Ia Intro

Introduction To
Instrumentation &
Process Control
Edition 7
Instrumentation & Process Control
This manual is intended for instructional purposes only and should
not be relied upon for technical detail. Always consult manufac-
turer or other authoritative source before making design changes
or performing maintenance on equipment.
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© 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2006, 2007 by National Technology
Transfer, Inc.
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Edition 7 © October 2007
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Acknowledgments
NTT wishes to express appreciation to the following individuals
who have assisted in development of this book.
Author: Robert M. Dombek
Field instructors who reviewed the text and offered comments

and suggestions: Jeff Grovom,Carl Michael,Vernon Miller, Alan
Pike, Neil Finch
Art Director: Cynthia Rishko
Illustrator: Derek Ricks
Layout Production: Lynn Kehr
Copyeditor: Eliza Gibbons
AUTHOR’S NOTE:
I would like to dedicate this book to my wife Michelle, daughters

Rebekah and Chloe, son Benjamin and to my loving parents Janice
and the memory of George who,through the grace of God, brought
me into this world supporting and guiding me in all my endeavors.
—Robert M.Dombek
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Table of
Contents
Pre-test For Instrumentation & Process Control
Post-test For Instrumentation & Process Control
Chapter 1 Basic Concepts

Instrumentation...................................................................1-1
Purposes for Modern Control Systems ...............................1-2
Terminology..........................................................................1-3
Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement ....1-6
Signal Range vs. Span .................................................1-8
Components of a Feedback Control Loop....................1-9
Signal Types ...............................................................1-13
Signal Errors ..............................................................1-14
Signal Prescription.....................................................1-14
Shielding and Grounding...........................................1-15
Examples of Analog Signals ......................................1-16
Signal Converssion Example.....................................1-17
Controller....................................................................1-18
Signal Converters.......................................................1-18
Final Control Elements .............................................1-19
Piping & Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs)..........................1-19
Discrete Instruments .................................................1-20
Shared Display, Shared Control ................................1-20
Computer Function ....................................................1-20
Programmable logic Control......................................1-21
Line Symbols ..............................................................1-21
Instrument Identification Tags .................................1-22
Instrument Bubbles ...................................................1-24
Piping and Device symbols used on Piping &
Instrument Diagrams ................................................1-25
Loop Diagrams ...........................................................1-26
Control Example ................................................................1-34
Control Technologies..........................................................1-35
Local Manual—On/Off or Modulated........................1-35
Remote Electrical—On/Off ........................................1-36
Local Pneumatic Modulated......................................1-36
Remote Analog Electronic—Modulated ....................1-37
Remote Digital Electronic—Modulated ....................1-38
Basic Electrical and Math Concepts .................................1-40
Applications to Instruments......................................1-42
Electrical Principles and Symbols.............................1-43
Series Circuits ............................................................1-44
Parallel Circuits .........................................................1-45
Variable Resistors ......................................................1-46
Instrument Math .......................................................1-48
Chapter 2 Pressure Instrumentation & Measurements

Pressure Measurement Devices ..........................................2-3
U-tube Manometer.......................................................2-3
Bourdon Gauge.............................................................2-3
Bellows Gauge ..............................................................2-5
Piezoelectric..................................................................2-6
Pressure Summary ......................................................2-7
Chapter 3 Temperature Instrumentation & Measurements

Measurement Devices and Techniques...............................3-2
Bimetallic Temperature Measurement.......................3-2
Filled Capillary & Bulb Temperature Measurement .3-3
Thermocouple Temperature Meassurement...............3-3
Resistance Temperature Detector Temperature
Measurement................................................................3-9
Thermistor Temperature Measurement ...................3-11
Thermowell.................................................................3-12
Infrared Temperature Measurement ........................3-13
Chapter 4 Flow Instrumentation & Measurements

Flow Measurement Methods ...............................................4-2
Factors that Influence Flow Measurement ........................4-3
Type of Fluid ................................................................4-3
Velocity Profile .............................................................4-3
Differential Pressure Flow Measurement ..................4-5
Piping considerations...................................................4-6
Line Size .......................................................................4-7
Inferential Flow Measurements..........................................4-8
Orifice Plates ................................................................4-8
Venturi Tube...............................................................4-14
Flow Nozzle ................................................................4-14
Elbow Taps .................................................................4-15
Pitot Tube ...................................................................4-15
Parshall Flume...........................................................4-16
Velocity Flow Measurements ............................................4-17
Magnetic Flowmeter (Mag Meter) ............................4-17
Vortex Shedding Meter ..............................................4-19
Turbine Meters...........................................................4-20
Target Flowmeter.......................................................4-21
Ultrasonic Flowmeter ................................................4-22
VariableArea Rotameter ............................................4-23
Mass Flow Measurements.................................................4-24
Coriolis Meters ...........................................................4-24
Volumetric Flow Measurements .......................................4-26
Nutating Disc Positive Displacement Flowmeter ....4-26
Chapter 5 Level Instrumentation & Measurements

Level Measuremment Types ..............................................5-1
Sight Glass ...................................................................5-2
Differential Pressure Level Measurement .................5-2
Bubbler .........................................................................5-5
Displacer Level Sensor ................................................5-6
Float Level Sensors......................................................5-7
Capacitance Level Sensors ..........................................5-9
Radiation-Based Level Sensors.................................5-11
Radar and Ultrasonic Level Sensors.........................5-12
Chapter 6 Density, Specific Gravity & Analysis

Density and Specific Gravity...............................................6-1
Measurement Types and Principles............................6-1
Monitoring & Analyzing Techniques...................................6-4
Conductivity .................................................................6-4
pH..................................................................................6-4
Chapter 7 Manipulating The Process
Final Control Element .........................................................7-1
Globe Valve ...........................................................................7-2
Flow Characteristics ............................................................7-3
Actuators ..............................................................................7-4
Valve Failure Modes.............................................................7-4
Valve Positioner ...................................................................7-5
Pneumatic Device Operation—I/P ......................................7-6
Split Range Control Valves..................................................7-7
Butterfly Valves ...................................................................7-8
Ball Valves ............................................................................7-8
Variable Speed Drive and Motor .........................................7-9
Chapter 8 Troubleshooting
Testing for Open Circuits ....................................................8-1
Testing for Short Circuits ....................................................8-4
Troubleshooting Suggestions ..............................................8-8
Installation Example Drawings ........................................8-11
Chapter 9 Controllers
Control Modes ......................................................................9-2
Proportional Gain.........................................................9-3
Integral Control............................................................9-6
Derivative Control........................................................9-7
Control Modes Example ......................................................9-8
Tuning Feedback Controllers ............................................9-11
1
/4 Decay Ratio.............................................................9-11
Zeigler-Nichols ...........................................................9-11
Damped Oscillation....................................................9-12
Examples ............................................................................9-12
Ratio Control ..............................................................9-13
Cascade Control .........................................................9-14
Feedforward Control ..................................................9-15
Chapter 10 Control Systems

Control System Overview..................................................10-4
Central Processing Unit ....................................................10-5
Programming Interface Device .........................................10-7
Power Supply .....................................................................10-9
Input and Output (I/O) Sections .....................................10-11
Fixed I/O PLC...........................................................10-11
Modular I/O PLC......................................................10-12
Input Section ............................................................10-15
Output Section .........................................................10-20
Addressing........................................................................10-24
Module Location-Dependent Addressing .......................10-24
Processor Scan Routine ...................................................10-26
Summary of Scan Routine ..............................................10-29
Glossary
Appendix A Thermocouple Conversion Tables
Appendix B Resistance vs.Temperature
Appendix C Instrument Loop Diagram Symbols
Appendix D Instrumentation-Related Internet Addresses
Appendix E Conversions
Appendix F
Appendix G
Pre-test For
Instrumentation
& Process Control
1. The difference between the measured variable’s value and the desired
set point is? __________________________________
2. T F RTD’s work on the principle of two dissimilar metals, which

when in contact produce a potential.
3. ________________ is defined as the amount of change in the input that

corresponds to a 100% change in output.
4. T F Another term used to describe derivative control is reset

control.
5. A type of control strategy in which one feedback loop is placed inside

another feedback loop:
a. Cascade.
b. Ratio.
c. Feedforward.
d. None of the above.
6. The __________________ describes the necessary equipment to convert

the controller output signal into the signal needed to properly control
the process.
7. The most common or frequently used temperature detector in use

today is:
a. RTD.
b. Thermistor.
c. Thermocouple.
d. Integrated circuit transducer.
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PRE-1

Introduction To Instrumentation & Process Control
8. Which type of control is often associated with process operations in

which it is necessary to mix two or more streams together continu-
ously to maintain a steady composition in the resulting mixture:
a. Feedforward.
b. Cascade.
c. Ratio.
9. Name three types of flow elements that produce a differential pressure.

1. _______________________
2. _______________________
3. _______________________
10. A thermowell protects the temperature element but degrades:

a. Accuracy.
b. Maximum temperature measured.
c. Minimum temperature measured.
d. Response time.
11. It is difficult to tune a pH control loop when fluid pH is:

a. Highly acidic.
b. Slightly acidic.
c. Neutral.
d. Slightly alkaline.
e. Highly alkaline.
12. A magnetic flow meter requires that the fluid being measured have a
certain amount of ____________________________________________
13. T F Proportional Band as related to Gain is expressed as PB% =

100 / Gain.
14. Which of the following variables would most likely require derivative
as a mode in its controller:
a. Flow.
b. Level.
c. Pressure.
d. Temperature.
PRE-2 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

Pre-test For Instrumentation & Process Control
15. What is the most common analog signal used in industry:

a. 0–10 AC volts.
b. 4–20 DC volts.
c. 10–50 DC milliamps.
d. 4–20 DC milliamps.
16. What will be the voltage across a shorted load in a series current loop?
________________________________________________________________.
17. In a pneumatic control system, the common cause of misoperation is

________________________________________________________________.
18. To minimize noise problems in a computer based control system, use:

a. A signal ground.
b. Twisted pair.
c. A shield or drain.
d. All of the above.
19. A shielded signal cable must have its shield:

a. Grounded at one end.
b. Isolated from ground.
c. Grounded at both ends.
d. Reinforced.
20. For a pressure transmitter monitoring a gas and located at a higher

elevation than its process connection, the instrument line must:
a. Slope up from the process to the transmitter.
b. Slope down from the process to the transmitter.
c. Be as level as possible.
d. Not be drained periodically.
21. Offset can be eliminated in a proportional only feedback control

system by:
a. Changing the setpoint.
b. Changing the percentage proportional band.
c. Retuning.
d. Changing the manual reset.
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PRE-3

22. A 4-20 dcma transmitter’s highest output is 18 dcma. Which of the

following cannot be the cause?
a. A load in the loop is shorted.
b. The transmitter needs recalibration.
c. The power supply voltage is too low.
d. Too much total resistance is in the loop.
23. Which of the following devices is typically a part of a process control loop?
a. Final control device.
b. Primary element.
c. Controller.
24. Hysteresis is when the:

a. Process variable does not equal the set point value.
b. Indicated value increases proportionally to the measured variable.
c. Indicated value will be different for a given signal when the signal
is increasing vs. when the signal is decreasing.
d. Indicated value will not change for a part of the range that the
input changes.
25. T F A P/I transducer will convert current into pressure.
26. What is the most common and inexpensive pipe connection type for
orifice plate applications? ______________________________________
27. The Proportional Band or Gain adjustment will determine the

__________________ of the output change for a given error.
28. What is the lower range value for an indicated calibrated 70°F to 250°F?
_________________________________________________________________
29. In an automatic mode, if a controller’s output value increases when

the process variable decreases?
a. The proportional band is not adjusted correctly.
b. The controller action is set to reverse.
c. The controller has adaptive gain.
30. T F The output of an ON/OFF controller will slowly change from a

low to high value.
PRE-4 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

Post-test For
Instrumentation &
Process Control
1. To be considered a closed loop a circuit needs ________________.
2. T F Thermocouple extension wire is always copper wire that has

special tolerances in the manufacturing process.
3. ____________________ responds to the PV or error signal rate of change.
4. T F To increase the effect of Proportional Band the PB value needs

to be increased.
5. A type of control strategy that can be regarded as an open loop is:

a. Cascade.
b. Ratio.
c. Feedforward.
6. The ___________________ describes the necessary equipment to

convert the controller output signal into the signal needed to properly
control the process.
7. The temperature detector with the highest accuracy is the:

a. RTD.
b. Thermistor.
c. Thermocouple.
d. Integrated circuit transducer.
8. Which type of control is considered a form of open loop control?

a. Manual.
b. Automatic.
c. Cascade.
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PST-1

9. Name three flow meters that use velocity to determine flow?

1. ______________________________
2. ______________________________
3. ______________________________
10. A thermowell’s internal diameter needs to be:

a. The same as the device outside diameter being inserted.
b. Twice the diameter of the device being inserted.
c. Can be anything that is available.
11. The span of a transmitter calibrated to 50 psig to 250 psig is ________ .
12. T F A flow nozzle has a lower accuracy capability but more stability
than an orifice plate.
13. In North America, for a thermocouple negative wire, the insulation

color is __________.
14. When a 4-20 DC milliamp signal is applied across a 62.5Ω signal

resistor the voltage signal will be:
a. 1.0–5.0 DC volts.
b. 0.4–2.0 DC volts.
c. 0.2–1.0 DC volts.
d. 0.25–1.25 DC volts.
15. A two-wire transmitter in a control loop will function like a:

a. Power supply.
b. Fixed resistor.
c. Variable resistor.
16. T F A three-wire RTD uses the third wire to compensate for the
lead resistance.
17. For a primary flow element that develops a differential pressure the
flow profile needs to be:
a. Transition flow.
b. Turbulent flow.
c. Laminar flow.
PST-2 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

Post-test For Instrumentation & Process Control
18. T F A meter that can accept multiple thermocouples and correctly

convert the signal to indicate temperature has software
compensation.
19. For normal operation and measurement, the equalizer valve on a

three-valve manifold, used with a differential pressure transmitter,
should be left in the _____________ position.
20. The voltage signal from a pH sensor is:

a. Linear.
b. Logarithmic.
c. Unusable.
21. T F When a load becomes a short in a two-wire transmitter circuit the

milliamps in the circuit will go extremely high and blow a fuse.
22. The integral component of a three-mode controller will stop changing

the controller output when the ______________ becomes zero.
23. For a steam valve adding steam to a heat exchanger the fail safe position
should be:
a. Open.
b. Closed.
c. Last position.
24. A proportional only controller will always have _____________ after

load changes.
25. T F A four-wire transmitter has four wires so that the lead resis-
tance can be measured and compensated.
26. A Globe valve will have the following flow characteristic.

a. Quick opening.
b. Linear.
c. Equal percentage.
d. Any of the above.
27. In Auto, if a P & I controller’s PV is oscillating the proportional band

will need to be:
a. Increased.
b. Decreased.
c. Unchanged.
d. Any of the above.
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PST-3

28. T F A valve positioner installed on a control valve is a closed loop

system.
29. An orifice plate should be installed so the information engraved on the

handle will be facing _______________.
30. Before changing an instrument which of the following should be checked:

a. Electrical power supply.
b. Air supply.
c. Configuration.
PST-4 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

1
Basic Concepts
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to:
• Understand what a closed loop is and the parts of it.
• Understand common signal types.
• Know instrumentation terminology.
• Recognize and understand piping and instrument drawings and
process flow diagrams.
• Understand basic electrical and math concepts as applied to
instrumentation.
Introduction
The content and organization of this text is designed to be used as a tool
to introduce novice maintenance technicians to the world of instrumenta-
tion and process control.
Complex and vague concepts and principles will be simplified into easy-to-
understand and useful information. Common process and control system
terms will be defined and application examples will illustrate key
concepts, preparing the reader to be better qualified and capable of
working with process control systems and devices.
Instrumentation
The field of instrumentation and process control analyzes, monitors, and
adjusts the various devices used to measure properties of forces that can
affect a process. When we describe a process we are describing a system
such as an oil refinery, chemical plant, beverage or pharmaceutical
facility, etc., where ingredients are blended through various means and
measured and adjusted to create an end product.
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. 1-1

Figure 1-1
Process facility
Automatic control or process control is achieved by safely regulating a

process using various feedback and computing devices to monitor and
measure variables that can affect the end product.
When diving into the process control world, you will come across many
different devices and systems that are designed to measure and control
various variables affecting the process.
Purposes for Modern Control Systems

As process control systems are put in place to control and manage the
variables affecting an end product, the individual methods and technolo-
gies that are integrated can have various benefits to the overall system.
The underlying factors that determine which process control devices and
equipment are used are cost, time and safety.
• Economics/Cost – the number of personnel required to accomplish
a task has been reduced due to the advent of automated processes.
• Time – faster performance of routine tasks, replacement of people
in hazardous tasks – fewer lawsuits, health concerns.
• Safety – quicker response to emergencies – issues with operator
training
• Consistancy – in doing tasks.
1-2 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

Chapter 1: Basic Concepts
Along with these factors, other benefits from modern computer-based

control systems (whether PLC, DCS or computer) allow measurement
data to be remotely monitored and adjusted by supervisors and operators.
Terminology
As a person studies any particular field or trade in order to become
competent, he will need to learn the language and terminology used.
Common instrumentation terms will be presented and defined and
emphasized in bold throughout this text. Where applicable, examples will
be given to help further explain the context of how the terms pertain to
real circumstances.
Let’s start with a rudimentary heating example of a campfire and develop

it into a modern HVAC control system using and defining terminology
along the way.
Figure 1-2
Campfire
campfire b.eps
For this first example of a process, the campfire, the process that we
would like to control is temperature. Main control for heat in this example
is the regulation of air. In this process it is a manual process in which the
operator can add fuel to the fire or fan the fire to cause it to burn hotter.
This is manual control.
Manual control or open loop control is when a human has to interact with
the process in order to regulate or adjust the process.
Automatic control or closed loop control uses feedback devices (in place of
human control) in order to close the loop. Don’t think of an automatic
controller as super-human control. A human can control the process just

about as well as an automatic control, however automatic control is more

consistent, reacts quicker, and is more economical to implement.
If we modify the heating system further by placing it into a box (like a

wood burning stove) to heat the interior of a house, we still have manual
control. In this example we can open the air inlet to allow more air into
the system causing the fire to burn stronger (and therefore consume more
fuel) and produce more heat.
Figure 1-3
Wood burning stove
heat control
wood burning stove heat control b.eps
If the heat decreases and we want to increase the heat, we must increase
the output (let more air into the furnace). The direction in which we
adjust the output (increase or decrease) is called controller action.
Controller action determines the way the controller is going to respond to
a process change. Direct and reverse. In direct mode, if the process vari-
able – PV (which is one particular measured variable) increases, the
controller will increase the output (also if PV decreases, the controller will
decrease the output). In reverse mode, if PV increases the controller will
decrease the output (also if the PV decreases, the controller will increase
the output).

Figure 1-4
Controller Controller Process Controller Process
Direct and reverse
Action Output Variable Output Variable
controller action
100% 100%
Direct
0% 0%
Time
100% 100%
Reverse
0% 0% direct n reverse controller b.eps

Time
In your process, your operator might run into a situation where it seems
that as soon as he puts the system on automatic, the results go the wrong
way. In this situation the operator would just have to go into the controller’s
parameters and make sure the controller action is set to the proper mode –
direct or reverse. If controller action is not set correctly, it will drive the PV
to one limit (upper or lower temperature) until action is taken.
Let’s improve our heating application further by installing a furnace in

our home. This furnace will have an automatic control system. The
furnace uses a feedback control system, or a thermostat to measure the
temperature of the home’s interior environment.
Figure 1-5
Furnace control
Notice that we can have disturbances in the processes. Disturbances in

this example can be outside air temperatures, doors opening/closing, and
windows opening/closing. If the house door were left open on a cold day

(without your knowledge) the first action you might take is to raise the
setpoint of the thermostat. If the temperature still doesn’t reach the
setpoint, you might say the furnace is broken; however, the underlying
problem is that the system isn’t designed to deal with the disturbance,
which in this example is the door being open. The disturbances need to be
managed for process control-related issues.
Notice also that for this furnace control example it is an on-off auto-
matic control.
Characteristics of Instruments and Measurement

This section defines and describes the terms related to describing the
characteristics instruments demonstrate.
The accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the signal

reading of the instrument is to the correct value.
Precision is a term that describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from

random errors. High precision does not imply anything about measurement
accuracy. The following figure illustrates differences in precision and accuracy.
Figure 1-6
Precision, accuracy and
repeatability
Y Y Y
X X X
accuracy and repeatability b.eps
Low Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy

Low Repeatability High Repeatability High Repeatability
Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same

input is applied repetitively over a short period of time, with the same
measurement conditions, same instrument and observer, same location
and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and defines the

maximum error that is to be expected in some value. When used correctly,
tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component
from some specified value. For instance, resistors have tolerances of 5%.

One resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal value of

1000Ω and tolerance of 5% might have an actual value anywhere between
950Ω and 1050Ω.
The sensitivity of a measurement is a measure of change in instrument

output that occurs when the quantity being measured changes by a given
amount. It is the ratio of “scale deflection” to “value of measurand
producing deflection.”
Hysteresis is a term that describes the non-coincidence between loading

and unloading curves. Hysteresis is commonly found in instruments that
contain springs such as a passive pressure gauge. The following figure illus-
trates the output characteristic of an instrument that exhibits hysteresis.
Figure 1-7
10% Input Change 50% Input Change 100% Input Change
Hysteresis characteristics
(a) (a) (a)
Output
Hysteresis
Input
Dead Band (b) (b)

(b)
(c) (c)
(c)
Hysteresis plus
Dead Band
If a quantity measured is steadily increased from a negative value, then

the output reading varies according to curve a in Figure 1-7. If the quan-
tity measured is then steadily decreased, the output varies according to
curve b in Figure 1-7. The fact that the two curves do not follow the same
path illustrates the effects of hysteresis.
Dead band is defined as the range of different input values over which there
is no change in output value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also
displays dead band as seen in Figure 1-7. Some instruments that do not
exhibit significant hysteresis can still exhibit a dead band.

