POWER SYSTEM SIMULATION LABORATORY

A RECORD
Submitted by

AMBIGA.J (621420411001)

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of
MASTER OF ENGINEERING
In
POWER SYSTEMS ENGINEERING

MAHABARATHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE, CHINNASALEM

ANNA UNIVERSITY, CHENNAI 600 025
APRIL- 2021

1
2
 MAHA BARATHI
ENGINEERING COLLEGE
CHINNASALEM – 606 201

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this a bonafide record of work done by

Selvan/selvi AMBIKA.J Reg.No. 621420411001 of
First Semester power systems engineering Branch of M.E
Degree Examination in the subject PS5111 power system
simulation laboratory

Staff Incharge Head of the Department

Submitted for the Anna University, Chennai practical examination conducted on ---------------

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL

EXAMINER

3
4
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE STAFF
S.NO DATE NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT MARKS
NO INITIAL

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

5
6
7
PROGRAM

clc
clear all
sb=[1 1 2]; %input('Enter the starting bus = ')
eb=[2 3 3]; % input('Enter the ending bus = ')
nl=3; %input(' Enter the number of lines= ')
nb=3; %input(' Enter the number of buses= ')
sa=[1.25-3.75j 5-15j 1.667-5j]; %input('Enter the value of series impedance =')
Ybus=zeros(nb,nb);
for i=1:nl
k1=sb(i);
k2=eb(i);
y(i)=(sa(i));
Ybus(k1,k1)=Ybus(k1,k1)+y(i);
Ybus(k2,k2)=Ybus(k2,k2)+y(i);
Ybus(k1,k2)=-y(i);
Ybus(k2,k1)=Ybus(k1,k2);
end
Ybus
Ybusmag=abs(Ybus);
Ybusang=angle(Ybus)*(180/pi);
% Calculation of P and Q
v=[1.06 1 1];
P=[0 0 0];
Q=[0 0 0];
del=[0 0 0];
Pg=[0 0.2 0];
Pd=[0 0 0.6];
Qg=[0 0 0];
Qd=[0 0 0.25];
for p=2:nb
for q=1:nb
P(p)=P(p)+(v(p)*v(q)*Ybusmag(p,q)*cos(del(p)+angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q)));
Q(p)=(Q(p)+(v(p)*v(q)*Ybusmag(p,q)*sin(del(p)-angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q))));
Pspe(p)=Pg(p)-Pd(p);
Qspe(p)=Qg(p)-Qd(p);
delP(p)=Pspe(p)-P(p);
delQ(p)=Qspe(p)-Q(p);
end
end
P;
Q;
Pspe;
Qspe;
delP;
delQ;

%Calculation of J1
P2=[0 0 0];

8
Ex.No:1 (a) POWER FLOW ANALYSIS BY NEWTON-RAPHSON
Date: METHOD

Aim:
To develop Newton-Raphson (N-R) method for solving power flow equations.To
develop the expressions for the elements of Jacobian matrix. To demonstrate the iterative
process of N-R method using the given test system and to check the results with the available
load flow programs using MATLAB software.

Development of N-R Method:

Modeling Assumption
 Bus generation and demands are modeled by complex power injections.
 Lines and transformers are modeled by PI equivalent circuit.
 Shunt compensators by shunt susceptance.
Statement of Practical Power Flow Problem
Given
The network configuration, complex bus power injection at all the buses except slack
bus and the complex bus voltages at the slack bus.
To Determine
To determine the complex bus voltages at all the buses except slack bus.
Hence only the (n-1) complex power equations are taken and iteratively solved to get the (n-
1) unknown complex voltages.
Operating Constraints
 To maintain acceptable voltage profile it is necessary to maintain the voltage
magnitude of generator buses distributed throughout the system at values higher than
1.0 per unit.
 In practice “Voltage Control” is achieved by AVR‟s and excitation system available
at each generating station. At these buses only P-injection and voltage magnitude are
specified and hence they are called P-V buses.
While solving power flow problem the voltage magnitude at the P-V buses are required to be
held at specified value provided the reactive power generation at this bus is within the
reactive limits QGmax and QGmin.

Power Flow Model

The complex power balance at bus k is given by

(PIk + jQIk) = Pk + jQk (1)

9
for p=2:nb
for q=2:nb
if(p==q)
P1=2*v(p)*Ybusmag(p,q)*cos(angle(Ybus(p,q)));
for j=1:nb
if (j~=p)
P2(q)=P2(q)+v(j)*Ybusmag(q,j)*cos(del(q)+angle(Ybus(q,j))-del(j));
PV(p,q)=P1+P2(q);
end
end
else
PV(p,q)=v(p)*Ybusmag(p,q)*cos(del(p)+angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q));
end
end
end
PV;
% Calculation of J2
Pdel=[0 0 0;0 0 0;0 0 0];
for p=2:nb
for q=2:nb
if(p==q)
for j=1:nb
if(j~=p)
Pdel(p,q)=Pdel(p,q)-v(j)*v(q)*Ybusmag(q,j)*sin(del(q)-angle(Ybus(p,j))-del(j));
end
end
else
Pdel(p,q)=-v(p)*v(q)*Ybusmag(p,q)*sin(del(p)+angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q));
end
end
end
Pdel;
%Calculation of J3
Q2=[0 0 0];
for p=2:nb
for q=2:nb
if(p==q)
Q1=2*v(p)*Ybusmag(p,q)*sin(-angle(Ybus(p,q)));
for j=1:nb
if (j~=p)
Q2(q)=Q2(q)+v(j)*Ybusmag(q,j)*sin(del(q)-angle(Ybus(q,j))-del(j));
QV(p,q)=Q1+Q2(q);
end
end
else
QV(p,q)=v(p)*Ybusmag(p,q)*sin(del(p)-angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q));
end
end

end

10
 Where the complex power injection at the kth bus (PIk + jQIk) is equal to the complex power
flowing into the network through all the lines connected to kth bus (PIk + jQIk). Since the bus
generation and demand are specified, the complex power injection is a specified quantity and
is given by

PIk (sp) + jQIk (sp) = (PGk (sp) – PDk (sp)) + j (QGk (sp) – QDk (sp)) (2)

The complex power (Pk + jQk) can be written as a function of state variables as
N
Pk + jQk = Vk Ik* = Vk ∑ Y*km V*m (3)
m=1
Substituting Vk =|Vk|∟δk and Ykm = |Ykm| ∟θkm, equation (3) becomes
N
Pk (δ, V) = |Vk| ∑ │Ykm││Vkm│cos (δk-δm-θkm) (4)
m=1
N
Qk (δ, V) = |Vk| ∑│Y km│ │Vm│sin (δk-δm-θkm) (5)
m=1
Substituting equations (2), (4) and (5) in equation (1) we get the following two power balance
equations for kth bus.

Pk (δ, V) - PIk (sp) = 0 (6)

Qk (δ, V) - QIk (sp) = 0 (7)

Load Flow model in real variable form is compiled by adopting the following rules:
(i) For every bus whose bus phase angle δ is unknown, include the respective real
power balance equation (6)
(ii) For every bus whose bus voltage magnitude |V| is unknown, include the respective
reactive power balance equation (7)

Thus for a system with a slack bus and M P-V buses, the number of real power balance
equation.NP is given by,
NP = N-1
and the number reactive power balance equations.NQ is given by,

NQ = N-M-1
Assuming that the buses are numbered with P-Q buses first, followed by P-V buses and then
by the slack bus, the Load Flow model for the system with M P-V buses is given by

fk = Pk(δ,V) – PIk(sp) = 0; k=1,2,……..NP (8)

fk+NP = Qk (δ,V) – QIk(sp) = 0; k =1,2,…..NQ (9)

Where expressions Pk (δ,V) and Qk (δ,V) are given by equations (4) and (5). Equations (8)
and (9) can be written in compact form as

F(X) = 0 (10)

11
QV;
%Calculation of J4
Qdel=[0 0 0;0 0 0;0 0 0];
for p=2:nb
for q=2:nb
if(p==q)
for j=1:nb
if(j~=p)
Qdel(p,q)=Qdel(p,q)+v(j)*v(q)*Ybusmag(q,j)*cos(del(q)+angle(Ybus(p,j))-
del(j));
end
end
else
Qdel(p,q)=-v(p)*v(q)*Ybusmag(p,q)*cos(del(p)+angle(Ybus(p,q))-del(q));
end
end
end
Qdel;
%Jacobian matrix
PV(1,:)=[ ];
PV(:,1)=[ ];
Pdel(1,:)=[ ];
Pdel(:,1)=[ ];
QV(1,:)=[ ];
QV(:,1)=[ ];
Qdel(1,:)=[ ];
Qdel(:,1)=[ ];
J=[PV Pdel;QV Qdel]
%Find the change in v&del
delP(1:1)=[];
delQ(1:1)=[];
delpq=[delP';delQ']
vdel=inv(J)*delpq
%Find new v&del
for i=1:nb-1
for j=2:nb
vnew(i)=v(j)+vdel(i);
delnew(i)=del(j)+vdel(i+2);
end
end
VNEW=[v(1) vnew]
DELNEW=[del(1) delnew]

12
 Where X = state vector= (δ1, δ2 …δNP, V1, V2…V NQ) T and the number of nonlinear
equations in F in equation (10) is equal to (NP+NQ)

Compact power flow equation has to be solved using N-R method to obtain the state vector
through iterative process. Once the solution is obtained the unknown real and reactive
injections and power flow in each line can be computed.

