silicates and
aluminum silicates.
Organic matter: Came from the residues of plants and animals.Organic matter can be crop residues,
grasses, bacteria, fungi, other microorganisms and animal wastes.
Water: It is a good solvent for many nutrients which move into plant roots.
Air: Air encourages optimum rate of the essential metabolic process of various organisms.
Land degradation: Any change in land that reduces its quality and productivity is referred land
degradation. The land degradation results in deterioration of soil or loss of fertility of the soil.
Reasons of land degradation:
Population: With rapid growth in population more land is needed for producing food, wood, fiber and
fuel. Thus land resources are over utilized causing land degradation.
Urbanization: Because of population urbanization also increases. The urbanization leads to deforestation
which effects millions of plants and animal species.
Fertilizers and pesticides: To improve the agricultural productivity, fertilizers and pesticides are used on
large scale. The excess use of fertilizers and pesticides leads to pollution of land and water. Thus land
(soil) gets degraded further.
Damage to top soil: Increased food production causing damage of top soil through nutrient depletion.
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Water logging: The land productivity reduces because of rise in ground water close to or above the soil
surface cause water-logging. This is caused because of incorrect irrigation management.
Salination: The land degradation is caused by increases of salt in the soil or intrusion of sea water into
coastal land.
Other forms of land degradation:
The other forms of land degradation are
1. Soil erosion
2. Contamination of soil with industrial waste
3. Over-grazing
4. Over-irrigation
Soil Erosion:
Soil is not immune to erosion, and like rocks along a coastline, soil can erode due to the effects of forces,
such as water, wind and farming practices.
Soil is naturally created when small pieces of weathered rocks and minerals mix with organic materials
from decaying plants and animals. Soil creation is a slow process, taking many years. However, the soil
that is created is constantly subjected to natural and manmade forces that disrupt it.
Soil erosion is defined as the wearing away of topsoil. Topsoil is the top layer of soil and is the most
fertile because it contains the most organic, nutrient-rich materials. Therefore, this is the layer that
farmers want to protect for growing their crops and ranchers want to protect for growing grasses for their
cattle to graze on.
One of the main causes of soil erosion is water erosion, which is the loss of topsoil due to water.
Raindrops fall directly on topsoil. The impact of the raindrops loosens the material bonding it together,
allowing small fragments to detach. If the rainfall continues, water gathers on the ground, causing water
flow on the land surface, known as surface water runoff. This runoff carries the detached soil materials
away and deposits them elsewhere.
There are some conditions that can accentuate surface water runoff and therefore soil erosion. For
example, if the land is sloped, there is a greater potential for soil erosion due to the simple fact that
gravity pulls the water and soil materials down the slope. Also, water will have an easier time running
across the surface, carrying topsoil with it.
Types of Erosion: There are different types of soil erosion caused by water.
1) Sheet Erosion
Sheet erosion is erosion that occurs fairly evenly over an area. As raindrops loosen soil, the surface water
runoff can transport topsoil in a uniform fashion, almost like a bed sheet sliding off of a bed. This can be
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so subtle that it might not even be noticed until much of the valuable, nutrient-rich topsoil has already
been washed away. If a farmer heads out to his field and sees an accumulation of soil and crop residue at
one end of his field, he should be worried about sheet erosion.
2) Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is erosion that results in small, short-lived and well-defined streams. When rainfall does not
soak into the soil, it can gather on the surface and run downhill, forming small channels of water called
rills. You can use this fact as a memory jogger if you remember that 'a little rill will run downhill.' A rill
will dry up after the rainfall, but you may still see the stream bed that was created by the temporary
stream.
3) Gully Erosion
Gully erosion can be thought of as advanced rill erosion. In fact, if rills are not addressed, they will grow
into larger gullies. Gully erosion can spell big problems for farmers because the affected land is not able
to be used for growing crops, and the big ditches create a hazard for the farmer driving his farm
machinery over the fields.
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4) Bank Erosion
Bank erosion is another type of water erosion and is defined as erosion of the bank of a stream or
waterway. Surface water runoff always moves toward the lowest level due to gravity. Therefore, low-
lying streams, rivers and even constructed drainage channels collect water runoff. However, over time,
this water activity and other forces naturally wear down the banks lining the waterways. Like other types
of erosion, bank erosion needs to be managed. Otherwise, it can reduce productive farmland and pose a
threat to the structural integrity of roads.
5) Slip erosion: This occurs due to heavy rainfall on slopes of hills and mountains.
Energy Resources:
Energy poverty is lack of access to modern energy services. Energy has been universally
recognized as one of the most important inputs for economic growth and human development. There is a
strong two-way relationship between economic development and energy consumption. The energy
intensity of India is over twice that of the matured economies, which are represented by the OECD
(Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development) member countries. India‟s energy intensity is
also much higher than the emerging economies which include the ASEAN member countries as well as
China. Approximately 80% of the world‟s energy is produced by fossil fuels (Oil, Coal and Natural gas).
There is growing energy needs in domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. The total potential for
renewable power generation in the country as per 2015 statistics is estimated at 896603 MW. This
includes wind power potential of 102772 MW (11.46%), SHP (small-hydro power) potential of 19749
MW (2.20%), Biomass power potential of 17,538 MW (1.96%), 5000 MW (0.56%) from bagasse-based
cogeneration in sugar mills and solar power potential of 748990 MW (83.54%). The geographic
distribution of the estimated potential of renewable power as per 2015 statistics reveals that Rajasthan has
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the highest share of about 17% (148518MW), followed by Jammu and Kashmir with 13% share (118208)
and Gujarat with 8% share (72726MW), mainly on account of solar power potential.
Energy consumption of deferent sectors in India
Domestic Sector:
Domestic energy consumption or domestic consumption of energy is the total amount of energy
used in a house for household work. The amount of energy used per household varies widely depending
on the standard of living of the country, the climate, and the age and type of residence. The domestic
sector in India, the consumption of natural fuel (mostly wood) for energy is very high. Around 78% of
rural and 30% of urban households depend on fire wood. In particular between 1970-71 and 1994-95, the
annual consumption of electricity per household went up from 7 kWh to 53 kWh and at present it is 850
kWh per capita (individual); of kerosene from 6.6 kg to 9.9 kg at present 20 kg and of cooking gas from
0.33 kg to 3.8 kg at present 35 kg. These statistics clearly indicates the increasing demand over the natural
resources especially on non-renewable resources. Overall power consumption of domestic sector in India
for the year 2005-2006 and 2013-2014 were reported as 100,090 GWh and 198, 246 GWh respectively.
Industrial Sector:
Energy is essential for the production, packing, quality control purpose in many industries such as
pharma, health, textile, oil, etc., industries beside film , education and tourism industries. The estimated
total consumption of raw coal by industry has increased from 407.04 MTs (Metric tons) during 2005-06
to 571.89 MTs during 2013-14. with a CAGR (Compound Annual Growth Rates) of 3.85%.
Industry-wise estimates of consumption of coal during 2013-14 for the electricity generation is
427.23 MTs. Steel & washery industries (23.13 MTs), cement industries(11.96 MTs) and paper industries
(1.67 MTs) are consumed more coal for their energy needs.
The maximum use of Natural Gas is in fertilizers industry (32.56%) followed by power
generation (31.02%) and 8.60% natural gas was used for domestic fuel. Overall power consumption of
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industrial sector in India for the year 2005-2006 and 2013-2014 were reported as 151, 557 GWh and 386,
872 GWh respectively.
Agriculture Sector:
As the world population continues to grow geometrically, great pressure is being placed on arable
land, water, energy, and biological resources to provide an adequate supply of food while maintaining the
integrity of our ecosystem. As the world population expands, the food problem will become increasingly
severe, conceivably with the numbers of malnourished. This population explosion demands the more
energy for the production of food. Cultivation and fishery sectors require more energy. Overall power
consumption of agriculture sector in India for the year 2005-2006 and 2013-2014 were reported as 90,
292 GWh and 159, 144 GWh respectively.
Of the total consumption of electricity in 2013-14, industry sector accounted for the largest share
(43.83%), followed by domestic (22.46%), agriculture (18.03%) and commercial sectors (8.72%) which
clearly indicate the growing energy needs in India and other developed and developing nations.
Classification of Energy Resources
Source
of Energy
Primary Secondary
Source Source
Non-renewable
Renewable Energy Energy Electricity,
or or Petrol, etc.,
Non-conventional conventional
Hydropower, Solar, Coal, Petroleum,