Signal Range vs. Span
Range is the extent of a signal’s lower value to its maximum value. For
example, if we were expressing a range of flow we would say it ranges
from zero to 100 gallons per minute. A signal’s span is the difference
between the minimum and maximum values. For example, if we were to
express a span for temperature that ranges from 200 to 500 degrees, the
span would be 300 degrees.
As another example, in a 4 – 20 mA signal, remember from the definition

of range that it goes from the lower range value/minimum: 4mA to the
upper/maximum range value 20mA. The span for this example would be
16mA. Keep in mind that range and span can define the same quantity,
but not always. The following is a summary of range and span:
Lower Range Value LRV (minimum) – can be zero, but doesn’t

have to be
Upper Range Value URV (maximum)
vs.
Span is the difference between the minimum and maximum

values.
The following two names are what manufacturers use for adjustments:
Zero and span
Zero and range
When you read literature for your devices, realize that the terms “span”
and “range” are both used, but they may not always be used properly.
Looking ahead at Figure 1-15, notice that the dashed line (yellow) has a
lower range value other than Ø. In this example it is 4mA. The reason it
doesn’t start at zero is because by starting at 4mA when we take
measurements, we know that if there is a value (of 4mA), then there is
power on the signal. If we had zero mA when we took a measurement we
would know that somewhere power was interrupted along the circuit. So,
in summary, having a minimum range value that is other than zero gives
us important information when troubleshooting. Having a minimum
range value other than zero is often called a live zero.
Another benefit of having an elevated lower range value is that when the
circuit’s power is a positive DC signal, we have no means of quantifying a
negative number with a positive power supply. With an elevated lower
range value we can quantify a negative error. For example, in the case in
which we read 3.9mA with a 4-20mA signal, we know we have a negative
error. The signal is below the specified minimum range value of 4mA. By
this we achieve accuracy and troubleshooting benefits.

Components of a Feedback Control Loop

One thing to note is that for a particular control loop we can only control
one variable. This is why in a majority of applications we must have
multiple control loops. The following figure shows an example of the
components typically seen in a feedback control loop.
Figure 1-8
Components of a
feedback control loop
Let’s define some more terms related to the previous figure.
A process is a means or method of producing a product.
A process variable is one measured element of the process.
Secondary elements or transmitters are used to convert the sensor’s orginal

output signal into an electrical or pneumatic signal that can send data to a
remote user over a long distance without signal degradation. The trans-
mitter’s output signal must be much larger than any interference so that
the signal will not be overpowered and corrupted by it.
In this example here’s how we measure: the primary element or sensor first
transmits a low-level signal (a signal that doesn’t travel long distances).

Figure 1-9
Secondary elements
or transmitter
Since the signal doesn’t travel long distances we need a secondary

element/transmitter that can convert the low-level signal to a high-level
signal (a signal that can travel long distances without signal degrada-
tion), which in many cases is a 4 to 20mADC current signal. Secondary
elements or transmitters are used to convert the sensor’s output signal
into an electrical or pneumatic signal that can send the data to a remote
user over a long distance without signal degradation. The transmitter’s
output signal must also have much higher amplitude than any interfer-
ence so the signal will not be overpowered or corrupted by it. As a side
note, according to OSHA we don’t need to wear special safety equipment
when working with currents in this range.
A controller is a device that takes the information from a secondary

element/transmitter, compares it to the setpoint and changes the output.
Figure 1-10
Single loop controller

A recorder is a printing device used to record or log information about a

process. There are two main types of recorders: continuous trace and digital.
Figure 1-11
Bailey trace recorder
For continuous trace recorders there should be a separate non-clogging

inking system for each pen with sealed and replaceable ink cartridges.
Figure 1-12
Yokogawa digital recorder
Digital recorders should typically display the point number that is being
printed, and the descriptive data (date, time, scale range, messages)
should be printed as the recorded value is being printed.

An indicator is a device used to display the real-time measurement value

of a particular process variable.
Alarms are methods for indicating when a component has failed or a

measured variable is reaching (or has reached) a value that can be
hazardous or can cause damage.
A signal converter is a device used to convert a measured value from one

measurement method to another. I/P is a current (electrical symbol for
current is I) to pressure (P) converter or pneumatic signal. Other abbrevi-
ations of signal conversion methods include P/I and E/P.
A final control element is the device that is used to affect the process,
which in this example is a control valve. It is important to note that the
manipulated variable is not necessarily the same variable as the process
variable (what you’re measuring).
Figure 1-13
Process
Some examples of processes are:

1. Production of steam and electricity in a power plant.
2. Production of a chemical in a chemical plant.
3. Canning beer in a brewery.
4. Pumping heavy rainfall runoff from New Orleans to Lake
Ponchartrain.
Figure 1-14
Electrical and
mechanical variables
In order to achieve and/or maintain a process a measurement is made and

converted into a proportional variable of another type. These days most
measurements are converted to an electrical variable. Examples of elec-
trical variables are millivolts or volts, resistance or impedance, frequency
or phase shift. Examples of mechanical variables are movement, force,
torque or displacement. The methods and steps involved in a feedback

control loop are still the same for measurements, however the technolo-
gies available for how we make the measurements are different.
When measuring a condition of a process, a sensor’s output variable repre-

sents the process variable, but is more conveniently processed. It is
desired that the sensor’s output variable be linear, however, many are only
approximately linear, or they may even be highly non-linear.
Linear means that the change in the process variable is reflected in the
sensor output in a proportional (straight-line) manner. In the following
figure notice that there are two linear signals and two non-linear signals.
Figure 1-15
Linear and
non-linear signals
The dashed line represents how the output signal would look for a differ-
ential pressure transmitter when measuring flow.
The red line is a very non-linear signal and has poor characteristics from
zero to 100 percent. Some measurements like this one, for example measure
from 40% to 100%, where the signal is somewhat linear and useful.
Notice all four signals increase with an increase in process variable. This
is a positive coefficient of change. Be aware that there are signals with a
negative coefficient of change, in which the output decreases the process
variable increases.
Signal Types
Analog signals have two limits and any change between those two limits
is meaningful. An analog signal is one that varies continually between

high and low limits. An example of an analog quantity is temperature.

The temperature varies continually; it is never on or off.
Figure 1-16
Analog
Analog and
Max
digital signal
characteristics
Voltage
Min
Time
Digital
Max
Voltage
Min analog vs digital b.eps

Time
Discrete or digital signals have two values and any other value is of no
meaning; these are usually on/off or 1/0 or high/low. Analog signals have
much more information associated with them.
Since analog signals have much more information packaged, the elec-
tronic equipment to process and transmit analog signals costs much more
than that needed to process and transmit digital signals.
Signal Errors
Realize that there are acceptable error limits. For a 4-20mA signal this is
typically about .05mA, this is important when calibrating your instru-
ments. For example, if your upper range value is greater than 20mA you
would first have to adjust your instrument back to 20mA, then you would
have to measure the lower range value so that it is outputs at the lower
range, for example, 3psi at 4mA. This process is repeated until the errors
are minimized. In common calibration methods a 5-point test is taken
because when we take measurements, we are somewhere in the middle of
our range (say 9psi). A 5-point test verifies the linearity of the signal over
the whole range, not just the upper and lower range limits.
As a rule of thumb we want to choose our instruments so that the quan-

tity that we are measuring (pressure, flow, temperature) typically resides
somewhere in the 40%-70% range of the span.
Signal Prescription
Notice in the following figure that we have a 4-20mA loop. Remember that
a controller has an input and an output. We have a 4-20mA signal on the

input (FT5 – a flow transmitter) and another separate 4-20mA signal on

the output that powers up FY5 and FIC5 and FI5. The nice thing with a
DC signal is that it can be easily manipulated.
Figure 1-17
Example loop
connections
In this example the DC power source is 24VDC. With DC the signal is

polarity-sensitive, so we must make sure the positive and negative termi-
nals are connected properly to the device.
In this example notice that the devices in the control loop are connected in
series.
Shielding and Grounding

An important concern in a 4-20mA loop is the way we protect the elec-
trical signal that travels along the loop. Due to the sensitivity of the
signal and to prevent harmful signals, other electrical devices such as
variable frequency drives, UPS, or switching DC power supplies that you
may have in most industrial facilities, it is highly recommended that you
use twisted shielded pair cable. This cable is specifically designed and
manufactured to have two signal wires twisted together and surrounded
by a non-insulated shield. By having the two signal wires of the twisted
pair cable twisted, it reduces the chance that a harmful signal can consis-
tently act upon the area of a specific location of the wire.

Figure 1-18
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)
Wire types
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
Coaxial Shield
Twinaxial Shield
On a diagram like the one shown in Figure 1-17, notice the signal wires
are shown as solid and the shields are shown as dotted. Also notice that
the shield is connected to ground only at one end.
NOTE
The cardinal rule for connecting analog signals is that the shield is
connected to ground only at one end of the loop.
Another important item of concern is that for signal grounds for electronic
instrumentation devices such as PLCs, DCSs, it is always recommended
that the grounding point not be connected to a power ground (like the
grounding point for motors, drives, etc. inside a cabinet) but to connect to
the source of the ground, which would be the grounding grid for a partic-
ular machine or plant depending on how your facility is designed.
As you are running your twisted shielded pair cable from your instrument
(which is typically out on the machine) back to your electrical panels, if at
all possible do not run it in the same conduit or cable trays as your control
or power cables.
Examples of Analog Signals

Electronic analog signals have been used to convey information between
control system components for quite some time. There are several varia-
tions of the electrical properties of how an analog signal can be
transmitted. The 4-20mADC signal is probably the most common analog
signal used in process industries. When we say mA, this tells us that the
signal is a current signal (milli-amps). As an example a 4-20mA signal can
represent a process pressure ranging from 0 to 100 psig.
When process electronics began, the 10-50mADC signal was the typical
signal range. An example of how this signal was used might be to repre-

sent a process temperature with a range of 100 °F to 500 °F. The benefits
of using a 4-20mA range versus a 10-50mA range is that if you have a
process in which you might have hundreds to thousands of control loops,
the maximum value of 20mA of the 4-20mA range uses much less power
than the maximum value of 50mA in the 10-50mA range.
When using current signals in the field, if the analog signal is being
converted to a digital signal (such as converting a 4-20mA flow signal into
a PLC analog input module), then the module or instrument doing the
converting will convert the analog current signal into a voltage signal
using analog to digital (or A/D) signal processing. This 4-20mA signal is
converted to a 1-5VDC signal using a 250Ω resistor. The details of this
will be covered in the Basic Electrical Concepts portion of this chapter.
A 0-10VDC signal is typically used to represent rotational speed, such as

for adjustable frequency drives that can rotate a motor from 0 to 3600 rpm.
In older control systems or control systems used in hazardous areas you

still might find pneumatic signals such as a 3 to 15 psig pressure signal
that might represent a process temperature signal ranging from 100 °F to
500 °F. Similarly you might find a 6 to 30 psig pneumatic signal from an
I/P transmitter to a control valve diaphragm to fully stroke the valve from
0% to 100% open.
Signal Conversion Example

Let’s say we have a process temperature that has a range of 100 °F to 500
°F and a transmitter that will send a 4-20mADC signal. The following is
the formula used to convert the actual process temperature into milliamps:
Formula 1-1 mA =
(( PV - LRV
Span ) )
x 16 ..+ 4
where, PV = Process Variable

LRV = Lower Range Variable
To determine what amount of milliamps the transmitter should be sending,

we first need to know the actual value of the process variable, which in this
example is temperature. Let’s say the current temperature equals 300 °F. If
we put the numbers into Formula 1-1 we get the following:
mA =
(( ) )
(300 °F - 100 °F)
400 °F
x 16 + 4
mA =
(( (200 °F)
400 °F ) )x 16 + 4
mA = 8 + 4 = 12mA

So, for a process temperature that currently equals 300 °F, having a range
of 100 °F to 500 °F, the process would be represented as 12mADC in a 4-
20mADC signal.
Controller
A controller measures an input signal, compares it to a setpoint, computes
how it should react, then sends an output signal to the appropriate device
to adjust the process. The setpoint is the desired value at which the
controller tries to keep the process variable maintained.
Figure 1-19
Controller
How much and the timing of how the output signal should change or react
is determined by the controller’s PID (Proportional, Integral and
Derivative) settings. How much an output signal changes is largely depen-
dent on the proportional setting or proportional band or gain. The timing
of how the output signal changes is primarily dependent on the integral or
decent. These terms will be explained further in Chapter 9.
Signal Converters
Signal converters convert an input signal to a linearly proportional
output signal. For example, a 4-20 mADC signal into an I/P converter
produces a proportional 3-15 PSIG output signal that can be used to
stroke a control valve.
Figure 1-20
Signal converters

Final Control Elements

The final control elements manipulate the process in such a way as to
drive the controlled variable back to its setpoint. The manipulated vari-
able (or controlled variable) may not necessarily be what we’re measuring.
It is a variable that once manipulated will affect the process.
Figure 1-21
Final control
elements
Piping & Instrument Diagrams (P&IDs)

On any drawings, symbol consistency is probably the most important
issue to address. As a general rule of thumb, typically the signal line
symbols are shown with a lighter weight line than the piping or process
line symbols.
Most of the instrument symbols that will be presented in this text were
developed by standards developed by ISA. The following figures describe
the different types of general instrument or function symbols.

Figure 1-22
General instrument
or function symbols
Primary Location Auxiliary Location Located Behind

Normally Accessible Field Mounted Normally Accessible a Panel or May
to the Operator to the Operator Not be Accessible
Discrete
Instruments
Shared Display
Shared Control
Computer
Function
Programmable
Logic Control
instrument function symbols b.eps
Discrete Instruments
Field mounted means an instrument is located near the process it is asso-
ciated with. Discrete means it is a stand-alone instrument. This is
typically a symbol for a panel-mounted transmitter with a display.
Auxiliary location. This is an instrument located away from the process

equipment it is associated with. For example, this might be a boiler appli-
cation. It is a secondary indication for someone that is not typically
involved in the control, such as an operator.
A square around the symbol means it is a shared display or shared control.
Shared Display, Shared Control

Shared Display, shared control symbols represent HMI graphics and
controllers.
Computer Function
Computer functions, as the term implies, are functions, logic and tasks
performed by the computer.

Programmable Logic Control

Programmable Logic Control (PLC) symbols indicate PLC functions and
devices. It is not uncommon to see Programmable Logic Control and
Shared Display, Shared Control symbols being used interchangeably, espe-
cially since the differences between PLC and Distributed Control Systems
(DCS) are becoming less visible. These symbols are often interlocks that
are inputs to the PLC.
Line Symbols
Line symbols are used to designate signal types between control compo-
nents and/or piping.
Figure 1-23 Undefined Signal

Line symbols
Electric Signal or
US International
Hydraulic Signal L L
Pneumatic Signal
Electromagnetic or Sonic
Signal (Guided)
Electromagnetic or Sonic
Signal (Not Guided)
Pneumatic Binary Signal
Electric Binary Signal or

US International
Capillary Tube
Internal or Software Link

line symbols b.eps
Internal or Software Link

Instrument Identification Tags

According to ISA standards, an instrument identification tag consists of
the following two parts: a functional identification and a loop number
(such as TT-001). There is also an expanded tag number consisting of a
functional identification, a loop number and an optional prefix and/or an
optional suffix. An example of this is shown in the following figure.
Figure 1-24
Identification tags 100-TT-001
Loop Number Temperature Transmitter
Functional Identifier Loop Number 001, on P&ID
PID Page Page Number 100.
instrument tag numbers b.eps
In this case the optional prefix 100 represents the P&ID page number of
the complete drawing set.
The ISA (Instrument Standards of America) has developed standard iden-

tification lettering for piping and instrument diagrams. The following
figure is a table of identification lettering according to ISA standards.
The total number of letters in an identification tag should not exceed four.
The following figure is what ISA lists as the identification letters and
combination of letters to represent the instrument devices.
Using the following table of instrument identification lettering, what do

the following devices represent?
100-TIC-001 __________________________________________
101-PT-004 __________________________________________
422-FQI-021 __________________________________________
325-LALL-003 __________________________________________

IDENTIFICATION LETTERS
F IR S T L E T T E R ( 4 ) S U C C E D IN G L E T T E R S ( 3 )
Figure 1-25
MEASURED OR READOUT OR PASSIVE

MODIFIER OUTPUT FUNCTION MODIFIER
INDICATING VARIABLE FUNCTION
A A N A L Y S IS (5, 19) ALAR M
B B U R N E R C O M B U S T IO N U S E R S C H O IC E (1) U S E R S C H O IC E (1) U S E R S C H O IC E (1)
C U S E R S C H O IC E (1) C O NTR O L
D USERS CHOICE (1) DIFFERENTIAL (4)
SENSOR (PRIMARY
E VOLTAGE
ELEMENT)
F FLOW RATE RATIO (FRACTION) (4)
GLASS, VIEWING
G USERS CHOICE (1)
DEVICE (9)
General instrument or function symbols
© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

H HAND HIGH (7, 15, 16)
I C U R R E N T (E L E C T R IC A L ) IN DIC A T E (10)
J POWER SCAN (7)
TIME RATE OF CHANGE
K TIME, TIME SCHEDULE CONTROL STATION (22)
(4, 21)
L LE V E L L IG H T (11) L O W (7, 15, 16)
MIDDLE,
M USERS CHOICE (1) MOMENTARY (4)
INTERMEDIATE (7, 15)
N U S E R S C H O IC E (1) U S E R S C H O IC E (1) U S E R S C H O IC E (1) U S E R S C H O IC E (1)
O U S E R S C H O IC E (1) O R IF A C E , R E S T R IC T IO N
POINT (TEST)
P PRESSURE, VACUMM
CONNECTION
Q QUANTITY INTEGRATE, TOTALIZE(4)
R R A DIA T IO N R E C O R D (17)
S S P E E D, F R E Q U E N C Y S A F T E Y (8) S W IT C H (13)
(Courtesy N.E. Battikha– The Condensed Handbook of Measurement and Control)
T TE MP E R A TUR E T R A N S M IT (18)
U M U L T IV A R IA B L E (6) M U L T IF U N C T IO N (12) M U L T IF U N C T IO N (12) M U L T IF U N C T IO N (12)
VIBRATION, MECHANICAL VALVE, DAMPER,
V
ANALYSIS (19) LOUVER (13)
W W E IG H T , F O R C E W E LL
X UNCLASSIFIED (2) X AXIS UNCLASSIFIED (2) UNCLASSIFIED (2) UNCLASSIFIED (2)
EVENT, STATE OR RELAY, COMPUTE,
Y Y AXIS
PRESENCE (20) CONVERT (13, 14, 18)
DRIVER, ACTUATOR,
Z POSTION, DIMENSION Z AXIS UNCLASSIFIED FINAL
CONTROL ELEMENT
1-23
Instrument Bubbles
Instrument bubbles will be displayed in two different formats. On a P&ID,
they will be shown with a partial tag number. The P&ID identifier will be
omitted. The P&ID number is assumed to be the same as the page it is on
unless otherwise noted.
Figure 1-26
Instrument Bubbles will be displayed in two different formats
Instrument bubbles
Instrument Bubble
TT Functional Identifier
001
Loop or Instrument
Number
Instrument bubbles on loop sheets detail a full tag number so that you
will easily be able to associate it with a P&ID, or a system.
Figure 1-27
Instrument bubbles Instrument Bubble
100 P&ID Page Number
TT Functional Identifier
001
Loop or Instrument
Number
Identify the devices and signal lines in the following control loop.

Figure 1-28
Elements of a Controlling Element
control loop I/P
TY TIC TT
001 001 001
AS
25 PSIG Measuring Element
Primary Element
TV
Final 001
TE
Element 001
elements of a control loop b.eps
Piping and Device Symbols used on Piping & Instrument Diagrams

Piping and device symbols used on P&IDs illustrate the physical connec-
tions of the process. Keep in mind that the piping and device symbols only
represent the connection points (similar to how symbols on a ladder
diagram represent the electrical connection points) and do not indicate
the physical location of the individual components with respect to each
other in the system.
Figure 1-29
Example piping
and device symbols

Loop Diagrams
A loop diagram is a roadmap that traces process fluids through the
system and designates variables that can disrupt the balance of the
system. Loop diagrams show the details that are not shown in the P&ID.
Figure 1-30
Details of loop diagrams

From the piping and instrument diagram, the loop diagrams use the same
symbols, but show the details of each individual loop. The following figures
show a few loop diagrams.
Figure 1-31
Example P & ID
P-104-1 P-101-1
I/P CGS
PV PY PIC
006 006 006
TV
AS
001
25 PSIG
P-103-1 PT
TY ZSH ZSL
LV 006
001 001 001
005
AS
25 PSIG I/P HS ZSH ZSL
LY LE
001 001 001
005 005.1
LAHH LAH LALL LAL LIC LT Tank

T-100
005 005 005 005 005 005
TIC
001
ZSH ZSL HS LE
004 004 004 005.2 CGR

P-101-1
ZSH ZSL HS TE TT
004 004 004 HV 001 001
004 CGR
P-102-1
HS YI
003 003 HIC SIC Pump P-001
003 003 FE
SI HIS
002
003 003
FIC FT
002 002

Figure 1-32 Individual control loops
P-101-1
temperature control loop b.eps

TV
001
TY ZSH ZSL
001 001 001
HS ZSH ZSL
001 001 001
Tank
T-100
TIC
001
CGR
P-101-1
TE TT
001 001
Tank
T-100
flow control loop b.eps
HIC
FE
003
002
FIC FT
002 002
The following figure is an example of a piping and instrument diagram.

Tank
T-100
P-102-1
HS YI
Pump P-001
003 003 HIC SIC FE
SI HIS 003 003 002
003 003 FIC FT

002 002
Tank
T-100
ZSH ZSL HS
004 004 004
ZSH ZSL HY
004 004 004
HV
004
P-102-1
valve control b.eps
Pump P-001

P-103-1
Level control loop b.eps

PRD1
LV
005
I/P
LY LE
005 005.1
LAHH LAH LALL LAL LIC LT Tank

T-100
005 005 005 005 005 005
LE
005.2

Figure 1-33
Piping & Instrument
Diagram

Figure 1-34
Individual control loops


Control Example
We want to control the fluid level of the tank. For this system we have an
automatic inlet valve and a manual outlet valve. Inside the tank for fluid
level measurement we have a float that is connected to a fulcrum and lever
system that automatically adjusts the inlet valve. Is this a closed loop? Yes,
recall for a closed loop we need an input, a decision maker and an output.
In this system, the inlet is a closed loop. It is a purely mechanical system.
The controller/decision maker is the fulcrum/lever arm. The float is the
measurement. The output or manipulated variable is the inlet valve. For
the level to stay steady the inlet and outlet must remain the same. Is the
action of this controller direct or reverse? The answer is reverse – recall for
reverse, when we decrease the PV, we increase the output.
Figure 1-35
Tank level control
with a mechanical
system

Notice the fulcrum has the lever arms that are 20” and 10”, which is a 2:1
ratio. With that said, if the input changes 1” the output will change 2”.
This is proportional control. Proportional control looks at the input change
and changes the output a proportional magnitude.
Let’s examine a situation of proportional control to determine how well it

controls this process. Assume we need 150gpm in and 150gpm out to
maintain the setpoint. If we then get a disturbance or load change where
there’s now 250 gpm in, the output will match the 250 gpm, however the
level will be much lower and won’t be able to get back to the setpoint. The
difference between the setpoint and the new steady level is called offset.
Control Technologies
Though control technologies have changed, the control methods are the
same. Controlling the loads on or off or modulating them, by using electrical,
pneumatic, electronic, can control a process manually or automatically,
locally or remotely, or computer-based control equipment. The following
figures show examples of different combinations of these variables.
Local Manual – On/Off or Modulated

Figure 1-36
Manual control
system – on/off
or modulated
This is an example of a control technology that was common around the

1900s, whose system was controlled manually. One manual valve was for
level and one manual valve was for temperature. An operator would have
to come out, look at the temperature and adjust the valve. This is open
loop. If this system is designed to operate at 100 °F and the actual
temperature is 95 °F, the operator has a choice of opening the inlet valve
(TV1) at any percent. He can open it a little or he can fully open it. This is
modulated control.