Newton-Raphson Load Flow (NRLF) Algorithm

Let us assume a solution X0 to equation (10) and let the correct solution to (10) be X0
+ΔX. Expanding equation (10) by Taylor series at X0, and neglecting second and higher order
terms we get

F(X0 + ΔX) =0ᴝF(X0) + (𝜕F/𝜕X)|X0-ΔX (11)

Equation (11) can be written as

(𝜕F/ 𝜕X)| 0ΔX = -F(X0) (12)
X

The voltage correction scheme for Newton-Raphson method can be obtained by expanding
equation (12) as

𝐻 𝑁 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑃 ∆𝑃
(𝐽 𝐿 ) ( │) = ( ∆𝑄 ) (13)
│𝑉

Where H = (𝜕P/ 𝜕δ); N = (𝜕P/ 𝜕V|) |V|

J = (𝜕Q/𝜕𝛿); L = (𝜕Q/ 𝜕V|) |V| (14)

ΔP = real power mismatch vector = PI (sp) – P (δ, |V|) (15)

ΔQ = reactive power mismatch vector = QI (sp) – Q (δ, |V|) (16)

The updated state vector is given by

(17)
The elements of the Jacobin matrix are given below Off – diagonal elements:

Hkm = Lkm = |Vk | |Vm| (Gkm sinδkm – Bkm cosδkm) (18)

Nkm = -Jkm = |Vk| |Vm| (Gkm cosδkm + Bkm sinδkm) (19)

Diagonal elements:

Hkk = -Qk – Bkk |Vk| 2; Lkk = Qk – Bkk |Vk| 2 (20)

Nkk = Pk + Gkk |Vk| 2; Jkk = Pk – Gkk |Vk|2 (21)

Where Ykm = Gkm + jBkm

13
Flowchart

Read Data: , , k=1,2 …N

k=1,2,…NP

Set Flat Start ;

Compute Mismatch Vector ,

Yes
Is

No

Compute Jacobian matrix Compute Line Flow Line

Losses and Slack bus

Compute Voltage Correction

Print

Update state vector Stop

Set
A
Q limit check for P-V

14
The following are the steps of NRLF algorithm:

1. Assume “flat start” for starting voltage solution

δ k (h) = 0.0; for h=0 ; k=1,……… NP (for all buses except slack k bus)
|Vk (h) | = 1.0; for h=0; k=1, 2…NQ (for all P -Q buses)
|Vk (h) | = |Vk|sch for all P-V buses and slack bus.

2. Compute mismatch vector using equation (15) and (16)

3. Compute Otherwise go to step 4.

4. Compute Jacobin matrix using equation (18), (19), (20), and (21)

5. Obtain state correction vector by solving equation (13) using optimally ordered triangular
factorization.

6. Update state vector using equation (17). Go to step 2.

15
 Q Limit Check for P-V bus
A

Compute

Set

Do

Yes
Is

No
Yes
Is
No
Switch bus k to P-Q bus
Switch bus k to P-Q bus Is bus k is at P-Q bus status
switch back to P-V bus status

Change
Change
Set

16
Exercise
1. Perform the load flow study for the given system using Newton Raphson Method
G1 G2

T1 T2

Line charging
Line No Starting bus Ending bus Series line impedance
admittance
1 1 2 0.2+0.6j 0.05j
2 2 3 0.25+0.0125j 0.035j
3 3 1 0.02+0.28j 0.015j

Reactive
Line No Starting bus Voltage magnitude Angle Real power
power
1 1 1.04 0 0 0
2 2 1 10.69 0 0
3 3 1.05 20 0 0

2. Verify the result using MATLAB

17
OUTPUT:
Ybus =

6.2500 -18.7500i -1.2500 + 3.7500i -5.0000 +15.0000i

-1.2500 + 3.7500i 2.9170 - 8.7500i -1.6670 + 5.0000i
-5.0000 +15.0000i -1.6670 + 5.0000i 6.6670 -20.0000i

J=

2.8420 -1.6670 8.9750 -5.0000

-1.6670 6.3670 -5.0000 20.9000
8.5250 -5.0000 -2.9920 1.6670
-5.0000 19.1000 1.6670 -6.9670

delpq =

0.2750
-0.3000
0.2250
0.6500

vdel =

0.0575
0.0410
0.0088
-0.0201

VNEW =

1.0600 1.0575 1.0410

DELNEW =

0 0.0088 -0.0201

18
Result:

Load flow for the given test system is carried out by Newton Raphson method and the
results have been verified by the MATLAB programs.

19
PROGRAM

clc
clear all
sb=[1];
eb=[2];
nl=1;
nb=2;
sa=[2.9561-16.1246j];
% ya=1/(sa);
ybus=zeros(nb,nb);
sh=[0+0.2j];
for i=1:nl
k1=sb(i);
k2=eb(i);
y(i)=sa(i);
ybus(k1,k1)=ybus(k1,k1)+y(i)+sh;
ybus(k2,k2)=ybus(k2,k2)+y(i)+sh;
ybus(k1,k2)=-y(i);
ybus(k2,k1)=ybus(k1,k2);
end
ybus
% ybusmag=abs(ybus);
% ybusang=angle(ybus)*(180/pi);

bus=[1 1.03 0 0 0 0.5 0.3

2 1 0 0.6 0.25 1.0 0.6];

% line=[1 0.011 0.6i

% 2 0.011 0.6i];
% r=size(line);
% p=r;
% w=line(:,1);
% buses=max(w);
% b=zeros(1,buses);
b=-imag(ybus)
% formation of b'matrix
b1=zeros(nb-1,nb-1);
for i=1:nb-1
for j=1:nb-1
b1(i,j)=b(i+1,j+1);
end
end
b1
% formation of b"
% assuming all the load bus are at last
b2=zeros(nb-2,nb-2);
for i=1:nb-1
for j=1:nb-1
b2(i,j)=b(i+1,j+1);

20
Ex. No: 1(b)
POWER FLOW ANALYSIS BY FAST DECOUPLED METHOD
DATE :

Aim:
To develop Fast Decoupled (FDPF) method for solving power flow equations. To
demonstrate the iterative process of FDPF method using the given test system and to check
the results with the MATLAB software

Development of FDPF Method:

FDPF improves the speed and reliability of convergence and to reduce storage
requirements.

Decoupling Process
 There is a loose physical interactions between the real and reactive power flow in the
power system
 Values of elements of sub matrix and are relatively small when compared to
the sub matrix and .
 The first step in decoupling process is to neglect the coupling sub matrix and .

(1)

(2)
(3)
Where
(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)
and where
(8)
Assumptions:
Physically justifiable assumptions can be made which are always valid
 is very small and hence and
Invoking the following in (7) and (8)
(9)
(10)

21
end
end
b2
v=bus(:,2);
del=bus(:,3);
Pg=bus(:,4);
Qg=bus(:,5);
Pd=bus(:,6);
Qd=bus(:,7);
Pspec=Pg-Pd;
Qspec=Qg-Qd;
iter=1;
slack=1;
tolerance=0.01;
% flag=1;
% while flag==1;
m=real(ybus);
n=imag(ybus);
P=zeros(nb,1);
Q=zeros(nb,1);
iter=iter+1;
for i=1:nb %finding bus real and reactive power
for j=1:nb
P(i)=P(i)+(v(i)*v(j)*(m(i,j)*cos(del(i)-del(j)+n(i,j)*sin(del(i)-del(j)))));
Q(i)=Q(i)+(v(i)*v(j)*(m(i,j)*sin(del(i)-del(j)-n(i,j)*cos(del(i)-del(j)))));
iter=10;
end
end
% end
P
Q
% finding del P by v
for i=1:(nb-1)
if(i>slack)
delP(i,1)=Pspec(i)-P(i);
else
delP(i,1)=(Pspec(i+1)-P(i+1));
end
delPbyv(i,1)=delP(i,1)/v(i,1);

end
%finding Q by v
c=0;
for i=1:nb
if (i>slack)
c=c+1;
delQ(c,1)=(Qspec(i)-Q(i));
delQbyv(c,1)=delQ(c,1)/v(i,1);

end

22
  Assuming all values of to be equal to and comparing the value of with
it is found and hence
(11)
 and can be expressed in
matrix form as
(12)
(13)
in (12) and (13) is negative bus susceptance matrix.
 Three step process to improve decoupling
o Divide the ith equation of (12) and (13) by thereby removing the L.H.S
terms to the denominator of the R.H.S terms.
o Remove the influence of Q-flow on the calculation of
 By setting all the R.H.S terms to in (12)
 By omitting shunt reactance‟s and off nominal tap ratio from in
(12)
 By neglecting series resistance while calculating in (12) which
makes it a D.C load flow matrix.
FDPF Method