Wind, Ocean, Natural gas,
Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear fuels, etc.,
Wood, etc.,
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Renewable Energy:
Those sources of energy which are inexhaustible and can be regenerated again and again are
called renewable sources of energy.
Eg: Solar energy, wind energy, Ocean energy (Tidal and Ocean thermal energy-OTE), Geothermal
energy, Biomass energy, Hydropower energy, etc.,
Non-renewable Energy:
Those sources of energy which are exhaustible and can‟t be regenerated again and again are
called non-renewable sources of energy.
Eg: Coal energy, Natural Gas energy (CH4), Liquefied Petroleum Gas – LPG (Ethane, n-butane, iso-
butane, butylenes and propane), Nuclear fuels (92U235), etc.,
Harvesting/Harnessing of Energy: The process of collecting, converting and using of energy is known
as harvesting of energy.
1.Solar Energy
Solar energy is the technology used to harness the sun's energy and make it useable. Many people
are familiar with so-called photovoltaic (PV) cells, or solar panels, found on things like spacecraft,
rooftops, handheld calculators, etc.,. The cells are made of semiconductor materials like those found in
computer chips. When sunlight hits the cells, it knocks electrons loose from their atoms (Einstein‟s
photoelectric effect). As the electrons flow through the cell, they generate electricity.
On a much larger scale, solar thermal power plants employ various techniques to concentrate the
sun's energy as a heat source (Solar heat collectors). The heat is then used to boil water (any liquid with
low boiling point) to drive a steam turbine that generates electricity in much the same fashion as coal and
nuclear power plants, supplying electricity for thousands of people.
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Schematic representation of solar energy (PV cells) power plant
Schematic representation of thermal solar energy power plant
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Advantages:
1) Big windows placed on the sunny side of a building allow sunlight to heat-absorbent materials on
the floor and walls. These surfaces then release the heat at night to keep the building warm.
2) Absorbent plates on a roof can heat liquid in tubes that supply a house with hot water.
3) Solar energy is lauded as an inexhaustible fuel source that is pollution and often noise free.
4) The technology is also versatile; hence solar cells generate energy for far-out places like satellites
in Earth orbit and cabins deep in the Rocky Mountains.
5) Electronic calculators, watches, etc., gadgets use solar energy.
6) Renewable and eco-friendly energy source.
7) Available for free of cost.
Disadvantages:
1) Solar energy doesn't work at night without a storage device such as a battery
2) Cloudy weather can make the technology unreliable during the day.
3) Solar technologies are also very expensive
4) Require a lot of land area to collect the sun's energy at rates useful to lots of people.
5) Skilled manpower required for installation
2.Wind Energy
Wind energy is a source of renewable power which comes from air current flowing across the earth's
surface. Wind turbines harvest this kinetic energy and convert it into usable power which can provide
electricity for domestic, industrial and agriculture sectors (Ref. Figure 3)
Wind energy is one of the fastest growing sources of new electricity generation in the world today.
These growth trends can be linked to the multi-dimensional benefits associated with wind energy.
Figure 3: Schematic representation of wind turbine energy power plant
Advantages:
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1) The electricity produced from wind power is said to be eco-friendly because its generation
produces no pollution or greenhouse gases.
2) It is good for health and environmental safe.
3) Available for free of cost.
4) Wind is a renewable energy resource, it is inexhaustible.
5) From wind energy one can locally produce electricity.
Disadvantages:
1) Generates noise pollution.

2) The amount of electricity generated depends on the strength of the wind - if there is no wind,
there is no electricity
3) Wind energy is that winds can never be predicted.
4) Wind mill kills birds.
5) Tornadoes, hurricanes and cyclones cause heavy damage.
6) Skilled manpower is required for installation
3.Ocean energy
The ocean is an enormous source of energy. It is estimated that 0.1% of the energy in ocean
waves could be capable of supplying the entire world's energy requirements. Currently, a number of
technologies aimed at harnessing this potential have been investigated and are at different stages of
development including tidal energy (Ref. Figure 4), difference of temperature (Ocean thermal
energy-OTE) and salinity energy.
If you ever went swimming in the ocean and dove deep below the surface, you would have
noticed that the water gets colder the deeper you go. It's warmer on the surface because sunlight
warms the water. But below the surface, the ocean gets very cold. The minimum temperature required
for the conversion of thermal energy into electrical energy is 20 ºC.
Schematic representation of tidal energy power plant
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Schematic representation of Ocean thermal energy power plant
Advantages:
1) It does not produce green house gases or waste products.