Remote Electrical – On/Off

To make the system a little more efficient, the system has been upgraded
slightly to have remote indication (as shown in the following figure with
remote indicators LI2, HS2, HS1, TI1). This type of control was common
around the 1920s. Notice that the inlet temperature valve and the outlet
level valve are now solenoid-controlled valves. These valves are just on/off
(or open/closed) valves.
Figure 1-37
Manual control
system – on/off
remote electric
Local Pneumatic – Modulated

As the system is developed further, notice the control signals are pneu-
matic. With the addition of TIC1 we now go from manual control to
automatic control. Pneumatic control was common around the 1940s. The
operator now just needs to set the setpoint. Since TIC1 (and LIC2) can
modulate the valves the control improves.

Figure 1-38
Local pneumatic
modulated system
Remote Analog Electronic – Modulated

Notice for electronics we still have the same principles of control – an
input goes to the controller, the controller makes a decision and the output
is adjusted. The methods of accomplishing this are now done by means of
electronic analog signals. As the price of electronics went down, (in the
1970s to 1980s) this soon became the most cost effective method of control.
Figure 1-39
Remote analog
electronic
modulated system

Remote Digital Electronic – Modulated

As the technology improved again the devices changed, but the methods
for control are still the same. For this situation we have some sort of
computer control system that may be a DCS, PLC or something similar.
Figure 1-40
Remote digital
electronic modulated
system
We have a control room to which all the inputs from the field discrete
devices were wired. If these devices were located 1000 ft. from the control
room, we had to have long runs of wire to accomplish the terminations.

Figure 1-41
Control room
With electronic and communication improvements, a more cost-effective

way of laying out the system would be to have distributed controllers
mounted in the field near the field devices, which would significantly
reduce the wire runs. These distributed controllers would then send their
information back to the supervisory controller for reporting and indicating
the information and measurements. So there would be digital communica-
tions between the distributed controllers and the supervisory controller, but
analog signals between the field devices and the distributed controllers.
Figure 1-42
Distributed controls

Functionally the PLC system of control is quite similar. For the PLC
system there is an HMI (human machine interface or operator interface)
communicating with the PLC and the PLC remote racks or remote I/O
communicating the information from the field devices (sensors and loads)
to the PLC’s processor.
Figure 1-43
Control system Host
architecture Computer
Information Network TCP/IP
Profibus
Application Range
Gateway CNC PCS Cell

Level
Profibus-FMS Profibus-PA
PLC
Node
Controller
Sensor Sensor
Profibus-DP Profibus-FMS Profibus-PA
Field Field
Device Trans- Device
I/O Sensor Drive mitter
The big difference between a PLC system and DCS system is how the
information is processed. The PLC typically processes information as a
function of time, whereas the DCS processes information as the infor-
mation changes.
Basic Electrical and Math Concepts

Analog signals where current flows must have a complete circuit.

For an electrical circuit to operate, all its properties combine to affect elec-
tricity. The relationship between these properties is quantified by Ohm’s
law, which is the most important law in electricity. If you fully understand
Ohm’s law, you will be able to understand why electricity does what it
does. Here are the two basic forms of Ohm’s law:
Volts = Amperes x Ohms
Watts = Volts x Amperes
One volt is the force needed to move one ampere through a conductor of
one ohm of resistance. The force of one volt moving one ampere uses one
watt of power. Kilowatt-hours is the measurement of electricity usage. This
is similar to measuring water usage in cubic feet.
The mathematical relationship of Ohm’s law is basically maintained in all
electrical circuits. The following figure shows the relationships between
voltage, current and resistance, and voltage, watts and current.
Figure 1-44
Ohm’s law
V V=E W
I = A
I R R=Ω V A
OhmsL2_b.eps
V = Volts = E = Electromotive pressure

I = Amps = A = Intensity of flow
R = Ohms = Ω = Opposition to flow
W = Watts = W = Force of one volt moving one
ampere
You can transform the basic formula V = A x R to get the following:
R = V I = V
I R
If resistance is constant and voltage is increased, current will also

increase. If voltage is constant and resistance is increased, current will
decrease. For current to remain constant, voltage is decreased along with
resistance. For the same amount of power (measured in watts), increasing
the voltage decreases the current needed. In turn, a smaller wire with
more resistance can be used. If you know or measure any two of the three
components, you can easily calculate the third (unknown) component of
the equation.
120V = 10A x 12Ω
240V = 20A x 12Ω

If voltage increases while resistance is constant, current increases.
120V = 10A x 12Ω
120V = 5A x 24Ω
If voltage remains constant and current decreases, resistance increases.
120V = 10A x 12Ω
60V = 10A x 6Ω
If voltage decreases while current is constant, resistance decreases.
2,400W = 120V x 20A
2,400W = 240V x 10A
If power remains constant while current decreases, voltage increases.
Applications to Instruments
There are two main types of transmitters for instruments used in control
loops that regulate loop current:
• Process transmitter, 2-wire, with external DC power supply
• Process monitors, 4-wire, with integral DC power supply
For 2-wire transmitters the voltage to supply the device as well as the
measurement signal travel along the 2 wires. 4-wire devices typically
need more power than 2-wire devices.
The electrical loads that respond to the range of current produced (and
that are connected to the transmitters) are:
• Indicators
• Recorders
• Current to Pressure Converters
• Signal Resistor(s)
Conductors are the pathways for the electrical signals between devices.
The wire used for signals is twisted shielded pair. This wire is specifically
designed to be resistant to electrical noise and interference.
The following figure demonstrates the differences between 2- and 4-

wire transmitters.

Figure 1-45
2- and 4-
wire transmitters
Notice for the 2-wire transmitter circuit, from the positive point of 24VDC
power supply we typically connect the positive terminal of the first device
(in this case PT3). From each device after that notice we connect from the
negative of one device to the positive of the next device. If by chance you
inadvertently reverse the polarity on one of the devices, the circuit will act
like an open and will not operate properly.
For the 4-wire transmitter, keep in mind that it has an integral power
supply. When connecting these devices be sure that you connect to the
proper supply voltage. Nowadays, these are often connected to a 115VAC
source, but not always. Be sure to check your manufacturer’s specifica-
tions before connecting the power source.
Electrical Principles & Symbols

The electrical relationship between voltage, current, and resistance is
affected by the type of circuit used. Up to this point we have considered
circuits with only one load and one wire or path. What if there are
multiple loads or paths? This is common in every house, commercial, and
industrial building. There are three basic circuits: series, parallel, and
series-parallel.
Resistance has units of ohms.
Figure 1-46
Resistor Symbols

Series Circuits
A series circuit has only one path to and from the power source to all the
loads. This one path consists of only two wires, a hot and a neutral, or two
hot wires. An example of a series circuit is some Christmas tree light
strings. In a series circuit the current is constant everywhere in the
circuit. The total resistance is equal to the sum of the individual load
resistances. The required voltage is the sum of all the voltage drops across
the individual loads.
Resistors in series: for voltage signals, if the signal is transmitted over

long distances the voltage drops off (because of the resistance in the
conductors). For current signals the current in a series circuit is the same.
Over long distances the current doesn’t change.
The following figure shows a circuit with a 10VDC voltage power supply
with three resistors in series. The total resistance RT is the sum of the
individual resistances ( R1 + R2 + R3).
Figure 1-47
Resistors in series
For series circuits with a current source, the individual loads determine
the voltage. For the circuit in the following figure (and for all series
circuits) the total voltage ET is equal to the sum of the individual voltages
across each load ( = E1 +E2 + E3 = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = 10mA x 100 + 10mA
x 250 + 10mA x 1000 = 13.5VDC).

Figure 1-48
Resistors in series
in fixed current loop
Parallel Circuits
In a parallel circuit there are multiple paths or loads. This is how most
loads are arranged. Every receptacle, light and motor in your house or in
any building is connected in parallel with each other. The multiple paths
consist of at least two or more wires, which may be any combination of hot
and/or neutral wires.
In a parallel circuit, voltage is constant everywhere. The total resistance

is equal to the inverse of the sum of the inverses of all individual resis-
tances. Probably the most important thing to remember for parallel
circuits is that the total resistance will always be less than the lowest
individual resistance. The total resistance is not useful so much in our
calculations as it is to understanding this aspect of a parallel circuit.
Current is the total of all individual load currents. The following figure
demonstrates a parallel circuit.

Figure 1-49
Resistors in parallel
Figure 1-50
Signal resistor in parallel
with a high resistance
voltage input
Variable Resistors
A 2-wire transmitter acts like a variable resistor. A potentiometer always
has a minimum value of zero.

Figure 1-51
Potentiometer
internal construction
For variable resistors, the maximum resistance value is always deter-

mined by the resistive track.
A rheostat is a two-terminal variable resistor that is put in circuits to

adjust current. A potentiometer is a three-terminal variable resistor that
is put in circuits to divide the voltage across it. The following figure shows
the symbols for rheostats and potentiometers.
Figure 1-52
Variable resistor
symbols
An example of a rheostat application would be to use a variable resistor in

automobiles to adjust the dash lights. By changing the resistance, it
changes the amount of voltage drop that changes the current. The
following figure illustrates this type of circuit.

Figure 1-53
Potentiometer connected
as a rheostat
Voltage divider (potentiometer) is often used for such applications as an

analog input to an adjustable frequency drive to adjust motor speed. As
the resistance changes it divides the voltage through the two different
parts of the potentiometer.
Figure 1-54
Potentiometer used to
set an adjustable
voltage
Instrument Math
The most common math used in instrumentation is to determine the
percentages of signal ranges. Notice below that we have ranges of numbers:
0_______ 100______
4_______ 20_______
3_______ 15_______
200_____ 500______

The underlying theme in these is that we have a lower range value (LRV)
and an upper range value (URV).
URV – LRV = Span or Delta
To convert any measurement value to a percent you must use the

following equation:
Formula 1-2 100 x (Value – LRV)/Delta = %
Once the measurement is converted to a percent, it can then be converted

to an output or applied input value. The percent multiplied by the new
delta plus the zero offset equals the value needed for calibration or validation.
Example: An instrument ranges from 200 to 800 psi. What would be the
percent if the current measurement were 350 psi? Here are the facts:
Value = 350 psi
URV = 800 psi
LRV = 200 psi
Span = 600 psi
Percent = 100 x (350 – 200)/600 = 25%
The following table is provided to practice conversions:
LRV URV Desired New Value Quantity
4 mA 20 mA 40% mA (4-20mA)
1000 F 2500 F 1200 F mA (4-20mA)
0 psi 500 psi 200 psi psi (3-15 psi)
10 mV 50 mV 33 mV mA (4-20 mA)

NOTES
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2
Pressure
Instrumentation &
Measurements
Objectives
• Recognize basic pressure-measuring principles.
• Know the theory and recognize the common pressure-measuring
methods.
Introduction
Mechanical methods for measuring pressure have been used for centuries.
Pressure is measured as a force per unit area. Not only do pressure
measurements provide a means for monitoring and controlling pressure,
but also for indirectly measuring other parameters such as level and flow.
Measurement References
One of the basic limitations of all measurements is that the measure-
ments are relative. All sensors have a reference point against which the
quantity being measured must be compared.
Inaccurate reference pressures as well as inaccurate sensors often cause

errors in pressure measurement. If absolute pressure is to be detected, the
reference pressure should be zero or a complete vacuum. Since a reference
chamber cannot be evacuated to absolute zero, a nonzero quantity is used
as a zero reference. The higher the reference pressure, the greater the
resulting error.
In gauge pressure measurement the reference is atmospheric pressure,

which is variable. Because of the variability of atmospheric pressure,
sensor output can change not because there is a change in the process
pressure, but because the reference pressure is changing. Barometric
pressure can change by as much as an inch of mercury (or 13.6 inches of
water), which can cause excessive errors.

For pressure measurements there are three types of scenarios:

• Gauge pressure (psig) – reference is atmospheric pressure
• Absolute pressure (psia) – reference is a complete vacuum
• Differential pressure – the difference between two pressure levels
The following figure illustrates the differences between the three different
pressure scenarios.
Figure 2-1 Gage Pressure

Pressure measurement
scenarios
Variation in
Atmospheric Pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure

= 0 psig (0KPag)
= 14.7 psia (101 KPaa)
Absolute Pressure =
Gage Pressure + Vacuum Pressure
pressure measurement b.eps
Vacuum Pressure
Units of Measure
Pressure is the ratio between a force acting on a surface and the area of
that surface. Pressure is measured in units of force divided by area. The
following are some common pressure measurement units:
• Pounds per square inch (psi)
• Newtons per square meter, or pascals
Very rarely will you see Psia in process use. Psia is measured in absolute
terms in reference to full vacuum. The following is a short list showing
some quick references of pressure conversions:
1 psi = 27.7
1 atmosphere = 14.7 psia
0.433 psi = 12 in H2O
2.02 in Hg = 1 psi

Chapter 2: Pressure Instrumentation & Measurements
Pressure Measurement Devices

For industrial processes pressure measurement is accomplished by sepa-
rating the process from the sensing measuring unit to determine the force
being applied.
U-tube Manometer
Among the first pressure indicators were u-tube manometers .
Manometers operate on the principle of hydrostatic pressure and the rela-
tionship between pressure and the displacement of a column of liquid.
This is a very accurate method for measuring low-pressure applications in
air or gas pressure applications. The pressure is a differential pressure
determined by the density times the height.
Figure 2-2
U-tube manometer
Because of their size manometers are not well suited for integration into
automatic control loops. They are typically found in the laboratory or used
for local indication.
Bourdon Gauge
The Bourdon gauge is a very popular pressure measurement device for
local indication. There are four types of Bourdon gauges:
• C-shaped
• Twist
• Spiral
• Helixes

The principle of the four types of Bourdon gauges are the same. One end
is fixed. The surface area on the inside vs. the surface area on the outside;
the outside has more surface area. When a force is applied to the inside of
the tube the outside actually gets the greatest force, causing the tube to
try to straighten out.
Figure 2-3
Bourdon gauge
For this type of Bourdon gauge the motion is transferred through a geared
sector and pinion that drives the indicating needle on the shaft of a cali-
brated range of motion.
The following describes a particular error to watch for when calibrating

these types of meters. If the gauge is 0-30 psig as the pressure goes up
then decreases and the upscale measurement is different than the down-
scale measurement, there is a backlash error. This backlash is what
creates hysteresis. Recall for the Bourdon gauge you’ll often see operators
tapping the meter to get it to go back to the final measurement. Backlash
occurs when the geared sector and pinion are out of calibration.
The calibration procedure demands you do a 5-point check in the

upstream direction and a 5-point check in the downstream direction.

Figure 2-4
Bourdon tube
Measurement
(Courtesy Wikipedia.org)
Bellows Gauge
The bellows gauge is intended to sense small pressure differences by an
indicating needle connected through a small gear train connected to an
enclosed and sealed chamber. The mechanical motion is similar to a
diaphragm, but has a wider span of movement.

Figure 2-5
Bellows gauge
Because of its simple design and principle of operation the bellows gauge
pressure sensitivity tends to increase as the size increases. The bellows
style is commonly used in pressure gauges and pressure switches.
Piezoelectric
As pressure, force or acceleration is applied to a quartz piezoelectric
crystal, a charge is developed across the crystal that is proportional to the
force applied. This charge can be measured by electronic circuitry and
converted to an output indicative of pressure.

Figure 2-6
Electrical
Piezoelectric pressure
gauge
Connector
Shrink Tubing
Grooves
Element
IC Amplifier
Lead
5/16 Hex
5/16-24 Thd. Seal

Element Lead Surface
Preload
Screw
Quartz
Crystal
piezo
electr
ic pre
ssure
gaug
Electrode
e b.e
ps
End Piece
Diaphragm
There are two types of piezoelectric crystals: natural crystals and

synthetic crystals. Natural crystals are rugged and withstand shock,
however they are sensitive to temperature changes. Synthetic crystals
tend to produce higher electrical output.
Pressure Summary
Although there are many other methods and devices for measuring pres-
sure, this text concentrates on the methods found in the process industries.
The following figure illustrates a pressure transmitter with instrument

piping as is typically seen in the process industry.

Figure 2-7
Pressure transmitter
with instrument piping

NOTES
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3
Temperature
Instrumentation &
Measurements
Objectives
• Recognize basic temperature measuring principles.
• Become aware of the different temperature measuring instruments
and devices and their applications.
Introduction
Temperature is a difficult property to measure with repeatable and accu-
rate results. This is because every temperature measurement we make is
an indirect measurement, as there is no direct way to measure tempera-
ture. In order to measure temperature we have to infer a change in some
other property (such as voltage, pressure, resistance, expansion of liquid,
etc.) to assume a temperature change.
The following is a list of different apparatus used to measure temperature:

• Thermocouple
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Thermistor
• Bimetallic dial thermometer
• Filled capillary & bulb system
• Infrared photodiode or phototransistor: pyrometry or temperature gun
• Liquid in glass: mercury or alcohol in glass
Of the above methods, the one that is most accurate and repeatable is the
liquid-in-glass method. In the past this method was the standard for cali-
brating other temperature measuring devices.

Measurement Devices and Techniques

For process applications, a characteristic temperature measurement
assembly consists of a thermowell, a temperature element and a tempera-
ture transmitter.
Bimetallic Temperature Measurement

A bimetallic dial thermometer is primarily used as a local temperature
measurement method for industrial use. The element is constructed of two
different metals that expand at different rates and at different temperatures.
Figure 3-1
Bimetallic dial
thermometer
Rotating Shaft
Free End
Attached to
Pointer Shaft
Bulb
Fixed End
The two metals are physically bonded together and attached at one end.
When temperature changes, the movement generated by the expansion of
the metals drives an indicator on a scale. Thus, we have a mechanical
movement. This is not a very accurate device, however, it is relatively
inexpensive to manufacture. The bimetallic dial thermometer is very
susceptible to overranging. If you put it in too high of a temperature it
cannot withstand the mechanical twisting capabilities. There is only one
point for calibration, which is accomplished by adjusting a screw. The
temperature element does not extend the full length of the shaft. With
that said when placing this device in a measurement application care
should be taken to make sure the sensing element is in contact with what
is being measured.

Chapter 3: Temperature Instrumentation & Measurements
Filled Capillary & Bulb Temperature Measurement

This method depends on the expansion or vaporization of a liquid inside
tubing that creates a pressure change that is proportional to a tempera-
ture change.
Figure 3-2
Filled capillary
& bulb measurement
Bourdon Tube
Capilary
Volatile Liquid
Tubing
Vapor
Bulb
This system is a metallic assembly consisting of a bulb, the capillary tubing,

and a Bourdon spring. There is a mechanical connection from the Bourdon
tube and the indicating lever. The expansion and contraction of the liquid or
gas in the bulb is translated into a mechanical motion on the indicator.
NOTE
A rule of thumb for this device is to never disconnect the capillary tube.
This type of measurement system is commonly used for local indication or

for temperature sensing in self-actuated temperature control valves. Due
to the size of the bulb and the frailty of the capillary system (if the filled
system fails, the whole system must be replaced), the number of these
units has decreased over the years.
Thermocouple Temperature Measurement

Thermoelectricity is the result of two dissimilar materials being heated or
cooled. Copper and iron or nickel and iron are welded together. As heat is
applied to the junction point, the atoms are excited. The copper or nickel
atoms repel their electrons into the circuit. In turn, iron electrons flow
towards the other metal.

If the junction point is cooled, the iron repels its electrons and the other
metal contributes its electrons to the flow. This results in the circuit
reversing the current flow.
Figure 3-3
Thermocouples
To Thermostat
Thermocouple
Coils
Pilot Gas
Springs
Main Gas
Thermocouples_b.eps
Thermocouples are very common as safety devices in furnaces and other

appliances. A flame or pilot light provides the heat to the thermocouple. The
thermocouple produces a voltage to activate a coil, which retracts a plunger.
The plunger opens an orifice to supply gas to the flame. The plunger also
completes the circuit to the main gas valve. If the flame goes out, both the
orifice and main valve circuit are disabled, thus no gas will escape.
In 1821, Thomas Johann Seebeck by chance found that a voltage existed

between two ends of dissimilar metals when a temperature difference
existed in the metals. The thermoelectric EMF created causes a current to
flow in the conductors if they form a complete loop. The voltage created is
dependent on the types of metals, however only a few types are used
because of their superior response and sensitivity to temperature changes.
The thermoelectric EMF measured is in the range of microvolts (µV) per °F.

Figure 3-4
Thermocouple
principle
Thermocouple
Lead Wire
+ A Gage
+
– B Vout
–
Tip
Ice Bath
(Known Constant
Target
Temperature
Surface
for Reference)
Reference
Junctions thermocouple junction b.eps
There are two contact points in a thermocouple; the measuring junction

and the reference junction. When a heat source is applied to the
measuring junction a thermoelectric EMF is generated proportional to
temperature. Since the resistance between the two dissimilar metals is
typically too low to effectively measure voltage, typically the extension
wires must be connected to an instrument. The issue with doing this is
that typically the terminals on the instrument are copper, which creates
another thermocouple, which causes a counter EMF. Compensation is the
term that describes the effort to counteract this effect. The meter reading
is really the difference between the cold junction and the hot junction, or
with the instrument, the reading between the hot junction and the instru-
ment terminals.
The original thermocouples had a reference point that had the two metals
placed in a bucket of ice water.
Now the devices consist of another temperature sensor to measure the

temperature of the instrument’s terminals. If a meter requires that you
have a specific thermocouple on the input it is hardware compensated.
The nice thing about hardware compensation is that it is an immediate
compensation. Software compensation basically takes the thermocouple
input along with the terminal temperature sensor and does a computation
adding the values. This method is a little bit slower, but not significantly
so. This method allows the user to install any thermocouple and select
from a menu in the instrument type.
If there is a significant length between the measuring junction and the

reference junction, it is important that the extension wires connecting the
two junctions are of the same metal. Copper should be connected to copper

and constantan to constantan. Some manufacturers make terminal blocks

specific to thermocouples.
Figure 3-5
Thermocouple
terminal block
Magnified view shows

specific usage markings
Thermocouple
connection block
straddles the bridge
between terminals
Some questions might arise as to whether the extension wires need to be

the same gauge wire as the thermocouple wires. The answer is no. Think
of the thermocouple as a battery. With an AAA battery we measure 1.5
volts. If we have a D cell battery we measure 1.5 volts. It’s not the size of
the battery that determines the voltage, it is the material inside the
battery that determines the voltage.
There are basically three configurations for thermocouples: grounded,

exposed and ungrounded. For the grounded type, the junction is welded to
the sheath. The exposed type has the junction exposed for high-speed
responses. The ungrounded type has the junction insulated from the
sheath even at elevated temperatures.

