DESALINATION OF WATER

INTRODUCTION

Desalination is a process that extracts mineral components from saline

water. More generally, desalination refers to the removal of salts and minerals
from a target substance, as in soil desalination, which is an issue for agriculture.
Saltwater is desalinated to produce water suitable for human consumption or
irrigation. One by-product of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many
seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern interest in desalination is
focused on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with
recycled wastewater, it is one of the few rainfall-independent water sources.

Due to its energy consumption, desalinating sea water is generally more

costly than fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water
conservation. However, these alternatives are not always available and depletion of
reserves is a critical problem worldwide. Currently, approximately 1% of the
world's population is dependent on desalinated water to meet daily needs, but the
UN expects that 14% of the world's population will encounter water scarcity by
2025.

Desalination is particularly relevant in dry countries such as Australia, which

traditionally have relied on collecting rainfall behind dams for water. Desalinated
water is usually healthier than water from rivers and ground water, and there is less
salt and limescale in it. According to the International Desalination Association, in
June 2015, 18,426 desalination plants operated worldwide, producing 86.8 million
cubic meters per day, providing water for 300 million people.[5] This number
increased from 78.4 million cubic meters in 2013,[4] a 10.71% increase in 2 years.
The single largest desalination project is Ras Al-Khair in Saudi Arabia, which
produced 1,025,000 cubic meters per day in 2014,[4] although this plant is
expected to be surpassed by a plant in California.[6] Kuwait produces a higher
proportion of its water than any other country, totaling 100% of its water use.[7]

Methods

Vacuum distillation

The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillation—

essentially boiling it to leave impurities behind. In desalination, atmospheric
pressure is reduced, thus lowering the required temperature needed. Liquids boil
when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and vapor pressure increases
with temperature. Effectively, liquids boil at a lower temperature, when the
ambient atmospheric pressure is less than usual atmospheric pressure. Thus,
because of the reduced pressure, low-temperature "waste" heat from electrical
power generation or industrial processes can be employed.

Multi-stage flash distillation

Water is evaporated and separated from sea water through multi-stage flash
distillation, which is a series of flash evaporations.[8] Each subsequent flash
process utilizes energy released from the condensation of the water vapor from the
previous step and so on.

Multiple-effect distillation

Multiple-effect distillation (MED) works through a series of steps called

“effects”.[8] Incoming water is sprayed onto pipes which are then heated to
generate steam. The steam is then used to heat the next batch of incoming sea
water.[8] To increase efficiency, the steam used to heat the sea water can be taken
from nearby power plants.[8] Although this method is the most thermodynamically
efficient among methods powered by heat,[9] a few limitations exist such as a max
temperature and max number of effects.[10]

Vapor-compression distillation

Vapor-compression evaporation involves using either a mechanical compressor or

a jet stream to compress the vapor present above the liquid.[9] The compressed
vapor is then used to provide the heat needed for the evaporation of the rest of the
sea water.[8] Since this system only requires power, it is more cost effective if kept
at a small scale.[8]

Reverse osmosis

The leading process for desalination in terms of installed capacity and yearly
growth is reverse osmosis (RO).[11] The RO membrane processes use
semipermeable membranes and applied pressure (on the membrane feed side) to
preferentially induce water permeation through the membrane while rejecting salts.
Reverse osmosis plant membrane systems typically use less energy than thermal
desalination processes.[9] Desalination processes are driven by either thermal (e.g.,
distillation) or electrical (e.g., RO) as the primary energy types. Energy cost in
desalination processes varies considerably depending on water salinity, plant size
and process type. At present the cost of seawater desalination, for example, is
higher than traditional water sources, but it is expected that costs will continue to
decrease with technology improvements that include, but are not limited to,
improved efficiency,[12] reduction in plants footprint, improvements to plant
operation and optimization, more effective feed pretreatment, and lower cost
energy sources.[13]

The Reverse Osmosis process is not maintenance free. Various factors

interfere with efficiency: ionic contamination (calcium, magnesium etc.); DOC;
bacteria; viruses; colloids & insoluble particulates; biofouling and scaling. In
extreme cases destroying the RO membranes. To mitigate damage, various
pretreatment stages are introduced. Anti-scaling inhibitors include acids and other
agents like the organic polymers Polyacrylamide and Polymaleic Acid),
Phosphonates and Polyphosphates. Inhibitors for fouling are biocides (as oxidants
against bacteria and viruses), like chlorine, ozone, sodium or calcium hypochlorite.
At regular intervals, depending on the membrane contamination; fluctuating
seawater conditions; or prompted by monitoring processes the membranes need to
be cleaned, known as emergency or shock-flushing. Flushing is done with
inhibitors in a fresh water solution. Thus the system needs to go offline. This
procedure is environmental risky, since contaminated water is rejected into the
ocean without treatment. Sensitive marine habitats can be irreversibly damaged.
[14][15]

Membrane distillation

Membrane distillation uses a temperature difference across a membrane to

evaporate vapor from a salty brine solution and condense pure condensate on the
colder side.

Energy consumption

Energy consumption of seawater desalination has reached as low as 3

kWh/m3,[19] including pre-filtering and ancillaries, similar to the energy
consumption of other fresh water supplies transported over large distances,[20] but
much higher than local fresh water supplies that use 0.2 kWh/m3 or less.[21] A
minimum energy consumption for seawater desalination of around 1 kWh/m3 has
been determined,[22][23] excluding prefiltering and intake/outfall pumping. Under
2 kWh/m3[24] has been achieved with reverse osmosis membrane technology,
leaving limited scope for further energy reductions. Supplying all US domestic
water by desalination would increase domestic energy consumption by around
10%, about the amount of energy used by domestic refrigerators.[25] Domestic
consumption is a relatively small fraction of the total water usage.[26]

Cogeneration

Cogeneration is generating excess heat and electricity generation from a

single process. Cogeneration can provide usable heat for desalination in an
integrated, or "dual-purpose", facility where a power plant provides the energy for
desalination. Alternatively, the facility's energy production may be dedicated to the
production of potable water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be
produced and incorporated into the energy grid. Cogeneration takes various forms,
and theoretically any form of energy production could be used. However, the
majority of current and planned cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil
fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy. Most plants are located in the
Middle East or North Africa, which use their petroleum resources to offset limited
water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more
efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination more viable.[28][29]

The current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations, in

which the permeate from reverse osmosis desalination is mixed with distillate from
thermal desalination. Basically, two or more desalination processes are combined
along with power production. Such facilities have been implemented in Saudi
Arabia at Jeddah and Yanbu.[30]

Economics

Costs of desalinating sea water (infrastructure, energy, and maintenance) are

generally higher than fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling, and
water conservation, but alternatives are not always available. Desalination costs in
2013 ranged from US$0.45 to $1.00/cubic metre ($US2 to 4/kgal). (1 cubic meter
is about 264 gallons.) More than half of the cost comes directly from energy cost,
and since energy prices are very volatile, actual costs can vary substantially.[32]

Environmental

In the United States, cooling water intake structures are regulated by the
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). These structures can have the same
impacts to the environment as desalination facility intakes[according to whom?].
According to EPA, water intake structures cause adverse environmental impact by
sucking fish and shellfish or their eggs into an industrial system. There, the
organisms may be killed or injured by heat, physical stress, or chemicals. Larger
organisms may be killed or injured when they become trapped against screens at
the front of an intake structure.[52] Alternative intake types that mitigate these
impacts include beach wells, but they require more energy and higher costs.[53]

The Kwinana Desalination Plant opened in Perth in 2007. Water there and at
Queensland's Gold Coast Desalination Plant and Sydney's Kurnell Desalination
Plant is withdrawn at 0.1 m/s (0.33 ft/s), which is slow enough to let fish escape.
The plant provides nearly 140,000 m3 (4,900,000 cu ft) of clean water per day.[42]

Desalination processes produce large quantities of brine, possibly at above

ambient temperature, and contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals,
their reaction byproducts and heavy metals due to corrosion.[54] Chemical
pretreatment and cleaning are a necessity in most desalination plants, which
typically includes prevention of biofouling, scaling, foaming and corrosion in
thermal plants, and of biofouling, suspended solids and scale deposits in membrane
plants.[55]
 To limit the environmental impact of returning the brine to the ocean, it can
be diluted with another stream of water entering the ocean, such as the outfall of a
wastewater treatment or power plant. With medium to large power plant and
desalination plants, the power plant's cooling water flow is likely to be several
times larger than that of the desalination plant, reducing the salinity of the
combination. Another method to dilute the brine is to mix it via a diffuser in a
mixing zone. For example, once a pipeline containing the brine reaches the sea
floor, it can split into many branches, each releasing brine gradually through small
holes along its length. Mixing can be combined with power plant or wastewater
plant dilution. Brine is denser than seawater and therefore sinks to the ocean
bottom and can damage the ecosystem. Careful reintroduction can minimize this
problem. Typical ocean conditions allow for rapid dilution, thereby minimizing
harm.

Alternatives without pollution

Some methods of desalination, particularly in combination with evaporation

ponds, solar stills, and condensation trap (solar desalination), do not discharge
brine. They do not use chemicals or burn fossil fuels. They do not work with
membranes or other critical parts, such as components that include heavy metals,
thus do not produce toxic waste (and high maintenance).

A new approach that works like a solar still, but on the scale of industrial
evaporation ponds is the integrated biotectural system.[56] It can be considered
"full desalination" because it converts the entire amount of saltwater intake into
distilled water. One of the advantages of this system is the feasibility for inland
operation. Standard advantages also include no air pollution and no temperature
increase of endangered natural water bodies from power plant cooling-water
discharge. Another important advantage is the production of sea salt for industrial
and other uses. As of 2015, 50% of the world's sea salt production relies on fossil
energy sources.[57]

Alternatives to desalination

Increased water conservation and efficiency remain the most cost-effective

approaches in areas with a large potential to improve the efficiency of water use
practices.[58] Wastewater reclamation provides multiple benefits over
desalination.[59] Urban runoff and storm water capture also provide benefits in
treating, restoring and recharging groundwater. A proposed alternative to
desalination in the American Southwest is the commercial importation of bulk
water from water-rich areas either by oil tankers converted to water carriers, or
pipelines. The idea is politically unpopular in Canada, where governments imposed
trade barriers to bulk water exports as a result of a North American Free Trade
Agreement (NAFTA) claim.[61]

Public health concerns

Desalination removes iodine from water and could increase the risk of iodine
deficiency disorders. Israeli researchers claimed a possible link between seawater
desalination and iodine deficiency,[62] finding deficits among euthyroid adults
exposed to iodine-poor water[63] concurrently with an increasing proportion of
their area's drinking water from seawater reverse osmosis (SWRO).[64] They later
found probable iodine deficiency disorders in a population reliant on desalinated
seawater.[65] A possible link of heavy desalinated water use and national iodine
deficiency was suggested by Israeli researchers.[66] They found a high burden of
iodine deficiency in the general population of Israel: 62% of school-age children
and 85% of pregnant women fall below the WHO’s adequacy range.[67] They also
pointed out the national reliance on iodine-depleted desalinated water, the absence
of a universal salt iodization program and reports of increased use of thyroid
medication in Israel as a possible reasons that the population’s iodine intake is low.
In the year that the survey was conducted, the amount of water produced from the
desalination plants constitutes about 50% of the quantity of fresh water supplied
for all needs and about 80% of the water supplied for domestic and industrial needs
in Israel.[68]

Other issues

Due to the nature of the process, there is a need to place the plants on
approximately 25 acres of land on or near the shoreline.[69] In the case a plant is
built inland, pipes have to be laid into the ground to allow for easy intake and
outtake.[69] However, once the pipes are laid into the ground, they have a
possibility of leaking into and contaminating nearby aquifers.[69] Aside from
environmental risks, the noise generated by certain types of desalination plants can
be loud.[69]

Experimental techniques

Waste heat

Thermally-driven desalination technologies are frequently suggested for use

with low-temperature waste heat sources, as the low temperatures are not useful for
many industrial processes, but ideal for the lower temperatures found in
desalaination.[9] In fact, such pairing with waste heat can even improve electrical
process: Diesel generators commonly provide electricity in remote areas. About
40%–50% of the energy output is low-grade heat that leaves the engine via the
exhaust. Connecting a thermal desalination technology such as membrane
distillation system to the diesel engine exhaust repurposes this low-grade heat for
desalination. The system actively cools the diesel generator, improving its
efficiency and increasing its electricity output. This results in an energy-neutral
desalination solution. An example plant was commissioned by Dutch company
Aquaver in March 2014 for Gulhi, Maldives.[70][71]

Low-temperature thermal

Originally stemming from ocean thermal energy conversion research, low-

temperature thermal desalination (LTTD) takes advantage of water boiling at low
pressure, even at ambient temperature. The system uses pumps to create a low-
pressure, low-temperature environment in which water boils at a temperature
gradient of 8–10 °C (46–50 °F) between two volumes of water. Cool ocean water
is supplied from depths of up to 600 m (2,000 ft). This water is pumped through
coils to condense the water vapor. The resulting condensate is purified water.
LTTD may take advantage of the temperature gradient available at power plants,
where large quantities of warm wastewater are discharged from the plant, reducing
the energy input needed to create a temperature gradient.[72]

Experiments were conducted in the US and Japan to test the approach. In

Japan, a spray-flash evaporation system was tested by Saga University.[73] In
Hawaii, the National Energy Laboratory tested an open-cycle OTEC plant with
fresh water and power production using a temperature difference of 20 C° between
surface water and water at a depth of around 500 m (1,600 ft). LTTD was studied
by India's National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) in 2004. Their first
LTTD plant opened in 2005 at Kavaratti in the Lakshadweep islands. The plant's
capacity is 100,000 L (22,000 imp gal; 26,000 US gal)/day, at a capital cost of INR
50 million (€922,000). The plant uses deep water at a temperature of 10 to 12 °C
(50 to 54 °F).[74] In 2007, NIOT opened an experimental, floating LTTD plant off
the coast of Chennai, with a capacity of 1,000,000 L (220,000 imp gal; 260,000 US
gal)/day. A smaller plant was established in 2009 at the North Chennai Thermal
Power Station to prove the LTTD application where power plant cooling water is
available.[72][75][76]

Thermoionic process

In October 2009, Saltworks Technologies announced a process that uses

solar or other thermal heat to drive an ionic current that removes all sodium and
chlorine ions from the water using ion-exchange membranes.[77]

Evaporation and condensation for crops

The Seawater greenhouse uses natural evaporation and condensation

processes inside a greenhouse powered by solar energy to grow crops in arid
coastal land.

Geothermal

Geothermal energy can drive desalination. In most locations, geothermal

desalination beats using scarce groundwater or surface water, environmentally and
economically.[citation needed]

Electrochemical

In 2008, Siemens Water Technologies announced technology that applied

electric fields to desalinate one cubic meter of water while using only a purported
1.5 kWh of energy. If accurate, this process would consume one-half the energy of
other processes.[91] As of 2012 a demonstration plant was operating in Singapore.
[92] Researchers at the University of Texas at Austin and the University of
Marburg are developing more efficient methods of electrochemically mediated
seawater desalination.[93]

Electrokinetic shocks

A process employing electrokinetic shocks waves can be used to accomplish

membraneless desalination at ambient temperature and pressure.[94] In this
process, anions and cations in salt water are exchanged for carbonate anions and
calcium cations, respectively using electrokinetic shockwaves. Calcium and
carbonate ions react to form calcium carbonate, which precipitates, leaving fresh
water. The theoretical energy efficiency of this method is on par with
electrodialysis and reverse osmosis.

Conclusion

Desalination has been known to history for millennia as both a concept, and
later practice, though in a limited form. The ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle
observed in his work Meteorology that “salt water, when it turns into vapour,
becomes sweet and the vapour does not form salt water again when it condenses,”
and also noticed that a fine wax vessel would hold potable water after being
submerged long enough in seawater, having acted as a membrane to filter the salt.
[97] There are numerous other examples of experimentation in desalination
throughout Antiquity and the Middle Ages,[98] but desalination was never feasible
on a large scale until the modern era.[99]

Before the Industrial Revolution, desalination was primarily of concern to

oceangoing ships, which otherwise needed to keep on board supplies of fresh
water. When Protector (1779 frigate) was sold to Denmark in the 1780s (as the
ship Hussaren) the desalination plant was studied and recorded in great detail.[100]
In the newly formed United States, Thomas Jefferson catalogued heat-based
methods going back to the 1500s, and formulated practical advice that was
publicized to all U.S. ships on the backs of sailing clearance permits.[101][102]
Significant research into improved desalination methods occurred in the United
States after World War II. The Office of Saline Water was created in the United
States Department of the Interior by the Saline Water Conversion Act of 1952. It
was merged into the Office of Water Resources Research in 1974.[103] Research
also took place at state universities in California, followed by development at the
Dow Chemical Company and DuPont.[104] Many studies focus on ways to
optimize desalination systems.