Python Programming

Objectives

At the end of this module, you should be able to:

▪ Start writing basic codes in Python
▪ work with Numbers, variables & basic operations in python
▪ Work with Data Types – Lists, tuples & dictionary in python
▪ Create Rule based systems using if else, for and while loop
▪ Write user defined functions
▪ Writing codes using OOPs
▪ Numpy
▪ Pandas
▪ Matplotlib
▪ Seaborn
 Python Introduction

Python

Python is one of the mostly used programming language in the world.

Python is a general-purpose interpreted, interactive, object-oriented, and high-level programming
language.
Guido van Rossum created this during 1985- 1990.
Python is an opensource programming language and its source code is available under the GNU
General Public License (GPL).
Some key features of python –

• Python is Interpreted: Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You do not need to
compile your program before executing it. This is similar to PERL and PHP.

• Python is Interactive: You can sit at a Python prompt and interact with the interpreter directly
to write your programs.

• Python is Object-Oriented: Python supports Object-Oriented style or technique of

programming that encapsulates code within objects.

Getting Started –

Type the following text at the Python prompt and press Enter −

>>> print ("Hello, World!")

If you are running the older version of Python (Python 2.x), use of parenthesis as inprint function is
optional. This produces the following result −

Hello, World!
 Python Introduction

Declaring Variables
Variables are nothing but reserved memory locations to store values. It means that when you create
a variable, you reserve some space in the memory.

count = 100 # An integer assignment

miles = 1000.0 # A floating point
name = "Aashish Pandey" # A string

print (count)
print (miles)
print (name)

Here, 100, 1000.0 and "John" are the values assigned to counter, miles, and name variables,
respectively. This produces the following result −

100
1000.0
Aashish Pandey

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 Python Introduction

Data Types in Python

Python has five standard data types −

• Numbers

• String

• List

• Tuple

• Dictionary

Python Numbers
Number data types store numeric values. Number objects are created when you assign a value to
them. For example −

var1 = 1
var2 = 10

Python supports three different numerical types −

• int (signed integers)

• float (floating point real values)

• complex (complex numbers)

 Python Introduction

Python Strings
Strings in Python are identified as a contiguous set of characters represented in the quotation marks.
Python allows either pair of single or double quotes.

str = 'Hello World!'

print (str) # Prints complete string
print (str[0]) # Prints first character of the string
print (str[2:5]) # Prints characters starting from 3rd to 5th
print (str[2:]) # Prints string starting from 3rd character
print (str * 2) # Prints string two times
print (str + "TEST") # Prints concatenated string

This will produce the following result −

Hello World!
H
llo
llo World!
Hello World!Hello World!
Hello World!TEST

Python Lists
Lists are the most versatile of Python's compound data types. A list contains items separated by
commas and enclosed within square brackets ([]). To some extent, lists are similar to arrays in C. One
of the differences between them is that all the items belonging to a list can be of different data type.

list = [ 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 ]

tinylist = [123, 'john']

print (list) # Prints complete list

print (list[0]) # Prints first element of the list
print (list[1:3]) # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print (list[2:]) # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print (tinylist * 2) # Prints list two times
print (list + tinylist) # Prints concatenated lists

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 Python Introduction

This produces the following result −

['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]

abcd
[786, 2.23]
[2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003]
[123, 'john', 123, 'john']
['abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john']
 Python Introduction

Python Tuples
A tuple is another sequence data type that is similar to the list. A tuple consists of a number of values
separated by commas. Unlike lists, however, tuples are enclosed within parenthesis.

The main difference between lists and tuples are − Lists are enclosed in brackets ( [ ] ) and their
elements and size can be changed, while tuples are enclosed in parentheses ( ( ) ) and cannot be
updated. Tuples can be thought of as read-only lists. For example –

tuple = ( 'abcd', 786 , 2.23, 'john', 70.2 )

tinytuple = (123, 'john')

print (tuple) # Prints complete tuple

print (tuple[0]) # Prints first element of the tuple
print (tuple[1:3]) # Prints elements starting from 2nd till 3rd
print (tuple[2:]) # Prints elements starting from 3rd element
print (tinytuple * 2) # Prints tuple two times
print (tuple + tinytuple) # Prints concatenated tuple

This produces the following result −

('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)

abcd
(786, 2.23)
(2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003)
(123, 'john', 123, 'john')
('abcd', 786, 2.23, 'john', 70.200000000000003, 123, 'john')

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 Python Introduction

Python Dictionary
Python's dictionaries are kind of hash-table type. They work like associative arrays or hashes found
in Perl and consist of key-value pairs. A dictionary key can be almost any Python type, but are usually
numbers or strings. Values, on the other hand, can be any arbitrary Python object.