2) Doesn't require any fuels to create.
3) Tidal energy power plants produce more electricity.
4) These energies available 365 days.
5) Eco-friendly.
6) Renewable and not causes any pollution to the land.
Disadvantages:
1) Only power plants and towns near the ocean will be benefited directly from it.
2) It still creates hazards for some of the creatures near it.
3) More technological developments required.
4) Tsunami and cyclones can damage the power plants.
5) Skilled manpower required for installation.
I. Geothermal energy:
As the name suggests (geo = earth and therme = heat), geothermal energy comes from heat produced
by the Earth.
Beneath the surface (or crust) of the Earth, there are a number of heat-producing layers of rock,
minerals, and magma, including the mantle, the outer core, and the inner core. The deeper you dig
towards the center of the Earth, the hotter it gets.
In fact, the core (about 4,000 miles beneath the surface), can reach temperatures of 4200 ºC. The
temperature gradient in earth anatomy can be used for the production of electricity. This heat which can
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be harnessed for energy is caused by residual heat from the formation of the Earth, as well as decay of
radioactive isotopes.
Geothermal power plants also harness the heat of the Earth through hot water and steam. In these
plants, heat is used to generate electricity by rotation of turbines with hot steam gush out through the pipe.
There are three main types of geothermal power plants, including dry steam plants, flash steam plants,
and binary cycle plants (Ref. Figure 6).
Schematic representation of Geo-thermal energy power plant
Advantages:
1) It is a renewable source of energy.

2) It is non-polluting and environment friendly.
3) There is no wastage or generation of by-products.
4) Geothermal energy can be used directly. In ancient times, people used this source of energy for
heating homes, cooking, etc.
5) Maintenance cost of geothermal power plants is very less.
6) Geothermal power plants don't occupy too much space and thus help in protecting natural
environment.
7) Unlike solar energy, it is not dependent on the weather conditions.
Disadvantages:
1) Only few sites have the potential of Geothermal Energy.

2) Most of the sites, where geothermal energy is produced, are far from markets or cities, where it
needs to be consumed.
3) Total generation potential of this source is too small.
4) There is always a danger of eruption of volcano.
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5) Installation cost of steam power plant is very high.
6) There is no guarantee that the amount of energy which is produced will justify the capital
expenditure and operations costs.
7) It may release some harmful, poisonous gases that can escape through the holes drilled during
construction.
8) Earth quakes cause damage to the plants.
Biomass Energy
Biomass fuel can be defined as fuel that is derived from any organic, renewable material that can be used
in either raw or processed form. Biomass comes from a variety of sources which include:
Wood from natural forests and woodlands, Forestry plantations, Forestry residues, Agricultural residues
such as straw, stover, cane trash and green agricultural wastes, Agro-industrial wastes, such as sugarcane
bagasse and rice husk, Animal wastes, Industrial wastes, such as black liquor from paper manufacturing,
Sewage, Municipal solid wastes (MSW), Food processing wastes, animal waste etc.,
Types of biomass energy conversion
Types of biomass Conversion process Products Examples of application

Wood and wood Direct combustion Heat Electricity generation and
processing residues cooking
Pyrolysis Char coal, oil and To produce methanol for

tar transportation fuel
Peat Direct combustion Heat Electricity generation
Dry animal waste and Direct combustion Heat Cooking and heating
crop residues
Moist animal waste Anaerobic digestion Biogas Cooking and heating
and crop residues
Energy crops eg: maize Fermentation Ethanol Petrol supplement in USA
(gasohol)
Sugarcane residue Fermentation Ethanol Transportation fuel in
Brazil
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representation of Biomass (Gobar gas) energy power plant
Advantages:
1) Biomass used as a fuel reduces need for fossil fuels for the production of heat, steam, and
electricity for residential, industrial and agricultural use.
2) Biomass is always available and can be produced as a renewable resource.
3) Biomass fuel from agriculture wastes maybe a secondary product that adds value to agricultural
crop.
4) Growing Biomass crops produce oxygen and use up carbon dioxide.
5) The use of waste materials reduce landfill disposal and makes more space for everything else.
6) Carbon Dioxide which is released when Biomass fuel is burned, is taken in by plants.
Disadvantages:
1) Agricultural wastes will not be available if the basic crop is no longer grown.
2) Additional work is needed in areas such as harvesting methods.
3) Land used for energy crops maybe in demand for other purposes, such as faming, conservation,
housing, resort or agricultural use.
4) Some Biomass conversion projects are from animal wastes and are relatively small and therefore
are limited.
5) Research is needed to reduce the costs of production of Biomass based fuels.
6) Some cases it causes a major pollution.
7) Biomass plants produce bad odour.
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Hydroelectric Energy
Hydroelectric power, or hydroelectricity, is basically electrical energy that has been generated using
natural forces such as gravity or flowing water. It's usually produced by dams, because dams can store
and direct large volumes of water. Hydroelectric power is becoming increasingly popular.
Dams can generate electricity because they contain special mechanisms designed to take the energy in
flowing water and turn it into electrical power. A power source is used to spin a turbine basically a
propeller which in turn spins a metal shaft, forming the equivalent of an electrical generator that produces
and stores electricity. The power source, in the case of hydropower, is water itself. When water moves a
turbine, the turbine spins, and electromagnets in the turbine generate an electric current in the stationary
coils of wire inside them.
Schematic representation of hydroelectric power plant
Advantages:
1) Hydropower is a fueled by water, so it's a clean fuel source.
2) Hydropower doesn't pollute the air like power plants that burn
a. fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas.
3) Hydropower is a domestic source of energy, produced in the United States.
Hydropower is generally available asneeded,engineers can control the flow of water through the t
urbines to produce electricity on demand.
4) Hydropower plants provide benefits in addition to clean electricity.
5) Other benefits may include water supply and flood control.
Disadvantages:
1) Fish populations can be impacted if fish cannot migrate one place to another place.
2) Hydropower can impact water quality and flow.
3) Hydropower plants can cause low dissolved oxygen levels in the water.
4) When water is not available, the hydropower plants can't produce electricity.
5) New hydropower facilities impact the local environment and may compete with other use
for the land.
6) Humans, flora, and fauna may lose their natural habitat.
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Environmental Pollution and Control Technologies
1. Pollution: Any contaminant, which causes adverse change in the environment, is called as pollution
and the contaminant is known as pollutant.
2. Classification of pollution:
Classification of
Pollution
• Air pollution
• Water pollution
• Soil or Land pollution
• Noise or Sound pollution
1. Air Pollution:
Any contaminant, which causes adverse change in the air quality, is called as air pollution and the
contaminant is known as pollutant.
Pollutants classified into two categories
Primary pollutant
(Point source)
Secondary
pollutant
(Non-point source)
Pollutants
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(1) Primary pollutant (Point source) (2) Secondary pollutant (Non-point source)
Comparison of primary and secondary pollutants
Primary Pollutant Secondary pollutant
Pollutants that are emitted directly from identifiable Pollutants that are produced in the atmosphere
sources are produced by both natural events and when certain chemical reactions take place
human activities. These are called primary among the primary pollutants are called secondary
pollutants. pollutants.
It is point source (one can see the pollution source It is non-point source (one cannot see the pollution
with naked eye) source with naked eye). It is formed after a single
or series of reactions happened in atmosphere
Eg: dust storms and volcanic eruptions, emission Eg: sulfuric acid, nitric acid, carbonic acid,
from vehicles and industries, etc., peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), etc.,
All these sources emit pollutants such as COX (CO

