AGR205

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE CODE: AGR 205
COURSE TITLE:
INTRODUCTION TO AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY
COURSE
GUIDE
AGR 205
INTRODUCTION TO AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY
Course Team S. D. Musa Course (Developer/Writer) - Kogi State

University, Anyigba
Dr. T. E. Ologunorisa (Course Editor)
Professor A. Adebanjo (Programme Leader) –
NOUN
Dr. N. E. Mundi (Course Coordinator) – NOUN
NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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AGR 205 COURSE GUIDE
National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island, Lagos
Abuja Office
5 Dar es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng
Published by
National Open University of Nigeria
Printed 2008
Reprinted 2014
ISBN: 978-058-233-9
All Rights Reserved
iii
CONTENTS PAGE
Introduction…………………………………………………. iv
What You will Learn in this Course ……….………………... iv
Course Aim………………………………………………….. v
Course Objectives…………………………………………… v
Working through this Course………………………………… vi
Course Material……………………………………………… vi
Study Units…………………………………………………... vi
Text Books and References………………………………… viii
Assessment…………………………………………………… viii
Tutor-Marked Assignment…………………………………… ix
Final Examination and Grading………………………………. ix
Summary……………………………………………………. ix
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION
The study of climatology is fundamentally concerned with the weather

and climate of any given area. Essentially, environmental scientists are
interested in the processes which take place in the atmosphere because
the processes affect the various components of the environment.
Climatology has made enormous contributions towards ensuring that we
have a good understanding and control of these processes.
The weather of a place refers to the atmospheric condition at a given

point in time. Climate on the other hand is the synthesis of the weather
of a place over a period of about 35 years. Climatology refers to the
scientific study of climate. It is closely related to meteorology which is
the science of the physical, chemical and dynamic state of the
atmosphere. However, meteorology deals with the study of the weather
while climatology is concerned with the climate.
This course as it is conceived here has to do with the understanding of

the knowledge of certain aspects of climatology which are relevant to
agricultural practices. Essentially, we are talking of agro climatology as
implying the use of climatological data in ensuring the practical and
effective management of agriculture.
WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

This course carries two credit units.
This course guide tells you briefly what to expect from reading this
course material. The study of agro climatology may be described as the
cross breeding of two disciplines, climatology and agriculture. The
living components of the environment (particularly plants and livestock)
respond in different ways to the atmospheric situations. It is these
interactions between the atmospheric environment and the plants and
livestock that constitute the major concern of agro climatology.
As mentioned earlier, climatology deals with the scientific study of

climate that is the pattern of behaviours of the atmosphere over a long
period of time. In terms of approach the study can be subdivided into
regional climatology which is the description of climates over selected
areas of the earth; synoptic climatology which relates the prevailing
atmospheric condition to weather and climate; physical climatology
which emphasises global energy and water balance regimes of the earth
and the atmosphere amongst others.
Weather and climate being the focal point of climatology, the various
components like rainfall, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind
amongst others will be examined. The controlling factors, altitude,
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AGR 205 INTRODUCTION TO AGRO-CLIMATOLOGY
latitude, temperature, etc of the different elements together with

dynamics of the earth’s atmosphere will also be discussed.
Radiation, the incoming and outgoing solar energy, determines the

temperature of the various places on earth. Atmospheric moisture is the
level of wetness of the atmospheric air; it determines the humidity of the
air. The differential heating of the earth’s surface results in the spatial
temperature variation of pressure which eventually determines the
direction of movement of the wind.
The processes of rainfall starts with an uplift expansion of warm air

until it reaches saturation point. It reaches the climax when condensation
of water vapour results in precipitation.
The temperature, daylight, radiation, rainfall and evapotranspiration will

vary with season. The fluctuations are attributable to change in
atmospheric conditions with season.
Measurement of the various elements of climate is done using

specialised equipment like the thermometer, rain gauges, wind vanes,
anemometers, sunshine recorders among others. These equipment are
kept in various positions in a standard meteorological station (where
they are monitored for the various data) and are properly maintained.
The tropics have relatively higher temperatures than other parts of the
world. The warm climates have peculiar implications for agriculture
particularly as it affects crops, livestock, irrigation, pests and diseases.
COURSE AIM
The course aims to provide a good understanding of the climatic

systems for a better management of agriculture.
COURSE OBJECTIVES
After going through this course, you should be able to:
• Explain the nature and scope of climatology

• Explain the elements and factors of weather and climate
• Explain the dynamics of the atmosphere
• Appreciate the dynamics of pressure and wind systems.
• Appreciate the seasonal variations in the different factors of the
climate
• Identify the equipment used to measure the various elements of
climate and state how to maintain them
Expressly state the relationship between climate and agriculture.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE
This course has been carefully put together bearing in mind the fact that
it is an introductory course. However, efforts have been made to ensure
adequate explanation of the concepts and issues treated in the work.
Diagrams and tables have been used where necessary to enhance your
understanding. You are advised to spend good time to study the work
and ensure that you attend tutorial sessions where you can ask questions
and compare your knowledge with that of your classmates.
COURSE MATERIALS
You will be provided with the following materials:
A Course guide
Study Units.
In addition, the course comes with a list of recommended text books

which are not compulsory for you to acquire or read, but are essential to
give you more insight into the various topics discussed.
STUDY UNITS
The course is divided into 15 units. The following are the study units
contained in this course:
Module 1
Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope

Unit 2 Elements of Climate and Weather I
Unit 3 Elements of Climate and Weather II
Unit 4 Dynamics of Earth’s Atmosphere
Unit 5 Radiation and Heating of the Atmospheric System
Module 2
Unit 1 Atmospheric Moisture

Unit 2 The Dynamics of Pressure and Wind Systems
Unit 3 Condensation and the Precipitation Process
Unit 4 Seasonal Variations in Temperature Daylight, Radiation
Unit 5 Seasonal Variation in Rainfall and Evaporation
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Module 3
Unit 1 Equipment and Maintenance of a Standard Meteorological

Station
Unit 2 Measurement of Air Pressure, Wind Speed, Wind
Direction, Radiation and Sunshine Duration
Unit 3 Measurement of Evaporation and Evapotranspiration and
the Maintenance of a Standard Meteorological Station
Unit 4 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics I
Unit 5 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics II
Module 1
In unit one you will be taken through the definition of weather and
climate and the activities of man’s influence on these two phenomena.
You will also be taken through the meaning of climatology and how it
differs from meteorology. In the next two units, you will be taken
through the elements of weather and climate and their control factors.
Temperature and solar radiation are focused in unit two while forms of
precipitation and distribution of pressure and winds are discussed in unit
three.
The dynamics of the earth’s atmosphere constitute the major focus of

unit four. You will be taken through the peculiarities of the atmospheric
circulation systems including the general circulation and others.
The general principles involved in radiation and heating of the

atmospheric system form the theme of unit five. You will be taken
through the form and nature of solar radiation and how the atmosphere
is heated up by terrestrial radiation.
Module 2
In unit one, you will be taken through the source of the moisture in the
atmosphere. Also you will be introduced to the knowledge of the
amount and distribution of atmospheric moisture. Unit two will
introduce you to the dynamics of pressure and wind systems. You will
also learn about the various belts of permanently low and high pressure
and the global wind system.
The processes of condensation and precipitation will be introduced to

you in unit three. You will also be taken through the formation and
types of precipitation.
In unit four, you will be introduced to the seasonal variations in

radiation, daylight and temperature. Again you will learn about the
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
factors responsible for these variations, particularly from one latitude to

the other.
Unit five again introduces you to seasonal variations as they affect

evaporation and rainfall. You will also learn about the major factors
controlling the climate of West Africa which is the Inter Tropical
Discontinuity (ITD)
Module 3
In unit one, you will learn about the categories of weather stations and
the measurement of elements like rainfall, air temperature and humidity.
You will be exposed to the instruments and procedures of measuring air
pressure, wind speed, wind direction, radiation and sunshine duration in
unit two.
In unit three, you will learn about evapotranspiration. Also you will be
taken through how to maintain a standard meteorological station.
Unit four introduces you to the general effects of radiation, photo

periodism, water and humidity on the growth of crops.
Unit five introduces you to the effects of temperature on crop growth.

You will further learn about the relationship between agriculture and
irrigation on one hand and agriculture and pests and diseases on the
other. Finally, you will learn about the relationships between climate
and livestock.
TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES
The following textbooks are recommended for further reading
Ayoade, J.O. (2004).Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics.

Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Ayoade, J.O. (2002).Introduction to Agro Climatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers.
Donald Ahren C. (1994). Meteorology Today. An Introduction to

Weather, Climate and the Environment (5th ed). U.S.A: West
Publishing Company.
Ojo,O.et al (2001) .Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic Climatology

Lagos: SEDEC Publishers.
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ASSESSMENT
There are two components of assessment for this course. They are the
Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMA), and the end of course examination.
TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
The TMA is the continuous assessment component of your course. It

accounts for 30% of the total score. The TMAs will be given to you by
your facilitator and you will return it after you have done the
assignment.
FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING
This examination concludes the assessment for the course. It constitutes

70% of the whole course. You will be informed of the time for the
examination.
SUMMARY
This course intends to provide you with the knowledge of weather and
climate as it affects agricultural production. By the end of this course
you will be able to answer the following questions.
• What is weather and climate and how do they affect the activities
of man?
• Discuss the nature and scope of climatology.
• Discuss the radiation balance of the earth’s atmospheric system.
• Describe and explain the general circulation of the atmosphere.
• Discuss the main theories of raindrop formation.
• Discuss the global distribution of pressure and wind.
• Describe the mode of formation of the convective, cyclonic and
orographic precipitation.
• Comment about the importance of Inter Tropical Discontinuity.
• Describe the features of a standard meteorological station.
• Discuss the important steps to be adopted in the maintenance of
meteorological stations.
• Explain the influence of solar radiation on crop growth and
development.
• Explain the influences of temperature on crop production.
We wish you success in this course and hope that you will have a better
understanding of the agro climatic phenomena in your environment.
Best of luck.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
MAIN
COURSE
CONTENTS PAGE
Module 1………………………….………………………….……..… 1
Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope………………….…... 1

Unit 2 Elements of Climate and Weather I ……………..……. 6
Unit 3 Elements of Climate and Weather II……………..…. 13
Unit 4 Dynamics of Earth’s Atmosphere………………………19
Unit 5 Radiation and Heating of the Atmospheric
System………………………………………………… 25
Module 2………………………………………………….……….. 31
Unit 1 Atmospheric Moisture……………………….……… 31

Unit 2 The Dynamics of Pressure and Wind System…….…. 37
Unit 3 Condensation and Precipitation Process………….…. 41
Unit 4 Seasonal Variations in Temperature Daylight,
Radiation……………………………………………… 48
Unit 5 Seasonal Variations in Rainfall and Evaporation………54
Module 3……………………………………………………………. 60
Unit 1 Equipment and Maintenance of a Standard

Meteorological Station……………………................. 60
Direction, Radiation and Sunshine Duration…………. 68
Unit 3 Measurement of Evaporation and
Evapotranspiration and the Maintenance of a
Standard Meteorological Station………….……….… 76
Unit 4 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics I………….... 83
Unit 5 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics II……………. 89
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MODULE 1
Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope Elements

Unit 2 of Climate and Weather I Elements of
Unit 3 Climate and Weather II Dynamics of
Unit 4 Earth’s Atmosphere Radiation and
Unit 5 Heating of the Atmospheric System
UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES, AIMS AND SCOPE OF

CLIMATOLOGY
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Weather and Climate
3.2 Principles and Scope of Climatology
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The various activities of man are influenced in numerous ways by the
weather. The study of the weather (state of the atmosphere at a given
time and place) is therefore as ancient as man’s curiosity about his
environment. The way man lives, the air he breathes, the food he eats
and the water he drinks are all weather related. Weather phenomena was
thought to be controlled by the gods until about 400 BC when
Hippocrates and Aristotle published their works; Air, Waters and
Places, and Meteorological respectively. The works represented the sum
of knowledge on weather and climate at that time.
Traditional climatology is primarily concerned with describing the

distribution pattern of weather elements over space and time within areas
ranging in size from 1 or 2 km2 to the whole earth. This descriptive
approach to the study of weather and climate has several deficiencies
which led to misconceptions about how atmospheric processes operate.
Modern climatology has however tried to remove these deficiencies.
Explanation and description of atmospheric phenomena is now being
emphasised. Efforts are now being made to understand the processes and
interactions taking place within the atmosphere and at the earth’s
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
atmosphere interface. Modern climatology emerged from the challenges

posed by the needs of society and the improvement in data collection
and analysis. This unit examines the principles, aims and scope of
climatology.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• define weather and climate

• define climatology
• understand the principles and aims of climatology
• understand the scope of climatology.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Weather and Climate
When we talk about weather, we refer to the state of the atmosphere at a

given point in time at a given place. Weather is dynamic and has the
elements of: air temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, precipitation,
visibility and wind. If we measure and observe these weather elements
over a specified period of time, we would obtain the average weather or
the climate of a particular place. Climate is therefore the accumulation
of daily and seasonal weather events of a given location over a period of
30-35 years. The concept of climate is more than the average weather
condition, it also includes weather events, considerations of variabilities
(departure from averages), extreme conditions, and the probabilities of
frequencies of occurrences of given weather conditions. In summary
therefore, weather deals with the specific while climate deals with a
generalisation of weather events. Weather and climate play a major role
in our lives. Weather for example, often dictates the type of clothing we
wear, while climate determines what types of crops can be planted and
when to plant the crops. Weather determines if these same crops will
grow to maturity. The most immediate effect of weather and climate is
on our comfort. In order to survive the cold of winter and the heat of
summer, we build our houses, heat them, cool them, only to find that
when we leave our shelter we are at the mercy of the weather elements.
Even when we are properly dressed for the weather, wind, humidity and
precipitation can change our perception of how cold or warm it feels. On
a cold, windy day the effects of wind chill tell us that it feels much
colder than it really is, and if not properly dressed, we run the risk of
catching cold or developing catarrh. On a hot humid day we normally
feel uncomfortably warm and blame it on the humidity of the weather. If
69
we become too warm our bodies overheat and heat exhaustion may
result.
1. How does weather differ from climate?

2. Describe the role of weather and climate in our lives.
3.2 Principles and Scope of Climatology
Climatology is the scientific study of climate. It deals with the trend of

weather over a long period of time. Essentially, climatology is an
atmospheric science; though closely related but different from
meteorology, it is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena. The
difference basically is in the methodology adopted. Whereas the
meteorologist employs the laws of classical physics and mathematical
techniques in the study of atmospheric processes, the climatologist relies
on statistical techniques to derive information about climate from
weather data. Like climatology, meteorology embraces both weather and
climate but elements of meteorology must of necessity be incorporated
into climatology to make the later meaningful and scientific.
The atmosphere is not only dynamic but also complex, as earlier

mentioned, therefore the aim of climatology is to describe and explain
the atmospheric phenomena with a view to promoting a better
understanding of the processes and interactions within the atmosphere
and between the atmosphere and the earth’s surface.
Climatology has a wide scope and it can be subdivided either on the

basis of the topics emphasised or on the scale of the atmospheric
phenomena that are emphasised. Ayoade (2004) identified the six
topical subdivision of climatology among others as follows:
1. Regional climatology: It is the description of climates over selected

areas of the earth.
2. Synoptic climatology: It is the study of the weather and climate
over an area in relation to the pattern of the pervading atmospheric
circulation. Synoptic climatology is thus essentially a new
approach to regional climatology.
3. Physical climatology: It involves investigating the behaviour of
weather elements or processes in the atmosphere in terms of
physical principles. Emphasis is on global energy and water
balance regimes of the earth and the atmosphere.
4. Dynamic climatology: It places emphasis on the atmospheric
motions on various scales, particularly the general circulation of
the atmosphere.
5. Applied climatology: It is the application of climatological
knowledge and principles to solving problems facing mankind.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
6. Historical climatology: It is the study of the development of

climate through time.
Several other subdivisions are recognised in the literature. These are, for
instance, agricultural climatology, bioclimatology, building climatology,
urban climatology, statistical climatology, etc. These subdivisions can
however, be subsumed under one or more of the six subdivisions
recognised above. Agricultural climatology, bioclimatology and building
climatology are, for example, aspects of applied climatology.
An alternative approach to the subdivision of climatology is based on

scales of meteorological motion systems (Table 1). It must be
emphasised, however, that the various atmospheric phenomena ranging
from planetary waves to local wind systems constitute a single
continuous spectrum of weather systems. Using the scalar system in
Table 1, the following three subdivisions of climatology can be
recognised.
1. Macro climatology: It is concerned with features of climates of

large areas of the earth and the large scale atmospheric motions
that cause the climate;
2. Meso climatology: It is concerned with the study of climate over
relatively small areas of between 10-100km across (e.g. the study
of urban climate or severe local weather systems like tornadoes
and thunderstorms); and
3. Microclimatology: It is concerned with the study of the climate
close to the ground’s surface or very small areas less than 100
metres across.
Table 1: Scales of meteorological motion systems
Motion system Horizontal Vertical Time scale

scale (km) scale (km) (hours)
Macro
1. Planetary waves 5 x 103 10 2x103 to
2. Synoptic 5x102 to 10 4x102
Perturbations 2x103 10-2
1-10
Meso scale Phenomena 1- 102 Less than 1-10
-1
Micro scale Phenomena Less than 10 10-2 10-2 – 10-1
(Source: Ayoade, 2004)
1. Define climatology. How is it different from meteorology?
2. Explain the scope of climatology.
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4.0 CONCLUSION
The study of climatology is essentially hinged on the knowledge of

weather and climate, the processes which take place in the atmosphere
at specified times and places.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit we have learnt that:
1. The activities of man are influenced by the weather;

2. Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place;
3. Climate is the average weather situation of a place over a period
of 30-35 years;
3. Climatology is the scientific study of climate;
4. Meteorology is the study of the atmosphere and its phenomena;
5. Climatology has a wide scope and can be subdivided into
regional, synoptic, physical, dynamic, applied and historical
climatology among others.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
Without the atmosphere there cannot be climatology. Discuss the above

stated assertion.
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
Ayoade, J.O. (2004). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics.