(a) Omitting from [B‟] the representation of those network elements that
predominantly affect MVAR flows, i.e shunt reactances and off- nominal in-phase
transformer taps (tap ratio istaken as 1 p.u.)
(b) Omitting from [B”] the angle shifting effects of the phase shifters (phase shifter
ratio taken as 1.p.u
With the above approximations, the final FDPF model becomes

[B‟] Δδ = ΔP/|V| (14)

[B”] ΔV| = ΔQ/|V| (15)

Both B‟ and B” are real, sparse matrices and have the structures of [H] and [L] respectively

23
end
if max(abs(delP))>tolerance|max(abs(delQ))>tolerance
flag=1;
else
flag=0;
end
%clac correction vector
deldel=inv(b1)*delPbyv;
delv=inv(b2)*delQbyv;
%updating values
for i=1:(nb-1)
del(i+1,1)=del(i+1,1)+deldel(i,1);
end
c=0
for i=1:nb
if bus(i,2)==2
c=c+1;
v(i,1)=v(i,1)+delv(c,1);
end
end
iter
v
del

24
Exercise:
1. Perform the load flow study for the given system using Fast Decoupled Method
G1 G2

T1 T2

Line
Line Starting Ending Series line Real Reactive
charging Voltage
No Bus Bus Impedance Power Power
Admittance

1 1 2 0.02+0.04j 0.05j 1.05 0 0

2 2 3 0.01+0.03j 0.025j 1 0.2 0

3 1 3 0.0125+0.02j 0.025j 1 0.3 0.002

2. Verify the result using MATLAB

.

25
Q Limit Check for P-V bus

26
27
28
29
OUTPUT

ybus =
2.9561 -15.9246i -2.9561 +16.1246i
-2.9561 +16.1246i 2.9561 -15.9246i
b=
15.9246 -16.1246
-16.1246 15.9246
b1 =
15.9246
b2 =
15.9246
P=
0.0913
-0.0887
Q=
-1.9063
-1.8676
c=
0
iter =
10

v=

1.0300
1.0000

del =

0
-0.0190

30
Result:

The FDPF for the given test system is carried out ant the results have been verified by
using MATLAB.

31
PROGRAM:

%ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH WITHOUT CONSIDERING LOSSES USING

ITERATIVE METHOD
clc;
clearall;
alpha=[500 400 200];
beta=[5.3 5.5 5.8];
gamma=[.04 .006 .009];pd=800;
delp=3;
lambda=input('enter the estimated value of lambda:');
disp(['lambda p1 p2 p3 dp grad dellambda:']);
iter=0;
while abs(delp)>+.001
iter=iter+1;
p=(lambda-beta)./(2*gamma);
delp=pd-sum(p);
k=sum(1./(2*gamma));
dellambda=delp/k;
disp([lambda,p(1),p(2),p(3),delp,k,dellambda])
lambda=lambda+dellambda;
end
totalcost=sum(alpha+(beta.*p)+(gamma.*p.^2))

32
 Exp No: 2(a) ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITHOUT LOSSES USING LAMBDA-
ITERATION METHOD
Date :

AIM:
To compute the optimal economical scheduling of the generators with & without considering
the network losses for the given system

THEORY:

ECONOMIC DESPATCH WITHOUT LOSSES:

Consider a system of N – generating units connected to a single bus bar serving a

received electrical load Pload. The input of each unit, Fi represents the cost rate (Rs./Hr). The
output of each unit Pi is the electrical power generated by that particular unit. The total cost
rate (FT) subject to the constraint that the sum of the output powers must equal the reactive
load.

N
Objective Function: in FT   F Pi  
i1 i
Where Fi =αi + βiPi + γiPi 2



Subjected to the following constraints,

Equality Constraint,
N
PLOAD   Pi ,Where FT  F1  F2  ............  FN
i1
N – Number of generating units

33
34
 Here the transmission losses are neglected
In Equality Constraint,
Pi, min  Pi  Pi, max
Pi, min_--- Minimum Power generation from plant i.
Pi, max -- Maximum Power generation from plant i.
N
Let   PLOAD   Pi  0
i1
By making use of Lagrangian multiplier the auxiliary function is obtained as
 N 
L  FT  , i.e, L  FT   PLOAD   Pi 
 
 i1 
  Lagrangian Multiplier


Differentiating L wrt Pi and equating to zero

L  Fi Pi

 
 (0 1)  0


Pi Pi
Fi 

Pi
the condition for optimum operation is

F
F1 F2  .......... .......... ......  N  
 

P1 P2 PN

Fi
is the Incremental production cost of the unit i.
Pi
ALGORITHM FOR ECONOMIC DISPATCH METHOD:

WITH OUT CONSIDERING LOSSES:

1. Find the initial value of λ by using the formula given below,

λ=

2. Find the value of power output of all the generators by using the formula given below
Pi =

3. Check the value of power residue .If it is zero then stop the iteration and print the optimal
schedule otherwise go to next step.

35
36
 ΔP= Pload -

4. Calculate the change in λ and update the value of λ by using the equations given below,
Δλ =

λ new= λ + Δλ
5. Go to step 2

37
OUTPUT l:

enter the estimated value of lambda:6

lambdap1 p2 p3 dpgrad dellambda:
6.0000 8.7500 41.6667 11.1111 738.4722 151.3889 4.8780

10.8780 69.7248 448.1651 282.1101 0.0000 151.3889 0.0000

totalcost =

7.6865e+003

38
RESULT:
The optimal economical scheduling of the generators without losses are obtained for
the given system.

39
PROGRAM:

%ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH WITH CONSIDERING LOSSES USING LAMBDA

ITERATION METHOD
clc;
clearall;
a=[200 180 140];
b=[7 6.3 6.8];
c=[.008 .009 .007];
d=[.000218 .000228 .000179];
lambda=max(a)+1;
P1=0;
Cf=0;
delP=10;
delL=0;
Pd=150;
while(abs(delP)>.0001)
for i=1:length(a)
P(i)=(lambda-b(i))/(2*(c(i)+lambda*d(i)));
P1=P1+d(i)*P(i)^2;
end
for i=1:3
delL+delL+((c(i)+d(i)*b(i)))/(2*(c(i)+(lambda*d(i)))^2);
end
delP=Pd+P1-(sum(P));
LNew=delP/delL;
lambda=lambda+LNew;
P1=0;
end
for i=1:3
Cf=Cf+(a(i)+b(i)*P(i)+c(i)*P(i)^2);
end
P
Cf

40
Exp No: 2(b) ECONOMIC DISPATCH WITH LOSSES USING LAMBDA-
ITERATION METHOD
Date :

AIM:
To compute the optimal economical scheduling of the generators with considering the
network losses for the given system.

THEORY:

ECONOMIC DESPATCH WITH LOSSES:

Consider a system of N – generating units connected to a single bus bar serving a
received electrical load Pload. The input of each unit, Fi represents the cost rate (Rs./Hr). The
output of each unit Pi is the electrical power generated by that particular unit. The total cost
rate (FT) subject to the constraint that the sum of the output powers must equal the reactive
load.

TRANSMSSION N/W
WITH LOSSES
PLOSS

N
Objective Function Min FT   F Pi  
i1 i
Subjected to the following constraints
Equality Constraint,
N
PLOAD  PLOSS   Pi
i1
N – Number of generating units
PLOAD-Total load of the system

41
42
PLOSS -Total Network losses of the system.

In Equality Constraint,
Pi, min  Pi  Pi, max
Pi, min_--- Minimum Power generation from plant i.
Pi, max -- Maximum Power generation from plant i.
The Lagrangian function was formulated by adding the constraints to the objective
function by using lagrangian multiplier and is given below,
N
LOSS  Pi
Let   PLOAD  P 
i1
PLOSS is the total system loss

Making use of the Lagrangian multiplier, the auxiliary function is

L  FT  
  PLOAD  PLOSS  N P 
i 
L  FT
 
 i1 
Differentiating L wrt Pi and equating to zero

 PLOAD PLOSS  Pi )  0

N
L F
P P
 i (
P

P
 P
i i i i i1 i
Fi  P 
  0  LOSS  1  0
Pi  Pi 
 
 PLOSS 
Fi

          Coordination Equation
Pi 
 P 
i 
PLOSS
= Incremental Transmission loss at plant i
Pi

 = Incremental production cost (Rs/MWHr).

ALGORITHM FOR ECONOMIC DISPATCH METHOD:

WITH CONSIDERING LOSSES:

1. Find the initial value of λ by using the formula given below,

λ=

2. Find the value of power output of all the generators by using the formula given below

43
44
 Pi =

3. Check the value of power residue .If it is zero then stop the iteration and print the optimal
schedule otherwise go to next step.
ΔP= Pload - +

4. Calculate the change in λ and update the value of λ by using the equations given below,
Δλ =

λ new= λ + Δλ

5. Go to step

45
OUTPUT

P=35.0907 64.13180 52.4767

Cf=1.5927e+003

46
RESULT:
The optimal economical scheduling of the generators with & without losses are
obtained for the given system.

47
SIMULATION:

48
Exp No: 3 ANALYSIS OF SWITCHING SURGE USING MATLAB
ENERGISATION OF A LOAD
Date :

AIM:
To study and understand the electromagnetic transient phenomenon in power system
caused by switching and fault by using MATLAB.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

MATLAB software
THEORY:

Solution method for electromagnetic transient analysis Intentional and inadvertent

switching operations in EHV system initiate over voltages, which might obtain dangerous
value resulting in distinction of observation. Accurate Computation of these over voltages is
essential for proper sizing co ordination of insulation of various equipments and specification
of protection devices.
The Models of equipment must be detailed enough to reproduce actual condition
successfully an important aspect where a general purpose digital computers program source
are transient network analysis. Any network which consists of inter connection of resistance,
Inductance circuits distributed parameters line and other certain elements can be solved.
Intentional and inadvertent switching operations in EHV system initiate over voltages,
which might obtain dangerous value resulting in distinction of apparatus. Accurate
Computation of these over voltages is essential for proper sizing co ordination of insulation
of various equipments and specification of protection devices. Meaningful design of EHV
system is dependent on modeling philosophy built in to a computer program.

49
OUTPUT:

50
RESULT:

The study of transient due to energization of a long distributed parameter line has
been performed.

51
PROGRAM

%Transient Stability Analysis

clear all;
clc;
pt=input('Enter the steady state power:');
pm1=input('Enter the power before fault:');
pm2=input('Enter the power during fault:');
pm3=input('Enter the power after fault:');
h=input('Enter the inertia constant:');
f=input('Enter the value frequency:');
t=input('Enter the time interval:');
dt=input('Enter the change in time:');
n=input('Enter the number of intervals:');
dlor(1)=asin(pt/pm1);
dlod(1)=dlor(1)*(180/3.14);
k1=pm2/pm1
k2=pm3/pm1
a=asin(sin(dlor(1))/k2);
b=(a*180)/3.14;
dlmd=180-b;
dlmr=(dlmd*3.14)/180
cdcr=(sin(dlor(1))*(dlmr-dlor(1))+k2*cos(dlmr)-k1*cos(dlor(1)))/(k2-k1);
dcr=acos(cdcr)
tcr=sqrt((2*h*(dcr-dlor(1)))/(3.14*f*pt))
m=(pt*h)/(180*f)
w(1)=0;
for i=1:n
pa(i)=(pt-pm2*sin(dlor(i)))/2;
alp(i)=pa(i)/m;
dw(i+1)=alp(i)*dt;
w(i+1)=w(i)+dw(i+1);
ddl(i+1)=w(i+1)*dt;
ddr(i+1)=ddl(i+1)*(3.14/180);
dlor(i+1)=dlor(i)+ddr(i+1);
dlod(i+1)=dlor(i+1)*(180/3.14);
end
dlor
del=[dlod]
plot(t,del)
title('SWING CURVE');
xlabel('time in seconds');
ylabel('angle in degres');

52
Exp No: 4 TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS OF SINGLE MACHINE
INFINITE BUS SYSTEM USING CLASSICAL MACHINE MODEL
Date :

AIM:
To become familiar with various aspects of the transient stability analysis of Single-
Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system using classical machine model.

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

MATLAB software

THEOREM:

Stability problem is concerned with the behavior of power system when it is subjected
to disturbances and is classified into small signal stability problem if the disturbances are
small and transient stability problem when the disturbances are large. The description of the
problems are as follows.
When a power system is under steady state, the load plus transmission loss equals to
the generation in the system. The generating units run at synchronous speed and system
frequency, voltage, current and power flows are steady. When a large disturbance such as
three phase fault, loss of load, loss of generation etc., occurs the power balance is upset and
the generating units rotors experience either acceleration or deceleration. The system may
come back to a steady state condition maintaining synchronism or it may break into
subsystems or one or more machines may pull out of synchronism. In the former case the
system is said to be stable and in the later case it is said to be unstable.

Mathematical Modeling For Transient Stability

Consider a single machine connected to an infinite bus shown in figure. An infinite

bus is a source of invariable frequency and voltage.

Single machine connected to infinite bus system

The equivalent circuit with the generator represented by classical model and all resistances
neglected is shown in figure below.

53
Flowchart for transient stability analysis

START

READ THE DATA

PERFROM LOAD FLOW

COMPUTE E AND δ GENERATOR

COMPUTE REDUCED YBUS.FOR FROMULATED SYSTEM

AND POST FALUT SYSTEM

t=0.01

CALCULATE 1ST2ND3RD &4TH

ESTIMTE OF ANGLEAND
SPEED

FIND δ(t) AND ω(t)AT THE END OF INTREVAL

NO
t=t+ IS t|< tC

YES

FIND δ(t) AND ω(t)AT THE END OF

PRINTALL THE RESULTS AND

PLOT THE CURVE

STOP

54
 Equivalent circuit

Reduced equivalent circuit

E‟ = Et + jX‟ dIt
X = X‟ d +XE where XE = Xtr + X1 || X2

Where

E‟ = e.m.f behind machine transient reactance

= rotor angle with respect to synchronously rotating phasor Eb L00.
E leads Eb by δ
ω= synchronous speed of rotor
Pe = electrical power output of generator in p.u

Swing Equation:

During any disturbance in the system, the rotor will accelerate or decelerate with
respect to synchronously rotating axis and the relative motion begins. The equation
describing the relative motion is called as swing equation.
The following assumptions are made in the derivation of swing equation

55
56
 1. Machine represented by classical model.
2. Controllers are not considered.
3. Loads are constants.
4. Voltage and currents are sinusoids.
The fundamental equation of motion of the rotor of the synchronous machine is given
by

ωo= synchronous angular velocity rad/sec

Changing rotor speed in to per unit and introducing damping torque, equation (6.7) become

Where
= rotor speed deviation in p.u
Pm = mechanical input in p.u
KD = damping co-efficient in p.u

Numerical Integration Techniques:

The differential equations (6.8) are to be solved using numerical techniques. There are
several techniques available and two of them are given below.

Modified Euler Method:

Runge - Kutta Algorithm for Computation of Swing Curves:

57
58
Runge - Kutta method of fourth order is one of the best numerical method's used for the
purpose of solving the swing equation. The damping of the rotors must also be taken into
account to get the results in an accurate form.
According to this algorithm, the total transient period is typically of the order of one second
is divided into a large number of small intervals, each of t second duration. During each t
duration, the value of parameters K1, K2, K3, K4, and l1, l2, l3, l4, are calculated. Thus, these
parameters are used to determine the changes in I , i.
I( 0 ) = value of  of the ith machine at the end of previous interval t .
f = nominal system frequency.
i = number of the machine.
f
I  0 (P 1  P1 (0)  D  1 )t where,
i 1 mi ei i i
Hi
HI = per - unit inertia constant of the ith machine referred t the system base.
'

Pmi' = per - unit mechanical power of the ith generator.

Pei' = per - unit electrical power supplied by the ith generator.

i'  (i (0)  2f 0 ) / 2f 0 = per - unit disturbance velocity of the ith machine
K 2i   i (0)  I i / 2  2f 0 ]t


I 2i  f 0 H Pmi '  Pei ' (0)  D I (I '  I I / 2 2f 0 t
i

Where,
Pei' ( 0 ) = electrical power of the ith generator calculated using i at the end of previous t.
K 3i   i (0)  I 2 I / 2  2f 0 ]t


I 2i  f 0 H Pmi '  Pei '' (0)  D I (I '  I I / 2 2f 0 t
i

Where,
Pei'' (0) = electrical power of the ith generator calculated by using i ( 0 ) + K2 / 2
K 4i   i (0)  I 3I   2f 0 ]t
f
I 4i  0
Hi ' P mi
' '

 Pei '' (0)  DI (I  I 3I / 2 2f 0 t
Where,
Pei'' ( 0 ) = electrical power of the ith generator calculated by using i ( 0 ) + K3
i ( new ) = i ( 0 ) + 1/ 6 * ( Ki + 2K2I + 2K3i + K4i )
I( new ) = I( 0 ) + 1/ 6 * ( li + 2l2i + 2l3i + l4i )
Determination of Critical Clearing Time:

Critical clearing time is the maximum allowable time between the occurrence of a
fault and clearing of the fault in a system for the system to remain stable. For a given load
condition and specified fault, the critical clearing time for a system is found out as follows.
Choose a large clearing time say 30 cycles and decrease the clearing time in steps of say two
cycles and check for stability at each time step until the system just becomes unstable. Vary
the clearing time around this point in small step till you find the clearing time which is just
critical. The clearing time margin for a fault may be defined as
Clearing time margin = critical clearing time – clearing time specified
= tc (critical) - tc (clearing)

59
60
 Consider that the machine connected to infinite bus delivers Po MW (Fig. 6.3) and a
seconds.Suppose the MW output of the machine is increased in steps and stability is checked
for each step of load with the same clearing time and fault, then the system becomes just
stable at a loading say Pm and a small increase in load beyond Pm causes instability; then the
MW stability margin is defined as Ps = Pm – Po.Critical Clearing Time and Clearing Angle
From Equal Area Criteria,This method can be used for quick prediction of stability but is
applicable only to single machine connected to infinite bus. The fundamental concepts and
principles of stability can be explained very well. Consider the system shown. and its model.
The terminal power is given by equation 6.1 and the power angle curves for various operating
condition is given.

ALGORITHM:

1. Read inertia constant, machine transient reactance, tie - line reactance, voltages at
generator buses, bus powers, system frequency, type of fault.
2. Conduct load flow analysis.
3. Calculate the machine currents.
4. Calculate the voltage behind transient reactance E' is given by
E' = Vt + j It Xd
5. Assume mechanical powers are constant since governor action is not taken into
consideration.
6. The angle for E' is taken as initial value of  and initial value of  = 2fo .
7. Compute reduced YBUS for faulted and post faulted systems.
8. Calculate  d first
 estimates of phase angle K1 and speed l1
k  | 0t   (0)  2f t ----------- (1)
1   i 0
dt
 
 d 
I 1   dt | 0t  f 0 / H (Pm  P ' (0))t ----------- (2)
e
 
9. To calculate second estimate K2 and l2
K 2  ((0)  I1 / 2)  2f 0 t -------------- (3)
I 2  f 0 / H P  P 1(0)t ---------------(4)
m e
10. To calculate third estimate K3 and l3
K 3  ((0)  I 2 / 2)  2f 0 t ------------- (5)
I 3  f 0 / H P  P "(0)t -------------- (6)
m e
11. To calculate fourth estimate K4 and l4
K 4  ((0)  I 3 / 2)  2f 0 t ------------- (7)
I 4  f 0 / H P  P "(0)t -------------- (8)
m e

12. Find the phase angle and speed at the end of the first interval
 ( t ) =  ( t - 1 ) + 1/ 6 ( K1 + 2K2 + 2K3 + K4 ) ----------- ( 9 )
( t ) = ( t -1 ) + 1/ 6 ( l1 + 2l2 + 2l3 + l4 ) ----------- ( 10 )
13. Repeat from step (8) and calculate the phase angle and speed during the subsequent time
interval till t = 0.3seconds. All these calculations should be done using reduced YBUS matrix
corresponding to faulted system.
14. Repeat the steps (8) to (12) for t =0.3seconds upto t = 1.0seconds by using reduced Y BUS
matrix corresponding to faulted system.
15. Plot the swing curves and state the system is stable or not.

61
OUTPUT

Enter the steady state power: 1

Enter the power before fault: 1.75
Enter the power during fault: 0.4
Enter the power after fault: 1.25
Enter the inertia constant: 4
Enter the value frequency: 50
Enter the time interval: [0 0.5 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3]
Enter the change in time: 0.05
Enter the number of intervals: 6
k1 = 0.2286
k2 = 0.7143
dlmr = 2.2127
dcr = 0.9009
tcr = 0.1221
m = 4.4444e-004
dlor =
0.6082 0.6461 0.7212 0.8324 0.9781 1.1567 1.3663
del =
34.8676 37.0372 41.3420 47.7165 56.0715 66.3059 78.3229

SWING CURVE
SWING CURVE
80

75

70

65
Angle in degres

60

55

50

45

40

35

30
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time in Seconds

62
RESULT:

The Transient stability analysis has been carried out and simulated on a given power
system network.

63
PROGRAM
clc;
clear all;
n=input('Enter the number of generating units');
for i=1:n
disp('Enter the details for unit');
disp(i);
a1(i)=input('Enter the coefficient of Pg^2');
b1(i)=input('Enter the coefficient of Pg');
c1(i)=input('Enter the coefficient ');
pmin(i)=input('Enter the Pmin value');
pmax(i)=input('Enter the Pmax value');
k(i)=input('Enter the fuel cost');
a(i)=(k(i)*a1(i));
b(i)=(k(i)*b1(i));
c(i)=(k(i)*c1(i));
end
for i=1:n
FLAPC(i)=(k(i)*(c1(i)+(b1(i)*pmax(i))+(a1(i)*pmax(i)^2)))/pmax(i);
end
FLAPC
for i=1:n
for j=i+1:n
if FLAPC(j)<FLAPC(i)
temp1=FLAPC(i);
FLAPC(i)=FLAPC(j);
FLAPC(j)=temp1;
temp2=pmin(i);
pmin(i)=pmin(j);
pmin(j)=temp2;
temp3=pmax(i);
pmax(i)=pmax(j);
pmax(j)=temp3;
temp4=a(i);
a(i)=a(j);
a(j)=temp4;
temp5=b(i);
b(i)=b(j);
b(j)=temp5;
temp7=c(i);
c(i)=c(j);
c(j)=temp7;
end
end
end
FLAPC
u=n;
for i=1:n
m1=0;
m2=0;

64
Exp No: 5 UNIT COMMITMENT : PRIORITY – LIST SCHEMES

Date :

AIM:
To obtain the optimal Unit commitment schedule by priority listing method for the
given problem using MATLAB/C program

ALGORITHM:

Priority-List Method:

It consist of a simple shut-down rule obtained by an exhaustive enumeration of all

unit combinations at each load level or obtained by noting the full-load average production
cost of each unit The full-load average production cost is the net heat rate at full load
multiplied by the fuel cost .Various enhancements can be made to the priority-list scheme by
the grouping of units to ensure that various constraints are met.
Typical shut-down rules:
1. At each hour when load is dropping, determine whether dropping the next unit on the
list leaves sufficient generation to supply the load plus the spinning-reserve
requirements
2. If the supply is not sufficient, keep the unit committed.
3. Determine the number of hours before the unit is needed again.
4. If the time is less than the minimum shut-down time for the unit, keep it committed.
5. Perform a cost comparison for the sum of the hourly production costs for the next
number of hours with the next unit to be dropped being committed and the sum of the
restart costs for the next unit based on the minimum cost of cooling the unit or
banking the unit „
THEORY:

Unit Commitment, further abbreviated as UC, refers to the strategic choice to be made
in order to determine which of the available power plants should be considered to supply
electricity. UC is not the same as dispatching. Dispatching consists of fitting a given set of
power plants into a certain electric demand. UC appoints the set of plants from which
dispatching can choose. The difference between both issues is time. In dispatching decisions,
there is no time to rapidly activate a power plant because the inertia of most plants will not
allow this. UC therefore prepares a set of plants and stipulates in which time period they have
to be on-line and ready for dispatching.
UC chooses plants taking into account a wide variety of parameters, technological
aspects (such as minimal operation point, minimum up and down time and transient behavior)
as well as economical considerations (such as start-up costs and operational costs) and social
elements (such as availability of staff and work-schemes). UC optimization enables utilities
to minimize electricity generation costs.

65
 for k=1:u
m1=m1+pmin(k);
m2=m2+pmax(k);
end
u=u-1;
psmin(i)=m1;
psmax(i)=m2;
end
psmin
psmax
lam=input('Enter the initial value of lambda');
pd=input('Enter the Pd value');
u=n;
for i=1:n
if psmax(i)>pd
delp=-1;
iteration=0;
while delp~=0
pp=0;
x=0;
for i=1:u
p(i)=(lam-b(i))/(2*a(i));
if p(i)<pmin(i)
p(i)=pmin(i);
end
if p(i)>pmax(i)
p(i)=pmax(i);
else
p(i)=p(i);
end
x=x+(1/(2*a(i)));
pp=pp+p(i);
end
for i=1:u
for j=i+1:u
if FLAPC(j)<FLAPC(i)
temp6=p(i);
p(i)=p(j);
p(j)=temp6;
end
end
end
for k=1:u
f(k)=(c(k)+(b(k)*p(k))+(a(k)*p(k)^2));
end
tot=0;
for k=1:u
tot=tot+f(k);
end
delp=pd-pp;

66
THREE EXISTING METHODS:

Many strategies have already been developed to tackle the UC economic

optimization.

Brute Force Method:

The most evident method is what we call brute force in which all possible
combinations of power plants to provide a given demand are calculated. The possibilities
conflicting with the boundary conditions are struck off the list. Finally, the most economic of
all remaining possibilities is withheld. This method is not only scientifically clumsy but will
also amount in the largest possible calculation time.

DP Method:

Dynamic programming (DP) is a name used for methods in which a-priori impossible
or improbable possibilities are left out. This Method starts from a previously determined
optimal UC planning and gradually adds power plants to obtain optimal solutions for higher
demand.

Decomposition Method:

In this method the main problem is decomposed into several sub-problems that are
easier to solve. In order to take into account uncertainties combine the DP with fuzzy logic.
The neural networks can be used to enable the model to learn from previously made
decisions. · It is possible to decompose UC into a master problem and sub-problems that can
be solved separately. The master problem is optimized (minimal cost), linking the sub-
problems by Lagrange multipliers.

Priority Listing Method:

A very simple method is based on Priority Listing in which power plants are logically
ranked. Originally, the plants were ranked according to full load cost. All plants are initially
activated. Then they are shut down one at a time to check whether or not the overall costs are
reduced.
Next to these conservative methods, also some unconventional methods like genetic
algorithms can be used. This is a stochastic adaptive search based on "survival of the fittest".

67
dellam=delp/x;
lam=lam+dellam;
if iteration==100
break;
end
iteration=iteration+1;
end
u=u-1;
end
disp('For the combination ');
disp(i);
disp('Total Fuel Cost=');
disp(tot);
disp('At the end of Iteration=');
disp(iteration);
disp('Power of the units');
disp(p);
disp('lambda=');
disp(lam);
p=zeros(1,n);
lam=0;
tot=0;
end

68
Exercise:1

Obtain the optimal Unit Commitment for the given generators using Priority list technique for
the power demand=800 MW ,Unit1:Pmin=100MW ;Pmax=400MW
Fuel Cost function H1=600+7P1+0.006P12 MBtu/Hr
Unit2:Pmin=50MW ;Pmax=300MW
Fuel Cost function H2=400+8P2+0.01P22 MBtu/Hr
Unit3:Pmin=150MW ;Pmax=500MW
Fuel Cost function H3=500+6P3+0.008P32 MBtu/Hr
With
Total Fuel cost for units1 =1.1 R/MBtu
Units2 =1.2 R/MBtu
Units3 =1.3 R/MBtu
Exercise:2
Obtain the optimal Unit Commitment for the given generators using Priority list technique
the power demand=800 MW
Unit1:Pmin=150MW ;Pmax=600MW
Fuel Cost function H1=510+7.2P1+0.00142P12 MBtu/Hr
Unit2:Pmin=100MW ;Pmax=400MW
Fuel Cost function H2=310+7.85P2+0.00142P22 MBtu/Hr
Unit1:Pmin=150MW ;Pmax=600MW
Fuel Cost function H3=78+7.97P3+0.004822P32 MBtu/Hr
With
Fuel cost 1=1.1 R/MBtu
Fuel cost 2=1.0 R/MBtu
Fuel cost 3=1.2 R/MBtu

69
OUTPUT

Enter the number of generating units3

Enter the details for unit 1
Enter the coefficient of Pg^2=0.006
Enter the coefficient of Pg=7
Enter the constant coefficient=600
Enter the Pmin value=100
Enter the Pmax value=400
Enter the fuel cost=1.1
Enter the details for unit 2
Enter the coefficient of Pg^2=0.01
Enter the coefficient of Pg=8
Enter the constant coefficient=400
Enter the Pmin value=50
Enter the Pmax value=300
Enter the fuel cost=1.2
Enter the details for unit 3
Enter the coefficient of Pg^2=0.008
Enter the coefficient of Pg=6
Enter the constant coefficient=500
Enter the Pmin value=150
Enter the Pmax value=500
Enter the fuel cost=1
FLAPC = 11.9900 14.8000 11.0000
FLAPC = 11.0000 11.9900 14.8000
u= 3
psmin = 300 250 150
psmax = 1200 900 500
Enter the PD value 800
Enter the starting value of lambda 8

70
RESULT:

Thus the optimal unit commitment Schedule is obtained using priority listing method.

71
PROGRAM
clear all;
clc;
r1=input('enter the reactance between bus 1 and 2');
r2=input('enter the reactance between bus 2 and 3');
r3=input('enter the reactance between bus 1 and 3');
limp=[(r1+r3) r1 r3;r1 (r1+r2) r2;r3 r2 (r3+r2)];
pg=input('enter the generated power');
pd=input('enter the power demand');
b=input('enter the base');
bo=[(1/r1)+(1/r3) -(1/r1);-(1/r1) (1/r1)+(1/r2)];
bo;
xo=inv(bo)
p=[(pg/b) -(pd/b)];
po=transpose(p);
del=(xo*po)
%line flows
del(3)=0;
p=[0 0 0;0 0 0;0 0 0];
for i=1:3
for j=1:3
if(i~=j)
p(i,j)=(del(i)-del(j))/limp(i,j);
end
end
end
p
%generation shift factors
a=[0 0 0;0 0 0;0 0 0];
xo(3)=0;
for i=1:3
for j=1:3
if(i~=j)
a(i,j)=(xo(i)-xo(j))/limp(i,j);
end
end
end
a
xo=inv(bo)
r1
r2
r3
L12=(xo(1,1)-xo(2,1))*r3/((r3-xo(1,1))*r1)

72
Exp No: 6 CONTIGENCY ANALYSIS : GENERATOR SHIFT FACTORS
AND LINE OUTAGE DISRIBUTION FACTORS
Date :

AIM:
To write a program in MATLAB to perform contingency analysis of the given 3- bus
system and to calculate the distribution factors for various line outages.
ALGORITHM:
STEP1: Start the program.
STEP2: Get the various values of line reactance, generated power, power demand,
base MVA values.
STEP3: Calculate the B coefficient matrix.
STEP4: Determine the line flows for the three bus system.
STEP5: Calculate the generation shift factors using

Ali =

Xmi= mth element from from Δδ vector.

Xni = nth element from from Δδ vector.
xl = Line reactance for the line.

STEP6: Calculate the generation outages of various lines using

Ll,k =

STEP7: Calculate the new line flows after the various generation outages as
Pnm = Pnm(old)+ ali * p
STEP8: Conduct the DC load flow to check the generation values match the
calculated line flows.

73
L23=(xo(2,1)*r3)/((r3-xo(1,1))*r2)
%outage of line 1-2
L13=(xo(1,1)-xo(1,2))*r1/((r1-((xo(1,1)-xo(1,2))-(xo(2,1)-xo(2,2))))*r3)
L23=-(xo(2,1)-xo(2,2))*r1/((r1-((xo(1,1)-xo(1,2))-(xo(2,1)-xo(2,2))))*r3)
%Outage of line 2-3
L12=(-(xo(1,2)-xo(2,2))*r2)/((r2-xo(2,2))*r1)
L13=(xo(1,2)*r2)/((r2-xo(2,2))*r3)
%The new line flows after outage of generator 1'
delp=-.4;
P12=p(1,2)+a(1,2)*delp
P13=p(1,3)+a(1,3)*delp
P23=p(2,3)+a(2,3)*delp
%'dc load flow'
po=[0;-1.3]
xo
del=xo*po
limp
p12=(del(1,1)-del(2,1))/limp(1,2)
P13=del(1,1)/limp(1,3)
P23=del(2,1)/limp(2,3)

74
Theory:
The contingency analysis allow system to be operated defensively. Many of the
problems that occur on a power system can cause serious trouble which is often the case with
cascading failures. In this analysis, certain programs are used that model possible system
troubles before they arise. These programs are based on a model of a power system and are
used to study outage events and alarm the operators about any potential over loads or out of
limit voltages.
A simple and fast method of contingency analysis is based on network and linear
sensitivity analysis namely,
 Generator shift factors
 Line outage distribution factor
Generator shift factor:
The generator shift factors are designated as ali and have the following definition:
ali = fl / pi
where,
l=line index
i=bus index
fl=change in MW power flow on line l,when a change in generation pi occurs at
bus i.
pi=change in generation at bus i.

Line outage distribution factor:

The outage flow on each line can be compared to its limit and those exceeding their
limit flaged for alarming. This implies that loss of generator and bus I would result in an
overload on the line. The generator shift sensitivity factors are linear estimates of the change
in flow with a change in power at a bus. The effect of simultaneous changes on several
generating buses can be calculated using superposition theorem.
If the system being modeled is part of a large interconnected network, the lost
generation will be picked up by a large number of generating units outside the system‟s
immediate control area. When this happens, the pickup in generation is seen as an increase in
flow over the lines to the neighbouring systems to model this, we can build a network model
of our own systems plus an equivalent network of our neighbour‟s systems and place the
swing bus or refernecebus in the equivalent.
A generator outage is then modeled so that all lost generation is picked up on the
swing bus, which then appears as an increase on the time flow. The approximation modeling
the generation loss interconnected. If however the system of interest is not interconnected,
then the loss of generation must be shown as a pickup in output on the other generation units
within the system.

75
OUTPUT:

enter the reactance between bus 1 and 20.6

enter the reactance between bus 2 and 30.4
enter the reactance between bus 1 and 30.8
enter the generated power40
enter the power demand130
enter the base100
xo =
0.4444 0.1778
0.1778 0.3111
del =
-0.0533
-0.3333
p=
0 0.4667 -0.0667
-0.4667 0 -0.8333
0.0667 0.8333 0
a=
0 0.4444 0.5556
-0.4444 0 0.4444
-0.5556 -0.4444 0
xo =
0.4444 0.1778
0.1778 0.3111

r1 = 0.6000
r2 = 0.4000
r3 = 0.8000
L12 = 1.0000
L23 = 1.0000
L13 = 1.0000
L23 = 0.5000
L12 = 1.0000
L13 = 1.0000
P12 = 0.2889
P13 = -0.2889
P23 = -1.0111
po =
0
-1.3000
xo =
0.4444 0.1778
0.1778 0.3111
del =
-0.2311
-0.4044
limp =
1.4000 0.6000 0.8000
0.6000 1.0000 0.4000

76
Problem:
Calculate the generation shift factors, line outages, generator outages for the given circuit
diagram. Take base MVA as 100.

77
 0.8000 0.4000 1.2000
p12 = 0.2889
P13 = -0.2889
P23 = -1.0111

78
RESULT:

Thus the program to perform contingency analysis of the given 3- bus system and to
calculate the distribution factors for various line outages was completed.

79
SIMULATION :

80
Exp.No: 7 SIMULATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF VOLTAGE SOURCE
Date: INVERTER USING MATLAB

AIM:
To study and implementation of the voltage source inverter in power electronics by
using MATLAB

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:

MATLAB software

THEORY

An inverter is called as a voltage source inverter if the input dc voltage remains

constant. The input dc voltage is made available across the load alternatively by controlling
the conduction of thyristors (turn on and turn off).
The input dc source has small or negligible impedance. This input dc voltage is
converted into a square wave ac output voltage.
The voltage source inverters using thyristors employes forced commutation.the
voltage source inverters using GTOs, power transistors,power MOSFETs, IGBTS employs
self commutation with base or gate drive signals.

81
OUTPUT

82
RESULT

The study and implementation of the voltage source inverter has been performed.

83
Simulation and results
Modeling for ATP from single line diagram

Simulation

84
Exp.No: 8 COMPUTATION OF TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGE IN
Date: CIRCUIT BREAKER

AIM
Transient is associated with every change of state of a circuit. Transient recovery
voltage thus is the transient across a circuit breaker. Transient recovery voltages are
contingent upon the circuit conditions and parameters of the circuit. Thus making it
extremely essential to study them for application of circuit breakers.

THEORY

TRANSIENT RECOVERY VOLTAGES ON SYSTEMS

What is Transient Recovery Voltage?
It is ascertained that TRV is resultant of the change in state of circuit. Thus TRV can be
defined as voltage appearing across a circuit breaker after a switching action. Typical of
every transient TRV also has high amplitude and high frequency. The figure below shows
example of TRV, figure is taken from TRV explanation given by Duforneter

TRV is a point by point difference of voltage at the incoming side and at the outgoing side of
a circuit breaker. When a circuit breaker interrupts, incoming side or the side to bus or supply
is connected tries to return to power frequency voltage level and the outgoing side depending
on what is connected also oscillates. The difference between these voltages is recovery
voltage.TRV is associated with every interruption, but the ones resulting because of
interruption of fault current are the most ominous TRV. Thus the choice of circuit breakers or
introduction of means and methods for safeguarding the circuit and circuit breaker has to be
considered.
Factors affecting TRV
Transient recovery voltage is affected by various parameters of the system. Prominent among
them are listed below:-
1. Inductance and capacitance in the system
2. Fault current level of the system at point of study of TRV.
3. Bushing capacitance of circuit breakers, voltage transformers etc
4. Number of transmission lines terminating at a bus and their characteristics impedance.
5. Internal factors of the circuit breaker like the first pole to clear a fault etc.
6. System grounding.

85
86
Types of TRV wave shapes
Transient recovery voltages manifesting across any circuit breaker in a system are
seen to have some typical shapes. Waveshapes are classified into types
1. 1- Cosine: Observed in case of transformer fed or reactor fed faults.
2. Exponential cosine: Observed when transformer fed faults on breaker terminals with
transmission lines connected on the incoming side of circuit breaker.
3. Triangular or Saw-tooth waveshape : Observed on line side when short transmission lines
are connected.
4. Initial TRV: Observed when buswork of substation is involved.

1-Cosine TRV Figure 2 b. Exponential TRV Figure2c.Triangular TRV

Procedure
Calculation of different types of TRV wave shapes
System Reduction
TRV can be analyzed by drawing detailed system diagram and then reducing it to obtain an
equivalent circuit across the breaker terminals. It is generally observed that system can be
reduced to a series or parallel R-L-C circuits. These equivalent RLC circuit can then be
solved for TRV. An example of circuit reduction is shown below. The system is first drawn
out as single line diagram and afterwards single phase RLC parallel equivalent is obtained at
the breaker terminals. To obtain the resultant TRV it is assumed to inject short circuit current
in the breaker terminals and solution for voltage across the elements is obtained which is
TRV.

Single Line DiagramFigure 3c :-Equivalent RLC Network

87
88
 Three phase Diagram
Calculation of different types Transient Recovery Voltage waveshapes

1-Cosine or Oscillatory or Underdamped TRV

This waveshape is generally obtained in case of transformer or reactor fed faults. This kind of
TRV waveshape can also be obtained with transformer fed fault on a bus with with small
number of transmission lines connected to it. System to be used for analysis of this kind is
shown figure- 3. The resultant equations after analysis are shown below

Exponential TRV

This waveshape is obtained, when a circuit breaker at a bus with large number of
transmission lines, interrupts a faults at its terminals. The waveshape obtained is seen on the
bus side of the circuit breaker. .

89
.

90
Triangular or Sawtooth Waveshape

When a fault at a short distance from the circuit breaker on the transmission line is
interrupted it results in triangular TRV on line side of circuit breaker. Sawtooth TRV is
characterized by high rate of rise of recovery voltage (RRRV). These are seen to damage
circuit breakers because of high RRRV even thought the peak of TRV is less. The analysis of
this TRV is based on the traveling wave on transmission lines.[2] rated maximum voltage
(KV) ratio of fault current to rated short circuit current Surge impedance of line Fault Current

Circuit Breaker Ratings Structure

IEEE C37.04-1999 defines a general rating structure for high voltage circuit breakers 1000 V
AC and above. The rating structure comprises of indoor and outdoor circuit breakers.
ANSI/IEEE C37.06 states preferred rating for the circuit breakers. Ratings structure
establishes the basis for rating s to be assigned to circuit breakers including electrical and
mechanical characteristics.

General Rating Structure

IEEE C37.04-1999 is based on symmetrical currents and specifies ratings for three
and single phase, indoor and outdoor circuit breakers to be used above 1000V AC. Rating
structure used for the circuit breakers is based on usual service conditions that prevail. The
rating structure of the circuit breaker includes the following

91
92
 Circuit Nameplate Catalogue GE Co. USA
Ratings important for TRV
The above is general rating structure and is provided on nameplate of every circuit
breaker. Rating that are important from the point of view of Transient recovery voltages
depend on the voltage level it is used at and application. IEEE C37.011 is a application guide
for transient recovery voltage for AC high voltage circuit breakers. In addition the to the peak
of the recovery voltage the following ratings are referred to
1. Peak TRV in KV
2. Time to Peak of TRV In μs.
3. Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage (RRRV)
These ratings of the circuit breaker are contingent upon application. To cater to various
possible applications the standard specifies three different TRV characteristics envelopes
1. 1-Cosine waveform
2. Exponential Cosine TRV waveform
3. Triangular TRV waveform.
These waveforms are obtained for different applications and depend on the rated maximum
operating voltage. TRV capability of the circuit breaker is required to increase as the short
circuit current reduces as the TRV depends on the short circuit level of the system. System
conditions and grounding of the system are important for TRV ratings to be evaluated.

Effects of Transient Recovery Voltages on Circuit Breaker

Transient recovery voltages appear on the system for a very short duration of time and
assume very high values. These rapid changes have deleterious effects on the devices in the
system.

93
94
Calculation of Transient Recovery Voltages of Circuit Breaker
At the rated voltage circuit breakers are expected to interrupt rated short circuit current in a
system where the TRV doesn‟t exceed the rated TRV envelope. System may be grounded or
ungrounded.

Two Parameter TRV Envelope

Four parameter envelope :- Four parameter envelope is used t approximate the

exponential-cosine waveform obtained on 100KV and above values. Rated values specified
in ANSI/IEEE C37.06-2000 are used define the envelope. Rated values defined in Table-3
are used. To construct the capability envelope the curve takes off after a delay of (Td) and
increases with a slope of Rate of Rise of Recovery Voltage to value E1=1.3*√2/3, beyond
this there is another straight line approximation from the point where first lines ends to the
point (E2,T2). , beyond this point is horizontal line passing through (E2,T2). Curves
constructed for 550KV circuit breakers are shown above.

Four Parameter TRV Envelope

Factors affecting Transient Recovery Voltage
Transient recovery voltage appearing across a circuit breaker is affected by various factors
like fault current, first pole to clear factor, out of phase switching, system inductance and
capacitance etc…TRV may also be affected by the applications a breaker is used for.

Faults Current
Calculation of transient recovery voltage Eq.1,2,4 &6 indicates that all forms of TRV
are greatly dependent on the fault current. Short circuit at a point in system depends on the
devices paralleled like the transmission lines, transformers etc. It is observed that TRV peak
increases and time to peak reduces as short circuit reduces. This also causes the RRRV to
increase Figure below shows the TRV envelopes.

95
96
Parameter Envelopes varying as per fault current 1)100KV and below b) 100KV and above.

Circuit Parameter
Circuit inductance and capacitance plays a vital role in the TRV peak and time to
peak. Eq.1, 2, 4&6Thus the TRV values can be controlled and reduced using the inductance
and circuit capacitance. Generally system capacitance is considerably less, hence TRV is
controlled by addition of additional surge capacitance.

Out-of-phase Switching
Out of phase switching results in higher values of TRV and are analyzed in a similar
way as the generator circuit breaker analysis. Rated values for out of phase switching are
specified for 900 phase shift.
First Pole to Clear Factors First pole to clear factors are a function of the system grounding
arrangements. It is defined as ratio,Eq.9

97
98
99
100
Comparison of ratings and values from simulation

101
102
Result

1. Frequency and Peak values are greatly dependent on circuit inductance and capacitance.
2. Ungrounded faults result is in high TRV across circuit breakers.
3. Surge Capacitors reduce TRV across circuit breakers.
4. Capacitance of the voltage transformers has effect on TRV values and times to peak.
5. Capacitance across the current limiting reactors has effect on TRV.
6. Results obtained from simulation and results provided in [3], don‟t match because of
missing
detailed parameters of cables and resistance in the circuit.

103
SIMULATION

Here considering, the fault is occurred at bus 11.Then near the faulted bus, first relay
R1 must be operated that is shown in figure 4. In the POWER WORLD software the star
view is the good feature to show the exact coordination of relays. The graphical
representation or star view of primary relay R1 and back up relay R2 is shown in figure 6. As
above, if fault is occurred at bus 7, then relay R3 is operated as primary protection and relays
R4 and R5 are in back up protection as shown in figure 8. Same way, if the relay R2 is failed,
the relay R3 must be operated as back up relay.

104
Exp.No: 9 CO-ORDINATION OF OVER CURRENT AND DISTANCE RELAYS
Date: FOR RADIAL LINE PROTECTION

AIM

Thus the Co-ordination of over current and distance relays for radial line protection are
determined using POWER WORLD.

THEORY

The demand for electrical power generally is increased at a faster rate in economically
emerging countries. So the networks of electricity companies become very complicated. The
exercise of load flow analysis, fault calculations and listing the primary and back-up pairs
will be very tedious. In one of the linear programming method, the power system is
decomposed into subsystem to give constrained matrix of diagonal structure with linking
variables.
Industrial radial power plant model

An industrial power plant is shown in figure 1. The 230kV source has a three-phase circuit
current rating of 28,000A. The step down transformer (T1) is 100 MVA, 230/24 kV,0.10 p.u.
reactance, delta/wye grounded with an X/R ratio of20. A 500 MVA standby generator
connected to the 24 kVbus. The reactance of the generator is 0.2 p.u. with X/R ratioof 20.
Transformer (T2) is 25 MVA, 24/4.16 kV, delta/wye,0.11 p.u. reactance with X/R ratio of 30.
There are two2,000 hp, 0.92 power factor, Xd" = 0.2 , Xd' = 0.26 p.u. withX/R ratio of 20.
The low voltage system contains a transformer (T3), 4.16 kV/600 V, 0.08 p.u. reactance
andX/R = 30. There is a low voltage motor at the 600 V buswith a rating of 400 hp, Xd" = 0.3
p.u., and X/R = 30 [11].

105
106
Time Setting:

The time-multiplier setting must be chosen to give lowest possible time for the relay
at the end of the radial feeder. In the preceding sections towards the source, the time
multiplier should be chosen to give desire selective interval from the down-stream relay at
maximum fault conditions. The time multiplier setting should allow not only for the time of
the breaker but also for the overshoot of the relay and allowable time errors in the time of
operation of successiverelays.

LOAD FLOW AND SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM MODEL

Load flow studies are essential in the planning and operation of electrical systems.
The results obtained from a load flow study (in conjunction with short-circuit study results)
are used to size capacitors, feeders, transformers, and current-limiting reactors. Whether
designing a new system, or analyzing an existing one, factors such as voltage drop, load
capacity, power factor constraints, steady-state stability limits, transformer tap settings, and
generator excitation levels must be considered. In the figure 2, we present the load flow
analysis of power plant model in POWER WORLD. The voltage, active and reactive power
are displayed, when we run the load flow in POWER WORLD. This software is also capable
to display the voltage in percentage or voltage or in kilovolt and also voltage drop. Same
way, the active power and power angle is also shown in the place of active and reactive
power. The standard output report produced by POWER WORLD lists all input parameters
on separate pages: bus input parameters, line/cable parameters, and transformer and reactor
parameters.

TABLE I Load flow report generated in POWER WORLD

107
108
Short circuit analysis of industrial model using POWER WORLD

Here, the short-circuit of model and its generated report using POWER WORLD are
presented. Calculation of short-circuit currents for industrial power systems tend to be more
complex because of the mixture of sources contributing currents to the fault. In a typical
modern industrial system the basic sources of fault currents are the utility, the in-plant
generation, and synchronous and induction motors. These sources contribute additional
exponentially decaying currents which make fault current magnitudes at various locations
time dependent. The report of short-circuits is presented. The fault current of each relay are
shown in Table The short circuit view of the system in POWER WORLD is shown in figure
3. In POWER WORLD, the report can be generated for LLL, LL,LG, LLG LLLG
(symmetrical and asymmetrical both) fault. Here, shown three phase fault is created at bus
11. The short circuit report of bus 11 is generated as shown in Table

Table III Short circuit report of bus 11

RELAY COORDINATION
Manually calculation of relay setting :
Plug Setting:

109
110
111
112
RESULT
Thus relays in the power system are to be coordinated properly so as to provide
primary as well as back up protection, and at the same time avoid malfunction and hence
avoid the unnecessary outage of healthy part of system by using POWER WORLD.

113
SIMULATION : Single-line diagram for 3-phase fault on 10 kV bus of TS Pula Zapad

114
Exp. No: 10 DIGITAL OVER CURRENT RELAY SETTING AND RELAY
Date: CO ORDINATION

AIM
The analysis of digital protection relays setting in a MV transformer station grounded
via a low-ohmic resistor is presented. Theoretical background on low-ohmic resistor
grounding in a transformer station is provided. Powerworld PowerProtector software is used
for simulation and relay settings. Protective relay coordination after the simulation of a 3-
phase fault and a line-to-ground fault on different selected buses in transformer station 35/10
kV is performed.

THEORY

The purpose of the power system neutral grounding is to limit the fault current, as
well as to limit the values of overvoltages induced by line-to-ground faults. In the middle
voltage (10 kV, 20 kV and 35 kV) networks neutral grounding is performed by voltaic
connection between the energy transformers secondary wyes winding neutral and the ground.
In the case when transformers connection type is not the same or transformers do not have the
neutral point (delta winding), it is necessary to perform the artificial wye neutral grounding of
the secondary winding. Artificial neutral is achieved by earthing the transformer with specific
technical characteristics. There are basically two different types of grounding: direct and
indirect. Indirect grounding can be performed using resistance or reactance. To the present,
low-ohmic resistor grounding is the only grounding type used in the middle voltage power
system of the Croatian Ntional Grid. If the secondary winding neutral of all transformers in a
transformer station is accessible, two grounding schemes or approaches are possible:

1. one low-ohmic resistor in station

2. one low-ohmic resistor at transformer

The usual grounding scheme in the distribution area "Elektroistra" Pula is the one only one
low-ohmic resistor in both 110/35 kV and 35/10(20) kV transformer stations.

Current magnitudes and transient duration of power transformers switching into

parallel operation, as well as the single-line-to-ground (SLG) fault resistance value are the
important parameters which condition the correct operation of resistor relay protection.
Inconsistent use of a typical solution for resistor protection settings or of back up lines
protection can result in the false response of relay protection. False protection response
indicates a different cause of failure, which makes the establishment of normal system
operation more difficult. In order to avoid false protection response, current magnitude and
response time are increased intuitively using engineering experience. However, care must be
taken since an increased tap setting, may decrease the sensitivity during SLG faults and lead
to resistor overheating and possible damage. Increase of the response time due to resistor
bridging can result in high induced touch and step voltage voltages in a transformer station,
as well as in damaging the grounding system, especially in the case of currents exceeding
several kA. Information on resistor characteristics, network SLG conditions, and energy
transformers operational transients leads to a different approach to selection of resistor
protection in order to decrease consumer supply interruptions.

115
Output : Single-line diagram for 3-phase fault on 10 kV bus of TS Pula Zapad

116
117
118
Result
The analysis of the digital protection relays setting in MV a transformer station
grounded via low-ohmic resistor is presented in this paper. Powerworld PowerProtector
software is used for simulation and coordination of the relay protection in MV TS 35/10 kV.
Several functions of digital relays are simulated.

119
120