Celebrity Endorsements in U.S.

and Thai
Magazines: A Content Analysis
Comparative Assessment
Victoria A. Seitz
Nabil Razzouk
Sudawadee Eamsobhan

SUMMARY. Celebrity endorsements have become a prevalent form of

advertising. Hence, the purpose of the study was to determine the rela-
tionship between the use of celebrities and the types of products endorsed.
Advertisements from one popular magazine in the U.S. and 2 popular mag-
azines in Thailand were used. Results indicated that U.S. advertisements of
beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals, and weight loss clinics cat-
egories utilized celebrity endorsements more often than other categories.
In Thai advertisements, supplementary foods and medicines used celebrity
endorsers more often than other categories. Results further support that a
significant relationship exits between celebrity endorsers and product types.

KEYWORDS. Advertising, celebrity endorsements, globalization, inter-

national marketing, magazine advertising, Thailand

Victoria Seitz (PhD, Oklahoma State University) is a Professor of Market-

ing, California State University, San Bernardino, 5500 University Parkway, San
Bernardino, CA 92407-2397, USA (E-mail: [email protected]).
Nabil Razzouk (PhD, Arizona State University) is a Professor of Market-
ing, California State University, San Bernardino, 5500 University Parkway, San
Bernardino, CA 92407-2397, USA (E-mail: [email protected]).
Sudawadee Eamsobhana (MBA, California State University, San Bernardino)
is a graduate student at California State University, San Bernardino.
Journal of Promotion Management, Vol. 13(3–4), 2007
Available online at http://www.haworthpress.com


C 2007 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1080/10496490802308513 383
384 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION

For several decades, various product categories have featured celebrity

endorsements. These categories included cosmetics, food, beverages, and
electronic equipment. Agrawal and Kamakura (1995) studied celebrity
endorsement contracts between 1980 and 1992, and found that 60% of
the endorsement deals involved soft drink companies and/or athletic shoe
manufacturers. Sandra and Gary Baden’s “Collection of Celebrity Endorse-
ments in Advertising” at The Smithsonian National Museum of American
History between 1979 and 1987 showed over 1,000 celebrity advertising
endorsements in magazines during 1920 to 1970. The products endorsed
included cigarettes, beauty products, beverages, and audio equipment.
Today, as part of a marketing communications strategy, the use of
celebrities is a fairly common practice for major firms in supporting corpo-
rate or brand image goals. Companies, across all industries, use celebrity
endorsements for packaged goods, telecommunications, financial services,
and automobiles (Lane and Spiegel, 1996).
Although a number of scholars have investigated the effectiveness
of celebrity endorsers with consumers using the experimental method
(Erdogan, Baker, and Tagg, 2001), there is little known regarding celebrity
endorsements among product categories. Hence, the purpose of the study
was to determine the relationship between the use of celebrities and the
types of products endorsed. Specifically the objectives of the study were
as follows:

1. Determine the extent of celebrity endorsers for selected product cat-

egories in Thailand and U.S. magazines
2. Determine the extent of standardization of the celebrity endorsers in
Thai and U.S. magazines

Endorsers are often used in broadcast media, such as television and

radio, as well as print media, and outdoor advertising. Since 1979, the use of
celebrity endorsers increased from a little over 15% to approximately 25%
of all ads (Belch and Belch, 2001). A recent estimate indicated that around
one-quarter of all commercials screened in the United States included
celebrity endorsers (Shimp, 2000).
From Michael Jordan to Shakira (Pepsi), Tiger Woods (Buick, Nike) to
Catherine Zeta-Jones (Elizabeth Arden, T-Mobile), companies have always
paid large amounts of money for a famous face to be associated with their
brand. Michael Jordan has dominated the world of celebrity endorsements,
 V. A. Seitz et al. 385

pitching everything from Nike shoes and Hanes underwear to hot dogs and
cologne. Currently, Tiger Woods and Venus Williams are the reigning king
and queen of celebrity endorsements, ringing up larger deals than anyone,
regardless of race (Alleyne, 2002).
In addition, many stars have realized the potential in pushing skincare
and cosmetics. Presently, there are ads/commercials with Halle Berry or
Julianne Moore for Revlon, Sarah Michelle Gellar for Maybelline, Venus
and Serena Williams for Avon, and Catherine Zeta-Jones for Elizabeth
Arden. Neutrogena has its share of celebrity endorsers such as Mandy
Moore, Jennifer Love Hewitt, Gabrielle Union, and Mischa Barton. Even
Queen Latifah, a former self-proclaimed tomboy, is appearing in ads for
Jenny Craig, and Cover Girl as has country singer Faith Hill. Estee Lauder
Incorporated has chosen actress Ashley Judd to be its spokeswoman for
American Beauty, the first of 3 skincare and cosmetics brands it is de-
veloping for Kohl’s Corporation (Feimster, 2004). By understanding this,
marketers may be able to advertise specific products more effectively using
celebrities.

RELEVANT LITERATURE
Using celebrities in advertisements to sell products or services has be-
come popular for many advertisers (Slinker, 1984). The number and the
dollar value of celebrity endorsement contracts are increasing, and these
contracts constitute a significant and growing portion of advertising budgets
(McGill, 1989). Marketers spend increasing amounts of money annually
on celebrity endorsement contracts based on the belief that they are effec-
tive spokespeople for their product, creating a positive link between them
and the brand image.
In the United States, the use of celebrity endorsers increased from 15%
to approximately 25% of all ads between 1979 and 1997 (Belch and Belch,
2001). The use of celebrities as spokespersons constitutes a significant
investment that management hopes to offset with greater sales and profits
(Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995). A recent estimate indicates that approx-
imately one-quarter of all television commercials screened in the United
States include celebrity endorsers (Shimp, 2000).

Definition of Celebrity Endorser and Non-Celebrity Endorser

A celebrity endorser is an individual who is known to the pub-
lic (actor, sports figure, entertainer, etc.) for his or her achievements
386 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

in areas other than that of the product class endorsed (Friedman and
Friedman, 1979). A non-celebrity is an endorser who touts the product
(appears consistently in the advertisements) but is not known for any
other reason, such as being an entertainer, actor, singer, or other public
figure.

Benefits of Using Celebrities

There are several reasons for using celebrity endorsers in advertise-
ments. For example, in many cases, celebrities make advertisements be-
lievable (Kamins et al., 1989) and enhance message recall (Friedman and
Friedman, 1979). Furthermore, celebrities aid in brand name recognition
(Petty, Cacioppo, and Schumann, 1983), create positive attitudes toward
the brand (Kamins et al., 1989), and create distinct personalities for the
endorsed brand (McCracken, 1989). Ultimately, celebrity endorsements
are believed to generate a greater likelihood to purchase the brand (Heath,
McCarthy, and Mothersbaugh, 1994; Kahle and Homer, 1985; Kamins
et al., 1989; Ohnian, 1991). Thus, the use of celebrity endorsements in
an advertising strategy should enhance the marginal value of advertise-
ment expenditures and create brand equity by means of the “secondary
association” with the brand (Keller, 1993).
Additionally, marketers use celebrity endorsers to heighten the appeal
of their advertisements. That is, celebrities are believed to enhance atten-
tiveness to the ad, making the copy memorable, credible, and desirable,
and effectively glamorizing the product (Spielman, 1981). Atkin and Block
(1983) stated that spokespersons attract attention to an advertisement in
the cluttered stream of messages because of their high profile. Moreover,
celebrities may help advertisements stand out from surrounding clutter,
thus improving their communicative ability. Finally, celebrities are tradi-
tionally viewed as being highly dynamic individuals with attractive and
likeable qualities (Atkin and Block, 1983).
As well as promoting established brands, celebrities are used to an-
nounce new brands or reposition brands (Erdogan and Kitchen, 1998).
There are several reasons why famous endorsers may be influential. First,
they attract attention to the advertisement in a cluttered stream of mes-
sages. Second, they are perceived as more entertaining and are seen as
more trustworthy because of their apparent lack of self-interest. Last is the
widespread attribution that major stars do not really work for the endorse-
ment fee, but are motivated by genuine affection for the brand (Kamins,
1990).
 V. A. Seitz et al. 387

Negative Effects of Celebrity Endorsers

Despite the benefits of celebrity endorsers, there are still hazards in
basing a marketing communications campaign on celebrity endorsers. For
example, negative information about a celebrity endorser not only influ-
ences consumers’ perception of the celebrity but also the endorsed product
(Klebb and Unger, 1982; Till and Shimp, 1998). This effect is clearly ex-
plained by well-known cases such as drug charges against Michael Irvin,
murder charges brought on O.J. Simpson, and a rape charge resulting in a
jail sentence for Mike Tyson. Moreover, some companies, including Hertz,
Kodak, Pepsi, Toyota, and Nike, have been badly affected by negative pub-
licity from celebrities’ misdeeds.
Another negative side effect includes the costs associated with celebrity
endorsements. There is a high financial commitment to secure big name
endorsers, such as Pepsi paying $25 million to Shaquille O’Neal to endorse
the popular soda product and Tiger Woods receiving $40 million from Nike
to support the company’s youth marketing campaign.
Credibility of a company using celebrity endorser may also suffer when
individuals choose to endorse several different products simultaneously.
It is a common occurrence, sometimes even between highly competing
brands, when dealing with highly recognized and well-liked figures. Lower
credibility and loss of trust in a brand is the likely result of this apparent
lack of loyalty to a company by a celebrity endorser (Dyson and Turco,
1996). As a result, the credibility and trust in the product and the endorser
decreases. It also sends a message to the consumer saying, “If the endorser
won’t stick with a brand, why should I?” (Dyson and Turco, 1996) The
negative publicity generated by some celebrities has added to negative as-
sociations with the brand, and consumer surveys reveal that only a fraction
of them react positively to endorsements (Agrawal and Kamakura, 1995).

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CELEBRITY TYPE

AND PRODUCT TYPE

To determine the appropriateness of a celebrity, a number of marketing

criteria are used. These include attractiveness, honesty, age group associ-
ation, popularity, recognizability, and likeability (Slinker, 1984). Further,
the type of endorser may interact with the type of product being advertised
in a positive manner. Friedman and Friedman (1979) proposed that adver-
tisers should give more thought to the type of endorser used in advertising
388 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

their product. For example, if the brand name and advertising recall are
most desirable, advertisers should use a celebrity as an endorser.
Additionally, celebrities would be effective for products with high psy-
chological or social risk, involving such elements as taste, self image, and
opinions of others, as with jewelry. Expert endorsers are seen as most
appropriate for products associated with high financial, performance, or
physical risk, and/or complex issues requiring expert advice, such as a
lawn mower. While testimonials are considered to be the best source for
low-risk products such as cookies, it may not be appropriate for celebrities
to endorse toothpicks or toilet tissue.
In the promotion of products high in psychological and/or social risk,
use of celebrity endorsers enhanced believability, favorable evaluations of
products and advertisements, and positive purchase intentions more than
those using experts or testimonials. Such effects were absent when celebrity
advertising was used in conjunction with products high in performance
and/or physical risk (i.e., a vacuum cleaner) (see Friedman and Friedman,
1979).
Frieden (1984) found that celebrity endorsements of a television set (a
product high in financial and performance risk) generated higher mean val-
ues for spokesperson likeability as compared to advertisements featuring
an expert, testimonial, or company executive. Moreover, measures related
to knowledge and believability of spokespersons, product quality, trust-
worthiness of advertisers, and purchase intentions did not reveal especially
favorable ratings.
In another study, Friedman, Termini, and Washington (1997) found that
a celebrity endorsement for a fictitious brand of Sangria scored signifi-
cantly higher on product-based characteristics (i.e., taste) and marginally
higher on purchase intention than advertisements with no spokesperson.
Believability, although higher for the celebrity spokesperson condition, ap-
proached, but did not reach significance. Further, Atkin and Block (1983)
found that advertisements for a brand of alcohol that used celebrity en-
dorsers produced consistently more favorable ratings than did advertise-
ments using non-celebrity endorsers.
Mowen, Brown, and Schulman (1979) suggested that there was a need
for endorser–product congruence in the context of a balance model ap-
proach to the product endorser effectiveness. According to the author, nu-
merous studies have revealed that expert sources of information produced
favorable attitudes toward the issues. It was contended that perceptions of
believability, among other variables, may be a function of congruence of
the image or knowledge base of the spokesperson relative to the product
 V. A. Seitz et al. 389

image. These studies suggest that product type has a mediating effect on
the overall effectiveness of celebrity endorsers.
McCracken’s (1989) model (see Figure 1) attempts to explain the
celebrity endorsement process. The researcher explains that the effec-
tiveness of celebrity spokespersons and assessing the meaning consumers
associate with the endorser is explained by transfers to the brand. Ac-
cording to the model, celebrities’ effectiveness as endorsers stem from
the cultural meanings with which they are endowed. A 3-stage process
of meaning transfer is suggested that involves the formation of celebrity
image, transfer of a meaning from celebrity to the product, and finally from
the product to the consumer.
McCracken (1989) also states that celebrities represent a broad range
of meanings, including demographic categories (e.g., age, gender, status),
personality, and lifestyle types. A famous person represents not only one
single meaning, but expresses a number and variety of different meanings.

METHODOLOGY

Content analysis is an appropriate method when the phenomenon to

be observed is communication, rather than behavior or physical objects
(Malhotra, 2003). Generally, marketing research applications involve ob-
serving and analyzing the content or message of advertisements, newspa-
per articles, and television and radio programs (Malhotra, 2003). In this
particular study, content analysis was used to determine the frequency of

FIGURE 1. Meaning transfer model. Source: McCracken, 1989.

390 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

appearance of the model in Thai and U.S. magazines, which were divided
into celebrity and non-celebrity categories.

Sample
In the study, both Thai and U.S. editions of Cosmopolitan magazine
were chosen for doing the content analysis because of the magazine’s
ranking as number 1 in circulation among U.S. women’s magazines. (Total
paid circulation is approximately 2,992,536 according to the Audit Bureau
of Circulation, and the Magazine Publishers of America [2002.]) Thai and
U.S. editions of Cosmopolitan magazine for the period of December 2003
to December 2004 were examined in comparing the usage of celebrities in
ads between the 2 countries. There were only a few advertisements in the
Thai editions; hence, to create the same sample size among print ads, Praew
magazine, the best selling women’s magazine in Thailand, was also used.
Issues from May 2004 to October 2004, were examined to understand the
use of celebrity endorsers in Thai print advertising. Descriptive statistics
were employed to summarize the data.
All advertisements in each edition were chosen to be part of the sample.
To evaluate the ads the following questions were addressed:

1. Which country’s editions used celebrities more often during the select
time frame?
2. What product categories used celebrity endorsers the most often?
Product categories included the following:
r Product category 1: bank, credit card, finance, and insurance busi-
nesses
r Product category 2: apparel: clothing, handbags, eyewear, jewelry,
watch, shoes, socks, and lingerie
r Product category 3: cosmetics, perfumes, and facial
creams/treatments
r Product category 4: beauty services, dietary services, health ser-
vices, hospitals, and weight loss clinics
r Product category 5: stationery, books, Web sites, newspapers,
DVDs, and movies
r Product category 6: consumer products such as soaps, toothpastes,
toothbrushes, and shampoos
r Product category 7: drinks, food, and restaurants;
r Product category 8: electronics and cell phones
r Product category 9: hotels and sport clubs
 V. A. Seitz et al. 391

r Product category 10: TV stations, programs, and radio stations

r Product category 11: supplementary foods and medicine such as
multi-vitamins
r Product category 12: automobiles
r Product category 13: furniture, construction, kitchenware, and
household products
r Product category 14: cigarettes
r Product category 15: airlines, supermarkets, travel agencies,
schools, gas stations, and Internet services (Harwood, 1999)
3. Determine if similarities or differences existed between Thai and
United States endorsers

RESULTS

Results for Thai Editions of Cosmopolitan and Praew Magazines

Five hundred forty-five advertisements were collected from the Thai
editions of Cosmopolitan magazine during December 2003 to November
2004; of these only 13% used celebrity endorsers and 87% used non-
celebrity endorsers in advertisements. From the 13% of ads using celebrity
endorsers, 90% were actors/actresses and 10% were singers. Further, from
the 87% of ads using non-celebrity endorsers, 1% used experts, 60% used
presenters/consumers, and 39% presented the products only.
The 724 advertisements collected from Praew magazine during May
2004 to October 2004 indicated that 11% of ads used celebrity endorsers
and 89% used non-celebrity endorsers. From the 11% of ads using celebrity
endorsers, 98% were actors/actresses and 2% were singers. From the 89%
of ads using non-celebrity endorsers, 4% were experts, 60% were presen-
ters/consumers, and 36% presented the product itself.

Product Categories for Cosmopolitan Thai Edition and Praew

Magazine
The 15 product categories were represented as follows:

1. Product category 1 (bank, credit card, finance, and insurance) had 29

advertisements with all using non-celebrity endorsers.
392 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

2. Product category 2 (apparel: clothing, handbags, eyewear, jewelry,

watch, shoes, socks, and lingerie) had 180 advertisements with only
one percent using celebrity endorsers.
3. Product category 3 (cosmetics, perfumes, facial creams/treatments)
had 346 advertisements of which 18% used celebrity endorsers.
4. Product category 4 (beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals, and
weight loss clinics) had 138 advertisements with 18% using celebrity
endorsers.
5. Product category 5 (stationery, books, Web sites, newspapers, DVDs,
and movies) had 50 advertisements with only 4% using celebrity
endorsers.
6. Product category 6 (consumer products) had 114 advertisements with
18% using celebrity endorsers.
7. Product category 7 (drinks, food, and restaurants) had 107 advertise-
ments with 11% using celebrity endorsers.
8. Product category 8 (electronics and cell phones) had 104 advertise-
ments. Ten percent used celebrity endorsers.
9. Product category 9 (hotels and sport clubs) had 29 advertisements,
all of which used non-celebrity endorsers.
10. Product category 10 (TV stations and programs, and radio stations)
had 11 advertisements with 18% including celebrity endorsers.
11. Product category 11 (supplementary foods and medicines) had 74
advertisements. Twenty-four percent used celebrity endorsers.
12. Product category 12 (automobiles) had 21 advertisements with 14%
using celebrity endorsers.
13. Product category 13 (furniture, construction, kitchenware, and house-
hold products) had 38 advertisements. Three percent used celebrity
endorsers.
14. Product category 14 (cigarettes): There were no advertisements for
cigarettes.
15. Product category 15 (airlines, supermarkets, travels, schools, gaso-
line, and the Internet) had 28 advertisements that did not use any
celebrity endorsers.

To summarize, product category 1 (bank, credit card, finance, and insur-

ance), product category 9 (hotels and sport clubs), and product category
15 (airlines, supermarkets, travels, schools, gasoline, and the internet) did
not use celebrities at all. Product category 14 (cigarettes) did not appear
in any advertisements. Celebrities were use most for product categories 4
(beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals, and weight loss clinics), 10
 V. A. Seitz et al. 393

(TV stations and programs, and radio stations), 11 (supplementary foods

and medicines), and 12 (automobiles).
Results for United States Editions of Cosmopolitan
One thousand, two hundred seventy-one advertisements were collected
from U.S. editions of Cosmopolitan magazine during January 2004 to
December 2004 and showed that only 8% of ads used celebrity endorsers
and 92% used non-celebrity endorsers. From the 8% of ads that used
them, 85% were actors/actresses, 11% were singers, and 4% were sports
figures. From the 92% of ads using non-celebrity endorser, 64% were
presenters/consumers and 36% featured the product itself.

Product Categories for Cosmopolitan United States Editions

Here are the results:

1. Product category 1 (bank, credit card, finance, and insurance) had 12

advertisements and not one used a celebrity endorser.
2. Product category 2 (apparel: clothing, handbags, eyewear, jewelry,
watch, shoes, socks, and lingerie) had 149 advertisements. Three
percent used celebrity endorsers.
3. Product category 3 (cosmetics, perfumes, and facial creams/ treat-
ments) had 294 advertisements with 22% using celebrity endorsers.
4. Product category 4 (beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals,
and weight loss clinics) had 12 advertisements of which 92% used
celebrity endorsers.
5. Product category 5 (stationery, books, Web sites, newspapers, DVDs,
and movies) had 12 advertisements of which 25% used celebrity
endorsers.
6. Product category 6 (consumer products) had 383 advertisements with
3% using celebrity endorsers.
7. Product category 7 (drinks, food, and restaurants) had 145 advertise-
ments with 3% using celebrity endorsers.
8. Product category 8 (electronics and cell phones) had 39 advertise-
ments of which 5% used celebrity endorsers.
9. Product category 9 (hotels and sport clubs): for this category no ads
were present.
10. Product category 10 (TV stations, programs, and radio stations) had
14 advertisements of which 7% used celebrity endorsers.
394 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

11. Product category 11 (supplementary foods and medicines) had 106

advertisements of which all used non-celebrity endorsers.
12. Product category 12 (automobiles) had 62 advertisements. All of
them used non-celebrity endorsers.
13. Product category 13 (furniture, construction, kitchenware, and house-
hold products) had 1 advertisement with a non-celebrity endorser.
14. Product category 14 (cigarettes) had 41 advertisements that used
non-celebrity endorsers.
15. Product category 15 (airlines, supermarkets, travels, schools, gaso-
line, and the Internet). There were no advertisements in this category.

To summarize, product categories 1 (bank, credit card, finance, and in-

surance), 11 (supplementary foods and medicines), 12 (automobiles), 13
(furniture, construction, kitchenware, and household products), and 14
(cigarettes) did not use celebrity endorsers at all. Advertisements in product
categories 9 (hotels and sport clubs) and15 (airlines, supermarkets, travels,
schools, gasoline, and the Internet) were not apparent in the magazine.
Celebrity endorsers were use most for product categories 3 (cosmetics,
perfumes, and facial creams/treatments), 4 (beauty, dietary and health ser-
vices, hospitals, and weight loss clinics), 5 (stationery, books, Web sites,
newspapers, DVDs, movies).
In summary, the Thai editions of Cosmopolitan and Praew used more
celebrity endorsers than U.S. editions. Actors and actresses were the most
popular type of celebrity endorsers in both editions.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

According to the results, both Thai and American magazines used more
non-celebrity endorsers than celebrity endorsers in all categories of prod-
ucts examined. Within the categories using celebrity endorsers, product
category 4 (beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals, and weight loss
clinics) used celebrity endorsers in Cosmopolitan U.S. editions more often
than other categories examined. Product category 11 (supplementary foods
and medicines) used celebrity endorsers in Praew and Cosmopolitan Thai
editions more often than other categories. Product category 3 (cosmetics,
perfumes, and facial creams/treatments) ranks second in using celebrity
endorsers in both Thai and U.S. editions.
Further, within the categories using celebrities, actresses were the most
popular type of endorser used. Overall, the number of advertisements using
 V. A. Seitz et al. 395

actresses in Thai editions was 94% and in U.S. editions were 87% of the
selected magazines in the study.
Further, it was found that, in the same monthly issues of Thai and
U.S. editions of Cosmopolitan, celebrity endorsers were not standardized.
Rather celebrities from each country were used in that country’s magazine.
Although many U.S. celebrities are known around the world, this does
not include all of them. Further, to enhance attention and retention of
advertisers’ messages, local celebrities were used in Thai editions of the
selected magazines, as with U.S. editions.
The use of celebrities was not apparent in advertisements for product
categories 1 (financial services), 9 (hotels and sport clubs), and 15 (airlines,
supermarkets, travels, schools, gasoline, and the Internet) in both Thai
and U.S. magazines. This may be due to lack of effectiveness and, most
importantly, association with the product categories.
Friedman and Friedman (1979) proposed that there were some criteria
when choosing the type of endorser as an advertising strategy. For example,
if brand name and advertising recall are most desirable, advertisers should
use a celebrity endorser.
The present study found that celebrity endorsers were most often used
in product category 4 (beauty, dietary and health services, hospitals, and
weight loss clinics) in U.S. editions of Cosmopolitan. It confirmed Fried-
man and Friedman’s (1979) previous theory that celebrities would be more
effective for products with high psychological or social risk, involving
such elements as good taste, self-image, and opinions of others. However,
this theory could not be supported for Thai editions of Cosmopolitan and
Praew magazines, which may be due to cultural differences between the 2
countries.
From this study, non-celebrity endorsers, such as consumer testimoni-
als and the products themselves, were apparent to a greater extent than
celebrity endorsers in Thai and U.S. editions. The results were concurrent
with Friedman and Friedman (1979), who found that a typical consumer
was considered to be the best source for low-risk products. Presenters and
the products themselves were the most popular strategy used in every cat-
egory of products examined. This may be due to the sky rocketing costs
of using celebrity endorsers and the lack of consistent effectiveness with
their use.
Although there has been much research regarding the increased use
of celebrity endorsements, the present study found that their role in
advertising is limited but changing: Demi Moore now has a contract
with Giorgio Armani, Pamela Anderson with Mac cosmetics, and Nicole
396 JOURNAL OF PROMOTION MANAGEMENT

Kidman’s ongoing contract with Chanel, as well as Kirstie Alley for Jenny
Craig
This turn to celebrities as brand endorsers may be due to the increased
attention to celebrities and their private lives as found in such syndicated
programs as Entertainment Tonight and the Insider, as well as the pop-
ularity of celebrity publications such as Star, People, and The National
Enquirer.
Implications of the research findings suggest that marketers in the U.S.
and Thailand continue to pursue celebrity endorsements with caution.
Celebrity misdeeds can tarnish a brand image, as with Michael Jackson.
Moreover, celebrities can lie on endorsement certification forms from com-
panies, as was the case with Cybill Shepherd and the Beef Council. Ms.
Shepherd said she ate beef, but later interviews confirmed she was a veg-
etarian (Sloane, 2005). In another case, Michael Jackson endorsed Pepsi,
which he never drank. However, the legalities of celebrity lying regard-
ing their endorsements of products and services are today great, whereby
celebrities are now liable for misleading consumers as well as the company
(Rose, 2001). This may also explain their lack of use in advertisements
selected in the present study. The Federal Trade Commission’s Guide Con-
cerning the Use of Testimonials and Endorsements offers practical advice
on endorsements by consumers, celebrities, and experts (Federal Trade
Commission, 2005). All endorsements must reflect the honest experience
or opinion of the endorser. Endorsements may not contain representations
that would be deceptive, or could not be substantiated, if the advertiser
makes them directly (Federal Trade Commission, 2005).
Another implication from the findings is that marketers should be aware
of using celebrities when similar strategies are being used by competitors.
Many new product categories are using celebrities in their ads to create
awareness among the target market. Marketers should develop ad cam-
paigns by studying their competitor’s situation as well as understanding
the best message to reach their target market. Rather than replicate their
strategy, marketers should develop an alternative to position their product
uniquely in the market place.

FUTURE RESEARCH

Future research needs to address some of the limitations of this study.

For example, the sample of ads did not represent all advertising. There is
also a need for research measuring the use of celebrity endorsers in both
 V. A. Seitz et al. 397

Thai and American advertisements using different magazines and perhaps

alternative media vehicles. There is also a need to add more criteria in
choosing ads for research. Finally, further research could examine cross-
cultural factors and celebrity-based advertising in other countries.

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Belch, G. E., and Belch, M. A. (2001). Advertising and promotion: An integrated marketing
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