Figure 3-6
Sheathed thermocouple ends
Exposed
Junction
Ungrounded
Junction
Grounded
Junction
Figure 3-7
J-type thermocouple
with ceramic insulation
Thermocouples have color codes for the connecting wires. The following is
a table for North American thermocouple color codes.

Figure 3-8
Thermocouple
designations
If you hook up a thermocouple the wrong way the temperature response

will act in reverse. This will not hurt the thermocouple; just reverse the
wires. From Figure 3-8, you can see that there are different temperature
ranges, different costs, etc., therefore there must be different types of ther-
mocouples.
The following figure describes the advantages and disadvantages associ-

ated with thermocouples.
Figure 3-9
Advatages and Advantages
disadvantages
associated with
1. Self-powered (mV output)
thermocouples
2. Simple, rugged (shock resistant) construction
3. Inexpensive (half the cost of RTDs)
4. Wide choice of physical forms & wide temperature range
5. Fast response (if a thermowell is not used)
6. Easy field construction using thermocouple wire
Disadvantages
1. Thermocouples need compensation at the reference junc-
tion necessitating corrective software or electronics.
2. Non-linear response

Resistance Temperature Detector Temperature Measurement

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are wire-wound and thin-film
devices that measure temperature because of the physical principle of the
positive temperature coefficient of electrical resistance of metals. In a
nutshell, they are sensors that measure by correlating the resistance of
the RTD element with temperature.
Figure 3-10
Wheatstone
bridge
Most RTD elements consist of a length of fine coiled wire wrapped around
a ceramic or glass core. The element is usually quite fragile, so it is often
placed inside a sheathed probe to protect it. The RTD element is made
from a pure material that has documented and predictable changes in
resistance with temperature changes.
RTDs are probably the most accurate and repeatable method for tempera-
ture measurement used today in industry. They are also relatively
immune to electrical noise, which makes them well suited for temperature
measurement in industrial environments, especially around motors,
generators and other high-voltage equipment.
Platinum RTDs are the most commonly used, then copper, and finally
nickel. The common lead wires are joined together near the platinum
element. The third wire is used to nullify the lead resistance. For process
control, three-wire RTD is the minimum accepted.
Wheatstone bridge is a well-regulated voltage source.

Figure 3-11
RTDs with
Excitation
Wheatstone bridge
example
Ra Rc +LRa
Removed if 2-wire
DMM Output
-LRb
RTD w Wheatstone bridge b.eps

Rb -Rc+
Connects
if 2-wire
Ra =
Rc =
LRa =
LRb =
Rc =
The excitation voltage is going through Ra and Rc as well as through the

RTD and Rb. If we put a high resistance meter across the output termi-
nals measuring voltage change to equate to the resistance change, then
there is a voltage drop across the lead resistances LRa and LRb, which
cancel each other out and thus eliminate effects on the reading. If we have
a 2-wire RTD we have lead resistance that effects the measurements.
Accuracy and repeatability are the advantages of the RTD over the ther-
mocouple, however, the RTD doesn’t cover the wide temperature ranges
that the thermocouple can.

Figure 3-12
Advantages & Advantages
disadvantages
associated with
1. Higher accuracy over a given temperature range
RTDs
2. Better linearity
3. Reference junction compensation not required
4. Special extension lead wire not required
Disadvantages
1. Maximum temperature limit is under 660 °C (1200 °F)
Thermistor Temperature Measurement

A thermistor is a thermally sensitive resistor that exhibits a change in
electrical resistance with a change in its temperature. The resistance is
measured by passing a small, measured DC current through it and
measuring the voltage drop produced. Since the thermistor is basically a
semiconductor that performs the function of an RTD, like a semiconductor
it has a higher resistance than an RTD (thousands of ohms for thermis-
tors vs. hundreds of ohms for RTDs).
The thermistor is not as widely used in the process industry because it has a
very non-linear relationship. Thermistors are typically used when there are
small temperature ranges and the accuracy within that range is critical. An
example of thermistor sensor use is the digital medical thermometer.
Thermistors are also used in electronic equipment to sense temperature.
Figure 3-13
Thermistor

Thermowell
The following shows a typical RTD assembly.
Figure 3-14
Three wire RTD probe
Thermowells are used to provide isolation between a temperature sensor

and the environment. A thermowell allows the temperature sensor to be
removed and replaced without compromising either the ambient region or
the process. There are many variations of two basic kinds: low pressure
and high pressure. The following figure shows some basic configurations
of thermowells categorized by installation mounting.
Figure 3-15
Thermowell
configurations
(A) Threaded Well–Straight (C) Socket Weld–Design
thermowell configurations.eps
(B) Threaded Well–Tapered (D) Flanged-Type Well
Though thermowells can provide a handy and quick means of replace-

ment/repair, the following are some disadvantages to think about when
considering using them:

• Increased purchase and installation costs

• Slower temporal response to temperature changes
• Increased temperature measurement error due mostly to stem
heat loss down the length of the thermowell
Be careful changing out thermowells; be sure to use the same tip diam-
eter, profile and length. Other geometries can cause resonant vibrations
that can cause the thermowell to break off.
Infrared Temperature Measurement

The infrared method is most commonly seen not necessarily in the process
industry but for maintenance and checking for hot spots. In power distrib-
ution panels if there is a loose electrical connection or termination, the
current will be higher there, thus causing an increase in temperature.
Figure 3-16
Infrared temperature
Measurement (Courtesy
Omega.com)
Many industries either test their cabinets or hire outside contractors to

check their electrical panels for hot spots on a biannual basis. Infrared
technology is the method used because it is non-contact and provides safe
temperature measurement in potential arc flash hazard areas.

NOTES
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4
Flow Instrumentation &
Measurements
Objectives
• Recognize basic flow-measuring principles.
• Know the theory and recognize the common flow-measuring
methods, instruments and devices.
Introduction
When we look at the big picture of our components of a feedback control
loop (as seen in the following figure), we will be concentrating on the flow
devices involved with the primary element or sensor and the secondary
element or transmitter.
Figure 4-1
Components of a
feedback control loop

Rangeability is the ability of the meter to be adjusted without major modi-

fication (changing out sensors or something of that sort); it is the ratio of
the maximum span to the minimum span the meter can be adjusted.
Turndown is the ratio of the max value to min value that the meter can
have and still retain accuracy.
Here’s the difference between the two. Let’s say we have two meters. One
has a 3:1 turndown with a scale of 0-100gpm. The second meter has a 10:1
turndown with a range of 0-100gpm. The first meter will maintain the
same accuracy between 33 gpm and 100 gpm. This doesn’t mean it won’t
measure below 33 gpm, but the measurement’s accuracy will be inferior
below 33 gpm. The second meter will maintain accuracy between 10 gpm
and 100 gpm. The more turndown there is, the better the meter, and typi-
cally the higher the cost. The turndown typically goes with the type of
measurement; for instance this turndown might be for orifice plate
measurements, not necessarily a specific manufacturer’s product.
Flow Measurement Methods

There are basically four methods for measuring flow: inferential, velocity,
mass, and volumetric.
Inferential measurement means another physical property is measured to

infer a flow measurement. The following are inferential methods for
measuring flow:
• Orifice plate
• Venturi tube
• Flow nozzle
• Elbow taps
• Pitot tube & Annubars
• Target flowmeters
• Weirs & flumes
• Variable area rotameter
Velocity measures the speed of the fluid and if the surface area of the pipe
is known, the flow rate can be calculated. The following are velocity
measurement methods:
• Magnetic flowtube
• Turbine meter
• Vortex meter
• Ultrasonic
• Radar

Chapter 4: Flow Instrumentation & Measurements
With a mass flowmeter, if the mass or weight of the material flowing can
be measured, it can be translated into a flow rate. The following is a mass
measurement method:
• Coriolis meter (one of the most accurate meters)
The volumetric method measures flow by calculating how much time it

takes to fill a specific volume of fluid. The following is a volumetric
measurement method:
• Nutating disk
In a later section of this chapter each of the flow measuring methods will
be explained in further detail.
Factors that Influence Flow Measurement

Some additional factors to consider when making flow measurements
(other than standard factors for most measurements like process condi-
tions, measuring range, accuracy) are:
• The type of fluid
• The velocity profile
• Piping considerations
• The line size
Type of Fluid
The type and condition (dirty or clean) of the fluid can present limitations
to flow measurement techniques. For example, on most turbine meters
steam cannot be measured. Some measuring devices such as differential
pressure devices may become plugged or eroded if used where there are
dirty or corrosive fluids, whereas magnetic meters would have no problem
measuring such fluids.
Velocity Profile
Velocity profile is important for determining what measurement method
to apply. For a fluid with laminar flow, the flow of the fluid along the pipe
surface is slower than the flow along the center of the pipe.

Figure 4-2
Laminar and
turbulent flow
Flow profiles can be classified into three types:

• Laminar
• Turbulent
• Transitional
It is pretty much agreed upon that fluids with a Reynolds number below
2000 have laminar profiles. Some texts - depending on the factors consid-
ered - list turbulent flows as those with a Reynolds number greater than
4000; some are actually greater than 7000.
Figure 4-3
Laminar,
turbulent and
transitional flow
The Reynolds number is a dimensionless number/factor that considers a

fluid’s velocity, diameter, density and viscosity to determine flow charac-
teristics.

Re = (v D ρ) / μ = Velocity (ft/sec) x Diameter (ft) x Density (lb/ft3)

Viscosity (poises)
Based on the factors that affect the Reynolds number, keep in mind that if
one changes it could have a significant effect on the accuracy of the flow
measurement. For example, if in your process a fluid with viscous proper-
ties like water changes to have viscous properties like thick oil, where the
viscosity increases, the Reynolds number will decrease and therefore may
make a particular flow measurement method inaccurate.
Differential Pressure Flow Measurement

A differential pressure transmitter is required as a secondary element
that converts the range of pressure differences developed across the
primary flow element to 4.0 to 20 mADC.
The differential pressure transmitter’s output signal is non-linear. It is

proportional to the square of the flow rate. If a signal that is linear with
flow rate is required, a square root extractor may be used to process the
signal of the differential pressure transmitter. This is where you might
run into a few decisions to make. If the transmitter output will be sent as
an input to a PLC or DCS system, you might have the choice of applying a
square root extractor as the output from the transmitter or as the input
into the PLC/DCS. Make sure it is done at one location. If you apply a
square root at the transmitter output AND the PLC/DCS input, the data
will not represent the flow.
Be sure to be consistent if you can for all transmitters and inputs to your
PLC/DCS.
Figure 4-4
Differential
pressure transmitter
used with pressure-
producing flow elements

The following figure shows an example of the instrument piping for a

primary flow element connected to a differential flow transmitter.
Figure 4-5
Instrument piping for
a primary flow element
connected to a differential
pressure transmitter
Orifice
Plate
Steam
Flow
Root Valve Root Valve

3 Valve
Manifold
with Test
Ports
Impulse
Lines PDT
4 to 20 mADC
instrument piping for primary flow element b.eps
Drain Pot Drain Pot
Drain Valve Drain Valve
Orifice plate is probably the most common device used for a differential
pressure method of measuring flow. While it is simple to install, there is a
correct way and an incorrect way to install; it’s not just a plate with holes
in it. The sharp edge must face the inlet. Most orifice plates have the
information engraved on the inlet side.
Piping Considerations
Some factors to consider within the piping that may adversely affect flow
measurements are variances in the inside piping diameter upstream and
downstream from the measuring device. For flow-measuring loops the flow
valves are typically located downstream of the flow measuring element.
Also, many flow-measuring devices drop some of the line pressure, which
in some cases is not desirable. Differential pressure devices drop pressure

to low or moderate levels, whereas Pitot tubes have a low-pressure drop

and elbow taps have an insignificant pressure drop.
Some applications, such as with orifice plates, require a straight pipe run
of up to 10 to 20 upstream diameters. For these types of measuring
devices most manufacturers have tables and guides for determining the
recommended upstream and downstream diameter suggestions.
Line Size
When considering flow-measuring devices, be aware that not all measuring
devices cover all line sizes. Make sure the desired flow device can handle
the line size (and required flow). As an example of some restrictions in line
size, the maximum size of most vortex meters is eight inches.
NOTE
In order to have an output signal from a differential pressure transmitter

that is linear with flow, a square root extractor must process its output. For a
properly calibrated square root extractor, the following relationships should
exist between the input current values and the output current values:
• OUT mA = 4.0 + 16.0 x SQR (Test Pt. % Differential / 100%
Differential)
• For 1% of maximum differential, (10% of maximum flow rate),
the input current of 4.16 mADC should cause an output current
of 5.6 mADC.
the input current of 8.0 mADC should cause an output current
of 12.0 mADC.
• For 50% of maximum differential, (70.7% of maximum flow rate),
the input current of 12.0 mADC should cause an output current of
15.314 mADC.
• For 75% of maximum differential, (86.6% of maximum flow rate),
17.856 mADC.
20.0 mADC.

Inferential Flow Measurements

Differential-pressure flow measurements actually measure differential
head pressure through a primary element, which can be for example an
orifice plate and a secondary element, such as a differential pressure
transmitter. The relationship between flow rate and pressure is exempli-
fied in the following equation based on the Bernoulli principle:
Flow rate = constant x √ (differential pressure/density)
Since we are looking for the flow rate given the differential pressure a
square root extractor function is typically required.
It is usually recommended that the secondary element be mounted above

the primary element for gas measurement so that condensables do not
influence the differential pressure. They should be mounted below the
primary element for liquid, condensables and steam so that vapors and
gas bubbles flow back to the process.
The four most common methods for measuring flow via differential pres-
sure are as follows:
• Orifice plate
• Venturi tube
• Elbow taps
• Pitot tube
The following sections describe the use and advantages/disadvantages of

each method.
Orifice Plates
How does the orifice plate develop a differential pressure? With a full pipe
of fluid, as the velocity increases through the hole in the orifice plate, the
pressure decreases.

Figure 4-6
Orifice plate
Beta = hole diam./pipe diam.
Beta = d/D Handle
Information Engraved
on the Handle
Inferential Flowmeter D
Turndown = 3:1
d Inlet
Relatively Low
Pressure Recovery
Orifice Plate b.eps

Pipe Inside
Diameter

The point of highest velocity (narrowest diameter of flow) is not at the

orifice, but downstream of the plate known as the vena contracta point.
Past the vena contracta the physical forces for velocity change and the
velocity slows down. Referring to the following figure, point A is the full
pressure in the pipe, and B is the pressure at the vena contracta point,
which is the lowest pressure point. Notice the recovery point C is lower
than A, meaning there is a pressure loss due to the orifice plate. This can
be a disadvantage depending on your application. Unfortunately, this is a
permanent loss.
Figure 4-7 A C
Orifice plate 100 100
pressure curve 80 80
60 60
40 40
20 B 20
0 0
P1 P2
Flow
Orifice Plate
(Concentric) Vena Contracta Point
Orifice Plate Information

Engraved on Handle
Orifice Plate
If the orifice plate is mounted backwards, you can induce errors of up to

20%. Solids in the fluids or corrosives can etch away at the orifice, which
can lead to inaccuracies over time. The following figure illustrates an
orifice plate application.

Figure 4-7
Orifice plate
application
Running water, air bubbles and/or solids may cause issues with horizontal
pipe, so they must be considered and accounted for. The air will congre-
gate near the top of the plate and eventually affect the flow
measurements. To overcome this you can get orifice plates with weep
holes. For gas applications the opposite is true – i.e., we don’t want fluid
build-up on the bottom. The following figure shows an orifice plate with
weep holes.
Figure 4-8
Orifice plate
Beta = hole diam./pipe diam.
Beta = d/D Weep Hole: to Pass

Entrained Gas in
Information Engraved Liquid
on the Handle
Inferential Flowmeter D
Orifice Plate 2 b.eps
Turndown = 3:1
d
Relatively Low
Pressure Recovery
Pipe Inside
Diameter Weep Hole: to Pass
Entrained Gas in
Liquid

This is an eccentric orifice plate. Notice that the hole should really be near
the bottom. Most eccentric orifice plates use older technology.
Figure 4-9
Eccentric orifice plate
Orifice Plate Information

Engraved on Handle
Orifice Plate
(Eccentric)
eccentric orifice plate b.eps
Pipe Tap Arrangements
In order to measure the differential pressure when using an orifice plate

we need to consider tap placement where the pressure measurements will
be taken.
For best accuracy (which can change based on the Beta ratio) it is recom-
mended to have 20 diameters of straight pipe upstream and 10 diameters
downstream. So, for example, for a 4-inch pipe almost 6 feet of straight pipe
upstream is needed and almost 4 feet of straight pipe downstream is needed.
Figure 4-10
Vena contracta taps
Liquid Flow
vena contracta taps b.eps
High Pressure Low Pressure
1 Dia. Calculated
Taps on top for gas flow,

but on the bottom for liquid
If you don’t have the luxury of 20 upstream and 10 downstream diame-

ters, you might consider using straightening tubes, which are placed
inside the pipe and cause the flow to straighten by the time it reaches the
orifice plate.

Vena contracta tap to the orifice plate. For gas flow the taps should be on
the top with the transmitter above the line. For liquids, the taps should be
on the bottom with the transmitter below the line. As an alternative, for
dirty fluids, taps can be located on the middle.
The most accurate flow tap location method specifies 2 ½ diameters

upstream and 8 diameters downstream, because there the pressure has
stabilized. However, calculations must be made and pipe taps fitted
accordingly, which can add labor expenses.
Figure 4-11
Most accurate tap
locations
most accurate tap locations b.eps
Liquid Flow
High Pressure Low Pressure

2-1/2 Dia. 8 Dia.

but on the bottom for liquid
The most convenient and inexpensive tap method is flange taps, in which the
flange manufacturer provides threaded tap points on each side of the flange.
Figure 4-12
Flange tap locations

but on the bottom for liquid Flange top locations b.eps
Gas Flow

Venturi Tube
Venturi tubes are more expensive than an orifice plate, however, the
orifice plate causes more permanent energy losses and is less accurate.
The Venturi effect follows the same principle as the orifice plate
(Bernoulli’s principle), in which if there is a constriction in the pipe, the
flow must increase, while the pressure must decrease (and vice versa).
Figure 4-13 Pressure

Venturi tube A C
Curve
% Pressure
100 100
80 80
60 60
40 40
20 B 20
0 0
P1
P2
Flow
venturi tube velocity profile b.eps
To avoid drag in the venturi tube the entry cone is typically 30 degrees
and the exit cone is 5 degrees.
The nice thing about venturi tubes is if there’s a dirty fluid, you don’t get
a buildup of solids.
Flow Nozzle
The flow nozzle is similar to the venturi tube except that there is no
recovery cone. The flow nozzle is more accurate than an orifice plate, but
less accurate than the venturi tube. Its costs are also between an orifice
plate and a venturi tube. One thing to consider when using a flow nozzle
is that in order to remove the flow nozzle, you not only have to unbolt the
flange, you have to spread the pipe. To overcome this problem you can bolt
it to a school piece and lift the whole thing out.
Figure 4-14
Flow nozzle

Elbow Taps
As fluid travels through an elbow, centrifugal force is exerted upon the
outer edge (relative to the direction of flow). Pressure taps are placed on
the outer and inner bends of the elbow. Though these are very economical
and easy to install, accuracy is poor.
The flow through an elbow can be expressed by the following equation:

Equation 4-1
Flow = constant x √ (R x H x D3
x Density)
where, R = elbow’s centerline radius

H = ΔP
D = elbow or pipe diameter
In pumping systems you need to know if the pump is pumping. This would
be an inexpensive application downstream of a pump by putting a differ-
ential pressure switch to verify there is flow.
Figure 4-15 High Pressure

Elbow taps
Flow
Pipe Elbow
Low Pressure
R
Differential
Pressure
Transmitter
Pitot Tube
The Pitot tube flow measurement device consists of a probe comprised of two
parts. One part measures the impact pressure (high side) the other measures
the static pressure. The averaging Pitot tube has four or more pressure taps
located at calculated locations to measure the impact pressure.
This device does not require as turbulent a condition as an orifice plate

requires. The convenient thing about the Pitot tube is that it can be
removed during production (for cleaning/inspection, etc.).
This is a very popular method for air or gas, and it is used on aircrafts to
determine speed.

Figure 4-16
Averaging Pitot tube
Parshall Flume
To measure large capacity flow, a Parshall flume might be considered. A
change in level in this device indicates a change in flow.
Figure 4-17
Typical Parshall flume

Velocity Flow Measurements

For measuring flow, several methods have been proven to measure a
particular property’s change in proportion to flow. The following describe
some methods of measuring these properties that vary with flow:
• Volts or millivolts vary with flow rate
• AC voltage’s frequency or beat frequency varies with flow rate
• The phase between two AC voltages vary with flow rate
• Resistance varies with flow rate
• Delay time between sending an RFI pulse and receiving the echo
Magnetic Flowmeter (Mag Meter)

The magnetic flowmeter is a device specifically for electrically conductive
liquids or slurries. A magnetic field is applied to the metering tube. Recall
from basic electricity that voltage induced across a conductor as it moves
perpendicularly through a magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of
the conductor. The magnetic coils in the flowmeter generate a magnetic
field applied to the metering tube that is perpendicular to the direction of
flow, which results in a potential difference proportional to the flow
velocity that is perpendicular to the magnetic flux lines. The voltage
produced is proportional to the average velocity of the fluid’s volumetric
flow rate.
To operate, this flowmeter requires a conducting fluid such as water that

contains ions, and an electrical insulating pipe surface.
Figure 4-18
Magnetic flowmeter
The metering portion (as well as the electrode) of the mag flowmeter typi-
cally has some sort of Teflon or similar coating. The fluid being measured
will determine the coating to be used. In applications such as slurries
where the fluid can be very abrasive, over time the abrasiveness can wear

away the electrode, which will result in no readings. The following figure
shows a magnetic flowmeter.
Figure 4-19
Magnetic flowmeter
flowtube
The following are some advantages of the magnetic flowmeter:

• Measures very low flow rates (theoretically down to zero, but typi-
cally 3ft/s)
• No moving parts
• Unaffected by changes in density, viscosity and pressure
The following are some disadvantages of the magnetic flowmeter:

• Above average cost
• Large size/weight
• Needs a minimum conductivity of 5-20 micromhos/cm or µS/cm
• The line must be full with no air bubbles
If using glass or plastic pipe upstream and downstream of the mag

flowmeter (where the conductivity of the fluid can cause the pipe to
generate static electricity) you will need to ensure proper grounding.
Since the mag flowmeter is a primary element it will typically generate

millivolts. If there are long distances between the mag flowmeter and the
facility’s PLC or DCS system, a transmitter that can send the signal
longer distances will be needed. The following figure illustrates a mag
flow transmitter.