& CO2), SOX (SO2 & SO3), NOX (N2O, NO, N2O3,
NO2, N2O5), particulates mater, hydrocarbons, etc.,
1. Causes/ Sources of Air Pollutants:
Sources of
Air
Pollution
Man-made (or)
Natural Sources Anthropogenic
Sources
Examples Examples
Volcanic eruption, Thermal power
forest fires, pollen plants, burning of
grains of flowers, fossil fuels, Chemical
etc., industries, etc.,
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2. Effects of air pollution on living organisms
(a) On human beings:
Our respiratory system has a number of mechanisms that help in protecting us from air pollution.
The hair in our nose filters out large particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of the upper respiratory
tract captures smaller particles and dissolves some gaseous pollutants. When pollutants irritate the
upper respiratory system, sneezing and coughing expel contaminated air and mucus. Prolonged
smoking or exposure to air pollutants can overload or breakdown these natural defenses causing or
contributing to diseases such as lung cancer, asthma, chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Elderly
people, infants, pregnant women and people with heart disease, asthma or other respiratory diseases
are especially vulnerable to air pollution.
Cigarette smoking is responsible for the greatest exposure to carbon monoxide. Exposure to air
containing even 0.001 percent of carbon monoxide for several hours can cause collapse, coma and
even death. As carbon monoxide remains attached to hemoglobin in blood for a long time, it
accumulates and reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood. This impairs perception and thinking,
slows reflexes and causes headaches, drowsiness, dizziness and nausea. Carbon monoxide in heavy
traffic causes headaches, drowsiness and blurred vision.
Sulfur dioxide irritates respiratory tissues. Chronic exposure causes a condition similar to
bronchitis. It also reacts with water, oxygen and other material in the air to form sulfur-containing
acids. The acids can become attached to particles which when inhaled are very corrosive to the lung.
Nitrogen oxides especially NO2 can irritate the lungs, aggravate asthma or chronic bronchitis and
increase susceptibility to respiratory infections such as influenza or common colds. Suspended
particles aggravate bronchitis and asthma. Exposure to these particles over a long period damages
lung tissue and contributes to the development of chronic respiratory disease and cancer. Many
volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates (such as lead,
cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone, a component of
photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation of the eye, nose and
the throat.
(b) On plants
When some gaseous pollutants enter leaf pores they damage the leaves of crop plants. Chronic
exposure of the leaves to air pollutants can break down the waxy coating that helps prevent excessive
water loss and leads to damage from diseases, pests, drought and frost. Such exposure interferes with
photosynthesis and plant growth, reduces nutrient uptake and causes leaves to turn yellow, brown or
drop off altogether. At a higher concentration of sulphur dioxide majority of the flower buds become
stiff and hard. They eventually fall from the plants, as they are unable to flower. Prolonged exposure
to high levels of several air pollutants from smelters, coal burning power plants and industrial units as
well as from cars and trucks can damage trees and other plants.
(c) Effects on aquatic life

Burning of fossil fuels creates carbon oxides (COx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx)
and solid particulate matter. Air pollutants like carbon dioxide mixing up with rainwater and
absorbing in ocean water cause high acidity (low pH). This acidic nature of aquatic system causes
damage to the phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish that are present and in the entire marine ecosystem.
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Over the last 250 years, oceans have absorbed 530 billion tons of carbon dioxide, triggering a 30
percent increase in ocean acidity. Higher seawater acidity hurts marine life especially species that
build shells or skeletons, such as oysters, mussels and coral. These creatures need calcium carbonate
to grow and repair their shells and skeletons. Acidic water softens or destroys these structures.
(d) On Materials
Every year air pollutants cause damage worth billions of rupees. Air pollutants break down
exterior paint on cars and houses. All around the world air pollutants have discolored irreplaceable
monuments, historic buildings, marble statues, etc.,
Eg: World wonder Taj Mahal is turning brownish-yellow due to air pollution
3. Types of particulates
Term Meaning Examples
Aerosol General term for particles suspended in Sprays from pressurized cans
air
Aerosol consisting of liquid droplets Sulfuric acid mist

Mist
Dust Aerosol consisting of solid particles that Dust storm

are blown into the air or are produced
from larger particles by grinding them
down.
Smoke Aerosol consisting of solid particles or a Cigarette smoke, smoke from

mixture of solid and liquid particles burning garbage
produced by chemical reaction such as
fires.
Fume Generally means the same as smoke but Zinc/lead fumes

often applies specifically to aerosols
produced by condensation of hot vapors
of metals.
Plume Geometrical shape or form of the smoke

coming out of a chimney.
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Fog Aerosol consisting of water droplets.
Smog Term used to describe a mixture of

smoke and fog.
Photochemical Smog
Photochemical smog is a type of secondary pollutant that occurs due to the reaction among nitrogen
oxides (NOx), Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) and Sunlight. The main product in this reaction is
Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN).
Peroxy acetyl nitrates (also known as Acyl peroxy nitrates, APN or PANs) are powerful respiratory and
eye irritants present in photochemical smog.
Peroxy acetyl nitrate (PAN)
5. Effects of Photochemical Smog