Dictionaries are enclosed by curly braces ({ }) and values can be assigned and accessed using square
braces ([]). For example −

dict = {}
dict['one'] = "This is one"
dict[2] = "This is two"

tinydict = {'name': 'john','code':6734, 'dept': 'sales'}

print (dict['one']) # Prints value for 'one' key

print (dict[2]) # Prints value for 2 key
print (tinydict) # Prints complete dictionary
print (tinydict.keys()) # Prints all the keys
print (tinydict.values()) # Prints all the values

This produces the following result −

This is one
This is two
{'name': 'john', 'dept': 'sales', 'code': 6734}
dict_keys(['name', 'dept', 'code'])
dict_values(['john', 'sales', 6734])
 Python Introduction

Data Type Conversion

Sometimes, you may need to perform conversions between the built-in types. To convert between
types, you simply use the type-names as a function.

There are several built-in functions to perform conversion from one data type to another. These
functions return a new object representing the converted value.

S.No. Function & Description

1 int(x [,base])

Converts x to an integer. The base specifies the base if x is a string.

2 float(x)

Converts x to a floating-point number.

3 complex(real [,imag])

Creates a complex number.

4 str(x)

Converts object x to a string representation.

5 repr(x)

Converts object x to an expression string.

6 eval(str)

Evaluates a string and returns an object.

7 tuple(s)

Converts s to a tuple.

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 Python Introduction

8 list(s)

Converts s to a list.

9 set(s)

Converts s to a set.

10 dict(d)

Creates a dictionary. d must be a sequence of (key,value) tuples.

11 frozenset(s)

Converts s to a frozen set.

12 chr(x)

Converts an integer to a character.

13 unichr(x)

Converts an integer to a Unicode character.

14 ord(x)

Converts a single character to its integer value.

15 hex(x)

Converts an integer to a hexadecimal string.

16 oct(x)

Converts an integer to an octal string.

 Python Introduction

Python Arithmetic Operators

Assume variable a holds the value 10 and variable b holds the value 21, then

Operator Description Example

+ Addition Adds values on either side of the operator. a + b = 31

- Subtraction Subtracts right hand operand from left hand operand. a – b = -11

* Multiplication Multiplies values on either side of the operator a * b = 210

/ Division Divides left hand operand by right hand operand b / a = 2.1

% Modulus Divides left hand operand by right hand operand and returns b%a=1
remainder

** Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators a**b =10 to the

power 20

// Floor Division - The division of operands where the result is the 9//2 = 4 and
quotient in which the digits after the decimal point are removed. 9.0//2.0 = 4.0, -
But if one of the operands is negative, the result is floored, i.e., 11//3 = -4, -
rounded away from zero (towards negative infinity): 11.0//3 = -4.0

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 Python Introduction

Operators in Python

Python Comparison Operators

These operators compare the values on either side of them and decide the relation among them.
They are also called Relational operators.

Assume variable a holds the value 10 and variable b holds the value 20, then

Operator Description Example

== If the values of two operands are equal, then the condition (a == b) is not
becomes true. true.

!= If values of two operands are not equal, then condition becomes (a!= b) is true.
true.

> If the value of left operand is greater than the value of right (a > b) is not
operand, then condition becomes true. true.

< If the value of left operand is less than the value of right operand, (a < b) is true.
then condition becomes true.

>= If the value of left operand is greater than or equal to the value of (a >= b) is not
right operand, then condition becomes true. true.

<= If the value of left operand is less than or equal to the value of (a <= b) is true.
right operand, then condition becomes true.
 Python Introduction

Python Assignment Operators

Assume variable a holds the value 10 and variable b holds the value 20, then

Operator Description Example

= Assigns values from right side operands to left side c = a + b assigns

operand value of a + b
into c

+= Add AND It adds right operand to the left operand and assign the c += a is
result to left operand equivalent to c =
c+a

-= Subtract AND It subtracts right operand from the left operand and c -= a is
assign the result to left operand equivalent to c =
c–a

*= Multiply AND It multiplies right operand with the left operand and c *= a is
assign the result to left operand equivalent to c =
c*a

