Discrete Mathematics Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Discrete Mathematics
Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets
Algebra of Sets
Sets under the operations of union, intersection, and complement satisfy
various laws (identities) which are listed in Table 1.
Table: Law of Algebra of Sets
Idempotent Laws (a) A ∪ A = A (b) A ∩ A = A
Associative Laws (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Commutative Laws (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Distributive Laws (a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) =(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
De Morgan's Laws (a) (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc (b) (A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc
Identity Laws (a) A ∪ ∅ = A (c) A ∩ U =A

(b) A ∪ U = U (d) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
Complement Laws (a) A ∪ Ac= U (c) Uc= ∅

(b) A ∩ Ac= ∅ (d) ∅c = U
Involution Law (a) (Ac)c = A

Table 1 shows the law of algebra of sets.
Example 1: Prove Idempotent Laws:

1. (a) A ∪ A = A
Solution:
Since, B ⊂ A ∪ B, therefore A ⊂ A ∪ A
Let x ∈ A ∪ A ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A
∴A∪A⊂A
As A ∪ A ⊂ A and A ⊂ A ∪ A ⇒ A =A ∪ A. Hence Proved.
1. (b) A ∩ A = A
Solution:
Since, A ∩ B ⊂ B, therefore A ∩ A ⊂ A
Let x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ A
⇒x∈A∩A ∴A⊂A∩A
As A ∩ A ⊂ A and A ⊂ A ∩ A ⇒ A = A ∩ A. Hence Proved.
Example 2: Prove Associative Laws:

1. (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C)
Solution:
Let some x ∈ (A'∪ B) ∪ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B or x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ A or (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C).
Similarly, if some x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C), then x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C.
Thus, any x ∈ A ∪ (B ∪ C) ⇔ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∪ C. Hence Proved.
1. (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)
Solution:
Let some x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ A and (x ∈ B and x ∈ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B and x ∈ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) and x ∈ C) ⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B and x ∈ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C.
Similarly, if some x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C), then x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C
Thus, any x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∩ C ⇔ x ∈ A ∩ (B ∩ C). Hence Proved.
Example3: Prove Commutative Laws

1. (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A
Solution:
To Prove
A∪B=B∪A
A ∪ B = {x: x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
= {x: x ∈ B or x ∈ A} (∵ Order is not preserved in case of sets)
A ∪ B = B ∪ A. Hence Proved.
1. (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A
Solution:
To Prove
A∩B=B∩A
A ∩ B = {x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
= {x: x ∈ B and x ∈ A} (∵ Order is not preserved in case of sets)
A ∩ B = B ∩ A. Hence Proved.
Example 4: Prove Distributive Laws

1. (a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Solution:
To Prove
Let x ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ B ∩ C
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ A) or (x ∈ B and x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A or x ∈ B) and (x ∈ A or x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∪ B and x ∈ A ∪ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)
Therefore, A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊂ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)............(i)
Again, Let y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∪ B and y ∈ A ∪ C

⇒ (y ∈ A or y ∈ B) and (y ∈ A or y ∈ C)
⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∈ A) or (y ∈ B and y ∈ C)
⇒ y∈A or y∈B∩C
⇒ y ∈ A ∪ (B ∩ C)
Therefore, (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊂ A ∪ (B ∩ C)............(ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved
1. (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)
Solution:
To Prove
Let x ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ A) and (x ∈ B or x ∈ C)
⇒ (x ∈ A and x ∈ B) or (x ∈ A and x ∈ C)
⇒ x ∈ A ∩ B or x ∈ A ∩ C
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)
Therefore, A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊂ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)............ (i)

Again, Let y ∈ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∩ B or y ∈ A ∩ C
⇒ (y ∈ A and y ∈ B) or (y ∈ A and y ∈ C)
⇒ (y ∈ A or y ∈ A) and (y ∈ B or y ∈ C)
⇒ y ∈ A and y ∈ B ∪ C
⇒ y ∈ A ∩ (B ∪ C)
Therefore, (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C) ⊂ A ∩ (B ∪ C)............ (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved

Example 5: Prove De Morgan's Laws

(a) (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc
Solution:
To Prove (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc
Let x ∈ (A ∪B)c ⇒ x ∉ A ∪ B (∵ a ∈ A ⇔ a ∉ Ac)
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x ∉ Ac and x ∉ Bc
⇒ x ∉ Ac∩ Bc
Therefore, (A ∪B)c ⊂ Ac∩ Bc............. (i)
Again, let x ∈ Ac∩ Bc ⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∉ A and x ∉ B
⇒ x∉ A∪B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∪B)c
Therefore, Ac∩ Bc ⊂ (A ∪B)c............. (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get Ac∩ Bc =(A ∪B)c. Hence Proved.
(b) (A ∩B)c = Ac∪ Bc

Solution:
Let x ∈ (A ∩B)c ⇒ x ∉ A ∩ B (∵ a ∈ A ⇔ a ∉ Ac)
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒ x ∈ Ac and x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∈ Ac∪ Bc
∴ (A ∩B)c⊂ (A ∪B)c.................. (i)
Again, Let x ∈ Ac∪ Bc ⇒ x ∈ Ac or x ∈ Bc
⇒ x ∉ A or x ∉ B
⇒x∉ A∩B
⇒ x ∈ (A ∩B)c
∴ Ac∪ Bc⊂ (A ∩B)c.................... (ii)
Combining (i) and (ii), we get(A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc. Hence Proved.
Example 6: Prove Identity Laws.