Many volatile organic compounds such as (benzene and formaldehyde) and toxic particulates
(such as lead, cadmium) can cause mutations, reproductive problems or cancer. Inhaling ozone, a
component of photochemical smog causes coughing, chest pain, breathlessness and irritation of the eye,
nose and the throat.
PANs dissolve more readily in water than ozone. They are lachrymators, causing eye irritation at
concentrations of only a few parts per billion (PPB). At higher concentrations, they cause extensive
damage to vegetation. Both PANs and their chlorinated derivates are said to be mutagenic, as they can be
a factor causing skin cancer.
6. Prevention and control of Air Pollution

i) Adopting eco-friendly technologies for the prevention of air pollutants.
ii) Afforestation helps in controlling the air pollution.
iii) Thermal power station and other coal energy based industries should use low sulphur coal.
iv) De-sulphurization techniques should be used to remove the coal such as washing or with help of
bacteria.
v) Gaseous pollutants should be controlled at source itself by using physical adsorption on porous
solid materials such as charcoal, silica gel, Fuller‟s earth, etc.,
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vi) Incomplete combustion of fossil fuels produce more carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
hydrocarbons, particulate matter, hence, fossil fuels should burn at optimal conditions of oxygen
and temperature.
vii) Particulate matter should be bring into control at source itself by using any one of the methods
like cyclone separators, bag house filters, wet scrubber and Electrostatic precipitator methods.
7. Automobile Pollution
The day-to-day increase of fossil fuel based personal vehicles cause air pollution besides noise
pollution. Pollutants from automobiles are emitted to the atmosphere through exhaust pipe. These
pollutants are COx (CO&CO2), NOx (N2O, NO, N2O3, etc.,), SOx (SO2 & SO3), unburnt hydrocarbons,
particulate matter, Pb from leaded petrol, etc.. NOx primary pollutants react with unburnt hydrocarbons in
the presence of sunlight and produces secondary pollutant Peroxy Acetyl Nitrates (PANs).
8. Effects of automobile pollution

i) Automobile pollution causes breathing problems to the humanity.
ii) Spark plug in engine produces ozone and ozone is one of the well-known respiratory irritants. A
respiratory irritant causing damage to the lungs, reducing lung capacity and aggravation
respiratory problems, especially in the elderly, the very young, and the asthmatic.
iii) A strong oxidant gas that damages animal respiratory systems, plant leaf cells, reducing
photosynthesis.
iv) Visibility reduction due to the heavy smoke from the vehicles causes eyes and skin damage in
long run.
9. Remedial actions to control automobile pollution

i) Use mass transit, bicycle or walk whenever possible. The fewer vehicles on the highway, the
fewer pollutants emitted to the air.
ii) Another way to reduce vehicle pollution is by practicing good vehicle maintenance.
iii) Automobile emissions testing programs are designed to ensure that vehicles are polluting as little
as possible.
iv) Use of catalytic converter helps in reduction of automobile pollution.
v) Modification of internal combustion engine causes improvements of its efficiency.
vi) Unleaded petrol should be used to control Pb-emission into the environment.
10. Ambient Air Quality Standards

According to world health organization, (WHO) the following guidelines apply worldwide and
these guidelines are based on expert evaluation.
Particulate matter (PM), Ozone (O3), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and Sulfur dioxide (SO2) in all WHO
regions.
PM affects more people than any other pollutant. The major components of PM are sulfate,
nitrates, ammonia, sodium chloride, black carbon, mineral dust and water. The most health-damaging
particles are those with a diameter of 10 microns or less, (≤ PM 10), which can penetrate and lodge deep
inside the lungs. Chronic exposure to particles contributes to the risk of developing cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases, as well as of lung cancer.
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Air quality measurements are typically reported in terms of daily or annual mean concentrations of PM 10
particles per cubic meter of air volume (m3). Routine air quality measurements typically describe such
PM concentrations in terms of micrograms per cubic meter (μg/m3). When sufficiently sensitive
measurement tools are available, concentrations of fine particles (PM2.5 or smaller), are also reported.
There are serious risks to health not only from exposure to PM, but also from exposure to ozone (O 3),
nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2). As with PM, concentrations are often highest largely in
the urban areas of low- and middle-income countries. Ozone is a major factor in asthma morbidity and
mortality, while nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide also can play a role in asthma, bronchial symptoms,
lung inflammation and reduced lung function.
Some of essential ambient air quality parameters

Parameter Description
Particulate Matter (below 2.5 micron) 10 μg/m3 annual mean

(PM2.5) 25 μg/m3 24-hour mean
Particulate Matter (below 10 micron) 20 μg/m3 annual mean

(PM10) 50 μg/m3 24-hour mean
Ozone (O3) 100 μg/m3 8-hour mean
40 μg/m3 annual mean

Nitrates (NO2)
200 μg/m3 1-hour mean
20 μg/m3 24-hour mean

Sulphates (SO2)
500 μg/m3 10-minute mean
2 μg/m3 8-hours
Carbon monoxide (CO)
4 μg/m3 1-hour
0.5 μg/m3 annual mean

Lead (Pb)
1.0 μg/m3 24-hours mean

Ammonia (NH3)
400 μg/m3 24-hours mean

Benzene (C6H6)
118
11. Industrial Pollution
Due to industrialization, we are facing many types of pollution. Based on nature of industry
variety of industrial pollutant released into atmosphere. Pollutants released from thermal power plants,
nuclear power plants, pulp and paper, chemical, cement, fertilizers, mining, etc., are of major concern.
2. Water Pollution
Hydrosphere in the universe contains water in the form of oceans, rivers, lakes, tanks and many
other water sources. Water sources in the world are of two types. They are (1) Marine water bodies and
(2) Fresh Water bodies. Water is a good solvent for many substances. Because of this property water
cannot exist in its pure form at many parts of the world. Water pollution is mainly because of sewage,
industrial disposals effluents. Any contaminant, which causes adverse change in the water quality, is
called as water pollution.
1. Chemical examination of water (tests): pH; Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen
Demand (COD) Dissolved Oxygen, Conductivity, etc., are some of the chemical tests to find the stage of
pollution of water.
pH: The value of pH gives the degree of acidity or alkalinity of polluted water. Determination of pH is
important in calculating the coagulant (thick or thin) dose.
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is defined as the quantity of oxygen utilized by microorganisms
at a temperature of 20oC, generally measured for 5 days. When unwanted materials pollute water,
naturally the O2 content gets reduced and that water become not fit for consumption either by human
beings or animals or plants. Living organisms require water with some quantity of sustainable oxygen in
it. That oxygen is necessary for living organisms is generally called BOD. If there is reduction in oxygen
content of water, it becomes unfit for biological consumption because there is change in BOD.
Dissolved O2: The amount of oxygen dissolved form in water at a particular temperature and atmospheric
pressure is known as dissolved Oxygen. In polluted waters, dissolved oxygen is the factor, which
determines whether the biological changes are carried by aerobic (needing oxygen) or by anaerobic
(oxygen not required) microorganisms.
Ex: 5 to 8 mg/L of dissolved oxygen is required for most of the species and fishes.
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD): This test is conducted to determine the pollution strength of the
sewage. Potassium dichromate and potassium permanganate are used as oxidizing agents.
119
2. Sources or Causes of water pollutants:
Disease causing agents: Bacteria, viruses, protozoan‟s that enter water from domestic sewage and animal
wastes.
Water soluble inorganic chemicals: Acids, salts and compounds of toxic metals such as Pb, Hg can
make water unfit to drink, harm fishes and other aquatic life. Also Nitrate, Phosphate compounds dissolve
in water that can cause excessive growth of algae, which then die and decay, depleting dissolved O2 in
water and killing fish.
Water Soluble Organic chemicals: Oil, gasoline (a type of oil is obtained from petroleum), pesticides,
detergents and many other water-soluble chemicals that threaten human health and harm fish.
Heat: Large quantity of water is heated when it is used in the cooling towers of thermal power plants.
When this hot water is discharged into the nearby water bodies, it causes an increase in its temperature.
Sewage: sewage is wastewater from municipal and industrial area where there is human habitation. Waste
material (such as human urine and feces) that is carried away from homes and other buildings in a system
of pipes is known as sewage.
In nature water, Kimball (1975) classifies pollution into three types. They are:
(a) Domestic water pollution:

Sewage is a part of domestic water pollution. Domestic sewage not only contains unwanted waste
materials, but it is also infested with harmful bacteria, virus etc. These are responsible for causing
diseases in animals and human beings.
(b) Agricultural Water Pollution:

Water require for plants for its growth. Major irrigation, minor irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, drip
irrigation, lift irrigation carry waste substances and causing water pollution in addition to the utilization of
fertilizer and pesticides. Agricultural water pollution leads to Eutrophication & Water Bloom.
(c) Eutrophication:
Eutrophication is the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, such
as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system. Eutrophication also occurs
when fresh water bodies like ponds, lakes, pools which contain organic waste material. Because of that,
the fresh water ponds and lakes get polluted. Eutrophication is a type of water pollution. Eutrophication
was recognized as a pollution problem in European and North American lakes and reservoirs in the mid-
20th century. Since then, it has become more widespread. Surveys showed that 54% of lakes in Asia are
eutrophic; in Europe, 53%; in North America, 48%; in South America, 41%; and in Africa, 28%.
120
3. Effects of water pollution
(a) Ecological effects of Eutrophication:
i) Excessive nutrients in water bodies promote plant growth which leads to a drop in water quality;
ii) Lack of oxygen for shellfish and marine life get in trouble (causing a drop in their population).
iii) Decrease in the recreational and aesthetic value of water bodies.
iv) Health problems when it occurs in drinking water reserves.
v) Coral reef will decline.
vi) Decreased biodiversity.
vii) Changes in species composition and dominance and toxicity effects.
viii) Increase of toxic phytoplankton species.
ix) Decreases in water transparency (increased turbidity).
x) Color, smell, and water treatment problems.
xi) Dissolved oxygen depletion.
(b) Water Bloom:
It is defined as “A growth of algae at or near the surface of a body of water, such as a pond”. This
is another kind of water pollution because of the presence of Blue Green Algae (BGA). Blue-green algae
are microscopic organisms that can be considered as simple aquatic plants that occur naturally in habitats
such as marine waters, rivers, lakes, damp soil, tree trunks, hot springs and snow. They can vary
considerably in shape, colour and size. They usually are present in low numbers. Blue-green algae can
become very abundant in warm, shallow, undisturbed surface water that receives a lot of sunlight. When
this occurs, they can form blooms that discolor the water or produce floating rafts or scums on the surface
of the water. Blue in color or blue green water, this is unsuitable for drinking. This type of pollution of
fresh water bodies by blue Green Algae is generally called “Water Bloom”.
(c) Industrial water pollution:
Many industries discharge waste materials containing harmful chemicals. Such Industrial wastes
are called effluents. Rivers get polluted when the river water is polluted by mixing of chemical substances
released by the petrochemical industries, paper industries, chemical industries etc. The river Godavari is
polluted because of effluents released by the paper industry. It affects the entire water ecosystem causing
enormous damage to fishes, prawns and fresh water animals.
Eg: Minimita disease & Fluorosis.
Minamata disease is a neurological syndrome caused by severe mercury poisoning. Symptoms include
ataxia, numbness in the hands and feet, general muscle weakness, narrowing of the field of vision and
damage to hearing and speech. In extreme cases, insanity, paralysis, coma, and death follow within weeks
of the onset of symptoms. Minamata disease was first discovered in Minamata city in Japan in 1956. It
was caused by the release of methyl mercury from, the Chisso Corporation's chemical factory, which
continued from 1932 to 1968. This highly toxic chemical bio- accumulated in shellfish and fish in
Minamata Bay which when eaten by the local populace resulted in mercury poisoning. While cat, dog,
121
pig, and human deaths continued over more than 30 years, the government and company did little to
prevent the pollution.
Similarly the presence of excess nitrates (>45 PPM) in drinking water cause blue baby syndrome disease.
(d) Fluorosis:
People suffer from a disease called fluorosis after consuming water containing fluorine for
sufficiently a long time. Quantity of fluoride in water is only 1 ppm (WHO standards) (1-1.5 ppm, India
standards).
Diseases caused by fluorosis are:
i) Back pain and cannot easily bend.

ii) Joints are stiffened as so movement of joints is impaired.
iii) Teeth are the worst effected and a brown coating appears on the enamel of teeth giving bad
appearance.
iv) Persons with fluorosis cannot erect freely.
4. Preventions or control measures of water pollution:
1. Drinking water should be boiled, cooled and then used.