Figure 4-20
Magnetic flowmeter
transmitter
Vortex Shedding Meter

Vortex shedding meters have proven to be accurate, reliable, repeatable
flowmeters for liquid, steam and gas applications. They can provide turn-
down ratios as high as 30:1.
The bluff body typically shaped like a square, rectangle, T or trapezoid, is

immersed across the pipe perpendicular to the fluid flow. As fluid passes
the bluff body, vortices are generated downstream at a frequency propor-
tional to the volumetric flow rate. The frequencies or vibrations can be
detected by different technologies such as piezoelectric, differential pres-
sure, capacitance, etc. and converted to flow.

Figure 4-21
Vortex shedding meter
The vortex meter has no moving parts and it can be installed in virtu-
ally any position. For liquids, however, the line should be kept full
with no gas bubbles.
Turbine Meters
Turbine meters have a spinning rotor with propeller-like blades mounted
on bearings in a housing. The rotor spins as fluid passes over it. The flow
rate is proportional to the rotational speed of the rotor. To detect the rotor
speed, manufacturers use a variety of methods including mechanical
shafts and electronic sensors. The turbine meter in the following figure
uses a magnetic pickup coil that sends the magnetic field into the pipe. As
the rotor spins it generates a magnetic pulse in the coil. The frequency of
the pulses is proportional to the fluid velocity.

Figure 4-22
Turbine meter
Turbine meters can be used with liquids and gases, though it is not recom-
mended for measuring steam flow. Since turbine meters are sensitive to
the presence of swirls, they require either a straight run prior to the meter
or straightening vanes to ensure a uniform velocity profile. Turbine meters
are sensitive to viscosity; low viscosity fluids are best. If turbine meters are
uses in fluids with contaminants, strainers may be necessary to minimize
damage to the meter. Care should be taken to prevent hammer as the
turbine meter with its moving parts can be damaged.
Target Flowmeter
Target flowmeters sense and measure forces caused by liquid impacting
on a target suspended in the liquid stream. The flow rate is achieved by
measuring the force exerted upon the target.
Figure 4-23
Target flowmeter

In the simplest form, the meter consists only of a hinged, swinging plate
that moves outward along the liquid stream and serves as a flow indicator.
A more sophisticated type uses a precise low-level force transducer as the

sensing element. The force of the target caused by fluid flow is sensed by a
strain gauge. The output signal is proportional to the flow rate.
Target flowmeters are useful for measuring flows of dirty or corrosive liquids.
Ultrasonic Flowmeter
There are two types of ultrasonic flowmeters: Doppler and time-of-travel
(or transit) meters.
The transit meter has transducers mounted on each side of the pipe. The
configuration as seen in the following figure has sound waves traveling
from transmitter to receiver at an angle that is 45 degrees to the direction
of flow.
Figure 4-24
Ultrasonic flowmeter
The speed of the signal traveling between the transmitter and receiver
increases or decreases with the transmission of the velocity of liquid being
measured. Since the time of travel for the ultrasonic signal is sensitive to
material in the fluid, the liquid must be relatively free of gas or solids to
minimize signal scattering and/or absorption.
The Doppler meters measure the frequency shifts caused by the fluid flow.
Two transducers are mounted in a case attached to one side of the pipe. A
signal of known frequency is sent into the liquid. As the liquid is moving,
solids, bubbles or any discontinuity in the liquid cause the pulse to be
reflected and the frequency is shifted to the receiver. The frequency shift
is proportional to the liquid’s velocity.

Figure 4-25
Doppler ultrasonic flowmeter
Diagnal Mode Reflect Mode
Flow Flow
doppler ultrasonic flowmeter b.eps
The Doppler style ultrasonic flowmeter does not work very well with
clean liquids.
Some advantages of ultrasonic flowmeters are that they are non-intru-

sive, have low installation costs, and portable units can be obtained.
However, they are not as accurate as a mag flowmeter.
Variable Area Rotameter

Variable area meters, often called rotameters, consist of a tapered tube
and a free moving suspended float. Though they are classified as differen-
tial pressure units, in reality they are constant differential pressure
devices. The float’s movement up and down the tube is related to flow and
can produce a linear signal with flow.
Figure 4-26
Variable area flowmeter
The rotameter is affected by fluid density. It will not perform very well in
high-viscosity fluids. Some advantages of the rotameter are: it performs
well with low flow rates, it is inexpensive, self-cleaning, provides direct
indication, and is simple to install. Some disadvantages to the rotameter
are that it can only be mounted vertically (unless a spring-loaded model is
used), and it cannot be used with erosive, crystallizing or opaque fluids.

The rotameter needs no power to operate unless accessories are

purchased to enable the rotameter to transmit data.
Mass Flow Measurements

A mass flowmeter is a device that measures how much liquid is flowing
through a tube. It does not measure the volume of the fluid; it measures
the amount of fluid mass passing through the device.
Coriolis Meters
The Coriolis meter consists of one or two tubes that are forced to oscillate
at their natural frequencies perpendicular to the flow direction. There are
two common Coriolis effect tube types: straight and curved.
With straight tubes, as fluid is pumped through the mass flowmeter and
there is mass flow, the tubes twist slightly.
Figure 4-27
Coriolis effect
Case Transition
within a straight tube
Bracket
Coriolis mass flowmeter
(Courtesy of Micro Motion)
Reference Pickoff
Tube Coil
Flow
.ep
s Drive Coil
Tube ht
tub
eb
ig
stra
Pickoff
Coil
Case Transition
Bracket
The straight tube design requires less space, can be easily cleaned, and
has little pressure loss. Unfortunately, the straight tube must be perfectly
aligned with the pipe. When fluid flows through the tubes the Coriolis
effect causes a phase shift in the electrically generated magnetic coils
(which act as sensors). The time lag between the two sensors (one on each
tube) is proportional to the amount of mass flowing through the tubes.

Figure 4-28
Coriolis effect
within a straight tube
In the curved tube design, when fluid is flowing it is led through two
parallel tubes. An actuator causes the tubes to vibrate. When no fluid is
flowing the vibration of the two tubes is symmetrical.
Figure 4-29
Coriolis effect
within a curved tube
When there is mass flow, the symmetrical vibration of the two tubes is
disrupted. The mass flow exerts a force on the arm’s angular rotation
momentum on the upstream and downstream portions of the arms. This
causes the two tubes to vibrate at a frequency that are shifted in phase
with respect to each other. The degree of the phase shift is a measure for
the amount of mass passing through the tubes.
Figure 4-30
Coriolis effect
within a curved tube

Along with flow rate, the Coriolis meter can also provide fluid density. For
this type of meter the pipe must be full and remain full to avoid trapping
air inside the tube. When considering Coriolis meters, also remember that
there is a great deal of pressure loss due to the small tube diameters.
Volumetric Flow Measurements

With positive displacement volumetric meters, the units operate by sepa-
rating liquids into accurately measured increments and moving them on.
A connecting register counts each segment. Since every segment repre-
sents a discrete volume, the positive displacement units are popular for
batch and accounting applications.
These units tend to be good candidates for measuring flows of viscous

fluids or where simple mechanical metering is needed.
Nutating Disk Positive Displacement Flowmeter

The nutating disk meter has a moveable disk mounted on a concentric
sphere located in a spherical side-walled chamber. The pressure of the
liquid passing through the measuring chamber causes the disk to move in
a circulating path without rotating about its own axis. The only moving
part is the measuring chamber.
Figure 4-31
Nutating disk positive
displacement flowmeter
A pin extending perpendicularly from the ball is connected to a mechan-

ical counter (or transducer) that monitors the disk’s motion. Each cycle is
proportional to a specific quantity (volume) of flow.
Because of their many moving parts, these units are susceptible to

mechanical wear, especially in dirty fluids. They do not perform well for
steam and are only for forward flow applications.

NOTES
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5
Level Instrumentation &
Measurements
Objectives
• Recognize basic level measuring principles.
• Know the theory and recognize the common level measuring methods.
• Understand the variables that can affect the decision of what type
of level sensor to use.
Introduction
Level is an interface between two material phases. These phases could
be a gas and a liquid, a gas and a solid, two solids or an interface
between two liquids. A more practical definition of level is: how much
stuff is in the container.
Level Measurement Types

When deciding upon which type of level sensor to use for a particular
application (or to replace one that has not performed well in a given appli-
cation), answering the following questions can help narrow the list of
possible candidates:
• Does the sensor need to detect level continuously or will a point
sensor suffice?
• Are there any disadvantages (and to what extent) if the sensor is
in contact with the product level to be measured?
• Can the level be measured directly or indirectly (hydrostatic head
– responds to both level and density)?
• Can the process be shut down for sensor removal or maintenance?
Once those questions are answered, if there are still a number of possible
level sensor solutions, consider the traditions or preferences of the partic-
ular plant or particular process. User familiarity and spare part
availability can also influence the decision.

Other issues to consider are if there is agitation, will the agitation cause
the level signal to cycle? Also be aware that the relationship between level
and tank volume is a function of the cross-sectional shape of the tank.
With vertical tanks the relationship is linear, whereas with horizontal or
spherical tanks, the relationship can be non-linear.
Other things to consider are do you need local indication or remote indica-
tion? If remote, what type of signal will be needed?
Sight Glass
Sight glasses are very good for local indication. With a closed tank we
need to tap into the tank. Often the liquid in the sight glass can become
cloudy. To overcome the cloudiness, a specially designed magnetic float
with flags can be used. The following figure shows an example of a sight
glass application.
Figure 5-1
Sight glass
level measurement
Differential Pressure Level Measurement

The high side is connected at the minimum level. If it is an enclosed tank,
there is the possibility of pressure forced on the liquid that must be
measured. For an open tank, the low side is left open. For an enclosed
tank the low side is connected above the maximum level. The differential
pressure is equal to the level of inches times the specific gravity as the
following formula shows:
Equation 5-1
ΔP=h x SG where, ΔP = differential pressure

h = head
SG = specific gravity

Chapter 5: Level Instrumentation & Measurements
There are two conditions that one might encounter. If there’s a closed tank
where the liquid doesn’t become a vapor we don’t have to worry about
condensate getting on the line. In this case this is a dry leg application,
i.e., the low side is always absent of condensate.
Figure 5-2
Differential pressure
level measurement
If the liquid is vaporizing and vapor gets into the line and condenses, it
can cause measurement errors. This is known as a wet leg application. To
combat this phenomenon fill the low side up to the maximum level of the
pipe with a wet fluid or some compatible fluid to that being measured.
Then the transmitter must be set to have an elevated zero.
The following illustration shows a flange mount level transmitter that

would be connected to the high side as attached to a tank. Keep in mind
that these are differential pressure transmitters.
Figure 5-3
Flange mount
level transmitter

To avoid the wet leg/dry leg issue, a remote seal differential transmitter
can be used. With this device the diaphragms are extended, and in the
capillary tubes they are filled with some sort of silicon that puts a head
pressure on it.
The following figure shows a remote seal differential transmitter.
Figure 5-4
Remote seal
differential transmitter
NOTE
A rule of thumb for this device is to never disconnect the capillary tube. If
it is inadvertently disconnected it cannot be re-calibrated unless it is sent
back to the manufacturer.

Figure 5-5
Pressure transmitter
to measure level
Either method (wet or dry) assures a constant reference leg for the differ-
ential pressure sensor, which guarantees that the only variable will be the
level in the tank.
If the specific gravity changes, this is not the best level measurement
method to recommend.
Bubbler
Bubblers provide a simple, inexpensive, but less accurate level measure-
ment for corrosive or slurry solutions or applications where the tank is
immersed or underground. With the bubbler method, compressed air or an
inert gas is introduced through a flow regulator and a pressure regulator.
The rule of thumb is you try to get a flow rate of about 1 bubble per second.

Figure 5-6
Bubbler
level measurement
A differential pressure regulator maintains constant flow, while the tank

level determines the backpressure. As the level drops, backpressure is
proportionally reduced and is read on a pressure gauge calibrated in
percent level.
The pressure transmitter would be located downstream of the pressure

regulator and flow regulator.
The best flow regulator would be one that is a constant flow regulator so
that as the pressure changes, it can still provide a constant flow/bubble.
Displacer Level Sensor

While a float usually follows the level of a liquid, the displacer remains
partially or completely immersed. The weight of the displacer is reduced
as more liquid is introduced. The force goes down as the liquid level goes
up. This is a force transducer that is proportional to the amount of fluid
displaced by the buoyancy force. The weight of the displacer causes an
angular displacement on the force tube, which consists of a torsion spring
and a frictionless pressure seal. The displacement is linearly proportional
to the displacer’s weight. The top of the level is the top of the displacer.

Figure 5-7
Displacer level sensor
Other sensors, such as springs or force balance instruments, can also

detect the buoyant force. Note that when the force measurement is
detected with a spring there is some slight movement, whereas with a
force balance instrument the displacer remains in one position while only
the liquid level varies.
Float Level Sensors

When evaluating the various float sensor designs for continuous level
measurement, the float and tape level sensor is the oldest and arguably
the most accurate. A tape or cable connects from the float inside the tank
to a gauge board or take-up reel mounted on the outside of the tank. The
float is guided up and down the tank by guide wires or can travel inside a
stilling well.

Figure 5-8
Float and tape
level sensor
Float and tape level sensors are typically used in remote, unattended,
stand-alone applications, or they can be interfaced with data transmission
electronics to be integrated into a plant-wide control system.
Figure 5-9
Float and tape
level measurement
As a troubleshooting guide be sure to maintain the guide wires under

tension and clean. If not properly maintained, the float can become stuck
on the guide wires or the tape can get stuck to the pipe.

Another float type of level sensor is the weight and cable. The float
remains on the surface but is guided up and down
Figure 5-10
Weight and cable
level sensor
Capacitance Level Sensors

Two conductors separated by an insulator form a capacitor. A capacitor or
an object with capacitance stores a charge. The quantity of charge stored
is measured in Coulombs. Capacitance is measured in Coulombs per Volt
or Farads. Capacitance increases with the area of the conductors, A, and
the dielectric constant of the insulator, ?. Capacitance decreases with the
distance between the conductors, d.
Figure 5-11
Capacitance
When the two conductors are at different voltages the system is capable of
storing an electric charge. If the area, the distance between the conduc-
tors, or the dielectric constant is changed, the capacitance changes and
can be related to level.
The following figure illustrates a vertical probe that can be extended by

solid rods up to a length of 4 to 5 ft, or with a cable with a weight, which
can be used up to 50 ft.

Figure 5-12
capacitance level sensor b.eps

Capacitance Suggested Baffle Types
level measurement
25 mm 50 mm
1-1/4 NPT (1”) (2”)
Flange
Pipe Section Steel Plates D
115 mm
(4.5”)
175 mm Flexible 15 mm (50”)
7” Cable Max Customer
95mm
D (3.75”) Specified
Cable Length
200 mm
Weight
(7.8”) 3/4” NPT
Vessel
1-1/4” NPT
Wall
A) Horizontal B) Horizontal C) Low Profile
For a conductive liquid (left side Figure 5-12) the probe has an insulated
sheath to provide the capacitance. As the liquid level changes height, the
distance between the conductors decreases and thus changes the capaci-
tance. It can also be said that the dielectric constant is changed because it’s
going from a dielectric constant for the liquid to a dielectric constant for air.
For a non-conductive liquid (right side of Figure 5-12), the dielectric prop-
erty of the insulator is changing, which changes capacitance.
Conductive liquids can cause a short circuit between a bare probe and the
vessel wall. A special insulator coating on the conductive probe surface
can be specified in many cases.
Figure 5-13
Capacitance

Radiation-Based Level Sensors

A material’s tendency to reflect or absorb radiation can be measured
and translated into level. The most common types of continuous level
sensors are those that operate using radar/microwave, ultrasonic, and
nuclear radiation.
The source sends out radiation to a detector on the opposite side of the
container. As the radiation is transmitted through the liquid, a portion of it
is absorbed by the liquid, thus decreasing the amount received at the
detector. The output of the receiver is highest when the level is lowest. The
system is calibrated to read 0% level when the detector current output is
highest. 100% level is set to match the lowest value of output current.
Figure 5-14
Nuclear level
measurement
The main benefits to radiation-type level sensors is that they do not

make physical contact with the process fluid and there are no moving
parts. Radiation (nuclear) sensors are usually considered when
nothing else will work. With nuclear sensors the Nuclear Regulatory
Commission (NRC) requires a license specifying design procedures
that guarantee safe installation.

Radar and Ultrasonic Level Sensors

The operating principle for radar sensors is that a burst of energy is
transmitted in radar or microwave form and the time it takes for the
reflection energy to return is proportional to the level inside the tank.
Since radar beams penetrate plastic and fiberglass, the non-contact radar
gauges can be isolated from the process vapors by a seal.
Figure 5-15
Radar level
measurement
Radar is good for applications in which there is foaming or bubbling of the

liquid that is invisible to the radar, whereas it would not be invisible to
ultrasonic transmissions; however, it typically comes at a higher cost than
ultrasonic sensors. The following figure illustrates a good application of
radar level measurement.

Figure 5-16
Radar level
measurement
application
The velocity of an ultrasonic pulse varies with both the substance through
which it travels and the temperature of that substance. At room tempera-
ture the speed of sound in atmospheric air is 762 mph while it is 3,353
mph through water.
Figure 5-17
Ultrasonic level
measurement
application
ultrasonic level applications b.eps
A) Returned Echo Timing B) Signal Absorption
Ground Level
Casing
Brine Pipe
Cavity Hydrocarbon
Interface
Brine
Transducer
C) Contact
Ultrasonic level sensor assemblies can consist of a separate transmitter

and receiver elements. More often, a single transducer is cycled on and off

at regular intervals to listen for a reflected echo. The time transpired

between the transmitted sound wave and the received echo wave (that is
‘bounced’ off the interface layer between the air and the process fluid) is
proportional to the amount of fluid in the tank. Unagitated, stagnant
liquids and solids consisting of large hard particles are good reflectors and
make good candidates for ultrasonic applications. Foam, fluff, dust, mist,
or humidity in the vapor tend to absorb the ultrasonic pulse, which limits
the application of ultrasonic sensors.
Most modern ultrasonic sensors have temperature compensation features,

filters and self-calibration.

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6
Density, Specific
Gravity & Analysis
Objectives
Upon completion of this chapter, the student should:
• Understand density and specific gravity measurement techniques
and applications.
• Know the theory and recognize common analyzing and monitoring
techniques for pH, chemical concentration and gas concentration.
Density & Specific Gravity

Density is the weight of unit volume of material measured in:
3
• Pounds per cubic foot – lb/ft
3
• Grams per cubic centimeter – g/cm
Specific gravity is the relative density of a material compared to water for

a fluid and compared to air for a gas. Specific gravity does not have a unit
of measure; it is a constant.
Continuous measurement of the density of liquids or bulk material is

often seen in the following applications:
• Concentration measurement of acid, alkali, saline solutions
• Crystallization monitoring
• Monitoring solid content in slurries, aluminum production, mining
Measurement Types & Principles

The following are some methods for measuring density:
• Differential pressure – double bubbler system
• Coriolis mass flow meter (see page 4-24)
• Nuclear radiation
• Displacer – strain gauge

Double Bubbler System
The double bubbler system has two submerged tubes through which
bubbles are forced. The differential pressure is measured between the two
lines, which corresponds to specific gravity of the material. If the specific
gravity changes from 1.1 to 1.2 it reflects a 5-inch water height change.
Figure 6-1
Double bubbler system
for measuring density
The differential pressure transmitter indicates the weight of a 50-inch

column of fluid. The weight will vary with the density of the fluid.
Nuclear Radiation
For this method, density measurement operates according to the physical

law of attenuation of gamma radiation, which is dependent upon the radi-
ation energy, the measuring path length and the density of the product.
The energy and the measuring path length are kept constant, which
means the attenuation is only dependent upon the density of the
measured product. The detector measures the radiation intensity by a
scintillation detector and is then converted to a density or concentration
measurement.
The following figure illustrates a typical arrangement for nuclear radia-

tion density measurement.

Chapter 6: Density, Specific Gravity & Analysis
Figure 6-2
Nuclear density
measurement
2
(the highlighted items should go with the previous graphic)

1. Sealed and shielded source that will be mounted lateral to the pipeline
2. Scintillation detector mounted opposite to the source container
3. Clamping device or measuring path two-wire standard cable
4. Evaluation unit with digital display and 0/4-20 mA analogue
output of the density or concentration and alarm outputs
Strain Gauge
A strain gauge is a conductive ribbon on an elastic substrate whose resis-

tance increases as the ribbon is stretched by an external force. The strain
gauge can be bonded to the supporting structure of a tank to measure the
total weight of the tank and its contents. Piping should not be attached to
the tank.
Figure 6-3
Strain gauge

There is a network of strain gauges in a load cell. This method can be

used on the tank by measuring the amount of fluid entering the tank. It
must be a free-floating device. This can also be used to measure density.
Monitoring & Analyzing Techniques

Process analyzers provide robust measurements to help manufacturers
better control their process through timely measurements of critical prop-
erties, leading to increased efficiency and quality. The following analyzing
techniques/devices will be explained in this chapter:
• Conductivity
• pH
Conductivity
Conductivity describes the ability, or how well an object conducts elec-
tricity. It is the inverse of resistance. Units of conductivity are expressed
in mhos, which is 1/?, or what is currently expressed in siemens.
Conductivity measures the amount of ions flowing through a material. It

is basically a resistance meter. Scaling will affect conductivity, which is
why the conductive probes should be monitored for scaling. Also, for
conductivity measurements the sensor isn’t typically introduced into the
process. A sample is taken out of the process for measurement. A typical
application is to measure conductivity in boilers or cooling towers. The
conductivity in the liquid is representative of solids in the system, which
can cause scaling within the system.
pH
pH stands for the potential of hydrogen ions in a liquid. The pH probe is a
very sensitive device that is specifically designed to only allow hydrogen
ions to pass. Each pH bulb is made by hand. pH is very sensitive to
temperature. Most pH instrument measurement manufacturers have
products with temperature compensation features.