Ibadan:Spectrum Books Limited.
Donald Ahren C. (1994). Meteorology Today: An Introduction to

Publishing Company.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
UNIT 2 ELEMENTS AND CONTROLS OF CLIMATE

AND WEATHER: TEMPERATURE AND
SOLAR RADIATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Temperature
3.1.1 Factors Influencing Temperature
3.1.2 Climatic Elements
3.2 Solar Radiation
3.2.1 Factors of Solar Radiation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As earlier mentioned, life is dependent on the atmosphere, and there

would be no weather and climate without the atmosphere. To collect
various data on climate certain elements are normally observed and
measured using weather instruments. These elements include
temperature, precipitation, pressure and winds, solar radiation, cloud
cover and humidity. These elements and their spatial distribution are
controlled by one or all the climatic factors (controls): latitude, altitude,
continentality, ocean currents, insolation, prevailing winds, natural
vegetation and soil. The characteristics of solar radiation and
temperature and their control will be discussed in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• know the characteristics of the various climatic elements,

particularly temperature and solar radiation
• understand the effects of climatic factors on the temperature and
solar radiation and how some climatic elements influence other
elements.
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3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Temperature
The main source of the energy for the earth-atmosphere system is the
solar radiation. It is absorbed by either the earth or the atmosphere and
partly converted into sensible heat or other forms of energy. The degree
of sensible heat generated represents what is known as temperature.
Temperature is thus defined as the degree of hotness or coldness.
3.1.1 Factors Influencing Temperature
The main categories of factors influencing temperature characteristics of

a particular surface are climatic elements acting as factors. Such
elements include solar radiation, net radiation, evaporation, winds,
humidity and cloud cover. Non-climatic elements include type of
surface, latitude and continentality.
3.1.2 Climatic Elements
Solar and Net Radiation
Temperatures are substantially affected by the amount of solar or net

radiation available on a particular surface. Temperatures are particularly
higher during summer than during winter season because of the higher
insolation received during summer. During a daily cycle, on a sunny
day, temperatures are highest in the afternoons when values of solar
radiation and consequently net radiation are highest.
Cloud Cover
Cloud cover is another climatic element that significantly influences the

penetration of solar radiation. With cloud cover, the amount of solar
energy received or absorbed at a particular surface is reduced. In turn
this reduces temperatures at the surface making it lower than what
would be if the skies were cloudless. This factor, for example in part
accounts for the lower temperatures in the humid areas with a lot of
clouds compared with the arid areas with little or no cloud cover. The
effect of cloud cover however, also operates in reverse, since it serves to
retain much of the heat that would otherwise be lost from the earth’s
surface by radiation from a particular surface throughout the day or
night (Greenhouse effect). The effects of cloud cover lessen the diurnal
temperature ranges by preventing high maxima by day and low minima
by night. This is usually the situation in the humid areas of the tropical
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
rain forests of West Africa, compared with the arid areas such as in the
Sahara Deserts where the ranges of temperatures are always high.
3.1.3 Non-Climatic Elements
Types of Surfaces
Various types of surfaces react differently to solar radiation incidence in

terms of reflection, absorption, and transmission and this accounts for
the variation in heating potentials.
Vegetation surface: Both the reflectivity and transmission coefficient

affect the amount of solar radiation over vegetated surfaces and
consequently the amount of sensible heat generated. Also, part of the
heat is lost through evaporation and transpiration. Surfaces with high
evapotranspiration heat more slowly than surfaces with less
evapotranspiration.
Land and water surface: Although the heating properties of the many
kinds of land and vegetated surfaces vary considerably, the greatest
contrasts are those between land and water surfaces, which react so
differently to solar radiation. The surfaces of relatively deep bodies of
water heat and cool slowly compared with land surfaces. The most
important reason for this slowness of temperature change is that in
water, a highly mobile matter, redistribution of heat occurs mainly
through turbulence. In contrast to this medium of heat distribution, heat
in the solid earth is distributed by molecular heat conduction, and so
proceeds by moving from particle to particle. In water, on the other hand
ocean currents, waves, tides and conventional overturning systems help
dispersed to absorbed solar energy throughout a large mass of water.
Because there is no such mixing on land, and assuming that equal
amount of energy fall on both surfaces, water surfaces would heat up
more slowly and have lower temperatures than land surfaces.
Latitude: As a result of the earth’s inclination, the midday sun is almost

overhead within the tropics but the sun’s rays reach the earth at an angle
outside the tropics. Thus there is a decrease in temperature from the
equatorial regions to the poles. This is illustrated in Figure 1. Band R1
falls vertically over the equatorial latitudes on surface E. Band R2 falls
obliquely over the temperate latitudes on surface T. R1 travels through a
shorter distance and its concentrated solar insolation heats up a smaller
surface area; temperature is thus high. On the other hand, R2 travels
through a longer distance and much of its heat is absorbed by clouds,
water vapour and dust particles. Its oblique rays have to heat up a larger
area; temperature is therefore low.
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Figure 1: Varying distance in the distribution of
insolation Continentality (Distance from the Sea)
Continentality (or distance from the sea) is another factor which affects
the characteristics of temperature in time and space. For example, near
the ocean or water surface, daily temperature extremes are smaller than
within the continental areas. Moreover, the variability of temperature is
greater in areas far away from the sea than along the coastal areas. Thus
maximum temperatures are higher and minimum temperatures are lower
over continental climates than in oceanic or marine climates.
3.2 Solar Radiation
Life depends substantially on solar radiation because all physical and

biological processes taking place on the earth’s surface or in the
atmosphere involve some form of energy transfer. Solar radiation is also
a major requirement for other processes related to water, land, soil,
vegetation and animals.
The sun provides over 99 per cent of the heat energy required for the
physical processes taking place in the earth – the atmospheric system.
As the sun radiates its energy, the amount received at the outer boundary
of the earth’s atmosphere, at normal incidence and at mean distance
between the earth and the sun is known as the solar constant. The value
of this constant is 2 langley(ly).
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
3.2.1 Factors of Solar Radiation
Solar Input
The solar constant, which is the basic amount of solar input, is a major
factor of solar radiation received by the earth’s surface, outside the
atmosphere. In general the amount of solar radiation received outside
the atmosphere also depends on a number of other factors, which
include solar altitude and the duration of solar energy (length of day).
Solar Altitude
The altitude of the sun (angle between the rays of the sun and at tangent
to the earth’s surface at a point of observation) is an important factor
which affects the amount of insolation received at the earth’s surface. It
depends on the time of the day, the latitude of the location and the time
of the year (session). When the sun’s altitude is great, the solar radiation
intensity per unit area is highly concentrated at the earth’s surface (Fig.
2). For example at noon, the intensity of insolation is greatest, but in the
morning and evening hours when the sun is at a low angle, the amount
of insolation is small. The same principle has a broader application with
respect to latitude and the seasons. In winter and at high latitudes even
the noon sun’s angle is low. In summer and at low latitudes, it is more
nearly vertical and the oblique rays of the low angle sun are spread over
a greater surface than are vertical rays, thus less heating per unit areas is
produced by the low-angle sun.
Fig. 2: Sun’s Angle
The angle at which the solar radiation strikes the earth’s surface
however, also depends upon the surface configuration of the land. For
example, in the middle and high latitudes of the northern hemisphere,
southern slopes receive more direct rays while northern slopes may be
77
entirely in the shade. Also the possible hours of sunshine in a deep

valley may be greatly reduced by surrounding hills.
The Length of Day
The longer the time of day during which the sun shines, the greater the
quantity of radiation which a given portion of the earth will be able to
receive. Table 2 shows the latitudinal variations of sunshine hours
during the solstices and the equinoxes. Note that there are shorter days
during winter solstice of every latitude to the north or south of the
equator. During equinoxes the length of days and nights are equal for
each latitude. Also note that there are six months of daylight hours
during the summer solstice at the pole and zero hours of daylight hours
(six months of darkness) during the winter solstice.
The variation in the length of day is as a result of the revolution of the

earth around the sun and its rotation on its axis. Whereas the earth’s
rotation on its own axis causes day and night, its orbit round the sun
explains the seasons. A complete rotation takes 24 hours resulting in the
alternation of day and night, while a complete revolution takes 365 ¼
days at a variable speed which averages about 26km per second.
The effect of the atmosphere slightly affects the radiation received on

the earth’s surface. The atmosphere absorbs, reflects, scatters and re-
radiates solar energy. Among the atmospheric constituents involved in
the absorption are water vapour, liquid water carbon dioxide and ozone.
Part of the incoming solar radiation is also scattered or reflected back to
space. About 80% of the incoming solar radiations are reflected by
clouds; clouds are powerful reflectors of shortwave radiation.
Table 2 Latitudinal variations of sunshine hours
Latitude Winter Solstice Vernal or Autumal Summer

Equinox Solstice
90o 0 12 hours 0 min 6 months
60o 5 hours 33 min 12 hours 0 min 18 hours 27 min
o
10 11 hours 25 min 12 hours 0 min 12 hours 38 min
0o 12 hours 0 min 12 hours 0 min 12 hours o min
(Source: Ojo, 1977)
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
4.0 CONCLUSION
The spatial distributions of climatic elements are not only affected by

factors of climate but also by other climatic elements.
5.0 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have learnt that:
1. The main source of energy in the atmospheric system is solar

radiation
2. Temperature, the degree of hotness or coldness, is influenced by
climatic and non climatic elements.
3. Solar input, solar altitude and the length of day are some of the
factors which affect solar radiation.
Explain the various factors influencing temperature as an element of

climate.
Areola, O. et al (1992). Certificate Physical and Human Geography for

Senior Secondary Schools. Ibadan: University Press Plc.
Ojo, O. (1977). The Climates of West Africa. Ibadan: Heinemann

Educational Books.
Ojo, O. et al (2001). Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

Climatology. Sedec Publishers.
79
UNIT 3 ELEMENTS AND CONTROL OF CLIMATE

AND WEATHER: PRECIPITATION AND
PRESSURE AND WINDS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Precipitation
3.1.1 Forms of Condensation
3.1.2 Forms of Precipitation
3.2 Pressure and Winds
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Precipitation, pressure and wind are some of the climatic elements that
have substantial influence on weather and climate. They are equally
affected by the climatic factors earlier mentioned.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• know the characteristics and forms of precipitation

• recognise the various forms of condensation and types of clouds
• define atmospheric pressure and wind.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Precipitation
Precipitation is usually in liquid or solid form. The common

precipitation forms include rain, drizzle, snow, sleet and hail. They are
always preceded by condensation or sublimation or a combination of the
two. Let us now look at both forms of condensation and precipitation
3.1.1 Forms of Condensation
The maximum capacity of air for holding moisture may be reached if a

parcel of air is cooled at constant pressure. Thus, the saturation point can
80
AGR 205 MODULE 3
be reached at a particular temperature, even if the amount of the

moisture content in it has not changed. Also the critical temperature at
which saturation vapour pressure is reached is known as the dew point
temperature, which may be defined as the temperature at which the
quantity of water vapour in the air represents the maximum holding
capacity of the air at that temperature.
Further cooling beyond dew point results in condensation either in form

of water if temperature is above 0 oc or, ice if it is below 0oc. Thus if the
air is cooled below the dew point, then the excess of water vapour over
what the air can hold at that temperature is given off in the form of water
or ice. In this regard, condensation has taken place. The main forms of
condensation include dew, frost, fogs and cloud.
Dew
Dew is commonly formed on clear calm nights when rapid radiation

reduces the temperature of the air in contact with the ground. When this
layer of air is cooled sufficiently but at a temperature above O oc,
condensation of water vapour occurs as dew on the ground.
Frost
Frost may be formed by a rapid radiation from ground surfaces at night

when the dew point of the air is below O oc. As a result the water vapour
condenses as ice crystals on the surface in form of hoar frost.When warm
moist air, from which light rain is falling passes over land surfaces with a
temperature well below freezing point, glazed frost results. The rain, on
reaching the very cold ground, immediately turns to ice.
Fog
Fog is the result of the condensation of water vapour near the ground (or
over the sea) on to microscopic particles of dirt and dust in the air. Fog
may be divided into two categories: (1) Radiation fog, (2) Advection
fog.
Radiation Fog: This is a feature of winter the conditions necessary for

the formation are cold weather with clear skies and calm conditions. The
skies allow radiation of heat away from the earth into the atmosphere,
thus cooling the air in contact with the ground. The calm conditions
keep the air in contact with the ground long enough to allow it to be
cooled sufficiently. The fog is formed when the air has been cooled to its
dew point. The dirtier the air, the thicker the fog. Indeed industrial
regions, with their smoky atmospheres, are known for their dense smoky
fog (smog).
81
The warmth of the sun usually disperses the fog before midday, but if
skies are overcast it may persist for days.
Advection Fog: The word advection implies a horizontal movement of

air. If warm moist air passes over very cold land or over sea surfaces,
then cooling of the lower layers of the warm air may result in
condensation and the formation of fog. In West Africa, advection fogs
are most common over the oceans, especially over cool currents.
Sometimes, the term sea fog is used when fogs result from the
movement of warm, moist air over such cold waters.
Clouds
Clouds are forms of condensation, formed when air is moved away from
the land water surface. In particular, most clouds are condensation forms
which have resulted from a lifting process away from the surface. Those
associated with strong rising air currents have vertical development and
a puffy appearance. Those resulting from a gentle lifting or other
methods of cooling tend to spread into layers. Thus the method of their
formation is largely accountable for their appearance. Clouds are
classified on the basis of their height, general appearance and whether
they are composed of water droplets or ice crystals. Four major cloud
types and their variations can be recognised.
1. High Clouds: Mainly cirrus (ci) of feathery form at 6100-

12,200m above ground.
a. Cirrus (ci). This looks fibrous and appears like wisps in

the blue sky; it is often called “wares” tails. It indicates
fair weather, and often gives a brilliant sunset.
b. Cirrocumulus (Cc). This appears as white globular masses,
forming ripples in a “mackerel sky”.
c. Cirrostratus (Cs). This resembles a thin white sheet or veil;
the sky looks milky and the sun or moon shines through it
with a characteristic halo.
2. Middle Clouds: Mainly alto (Alt) or middle height clouds at