/= Divide AND It divides left operand with the right operand and assign c /= a is
the result to left operand equivalent to c =
c / ac /= a is
equivalent to c =
c/a

%= Modulus AND It takes modulus using two operands and assign the c %= a is
result to left operand equivalent to c =
c%a

**= Exponent Performs exponential (power) calculation on operators c **= a is

AND and assign value to the left operand equivalent to c =
c ** a

//= Floor Division It performs floor division on operators and assign value c //= a is
to the left operand equivalent to c =
c // a

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 Python Introduction

Reserved Words
The following list shows the Python keywords. These are reserved words and you cannot use them
as constants or variables or any other identifier names. All the Python keywords contain lowercase
letters only.

and exec Not

as finally Or

assert for Pass

break from Print

class global Raise

continue if Return

def import Try

del in While

elif is With

else lambda Yield

except
 Python Introduction

Decision Making – IF Loop

The IF statement is similar to that of other languages. The if statement contains a logical expression
using which the data is compared and a decision is made based on the result of the comparison.

var1 = 100
if var1:
print ("1 - Got a true expression value")
print (var1)

var2 = 0
if var2:
print ("2 - Got a true expression value")
print (var2)
print ("Good bye!")

Output
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

1 - Got a true expression value

100
Good bye!

There may be a situation when you want to check for another condition after a condition resolves to
true. In such a situation, you can use the nested ifconstruct.

In a nested if construct, you can have an if...elif...else construct inside

another if...elif...else construct.

Example
# !/usr/bin/python3
num = int(input("enter number"))
if num%2 == 0:
if num%3 == 0:
print ("Divisible by 3 and 2")
else:
print ("divisible by 2 not divisible by 3")

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 Python Introduction

else:
if num%3 == 0:
print ("divisible by 3 not divisible by 2")
else:
print ("not Divisible by 2 not divisible by 3")

Output
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

enter number8
divisible by 2 not divisible by 3

enter number15
divisible by 3 not divisible by 2

enter number12
Divisible by 3 and 2

enter number5
not Divisible by 2 not divisible by 3
 Python Introduction

For Loop
Executes a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the code that manages the loop
variable.

Example
range() generates an iterator to progress integers starting with 0 up to n-1. To obtain a list object of
the sequence, it is type casted to list(). Now this list can be iterated using thefor statement.

>>> for var in list(range(5)):

print (var)

Output
This will produce the following output.

0
1
2
3
4

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 Python Introduction

While Loop
Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is TRUE. It tests the condition
before executing the loop body.

Example
#!/usr/bin/python3

count = 0
while (count < 9):
print ('The count is:', count)
count = count + 1

print ("Good bye!")

Output
When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

The count is: 0

The count is: 1
The count is: 2
The count is: 3
The count is: 4
The count is: 5
The count is: 6
The count is: 7
The count is: 8
Good bye!
 Python Introduction

Reading Input from Keyboard

Python 2 has two versions of input functions, input() and raw_input(). The input() function treats the
received data as string if it is included in quotes '' or "", otherwise the data is treated as number.

In Python 3, raw_input() function is deprecated. Further, the received data is always treated as string.

>>> x = input("something:")
something:10
>>> x
'10'

>>> x = input("something:")
something:'10' #entered data treated as string with or without ''
>>> x
"'10'"

>>> x = raw_input("something:") # will result NameError

Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<pyshell#3>", line 1, in
<module>
x = raw_input("something:")
NameError: name 'raw_input' is not defined

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 Python Introduction

Functions
A function is a block of organized, reusable code that is used to perform a single, related action.
Functions provide better modularity for your application and a high degree of code reusing.

Defining a Function
You can define functions to provide the required functionality. Here are simple rules to define a
function in Python.

• Function blocks begin with the keyword def followed by the function name and parentheses
( ( ) ).

• Any input parameters or arguments should be placed within these parentheses. You can also
define parameters inside these parentheses.

• The code block within every function starts with a colon (:) and is indented.

• The statement return [expression] exits a function, optionally passing back an expression to
the caller. A return statement with no arguments is the same as return None.

# Function definition is here

def printme( str ):
"This prints a passed string into this function"
print (str)
return

# Now you can call printme function

printme("This is first call to the user defined function!")
printme("Again second call to the same function")

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

This is first call to the user defined function!

Again second call to the same function
 Python Introduction

File I/O Handling

Writing data to the file

#!/usr/bin/python3

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "w")
fo.write( "Python is a great language.\nYeah its great!!\n")

# Close opend file

fo.close()

The above method would create foo.txt file and would write given content in that file and finally it
would close that file. If you would open this file, it would have the following content −

Python is a great language.

Yeah its great!!

Reading Data from a file

# Open a file
fo = open("foo.txt", "r+")
str = fo.read(10)
print ("Read String is : ", str)

# Close opened file

fo.close()

This produces the following result −

Read String is : Python is

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 Python Introduction

Object Oriented Programming

• Python has been an object-oriented language since the time it existed. Due to this, creating
and using classes and objects are downright easy.

Example

Following is an example of a simple Python class −

class Employee:
'Common base class for all employees'
empCount = 0

def __init__(self, name, salary):

self.name = name
self.salary = salary
Employee.empCount += 1

def displayCount(self):
print "Total Employee %d" % Employee.empCount

def displayEmployee(self):
print "Name : ", self.name, ", Salary: ", self.salary

• The variable empCount is a class variable whose value is shared among all the instances of a
in this class. This can be accessed as Employee.empCount from inside the class or outside the
class.

• The first method __init__() is a special method, which is called class constructor or
initialization method that Python calls when you create a new instance of this class.

• You declare other class methods like normal functions with the exception that the first
argument to each method is self. Python adds the self argument to the list for you; you do
not need to include it when you call the methods.
 Python Introduction

Numpy
NumPy is the fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. It contains among other
things:

• a powerful N-dimensional array object

• sophisticated (broadcasting) functions
• tools for integrating C/C++ and Fortran code
• useful linear algebra, Fourier transform, and random number capabilities

Besides its obvious scientific uses, NumPy can also be used as an efficient multi-dimensional
container of generic data. Arbitrary data-types can be defined. This allows NumPy to seamlessly and
speedily integrate with a wide variety of databases.

Broadcasting
Broadcasting is a powerful mechanism that allows numpy to work with arrays of different shapes
when performing arithmetic operations. Frequently we have a smaller array and a larger array, and
we want to use the smaller array multiple times to perform some operation on the larger array.

Broadcasting two arrays together follows these rules:

• If the arrays do not have the same rank, prepend the shape of the lower rank array with 1s
until both shapes have the same length.
• The two arrays are said to be compatible in a dimension if they have the same size in the
dimension, or if one of the arrays has size 1 in that dimension.
• The arrays can be broadcast together if they are compatible in all dimensions.
• After broadcasting, each array behaves as if it had shape equal to the elementwise
maximum of shapes of the two input arrays.
• In any dimension where one array had size 1 and the other array had size greater than 1, the
first array behaves as if it were copied along that dimension

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 Python Introduction

Matplotlib
Matplotlib is a Python 2D plotting library which produces publication quality figures in a variety of
hardcopy formats and interactive environments across platforms. Matplotlib can be used in Python
scripts, the Python and IPython shells, the Jupyter notebook, web application servers, and four
graphical user interface toolkits.

Matplotlib tries to make easy things easy and hard things possible. You can generate plots,
histograms, power spectra, bar charts, errorcharts, scatterplots, etc., with just a few lines of code.

For simple plotting the pyplot module provides a MATLAB-like interface, particularly when
combined with IPython. For the power user, you have full control of line styles, font properties, axes
properties, etc, via an object oriented interface or via a set of functions familiar to MATLAB users.
 Python Introduction

Pandas

pandas is a Python package providing fast, flexible, and expressive data structures designed to make
working with “relational” or “labeled” data both easy and intuitive. It aims to be the fundamental
high-level building block for doing practical, real world data analysis in Python.
Additionally, it has the broader goal of becoming the most powerful and flexible open source data
analysis / manipulation tool available in any language. It is already well on its way toward this goal.

pandas is well suited for many different kinds of data:

• Tabular data with heterogeneously-typed columns, as in an SQL table or Excel spreadsheet

• Ordered and unordered (not necessarily fixed-frequency) time series data.
• Arbitrary matrix data (homogeneously typed or heterogeneous) with row and column labels
• Any other form of observational / statistical data sets. The data actually need not be labeled
at all to be placed into a pandas data structure

The two primary data structures of pandas, Series (1-dimensional) and DataFrame (2-dimensional),
handle the vast majority of typical use cases in finance, statistics, social science, and many areas of
engineering. For R users, DataFrame provides everything that R’s data.frame provides and much
more. pandas is built on top of NumPy and is intended to integrate well within a scientific
computing environment with many other 3rd party libraries.

Here are just a few of the things that pandas does well:

• Easy handling of missing data (represented as NaN) in floating point as well as non-floating
point data
• Size mutability: columns can be inserted and deleted from DataFrame and higher
dimensional objects
• Automatic and explicit data alignment: objects can be explicitly aligned to a set of labels, or
the user can simply ignore the labels and let Series, DataFrame, etc. automatically align the
data for you in computations
• Powerful, flexible group by functionality to perform split-apply-combine operations on data
sets, for both aggregating and transforming data

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• Make it easy to convert ragged, differently-indexed data in other Python and NumPy data
structures into DataFrame objects
• Intelligent label-based slicing, fancy indexing, and subsetting of large data sets
• Intuitive merging and joining data sets
• Flexible reshaping and pivoting of data sets
• Hierarchical labeling of axes (possible to have multiple labels per tick)
• Robust IO tools for loading data from flat files (CSV and delimited), Excel files, databases,
and saving / loading data from the ultrafast HDF5 format
• Time series-specific functionality: date range generation and frequency conversion, moving
window statistics, moving window linear regressions, date shifting and lagging, etc.

Many of these principles are here to address the shortcomings frequently experienced using other
languages / scientific research environments. For data scientists, working with data is typically
divided into multiple stages: munging and cleaning data, analyzing / modeling it, then organizing the
results of the analysis into a form suitable for plotting or tabular display. pandas is the ideal tool for
all of these tasks.

• pandas is fast. Many of the low-level algorithmic bits have been extensively tweaked in
Cython code. However, as with anything else generalization usually sacrifices performance.
So if you focus on one feature for your application you may be able to create a faster
specialized tool.
• pandas is a dependency of statsmodels, making it an important part of the statistical
computing ecosystem in Python.
• pandas has been used extensively in production in financial applications.
 Python Introduction

Seaborn
Seaborn is a Python visualization library based on matplotlib. It provides a high-level interface for
drawing attractive statistical graphics.
Seaborn is a library for making attractive and informative statistical graphics in Python. It is built on
top of matplotlib and tightly integrated with the PyData stack, including support for numpy and
pandas data structures and statistical routines from scipy and statsmodels.

Some of the features that seaborn offers are

• Several built-in themes for styling matplotlib graphics

• Tools for choosing color palettes to make beautiful plots that reveal patterns in your data
• Functions for visualizing univariate and bivariate distributions or for comparing them
between subsets of data
• Tools that fit and visualize linear regression models for different kinds of independent and
dependent variables
• Functions that visualize matrices of data and use clustering algorithms to discover structure
in those matrices
• A function to plot statistical timeseries data with flexible estimation and representation of
uncertainty around the estimate
• High-level abstractions for structuring grids of plots that let you easily build complex
visualizations

Seaborn aims to make visualization a central part of exploring and understanding data. The plotting
functions operate on dataframes and arrays containing a whole dataset and internally perform the
necessary aggregation and statistical model-fitting to produce informative plots. If matplotlib “tries
to make easy things easy and hard things possible”, seaborn tries to make a well-defined set of hard
things easy too.

The plotting functions try to do something useful when called with a minimal set of arguments, and
they expose a number of customizable options through additional parameters. Some of the
functions plot directly into a matplotlib axes object, while others operate on an entire figure and
produce plots with several panels. In the latter case, the plot is drawn using a Grid object that links
the structure of the figure to the structure of the dataset.

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Seaborn should be thought of as a complement to matplotlib, not a replacement for it. When using
seaborn, it is likely that you will often invoke matplotlib functions directly to draw simpler plots
already available through the pyplot namespace. Further, the seaborn functions aim to make plots
that are reasonably “production ready” (including extracting semantic information from Pandas
objects to add informative labels), but full customization will require changing attributes on the
matplotlib objects directly. The combination of seaborn’s high-level interface and matplotlib’s
customizability and wide range of backends makes it easy to generate publication-quality figures.
 Python Introduction

Summary
▪ Atomic Data Types – Integers, Strings, Float, Boolean and Complex

▪ Operators in Python – Arithmetic, Comparison and Logical

▪ Main Data Types – List, Tuple, Set and Dictionary

▪ Control Structure – IF else, For loop and While Loop

▪ Defining Functions in Python

▪ Object Oriented Programming using Python

▪ Numpy

▪ Matplotlib

▪ Pandas

▪ seaborn

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