Figure 6-4
pH bulb and Wire Connection Point
reference electrodes
Measurement Glass
Electrode Body
Seal
Bulb Filled with Silver

Potassium Chloride Wire
‘Buffer’ Solution Silver
Chloride Tip
+ + – –
+ +
– –
– –
+
+
–
+
+
+
+ + Very Thin Glass Bulb
–
– + + +
– + + + – – Chemically ‘Doped’ with
– – –
– –
Voltage Produced Lithium Ions So As To React
Across Thickness of with Hydrogen Ions Outside
Glass Membrane the Bulb
The pH measurement loop is made up of three components: the pH sensor

(which includes a measuring electrode), a reference electrode, and a temper-
ature sensor. The pH measurement loop is essentially a battery in which
the positive terminal is the measuring electrode and the negative terminal
is the reference electrode. The measuring electrode, which is sensitive to the
hydrogen ion, develops a voltage directly related to the hydrogen ion
concentration of the fluid. The reference electrode just provides a stable
potential against which the measuring electrode can be compared.

Figure 6-5
pH measurement
components
Note that pH is a logarithmic measurement of the number of moles of

hydrogen ions (H+) per liter of solution.
Figure 6-6
pH cell potential
Though the design and operational theory of pH electrodes is a very

complex subject, the important point to understand is that these two elec-
trodes generate a voltage that is directly proportional to the pH of the

solution. At a pH of 7 (neutral), the electrodes produce zero volts between

them. At a low pH (acid) a voltage of one polarity develops, and at a high
pH (caustic), a voltage of the opposite polarity develops.
If you have spare pH probes be sure to keep them in a solution. If they go

dry they have a tendency to not operate properly.

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7
Manipulating The
Process
Objectives
• Be able to examine globe valve characteristics.
• Be able to examine fail-safe modes.
• Understand how a valve positioner operates.
• Review the advantages of variable frequency drives in process control.
Final Control Element

Recall from the components of a feedback control loop as shown in the
following figure, where the final control element fits into the system.
Figure 7-1
Components of
a feedback
control loop
The final control element (control valve in this example) is the device that
will manipulate the variable that directly affects the process. The goal is that

as the final control element is operated, there is zero error or the process
variable remains at setpoint. Control valves allow continuous varying of the
orifice in a fluid flow line that results in a changing rate of flow.
Globe Valve
A globe valve regulates flow by adjusting the stem that causes the plug to
extend or retract. Manual operation is achieved by turning a handwheel.
Typically, automated valves use a sliding stem and are opened and closed
by an actuator assembly. Extending the plug into the seat closes the valve
preventing flow through the valve. By retracting the plug an orifice is
opened, allowing fluid to pass through the orifice.
Figure 7-2
Throttling
globe valve
As fluid flows through the valve, velocity increases and pressure

decreases. If the discharge pressure is higher than the fluid’s vapor pres-
sure, cavitation will occur. According to the Bernoulli effect, in fluid
dynamics, when the fluid’s velocity increases, the pressure decreases.
When fluid passes through a restriction, such as a valve, and the fluid
velocity reaches the point where the fluid begins to vaporize, bubbles are
created in the fluid. If the fluid velocity lowers drastically, the vapor
bubbles implode (the vapor changes back to liquid and the bubbles
collapse into the fluid). This condition is cavitation. The main effects of
cavitation are mechanical damage typically to the trim assembly in the
form of eroded holes. As cavitation is starting, obvious indications are a
hissing noise downstream of the valve. When cavitation becomes fully
developed, the indications turn into loud vibrations and the sound is like
rocks passing through the valve.
Typical problems that lead to cavitation are insufficient backpressure

downstream of the valve, or the valve is sized too large for the application.
Over time, the plug becomes destroyed and thus when the valve is
supposed to be closed fluid still passes through it.

Chapter 7: Manipulating The Process
Valves are sized based on the Cv and is determined by the manufacturer

through testing. The Cv is the number of U.S. gal/min of 60°F water when
there is a 1-psi differential pressure drop across the valve. The following
equation illustrates the relationship.
Equation 7-1
Cv = Q (gal/min) x √ dp(psi)/specific gravity
Flow Characteristics
The flow characteristics of the globe valve are basically determined by the
shape of the plug. If the manufacturer changes the shape, the flow charac-
teristics will change.
The three characteristics to be aware of are as follows:

• Linear trim: a proportional flow change for a proportional valve
opening.
• Quick opening: for low flows (up to around 40% valve open) there
is an essentially linear effect; 0-40% valve movement corresponds
to a 0 – 70% flowrate.
• Equal percentage: (large differential pressure applications) if the
valve movement is from 20-30% the change in flow in percentage is
the same as changing the valve movement from 70–80%.
Figure 7-3
Control valve
trim characteristics

Actuators
The actuator is what drives the control valve. The actuator can be of two
types: diaphragm or piston. Of the two types the diaphragm type requires
lower operating pressure (usually 3-15 psi) due to its larger surface area.
Figure 7-4
Actuators
Diaphragm valves operate by forcing a flexible diaphragm against a

bridge or weir to stop the flow. Within the diaphragm valve category there
is a weir-type design and a straight-through design (also known as a
pinch valve). The straight-through valve has a lower differential pressure
rating than the weir design.
The diaphragm valve is great for slurries and for liquids that contain
solids. The diaphragm valves are low-cost valves requiring relatively
simple maintenance (though they tend to require more maintenance),
however they have poor flow characteristics and are not very accurate for
modulation.
Valve Failure Modes

The place where the pneumatics are connected does not necessarily
dictate the valve failure mode operation.

Figure 7-5
Control valve
failure modes
Let’s first define some of the terms:

• Air-to-close: means that the valve requires pneumatic force to close
the valve. Upon failure (loss of pneumatic force), the valve opens.
• Air-to-open: means that the valve requires pneumatic force to open
the valve. Upon failure (loss of pneumatic force), the valve closes.
With steam, the failure mode is typically failed closed. With chilled water,
the failure mode is failed open.
NOTE
Though these are general statements, each valve’s failure mode will have
to be determined individually, dependent on the valve’s application.
Valve Positioner
The valve positioner is the device that provides the motor force to the
actuator. A valve positioner is a closed loop control system that continues
to change the air pressure to a valve diaphragm until the valve stem
strokes to a position proportional to the 4-20 mADC signal it receives
from the controller.

Figure 7-6
Valve positioner
The output of the valve positioner is the air. The valve positioner has to
have a linkage to the valve (as feedback) so it knows how much movement
occurred in the valve. Keep in mind that the operation of an I/P is
different than a valve positioner.
Pneumatic Device Operation – I/P

The following is a simplified diagram of an I/P. Basically, for any pneu-
matic device to work we need an air supply.
Figure 7-7
Pneumatic device
operation 4-20 µA DC
Air Supply
pneumatic device operation b.eps
Output
to Valve
Exhaust

The air supply is divided into two sections; the major artery goes to a
small valve (which opens and closes upon need), the second artery goes to
an orifice that leads to a small chamber. The nozzle will bleed out air and
is regulated by the orifice and the size of the nozzle. The pressure in the
chamber is determined by the position of the flapper. If a magnetic coil
adjusts the flapper, as 4-20 mADC is applied, and mADC goes up the
flapper comes closer, which increases the pressure in the chamber, which
will open the valve and let air go to the output of the diaphragm. When
the pressure of the output equals the pressure in the chamber, the valve
will close. The biggest issue with pneumatics is air is constantly being
consumed. Also, the orifice is very tiny and must be protected from dirt
and moisture. The air supply must be instrument air not plant air.
Split-Ranged Control Valves

For large valves in applications that have widely varying conditions
(where there might be cavitation and/or flashing), a technique known as
split-ranged control valves is used.
This technique is used to increase the turndown of the flowrate that is
controlled without requiring a large control valve to operate near its full
closed position, which would cause wire drawing of the valve’s seat.
Basically there are two valves in parallel, while the two I/Ps are in series.
In the following example, I/P converter #1 is set to deliver 3-15 psig to

control valve #1 for a signal range of 4-12 mA (for adding 0 to 25 gpm). I/P
converter #2 is set to deliver 3-15 psig to control valve #2 for a signal
range of 12-20 mA (for adding 25 to 500 gpm).
Figure 7-8
Split-ranged
control valves LIC
204
LV
204A
6”-MW-2021-CST
LV
204B
Tank 2”-MW-2022-CST
split-ranged control valve b.eps
T-201
LT
204

Butterfly Valves
The butterfly valve is light, easy to use and relatively inexpensive. They
are not the optimal control devices because they do not provide linear
performance when the valve is in the near-closed position.
Figure 7-9
Butterfly valve
The butterfly valve is not used in cavitation or noise applications or for

slurries or dirty solid-bearing fluids.
Ball Valves
Ball valves are nice for shut-off type with no restrictions when fully
opened, but they are not necessarily suggested for throttling or control
applications.
Figure 7-10
Ball valve
A variation of the ball valve is the plug valve. Like ball valves, plug

valves have linear or equal-percentage flow characteristics with

ranges of 1:10 to 1:100.
Figure 7-11
Rotary plug valve
Variable Speed Drive & Motor

Probably one of the most recent applications that has had a huge impact
on the process control industry is that of using a variable speed drive and
motor as the final element in a flow control loop.
Figure 7-12
Variable speed drive
and motor
In the old days a valve was placed downstream of the pump. When the
valve was fully closed, the pump was working hard – wasting energy. The
typical setup uses an A.C. adjustable frequency drive (AFD or variable
frequency drive – VFD) which by adjusting the frequency of a three-phase
A.C. motor allows the motor to operate from zero to one hundred percent of
its nameplate speed (and possibly faster depending on the motor’s manu-
facturer ratings). In this case the manipulated variable is the pump speed.

NOTES
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8
Troubleshooting
Objectives
• Understand how to troubleshoot a two-wire circuit.
• Be familiar with general troubleshooting techniques.
Introduction
When troubleshooting electrical circuits, the problems can be narrowed
down to two possibilities: open circuits or short circuits.
An open circuit is a circuit condition in which some portion of the

complete electrical path has been disrupted. There could be many causes
for the open circuit. Most likely it is due to a loose wire or connection
(termination) point, but it could also be due to a faulty device. For
example, if a fuse blows, internally the linkage inside the fuse melts,
preventing an electrical path through the fuse. The obvious symptom of
open circuits is that the load does not function at all. Recall that for a
circuit to operate there must be a complete electrical path for current to
flow from the power source to the neutral (which is typically grounded).
A short circuit is a circuit condition in which an alternate (not in the orig-

inal design) electrical path has been introduced to the circuit. Obvious
symptoms of circuits with shorts in them are loads becoming energized
when they are not supposed to be. For instance, a light is on when it is not
supposed to be on.
Testing for Open Circuits

In the following circuit Ohm’s law is used to determine the current flow
through the simple series circuit. Recall from Chapter 1 that Ohm’s law
states that V = IR. The voltage in the circuit (from the power supply) is
20VDC. If all the resistances are summed (8KW + 2KW + 4KW + 6KW),
the total resistance for the circuit equals 20KW. The total current flowing
through the circuit – I = V/R, or 20VDC/20KW = 1 mA.

Figure 8-1
Testing for an
open circuit
The circuit can be analyzed at each component now knowing the current,
or it can be referenced with a meter by putting the black (neutral) lead at
a ground point, then moving the red lead throughout the different points
in the circuit. The following figure illustrates the voltage levels one should
see at the different points, if the circuit is operating properly.
Figure 8-2
Testing for an
open circuit,
voltage test points
If there is an open in the circuit, when using a meter to measure the

voltage across the devices that do not have an open, zero voltage will be
shown across them. The device where the open circuit is occurring will

Chapter 8: Troubleshooting
show a voltage drop on the meter when measuring across it (in the
following figure, VR3).
Figure 8-3
Testing for an
open circuit, voltage
across device
Again, another way to test for open circuits would be to place the meter’s
black lead on the ground point, then move the red lead to different test
points on the circuit. As seen in the following figure notice test points A and
B show no voltage drop while points C and D show a voltage drop of 20VDC.
Figure 8-4
Testing for an
open circuit, voltage
test points

Testing for Short Circuits

As with the case of open circuits, we are going to use Ohm’s law to eval-
uate normal circuit conditions as well as short circuit conditions.
Reviewing the circuit in the following figure illustrates that the current
through the circuit should be 0.5 mA.
Figure 8-5
Testing for a
short circuit at
a fixed voltage
If a short circuit exists in this simple circuit, as shown in the following

figure, the current increases (because resistance is lessened, in this
example). Notice that when the current is calculated using Ohm’s law it
equals 1mA.

Figure 8-6
Testing for a
short circuit at
a fixed voltage
This method is relatively simple since the devices are just resistors. When
the devices are 2-wire devices like those shown in the following figure the
system becomes more complicated. The first item to note is that the
devices are polarity sensitive. From the power supply starting at the posi-
tive source, the first device (PT3 in this example) must have its positive
terminal connected to the power supply’s positive terminal. From the
other side of PT3, its negative terminal gets connected to the positive
terminal of the next device (PI3). This scenario (positive to negative)
continues until the last device. where its negative terminal connects to
the power supply’s negative terminal.

Figure 8-7
Converting a
process variable to
a current variable
In this example, the pressure transmitter adjusts its internal resistance

so that the current flowing through it is proportional to the pressure
value at its port. Converting this application into an electrical circuit
would produce the circuit shown in the following figure. Notice how PT3
acts like a variable resistor.
Figure 8-8
Testing for a
short circuits in
a transmitter loop
In this example, if there is pressure of 50 psig, that should relate to PT3

setting the loop current to 12.0 mADC. Since the current is the same
through the circuit, and knowing that the voltage across PT3 (at 12.0

mADC) is 18.0 VDC, VR2 and VR3 must be equal (since they are of equal
resistance).
Now if there is, for example, a short across PR3 (as shown in the following
figure), while PT3 still maintains 12.0 mADC, notice that Rt varies to
1750 ? and causes the voltage across PT3 to increase to 21.0 VDC.
Figure 8-9
Testing for
short circuits in
a transmitter loop
In this example notice that there was no indication on the pressure indi-
cator PI3 that anything had changed. This is because the pressure
transmitter PT3 did its job by adjusting its resistance.
In a circuit where there is an improper installation as illustrated in the

following figure, where there is an additional (improper) ground point
notice that there is a voltage drop across PT3 and PR3, but not across PI3.

Figure 8-10
Short circuit in a
transmitter loop with
an installation error
Troubleshooting Suggestions
The following are some troubleshooting suggestions that can be used to
help diagnose common problems incurred in control loops.
1. Have the operator show you the problem, rather than tell you
about it.
2. Check with the operator and the log book to see if this is a repeat
problem. Does the problem have a pattern; does it only occur
during a specific mode of operation, such as Auto, or at a specific
step in the sequence of operation, or at a specific time of each day,
or when a specific operation is in progress?
3. Compare the process variable values on the loop instruments with
the same values shown on the process-mounted instruments; i.e.,
the level on the sight glass with that shown on the level controller’s
readout. If different, check instrument piping and drain pots.
4. Operate the control loop in Manual mode. If the control valve or
other final control element can be manipulated, then the problem
must be in the sensors, transmitters, or the controller or its utili-
ties or circuitry.

5. Eliminate the constant changes and dynamics by opening the loop;

remove the input sensor and replace it with the calibrator signal
set to a mid-range value of the process variable. Then note the loop
tuning parameters and change proportional to 100% and integral
time to infinity and derivative time to zero. Now set the setpoint to
the same midrange value and track the resulting signals through
the instruments and devices within the loop. If you find that a
device has all the signals, power and air it needs and doesn’t output
a proper signal, you have found the defective device in the loop.
6. Range the calibrator over the instrument’s full input range, effec-
tively providing a 5-point check of the calibration. If the calibration
is “OFF”, then re-calibration should correct the problem.
7. Before changing out an instrument, remember to check for all the
operational requirements of the instrument; i.e., electrical power
supply, air supply, pilot contact, potentiometer, sensor, communica-
tion cable(s), signal pairs, and configuration.
The following figure demonstrates the introduction of a calibrator in a

control loop to troubleshoot problems (as in step #6 of the troubleshooting
steps).
Figure 8-11
Tracking a calibrator
signal through an
opened control loop

In addition to the seven troubleshooting steps for a control loops, the

following points are suggestions/questions to react to when maintaining
instrument piping.
Pneumatic components:
1. Are all pressure regulators set correctly? Check the pressure gauges
that are mounted on them. Are all air supply shutoff valves open?
2. Has moisture been drained from the filter-lubricator-regulator?
Other accessories:
1. Are the “wet” legs fully filled?
2. Are the “dry” legs empty; i.e., are condensate drain pots drained?
3. Check pulsation dampeners for being plugged.
4. Are all the three-valve manifold bypass (equalizer) valves fully closed?

Installation Example Drawings



NOTES
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9
Controllers
Objectives
• Understand three-mode controllers and how the Proportional,
Integral and Derivative functions affect the system.
• Understand different control methods (ratio, cascade, feedforward).
Introduction
Some of the different control techniques that can be used to control a
process were presented in Chapter 1, but a more detailed examination
will be presented in this chapter. The following lists the different control
techniques:
• Feedback
— On/Off: this type of control has no proportional, integral or deriva-
tive functions.
— Time Proportional On/Off: this is seen primarily in temperature
loops using electric heaters where temperature needs to be
controlled at a particular setpoint. The output is essentially On/Off
control, but over a proportion of time.
— Analog output: as the input signal deviates from setpoint, the
controller adjusts the output by way of proportional, integral and
derivative functions.
• Ratio
• Cascade
• Feedforward

Control Modes
When reviewing the components of a feedback control loop, keep in mind
that the controller’s function is to take the high-level signal from the
secondary element or transmitter (typically as a 4-20 mADC signal),
compare that with the setpoint and adjust the output signal accordingly
to try to maintain the process variable near the setpoint.
Figure 9-1 Measured

Final Control Manipulated or Process Primary
Closed loop of
Element, i.e. Process Element
feedback control loop Variable Variable
Control Valve or Sensor
Process
Disturbances
Low Level
3 to 15 psig
Signal
Signal Setpoint Secondary

Converter Element or
or I/P Transmitter
4 to 20 mADC Controller 4 to 20 mADC
High Level Recorder, High Level
Signal Indicator, Alarms Signal
Closed Loop

Chapter 9: Controllers
Proportional Control
As an example, we’ll examine the performance of a tank level proportional
control system controlled by mechanical means. This system is illustrated
in the following figure.
Figure 9-2
Tank level proportional
control with a mechanical
control system Proportional Gain
Adjustment - Slide FULCRUM
Fulcrum along Rod
OPEN Level Set point

LEVER ARM LEVER ARM
changed by
20” 10” Adjusting
INLET height of
INFLUENT vertical rod
FLOAT
ACTUAL LEVEL
OUTLET
EFFLUENT
This is a proportional control system. The adjustment that can be made is

to move the fulcrum along the rod (left or right). The distances of the two
lever arms represent the proportional control. Notice that the lever arm
connected to the incoming valve is 20 inches in length whereas the lever
arm connected to the float is 10 inches in length. In this system, the ratio
of the two arms is 2:1. If the float lowers 2 inches, the lever arm connected
to the influent valve will rise 4 inches.
If we graph the different control scenarios (i.e. positions of the fulcrum),

we will then be able to see the outcome on the system.

Figure 9-3
SETPOINT
Proportional control
scenarios = 50 %
100%
CONTROL
VALVE 50%
POSITION
in %
0%
0% 25% 50% 75% 100%
Keep in mind that the proportional band in this system is the amount of
tank level change in percent that will cause the control valve to change to
be 100%. The gain of the control system is the amount of output (control
valve change) divided by the corresponding amount of input (tank level
change). It is also equal to the inverse of the proportional band: Gain =
100% / (proportional band in percent).
In the graph above, the proportional band or gain would be related to the
slope of the two lines.
In the above graph, the proportional band of the solid line is ______%.
In the above graph, the proportional band of the dashed line is ______%.
In the above graph, the gain of the solid line is ______.
In the above graph, the gain of the dashed line is ______.
The following figure illustrates another way to look at the difference

between proportional band and gain.
100 0
Figure 9-4
Proportional vs. gain 75 25
% Input 50 50 % Output
25 75
0 100
100
Gain =
PB
Proportional Band
More 50% 100% Less

Effect Effect
2.0 1.0
gain vs proportional band 1 b.eps
Gain
The proportional band is related to the difference between the process

variable and the setpoint (error). If we have a 25% change (or error), we
get a zero percent output; with a 25% error above setpoint, we get a 100%
change in output.

The following figure illustrates a condition of less effect, i.e. for a 100%
change in input, there’s only a 50% change in output.
100 0
Figure 9-5
Proportional vs. gain
75 25
% Input 50 50 % Output
25 75
0 100
100
Gain =
PB
Proportional Band
25% 200%
More 50% 100% 150% Less
Effect Effect
2.0 1.0 0.667
gain vs proportional band 2 b.eps
4.0 0.5
Gain
As a general statement about proportional band, a larger number for

proportional band results in a smaller effect on the system; a smaller
number for proportional band results in a larger effect on the system.
Similarly with gain, a larger number for gain results in a larger effect on
the system; a smaller number for gain results in a smaller effect on the
system.
If we look at how the proportional band affects the system over time we
see some interesting characteristics of this control. The following figure
illustrates the setpoint, PV, and the output. Assume a reverse-acting open
loop control with a gain of 1.0.
Figure 9-6
Open loop PV
proportional control
over time
Setpoint
A
Output
open loop proportional control over time b.eps
Time

Initially, when the PV is running at or near setpoint, the output remains

constant. When a disturbance occurs, causing the input to increase (point
A on the graph), the output reacts by changing 100%. Once the output
changes, the input won’t change any further, but notice the input is now
not at the setpoint. Proportional band with this open loop control will not
be able to get the input back to the setpoint.
If we assume the same scenario but use a closed loop system, we will see
the outcome operate over time as illustrated in the following figure.
Figure 9-7
Closed loop
proportional control
over time
Closed Loop Proportional Control Over Time
PV
Setpoint Offset
Output
closed loop proportional control over time b.eps
Time
Even though we have a smoother control, notice proportional control still

cannot get the PV back to the setpoint without a manual reset. Offset is
the difference between the PV and the setpoint. The amount of output
change is only dependent on the amount of input change. The integral
function of a PID, as will be described in the next section, is what gets the
PV back to the setpoint.
Integral Control
For most control systems, proportional-only control will not be acceptable
because it cannot get the PV back to setpoint. The two terms for this func-
tion are integral and reset. Integral is quantified in minutes/repeat, while
the reset is quantified in repeats/minute.
Using the same example that we examined with proportional-only control

(reverse action, 100% proportional band), we’ll observe the differences
between integral and reset. Reset = 1/I, I = 1/Reset, where I = integral.