2100-6000m.
d. Altocumulus (Ac). These are wooly, bumpy clouds

arranged in layers and appearing like waves in the blue
sky. They normally indicate fine weather.
e. Alto stratus (As). These are denser, grayish clouds with a
“watery” look. They have a fibrous or striated structure
through which the sun’s rays shine faintly.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
3. Low Clouds: Mainly stratus or sheet clouds below 2100m.
f. Stratocumulus (Sc). This is a rough, bumpy cloud with the

waves more pronounced than in altocumulus. There is a
great contrast between the bright and shaded parts.
g. Stratus (St). This is a very low cloud, uniformly grey and
thick, which appears like a low ceiling or highland fog. It
brings dull weather with a light drizzle. It reduces
visibility of aircraft and is thus a danger.
h. Nimbo stratus (Ns). This is a dark dull cloud clearly
layered and is also known as a “rain cloud”. It brings
continuous rain, snow or sheet.
4. Clouds of Vertical Development: Mainly cumulus or heaps

of clouds not limited to any definite height (6100-9000m).
i. Cumulus (Cu). This is a vertical cloud with a rounded top

and horizontal base, typical of humid tropical regions,
associated with up-rising convectional currents. Its great
white globular masses may look grey against the sun but it
is a fair weather cloud.
j. Cumulonimbus (Cb). These are heavy masses of clouds
with great vertical developments, smooth or flattened at
the top, and frequently anvil shaped. Thus their summits
generally look like mountains or towers. They are
normally accompanied by sharp showers, squally
thunderstorms and sometimes hail.
.
3.1.2 Forms of Precipitation
The forms of precipitation include rain, drizzle, snow, sheet and hail.
Drizzle
Drizzle is a rather uniform precipitation of very numerous minute

drops. It usually falls from fog, or thick layers of stratus.
Rain
Rain, which is the most common form of precipitation falls from rising
air, when temperature at lower levels is above 0oc. The droplets, as a
rule are larger in size than drizzle. The maximum size to which a rain
drop can grow is about 5mm in diameter though occasionally rain drops
may be as small in size as the drizzle drops.
83
Snow
Snow is a precipitation of solid water mainly in the form of branched

hexagonal crystals or stars. At temperatures not far from freezing point,
they are usually malted together in large snows flakes.
Sleet
This is precipitation consisting of melting snow or a mixture of snow

and rain. Snow and sleet may melt completely while falling through the
air. They will then appear as rain on the ground.
Hail
Hail is a precipitation of balls or irregular lumps of ice of diameters

ranging from 5-50mm or more. They are either transparent or composed
of clear layers of ice alternating with opaque layers of snow-like
structure. Hail falls almost exclusively in violent thunderstorms and is
very rare at temperatures below freezing at the earth’s surface.
3.2 Pressure and Winds
Pressure and winds are significant in climatology, first as elements of

climate, but also very importantly as factors, especially of temperature
and precipitation.
Atmospheric pressure can be defined as the weight exerted upon the

earth by the atmosphere. The average air pressure at sea-level is around
1013 millibars but it varies slightly according to latitude. The air
pressure decreases with altitude; at 4500 metres it is only 572 millibars.
This is because at high altitude air is less dense.
Temperature also affects pressure because a rise in temperature causes

the air to expand, reducing the air pressure. The reverse is the case when
temperature falls, the air contracts and becomes denser, causing increase
in air pressure.
There is a general variation in pressure over the earth’s surface. Air flow
is from areas of high pressure towards areas of low pressure. However,
because of the earth’s rotation, air flow is deflected. In the northern
hemisphere it is deflected to the right; in the southern hemisphere it is
deflected to the left.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
4.0 CONCLUSION
Precipitation is preceded by condensation which occurs in various

forms. Depending on temperature, precipitation may occur either in
solid or liquid form. Pressure and wind also have significant effects on
weather.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Precipitation is in liquid or solid form depending on the

temperature when it is formed
2. The process of condensation results in precipitation and there are
different forms of condensation.
3. Pressure is the weight of atmospheric air exerted on the earth.
4. Air flow is from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure
and it is deflected to either left or right.
1. What is condensation and in what forms does it exist?

2. Explain the various forms of precipitation.
3. Without the atmosphere there cannot be climatology. Discuss this
assertion.
4. What do you understand by climatic elements? Explain the
factors affecting the distribution of temperature and precipitation.
5. What is precipitation and in what form does it exit?
6. Explain the various forms of precipitation.

Ojo, O. (1977).The Climates of West Africa. Ibadan: Heinemann

Educational Books.

Climatology. Sedec Publishers.
85
UNIT 4 DYNAMICS OF EARTH’S ATMOSPHERE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Atmospheric Circulations
3.1.1 Factors of Generation Circulation of the
Atmosphere
3.2 Atmospheric Circulation Systems
3.2.1 The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
3.2.2 Other Circulation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
As earlier mentioned there are variations in the net radiation over the
earth’s surface and between the surface of the earth and the atmosphere.
This situation is responsible for the dynamism experienced in the
atmosphere. All atmospheric circulations or motions are caused by
energy inequalities which produce temperature and pressure variations.
This unit examines atmospheric circulations and some of the factors
affecting them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain some of the factors of atmospheric circulation

• describe the atmospheric motions at the various scales that is
primary, secondary and tertiary scales.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Atmospheric Circulations
3.1.1 Factors of the General Circulation of the Atmosphere
The factors which influence the general circulation of the atmosphere

include radiation balance, pressure gradient force, rotation of the earth
etc.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Radiation Balance
Radiation balance is the difference between absorbed solar radiation and

effective outgoing radiation. It adds up to zero for the earth’s
atmospheric system over a period of a year. This prevents the earth from
getting warmer or cooler. Over shorter periods or small areas, on the
other hand, this equilibrium does not occur. There is an excess of
radiation balance in the low latitudes and marked deficits in the high
latitudes. These results in a pole ward temperatures gradient both at the
surface and in the atmosphere. The tropics are thus belts serving as a
heat source, while the poles serve as heat sinks. If there were no
circulation to transport the excess from equatorial regions to the poles,
the tropics would be getting hotter and the high latitude getting colder.
With the general circulation however, heat is transferred from the heat
source to the heat sinks, so maintaining the average temperatures of the
world. The leveling up of temperature is done mostly through the
transfer of sensible heat and by the transportation of water vapour and its
latent heat from the zones where evaporation is predominant to zones
where precipitation is predominant and between the oceans, which
provide 90 per cent of atmospheric water vapour and the continents.
Pressure Gradient
The atmosphere exerts pressure because air has weight or mass. The
mass of a column of air over a given point determines the atmospheric
pressure at the point. At sea level the average pressure is 1013 mb.
Horizontal pressure differences result primarily from temperature

differences which produce air movements or winds. Thus, the
underlying factors of most pressure differences at the bottom of the
atmosphere are the same causes of horizontal distribution of
temperature; latitude and land-water relationships being the most
important. There are thus differences in the distribution of pressure due
to thermal causes, and winds generally move from the areas with cold
heavy air to areas with the lighter warm air. In addition there are also
mechanical causes. The differences in the distribution of pressure
between two adjacent areas in turn sets the air in motion and causes
winds to blow from areas of high to areas of low pressure. The
difference in relation to the slope of the two adjacent areas is called
pressure gradient. A pressure gradient is thus the immediate cause of all
air movement, the direction of air flow being from high pressure to low
pressure, and the velocity of the air flow being directly related to the
pressure gradient, that is the rate of change of pressure with distance.
The pressure gradient is steep when the rate of change is great, and the
steeper the gradient, the more rapid will be the flow of the air.
87
Rotation of the Earth
The rotation of the earth prevents direct meridional circulation that

would result from the imbalance of net radiation of the world. Coriolis
force is the term given to the force resulting form the rotation of the
earth. As mentioned earlier, the effect of the force is at maximum at the
poles while at the equator the effect becomes zero. The deflective force
causes the winds to be deflected to the right in a northern hemisphere
and to the left in the southern hemisphere.
Friction
The frictional force affects both wind speed and wind direction. The
movement of air is retarded by friction between the moving air and the
surface of the earth. The frictional effect of the earth’s surface varies
with height. It is of importance only below the frictional layer 1500 to
1000 metres although it tends to be deeper over rough terrain or under
unstable conditions
There is also internal friction within the air itself, although this is very
small and varies with height. Because the force acts in the opposite
direction to the wind direction, the flow of surface air is not essentially
parallel to the isobars as is the air in the free atmosphere which increases
with the frictional force.
3.2 Atmospheric Circulation Systems.
Let us now examine the categories of the atmospheric circulations

systems.
3.2.1 The General Circulation of the Atmosphere
The underlying cause of the general circulation is the unequal

distribution of net radiation. These inequalities exist between the
atmosphere and earth’s surface on one hand and between the tropics and
extra tropical areas on the other. To balance these inequalities, the
atmosphere transfers warm air pole-wards and cool air equator wards.
If we assume a homogenous non-rotating earth the global wind systems

would look much simpler than they are shown in Figure 3. However,
with a homogenous rotating earth, the winds will be subject to both the
pressure gradient and coriolis forces. Winds moving from areas of high
pressure to those of low pressure are deflected as explained in unit 3, to
the right of their path in the northern hemisphere and to the left of their
path in the southern hemisphere. For a heterogeneous rotating earth, the
pressure distribution patterns are more cellular than zonal owing to the
88
AGR 205 MODULE 3
differential heating of land and water surface. The global wind systems
will then be as shown in Figure 3. If we impose the varied topography of
the earth’s surface on this, the pattern of wind system will be more
complex than that shown in Figure 3.
Fig 3: Global wind system
Relief can influence the wind systems in various ways. First they can
pose a barrier to air flow; secondly, they can have a channeling effect on
air flow. Relief also reduces wind speed at low levels through frictional
dragion air flow.
The global pattern of general circulations is thus influenced by a change

in any of the factors discussed above. The global wind systems
discussed above are for the surface level only. Other wind systems like
the Rossby waves, easterly waves and jet streams are also encountered
at the middle and upper levels of the atmosphere.
3.2.2 Other Circulations
The day-to-day weather activities over a given area are determined more
by secondary and tertiary circulation systems which are embedded in the
89
general circulation of the atmosphere. These include the monsoon,

cyclones, anticyclones, land and sea breeze.
The Monsoon
The seasonal variation in the temperature between the land and sea
result in the seasonal wind systems called monsoons. During summer,
the continental land masses become warmer than the surrounding water
surfaces, resulting in temperature induced low pressure centre over the
land surface. The wind therefore blows from the sea to the land,
bringing abundant moisture. (Fig. 3). During the winter however, the
continental land masses are much colder than the seas. This
consequently causes a shallow high pressure cell over land with a lower
pressure over the adjacent water surface which leads to the development
of a land to sea pressure gradient and wind. (Fig. 3). The cold dry air
from the land is poor in moisture content and brings no precipitation.
Monsoons are best developed in eastern and southern Asia, because of

the size of the continent which intensifies the continental effect on
weather. In areas such as West Africa and North America, the systems
are not as well developed.
Land and Sea Breezes
These occur as a result of diurnal variation in the heating of land and

water and they may be called daily monsoons. They differ from the
large seasonal monsoons because they result from lesser changes in
pressure. During the day, the air moves from the sea to the much heated
land while at night, a reversed condition occurs, the wind blows from
the much cooled land to the sea (Ayoade 2002).
4.0 CONCLUSION
The atmosphere is far from being stable at any time. It is highly dynamic
and this is attributable to the variation in the amount of solar radiation
received over the earth’s surface. Between the earth’s surface and the
atmosphere the global atmospheric circulation system has the regional
and local circulation embedded in it and it is these lower level
circulation systems that are responsible for the day to day weather
activities over any given area.
90
AGR 205 MODULE 3
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Radiation balance, pressure gradient force, rotation of the earth

and frictional force are some of the factors of the general
circulation of the atmosphere.
2. General circulation of the atmosphere is caused by unequal
distribution of net radiation.
3. The atmosphere transfers heat from the equator pole wards and
cold from the poles towards the equator.
4. There are other wind systems in the middle and upper atmosphere
i.e. Rossby wave, easterly waves and jet stream.
5. The day-to-day weather is determined by secondary and tertiary
circulation systems like the monsoons, cyclones anticyclones,
land and sea breezes among others.
Discuss the propelling forces responsible for the pattern of atmospheric

circulation. Succinctly enumerate the various systems of atmospheric
motion.
Ayoade, J. O. (1983). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics.

ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons.
Nieuwolts, S. (1977). Tropical Climatology: An Introduction to the

Climates of the Low Latitudes. ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons.

Educational Books.

Climatology. Lagos: SEDEC Publishers.
Strahler, A.N. and Strahler, A.H (1973). Environmental Geosciences:

Interaction between Natural Systems and Man. John Wileys and
Sons.
91
UNIT5 RADIATION AND HEATING OF THE

ATMOSPHERIC SYSTEM
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Radiation and Heating of the Atmospheric System
3.1.1 The Sun
3.1.2 Disposition of Solar Radiation in the Earth’s
Atmospheric System
3.1.3 Terrestrial and Atmospheric Radiation
3.1.4 Radiation Balance
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Solar energy represents almost all the energy available to the earth
(99.97%). As earlier mentioned, it is an important source of energy for
life on the surface of the earth. It is the great engine which drives the
earth’s atmosphere and oceanic circulations. It generates weather and
makes the earth a loveable place for plants and animals. Processes such
as photosynthesis, on which man’s existence partly depends are almost
impossible without radiation
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe the sun

• state how solar energy is transmitted to the earth
• state how the earth is heated
• state how the atmosphere is heated.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Radiation and Heating of the Atmospheric System
3.1.1 The Sun
The sun, which is a star of about medium mass, has a surface

temperature of about 6000oK. It emits a form of energy known as
electromagnetic radiation. This energy travels about 150 million
kilometers to reach the earth’s surface and takes about 9 ½ minutes to
complete the journey.
The totality of wavelength is known as solar spectrum. The solar
spectrum consists of both short and long wave radiation. A wavelength
may be defined as the distance from crest to crest of succeeding waves.
The conventional unit used in the measurement of wavelength is the
micron (1 micron = 0.000km or 10 -4). The symbol used is µ. Another
unit used which is smaller than the micron is angstrom =108 cm. The
total bulk of all solar radiation occurs in the narrow range of wavelength
from 0.30 µ to 0.74 µ, usually referred to as short wave radiation. Short
wave radiation is visible as light to human eye. The colours of visible
radiation are violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange and red.
The solar spectrum consists of:
1. X-rays, gamma rays, alpha rays and ultraviolet rays consisting

about 9% of the total energy.
2. Visible light rays (0.4-0.74 µ) carrying 41%
3. Invisible infrared (heat) rays (0.7-3000 µ) consisting 50%.
The term short wave radiation is applied to the visible and ultraviolet
portion of the spectrum (wavelengths less than 0.7 µ) as distinct from
the infrared or long wave portion (longer than 0.7 µ). Radiation is
energy in transit. When it comes in contact with an object or substance it
may be transmitted, reflected or absorbed in proportions which depend
on the nature of the medium and wavelength of the radiation. It is the
amount of the radiation absorbed by a medium that is effective in
heating it.
3.1.2 Disposition of Solar Radiation in the Earth’s Atmospheric

System
The solar radiation intercepted by the earth is either absorbed or

returned back to space by scattering or reflection. Mathematically the
disposition of solar radiation is expressed by
93
Qs = Cr+Ar+Ca+Aa+(Q+q)(1- σ )+(Q+q) σ
From the expression, the solar radiation incident on top of the

atmosphere can be scattered and reflected back to space by cloud (Cr),
cloud cover blocks the penetration of insolation. About 25% of
incoming solar radiation is reflected back to space by clouds. Solar
radiation can also be scattered or reflected by air molecules, dust
particles and water vapour (Ar). Dust particles, air molecules and water
vapour in the atmosphere are capable of scattering a lot of solar
radiation. The scattering is either upward towards the space or
downwards toward the earth’s surface. About 6% of the insolation
reaching the top of the atmosphere is scattered downward and reaches
the surface as diffuse radiation. Radiation is also reflected by the earth’s
surface (CQ+q) σ), where Q and q are direct solar beam and diffuse
solar radiation respectively and σ is the surface albedo.
On the other hand, solar radiation can be absorbed by cloud (Ca). Clouds
act as temporary thermal reservoirs for they absorb a part of the energy
they intercept. Solar radiation is also absorbed by air molecules, dust
and water vapour (Aa). About 18% of the insolation is absorbed directly
by ozone and water vapour. Ozone absorbs it mainly in the ultraviolet
region consisting Hartley band (0.20-0.33µ). Water vapour absorbs in
the near infrared band centering at 0.93, 1.13, 1.42 and 1.47
µ. Water vapour is a selective absorber of radiation. Carbon dioxide
absorbs radiation with wavelengths greater than 4 µ. The earth’s surface
represented by (CQ+q)(1- σ), also absorbs solar radiation. Land and
water have different thermal properties and react differently to
insolation. Land heats up rapidly and loses heat rapidly while water
heats up slowly and releases heat slowly.
3.1.3 Terrestrial and Atmospheric Radiation
The surface of the earth when heated, becomes a source of long wave
radiation. Because the surface temperature of the earth is 285oK most of
the radiation is emitted in infrared spectral range from 4 µ to 100 µ with
a peak near 10 µ.
Like the earth, the atmosphere absorbs and emits radiant energy.
Although the atmosphere is nearly transparent to short wave radiation, it
easily absorbs terrestrial radiation. The principal absorbers being water
vapour (5.3-7.7 µ and beyond 20 µ), Ozone absorbs (9.4-9.8 µ), carbon
dioxide (16.9 µ) (13.1 -and clouds absorb radiation at all wavelengths.
While the atmosphere absorbs only 24% of incoming solar radiation
(short wave), 91% of infrared terrestrial radiation is absorbed.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
The atmosphere in turn re-radiates the absorbed terrestrial radiation

partly to space and partly back to the earth’s surface. This is known as
conter-radiation and is represented symbolically by the following
I = I (a) + I (s) …………….. (i)

I = I + I a(s) ………...(ii)
From these two equations the effective outgoing radiation can be

specified
I = I - I ……. (iii)
I is the effective outgoing radiation
3.1.4 Radiation Balance
Radiation balance or net radiation is the difference between the

absorbed solar radiation by a surface and the effective outgoing
radiation from the surface.
On the average, the earth’s surface absorbs about 124 kilolangleys of

solar radiation each year and in turn effectively radiates 52 kilolangley
yr-1.
1. The Planetary Radiation Balance
Solar energy incident on outer edge of atmosphere 263

Reflected by clouds 63
Reflected by molecules, dust, water vapour 15
Total reflected by the atmosphere 78
Reflected from the earth’s surface 16
Total reflected by surface and atmosphere 94
Absorbed by clouds 7
Absorbed by molecules, dust and water vapour 38
Total absorbed by the atmosphere 45
Absorbed at the earth’s surface 124
Total absorbed by earth and atmosphere 169
2.
Infrared radiation emitted by the earth’s surface 258
Loss of space 20
Absorbed by the atmosphere ( a) 238
Infrared radiation emitted by the atmosphere 355
Lost to space 149
Absorbed by the earth’s surface as counter-radiation 206
Effective outgoing radiation from the earth’s surface 52
Effective outgoing radiation from the atmosphere 117
Effective outgoing radiation from the earth and atmosphere 169
95
Modified from Sellers (1965)
This leaves the earth’s surface with a balance of 72 kilolangleys yr -1

usually designated by Rn and known as radiation balance. It is
symbolically given as:
Rn = (Q+q) (1-σ) – I
Where (Q+q) (1- σ) is the absorbed solar radiation, Q and q are direct
and diffuse solar radiation respectively, σ is the albedo and I is the
effective outgoing radiation.
Similarly, radiation balance of the atmosphere (Rg) is defined. The

atmosphere absorbs 45 kilolangleys of solar energy per year and radiates
117 kilolangleys yr-1. Thus the atmosphere looses as much radiation in
a year as the earth’s surface gains. The balance of the whole system,
surface (Rn) and the atmosphere (Rg) is therefore zero.
Although the global radiation balance is zero averaged over the year, it
will not generally equal zero either seasonally or annually in any given
latitude.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Solar radiation is very important to human existence on the earth’s

surface as it touches all spheres of man’s life, particularly agricultural
activities.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. The sun emits a form of energy known as electromagnetic

radiation
2. The totality of wavelength is known as solar spectrum which
consists of short and long-wave
3. The incoming solar radiation is scattered, reflected or absorbed
by cloud, air molecules, dust particles, water vapour and the
earth’s surface.
4. The atmosphere is significantly heated by terrestrial radiation.
1. What is the importance of solar radiation to man?

2. Account for the disposition of solar radiation in the earth’s
atmospheric system.
3. Explain the radiation balance of the earth’s atmospheric system.
96
AGR 205 MODULE 3
Ayoade, J. O. (1983). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics.

ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons..
Nieuwolts,S.(1977).Tropical Climatology: An Introduction to the


Educational Books.
Ojo, O. et al (2001).Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic


Sons.
97
MODULE 2
Unit 1 Atmospheric Moisture

Unit 2 The Dynamics of Pressure and Wind Systems
Unit 3 The Condensation and Precipitation Process
Unit 4 Seasonal Variations in Radiation, Daylight and
Temperature
Unit 5 Seasonal Variations in Evaporation and Rainfall
UNIT 1 ATMOSPHERIC MOISTURE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Atmospheric Moisture
3.1.1 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
3.2 Humidity
3.2.1 Distribution of Humidity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water can exist in solid, liquid or gaseous states. It is a highly important

element for all living things and the environment. Water in its gaseous
state or “water vapour” forms the bulk of what we refer to as
atmospheric moisture. Water vapour is of great significance in deciding
weather and climate and so climatologists and meteorologists are
interested in its amount and distribution over time and space. This unit
examines the nature, amount and distribution of atmospheric moisture.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• understand the term atmospheric moisture

• define humidity and the various indices of humidity
• explain the distribution of humidity.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Atmospheric Moisture
3.1.1 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
Atmospheric water vapour is derived from evaporation and

transpiration. Evaporation is the process by which moisture in its liquid
or solid form is converted into gaseous form –water vapour.
Transpiration on the other hand refers to the loss of water from plants to
the atmosphere. Evapotranspiration differs from evaporation because it
describes water losses from surfaces where transpiration is a major
contributor. Essentially, it combines evaporation and transpiration.
Availability of moisture at evaporating surface and the ability of the

atmosphere to vaporise the water, remove and transport the vapour
upward are fundamental factors that determine the rate of evaporation
and evapotranspiration over any given area. Evaporation and
evapotranspiration will occur at the maximum level if moisture is
always available at the evaporating surface. This has given rise to the
concept of potential evapotranspiration. However, moisture is not
always available at the evaporating surface, and evaporation and
evapotranspiration have often occurred below maximum level. This has
also given rise to the concept of actual evapotranspiration.
Many factors including solar radiation, temperature, wind speed and

humidity also determine evaporation and evapotranspiration. Energy is
needed to vaporise water and in the absence of radiation data, energy is
indicated by air temperature. Wind speed removes the moistened air
lying over the evaporating surface and replaces it with dry air to
maintain the evaporation process. The humidity of air determines the
capacity of the air to hold moisture. It also affects the evaporation rate.
The lower the humidity, the greater the capacity of air to hold moisture
while the higher the humidity the lower the capacity of air to hold water.
Condensation and precipitation which have been explained in an earlier

unit help to remove water vapour from the atmosphere. The most
conspicuous aspects of the weather (e.g. rain, snow, hail, fog etc) result
from the presence of water in the atmosphere.
3.2 Humidity
Humidity is a measure of the amount of water in the atmosphere. It does

not cover the other forms of moisture in the atmosphere, i.e. liquid form
(water droplets) and solid form (ice). Because of its origin (earth’s
surface) atmospheric water vapour is concentrated in the lower layers of
99
the atmosphere. In fact, about half of the total water vapour in the
atmosphere is found below 2000 metres. The amount of moisture in the
atmosphere decreases steadily with increase in height. Water vapour is
virtually absent after the tropopause.
There are different ways of measuring the moisture content of the

atmosphere. The indices of humidity usually applied include the
following:
Absolute humidity: It is expressed in grains per cubic metres of air. It is

the total mass of water in a given volume of air.
Specific humidity: This is the mass of water vapour per kilogram of air
including its moisture.
Mass mixing ratio or humidity mixing ratio: It is the mass of water

vapour per kilogram of dry air.
Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the actual moisture content of a

sample of air to that which the same volume of air can hold at the same
temperature and pressure when saturated. It is usually expressed in
percentage.
Dew-point temperature: This is the temperature at which saturation will

occur if the air is cooled at constant pressure without addition or
removal of vapour.
Vapour pressure is the pressure exerted by the vapour content of the

atmosphere in millibars.
The relative humidity is the most popularly used index for measuring air
humidity. It is easily measured and indicates the degree of saturation of
the air. However, it is highly influenced by the air temperature. A
change in air temperature can change the value of relative humidity even
though the moisture content remains constant. For instance, the relative
humidity of the air varies inversely with temperature, being lower in the
early afternoon and higher at night. It is important to note that relative
humidity does not tell us about the quantity of moisture in the air but
tells us how close to saturation the air is.
Unless they have been obtained at about the same hour of the day when
air temperatures are not too different, relative humidity for different
stations cannot be compared since the values are dependent on air
temperature. For the purpose of comparison other indicators of
atmospheric moisture such as the vapour pressure or the absolute
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
humidity should be used. Unlike relative humidity these measures are

not unduly influenced by air temperatures.
3.2.1 Distribution of Humidity
Water vapour as earlier mentioned is the most important air component

that has influence on weather and climate. It is highly inconstant varying
from nearly zero up to a maximum of about 3% in the middle latitude,
and 4% in the humid tropics. This variability in both place and time is of
outstanding importance for the following reasons.
Water vapour is the source of all forms of condensation and

precipitation.
Water vapour is a principal absorber of solar and infrared radiation. It

therefore has an important influence on temperature. Because of its
latent heat, the amount of vertical distribution of water vapour in the
atmosphere indirectly affects the buoyancy of air and hence its tendency
to ascend. This in turn is closely related to the formation of clouds and
precipitation.
The latent heat of water vapour is an important energy source for

atmospheric circulations. Humidity is an important factor of
evaporation, a process that is important for animal and plant life.
Generally, relative humidity is greater over the ocean than over the
continental areas. This reflects the high rate of evaporation due to the
fact that the supply of water is unlimited at the ocean surface while over
many land areas; water is an important limiting factor of evaporation
because it is scarce. Also relative humidity is high throughout in very
humid climates and low in arid and semi-arid climates. In seasonally
humid areas, relative humidity is higher during the rainy season than
during the dry season
The vapour pressure distributions have similar characteristics with

relative humidity over the oceans and the very humid areas of the work;
for instance, vapour pressures are almost at saturation level. In the arid
and semi -arid areas, vapour pressures are low, causing the saturation
deficit of evaporability of air to be high.
When vapour is continuously added to the atmosphere and the limit is

reached, the air is said to be saturated. The resulting vapour pressure of
the upper limit of water holding capacity is termed saturation vapour
pressure. The saturation vapour pressure increases with higher
temperatures and reaches a maximum at 1013 mb at which point the
101
introduction of more water vapour into the air results in condensation of

an equivalent amount of water vapour.
The saturation point can be reached at a particular temperature without

the moisture content changing. The critical temperature at which the
saturation vapour pressure is reached is known as the dew point
temperature, which may be defined as the temperature at which the
quantity of water vapour in the air represents the maximum holding
capacity of the air at that temperature. This critical temperature may be
attained by increasing the water vapour content of the air at a particular
temperature, or decreasing the air temperature and consequently,
reducing the relative moisture content of the air at a constant
temperature. Once the dew point is reached, any further cooling beyond
it will result in condensation either in the form of minute particles of
water if temperature is above 00C or ice if it is below 00C. The dew
point and relative humidity are closely related. At high relative
humidity, the air is close to saturation and only slight cooling will be
required to attain the dew point. On the other hand, when relative
humidity is low, a large amount of cooling is required for the dew point
to be attained.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Atmospheric moisture is made up of water vapour, water droplets and

ice. They are derived from evaporation and removed by condensation
and precipitation.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Water vapour highly influences weather and climate

2. Atmospheric moisture is derived through evaporation from the
water bodies on the earth’s surface
3. Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapour in the
atmosphere.
4. The amount of water vapour decreases with height.
5. There are different indices for measuring humidity
6. Relative humidity is the most popularly used index for measuring
air humidity.
7. Relative humidity is higher over the ocean than over the
continent.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
1. Explain the process of acquisition and removal of atmospheric

moisture.
2. a.What do you understand by relative humidity?
b. Explain the dew point temperature and how it is related to
relative humidity.

Ayoade, J.O. (2002). Introduction to Agro Climatology. Ibadan:Vintage

Publishers.
Donald Ahrens, C. (1994). Meteorology Today: An introduction to

Publishing Company.

Climatology SEDEC Publishers.
103
UNIT 2 THE DYNAMICS OF PRESSURE AND WIND

SYSTEMS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Pressure and Wind Systems
3.1.1 Pressure Belts and Planetary Winds
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
10 INTRODUCTION
The movement of air in the atmospheric system may be vertical or

horizontal; in the latter case it is commonly known as wind. Winds
result from differences in air pressure which in turn may be caused by
differences in temperature and the force exerted by gravity, as pressure
decreases rapidly with height. An increase in temperature causes air to
heat, expand, become less dense and rise, creating an area of low
pressure below. Conversely, a drop in temperature produces an area of
high pressure. In this unit, we will be looking at the global distribution
of pressure and directions of winds.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the global distribution of pressure

• state the various planetary winds and explain their directions.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Pressure and Wind Systems
This refers to the circulation of air over the earth’s surface as a result of
differences in pressure. Along the equator and within 5 degrees north
and south, is the Equatorial low pressure belt, where the midday sun is
never far from vertical. It is a belt of intense overheating which causes
the air to expand, become lighter and rise. It is a zone of wind
convergence and often called the Doldrums.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
At about 300 north and south occur the sub-tropical high pressure belts
where the air is comparatively dry and the winds are calm and light. It is
a region of descending air currents or wind divergence and anticyclones.
It is frequently called the horse latitude. Around the latitudes 60o north
and south are the two temperate low pressure belts which are also zones
of convergence with cyclonic activity. The sub-polar low pressure areas
are best developed over the oceans, where temperature variations
between the summer and winter are negligible.
At the north and south polar 90o north and south where temperatures are
permanently low, are the polar high pressure belts. Unlike the water
masses of the high latitude in the southern hemisphere, high pressures of
corresponding latitude in the northern hemisphere are a little
complicated by the presence of land mass. Some pressure differences
between the summer and winter can be expected.
3.1.1 Pressure Belts and Planetary Winds
From the global permanent pressure belts, winds tend to blow from the
high pressure belts to low pressure belts as planetary winds. Figure 4
above shows the actual arrangement of the global pressure and wind
belts. However, it is important to note that there are seasonal variations
in both pressure and winds.
105
The winds blowing out from the sub-tropical high pressure belt in the
northern hemisphere towards the equatorial low are called north trade
winds and those in the southern hemisphere are called south east winds.
Winds are always named after the direction they come from. The trade
winds are the most regular of all the planetary winds. They blow with
great force and in a constant direction. They have great capacity for
holding moisture because they blow from the cooler sub-tropical
latitudes to the winter tropics.
Winds blow from the sub-tropical high pressure belts towards the
temperate low pressure belts as the variable westerlies. Under the effect
of the coriolis force, they become the south-westerlies in the southern
hemisphere. They are more variable in the northern hemisphere, but
they play an important role in carrying warm equatorial waters and
winds to the western coasts of the temperate lands. They bring much
precipitation to the western coasts of continents. The weather is damp
and cloudy and the seas are stormy and violent.
Finally, the polar easterlies blow out from the polar high pressure belts
towards the temperate low pressure belts. They are extremely cold
winds as they come from the tundra and ice- cap regions. They are more
regular in the south than in the north.
4.0 CONCLUSION
There are areas of permanently high and low pressure on the globe.
Winds originating from these pressure belts also have their direction
influenced by corriolis force.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Wind is the horizontal movement of air

2. Wind results from differences in air pressure
3. There are various areas of permanently high and permanently low
pressure on the globe
4. Winds are named after the directions they come from
5. Winds are deflected from their original direction by corriolis
force.
1. Explain the distribution of pressure and wind on a global scale.

2. With the aid of a diagram, explain the distribution of world
pressure and wind systems
106
AGR 205 MODULE 3


Educational Books

Climatology. SEDEC Publishers.

Sons.
107
UNIT 3 THE CONDENSATION AND

PRECIPITATION PROCESS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Condensation
3.2 Precipitation
3.2.1 Types of Precipitation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Atmospheric moisture exists in the form of water vapour or ice. The
condensation and precipitation process essentially act to remove water
from the atmosphere. This unit examines the processes that result in
both condensation and eventually precipitation.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain how condensation takes place in the atmosphere

• explain the theories of rain drop formation
• explain the types of precipitation
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Condensation
Condensation can be defined as the formation of water droplets when air

has been cooled beyond its dew point. Air may be cooled by direct
radiation from the surface of the earth during a clear night; the
horizontal movement of warm air over a cold surface, the mixing along
of the margins of two air currents of marked different temperatures; the
movement of air from warmer to cooler latitudes, and by far the most
important, by ascent. Each form of cooling may produce condensation of
different degrees and with different results.
For condensation to take place, it is necessary for some kind of nuclei to

be present on which the droplets can form. These nuclei include
108
AGR 205 MODULE 3
particles of dust and smoke, salt from the ocean, pollen, and negative
ions produced by the passage of radiation through the atmosphere.
The condensed droplets when formed are so minute that they float in the
air as fog or clouds. Larger drops form on leaves and grass as dew, or
hoar-frost if temperature is below freezing point .When droplets
coalesce in the air to a certain critical size, they may fall to earth as one
or other of the forms of precipitation earlier discussed. The formation of
raindrops is highly complex and it is not actually clear how droplets
coalesce, though certain theories propose electrical attraction,
supercooling followed by freezing into ice particles, and turbulence
causing coalescence by collision.
Drops may form and continue to exist in liquid form, even when the
temperature is below freezing point, as long as air is undisturbed. This
phenomenon is known as super cooling, and has a number of important
meteorological effects. A good example is the accretion of ice on
aircraft. If an aircraft passes into a cloud consisting of large drops of
super cooled water, with the air temperature at or below freezing point,
a considerable thickness of clear ice may form as each drop freezes on
contact with the leading edges of the wings. Similarly, glazed frost
forms when super cooled water freezes on branches, telephone wires
and road surfaces. The main forms of condensation include dew, frost,
fogs and clouds which have been discussed in Unit 3.
3.2 Precipitation
Various rain drop formation theories are said to have been put forward
in the past and virtually all have been rejected for various reasons.
According to Ayoade (2004), the two theories currently accepted are the
Bergeron-Findeisen and Coalescense theories.
The Bergeron-Findeisen theory of rain drop formation submits that ice

crystals within clouds tend to grow larger at the expense of the water
droplets until they become too heavy to be supported within the cloud
and consequently fall. These ice crystals will melt to form rain drops if
they encounter warmer air as they descend. If not, they will fall as snow.
When the temperature near the earth’s surface is about freezing level,
the ice crystals will partially melt and fall as sleet, a mixture of rain and
snow. The ice crystals grow larger at the expense of the water droplets
because the saturation vapour pressure over ice is less than over water.
This means that vapour which is only saturated with respect to water is
super saturated with respect to ice. Condensation therefore occurs on the
ice crystals at the expense of the super cooled water droplets.
109
The Bergeron-Findeisen theory is supported by observation and

laboratory experiments. For instance, in extra tropical areas it is
generally observed that significant precipitation always comes from
clouds whose tops extend beyond the freezing level in the atmosphere
whereas lower clouds yield no more than mist or drizzle. Also, radar
experiments have confirmed the existence of both water droplets and ice
crystals in clouds extending beyond the freezing level and that such
cloud give significant precipitation. Finally, in cloud seeding
experiments clouds have been made to produce rain by seeding with fine
dry ice (solid form of Co 2) or silver iodide which has crystal structure
very similar to that of ice.
Rain drop formations in tropical clouds are usually warm because they
do not extend into the freezing level in the atmosphere. These clouds are
therefore made up solely of water droplets. And yet these clouds
produce heavy rainfall. Within such clouds, raindrops grow by the
coalescence process. The larger water droplets within clouds fall at a
faster rate than the smaller ones, overtaking and absorbing the smaller
droplets along their paths. The larger droplets also drag or sweep the
smaller ones and absorb them (Fig. 5).
Fig. 5: Processes of raindrop formation according to (a) Bergeron-

Feideisen theory and (b) coalescence theory (Source:
Ayoade, 2004)
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Experimental results show that the coalescence process allows a more

rapid growth of raindrops than simple condensation although it is
initially rather slow.
For condensation and precipitation to occur naturally, the appreciable

ascent of an air-mass is essential. This ascent is brought about in three
main ways; hence there are three main types of precipitation:
1. Convectional rainfall due to surface heating,

2. Orographic or relief rainfall due to ascent over land, particularly
over a high range of hills and
3. Frontal or cyclonic rainfall, when either a mass of warm air over
runs cold air or the latter undercuts the former.
3.2.1 Types of Precipitation
Precipitation types are classified on the basis of the processes which led
to their formation. There are three types of precipitation.
1. Convectional precipitation (Fig.6): This type of precipitation is

common in the tropics. When the earth’s surface is heated up,
moisture laden vapour rises because heated air always expands
and becomes lighter. Air rises in a convection current after
prolonged heating. In ascending, water vapour condenses into
cumulonimbus cloud which reaches its maximum in the
afternoon. Hot, rising air has great capacity for holding moisture.
As air rises it cools and when saturation point is reached
torrential down pours occur, often accompanied by thunder and
lightening. These downpours may not be useful for agriculture
because they are so intense that they do not sink into the soil but
drain off almost immediately. In fact they may cause serious
erosion in forms of slope wash and gullying
Fig. 6: Convectional rainfall
111
2. Relief or orographic precipitation (Fig. 7): The second cause of

air rising is associated with land form barriers such as mountains,
hills, and other highlands. This type is known as orographic
precipitation. In this case, the barriers lie across the paths of
moisture bearing winds. Examples in West Africa include
precipitation caused by the rising air along the Futa Jallon
Highlands, the Jos Plateau and the Cameroon Mountains (rainfall
in Jos Plateau is higher than the average for its latitude). As the
air is forced to rise by the highlands, the air cools at the adiabatic
rate. If cooling is sufficient, rain may fall. As the air passes over
the highest point of the highlands, it begins to descend on the
leeward side. As it descends, it undergoes warming and becomes
drier. This belt of relatively drier climatic conditions, is usually
called the “rain shadow”, and is characteristic of the leeward
sides of the highland areas.
Fig. 7: Relief Rainfall
3. Frontal, convergence and disturbance precipitation (Fig. 8):This

type of precipitation is caused through the convergence of air
masses with contrasting characteristics. This type of precipitation
is not common in West Africa and only occasionally occurs when
influences of the mid latitude depressions extend as far south as
they did for instance in 1960. The air ascending at the
intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) is dry and stable and
consequently, not rain producing. On the other hand, true fronts
may be formed in many convergent areas, such as the mid-
latitudes where the air masses are of contrasting character in
terms of temperature and humidity.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Fig. 8: Frontal rainfall
What are the various forms of precipitation you have learnt? Using
relevant diagrams, enumerate the types of precipitation
4.0 CONCLUSION
Condensation is a necessary condition for precipitation to occur and

precipitation can occur in different ways.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Condensation occurs when air is cooled beyond dew point.

2. Air is cooled in different ways.
3. The presence of nuclei is important for condensation to occur.
4. There are two theories of raindrop formation, that is, Bergeron-
Findeisen and coalescence theories.
5. The ascent of air is essential for condensation and precipitation to
occur
6. There are three types of rainfall, that is, convectional, orographic
and frontal rainfall.
1. Describe the mode of origin and characteristics of (a) Convective

(b) Orographic and (c) Frontal precipitation.
2. Explain the two theories of raindrop formation.
3. Discuss the propelling forces responsible for the pattern of
atmospheric circulation.
4. What is the importance of solar radiation to man?
5. Account for the disposition of solar radiation in the earth’s
atmospheric system.
6. Explain the radiation balance of the earth’s atmospheric system.
113
7. Explain the process of acquisition and removal of atmospheric

moisture.
8. a.What do you understand by relative humidity?
b. Explain the dew point temperature and how it is related to
relative humidity.
9. Explain the distribution of pressure and wind on a global scale.
10. With the aid of a diagram, explain the distribution of world
pressure and wind systems.
11. Describe the mode of origin and characteristics of
a. Convective precipitation
b. Orographic precipitation
c. Frontal precipitation
12. Explain the two theories of raindrop formation.


Monkhouse, F.J. (1979). Principles of Physical Geography. Britain:

Hodder and Stoughton.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
UNIT 4 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN RADIATION,

DAYLIGHT AND TEMPERATURE
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Seasonal Variations in Radiation
3.2 Seasonal Variations in Daylight
3.3 Seasonal Variations in Temperature
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Agriculture is the mainstay of most countries in the tropics.

Unfortunately agriculture is highly vulnerable to climate variations. To
improve food production in tropical countries, it is essential to know the
value of climatic elements and their daily, monthly, seasonal and
intensities values.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe the seasonal variations in the amount of solar radiation,

daylight and temperature
• identify the major causes of the seasonal variations.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Seasonal Variations in Radiation
The sun is the main source of energy for the earth. It emits radiant
energy which is received by the earth as solar radiation or insolation.
The amount of insolation received at any place on earth depends mainly

on the length of day and the angle of midday sun. Other factors include
distance from the sun, atmospheric absorption, reflection and scattering,
latitude, the nature of the surface, elevation and aspect.
115
At the time of summer solstice (June 21st), the noon rays of the sun are
vertical on the tropic of cancer (23 1/2 oN) and the length of day
increases from 66 1/2o (Antarctic Circle) in the winter hemisphere to the
pole in the summer hemisphere. The northern hemisphere experiences
maximum solar radiation. The northern hemisphere actually receives
two to three times the amount of solar radiation received by the winter
hemisphere. Neglecting, for the moment the effects of the atmosphere,
on June 21st, the zonal solar energy curve, beginning at zero at the
Antarctic circle continues to rise steadily up to about latitude 40 oN in
spite of the fact that the sun’s rays are increasingly more oblique north
of 231/2oN. North of this latitude, however there is a slight decline in
solar radiation which continues to about latitude 62oN because the more
oblique rays of the sun offset the increased length of day. But the solar
energy curve again rises north of 62 oN and reaches an absolute
maximum at the North Pole. The conditions in the southern hemisphere
on December 22nd is the exact reverse of what obtains in the northern
hemisphere on June 21st (Fig 9) Fig 9.1 (Ayoade, 2002, pg 54, Fig 4a
and b).
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
At the time of the equinoxes (about March 21 and September 23) when
the sun’s noon rays are vertical at the equator and the tangent may reach
the poles, latitudinal distribution of solar radiation resembles that for the
year as a whole, since the maximum is at the equator with minima at the
poles. During these times both the northern and southern hemispheres
receive approximately equal amounts of the solar radiation.
For the year as a whole, solar radiation reaches a maximum at the

equator and diminishes gradually and regularly toward minimum at
either pole. At the poles the total amount of solar radiation received for
the entire year is about 40% of that received at the equator.
In West Africa, solar radiation values are less along the coastal areas
than inland of the region because of cloud cover. The values of radiation
are also less during the rainy season than during the dry season because
of the relatively heavy cloud cover.
3.2 Seasonal Variations in Day Light
The duration of insolation is indicated by length of day or day light and

its variations depend largely on the earth’s revolution.
On June 21st (summer solstice), the earth is so located in its orbit that the
north polar end of its axis tilts at the full 23½ o towards the sun. At this
position, the northern hemisphere is inclined towards the sun while the
southern hemisphere tips away from the sun. On this day, the daylight
increases from zero on 66½o (Antarctic circle) of the winter hemisphere
117
towards the north pole until it is 24 hours north of the Arctic circle
(66½oN). On December 22nd (winter solstice), the earth is so positioned
that the north polar axis again leans the full 23 ½ o directly away from
the sun making the southern hemisphere to tip towards the sun and the
northern hemisphere away. The conditions of daylight are exactly a
reverse of that of June 21st. Daylight increases from zero on the (Arctic
circle) in the winter hemisphere until it is 24 hours south of 66½oS
(Antarctic circle). During the equinoxes (March 21st and Sept. 23rd) the
earth’s axis makes a right angle with a line drawn to the sun, and neither
the north nor South Pole is tipped towards the sun. On these days all
places all over the world have equal day and equal night. In summary,
places on the summer hemisphere enjoy longer days than those having
winter but the total annual exposure to the sun is the same for all places
on earth. The difference between summer and winter daylights increases
from the equator reaching its extreme poles.
Throughout the year the length of day is equal at the equator twelve
hours and seven minutes. According to Nieuwolt (1977), astronomically
the duration would be twelve hours exactly but it takes 3½ minutes for
the upper half of the sun to disappear under the horizon at sunset and
similarly, 3½ minutes before the centre of the sun’s disc is at the horizon
while the upper half of it already provides insolation at sunrise.
The difference between the shortest and the longest day of the year
grows with increasing latitude. In the low latitudes the increase is about
7 minutes per degree whole in higher latitudes (between 50 o and 60o); it
amounts to about 28 minutes per degree of latitude. In conclusion,
seasonal variations in daylight in the tropics are insignificant.
3.3 Seasonal Variations in Temperature
Temperatures are largely controlled by incoming and outgoing radiation.

However, a number of other factors also influence surface temperatures
and their distributions both over time and place. Surface air
temperatures also show a variation with latitude.
There is a general increase in seasonal variation of air temperature with

latitude. In the tropics, the absence of a cold season indicates that
temperature variations between the seasons are generally small. In short
the tropics can be said to have seasonal temperature uniformity. The
main reason for this seasonal temperature uniformity is the small
differences in the amount of net radiation received in the different
seasons. The temperature uniformity is strongest around the equator and
decreased pole wards with increasing latitude. Towards the outer limits
of the tropics thermal differences with place increase rapidly especially
over the continental areas (Fig 10).
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
The variations are found to be more marked over the land than over the
ocean. This is because land surfaces are rapidly and intensely heated by
solar radiation, whereas under equal radiant energy water surfaces are
heated more slowly during the summer. On the other hand land surfaces
cool more rapidly and reach much lower temperatures than the water
surfaces during the winter.
Outside the tropics, temperatures vary widely between the seasons.

Certain definite centres of high and low temperatures occur during the
summer and winter respectively. These are found over land masses. In
July, high temperature centres occur over Siberia (-46oC), northern most
North America (-34 oC) in January. A permanent centre of low
temperature occurs in Greenland and Antarctica. These are two regions
of massive ice sheets.
From about 6 degrees latitude, there is a temperature regime, in which

the temperatures are higher in the spring (Feb, March, April) than in
summer. This is as a result of cloudiness which characterises the rainy
season (summer). The rainy season (summer) is characterised by heavy
cloud overcast particularly in the day. This helps in reducing
temperatures. This is not so in spring which is characterised by many
days with a clear sky.
In Nigeria the highest air temperatures are normally in April in the

northern parts and a little earlier in the south. Minimum temperatures in
the north are usually recorded about December. In the south there is a
little difference between the December temperatures and the relatively
low temperatures of the rainy season, the lowest temperatures of the
year may even be recorded during the rainy season.
119
4.0 CONCLUSION
Seasonal variations in solar radiation, daylight and temperature are

mainly due to the revolution of the earth and more marked in the mid
and high latitude.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Globally, the summer hemisphere receives two to three times the

amount of solar radiation received by the winter hemisphere. In
most of the tropics, particularly West Africa radiation is lower
during the rainy season than during the dry season because of the
relatively heavy cloud cover.
2. Places on the summer hemisphere enjoy longer days than those
on the winter hemisphere. Seasonal variations in daylight in the
tropics are insignificant.
3. Generally seasonal variations of air temperature increase with
latitude. In the tropics temperature variations between the seasons
are quite small.
1. Discuss the effect of the revolution of the earth on the global

distribution of solar radiation.
2. Explain the seasonal variations in daylight in the world.
3. Why is there no cold season in the tropics?
Ayoade, J.O. (1983). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics. John

ChiChester: Wiley and Sons.

Climates of the Low Latitudes. ChiChester: John Wileys and
Sons,

Educational Books.
Ojo, O. et al (2001)..Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

Strahler, A.N. and Strahler, A.H (1973). Environmental GeoScience:

Interaction between Natural Systems and Man. ChiChester: John
Wileys and Sons.
120
AGR 205 MODULE 3
UNIT 5 SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN EVAPORATION

AND RAINFALL
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Seasonal Variations in Evaporation
3.1.1 Seasonal Variations in Rainfall
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Evaporation is the sources of all atmospheric moisture including

rainfall. It is the reverse of precipitation in the hydrological cycle. Food
production in the tropics depends largely on the characteristics, amount
and duration of rainfall. Productivity can be improved by adjusting
planting dates so that crops can take advantage of rainfall conditions.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• define evaporation and evapotranspiration

• state the differences between actual and potential
evapotranspiration
• describe the seasonal variations in the amount of evaporation and
rainfall.
• identify the major causes of the seasonal variations.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Seasonal Variations in Evaporation
Evaporation is the physical processes of molecular transfer involving a

change of state of water from liquid or solid into gas. The process of
evaporation requires energy to be expended in overcoming the
intermolecular attractions of the water particles. This energy is largely
provided by the removal of heat from the immediate surroundings
causing apparent heat loses. Evaporation may occur either from free
water surfaces such as rivers, ponds and lakes, from bare soil, or from
121
water which has been intercepted by plant leaves or stems. Evaporation

also occurs through transpiration from plants. Water loss from
transpiration in combination with evaporation is termed
Evapotranspiration.
If moisture is not limiting at the evaporating surface, evaporation and

evapotranspiration occur at the maximum rate possible for the
environment. This has given rise to the concept of potential
evapotranspiration. Moisture is however; hardly always available in
sufficient quantities at the evaporating surface, so that evaporation and
evapotranspiration often occur at rates below those that would take
place assuming water was always available. This is known as actual
evapotranspiration.
Because of the problems involved in the study of actual

evapotranspiration more attention has been paid to the study of potential
evapotranspiration particularly for agricultural purposes. Budyko (1956)
concluded that evaporation from field crops is close to the potential rate
when the soil moisture is greater than or equal to 70-80% of the value of
field capacity. Thornthwaite and Mather (1955) said that evaporation
and evapotranspiration would continue at the potential rate as long as
the soil was at field capacity.
The conditions of evaporation in the dry season in West Africa show a

general increase in land from the coast in a zonal pattern although some
substantial distortions occur along the coast and in the interior between
11oN and 18oN. South of latitude 9oN there is a remarkable decrease in
evaporation probably because of the rapid change in cloudiness between
areas to the north ad south of the latitude. The smallest values of
evaporation are along the coast. The reason for this is that the air mass is
still present in coastal areas and it is cloudier. This reduces the incoming
radiation available for evaporation.
During the rainy season, the spread of cloud becomes more uniform and
consequently there is a more regular distribution of evaporation,
particularly over areas to the south of approximately latitude 15 oN,
where the values are less than 75 mm. The lowest values are along the
coast. This again reflects the low value of net radiation available for
evaporation because of higher cloud density and consequently a greater
loss in incoming solar radiation. Evaporation is relatively low along the
southern coastland and high near the desert. Values are generally higher
in dry season than in rainy season particularly along the coast in the
tropics. Generally, the evaporation rate is highest toward the end of the
dry season, namely in March and April. The lowest values are recorded
in the wet season namely July and August in Nigeria due to considerable
122
AGR 205 MODULE 3
increases in cloud and highly reduced amounts of insolation

(Oguntoyinbo, 1978).
3.1.1 Seasonal Variations in Rainfall
In general, high rainfall totals occur over the equatorial regions and the
monsoon lands of south-east Asia, while the deserts receive the least
amount of rainfall. With respect to seasonal variations in rainfall the
pattern is generally zonal for both seasons, especially in the low
latitudes. In the middle latitudes, on the other hand, the pattern is non
zonal. The continents have more of their rainfall during summer than
during the winter months.
In the tropics the seasonal variation is second in importance to the total

amount of rainfall. It is the prime controlling factor of the farming
calendar in most of the tropics – clearing, ploughing, ridging, planting,
application of fertilizer, weeding and harvesting. In many parts of the
tropics, the onset, duration and retreat of the rain are decisive in the
agricultural production. Seasonal rainfall has a strong effect on the way
of life of people particularly their outdoor activities.
The major factor controlling the climate of West Africa is Inter Tropical
Discontinuity (ITD). In West Africa, the ITD assumes its northernmost
position around latitude 20oN in August. This marks the height of the
rainy season in West Africa with virtually the whole region under the
influence of the moist southwesterly air mass from the Atlantic Ocean
(Fig. 11).
Fig. 11: February rainfall over West Africa (inches)

Source: Ayoade, 2002
123
The ITD attains its southernmost position around latitude 6oN in

January. This represents the peak of the dry season with the whole of
West Africa except the coastlands coming under the influence of the dry
north easterlies from the Sahara Desert (Fig 12).
Fig. 12: August rainfall over West Africa (inches)

Source: Ayoade, 2002
The coastal region of West Africa (areas around Calabar) is a

continuously rainy area, where there is some seasonal variation in
rainfall but where no real dry season occurs. This is followed by a
region where two rainy seasons and two dry periods alternate. The
length and intensity of the two major rainy and two dry seasons are
rarely the same. In the northern part of West Africa only a short rainy
season and a long dry season occur.
Rainfall decreases both in duration and amount from the coast to the
interior except where altitudinal effects create islands of higher rainfall
(e.g. Jos Plateau). The coastal areas receive over 4000mm spread over
8-10 months while the extreme north receives less than 250mm spread
over 3 to 4 months.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Evaporation is the source of moisture in the atmosphere and eventually
rainfall. Rainfall is the source of moisture for agricultural production
particularly in the tropics.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Evaporation involves the change of state of water from liquid or

solid into gas. Evaporation may occur either from a free water
surface or bare ground. Water loss from transpiration in
combination with evaporation is termed evapotranspiration. If
moisture is not limiting at the evaporating surface, evaporation
and evapotranspiration occurs at the maximum rate possible; and
this is termed potential evapotranspiration. Evaporation and
evapotranspiration that occur when water is not always available
is termed actual evapotranspiration.
2. In the tropics, seasonal variation in rainfall is an important factor
which controls the agricultural calendar.
3. Seasonal rainfall has a strong effect on the way of life of people,
particularly their outdoor activities.
4. The major factor controlling West Africa’s climate is the ITD.
1. Write short notes on the following:

a. Eevaporation
b. Evapotranspiration
c. Actual evapotranspiration
d. Potential evapotranspiration.
2. Comment on the importance of ITD.
3. Discuss the effect of the radiation of the earth on the global
distribution of solar radiation.
4. Explain the seasonal variations in daylight in the world.
5. Why is there no cold season in the tropics?
125
Ayoade, J.O. (1983). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics John

ChiChester: Wiley and Sons.


Educational Books.

Strahler, A.N. and Strahler, A.H (1973). Environmental GeoScience:

Interaction between Natural Systems and Man. ChiChester:John
Wileys and Sons.
126
AGR 205 MODULE 3
127
MODULE 3
Unit 1 Equipment and Maintenance of Standard

Meteorological Stations
Direction, Radiation and Sunshine Duration
Unit 3 Measurement of Evaporation and
Evapotranspiration and Maintenance of a
Standard Meteorological Station
Unit 4 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics I
Unit 5 Climate and Agriculture in the Tropics II
UNIT 1 EQUIPMENT AND MAINTENANCE OF

STANDARD METEOROLOGICAL STATIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Categories of Weather Stations
3.2 Weather Measurement
3.2.1 Rainfall
3.2.2 Air Temperature
3.2.3 Humidity
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
A weather station otherwise known as a meteorological station or
meteorological enclosure is a place where all elements of weather are
measured and recorded. In dimension, it measures 10 metres by 6
metres. It should be located on a level ground covered with short
grasses. Furthermore, the station should not be sited on or close to a hill,
in a depression or on steep slope, near buildings or tall trees. The station
is also usually fenced around with wire gauze for the security of the
instruments and to ensure free air circulation. Based on the number of
elements measured or observed and the frequency of observation of
these elements, four categories of weather stations are recognised.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Fig. 13: Layout of a Weather Station (Source: Ayoade, 2002)
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• describe the layout of a weather station

• recognise the equipment for measuring rainfall, air temperature
and humidity
• measure rainfall, air temperature and humidity.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Categories of Weather Stations
We have the following categories of weather stations:
1. Rainfall stations: These are stations manned by part-time

observers who take daily readings of rainfall only. In the strictest
sense of the term these are not weather stations, as the only
weather element measured is rainfall.
129
2. Climatological stations: These stations are also manned by part-

time observers but in addition to measuring daily rainfall, they
make once or twice daily instrumental observations of air
temperature and humidity.
3. Agroclimatological stations: These are stations where daily
instrumental observations of temperature and humidity, as well as
soil temperatures of various depths are made once or twice. Other
elements which are measured only once daily include rainfall,
wind speed and direction, evaporation, sunshine duration and
radiation. They are manned by part- time observers.
4. Synoptic station: These are stations manned by full-time
professional observers. Continuous weather monitoring and
hourly instrumental observation are maintained here. The main
climatic elements observed include temperature, humidity,
pressure, rainfall, duration of sunshine, cloud amount and wind
speed and direction.
3.2 Weather Measurement
Elements of weather are observed and measured by weather instruments

which are kept within the confines of weather stations. Weather
instruments may be manual or self-recording (autographic). The
autographic instruments provide continuous measurements of weather
elements over a period of time, usually 24 hours. Autographic
instruments are more expensive than manual instruments. The general
procedures for the measurements of the major weather elements are
discussed here.
3.2.1 Rainfall
Rainfall is measured by a rain gauge. A rain gauge consists of a copper
cylinder with a metal funnel which leads into a smaller copper container
or a glass bottle. The hole in the funnel that leads down to the container
is very small so that evaporation of the collected rain is minimised. The
gauge should be at least 30cm above the ground and firmly fastened to
avoid splashing. Rainfall falling in the funnel trickles into the jar below
and at the end of a 24-hour period this is poured into a graduated
measuring cylinder which is tapered at the bottom to enable very small
amounts (such as 0.25mm) to be measured accurately. The reading
should be done at eye-level and to an accuracy of up to 0.1cm.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Fig. 14: Rainguages
Rainfall is generally stated in units of inches, millimeters and

centimeters that fall per unit of time. For instance, 20mm of rainfall
would cover the ground to a depth of 20mm, provided that none is lost
by runoff evaporation or sinking into the ground. For meteorological
recordings, a rain-day is reckoned by a period of 24 hours with at least
0.25mm of rain recorded.
There are different types of autographic rain gauges, depending on the
type of operating mechanism; they include the tilting siphon, the tipping
bucket and the weighing collector system (W.M.O 1970). The most
popular of these rain gauges is the tilting siphon autographic rain gauge.
It contains a collecting chamber fitted with a float. When the chamber
fills up as rain falls, the float rises and a pen attached to the top traces a
graph on a chart fixed to a cylindrical drum driven by clock wave. After
the chamber is filled, it tilts over on its pivot and the contents siphon out
of the gauge. The float then returns to its original level and the pen rests
on the base of the chart. The chamber fills up again as the rain continues
to fall and the process is repeated until the rain stops. One complete
cycle measures 5mm of rainfall.
131
3.2.2 Air Temperature

Air temperature is measured manually with the aid of maximum and
minimum thermometers and autographically by a thermograph.
Each weather station has a Stevenson screen in which the thermometers
are kept. They are maximum and minimum thermometers, wet bulb
thermometer and dry bulb thermometer. The screen is built to provide
shade under which the shade temperature of the air can be measured. It
is a wooden box whose four sides are louvered to allow adequate
ventilation. The roof is made of double boarding to prevent the sun’s
heat from reaching the inside of the screen while the white paint further
improves the insulation against solar radiation. It is placed on a stand,
about 121cm (4ft) above the ground level.
The maximum thermometer is a mercury-in-glass thermometer which
contains a small glass index. When the temperature rises the mercury
expands and pushes the index along the tube. When the temperature
falls, the mercury contracts leaving behind the index. The maximum
temperature is read on the scale at the end of the index nearer the
mercury.
Fig. 15: Maximum and minimum thermometers
The minimum thermometer is an alcohol in-glass thermometer in which

when the temperature rises, the alcohol expands and flows past the index
and when the temperature falls, the alcohol contracts and pulls the index
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
along the tube. The end of the index nearer the meniscus shows the
minimum temperature. The instrument is reset by tilting or by using a
magnet to draw back the index to the mercury. The maximum and
minimum thermometers are used at weather stations to measure the
highest and lowest temperatures within the day respectively. The air
temperature at any given time can be read off an ordinary mercury in-
glass thermometer with or without an index.
Continuous measurement of air temperature can be done with the aid of
a self-recording thermometer known as a thermograph.
3.2.3 Measurement of Humidity
There are various measures of humidity (i.e. the water vapour content of
the atmosphere). These include, as earlier discussed, relative humidity,
absolute humidity, specific humidity, humidity mixing ratio, vapour
pressure and dew point temperature. Relative humidity is however, the
most commonly used measure of humidity, perhaps because it is easy to
compute using the wet and dry bulb thermometer. The instrument for
measuring relative humidity is the hygrometer, which comprises wet-
and dry bulb thermometers placed side by side in the Stevenson screen.
The dry bulb is in fact the ordinary thermometer that measures shade
temperature (Td). The wet bulb thermometer has its bulb covered with
muslin which is perpetually dipped in a reservoir of distilled water.
When air is saturated, evaporation, which produces a cooling effect,
takes place from the wet muslin. The wet bulb therefore always shows
lower reading (T w) than the dry bulb. The difference between the two
readings (T d-Tw) is known as the wet bulb depression. The drier the
atmosphere is the greater this difference. Psychometric tables are used to
obtain values, vapour pressure, dew point and relative humidity from
readings of dry and wet bulb thermometers. A simplified version of the
psychometric tables is given below.
133
Fig. 16: Hygrometer (Dry and Wet bulb thermometer)
4.0 CONCLUSION
There are four categories of weather stations. Weather equipment is kept

in weather stations. Thermometers and dry and wet bulb thermometers
are kept in the Stevenson screen which in turn is placed in a weather
station.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
5.0 SUMMARY
1. A weather station is a place where all weather elements are

measured and recorded.
2. Four categories of weather stations are recognised – rainfall
stations, climatological stations, agroclimatological stations and
synoptic stations.
3. The dimension of a weather station is 6x10m.
4. Rain gauges (both manual and self-recording) are used in
measuring rainfall.
5. Thermometers (both manual and self recording) are used in
measuring temperature.
6. Dry and wet bulb thermometers are used to measure humidity.
1. Explain the main features of rain gauges and how the amount of
rain is measured with the equipment.
2. Explain how you will set up a standard meteorological station.
Areola, O. (1999). Certificate Physical and Human Geography for


Ayoade, J.O. (2002). Introduction to Agroclimatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers.
Bunnet, R.B. (1973). General Geography in Diagram. London:

Longman.
Nieuwolt, S (1977). Tropical Climatology. An Introduction to the

Climates of the Low latitudes. ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons.

Educational Books.
Ojo,O.et al. (2001) .Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

135
UNIT 2 MEASUREMENT OF AIR PRESSURE, WIND

SPEED, WIND DIRECTION, RADIATION AND
SUNSHINE DURATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Measurement of Air Pressure
3.2 Measurement of Wind Speed
3.3 Measurement of Wind Direction
3.4 Measurement of Radiation
3.5 Measurement of Sunshine Duration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Weather observation and measurements started in Unit 11 and continues

in this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• recognise the equipment for measuring air pressure, wind speed,

wind direction, radiation and sunshine duration
• measure air pressure, wind speed, wind direction, radiation and
sunshine duration.
3.1 Measurement of Air Pressure
Air has weight and the weight of the vertical column of air is measured
by barometers. The instrument which measures air pressure is called a
barometer. There are various types of barometers. They are the mercury
barometer, the aneroid barometer, the barograph and altimeter.
1. The mercury barometer: The principle which operates the mercury

barometer is the balancing of the column of air against a column of
mercury in a scaled glass tube. Fluctuations in air pressure produce
corresponding differences in the height of the mercury and a
graduated vanier is mounted along the tube to facilitate accurate
reading to a thousandth of an inch. At sea level,
136
AGR 205 MODULE 3
the atmosphere balances a column of mercury 29.29 inches. In

general the mercury barometer is large and cumbersome to carry
about but it is very accurate and is used in many weather stations.
2. The aneroid barometer measures pressure using the principle of

sylphon cells, which is partially evacuated metal wefer. When
pressure in the outside air increases, the cell tends to “collapse”;
when pressure decreases, the cell expands. These fluctuations
with pressure changes are mechanically linked to an indicator or
a calibrated dial. The dial is commonly calibrated in inches of
mercury. Although the aneroid barometer is less reliable, it is
more compact, portable and convenient to use on the field.
3. The altimeter is an altitude barometer. The principle is the same

as that of the aneroid barometer. The chief difference lies in the
fact that barometric scales are calibrated in terms of atmospheric
pressure, whereas, altimeters are calibrated in feet or metric
height units.
4. The barograph: Atmospheric pressure can also be measured with

the aid of a self-recording barometer known as a barograph. The
most commonly used barograph employs the sylphon cells.
Sylphon cells activate pen arm which moves the ink record.
137
3.2 Measurement of Wind Speed
Wind speed is measured by a cup anemometer which consists of three or

four cups, conical or hemispherical in shape mounted symmetrically
about vertical axis.
Fig. 19: Wind aneometer
The metal cups which are fixed to the ends of the arms rotate according
to the prevailing wind speed. In the cup generator anemometer the
rotating cups are made to generate voltage, which registers on a dial
calibrated in knots, miles or kilometres per hour. In the cup-counter
anemometer the integrated flow of the air in miles or kilometres is
registered on a counter. In the latter case, wind speed is obtained by
dividing in wind run between two observation times by the intervening
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
period of time, usually 24 hours. A self-recording anemometer which

produces a continuous record of wind velocity overtime is called an
anemograph.
3.3 Measurement of Wind Direction
Wind direction is observed with the aid of a wind vane which consists of
a rotating arm pivoted on a vertical shaft. The arrow of the wind vane
always points in the direction from which the wind blows and the wind
is named after the direction.
Fig. 20: Wind vanes
3.4 Measurement of Insolation
A number of instruments are available for measuring the different

components of the earth’s radiation balance, the equation of which is in
the form
Rn = (Q+q) (1-σ) + I - I
Where Rn is the net radiation, (Q+q) is the sum of the shortwave direct
(Q) and diffuse (q), solar radiation incident on the earth’s surface, I is the
counter radiation from the atmosphere which is the long-wave (infrared)
and I is the terrestrial radiation which is also a long-wave or infrared.
Instruments used for measuring radiation are generally expensive

and therefore are not commonly used in many developing countries. The
instruments fall into five basic types as follows:
1. Net Radiometers – for measuring only the net radiation.

2. Pyranometers- for measuring the total short wave radiation from
the sky incident on a horizontal surface at the ground.
139
3. Pyrheliometers – for measuring the solar intensity or the direct

beam solar radiation (Q) at normal incidence. These are the most
accurate of all radiation instruments.
4. Pyrradiometers – for measuring only the albedo of the surface
5. Pyrgeometers – for measuring infrared long wave radiation from
the earth’s surface or the atmosphere depending upon whether it
is downward facing or upward facing.
6. Albedometers – for measuring only the albedo of the surface.
Measurements of some radiation components are described below.
Pyrheliometers are instruments designed for measuring the direct beam

solar radiation at normal incidence, usually called solar intensity. It has
a blackened receiving surface oriented perpendicular to the solar beam
and is either inserted in a blackened tube or surrounded by a series of
spaced diaphragms arranged in such a way that only radiation from the
sun and a narrow annulus of sky is intercepted.
Fig. 21: Pyranometer
Pyronometers are more commonly used than pyrheliometers. They

measure the total short wave radiation from the sun and sky incident on
a horizontal surface of the ground (i.e. both direct and diffuse radiation).
The receiver of the pyranometer is enclosed in a glass or quartz casing
that must be kept clean and dry. To provide the best possible result, the
pyranometer should be treated so that a shadow will not be cast on it at
any time.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Fig. 22: Star Pyranometer 3.5
Measurement of Duration of Sunshine
The duration of sunshine is measured with the aid of Campbell-stokes

sunshine recorder. It consists of a glass sphere which
Fig. 23: Campbell-Stokes Sunshine Recorder
141
concentrates the sun’s rays on a sensitised card graduated in hours and

minutes and held in a metal half-bowl with which the sphere is
concentric. The instrument is installed on a concrete pillar in the open
about 1-5m above the ground. Bright sunshine leaves a trace of burnt
line along the sensitised card while cloudy periods are blank. To
measure the total duration of sunshine for the day, the total length of the
burnt traces on the card which is graduated in hours and minutes is
calculated.
3.6 Measurement of Soil Temperature
Soil temperatures are measured at various depths – 5cm, 10cm, 20cm,

50cm and 100cm. The instrument used for measuring soil temperature is
known as soil thermometer. It is a mercurial thermometer with bulbs
embedded in paraffin wax. The thermometer is suspended in steel tubes
and inserted into the soil at various depths.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Equipment for measuring air pressure, wind speed and direction,

radiation and sunshine duration have been identified in this unit.
Methods of measuring the climatic elements have also been discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Various types of barometers are used for measuring air pressure.

2. Cup anemometer is the equipment used for measuring wind
speed.
3. The wind vane is used for measuring wind direction.
4. Various types of radiometers are used for measuring various
aspects of radiation.
5. Campbell-stokes sunshine recorder is used for measuring the
duration of sunshine.
1. List all the equipment used for measuring all aspects of solar
radiation and describe pyrgeometers.
2. Explain how to measure wind speed.
3. Draw an annotated diagram of the mercury barometer.
142
AGR 205 MODULE 3

Ayoade, J.O. (1983). Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics

Ayoade, J.O. (2002). Introduction to Agroclimatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers, Tropical Climatology: A
Bunnet, R.B. (1973).General Geography in Diagrams. London:

Longman,
Nieuwolt, S (1977). An Introduction to the Climates of the Low

Latitudes. ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons.

Educational Books.
Ojo,O. et al. (2001).Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

143
UNIT 3 MEASUREMENT OF
EVAPORATION
AND
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AND THE
MAINTENANCE OF A STANDARD
METEOROLOGICAL STATION
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Measurement of Evaporation
3.2 Measurement of Evapotranspiration
3.3 Maintenance of a Standard Meteorological Station
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Weather observation and measurements started in Unit 11 continue in

this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• recognise the equipment for measuring evaporation and

evapotranspiration
• take care of a meteorological station.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Measurement of Evaporation
The equipment for measuring evaporation are generally called

evaporimeters. There are two basic types of evaporimeters: those in
which evaporation takes place from a continuously wetted porous
surface of blotting-paper, fabric or ceramic material, an example of
which is the piche evaporimeter; and those in which evaporation takes
place from a free water surface in tanks or pans.
The Piche Evaporimeter
The most common instrument for measuring evaporation in West Africa

is the piche evaporimeter, a graduated measuring cylindrical tube
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
22.5cm long with an internal diameter of 11mm and an external

diameter of 14mm. It has a closed and an open end. At the open end of
the tube is a wetted surface (a filter paper disc) held by a spring fitted
with a disc and collar. The total evaporating surface is given in
centimeters. Water is supplied to the paper at the open end by a wick
inking it to a small water container normally graduated in millimeters.
The evaporation from the instrument is the difference between the
readings of the container at the beginning and end of the period. The
Piche evaporimeter is not reliable and it has been criticised as measuring
the drying power of air rather than the amount of water lost by
evaporation to the atmosphere. The piche evaporimeter is also kept in
the Stevenson screen.
Fig. 24: Piche Evaporimeter
There are different types of evaporation pans depending on their size,

shape and manner of exposure. Only the three most common ones are
described here. These are the United States Weather Bureau (USWB)
Class A pan, the raised tank and the sunken tank. The USWB Class A
pan has been recommended for worldwide use by the WMO. It is
circular with a diameter of 1206mm and 254mm deep. It is made of
galvanised iron and mounted on a wooden open frame platform about
150mm above the ground. The pan is filled with water to within 51mm
of the rim.
145
Fig. 25: Class A pan
The sunken tank is about 1829mm2 with the water level at the ground
level and a rim of 76mm protruding above the ground to prevent inflow
of surface water when it rains.
A third type, the raised tank, is a rectangular tank which is 915mm by

1270mm and 432mm deep. The depth of the water in the tank is about
350mm. A wooden platform is used to raise the tank so that the water
surface is about 457mm above the ground.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
Fig. 27: Raised Tank
The principle employed in all evaporation pans to measure evaporation

rates is the same: Evaporation measurements are taken by refilling the
water in the tanks to a fixed level. After a period of time, which is
usually 24 hours, the level of water in the pan is checked. Unless some
rain has fallen during the intervening period, the level of water in the
pan would have fallen owing to evaporation. The pan is reset by filling
it back with water to the original level. The amount of water added to
reset the pan represents the evaporation that has occurred in the
intervening period. Each pan has a cup specific to it and this is used to
refill the pan. When rain falls, the rain water is allowed for by adding
the amount of rainfall measured in a nearby rain gauge to the amount of
the apparent evaporation.
There are a number of disadvantages to pans and sunken tanks. It is

difficult to detect leakage. Because of their closeness to the ground, the
tanks tend to get dirty, which influences the rate of evaporation. Another
problem is that rain water can splash into the tanks or overflow from
them. The tanks and pans are difficult to clean. The tanks and pans
about ground level may be subject to radiation from the sides and
bottom, so that readings may be higher.
One other common problem with evaporation pans and tanks is the
difficulty of preventing herds or stray animals from drinking water from
the pan.
147
However, tanks or pans have the advantage of being inexpensive to

install and easy to handle. They can be used throughout the life span of a
crop.
3.2 Measuring of Evapotranspiration
Rates of evapotranspiration over a surface are measured by the cost of

lysimeter. There are two types of lysimeter; the weighing lysimeter and
the drainage lysimeter. Lysimeter are tanks buried in the ground to
measure the percolation of water through the soils. They provide the
most reliable and accurate method for the direct measurement of
evapotranspiration provided the necessary precautions in designing,
operating and sitting are taken. The installation of lysimeter in West
Africa has been impossible; however, one of the reasons is that it is very
expensive.
The weighing lysimeter is a rather sophisticated device consisting of a

soil-filled tank, the evapotranspirometer tank, in which grass is planted.
Water enters through this tank and drains through an outlet pipe into an
overflow chamber and supported by a weighing mechanism.
Fig. 28: Evapotranspirometer
Evapotranspiration values are obtained directly by calculating changes

in the weight of the soil-vegetation system within the tank over a
specified period of time, usually 24 hours, to obtain daily values of
evapotranspiration. If the experimental surface is surrounded by a buffer
zone with the same type of vegetation and kept moist by watering. The
values of evapotranspiration obtained would be those of potential
evapotranspiration. The buffer zone is necessary to ensure that
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
energy and drier air are not advected over the experimental plot from the
surrounding. Weighing lysimeter are often used to measure actual
evapotranspiration when the experimental surface and the surroundings
are not kept at field capacity.
The drainage lysimeter which operates on a sample water balance basis

is more widely used than the weighing lysimeter as it can be
constructed. The principle on which it operates is that
evapotranspiration is the difference between water input in form of
rainfall and irrigation if necessary and water output in form of
percolation and runoff in a soil plant system. (Chang, 1964). The
drainage lysimeter is normally used to measure rates of potential
evapotranspiration. There is therefore, the need to keep the tank and the
surrounding area continuously moist by irrigation.
3.3 Maintenance of a Standard Meteorological Station
To ensure that observations at the meteorological stations are accurate

and comparable over time, the following should be observed:
1. Buildings should not be located close to the meteorological

station.
2. Big trees should not be allowed to grow around the station.
3. The grass of the meteorological station should be kept low at all
times.
4. Observation of the elements should be regular and prompt.
5. Animals should not be allowed access to the station, particularly
the pans and tanks; in drier areas birds and small animals use the
tanks for bathing.
6. Malfunctioning equipment should be replaced promptly.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Equipment for measuring evaporation and evapotranspiration has been

fully discussed in this unit. The methods of maintenance of a weather
station have also been discussed.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Evaporimeters which are of two types (piche evaporimeter, pans)

are used for measuring evaporation.
2. Lysimeter which are also of two types (drainage lysimeter,
weighing lysimeter) are used for measuring evapotranspiration.
149
3. Keeping the grass inside the weather station low, clearing the
surrounding, fencing the weather station, reporting and replacing
the malfunctioning equipment are some of the ways of
maintaining a weather station.
1. With the aid of a diagram, describe how to measure

evapotranspiration.
2 a. Describe piche evaporimeter
b. What is its shortcoming as an instrument for measuring
evaporation?
3. List ways of maintaining a weather station.
4. Explain the main features of rain gauges and how the amount of
rain is measured with the equipment.
5. Explain how you will set up a standard meteorological station.
6. List all the equipment used in measuring all aspects of solar
radiation and describe pyrogeometers.
7. Explain how to measure wind speed.
8. Draw an annotated diagram of a mercury barometer.
9. With the aid of a diagram, describe how to measure
evapotransipiration.
10. List ways of maintaining a weather station.


Ayoade, J.O. (2002).Introduction to Agroclimatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers.
Bunnet, R.B. (1973).General Geography in Diagram. London:

Longman.
Nieuwolt,S.(1977).Tropical Climatology: An Introduction to the

Climates of the Low latitudes ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons.

Educational Books.
Ojo,O. et al. (2001).Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

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AGR 205 MODULE 3
UNIT 4 CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURE IN THE

TROPICS I
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Effects of Radiation on Crop Growth
3.1.1 Effects of Photoperiodism on Crop Growth
3.2 General Effects of Water on Crop Growth
3.3 General Effects of Humidity on Crop Growth
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Of all primary economic activities pursued throughout the world

agriculture is the most important and it is also highly dependent on the
weather. From the review of literature, it has been amply demonstrated
that agriculture being an outdoor activity is very sensitive to weather
conditions. There is obviously a need to study the relations between
climate and agriculture in all climates, but it is particularly important in
the tropics. Climatic conditions in the tropics are generally not as
favourable for agriculture as is often assumed (Nieuwolt, 1977). The
luxuriant vegetation in many parts of the tropics and the rapid growth of
plants have erroneously led to the belief that food can be produced with
very little effort. The general relationship between climate and
agriculture will be discussed below.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the general effects of radiation on crop growth

• explain what photoperiod and photoperiodism are and how they
influence crop distribution
• explain the general effects of moisture on crop growth.
151
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Effects of Radiation on Crop Growth
The relations between solar radiation and agriculture are primarily

illustrated by two processes:photo-energy (photosynthesis) processes
and photo-stimulus processes.
In general, photo-energy processes require higher radiation intensity

than photo-stimulus processes. In fact photo -stimulus processes resolve
themselves into two: movement processes and formative processes.
Formative processes involve among other things stem elongation, leaf
expansion, pigment formation, flowering in photo periodically sensitive
plants which are determined by the relative length of light and dark
periods to which plants are exposed.
Practically all the dry matter of higher plants originates from

photosynthesis. This is the process by which plants with the aid of
chlorophyll pigment utilise the energy of solar radiation to produce
carbon dioxide out of water and carbohydrate. Photosynthesis is
inherently an inefficient process in the utilisation of solar energy, partly
because only the visible portion and spectrum is active and partly
because the quantum requirement for photosynthesis is much higher
than the theoretical minimum value.
The photosynthesis rate of most leaves increase with light intensity

almost linearly over a narrow range. At the same light intensity, the
leaves become light saturated. For a few plants, the photosynthetic rates
may even decline slightly as light intensity increases beyond the
saturation point.
At saturation light intensities and normal carbon dioxide concentration

photosynthesis are affected by temperature because biochemical
processes are limiting. Crops in the field are usually below the optimum
temperature for most of the season. But the temperature of leaves in the
sunlight is often higher than that of the air, sometimes by as much as
100C and during high sun periods, the leaf temperatures may very well
exceed the optimum. Gates (1965) has suggested that the midday
depression in photosynthesis is often caused by the adverse effect of
very high temperatures.
Plant growth depends on the excess of dry matter increase by

photosynthesis over the loss by respiration. The net gain is known as net
photosynthesis, or net assimilation rate. Whereas photosynthesis takes
place mainly in the leaves during the day, respiration proceeds
throughout the plants for the entire 24-hour period. Respiration rates
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
increase with temperature up to a varying maximum for different plants.

For Alfalfa Thomas and Hill (1937) reported a fourfold increase in
respiration rate by increasing temperature from 00 to 200C.
3.1.1 Effects of Photoperiodism on Crop Growth
The length of daily exposure to light is known as a photoperiod while

the response of crop development to a photoperiod is called
photoperiodism.
The earliest work published on this phenomenon is that of Garner and

Allard (1920). Typically the photoperiod has an effect on the formation
of flowers, fruits and seeds. It also influences vegetative growth, the
formation of buds, tuber, the character and extent of branching, leaf
shape, pigment formation, root development dormancy and death.
In their early work, Garner and Allard divided plants into three groups
on the basis of their response to the photoperiod namely; long-day
plants, short-day plants and day neutral plants. Long -day crops flower
only under day-light less than 14 hours. Examples are wheat, mustard,
oats, burkey, rye and clover. In short day- crops flowering are induced
by short photoperiods of less than 10 hours. Examples are cotton, millet,
corn, beans, cucumber and sweet potatoes. The day neutral crops can
form the flower buds under any period of illumination. Examples are
tomato and carrot. Later Allard (1938) added the fourth group which is
designated as intermediate. The intermediate crops flower at a day
length of 12 -14 hours but are inhibited in reproduction by day lengths
either above or below this duration.
Photoperiodism is an important factor in the natural distribution of

plants. In general plants that have originated in low latitude require
short- day for flowering while those from high latitudes are long- day
plants. When the latter are moved to low latitudes they will not produce
blossom. When the low latitudes plants are grown in high latitudes they
will continue to grow vegetatively until they are killed by frost.
3.2 General Effects of Water on Crop Growth
The three groups of plants have been distinguished on the basis of their
water needs:
Hydrophytes – they normally grow in water or swamps, examples of

which are mangrove and paddy rice.
Mesophytes – most field crops belong to the mesophyte group. This

group of plants can be further divided into true mesophyte – plants that
153
will wilt after losing 25% of their water content and xerophytes
mesophytes which include those that will wilt after losing 25-50% of
their water content.
.Xerophytes –they are capable of enduring even more severe drought.

They wilt permanently after loosing 50-75% of their water content.
This classification provides a primary approximation of crops adaptation

and distribution in various moisture regimes. However it is too crude to
serve as a useful guide for irrigation and other cultural practices. For
those purposes, it is essential to have an understanding of the various
physiological plant responses to water. Almost every process occurring
in plant is affected by water. Water is the major constituent of the
physiologically active plant tissue; a reagent in photosynthesis and
hydrolytic such as starch digestion; the solvent in which salt, sugar and
other solutes move from cell to cell and organ to organ; and an essential
element of the maintenance of plant turgidity necessary for cell
enlargement and growth.
It is not, however, easy to establish a relationship between water stress

and the various aspects of crop function. The relationship varies with
crop characteristics, stages of soil development, and climatic conditions.
Water deficiency not only reduces the yield but also changes the pattern
of growth. In general, effective rooting depth decreases as the soil
moisture level increases. Roots developed under limited moisture
conditions are finer and have more and longer branches than roots
developed under favourable moisture conditions. The ratio of root to
shoot usually is increased by water stress. Leaf area is often reduced but
leaf thickness is increased.
Water deficit in crop has a profound effect in the rate of photosynthesis

because dehydrated protoplasm has lowered photosynthesis capacity.
Indirectly, once the leaf looses its turgidity, the stomata guard cell close,
thus preventing any further intake of carbon dioxide for photosynthesis.
In general the respiration rate of crops tends to increase as moisture

decreases. This change is however, much smaller than the
accompanying changes in photosynthesis.
Soil moisture which is an important source of moisture to crops is

determined by rainfall, evaporation rate and soil characteristics.
The supply of soil moisture may vary from wilting point when no water
is available for crop use to field capacity when the soil is fully saturated
with moisture but is well drained. In a water logged condition (i.e. when
all the soil pores are completely filled with water), free movement of air
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
within the soil is impeded and compounds toxic to the roots of crops
may be formed. At the opposite end is the condition of drought in which
the amount of water required for evapotranspiration exceeds the amount
available in the soil. Drought condition makes crops wilt and eventually
die. Hence, too little or too much water is not good for agriculture.
In the tropics where the temperatures are high throughout the year and
the rates of evapotranspiration are constantly high, the role of moisture
in crop production cannot be overemphasised. Apart from this, over
most of the tropics rainfall is highly seasonal and varies in amount from
one year to another.
3.3 General Effects of Humidity on Crop Growth
Compared with most other climates, relative humidities are generally

high in the tropics and this is the case during the rainy season. High
humidity of the air has been found to have some beneficial effects on
plant growth, because many plants can absorb moisture directly from the
air and the rate of photosynthesis generally increases with humidity
(Baker, 1965). High relative humidity also lowers the rate of
transpiration thereby reducing the water requirements of crops while
evaporation losses from the soil are also less than under dry conditions.
Generally, crop yields increase with increasing relative humidity
(Arkley, 1963).
4.0 CONCLUSION
This unit shows clearly that weather and climate affect all aspects of
crop growth and development from germination to harvesting.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Solar radiation influences crop growth and development in the

following ways – stem elongation, leaf expansion, pigment
formation, flowering in photo periodically sensitive plants, yield
and crop distribution.
2. Water influences crop growth and development as follows:-

distribution of crops, yield, major constituent of the
physiologically active plant tissue, a reagent in photosynthesis
and hydrolytic, solvent in which salts, sugar and other solutes
move from cell to cell and organ to organ, an essential element of
maintenance of plant turgidity. Water deficit lowers
155
photosynthesis, increases respiration and reduces yield, causes

wilting and eventually death.
3. High humidity generally lowers transpiration, thereby reducing

the water requirements of crops, and increases photosynthesis
and yield.
1. Discuss the various ways in which solar radiation influences crop

growth and development
2. Moisture rather than temperature is the most important control of
agriculture in the tropics. Explain.

ChiChester: John Wiley and Sons,
Ayoade, J.O. (2002). Introduction to Agriclimatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers.

Longman.
Nieuwolt, S. (1977).Tropical Climatology: An Introduction to the

Climates of the Low Latitudes ChiChester: John Wiley & Sons.

Educational Books.
Ojo,O. et.al. (2001). Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

Climatology Lagos: SEDEC Publishers.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
UNIT 5 CLIMATE AND AGRICULTURE IN THE

TROPICS II
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 General Effects of Temperature on Crop Growth
3.2 Agriculture, Pests and Diseases
3.3 Agriculture and Irrigation
3.4 Climate – Livestock Relationships
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In this unit, we will examine the ways in which temperature influences

crop growth and development. We will also examine how climate
indirectly influences crop growth through its effects on pest and diseases
and water supply
.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
• explain the effects of temperature on crop growth

• explain the relationship between climate, pests and diseases and
crop growth.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 General Effects of Temperature on Crop Growth
Temperatures are of course, closely correlated with insolation and it is

therefore not always possible to separate the effects of these two factors
on plant life. It is however, certain that most physical and chemical
processes in crops are strongly affected by temperature conditions.
Every species has an optimum temperature range of which growth and
development proceed with maximum intensity and speed. For most
crops the cardinals range from 50C – 60C. Temperatures below 60C are
injurious to most crops while the upper limit for most crops ranges from
500C to 600C. Low temperatures kill or damage crops. Prolonged
temperatures above freezing retard crop growth and may even kill those
157
crops adapted to warm conditions. Low temperature may not kill plant
cells directly, but indirectly by reducing the flow of water from roots
and so interfere with plant transpiration and nourishment. High
temperatures are generally not as destructive to crops as low
temperatures provided the moisture supply is adequate to prevent
wilting and the crop is adapted to the climate zone.
The uniform temperature and its small seasonal variation characteristic

of the tropics provide a wide range of choice of suitable crops in relation
to temperature conditions; therefore temperatures are rarely a critical
factor in tropical agriculture (Nieuwolt, 1977). As temperature
conditions are frequently below optimum for most crops, there exists
close a correlation between yields and temperature. It is also expressed
in the varit Hoff law which states that dry matter production doubles for
every rise in temperature of about 100C. Such correlations are however,
not valid for many tropical crops.
Soil temperature is another significant control of crop growth and

development. At times, it is of greater ecological importance to crop life
than air temperature. Soil temperature affects the germination of seed
and later influences root development and the growth of the entire crop.
Soil also affects the physical, chemical and biological processes in the
soil that determine overall crop growth. For instance, potatoes require
air temperature of between 80C and 280C, the optimum being 180C.
3.2 Agriculture, Pests and Diseases
The combination of high temperatures and high humidities characteristic

of tropical lowlands, carries serious drawbacks for tropical agriculture.
For many tropical crops the yields are reduced both in quantity and
quality by high temperatures, mainly because some diseases and pests
thrive well under warm conditions. High temperatures and humidities in
the tropics also create highly favourable conditions for the proliferation
and growth of numerous micro-organisms and insects, which spread
diseases and pests. They also encourage rapid and profuse growth of
weeds and parasites which can drastically reduce yield. Losses are not
limited to crops on the field; they are equally serious after harvesting
and during storage and transportation.
In Nigeria, crop losses due to pests have been estimated to be of the

order of 50 to 60% of total crop production (Ayoade, 2002). The
periodic or seasonal nature of outbreaks of crop pests and diseases
suggests that weather conditions play an important role. Favourable
temperature and humidity conditions encourage the growth and
development of crop pests and disease causing germs. Wind conditions
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
control the transport and distribution of disease causing germs and

spores.
Locusts breed in the semi arid areas bordering the Sahara desert where
there is enough moisture for breeding and for vegetative growth to feed
the larva. Thereafter, the mature locusts with the aid of northeasterly
winds fly in swarms southwards during the day when air temperatures
are between 200 and 400C. The incidence of rosette and other diseases
that attack groundnuts increases with increase in rainfall and humidity.
This is one of the reasons why large scale cultivation of groundnut is
limited to the drier northern region of Nigeria. Susceptibility to fungal
diseases which thrive in warm, moist conditions has prevented cotton
from being grown in southern Nigeria. Adejuwon (1962) demonstrated
that too much rainfall reduces the number of cocoa pods per tree and
increases the degree of infection by the black pod diseases in the cocoa
growing areas of south- western Nigeria. The incidence of head mould
that attacks sorghum has been attributed to high atmospheric humidity
in Nigeria (Kassam et. al 1976).
3.3 Agriculture and Irrigation
Irrigation can be defined as the application of water to soil to provide

moisture for crop growth. Irrigation is one of the oldest farm techniques
used in supplying additional water in moisture deficient lands for crop
production. This extends cultivations to the marginal lands. It also
increases food production and increases yield. Irrigation is used in dry
regions to which water can be taken; regions where rainfall is highly
seasonal; regions where the annual rainfall is too low or too variable
from year to year to allow proper crop cultivation and regions of the
world where rice is grown by the aid of irrigation.
Large scale irrigation involves the construction of huge dams across

rivers so that reservoirs are created to store water. Small scale irrigation
involves the use of annual flooding of a river during the period of heavy
rainfall in the upper parts of its valley (e.g. Nile valley, Ganges and
Niger valley); the construction of tanks to store water directly from
seasonal rainfall and digging boreholes from where water is pumped to
wet crops or grasses or supply drinking water to animals.
In the dry tropics, a lot of water is required for irrigation. This is

because the high temperature and low humidity of the areas increase the
rate of transpiration, thereby increasing the water requirements of crop.
Evaporation losses from soil are also high.
159
3.4 Crop Water Requirement
The water requirement of any given crop is determined by various

factors, important amongst which are weather conditions (such as
temperature, humidity, winds, sunshine) which determine the potential
evapotranspiration of crops; crop water use which depends on the type
of crops and the stage of development of the crops. The greater the leaf
area of the crop and the more actively the crop is growing, the greater
the amount of crop water requirement. The crop water requirement of
crops can be determined in two major ways namely; by measuring
lysimeter or evaporation pans, or by the use of formulae of which there
are various types.
3.5 Crop Irrigation Requirement
Crop irrigation requirement is the portion of the water consumptive use

of crops which must be supplied by irrigation to ensure optimal crop
growth and development. It is the difference between crop water
requirement and moisture available through precipitation and from soil
moisture storage. Such crop irrigation requirement is actually the
difference between potential evapotranspiration (PE) and the actual
evapotranspiration (AE). It is therefore, best estimated through water
budgeting techniques such as those of Thornthwaite and Mather (1957)
and Penman (1949).
Calculating irrigation water requirement will help to maximise irrigation

water. This will also help in regulating the release of water to crops so
as not to harm the soil (avoid leaching and salination).
3.6 Climate – Livestock Relationship
Weather and climate influence livestock directly or indirectly in three

important ways. First, climate conditions affect the availability of water
for animal consumption and determine the type, quantity and quality of
pastures available for animal feed. Second, weather and climate have
direct effects on animals and their body physiologic functions. Third,
weather and climate affect livestock production indirectly by
determining the type of animal pests and diseases that would be
prevalent in a given area.
The distribution of animals is affected by the availability and reliability

of water supplies. The distribution of precipitation over a given area
provides a rough guide to the availability of water in an area. Areas with
little or no rainfall are deficient in water while areas of abundant rainfall
have plenty of water, all things being equal. Humid climates are
however not very favourable for most types of livestock because of the
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
numerous pests and diseases such climatic breeds. Again, climates

promote forest ecosystems, whereas livestock prefer grass ecosystems,
such grass ecosystems of the world as the African savanna the veldt of
South of Africa, the steppes of Russia, the downs of Australia, the
pampas of Argentina and the prairies of North America.
Moisture still determines the distribution of livestock within the

grassland ecosystem. Areas with reliable sources of water, surface or
underground, are usually well stocked with animals. In the dry savanna
zone of West Africa, water is a major problem to livestock production.
The problem of water shortages is most acute during the long dry season
or in years of drought when the expected rain fails to fall. At such times
water is provided for livestock from wells and boreholes. Watering
points generally attract large numbers of animals.
The West African pastoralists react to shortage of water and feed caused
by the dry season or drought in years of low rainfall in two ways. Some
dispose of their stock by selling them at very low prices to reduce the
number of dead animals and alleviate rationing available food amongst
fewer animals. Many migrate with their animals to more favourable
climate zones where more feed and water are available for their animals.
For instance the Fulani cattle breeders migrate at the beginning of the
dry season from the Sudano-Sahelian savanna zone. At the onset of the
rain they move back to the Sudan-Sahelian savanna belt. These
movements immediately raise two problems. First, the animals lose
weight during the long trek southward and later northward; second, the
animals are exposed to trypanosomiasis during their sojourn in the
Guinea savanna zone.
In years of rain failure in the north, a lot of livestock perish. Thousands

of livestock perished during the West Africa Sahel drought of 1972-
1974 as a result of lack of water and many more perished in the 1982-
1984 drought. Drought is indeed a major problem to livestock
production in the West African savanna.
It is not only the health of animals that is affected by climate; the

reproductive capacities of animals are also affected. Temperature affects
animals’ physiological functions and biochemical reactions within their
various organs and tissues which may affect their productive capacity. It
has been demonstrated that under hot conditions, diary cows tend to
produce less milk while beef cattle produce less fats and flesh. This is
partly because these animals tend to reduce their intake of food when it
is hot. The effect of extreme cold on animals may also reduce
production. Much of the body energy is used to combat cold. Long
exposure of livestock to cold may cause frost bite or even death.
161
Regional distribution of livestock is influenced indirectly by climate

through pests and diseases. For instance, the southern part of Nigeria
which has a more favourable climate and forage conditions for livestock
has a lower population of livestock than the northern part. The reason is
that the humid south is infested with tsetse fly that causes cattle
trypanosomiasis responsible for high rates of morbidity and mortality
among cattle. The drier north is free of this insect and hence free of the
scourge of trypanosomiasis. In Nigeria, it has been argued that the
humid southern parts of the country are as suitable as the drier northern
parts for tropical cattle breed and more suitable for important temperate
breed because of the lower heat on cattle in the south than in the north
(Ojo, 1971).
Tsetse fly is found over most parts of Africa with the exception of the
highland areas and relatively dry areas. The tsetse fly lives in the tree
canopies where transpiration and shade maintain a combination of high
humidity and moderately high temperatures necessary for its growth and
development. Hence, only a few dwarf breeds of cattle that are resistant
to trypanosomiasis thrive in humid and forested areas of Africa.
However, most of Africa’s cattle populations are to be found in the
tsetse fly free zones of the savanna.
4.0 CONCLUSION
Climate influences crop and animal production directly through

temperature and indirectly through its influence on pest and diseases. It
also determines the need for irrigation.
5.0 SUMMARY
1. Temperature determines the range of choice of crops that can be

produced in an area.
2. Temperature also affects most physical and chemical processes in

crops, including yield.
3. Indirectly temperature creates favourable conditions for the

proliferation and growth of numerous micro-organisms and
insects which spread diseases and pests. Pests and diseases
destroy crops and reduce yields.
4. Irrigation is necessary where there is moisture deficit for crop

production to improve yield and increase food production.
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AGR 205 MODULE 3
5. Climate has direct effects on animals and their body physiologic

functions, and the availability of water for animal consumption. It
also determines the type, quantity and quality of pastures
available for animal feed and indirectly determines the type of
animal pests and diseases that would be prevalent in a given area.
1. Highlight the effects of temperature on crop production.

2. Explain the indirect influences of climate on crop growth.
3. Discuss the various ways in which solar radiation influences crop
growth and development.
4. Moisture rather than temperature is the most important control of
agriculture in the tropics. Explain.
5. Highlight the effects of temperature on crop production
6. Explain the indirect influences of climate on crop growth.

Ayoade, J.O. (2002).Introduction to Agro climatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Publishers.

Longman.
Nieuwolt, S. (1977).Tropical Climatology:An Introduction to the

Climates of the Low Latitudes. ChiChester: John Wiley & Sons.
Ojo, O. (1977). The Climates of West Africa. Ibadan:. Heinemann

Educational Books.
Ojo, O. et.al (2001). Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic

163

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE CODE: AGR 205

Course Team S. D. Musa Course (Developer/Writer) - Kogi State

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

National Open University of Nigeria

All Rights Reserved

The study of climatology is fundamentally concerned with the weather

The weather of a place refers to the atmospheric condition at a given

This course as it is conceived here has to do with the understanding of

WHAT YOU WILL LEARN IN THIS COURSE

As mentioned earlier, climatology deals with the scientific study of

latitude, temperature, etc of the different elements together with

Radiation, the incoming and outgoing solar energy, determines the

The processes of rainfall starts with an uplift expansion of warm air

The temperature, daylight, radiation, rainfall and evapotranspiration will

Measurement of the various elements of climate is done using

The course aims to provide a good understanding of the climatic

After going through this course, you should be able to:

• Explain the nature and scope of climatology

WORKING THROUGH THIS COURSE

You will be provided with the following materials:

In addition, the course comes with a list of recommended text books

Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope

Unit 1 Atmospheric Moisture

Unit 1 Equipment and Maintenance of a Standard Meteorological

The dynamics of the earth’s atmosphere constitute the major focus of

The general principles involved in radiation and heating of the

The processes of condensation and precipitation will be introduced to

In unit four, you will be introduced to the seasonal variations in

factors responsible for these variations, particularly from one latitude to

Unit five again introduces you to seasonal variations as they affect

Unit four introduces you to the general effects of radiation, photo

Unit five introduces you to the effects of temperature on crop growth.

TEXT BOOKS AND REFERENCES

The following textbooks are recommended for further reading

Ayoade, J.O. (2004).Introduction to Climatology for the Tropics.

Ayoade, J.O. (2002).Introduction to Agro Climatology. Ibadan: Vantage

Donald Ahren C. (1994). Meteorology Today. An Introduction to

Ojo,O.et al (2001) .Fundamentals of Physical and Dynamic Climatology

The TMA is the continuous assessment component of your course. It

FINAL EXAMINATION AND GRADING

This examination concludes the assessment for the course. It constitutes

Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope………………….…... 1

Unit 1 Atmospheric Moisture……………………….……… 31

Unit 1 Equipment and Maintenance of a Standard

Unit 1 The Principles, Aims and Scope Elements

UNIT 1 PRINCIPLES, AIMS AND SCOPE OF

Traditional climatology is primarily concerned with describing the

atmosphere interface. Modern climatology emerged from the challenges

At the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• define weather and climate

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Weather and Climate

When we talk about weather, we refer to the state of the atmosphere at a

1. How does weather differ from climate?

3.2 Principles and Scope of Climatology

Climatology is the scientific study of climate. It deals with the trend of

The atmosphere is not only dynamic but also complex, as earlier

Climatology has a wide scope and it can be subdivided either on the