1. (a) A ∪ ∅ = A
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ ∅ = A
Let x ∈ A ∪ ∅ ⇒ x ∈ A or x ∈ ∅
⇒x∈A (∵x ∈ ∅, as ∅ is the null set )
Therefore, x ∈ A ∪ ∅ ⇒ x ∈ A
Hence, A ∪ ∅ ⊂ A.
We know that A ⊂ A ∪ B for any set B.
But for B = ∅, we have A ⊂ A ∪ ∅
From above, A ⊂ A ∪ ∅ , A ∪ ∅ ⊂ A ⇒ A = A ∪ ∅. Hence Proved.
1. (b) A ∩ ∅ = ∅
Solution:
To Prove A ∩ ∅ = ∅
If x ∈ A, then x ∉ ∅ (∵∅ is a null set)
Therefore, x ∈ A, x ∉ ∅ ⇒ A ∩ ∅ = ∅. Hence Proved.
1. (c) A ∪ U = U
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ U = U
Every set is a subset of a universal set.
∴ A∪U⊆U
Also, U ⊆ A ∪ U
Therefore, A ∪ U = U. Hence Proved.
1. (d) A ∩ U = A
Solution:
To Prove A ∩ U = A
We know A ∩ U ⊂ A................. (i)
So we have to show that A ⊂ A ∩ U
Let x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ U (∵ A ⊂ U so x ∈ A ⇒ x ∈ U )
∴ x∈A⇒x∈A∩U
∴ A ⊂ A ∩ U................. (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A ∩ U = A. Hence Proved.
Example7: Prove Complement Laws

(a) A ∪ Ac= U
Solution:
To Prove A ∪ Ac= U
Every set is a subset of U
∴ A ∪ Ac ⊂ U.................. (i)
We have to show that U ⊆ A ∪ Ac
Let x ∈ U ⇒ x ∈ A or x∉ A
⇒ x∈A or x ∈ Ac ⇒ x ∈ A ∪ Ac
∴ U ⊆ A ∪ Ac................... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A ∪ Ac= U. Hence Proved.
(b) A ∩ Ac=∅
Solution:
As ∅ is the subset of every set
∴ ∅ ⊆ A ∩ Ac..................... (i)
We have to show that A ∩ Ac ⊆ ∅
Let x ∈ A ∩ Ac ⇒ x ∈ A and x ∈ Ac
⇒ x ∈ A and x ∉ A
⇒x∈∅
∴ A ∩ Ac ⊂∅..................... (ii)
From (i) and (ii), we get A∩ Ac=∅. Hence Proved.
(c) Uc= ∅
Solution:
Let x ∈ Uc ⇔ x ∉ U ⇔ x ∈ ∅
∴ Uc= ∅. Hence Proved. (As U is the Universal Set).
(d) ∅c = U
Solution:
Let x ∈ ∅c ⇔ x ∉ ∅ ⇔ x ∈ U (As ∅ is an empty set)
∴ ∅c = U. Hence Proved.
Example8: Prove Involution Law

(a) (Ac )c A.
Solution:
Let x ∈ (Ac )c ⇔ x ∉ Ac⇔ x ∈ a
∴ (Ac )c =A. Hence Proved.
Duality:
The dual E∗ of E is the equation obtained by replacing every occurrence of ∪, ∩,
U and ∅ in E by ∩, ∪, ∅, and U, respectively. For example, the dual of
1. (U ∩ A) ∪ (B ∩ A) = A is (∅ ∪ A) ∩ (B ∪ A) = A
It is noted as the principle of duality, that if any equation E is an identity, then
its dual E∗ is also an identity.
Principle of Extension:
According to the Principle of Extension two sets, A and B are the same if and
only if they have the same members. We denote equal sets by A=B.
1. If A= {1, 3, 5} and B= {3, 1, 5}, then A=B i.e., A and B are equal sets.
2. If A= {1, 4, 7} and B= {5, 4, 8}, then A≠ B i.e.., A and B are unequal sets.
Cartesian product of two sets:
The Cartesian Product of two sets P and Q in that order is the set of all ordered
pairs whose first member belongs to the set P and second member belong to set
Q and is denoted by P x Q, i.e.,
1. P x Q = {(x, y): x ∈ P, y ∈ Q}.
Example: Let P = {a, b, c} and Q = {k, l, m, n}. Determine the Cartesian product
of P and Q.
Solution: The Cartesian product of P and Q is

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Discrete Mathematics

Chapter II Sets Theory Lesson 4 Algebra of Sets

Idempotent Laws (a) A ∪ A = A (b) A ∩ A = A

Associative Laws (a) (A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ (B ∪ C) (b) (A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ (B ∩ C)

Commutative Laws (a) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (b) A ∩ B = B ∩ A

Distributive Laws (a) A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) (b) A ∩ (B ∪ C) =(A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

De Morgan's Laws (a) (A ∪B)c=Ac∩ Bc (b) (A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc

Identity Laws (a) A ∪ ∅ = A (c) A ∩ U =A

Complement Laws (a) A ∪ Ac= U (c) Uc= ∅

Involution Law (a) (Ac)c = A

Example 1: Prove Idempotent Laws:

Example 2: Prove Associative Laws:

Example3: Prove Commutative Laws

Example 4: Prove Distributive Laws

Again, Let y ∈ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⇒ y ∈ A ∪ B and y ∈ A ∪ C

Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved

Therefore, A ∩ (B ∪ C) ⊂ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C)............ (i)

Combining (i) and (ii), we get A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∪ C). Hence Proved

Example 5: Prove De Morgan's Laws

(b) (A ∩B)c = Ac∪ Bc

Combining (i) and (ii), we get(A ∩B)c=Ac∪ Bc. Hence Proved.

Example 6: Prove Identity Laws.

Example7: Prove Complement Laws

From (i) and (ii), we get A∩ Ac=∅. Hence Proved.

Example8: Prove Involution Law

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