Figure 9-8
Open Loop Proportional
Open loop
proportional PV
and integral control
over time
Setpoint
A
Output
open loop proportional integral control over time b.eps
Time
Open Loop Integral

PV
Setpoint Offset
Output
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time
Integral will repeat the proportional action in the time period (in this
example once per minute).
Reset windup is the condition in which the reset continues to drive the
output beyond the limit of the output. Anti-reset windup is the point
where the integral is turned off (where the output cannot affect the
control).
Derivative Control
For the last mode of a three-mode controller, derivative is a quantity or
mode that tries to anticipate what changes need to be made for upcoming
events. For example, as you are driving on a flat road and see a hill
coming up, when you are approaching the hill, you’ll depress the acceler-
ator in hopes that by doing this you’ll be able to maintain your current
speed as the load on the vehicle increases caused by the hill.
There are two terms associated with the derivative function – derivative
or rate. Both of these terms are quantified in minutes.
Derivative is not necessary for all control applications. Most control appli-
cations will do just fine with proportional and integral.
Once again using the same example that we examined with proportional
and integral (reverse action, 100% proportional band), we’ll observe how
the derivative function affects the input and output.

Figure 9-9
Derivative
control
PV
over time
PI
Setpoint
PID
Output
derivative control over time b.eps
Time
When the input changes, the proportional portion of the control will
adjust the output so that it mimics what the input is doing (seen as point
P on the previous figure). The derivative will calculate the rate of change
and anticipate what the outcome will be at one minute. Derivative tries to
reduce the overshoot of a P and I control.
Control Modes Example

Shown in the following figure is an electronic modulated closed-loop feed-
back control system controlling temperature and level.
Figure 9-10
Feedback
control system SETPOINT
CLOSED LOOP
A/S TIC1
TIC1
TT1 PROCESS
TANK
TY1
TE1
HEATING FEED IN
WATER OUT A/S
SETPOINT
LIC2
LIC2 LY2
HEATING LT2
COIL
HEATING
WATER IN FEED
OUT
TV1 LV2
Before getting into the details of this system, the following is a review of
the feedback controller modes.

Proportional: responds to the magnitude of the error. The change of the

output signal is proportional to the error. The proportionality constant is
the gain or 100%/PB%.
Integral: responds to the duration of the error. Used to remove offset

(error) and drive the input back to the setpoint. Adds an additional compo-
nent to the output signal that ramps up over a selected time interval.
Anti-reset windup: a feature for a controller with integral mode that
cancels the integral component of the output when the output exceeds a
specific value. This prevents the integral component from driving the
output to saturation, in a situation in which the output signal is not
manipulating the process (i.e. there is no fluid to flow through a control
valve). Integral then continues to ramp up again from zero.
Derivative: adds an additional short-term component to the output that is

proportional to the rate at which the error is changing. This anticipates a
correction for a measurement whose response to the process is slow.
Responds to how fast the error is changing.
Looking at the temperature portion of the feedback system shown in

Figure 9-11, the following figure illustrates that we see a temperature
disturbance of 20°F.
LOOP PROCESS UPSET

Figure 9-11
% of
Temperature
Input
disturbance Range
250º F 100 %
170º F 60 %
150º F 50 % Setpoint
50º F 0% Time
Out % = 50% While Process Temperature is at Setpoint

For proportional-only control, the following figure illustrates how the

system will react.
Figure 9-12
Proportional only
control Input
Range
250º F 100 %
170º F 60 %
Offset
150º F 50 %
Out % = 50% + Gain x Error% (Proportional Only)
Out % = 50% + (100% / PB%) x Error%
Out % = 50% + (100% / 100%) x 10% = 60% (PB = 100%)
Out % = 50% + (100% / 20%) x 10% = 100% (PB = 20%)
50º F 0 % Time
Notice in this mode of control that the offset remains. Though the distur-
bances can be controlled, the PV still cannot reach the setpoint and thus
there is an offset. This is not the desired result.
Figure 9-13
Proportional and
integral control Input
Range
250º F 100 %
170º F 60 %
Offset
150º F 50 %
Out % = 50% + Gain x Error% (Proportional + Integral)
Out % = 50% + (100% / PB%) x Error% + Integral
Out % = 50% + (100% / 100%) x 10% + Integral = 60% +
added 10% every Ti
50º F 0 % Time
For integral control, there is more output change for every interval of time
and the end result eliminates the offset.

Tuning Feedback Controllers

The goal of tuning is to have the measured variable quickly return to its
setpoint following a disturbance. For effective tuning the values of propor-
tional band (PB), reset time (Ti), and derivative time (Td) are adjusted so
that there is a minimum of the process variable from the setpoint, and
“Good Control”
there is no limit to cycling the control valve.
- 1/4 Decay Ratio

¼ Decay Ratio
One common control method is called ¼ Decay Ratio. With this method
the controller is adjusted so that the system’s response curve has a decay
ratio of one-quarter when given a setpoint bump or temporary distur-
bance. The following figure illustrates the response curve.
Figure 9-14
¼ Decay Ratio
control
For this control method, the height of the first peak is reduced to one-
quarter as seen in the height of the following peak.
Ziegler-Nichols
The Ziegler-Nichols tuning method is a tuning method developed in 1942.
The procedure is to first record the tuning parameters and then remove
integral and derivative by setting the integral time to infinity and the
derivative time to zero. This method is used to test the process in order to
set the parameters.

The gain is then increased and the setpoint changed and returned to its
original value while watching the output device oscillate. If the oscilla-
tions die out, add more gain. If the oscillations increase in amplitude,
reduce the gain. When the gain setting produces equal amplitude oscilla-
tions that continue for one minute or longer without reaching full limits,
you have set the ultimate gain, Ku. The proportional band PB in
percentage is equal to 100/Ku. The ultimate period, Pu, is then measured
with a stopwatch. The best gain is one-half of Ku or
PB = 2 x PBu (for proportional only).
PB = 2.2 x PBu , where Ti = Pu/1.2 (proportional plus integral)
PB = 1.65 x PBu, where Ti = Pu/2, and Td = Pu/8.0 (P + I + D)
Disadvantages for this method are that many processes cannot tolerate
the period of overshoot, and the time needed to accomplish this tuning
method may not be acceptable to production managers.
Damped Oscillation
The damped oscillation tuning method is very similar to the Ziegler-
Nichols method. It is used when sustained oscillations are not allowed
and the ultimate method cannot be used.
The integral and derivative are removed by setting the integral time to
infinity and the derivative time to zero. The gain is adjusted from a very
low value until a quarter-wave damped oscillation is observed when a
setpoint bump is applied.
Only the period, P, is measured with a stopwatch. The gain is then

lowered to a very small value and then integral and derivative (if
required) are set according to the following equations:
Ti = Pu/1/5 , and Td = Pu/6.0
The gain is then increased until quarter wave damping is again observed
in response to a setpoint bump.
Examples
Advanced controls methods are used to reduce error in control schemes
and automatically adjust for changing conditions. Three methods will be
discussed here, which are Ratio, Cascade and Feedforward. The goal of
these advanced methods is to enhance the goal of any control loop which
is to keep the process variable at setpoint.

The following figures show examples of a ratio controller, a cascade

controller and a feedforward and feedback control systems.
Ratio Control
The concept of ratio control is that of blending, or mixing two quantities
together to obtain a final product that keeps a specific proportional rela-
tionship. A ratio controller has an additional input signal that will be used
to calculate the setpoint for the controller based on the ratio given or set
in the controller. This setpoint value will be used in the PID portion of the
ratio controller to change the primary input as needed via output changes
as in a normal PID controller.
Figure 9-15
Ratio controller CHEMICAL
UNCONTROLLED
for proper #1
flow ratio (WILD) FLOW
FE1
FT1 MULT Ratio Relay
Setpoint
I/P A/S
FT2 FIC2
2
FE2
CHEMCAL
CONTROLLED
#2
FLOW
FV2
The first ratio control example has an uncontrolled or “wild” flow being
measured by a flow instrument; this flow measurement is sent to a ratio
controller as the basis for calculating the setpoint of a second controlled
flow. The second flow is measured and the measurement is sent to the
ratio controller to be manipulated by the ratio controller to obtain the
desired setpoint. As an illustration of this, the second flow is desired to
have a ratio of 0.5 to the “wild” flow. If the “wild” flow were 200 gpm than
the ratio controller would calculate a setpoint of 100 gpm for the second
controlled flow to be obtained. The ratio controller would use the PID
settings to change the output and achieve this setpoint. If the “wild” flow
changes to 300 gpm than a new setpoint of 150 gpm would be calculated
and the ratio controller would change the output to obtain this value.

Figure 9-16
TO
Ratio controller AIR
FCV1 FURNACE
for proper combustion MIXING
Setpoint TEE
FE1
FIC1 I/P A/S
1
FT1
MULT Ratio Relay
Setpoint
FT2 FIC2 I/P A/S

2
FE2
FUEL
FCV2
The second ratio control example has two controlled flows that need to be
blended together to obtain good efficient combustion for a furnace. The
first or primary flow is the air which has a setpoint that is changed by a
human and the controller is a PID controller able to keep the PV at
setpoint. The air flow measurement is also sent to a second controller as a
second input for Ratio control. The second controller uses the air with a
ratio value that is set by a human to calculate and change the setpoint for
the amount of fuel flow necessary to obtain the ratio that is set. It is
important to realize in this example that both controllers have PID that
will control their respective flows, the second controller receives the
second input to achieve the ratio desired.
Cascade Control
The principal for cascade control is to reduce error in a controlled process.
Cascade control involves two loops that have an interaction; in other
words one loop changes the other. A primary or master process is affected
or disturbed by a secondary or process, for cascade control to be effective
and worthwhile the secondary loop needs to have a fast process character-
istic while the primary loop has a slow process characteristic. Both loops
are controlled by PID controllers, the primary controller output is used by
the secondary controller as a second input that changes the setpoint when
the controller is in the cascade mode. Another view of Cascade is that one
feedback loop is put inside another feedback loop, the slave loop inside the
master loop.

Figure 9-17
SP#1
Cascade controller
TIC
1 TT1
SP#2
FIC TE1
FT2 2
OUTPUT
A/S I/P
2
FE2
FURNACE
FUEL
FCV2
INPUT
In our example the furnace temperature is a slow process, the tempera-

ture controller will therefore be the primary or master controller with the
output going to the secondary controller as a second input. The fuel flow is
a fast process, which changes or disturbs the furnace temperature process,
therefore within the cascade control is the secondary or slave control loop.
The fuel flow controller will minimize the effect of fuel flow changes due
to pressure fluctuations before the temperature process could be affected.
This is the advantage of having cascade control over the temperature
control directly changing the fuel valve. If the primary process and the
secondary process have the same response characteristic then cascade
control is not worthwhile. So the disturbing process needs to have a faster
response than the primary process to be an control advantage while also
being cost effective.
To tune the cascade control, put the secondary controller in automatic

mode and tune this controller until the desired response is obtained.
When the secondary controller is tuned, put it in cascade mode and the
primary controller in automatic mode, then tune the primary controller
for the desired response.
Feedforward Control
An analysis of feedback control, using a PID controller as a decision
maker, will reveal that the feedback control requires the process to have
error to work. The reason for this is that disturbances cause error in the
process and the controller reacts only to the error. With feedback control
we have a “feedback penalty” in that we will have error with this method
of control. Since the goal of any control is to not have error, then anything
we can do to prevent or anticipate error can be a benefit to the success of
the control scheme.

Feedforward control is a control scheme that will monitor major distur-

bances to a process control loop and make changes to the manipulated
value before the process variable changes; thus preventing error.
Feedforward control is using methods that a human operator will use in
controlling any loop. If a human has an indication that shows a distur-
bance coming to a process control that the operator is monitoring than the
operator will make a change in manual in anticipation of the disturbance
change to prevent or reduce error. Feedforward control is not obtained by
installing a feedforward controller but is an engineered control that is
designed for each individual process control to be used, so it is a custom
control that can be incorporated in most PLC, DCS or computer control
systems. Feedforward control does have a problem. Since it is a form of
open loop control, it will react to the major process disturbance it is moni-
toring; however, most processes have multiple disturbances that will
change the process variable. So, while feedforward control reduces or
eliminates the error from the major disturbance over the long term, feed-
forward control can not do anything about error from other minor
disturbances. When feedforward control is installed, to achieve the
primary goal of control, a feedback control will need to be used in conjunc-
tion with the feedforward control.
Figure 9-18
Feedforward and
feedback control system MULT FT3
A/S TIC1
SUM TT1
TY1 FE3
Setpoint
FEED IN
HEATING
WATER A/S
OUT Setpoint
LIC2
HEATING LT2 LY2
COIL
HEATING
FEED
WATER IN
OUT
TV1 LV2

In our first example, controlling the temperature of a continuous process

is the goal of the installed control scheme. The process temperature has a
major disturbance in the form of feed flow changes which will affect the
process temperature. This example shows both feedforward and feedback
control being used to effectively minimize error in this control. The feed-
forward control portion is a flow measurement on the incoming flow to the
tank with a calculation being performed on the flow to determine the
manipulated value that will achieve the desired temperature. As the flow
changes to the tank, this disturbance will be anticipated and changes
made to the manipulated value before the temperature would change
(thus preventing error). However, the feedforward control will not react to
changes to environmental temperature changes around the tank or
changes to the manipulated variable such as pressure or temperature
that will cause error in the tank temperature over a long period of time.
To correct for these disturbances a feedback controller will need to be used
in conjunction with the feedforward control. With both feedforward and
feedback controls, the error is reduced greatly over just feedback control.
Figure 9-19
Feedforward and INFEED
MULT
feedback control system
FE3 FT3
pHE CALC
4
ACID
I/P SUM
MIX 5
FCV pHIC
5 A/S Setpoint
5
PhE
5
OUTFEED
With the second example, feedforward and feedback control schemes are
again being used to minimize the error in the pH control for the tank’s
discharge. In this example the feedforward scheme is to monitor two
major disturbances to the process, in the form of feed flow and feed pH.
The values obtained is used in calculating the amount of acid needed to
correctly achieve the desired pH in the output stream. However, the feed-
forward control can not detect any changes to the acid concentration used
and error will result over a long time period. To correct for small distur-
bances, a feedback control is added to the feedforward control for good
results.

Notes
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10
Control Systems
Objectives
• Understand the similarities and differences between PLCs, DCSs,
SCADA systems and HMIs.
• Become familiar with current process control system technology
trends.
Introduction
Many questions arise concerning the differences between programmable
logic controllers (PLC) and distributed control systems (DCS). In the past
(over 10 years ago), the PLC was the primary controller used for machine
control, while the DCS dominated in process control. If your facility
produces widgets, you’ll probably be using a PLC, whereas if you produce
chemicals, you’ll probably be using a DCS, and 10 years later, this is still
common but becoming more blurred. That still doesn’t define the differ-
ences.

Figure 10-1
Host
DCS process
Computer
systems
Information Network TCP/IP
Profibus
Application Range
Gateway CNC PCS Cell

Level
Profibus-FMS Profibus-PA
PLC
Node
Controller
Sensor Sensor
Profibus-DP Profibus-FMS Profibus-PA
Field Field
Device Trans- Device
I/O Sensor Drive mitter
Originally the DCS performed the control functions of the analog panel
instruments it replaced. Its interface, which is basically an HMI (human
machine interface), mimicked the displays of the analog panel instru-
ments. Over time, the DCS systems were improved allowing them to
control sequence logic (to control batch processes) as well as continuous
processes. A typical DCS system performed hundreds of analog measure-
ments and controlled dozens of analog outputs using multi-variable
Proportional, Integral and Derivative (PID) control.
While the DCS was being used in the process industry, the PLC was using
the same 8-bit microprocessor technology to implement Boolean logic
control to replace conventional relay and solid-state logic for starting/stop-
ping motors, energizing/de-energizing solenoids, etc.
The big change with the DCS was its move from proprietary hardware to
personal computer and standard LAN technologies. The trend in the DCS
system is in its network capabilities to which “smart” devices are
connected with no I/O hardware modules of its own.

Chapter 10: Control Systems
One of the biggest differences between the PLC and DCS is how vendors
market them. DCS vendors typically sell a complete, working, integrated
system, and tries to be your sole control supplier. The PLC vendors typi-
cally market the PLC as more of a do-it-yourself device, which is
sometimes simpler to execute.
Figure 10-2
PLC I/O
network system SDS Host
Controller Interface
Channel 2
(64 Nodes)
Channel 1
(64 Nodes)
Node 1 Node 2 Node 3 Node 4 Node 5 Node 6 Node 64
nodes and connections b.eps

Smart
CAN Chip Servo
Inside I/O Drive
Port
Smart Valve
Manifold
Smart Smart
(16 Outlets)
Photoelectric Push Button
Sensor Station
High-Density
I/O Concentrator
Proximity Smart
Photoelectric To Nonintelligent I/O Devices
Switches Operator Interface
Sensors (Max of 128 I/O per Node
(nonintelligent) (Multiple Inputs)
(nonintelligent) Using Up to 8 Addresses)
The PLC operates in the following fashon: reads the inputs, executes the
logic, and determines the state of the outputs. The logic is typically ladder
logic. To make a PLC look like a DCS system, an HMI is added which can
be tricky when managing the databases of each system due to manufac-
turer differences, communication drivers, etc. vs. a package that is all
inclusive for the DCS.
Since the components of a PLC and DCS system (processor, input/output

modules, communication to devices, operator interfaces) can be very
similar, the following section will illustrate an overview of one of these
systems.

Control System Overview

The following block diagram shows that a PLC system has this basic
architecture: a central processing unit (CPU), which is basically a
computer, input hardware, output hardware, a power supply and an
external means of programming the PLC (hand-held terminal, laptop with
software, etc.). Also, although not part of the PLC, are the devices
connected to the inputs and the outputs, such as pushbuttons, limit
switches, proximity switches, analog signals, solenoids, motor starters,
lights, etc.).
Figure 10-3
Detailed block diagram
of relation of modules ST
AT
U S
IN
PU
T
Po OU
TP
UT
w
Su er
SC
AN
NE
R
pp
Processor
ly
Communication
Cable
Input/Output
Modules
Monitor yp
rog
ra m]
[m
gix
Lo
R
TO
INPUT
OUTPUT system pieces b.eps
Programming
Terminal NEG L1 L2
24 VDC VAC
IN 1 OUT 1 M1
Start
IN 2 OUT 2 M2
Stop
IN 3 OUT 3 L1
LS1
IN 4 OUT 4 L2
LS2
IN 5 OUT 5 L3
Inputs
(Located on Machine) IN 6 OUT 6
IN 7 OUT 7
Outputs
IN 8 OUT 8 (Located
on Machine)
Input Module Output Module

Each PLC system consists of the following basic electronic hardware

components:
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Programming Interface Device
• Power Supply
• Input section
• Output section
The following sections of this chapter will present the details of each of
the PLC components listed above.
Central Processing Unit

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the PLC. It makes all
the decisions about what outputs to turn on or off.
Figure 10-4
Processor, or
central processing
unit
The set of user instructions the microprocessor processes is called the

program. The program is written by the user, and after being written is
stored in program memory (often called ladder memory). As the
program is user definable, there are some restrictions regarding syntax
and instruction placement, and each PLC manufacturer may have
different restrictions.
When the CPU is in Run mode, it will execute the instructions contained
in the user program in a sequential order. While executing the instruc-
tions, decisions are being made and the outcomes of the decisions are
stored in the CPU’s data memory.
Most PLCs contain two memory types. The first type is called read only
memory (ROM), which is nonvolatile memory. This memory contains the
processor’s machine language to process the program’s instructions. The
second type of memory is random access memory (RAM). RAM is
volatile memory, meaning when the power is off, the memory in RAM will
be lost. Thus, as the RAM is where the user program is stored, after a

power outage the PLC will not be able to run the machine or process
because there is not a program in the memory. Since this can be devas-
tating to production, most PLC manufacturers give the user the option for
a battery backup or EEPROM backup.
Figure 10-5
Battery backup
on the processor
module
It is highly recommended that the date be recorded in a maintenance log

when a battery is replaced. These batteries last approximately 2 ½ to 3
years if they are installed properly in the processor and kept cool in the
cabinet by some sort of cabinet cooling system. While EEPROM backup is
a good form of backup, any time a program change is made, the EEPROM
chip must be burned (written to), which is done by taking the processor
offline (put in program mode). A typical problem users have with
EEPROM chips is that once their machine is up and running and the
EEPROM chip has been burned, over the next few months they may have
made program modifications or altered their process somewhat, but they
forgot to burn in the new changes. Later, after a power outage, when the
system is re-powered the EEPROM loads the old program into memory
(over the new changes) and the new changes that were made will be gone.
Another issue to consider is that since the machine’s sensors and loads
(about which the processor is making decisions) are typically higher-
voltage devices, they must be isolated and translated into signals the
processor can safely process. This isolation and signal translation is
accomplished through the electronics built into the I/O modules and will
be explained in further detail later in this chapter.
Note also that most PLC manufacturers have important diagnostics built
into the hardware of the processor module.

Figure 10-6
Processor diagnostics Run, Force, Fault,
& Battery Indicators
Communication
Indicators
500processor status b.eps
PLC manufacturers typically include following indicator lights on the

front of their processors, which allow the user to get a quick indication of
some major issues that can affect the PLC system without having to get
out the programming terminal:
• Run mode indicator
• Processor fault indicator
• Communication indicator(s)
• Low battery indicator
• Forces indicator
Programming Interface Device

The programming interface device is the device that allows the user to
create the program that the PLC processor will run. This is the device
that probably has undergone the most significant changes over the last 20
years. Starting from a video display terminal, we now have laptops with
operating systems. Although there are several methods and devices dedi-
cated to program the PLC, the most widely used device is the computer.