2. Disinfection of drinking water should be done by using chemicals like bleaching powder.
3. Pesticides and insecticides should be prevented from nearby use of water lakes, ponds and pools.
4. Drainage water should not be allowed to mix with drinking water.
5. Drainage system should be maintained properly.
6. Chlorination process is to be adopted for drinking water. For 1 litre of water 30-40 mg of chlorine
is to be added to get perfect disinfection. It kills bacteria, fungi, fungal spores and other microbes
also.
7. Reverse osmosis, UV-treated and ozonized water is one of the established drinking water
technology which helps in providing the safe drinking water. All the municipalities should equip
the technology to provide safe drinking water.
Some of drinking water quality standards
S. No. Parameter Allowed limit Remarks
1 Colour 5 hazen units Max 25 hazen units
2 Odour Unobjectionable -
3 Taste Agreeable -
4 Turbidity 5 NTU Max 10 NTU
122
5 pH Value 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
6 Total hardness 300 ppm (mg/L) Max 600
7 Calcium 75 ppm Max 200 ppm
8 Magnesium 20-30 ppm Max 50 ppm
9 Nitrate 50 ppm No relaxation
10 Fluoride 1 ppm 1.5 ppm
11 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 500 ppm -
3. Soil Pollution
Soil is a thin covering over the land consisting of a mixture of minerals, organic material, living
organisms, air and water that together support the growth of plant life. Several factors contribute to the
formation of soil from the parent material. This includes mechanical weathering of rocks due to
temperature changes and abrasion, wind, moving water, glaciers, chemical weathering activities and
lichens. Climate and time are also important in the development of soils. Extremely dry or cold climates
develop soils very slowly while humid and warm climates develop them more rapidly. Under ideal
climatic conditions soft parent material may develop into a centimeter of soil within 15 years. Under poor
climatic conditions a hard parent material may require hundreds of years to develop into soil.
Any contaminant, which causes adverse change in the soil quality, is called as soil pollution.
1. Causes of Soil Pollution
i. Population growth
ii. Urbanization
iii. Industrialization
iv. Excessive use of insecticides
v. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers
vi. Dumping of waste materials such as plastic, expired chemicals, etc.,
vii. More than necessary use of irrigation projects
123
2. Types of Soil Pollution
Soil pollution is two types.
Soil Pollution
Natural Soil Pollution Man-made Soil Pollution
Agriculture Industry Domestic

Eg: Volcano eruption
Pollution Pollution Pollution
3. Impact of Modern Agriculture on Soil Degradation
Industrial agriculture is a form of modern farming that refers to the industrialized production of livestock,
poultry, fish and crops. The methods of industrial agriculture are techno-scientific, economic and
political. They include innovation in agricultural machinery, hybrid seeds and farming. Modern methods
of agriculture have resulted in use of fertilizers and pesticides to increase the yield of the crops. Most of
them are synthetic and chemicals-based. They are collectively called agro-chemicals. These intensive
practices have several environmental impacts as given in the following Figure.
124
Modern
Agriculture
Impacts related to Intensive

Fertilizer related Pesticides related
high yielding irrigation related
impacts impact
varieties impacts
Micro Nitrate Eutro- Water logging Salinity

nutrient
Pollution Phication (Soil Problems
imbalance
respiration
(Blue baby (Water (lower crop
(N, P, K) issues)
blooms) yields)
Pest resistance
Syndrome) Loss of many Biological
Easy attack Rapid problem non-targeted magnification
nutrient loss species
by pathogens (Pest immunity (Pesticides
increases) (Earthworms) level increases)
due to same
varieties
3.Effects of Soil Pollution
i) These pollutants affect and alter the chemical and biological properties of soil.
ii) As a result, hazardous chemicals can enter into human food chain from the soil or water, disturb
the biochemical process and finally lead to serious effects on living organisms.
4. Control measures of soil pollution

i) Soil erosion can be controlled by a variety of forestry and farm practices. Contour cultivation and
strip cropping may be practiced instead of shifting cultivation. Terracing and building diversion
channels may be undertaken. Reducing deforestation and substituting chemical manures by
animal wastes also helps arrest soil erosion in the long term.
ii) Proper dumping of unwanted materials: Excess wastes by man and animals pose a disposal
problem. Open dumping is the most commonly practiced technique. Nowadays, controlled
tipping is followed for solid waste disposal. The surface so obtained is used for housing or sports
field.
iii) Production of natural fertilizers: Bio-pesticides should be used in place of toxic chemical
pesticides. Organic fertilizers should be used in place of synthesized chemical fertilizers. Ex:
Organic wastes in animal dung may be used to prepare compost manure instead of throwing them
wastefully and polluting the soil.
125
iv) Proper hygienic condition: People should be trained regarding sanitary habits.
Ex: Lavatories should be equipped with quick and effective disposal methods.
v) Public awareness: Informal and formal public awareness programs should be imparted to educate
people on health hazards by environmental education.
Ex: Mass media, Educational institutions and voluntary agencies can achieve this.
vi) Recycling and Reuse of wastes: To minimize soil pollution, the wastes such as paper, plastics,
metals, glasses, organics, petroleum products and industrial effluents etc should be recycled and
reused.
Ex: Industrial wastes should be properly treated at source. Integrated waste treatment methods
should be adopted.
vii) Ban on Toxic chemicals: Ban should be imposed on chemicals and pesticides like DDT, BHC, etc
which are fatal to plants and animals. Nuclear explosions and improper disposal of radioactive
wastes should be banned.
4. Noise Pollution
Everyone knows that sound is a form of energy that is capable of causing disturbances in human
beings and structure (buildings, bridges, etc.,). Ears are the hearing organs in human beings. A thin
membrane is called Tympanum (or) ear drum receives the vibrations produced by sound to a limited
extent. Human ear is capable of perceiving about 85 decibels of sound. Beyond the limit, the ear drum
cannot bear sound. In nature, we hear different types of sounds. Sound is a kind of vibration which travel
through air, water, and are sensed by the ear. This is from music, speech, etc from radio / television /
computers etc., one thing in this matter is that we can increase the volume of sound or decrease as per our
taste whereas, a noise is a sound which cannot be heard clearly and only mixed sounds will be heard.
Ex: In general, a sound is a vibration from a particular machine, place or material which can be heard
clearly whereas a noise a mixed vibrations that will come to us from all directions. A sound can be clear
and can be able to hear, whereas a noise will not be clear and cannot be heard.
1. Sources of Noise pollution

An unwanted sound is called noise. When it cross optimum limit then that is called noise pollution.
This noise pollution occurs through different sources:
i. Vehicles produce noise that leads to noise pollution.

ii. Automobile industry is another source of noise pollution.
iii. Noise pollution is very common in industrial areas where machines are working for factories
making more noise.
iv. The sources of noise are more in urban and industrial areas, than in rural areas.
v. The sources of noise may be stationary or mobile.
vi. The stationary sources include industries, loud speakers, mining operations and use of
machineries, TV, Radio and Grinders etc.
vii. The mobile sources include Road Traffic, Highway Noise, Railway Traffic and Air Traffic.
126
Noise can be classified into two types. They are natural noise pollution (Eg. Thunders) and Man-made
noise pollution (Eg. Industrial, vehicles, etc.,)
Stationary sources:
(a) Industrial noise: The main categories of industrial activity that are particularly relevant to the study
of noise are the following: Product fabrication Product assembly Power generation by means of
generators. Combusting process in furnaces. (Burning of gases)
(b) Noise from construction works: Construction noise, a major source of noise pollution is emitted by
construction equipment. The sources of noise are dozers, excavators, front end loaders, soil
compactors, cranes, air compressors, concrete vibrators, riveting steel structure during the casting,
dismantling of construction materials etc...
(c) Noise from other sources: These include sources such as sirens, barking dogs, ambulances, Police
vehicles, Fire engines etc.
Mobile sources:
Road traffic: Of all sources of noise pollution, road traffic is the most prevalent and perhaps the most
source of noise pollution. More people are exposed to noise from motor vehicles and the noise depends on
various factors such as Road location, Road design, Vehicle standards, Horns, Traffic density. ,
Noise of common road vehicles
Vehicle type Noise(db)
Medium road traffic ( Main roads ) 70- 80
Heavy road traffic ( High ways ) 80- 90
Buses & Trucks upto 3.5 tons 85- 95
Trucks upto 3.5-12 tons 90-100
Motor cycles 90-105
It can be observed that motor cycles with their exposed engines and inadequate silencing arrangements
are notorious noise producers, which produce more than 30 times, sound than a small passenger car.
Railway traffic: Noise from railway traffic is not serious nuisance as compared to the road traffic noise.
The level of noise associated with rail traffic is related to the type of engine, the speed of the train, track
type and condition. The majority of noise emitted by trains is produced by the engine (or) by the
interaction of wheels with the tracks, horns, warning signals at crossings etc..,
Air traffic: The noise of aircraft is different from that of road traffic in the sense it is intermittent. Noise
is maximum during takeoff and landing. Noise made by jet planes is more disturbance than that of
propeller driven aircraft. Supersonic aircraft produce noise at high levels due to its intensity.
127
2. Effects of Noise Pollution:
At 120 decibels, the ear registers pain but hearing damage begins about 85 decibels. Apart from
hearing loss, noise can cause lack of sleep, irritation, indigestion, ulcers, High blood pressure, Heart
diseases , Stress, speech problems, anxiety, depression, etc.,.
Annoyance (Feeling slightly angry): One of the most important effects of noise on human is annoyance.
Due to this breathing rate affects.
Noise- induced hearing loss: Exposure to noise for long enough duration results in damage to the inner
ear and thus decreases one‟s ability to hear. The louder the noise the less time it takes to cause hearing
loss.
Effects on sleep: Noise disturbs sleep. It has been found that the cases related to various levels of noise
are associated with sleep disturbances. Sleep disturbance by noise depends on the characteristics of the
noise such as frequency, loudness and whether the noise is continuous or intermittent.
Other effects: There are many other effects of noises, which involve aggression (ready to attack). People
may neurological disorder, hence, nonfunctioning of hands, legs etc due to the continuous exposure to the
noise pollution.
On structures: Sometimes noise causes cracks to the buildings, bridges and even collapse at high pitch
sounds.
3. Controlling of Noise pollution:
Noise pollution could be controlled by either reducing the noise at the source or by preventing its
transmission. The first step in the prevention of noise pollution is to control the noise at source itself.
i. Lubrication of machines reduces the noise produced

ii. Tightening the loose nuts
iii. Reducing the vibrations produced by machines etc.
iv. Developing of new technologies to get free from noise pollution
v. Electric vehicles (e-vehicles) reduce the noise pollution great extent
vi. Bringing awareness among the people about noise pollution and consequence of noise pollution
vii. Through laws noise from various social functions, meetings, etc., can be controlled.
viii. Festivals (Diwali, Dhasara, moharam, etc.,) should celebrate with low noise pollution.
ix. Avoiding horns except in emergency situations.
x. Sound proof or eco-generators and turning down the volume of stereos.
128

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CHEMISTRY

B.Tech I Semester – R20

ACADEMIC YEAR: 2020-2021

Dr. V Anitha Rani, Associate Professor

COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

MODULE-I ELECTROCHEMISTRY AND CORROSION

Program Outcomes And Program Specific Outcomes Mapped To Module I :

Mapping of CO(s) With PO(s) , PSO(s) For Module I:

1. Metallic or Electronic conductors.

rubber, paper, non-metals etc.

like „B‟, Al, „si‟ produces p-type of semi-conductor.

Electro chemical cell (or) Galvanic cell:

The following reactions take place in the cell.

Zn → Zn+2 + 2e- (oxidation)

Cu+2 + 2e- → Cu (Reduction)

reaction is: Zn + Cu Zn+2 + Cu

The galvanic cell can be represented by

Ecell = EMF of the cell.

E right = Reduction potential of right hand side electrode.

Eleft = Reduction potential of left hand side electrode.

Applications of EMF measurement:-

1. Potentiometric titrations can be carried out.

Differences between Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell.

Galvanic cell / Electrochemical cell Electrolytic cell

1. In this cell, chemical energy is converted in 1. In this cell electrical energy is

Single electrode potential : (E)

Standard electrode potential:(E0)

The arrangement of different electrode potential s of different electrodes from highest

Electrode Half-cell reaction E0volts (standard

L i+/Li Li++e- Li -3.04

K+/K K++e- K -2.9

Ca+2/Ca Ca+2+2e- Ca -2.8

Na+/Na Na++e- Na -2.7

Mg+2/Mg Mg+2+2e- Mg -2.3

Zn+2/Zn Zn+2 +2e- Zn -0.76

Ag+/Ag Ag+ + e- Ag +0.7

Pt,Cl2/Cl - Cl2+ 2e- 2Cl- +1.3

Pt,F2/F- F2+2e- 2F-- +2.8

It tells us the effect of electrolyte concentration on electrode potential

Consider a general electrode reaction

Mn+ + ne- → M (s)

Since ∆G = - nFE and ∆G0 =

E = E0 - 2.303 RT / nF log ( a product / a reactant)

This is Nernst equation where

E0 = Standard electrode potential

F = faraday of electricity (96500 C)

R = Gas constant (8.314 k-1 mol-1)

E = E0 - 0.0591/n log ( a product / a reactant)

In dilute solutions, activities may be replaced by molar concentrations terms,

E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log ( [M(s)] / [M n+ (aq)] )

E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log ( 1 / [M n+ (aq)] )

E = E0 - 0.0591 / n log [M n+ (aq)]

The above equation is Nernst equation for the electrode at 298 k

e.m.f. This relationship generally Known as Nernst equation.

Consider a galvanic cell

Where a,b,c,d represents no. of moles respectively at equilibrium.

E = E0 - 2.303 RT / nF log ( [C]c [D]d /[Aa][Bb])

Thus Nernst equation is applicable for the determination of Emf of cell

Similarly, for the cell reaction.