Figure 10-7
Laptop with PLC
programming software
Each PLC manufacturer requires that the user use their programming
software to program their PLC. A manufacturer may have several PLC
programming software packages that may look and operate similarly, but
are designed for different PLC models. Be aware that these software pack-
ages are typically sold with a price tag of several thousand dollars for one
license.
Communications
Typically the programming software only allows the user to create the
program that the PLC will process. There is usually another software
package (communication server software) running on the programming
interface device that allows the ladder logic programming software to
communicate through one of the computer’s ports to a port on the PLC to
allow the ladder logic program to be uploaded/downloaded, edited and
monitored.
The following figure shows an example of the software packages and the
cabling needed to actually do the programming.

Figure 10-8
Example of the software Communications
and hardware needed fora Server Software
laptop to PLC programming (Communications:
option Setup Protocol
and Pathways)
PLC Programming
Lin
x
Software ST
AT
U S
INP
UT
RS
23
(Ladder Logic) Po OU
TP
UT
2 Lo
gix w
Su er
SC
PL [m AN
NE
yp
Processor
C R
PC
rog
ram pp
ly
softw_hardw b.eps
]
Communications
Cable
Comm Ports
Programming
Terminal
The communication options are different for each PLC manufacturer

ranging from inexpensive RS-232 methods to more complicated methods
that may require special (expensive) computer boards and cables. The
communication server software will need to be configured for the type of
communication (protocol, speed, and hardware) between the computer
with the ladder logic programming software and the PLC.
Power Supply
The power supply is used to supply the voltage and current demands of
the CPU and the input and output (I/O) portions that are to operate. The
power supply connects to a modular PLC through a connector and
supplies the rack with the power needed for sending signals between the
CPU and the I/O modules.

Figure 10-9
Power supply and
its function

Most power supply modules have a hold time (the time the system is
operational during a brief power loss) that is typically between 20
milliseconds and 3 seconds. Thus, during a brief power loss, the PLC
should still remain operational.
Figure 10-10
Power supply and
internal electronics
ps
PY b.e
PWRS
The power supply has an electronic board inside which, due to the capaci-
tors on it, is the module most likely to fail. Like any electronic module,
heat is the main problem. Make sure the PLC system is properly installed
according to the manufacturer’s recommended spacing within enclosures
to allow for convection cooling.
Machine devices such as switches, photoeyes, temperature switches, push-

buttons, motor starters, or solenoids that get wired to the input and
output modules must be supplied with external power sources provided by
the user. This will be explained further in the next section of this chapter.
Input and Output (I/O) Sections

The input and output modules are the means by which the programmable
controller senses and controls the system. Input modules are the eyes
and ears and feel of the machine sensing the status of the field input
devices (switches, sensors, etc.). Output modules are the muscle of the
machine, controlling the machine by operating valves, motor starters,
heaters, lights, i.e. that do the work.
Discrete digital modules process signals as either an “on” or an “off.” These

will be compared to analog modules that process signals over a range or
percentage of the maximum signal in Chapter 5.
Fixed I/O PLC

The fixed I/O PLC consists of fixed or built-in input and output sections, a
power supply and the processor. The fixed I/O PLC has limited expand-
ability, if any at all. Typical I/O arrangements might have 8 inputs and 8
outputs, or 12 inputs and 8 outputs.

Figure 10-11
L1 Outputs L2
Fixed I/O PLC
Inputs Motor
Start Starter OL
IN0 OUT0 M1
LS1 Sol A
IN1 OUT1
PLC
Stop Light
IN2 OUT2 R
Float
Switch Horn
IN3 OUT3 IOCPLCb.eps
This is usually manufacturer dependent. This type of PLC usually has

less processor memory and fewer programming capabilities, which is also
why they typically cost much less.
Figure 10-12
Fixed I/O PLC
with expandability
Many PLC manufacturers that make the fixed I/O PLC are also making
them modular. The base system may have the processor and a few inputs
and outputs, but it still offers expandability to add more input and output
modules.
Modular I/O PLC

The other type of PLC is the modular I/O PLC. This type of PLC consists
of the input and output sections on removable plug-in type units called
modules. These modules plug into slots in a rack where the power supply
and CPU reside. The placement of the modules is manufacturer depen-
dent. Some manufacturers require that the processor reside in the
leftmost rack slot while others require that the processor reside in the
rightmost slot. There are also newer PLCs that allow more than one
processor in a single rack and in any slot location.

Figure 10-13
Modular PLC systems
The modular I/O PLC also has another level of modularity. Along with
having “modules” reside in a rack, there can be several racks that are
connected via a communications link to one processor in a main rack, or
several processors that are linked together.
Figure 10-14
Interconnecting
PLCs
As we continue with this seminar, we will find that with advanced

network systems now available there are even more levels of modularity
and expandability for I/O. These will be discussed in detail later in this
text, and will involve remotely connected I/O systems.
Figure 10-15
Input modules with
interchangeable
terminal strips
Field devices are wired to a terminal strip on the input section. Most
manufacturers have their input modules so that the terminal strip is
replaceable, so in the event of a module failure, the terminal strip is
unscrewed from the faulty module and plugged into the replacement
module.
Each field device is wired to a separate terminal on the input module. The
inputs are addressed so both the user and the processor can know where
the field device’s signal will be stored in the processor’s memory.

Input Section
Inputs are field devices that inform the PLC of the status of the
machine/process, or that provide control information about the environ-
mental condition of the process. Input sensors can provide machine
information about (but not limited to) temperature, pressure, flow, level,
location, etc.
Digital Input Modules
The main purpose of digital input modules is to convert voltage levels

from field devices into “1s” and “0s” stored in an assigned address location
in the processor’s data memory that corresponds to the specific module
location in the PLC system. The location is rack dependent, meaning the
processor needs to know in what rack the module is residing (if more than
one rack is in the system) and where within the rack the module is
located (which slot).
Capacity of Inputs
Most PLC manufacturers offer digital input modules that have from 4 to
32 input terminals per module. Probably the most widely used module is
the 16-point module.
Figure 10-16
16-point digital
input module
Voltages
Like the multiple voltage levels available for wiring a machine’s sensors,
digital input modules are designed so the electronics can manipulate and
process specific voltage ranges for the field devices they are connected to.
Most PLC manufacturers have digital input modules designed to handle
the following AC and DC voltage levels:
• 120 VAC
• 240 VAC
• 24 VDC
• 5 VDC
• 48 VDC
• 125 VDC
Although an input module may be designed to handle 120 VAC, what

happens if the incoming voltage is only 83 VAC? The processor never sees
the actual line voltage that is applied to the field devices and input
module. In order to protect the PLC system from the typically higher line
voltages used for field devices, the input modules perform the following
functions through their electronics:
• Termination
• Isolation
• Translation
• Threshold detection
• Indication
Termination
Termination means that the module provides a terminal connection point

for the wire connecting itself and the field device.
The following figure shows a typical wiring diagram for a 120VAC, 8-point
digital input module.

Figure 10-17
Digital input
X3 X4
and field device Slot 1
termination diagram
PB I:1/0
1100
LS1 I:1/1
1110
FS2 I:1/2
1120
TS3 I:1/3
1130
PS4 I:1/4
1140
FS5 I:1/5
1150
MO I:1/6
1160
PB7 I:1/7
1170
Input Wire b.eps
1180
1190
AC
1200 Com
Isolation
A common method used to provide the module with protection from the
higher voltages of the field devices is optic isolation. Optic isolation works
like this: the terminal points are connected electrically to small IC chips
called optic isolators.

Figure 10-18
H
Optic isolation
in input modules
120 VAC
A B
Low
C
VDC
1 D
Input
Data
IPTMDb.eps
Table
N
A. Threshold detection
B. Isolation
C.& D. Translation
If voltage is present on an input terminal, it causes a light-emitting diode

(LED) to illuminate inside the chip. The beam of light shines down a small
physical channel in the chip. At the other end of the channel is a photo-
transistor (a transistor activated by light), which becomes energized when
light hits it. Only the phototransistor side of the chip has access to the
internal organs of the PLC. The light channel provides a physical air gap
as protection between the field devices and the PLC. If a serious over-
voltage is present in the field, the usual result is that the LED burns out,
but no damaging voltage reaches the inside of the PLC.

Translation
Translation is the process by which voltages in the real world are trans-
formed into the voltage levels that the PLC sees as “1s” and “0s.” Voltage
translation is done by circuitry associated with the phototransistor. This
transistor is in a low-voltage DC circuit, and the voltage levels here corre-
spond to what the PLC uses as “1s” and “0s.” When the transistor is
energized by a beam of light, a voltage level is generated by the circuitry
that the PLC treats as a “1.” When the transistor is turned off, the voltage
level corresponding to “0” is generated.
Threshold Detection
If the voltage on the input is exactly 120 VAC, then the input section will
convert it to the voltage level for a “1,” to be used internally by the PLC.
Unfortunately, voltages in the real world tend to fluctuate up and down in
an unpredictable manner. If the voltage on an input drops to 110 VAC, we
would all probably agree that this should also be treated as a “1” by the
PLC. What if the voltage drops lower? When does the PLC stop treating
voltage on an input as a “1” and start treating it as a “0?”
On an AC input board, each terminal point is connected to a full wave

rectifier. The rectifier converts the AC signal to a DC signal. The DC
voltage is then compared to a set DC voltage (called the threshold
voltage), and if the level is above this threshold, it is counted as a “1,” or if
it is below this threshold, it is counted as a “0.” Threshold detection is
usually done with a Zener diode circuit.
Threshold detection is important because it allows the voltages connected

to field devices to vary without disrupting the operation of the PLC.
Threshold detection also provides noise immunity for the input section.
This means that if a switch is open in the real world, and there is a great
deal of electrical noise in your facility, it may result in low voltage being
present on the input. This is especially true if the wires to the input
boards are particularly long. Even though there may be some voltage
present on the input, the PLC will reject it unless the voltage is above the
preset threshold for the board. This allows PLCs to operate in electrically
noisy environments that would cause a normal computer to shut down.

Indication
We can see the result of one function performed by the input section. It is
called an indication. There is a light for each terminal point on an input
board. If voltage is present on a particular input (and within the range of
the threshold detection), the light illuminates. If no voltage is present, the
light is turned off. These lights are affectionately called idiot lights .
Practically every input board being used today gives you a visual indica-
tion of the status of the inputs. These are extremely useful to you when
you want to troubleshoot or find out if a particular input sensor is sending
its signal to the module.
Output Section
Outputs are field devices that the PLC controls. These consume power
and are also known as loads. The loads can be (but are not limited to)
motor starters, solenoids, lights, etc.
Figure 10-19 Out 3 Out 2 Out 1 Out 0

Output module
0 0 1 0
L1 L2
Out 0 0 VAC
M
Out 1 120 VAC
Out 2 0 VAC
R
output update b.eps
Out 3 0 VAC
G
Like the input module, the output module has the loads wired to indi-
vidual terminals on the module. The outputs are addressed so both the
user and the processor can know where the field device’s signal will be
stored in the processor’s memory.
Digital Output Modules
The primary purpose of digital output modules is to take the “1s” and “0s”
sent from the processor and convert them to voltages that the loads
connected to the digital output module need in order to energize or de-
energize the loads.

Capacity of Outputs
Most PLC manufacturers offer digital output modules that have from 4 to
32 input terminals per module. Probably the most widely used module is
the 16-point module.
Voltages
Like the multiple voltage levels available for wiring a machine’s loads,
digital output modules are designed so the electronics can manipulate and
process specific voltage ranges for the field devices they are connected to.
Most PLC manufacturers have digital output modules designed to handle
the following AC and DC voltage levels:
• 120 VAC
• 240 VAC
• 24 VDC
• 5 VDC
• 48 VDC
• 125 VDC
The output modules perform the following functions through their built-in
electronics:
• Termination
• Isolation
• Translation
• Indication
Termination
Termination means that the module provides a terminal connection point

for the wire connecting itself and the field device.
The following figure shows a typical wiring diagram for a 120VAC, 8-point
digital output module.

Figure 10-20
X5 X6
Digital output Slot 2
and field device
termination diagram 1210 VAC1
O:2/0
1220 MO 1160
O:2/1
1230 M1 2110
O:2/2
1240 R
O:2/3
1250 G
O:2/4
1260 A
O:2/5 SOL5
1270
O:2/6 SOL6
1280
O:2/7
1290 M7 2120
Output Wire b.eps
Isolation
Since the PLC uses low-level DC signals internally, it cannot directly

provide power to 120 VAC outputs. Therefore, the PLC must be isolated
from the external world. As with the input boards, the most common elec-
tronic method for providing isolation is with optic isolators.
Figure 10-21
Optic isolation
in output modules

Translation
When the CPU sends a “1” to an output board, a transistor on the output
board is energized. On one type of output board called a triac, the tran-
sistor turns on a firing circuit for the individual triacs connected to each
output. A triac is a solid state AC switch. When it is energized (fired), it
allows the AC power for the load to pass. When it is turned off, no power is
delivered to the load. In another type of output board, called a relay output
board, the transistor on the board energizes the coil of a small relay. This
causes the contacts of the relay to close. One side of the contacts is
connected to a power source (L1), and the other side is connected to the
load. When the contacts close, power is delivered to the load. Most output
boards are fused in the event of a short circuit in the field.
Indication
Like the input board, the output board gives a visual indication to the
user of the status of each output. This is normally done with an LED. If
the LED is on, it indicates that voltage is present on an output. If the
LED is off, no voltage is present on the output.
Figure 10-22
Indicator lights on a Output Status
digital output module Indicator Lights

A blown fuse indicator light is also available on some output boards if the
outputs are fused. As with the input boards, indications can be a valuable
tool for troubleshooting.
Addressing
In order for a PLC programmer to actually do the programming, the
addressing of the modules and terminals must first be defined either by
the PLC manufacturer or the user.
Module Location-Dependent Addressing

Most PLC manufacturers have a module location-dependent (I/O)
addressing system. This means that when programming the processor to
make decisions about instructions in the program that are addressed to a
particular input or output, the address syntax is dependent on the data
type, module slot location in the rack, and terminal number on the
module.
Figure 10-23
Module-dependent
addressing 0 Slot #
1
2
Rack Number = 0 3
PR 4
OC
ES
SO
R 5
INP
UT
6
Data Memory Table Po
w
OU
TP
UT
Su er OU
TP
UT
Addressing Format pp
Processor
OU
ly TP
UT
INP
UT
Data Data Slot

Bit
Table
Type
Table
Number : Rack (or Word)
Number Number Number
Data Memory Table
Processor
I:1 Inputs (16)
O:2 Outputs (16)
addressing scheme 1 b.eps
O:3 Outputs (16)

O:4 Outputs (16)
I:5 Inputs (16)
Blank

The U.S. postal system has defined the following format for addressing
letters that users must follow in order to get a letter delivered from one
location to another:
Person’s Name
Street Address
City, State Zip Code
Figure 10-24
Mail delivery requires
correct addressing format
Name
Street Address US
City, State Zip code
PS
postal system b.eps
Each PLC manufacturer does the same thing within a specific PLC model.
In order for the user to write a program that has the processor make a
decision about the status of a signal from a sensor, the sensor must first
be wired to one specific terminal on a specific input module that is located
in a particular slot of a particular rack. The programmer, when writing
the program, must provide the information (address) of the sensor to be
processed, or the processor will have no clue of how to process the instruc-
tion in order to make a decision about it.
The type of instruction the user programs the PLC to process will deter-
mine the addressing format, i.e. whether the instruction should be
addressed to the bit level or the word level.

Processor Scan Routine

The uninformed sometimes think that a PLC is a continuous system
(continuous systems have wired connections between the inputs and the
outputs). A button is pushed and immediately a result is seen. This is an
illusion due to the speed with which a PLC operates. The steps that a PLC
follows are:
1. Update the input data table.
2. Execute the program.
3. Update the data tables based on the decisions made in program
execution.
4. Process communication requests.
The following figures show the details of what happens for each of the
steps in the processor scan routine.
1. Update the input data table.
Figure 10-25 The processor polls the input module to

Update input see if there's voltage on input terminals.
data table
L1
IN0
P
r
? IN1
o
c
e IN2
s
s
o
r IN3
The processor then updates

the data table accordingly. Data Memory Input b.eps
IN3 IN2 IN1 IN0

L2
0 1 1 0
2. Execute the program.

Figure 10-26 The processor executes the ladder logic based on the data tables.
Executing the (Instructions highlighted are logically TRUE.)
program
IN2 IN1 OUT1
P
r
o
c IN2 IN1 OUT2
e
s
s
o
Program Execute b.eps

r
IN3
IN3 IN2 IN1 IN0

0 1 1 0
3. Update the data tables based on the decisions made in program execution.
Figure 10-27 IN2 IN1 OUT1

Update data tables
after program execution
P
r
o
c IN2 IN1 OUT2
e
s
s
o
r IN3
Processor Updates b.eps
The processor updates the output data table

based on conditions of the ladder logic.
OUT3 OUT2 OUT1 OUT0

0 0 1 0
After the processor updates the output data table based on the conditions
of the ladder logic, it then sends the newly updated information of the
output data tables to the output modules where the output modules then
allow or prevent the voltage from being sent to the devices connected to
them. This can be seen in the following figure.

Figure 10-28 Out 3 Out 2 Out 1 Out 0

Outputs updated
according to data processed 0 0 1 0
during program execution
L1 L2
Out 0 0 VAC
M
Out 1 120 VAC
Out 2 0 VAC
R
output update b.eps

Out 3 0 VAC
G
4. Process communications requests.
Figure 10-29
Process communication
requests. P
r
o
c The processor communicates
e with external devices (remote
Processing Communication Requests b.eps
s I/O, touchscreens, fieldbuss,

s scada systems, etc.).
o
r
After completing these steps, the PLC does the same thing over and over
until it is commanded to stop by switching the processor out of RUN mode.
Updating the inputs and turning on the outputs of a PLC is called scan-
ning. The time it takes the programmable controller to do the steps
mentioned is called the scan time. Scan time is variable. It depends upon
the number of inputs and outputs (I/O) and upon the length of the
program. The more I/O installed, or the longer the program that the PLC
must execute, the longer the scan time will be. While it may seem that it
will take a PLC a long time to do anything, in reality the scan time is very
short for most PLC applications. This is because the PLC is extremely
fast. Typical scan times range from 5 to 50 milliseconds. One millisecond
is one-thousandth of a second.
While PLC manufacturers know how much I/O can be used, they have no
way of knowing how long your program will be. Thus, they generally tell
you how fast the scan time will be by specifying how many milliseconds it
takes to execute the instructions contained in a certain amount of
program memory. Program memory is counted in “Ks,” which is short for
KILO. KILO means 1000 to the average person. In PLCs, however, 1K =
1024 words of program memory. One word of memory is generally more
than enough room to hold “1” simple instruction that looks at a bit in data
memory. Complicated instructions may require more than “1” word. A PLC
manufacturer might tell you that the scan time required for a program is
10m sec/K of memory. This means that for each 1K of program memory
used, it will increase the scan time by 10m sec.
Summary of Scan Routine

The first thing a PLC does during its scan is update the inputs. It looks at
each terminal screw on the input boards and, if voltage is present, it
makes the proper bit in memory a “1.” If no voltage is present, it makes
the proper bit in memory a “0.” Usually a PLC’s data memory is organized
in rows called registers. If the CPU uses an 8-bit microprocessor, the
registers are 8 bits wide. If the CPU uses a 16-bit microprocessor, the
registers are 16 bits wide. Generally, the number of inputs on a board
exactly matches the number of bits in a register. This results in the first
input board’s bits being stored in the first input register in data memory,
the second input board’s bits being stored in the second register, etc. As
the PLC scans the inputs, all the bits in the input section of data memory
are updated.
The following illustration summarizes the scan process.
Figure 10-30 Beg

Cyclical processor End in
scan routine Communications
& Housekeeping
Update The Input Image

Output Image Is Updated
Sc
an
Pr
oc
es
s_
b.
e
ps
Execute The
Program
(Math, Mov, ect.)

NOTES
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Introduction To

Training sessions are not to be tape recorded or video taped without

Author: Robert M. Dombek

Field instructors who reviewed the text and offered comments

Art Director: Cynthia Rishko

Illustrator: Derek Ricks

Layout Production: Lynn Kehr

Copyeditor: Eliza Gibbons

I would like to dedicate this book to my wife Michelle, daughters

National Electrical Code® HVAC

I hope that your time invested in this seminar proves education-

Our experienced instructors and supportive training materials are

Over a quarter million people have attended NTT seminars and

On the following page is a list of other seminars and on-site

Post-test For Instrumentation & Process Control

Chapter 1 Basic Concepts

Chapter 2 Pressure Instrumentation & Measurements

Chapter 3 Temperature Instrumentation & Measurements

Chapter 4 Flow Instrumentation & Measurements

Chapter 5 Level Instrumentation & Measurements

Chapter 6 Density, Specific Gravity & Analysis

Chapter 10 Control Systems

Appendix A Thermocouple Conversion Tables

Appendix B Resistance vs.Temperature

Appendix C Instrument Loop Diagram Symbols

Appendix D Instrumentation-Related Internet Addresses

2. T F RTD’s work on the principle of two dissimilar metals, which

3. ________________ is defined as the amount of change in the input that

4. T F Another term used to describe derivative control is reset

5. A type of control strategy in which one feedback loop is placed inside

6. The __________________ describes the necessary equipment to convert

7. The most common or frequently used temperature detector in use

© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PRE-1

8. Which type of control is often associated with process operations in

9. Name three types of flow elements that produce a differential pressure.

10. A thermowell protects the temperature element but degrades:

11. It is difficult to tune a pH control loop when fluid pH is:

13. T F Proportional Band as related to Gain is expressed as PB% =

PRE-2 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

15. What is the most common analog signal used in industry:

17. In a pneumatic control system, the common cause of misoperation is

18. To minimize noise problems in a computer based control system, use:

19. A shielded signal cable must have its shield:

20. For a pressure transmitter monitoring a gas and located at a higher

21. Offset can be eliminated in a proportional only feedback control

© 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc. PRE-3

22. A 4-20 dcma transmitter’s highest output is 18 dcma. Which of the

24. Hysteresis is when the:

25. T F A P/I transducer will convert current into pressure.

27. The Proportional Band or Gain adjustment will determine the

29. In an automatic mode, if a controller’s output value increases when

30. T F The output of an ON/OFF controller will slowly change from a

PRE-4 © 2007 National Technology Transfer, Inc.

2. T F Thermocouple extension wire is always copper wire that has

3. ____________________ responds to the PV or error signal rate of change.

4. T F To increase the effect of Proportional Band the PB value needs

5. A type of control strategy that can be regarded as an open loop is:

6. The ___________________ describes the necessary equipment to

7. The temperature detector with the highest accuracy is the: