BITH101

Bachelor of Information
Technology and Software

Engineering
Fundamentals of Information
Technology
Module BITH 101

(OLD CODE BIT 101)
Adapted by: Benard Mapako
Master of Science in Computer Science (UZ)
Bachelor of Science (Honours) Computer Science (UZ)
Editor: Clemence Matembo

Bachelor of Science in Physics and Mathematics (UZ)
Higher National Diploma in Computer Studies (Harare
Polytechnic)
Project Management (UZ)
Published by: The Zimbabwe Open University
P.O. Box MP1119
Mount Pleasant
Harare, ZIMBABWE
The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and

open learning institution.
Year: 2014
Reprinted: November 2016
Cover design: T. Ndhlovu
Layout : S. Mushore
Printers : ZOU Press
I.S.B.N: 978-1-77938-576-5
Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading
© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of
the Zimbabwe Open University.
To the student
The demand for skills and knowledge administrators of varied backgrounds,
and the requirement to adjust and training, skills, experiences and personal
change with changing technology, interests. The combination of all these
places on us a need to learn continually qualities inevitably facilitates the
throughout life. As all people need an production of learning materials that
education of one form or another, it has teach successfully any student, anywhere
been found that conventional education and far removed from the tutor in space
institutions cannot cope with the and time. We emphasize that our
demand for education of this magnitude. learning materials should enable you to
It has, however, been discovered that solve both work-related problems and
distance education and open learning, other life challenges.
now also exploiting e-learning
technology, itself an offshoot of e- To avoid stereotyping and professional
commerce, has become the most narrowness, our teams of learning
effective way of transmitting these materials producers come from different
appropriate skills and knowledge universities in and outside Zimbabwe,
required for national and international and from Commerce and Industry.
development. This openness enables ZOU to produce
materials that have a long shelf life and
Since attainment of independence in are sufficiently comprehensive to cater
1980, the Zimbabwe Government has for the needs of all of you, our learners
spearheaded the development of in different walks of life. You, the
distance education and open learning at learner, have a large number of optional
tertiary level, resulting in the courses to choose from so that the
establishment of the Zimbabwe Open knowledge and skills developed suit the
University (ZOU) on 1 March, 1999. career path that you choose. Thus, we
strive to tailor-make the learning
ZOU is the first, leading, and currently materials so that they can suit your
the only university in Zimbabwe entirely personal and professional needs. In
dedicated to teaching by distance developing the ZOU learning materials,
education and open learning. We are we are guided by the desire to provide
determined to maintain our leading you, the learner, with all the knowledge
position by both satisfying our clients and skill that will make you a better
and maintaining high academic performer all round, be this at
standards. To achieve the leading certificate, diploma, undergraduate or
position, we have adopted the course postgraduate level. We aim for products
team approach to producing the varied that will settle comfortably in the global
learning materials that will holistically village and competing successfully with
shape you, the learner to be an all-round anyone. Our target is, therefore, to
performer in the field of your own satisfy your quest for knowledge and
choice. Our course teams comprise skills through distance education and
academics, technologists and open learning.
Any course or programme launched by ZOU you may never meet in life. It is our intention
is conceived from the cross-pollination of ideas to bring the computer, email, internet chat-
from consumers of the product, chief among rooms, whiteboards and other modern methods
whom are you, the students and your employers. of delivering learning to all the doorsteps of our
We consult you and listen to your critical learners, wherever they may be. For all these
analysis of the concepts and how they are developments and for the latest information on
presented. We also consult other academics what is taking place at ZOU, visit the ZOU
from universities the world over and other website at www.zou.ac.co.zw
international bodies whose reputation in distance
education and open learning is of a very high Having worked as best we can to prepare your
calibre. We carry out pilot studies of the course learning path, hopefully like John the Baptist
outlines, the content and the programme prepared for the coming of Jesus Christ, it is
component. We are only too glad to subject my hope as your Vice Chancellor that all of you,
our learning materials to academic and will experience unimpeded success in your
professional criticism with the hope of educational endeavours. We, on our part, shall
improving them all the time. We are continually strive to improve the learning
determined to continue improving by changing materials through evaluation, transformation of
the learning materials to suit the idiosyncratic delivery methodologies, adjustments and
needs of our learners, their employers, research, sometimes complete overhauls of both the
economic circumstances, technological materials and organizational structures and
development, changing times and geographic culture that are central to providing you with
location, in order to maintain our leading the high quality education that you deserve. Note
position. We aim at giving you an education that your needs, the learner ‘s needs, occupy a
that will work for you at any time anywhere and central position within ZOU’s core activities.
in varying circumstances and that your
performance should be second to none. Best wishes and success in your studies.
As a progressive university that is forward

looking and determined to be a successful part
of the twenty-first century, ZOU has started to
introduce e-learning materials that will enable
you, our students, to access any source of
information, anywhere in the world through
internet and to communicate, converse, discuss _____________________
and collaborate synchronously and Prof. Primrose Kurasha
asynchronously, with peers and tutors whom Vice Chancellor
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At
Zimbabwe Open University
A s you embark on your studies with
Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU) by open
and distance learning, we need to advise you so
This is where the six hour tutorial comes in. For
it to work, you need to know that:
· There is insufficient time for the tutor
that you can make the best use of the learning
to lecture you
materials, your time and the tutors who are based
· Any ideas that you discuss in the
at your regional office.
tutorial, originate from your experience
as you work on the materials. All the
The most important point that you need to note is
issues raised above are a good source
that in distance education and open learning, there
of topics (as they pertain to your
are no lectures like those found in conventional
learning) for discussion during the
universities. Instead, you have learning packages
tutorial
that may comprise written modules, tapes, CDs,
· The answers come from you while the
DVDs and other referral materials for extra reading.
tutor’s task is to confirm, spur further
All these including radio, television, telephone, fax
discussion, clarify, explain, give
and email can be used to deliver learning to you.
additional information, guide the
As such, at ZOU, we do not expect the tutor to
discussion and help you put together
lecture you when you meet him/her. We believe
full answers for each question that you
that that task is accomplished by the learning
bring
package that you receive at registration. What
· You must prepare for the tutorial by
then is the purpose of the six hour tutorial for each
bringing all the questions and answers
course on offer?
that you have found out on the topics
to the discussion
At ZOU, as at any other distance and open learning
· For the tutor to help you effectively, give
university, you the student are at the centre of
him/her the topics beforehand so that
learning. After you receive the learning package,
in cases where information has to be
you study the tutorial letter and other guiding
gathered, there is sufficient time to do
documents before using the learning materials.
so. If the questions can get to the tutor
During the study, it is obvious that you will come
at least two weeks before the tutorial,
across concepts/ideas that may not be that easy
that will create enough time for
to understand or that are not so clearly explained.
thorough preparation.
You may also come across issues that you do not
agree with, that actually conflict with the practice
In the tutorial, you are expected and required to
that you are familiar with. In your discussion
take part all the time through contributing in
groups, your friends can bring ideas that are totally
every way possible. You can give your views,
different from yours and arguments may begin. You
even if they are wrong, (many students may hold
may also find that an idea is not clearly explained
the same wrong views and the discussion will
and you remain with more questions than answers.
help correct the errors), they still help you learn
You need someone to help you in such matters.
the correct thing as much as the correct ideas.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At Zimbabwe Open University
You also need to be open-minded, frank, inquisitive learning package together with the sources to
and should leave no stone unturned as you analyze which you are referred. Fully-fledged lectures
ideas and seek clarification on any issues. It has can, therefore, be misleading as the tutor may
been found that those who take part in tutorials dwell on matters irrelevant to ZOU course.
actively, do better in assignments and examinations
because their ideas are streamlined. Taking part Distance education, by its nature, keeps the tutor
properly means that you prepare for the tutorial and student separate. By introducing the six hour
beforehand by putting together relevant questions tutorial, ZOU hopes to help you come in touch
and their possible answers and those areas that with the physical being, who marks your
cause you confusion. assignments, assesses them, guides you on
preparing for writing examinations and
Only in cases where the information being assignments and who runs your general academic
discussed is not found in the learning package can affairs. This helps you to settle down in your
the tutor provide extra learning materials, but this course having been advised on how to go about
should not be the dominant feature of the six hour your learning. Personal human contact is,
tutorial. As stated, it should be rare because the therefore, upheld by ZOU.
information needed for the course is found in the
The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

tasks for each session are very clear. Work for each
session, as much as possible, follows the structure given
below.
Session I (Two Hours)

Session I should be held at the beginning of the semester. The
main aim of this session is to guide you, the student, on how
you are going to approach the course. During the session, you
will be given the overview of the course, how to tackle the
assignments, how to organize the logistics of the course and
formation of study groups that you will belong to. It is also during
this session that you will be advised on how to use your learning
materials effectively.
The Six Hour Tutorial Session At Zimbabwe Open University
Session II (Two Hours)

This session comes in the middle of the semester to respond
to the challenges, queries, experiences, uncertainties, and
ideas that you are facing as you go through the course. In this
session, difficult areas in the module are explained through the
combined effort of the students and the tutor. It should also give
direction and feedback where you have not done well in the
first assignment as well as reinforce those areas where
performance in the first assignment is good.
Session III (Two Hours)

The final session, Session III, comes towards the end of the
semester. In this session, you polish up any areas that you still
need clarification on. Your tutor gives you feedback on the
assignments so that you can use the experience for preparation
for the end of semester examination.
Note that in all the three sessions, you identify the areas
that your tutor should give help. You also take a very
important part in finding answers to the problems posed.
You are the most important part of the solutions to your
learning challenges.
Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

contribute in the best way possible so that you
can maximally benefit from it. We also urge
In conclusion, we should be very clear that six you to avoid forcing the tutor to lecture you.
hours is too little for lectures and it is not
necessary, in view of the provision of fully self- BEST WISHES IN YOUR STUDIES.
contained learning materials in the package, to
turn the little time into lectures. We, therefore, ZOU
urge you not only to attend the six hour tutorials
Contents
__________ Overview ________________________________________________________ 1
Unit One: Introduction to Information Era
1.0 ________ Introduction ______________________________________________________ 7

1.1 ________ Objectives _______________________________________________________ 8
1.2 ________ Welcome to the Information Era ______________________________________ 8
__________ Activity 1.1 _____________________________________________________ 11
1.3 ________ What is Information Technology? ___________________________________ 11
__________ 1.3.1 Brief history of computers _____________________________________ 13
__________ 1.3.2 Computer classification _______________________________________ 15
__________ Activity 1.2 _____________________________________________________ 17
__________ 1.3.3 Brief history of communication _________________________________ 17
1.4 ________ Principles of Information Technology ________________________________ 18
1.5 ________ Functions and Benefits of Information Technology ______________________ 19
1.6 ________ Careers and Information Technology _________________________________ 20
1.7 ________ Information Technology in Zimbabwe _________________________________ 21
1.8 ________ Trends in the ICT Sector ___________________________________________ 22
1.9 ________ Legislative Environment ___________________________________________ 23
__________ Activity 1.4 _____________________________________________________ 24
1.10 ______ Summary _______________________________________________________ 24
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 25
Unit Two: Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 27

2.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 28
2.2 ________ Central Processing Unit (CPU) _____________________________________ 28
__________ 2.2.1 Control unit ________________________________________________ 29
__________ 2.2.2 Arithmetic logic unit _________________________________________ 30
__________ Activity 2.1 _____________________________________________________ 30
2.3 ________ Microprocessor Chip _____________________________________________ 30
2.4 ________ Memory ________________________________________________________ 31
__________ 2.4.1 Ram ______________________________________________________ 33
__________ 2.4.2 ROM ______________________________________________________ 34
__________ 2.4.3 CMOS _____________________________________________________ 35
2.5 ________ Data Representation ______________________________________________ 35
2.6 ________ System Unit _____________________________________________________ 38
__________ 2.6.1 Power supply _______________________________________________ 38
2.6.2 ______ Main/System board _______________________________________________ 38
__________ 2.6.3 ROM chip __________________________________________________ 39
__________ 2.6.4 Slot and expansion board ______________________________________ 39
__________ 2.6.5 Port _______________________________________________________ 41
__________ 2.6.6 PCMCIA card and Slot ________________________________________ 42
2.7 ________ System Clock ___________________________________________________ 43
2.8 ________ Bus Line _______________________________________________________ 43
__________ Activity 2.2 _____________________________________________________ 45
2.9 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 45
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 46
Unit Three: Input and Output
3.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 47

3.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 48
3.2 ________ Input and Output _________________________________________________ 48
__________ Activity 3.1 _____________________________________________________ 48
3.3 ________ Input Methods ___________________________________________________ 49
__________ 3.3.1 Keyboard ___________________________________________________ 51
__________ 3.3.2 Terminal ___________________________________________________ 53
__________ 3.3.3 Pointing device ______________________________________________ 53
__________ Activity 3.2 _____________________________________________________ 53
__________ 3.3.4 Scanning device _____________________________________________ 57
__________ 3.3.5 Other input devices __________________________________________ 61
3.4 ________ Input Control ____________________________________________________ 63
__________ Activity 3.3 _____________________________________________________ 63
3.5 ________ Output Methods __________________________________________________ 64
__________ Activity 3.4 _____________________________________________________ 64
3.6 ________ Output Devices __________________________________________________ 65
__________ 3.6.2 Monitor ____________________________________________________ 67
__________ 3.6.3 Plotter _____________________________________________________ 68
__________ Activity 3.5 _____________________________________________________ 68
__________ 3.6.4 Voice Output Device __________________________________________ 69
3.7 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 71
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 72
Unit Four: Secondary Storage
4.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 73

4.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 74
4.2 ________ Basic Storage ___________________________________________________ 74
__________ Activity 4.1 _____________________________________________________ 74
4.3 ________ Magnetic Storage ________________________________________________ 75
__________ 4.3.1 Magnetic tape _______________________________________________ 75
__________ 4.3.2 Floppy disc _________________________________________________ 77
__________ 4.3.3 Hard disc __________________________________________________ 79
4.4 ________ Optical Storage __________________________________________________ 80
4.5 ________ Data Organisation Hierarchy _______________________________________ 82
4.6 ________ Upgrade in Performance ___________________________________________ 83
4.7 ________ Summary _______________________________________________________ 85
__________ References _____________________________________________________ 86
Unit Five: Computer Software
5.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 87

5.1 ________ Objectives ______________________________________________________ 88
5.2 ________ Software ________________________________________________________ 88
5.3 ________ System Software _________________________________________________ 91
5.4 ________ Operating System ________________________________________________ 92
__________ Activity 5.1 _____________________________________________________ 94
5.5 ________ Functions of Operating System _____________________________________ 94
5.6 ________ Features of Operating System ______________________________________ 98
__________ 5.6.1 Multi-tasking _______________________________________________ 98
__________ 5.6.2 Multi-user ________________________________________________ 100
__________ 5.6.3 Multi-processor ____________________________________________ 100
__________ 5.6.4 Batch processing ___________________________________________ 100
__________ 5.6.5 Virtual memory ____________________________________________ 101
5.7 ________ Application Software _____________________________________________ 102
5.8 ________ Application Software Technology ___________________________________ 104
5.9 ________ Basic Types of Software __________________________________________ 105
__________ 5.9.1 Word processing ___________________________________________ 105
5.10 ______ Spreadsheet Software ____________________________________________ 109
5.11 _______ Database _______________________________________________________ 111
__________ 5.11.1 Types of database __________________________________________ 114
__________ 5.11.2 DBMS organisation ________________________________________ 115
__________ 5.11.3 Client-server _____________________________________________ 121
5.12 ______ Document Processing Software ____________________________________ 125
5.13 ______ Graphics Software _______________________________________________ 125
5.14 ______ Integrated Software ______________________________________________ 129
5.15 ______ Groupware Software _____________________________________________ 130
__________ 5.15.1 Set of software ____________________________________________ 130
__________ 5.15.2 Desk-top publishing software ________________________________ 130
__________ 5.15.3 Multimedia software _______________________________________ 131
5.16 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 131
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 133
Unit Six: Programming Language
6.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 135

6.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 136
6.2 ________ Programming Language __________________________________________ 136
6.3 ________ Why Do We Need To Know Programming Languages? __________________ 137
6.4 ________ Programming Language Generations and Examples ____________________ 138
6.5 ________ Classification of Programming Languages __________________________ 142
__________ 6.5.1 Characteristics ____________________________________________ 142
__________ 6.5.2 Imperative language _________________________________________ 142
__________ 6.5.3 Object-oriented language ____________________________________ 143
__________ 6.5.4 Logic-based language _______________________________________ 146
__________ 6.5.5 Function-based language _____________________________________ 147
__________ 6.5.6 Others ___________________________________________________ 147
6.6 ________ Visual Language ________________________________________________ 148
6.7 ________ Examples of Programs ___________________________________________ 148
__________ 6.7.1 C ________________________________________________________ 148
__________ 6.7.2 C++ ______________________________________________________ 149
__________ 6.7.3 Java ______________________________________________________ 150
__________ 6.7.4 Perl ______________________________________________________ 151
__________ 6.7.5 Python ____________________________________________________ 152
6.8 ________ Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter ___________________________________ 152
6.9 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 154
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 156
Unit Seven: The Internet
7.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 157

7.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 158
7.2 ________ Definition _____________________________________________________ 158
7.3 ________ History ________________________________________________________ 159
__________ 7.3.1 How the Internet began ______________________________________ 160
__________ Activity 7.1 ____________________________________________________ 161
__________ 7.3.2 The Internet as a phenomenon _________________________________ 161
__________ 7.3.3 Marc Andreessen ___________________________________________ 162
__________ 7.3.4 Development of the Internet ___________________________________ 163
__________ Activity 7.3 ____________________________________________________ 163
7.4 ________ Internet Evolution _______________________________________________ 164
__________ 7.4.1 Internet time line __________________________________________ 164
__________ 7.4.1 Internet time line __________________________________________ 165
__________ Activity 7.4 ____________________________________________________ 167
7.5 ________ Computers on the Internet ________________________________________ 167
7.6 ________ Internet Statistics _______________________________________________ 169
__________ 7.6.1 Number of users ____________________________________________ 169
__________ 7.6.2 Internet size _______________________________________________ 170
__________ 7.6.3 Internet language ___________________________________________ 170
7.7 ________ What is the Internet Content? _____________________________________ 171
__________ Activity 7.5 ____________________________________________________ 171
__________ Activity 7.6 ____________________________________________________ 176
7.8 ________ Managing Internet Information ____________________________________ 176
__________ 7.8.1 Search engine _____________________________________________ 178
__________ 7.8.2 Search engine method _______________________________________ 179
__________ 7.8.3 Portals ___________________________________________________ 179
__________ 7.8.4 Other methods _____________________________________________ 180
__________ 7.8.5 Example of information searching ______________________________ 182
7.9 ________ Manipulation of Information _______________________________________ 183
7.10 ______ The Internet Today ______________________________________________ 184
7.11 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 185
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 186
Unit Eight: Software on the Internet
8.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 187

8.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 188
8.2 ________ Internet Software ________________________________________________ 188
8.3 ________ Open Source Software ___________________________________________ 189
8.4 ________ File Transfer Protocol (FTP) ______________________________________ 191
8.5 ________ Telnet _________________________________________________________ 192
8.6 ________ E-mail _________________________________________________________ 193
__________ 8.6.1 E-mail discussion ___________________________________________ 194
__________ 8.6.2 Ethics of E-mail discussion ___________________________________ 195
__________ 8.6.3 Smiley ____________________________________________________ 196
__________ 8.6.4 Acronyms _________________________________________________ 196
__________ Activity 8.1 ____________________________________________________ 197
__________ 8.6.5 E-mail signature ____________________________________________ 197
__________ 8.6.6 Smart E-mail ______________________________________________ 198
8.7 ________ USENET _______________________________________________________ 199
8.8 ________ INTERNET Scripting Languages – HTML, XML and CGI ________________ 201
__________ 8.8.1 HTML mark-up language ____________________________________ 201
__________ 8.8.2 XML language _____________________________________________ 203
__________ 8.8.3 Common gateway interface (CGI) ______________________________ 204
8.1 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 205
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 206
Unit Nine: The Internet in Zimbabwe
9.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 207

9.1 ________ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 208
9.2 ________ The Internet in Zimbabwe _________________________________________ 208
__________ Activity 9.1 ____________________________________________________ 211
9.3 ________ Interesting Stories on the Development of the Internet __________________ 211
9.4 ________ Examples of Information from the Internet ____________________________ 214
__________ 9.4.1 Recipe ____________________________________________________ 214
9.5 ________ Internet Laws __________________________________________________ 215
9.6 ________ Internet Security, Hackers and Crackers ____________________________ 215
__________ Activity 9.2 ____________________________________________________ 216
9.7 ________ Future of the Internet ____________________________________________ 216
9.8 ________ Summary ______________________________________________________ 217
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 218
Unit Ten: Communication
10.0 ______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 219

10.1 ______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 220
10.2 ______ Information and Communication Technology _________________________ 220
__________ Activity 10.1 ___________________________________________________ 221
10.3 ______ Important Elements of Communication ______________________________ 221
__________ 10.3.1 Coder-decoder ____________________________________________ 223
__________ 10.3.2 Message understanding _____________________________________ 223
__________ 10.3.3 Error detector _____________________________________________ 224
__________ 10.3.4 Security _________________________________________________ 224
10.4 ______ Data Communication ____________________________________________ 225
__________ 10.4.1 Types of signals ___________________________________________ 225
10.5 ______ Mode of Data Transmission _______________________________________ 228
__________ 10.5.1 Asynchronous transmission _________________________________ 230
10.6 ______ Data Flow Direction _____________________________________________ 231
__________ 10.6.1 Simplex __________________________________________________ 232
__________ 10.6.2 Half duplex _______________________________________________ 232
__________ 10.6.3 Full duplex _______________________________________________ 233
__________ Activity 10.3 ___________________________________________________ 234
10.7 ______ Rate of Data Transmission ________________________________________ 234
10.8 ______ Data Transmission Media _________________________________________ 236
__________ 10.8.1 Twisted wire pair __________________________________________ 236
__________ 10.8.2 Coaxial cable _____________________________________________ 237
__________ 10.8.3 Fibre optic cable ___________________________________________ 238
__________ 10.8.4 Microwave system _________________________________________ 239
__________ 10.8.5 Satellite system ___________________________________________ 240
__________ 10.8.6 Infra-red _________________________________________________ 242
__________ 10.8.7 Radio ____________________________________________________ 242
__________ 10.8.8 Telephone network ________________________________________ 242
10.9 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 243
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 244
Unit Eleven: Computer Network
11.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 245

11.1 _______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 246
11.2 _______ Network Topology _______________________________________________ 246
__________ 11.2.1 Ring topology _____________________________________________ 247
__________ 11.2.2 Bus topology ______________________________________________ 249
__________ 11.2.3 Star topology ______________________________________________ 250
11.3 _______ Network Access Methods _________________________________________ 251
__________ 11.3.1 Polling Method ____________________________________________ 251
__________ 11.3.2 Contention method _________________________________________ 251
__________ 11.3.3 Token-passing method ______________________________________ 252
11.4 _______ Types of Network _______________________________________________ 252
__________ 11.4.1 Local area network (LAN) ___________________________________ 253
__________ 11.4.2 Wide area network (WAN) ___________________________________ 253
__________ 11.4.3 Metropolitan area network (MAN) _____________________________ 254
11.5 _______ Network Protocols and Standards ___________________________________ 254
__________ 11.5.1 TCP/IP Model _____________________________________________ 256
__________ 11.5.2 OSI Reference Model _______________________________________ 257
11.6 _______ Types of Local Area Network ______________________________________ 259
__________ 11.6.1 Peer-to-peer network _______________________________________ 259
__________ 11.6.2 Client/Server network ______________________________________ 260
__________ 11.6.3 PC network _______________________________________________ 260
__________ 11.6.4 Ethernet LAN _____________________________________________ 261
__________ 11.6.5 Wireless LAN ____________________________________________ 262
11.7 _______ Network Devices _______________________________________________ 263
__________ 11.7.1 Modem __________________________________________________ 264
__________ 11.7.2 Codec ___________________________________________________ 265
__________ 11.7.3 Multiplexer _______________________________________________ 266
__________ 11.7.4 Repeater _________________________________________________ 266
__________ 11.7.5 Bridge ___________________________________________________ 267
__________ 11.7.6 Router ___________________________________________________ 268
__________ 11.7.7 Hub _____________________________________________________ 269
__________ 11.7.8 Switch ___________________________________________________ 270
__________ 11.7.9 Gateway __________________________________________________ 271
11.8 _______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 271
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 272
Unit Twelve: Information Technology Issues and Opportunities
12.0 ______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 273

12.1 ______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 274
12.2 ______ Professionalism, Ethics and Society _________________________________ 274
__________ Activity 12.1 ___________________________________________________ 276
12.3 ______ Computer System Control and Security Issues ________________________ 278
__________ 12.3.1 Threat on computer security _________________________________ 278
__________ 12.3.2 Controls for computer security _______________________________ 280
__________ 12.3.3 Privacy issues ____________________________________________ 282
__________ 12.3.4 Guide for safe computing ____________________________________ 284
12.4 ______ Health and Ergonomics ___________________________________________ 285
__________ 12.4.1 Health problems ___________________________________________ 285
__________ 12.4.2 Green computerisation _____________________________________ 287
12.5 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 288
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 290
Unit Thirteen: Information Technology and Society
13.0 ______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 291

13.1 ______ Objectives _____________________________________________________ 292
13.2 ______ The New Term “ICT” ____________________________________________ 292
13.3 ______ Opportunities in IT ______________________________________________ 294
__________ Activity 13.1 ___________________________________________________ 294
13.4 ______ Information Technology and the Future ______________________________ 295
13.5 ______ What is “CIO”? ________________________________________________ 295
13.6 ______ Development Trend ______________________________________________ 297
13.7 ______ Critical Technologies ____________________________________________ 298
13.8 ______ Other New Technologies __________________________________________ 300
13.9 ______ Summary ______________________________________________________ 301
__________ References ____________________________________________________ 303
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Module Overview
Y ou must read this Module Overview carefully from the beginning to the
end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work
your way through the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you
are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep
on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course material as it
will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might
miss or overlook.
BIT101 Fundamentals of Information Technology is one of the courses
offered by Faculty of Information Technology and Multimedia
Communication at Zimbabwe Open University (ZOU). This course is worth
3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Information

Technology, and Software Engineering programmes. This module aims to
impart the meaning and concept of information technology and its
environment. You will also go in-depth on the examples and issues of using
information technology in daily lives which has created significant impacts on
the society, organisations and individuals in Zimbabwe. You will find this
course very interesting because it will answer many questions on the concept
and applications of information technology, as well as on the issues related to
its environment. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn
independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to
you.
Fundamentals of Information Technology
By the end of this course, you should be able to:

 explain the meanings of information technology and the information era;
 discuss the use of information technology in everyday life which has
affected the society, organisations and individuals in many aspects;
 elaborate the components of information and communication
technology;
 explain the components of computer; computer hardware, software,
and communication networks;
 discuss the development of the Internet; and
 discuss the ethical issues, opportunities and the role of information
technology in the society
This course is divided into 13 units. The synopsis for each unit is presented
below.
Unit 1 focuses on information technology (IT) era and the characteristics that
make it different from the previous eras. We will also introduce the concept of
IT.
Unit 2 discusses the main computer hardware components which are the
Central Processing unit (CPU), the microprocessor, the main memory, and
so on. Specifically, we will focus more on the CPU or the microprocessor,
which is the core of all activities responsible for changing raw data into the
required information inside a computer. Besides that, data representation and
coding system will also be discussed. Towards the end of the unit, you will be
introduced to some tools and hardware inside a computer system unit.
Unit 3 introduces various methods of input and output. The keyboard is the
most popular and frequently used input device. Besides the keyboard, there
are also many latest input and output devices in the market, which will also be
discussed in this unit.
Unit 4 introduces another computer component - the secondary storage.

Here, you will learn the various types of secondary storage available in the
market, and the comparison of storage types. This unit also explains the types
of magnetic storage, the types of optical storage, and the advantages of
secondary storage.
Unit 5 introduces the software used inside the computer system. There are
two types of main software, the system software and the application software.
The system software is used to switch on (start) the computer, and to
coordinate the hardware components and the application software. There
are three categories of software that make up the system software, that is, the
2 Zimbabwe Open University

Module Overview
operating system, the utility programmes and the language translators. This
unit discusses the concept and the types of operating systems being used.
Language translators are explained through programming languages. At the
end of this unit, you will discuss various types of application software that is
commonly used such as word processing, spreadsheet and graphic software.
Unit 6 discusses programming languages. Computer programmes are

developed using programming languages. A program is simply a list of
instructions to be followed by the computer so that data can be processed.
The process of producing a programme is called programming. Programming
is also known as software development, and it consists of steps in producing
a list of instructions. Steps in programming consist of programme
specification, programme design, programme coding, programme testing,
programme documentation and programme maintenance.
Unit 7 focuses on the development and history of the Internet. Here, we will
learn about the elements of the Internet and the activities that can be
performed on the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the process of
searching and manipulating information effectively over the Internet.
Unit 8 describes the present software on the Internet. Some of the software
can be obtained for free, while other software has to be paid for. Open source
software will also be discussed here. This unit will also discuss the popular
method of communication over the Internet, that is, e-mail. Initially, e-mail
was merely based on text, but now you can send (attach) various types of
data together with e-mails such as text document, graphics, audio, power
point presentation and many others. At the end of this unit, we will touch
briefly on the internet scripting language like hypertext mark-up language
(HTML) and extensive mark-up language (XML).
Unit 9 explains the history and developmental of the Internet in Zimbabwe.

You are also presented with various interesting stories from the Internet.
Among them is NAPSTER, that is, a popular portal at one time, which enables
users especially the youth to share music files with other users via the Internet.
In this unit, you will also learn about the laws and security of the Internet.
Unit 10 explains the important component in the development of information

technology, that is, communication. There are four important elements to be
known before any form of communication can happen. These elements are
message, sender, receiver and media. In this unit, you will realise that
communication is a very important component of information technology. You
will then focus more on data communication signals the analogue and digital
signals; synchronous and asynchronous transmissions; simplex, half duplex
Zimbabwe Open University 3

and full duplex lines, and so forth. At the end of this unit, you will be introduced
to the various media for data transmission.
Unit 11 focuses on computer network a group of computers linked up together

by various devices and other components. Three network topologies will be
discussed. Also discussed are network access methods, various types of
computer networks, protocols and standards. A detailed understanding of
the local area network (LAN) will be covered including various types of LAN
technologies. This unit ends with an elaboration of various network devices
like modems, bridge, multiplexer, switch, hub, routers and gateway.
Unit 12 discusses how the human element creates various issues in this field,
and the opportunities offered by technology for a competitive advantage. You
will be asked to evaluate and understand an issue on the importance of ethics
in information technology. You will also be exposed to the concept of the end-
users who will need to realise the potential effects of technology on them.
They must act quickly and know the importance of privacy, organisational
security, ergonomics and the effects of technology on the environment.
Unit 13 emphasises the new term “ICT”. You will realise how much ICT has
defused into the society. Besides that, you will also identify the opportunities
present in ICT, and will be exposed to a number of trends in the development
of this technology, today and in the future. In this unit, you will be introduced
to the most prestigious position in ICT the CIO and the CTO. The
advancement of ICT has changed lives of the people. Today, society has
begun to realise the importance of information technology, and many people
have acquired computer literacy.
Text Arrangement Guide
Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement should help you to organise
your study of this course to be more objective and more effective. Generally,
the text arrangement for each unit is as follows:
Objectives: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have
completely gone through a unit. As you go through each unit, you should
frequently refer to these objectives. By doing this, you can continuously gauge
your progress of digesting the unit.
Self check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It is inserted after you have gone through one sub-
section or sometimes a few sub-sections. It usually comes in the form of a

Module Overview
question that may require you to stop your reading and start thinking. When
you come across this component, try to reflect on what you have already
gone through. When you answer the question prompted, you should be able
to gauge whether you have understood what you have read (clearly, vaguely
or worse you might find out that you had not comprehended or retained the
sub-section(s) that you had just gone through). Most of the time, the answers
to the questions can be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self Check, activities are also placed at various locations or
junctures throughout the module. Compared to Self Check, Activity can
appear in various forms such as questions, short case studies or it may even
ask you to conduct an observation or research. Activity may also ask your
opinion and evaluation on a given scenario. When you come across an
Activity, you should try to widen what you have gathered from the module
and introduce it to real life situations. You should engage yourself in higher
order thinking where you might be required to analyse, synthesise and
evaluate instead of just having to recall and define.
Summary: You can find this component at the end of each unit. This
component helps you to recap the whole unit. By going through the summary,
you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find
points inside the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a
good idea for you to revisit the details from the module.
Key terms: This component can be found at the end of each unit. You should
go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon
used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able
to explain, you should look for the terms from the module.
References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,

journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. This list can
appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at References section),
at the end of every unit or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to
read and refer to the suggested sources to elicit the additional information
needed as well as to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
Prior Knowledge
This is an introductory course on information technology. Hence, there is no

specific pre-requisite for this course. However, the ability to use computers,
especially the productivity software like word processing, spreadsheet and
browser will help you to perform activities and complete the assignments.

Assessment Method
Assessment will be through assignments and the final examination.

Unit One
Introduction to Information Era
1.0 Introduction
I n this unit, you will be introduced to the information technology era, and the
characteristics that make it different from the previous eras. You will also
be introduced to the concept of information technology (IT). This includes the
principles, functions, and benefits of IT. Towards the end of this unit, the
Trends in the information and communication technology (ICT) sector and
legislative laws will also be discussed.
1.1 Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
 define ‘information era’

 state the differences between the information era and
the previous eras
 identify three components of information technology
 explain a brief history of computers and
communication
 discuss various classifications of computers
 examine new trends in information systems
1.2 Welcome to the Information Era

This century does not only expose us to the beginning of the information era,
but will also continue to create a rapid pace of change in the development of
IT. There are no signs showing any decline in this rate of change. Instead, it
continues to increase.
The first and second waves are the agricultural wave and the industrial wave.
Some writers refer to the “wave” as “era”, that is, with reference to the
agricultural era, the industrial era, and the information era, as illustrated in
Table 1.1. Now, we live in a society where information is an important
resource.
Table 1.1: Definitions of Agricultural, Industrial and Information Eras

Agricultural In this era, most workers are peasant farmers, where their
Era lives depend on agriculture. This can be seen in Figure 1.1
which illustrates the environment.
Industrial In this era, work processes are simplified through
Era mechanisation and automation, while the number of factory
workers continues to grow as illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Information In this era, most workers get involved in the creation,

Era distribution, and use of information.

Unit 1 Introduction to Information Era
Figure 1.1: The Environment During the Agricultural Era
Source: http://www.ckrumlov.info/img.php?img=1936&LANG=en
Figure 1.2: The Environment During the Industrial Era
Source:http://www.industrial-revolution.org/industrial-revolution-
inventions.html
In order to understand the evolution of the three eras, please refer to Table
1.2.

Table 1.2: Evolution of Agricultural Era, Industrial Era and Information

Era
Agricultural Era Industrial Era Information Era

Mostly Peasants/Farmers Factory workers Knowledgeable
workers
Workers/Partners Man/Land Man/Machine Man and brain
Tools Hand based tools Machinery Computers
/Telecommunications
Source: Adapted from Senn, 1998
The technologies used in the agricultural era, industrial era and information
era are all different. For example, the technologies used in the industrial era
(such as bull-dozers and cranes) are meant for increasing the physical
capability, while the technologies of the information era (such as computers
and servers) are meant for enhancing workers thinking ability. In the
information era, the links between people are further strengthened, where the
main tool being used is IT. Despite being in the information era, both
agricultural and industrial activities are still important.
There are six features that differentiate the information era from the previous
eras (Senn, 1998):
a) The Emergence of an Information-based Society: In an informative
society, more workers are manipulating information, rather than
working in the combined fields of agriculture and factory.
b) The Success of Business and Management Jobs Depends on IT: For
example, the banking business depends very much on IT in simplifying
daily transactions effectively and promptly.
c) Work Processes are Changed and Transformed to Upgrade
Productivity: For example, in the agricultural era, tractors and ploughs
are used to speed up work in the farms. However, in the information
era, knowledge plays an important role in determining how and when
to grow, and how to look after crops.
d) IT Provides the Basis for Re-thinking: Efficient use of IT does not only
speed up routine activities, but also allows opportunities for a company
to study and re-organise work processes for optimising the use of
resources and to raise productivity such as in business process re-
engineering.
e) Success in IT Depends on the Effectiveness in using it: For example, in

the agricultural era, farmers need to know the methods of taking care

of buffaloes, cows and land. The industrial era requires industry workers
to know and be able to deal with the machines for working effectively.
Finally, the information era requires people to know how IT can increase
personal happiness and improve product and service qualities.
f) IT is Embedded or Integrated into Many Products and Services: For

example, in the tourism industry, IT is used in ticketing, at airports,
hotels and rest-houses, car rentals, etc. Indirectly, IT provides added
value to products and services. These values take the form of quality,
reliability, skills, attractiveness, and other characteristics that fulfil
customer’s needs.
Activity 1.1
?
1. According to Alvin Tofler, we are now in the third
wave, which is known as the information wave. In
groups discuss what information wave is, and make
a presentation of in your tutorial.
2. Between the agricultural era, industrial era and
information era, which era do you think Zimbabwe is
in now? Explain your opinion.
1.3 What is Information Technology?

Before going deeper into this subject, it would be good to be able to
differentiate between data, information and knowledge, as shown in Table
1.3:
Table 1.3: Definition of Data, Information and Knowledge

Data Raw facts, figures, diagrams, and other details, such as
quiz marks and the cost of computers.
Information An organised and meaningful interpretation which is
useful about the data, such as quiz performance and
computers specification.
Knowledge Understanding and giving attention to a set of
information, and on how the information can be used
well, such as to give extra classes or to upgrade
computer quality.

The definitions in Table 1.3 explain that “data” which have been refined,
formatted and summarised are changed into “information”. Information that
has been interpreted, decided and acted upon is changed into “knowledge”.
With knowledge, users can make the best decisions, and take appropriate
actions.
In general, IT is the main player in the information era. This technology is used
to access, store and distribute information, especially information in digital
form. IT refers to the use and deployment of various items in the creation,
storage and distribution of information. Table 1.4 contains some definitions of
information technology.
Table 1.4: Definitions of Information Technology
Behan and Information technology is a term for explaining the technology

Holmes that enables us to record, store, process, retrieve, send and
(1990) receive information.
E.W. Martin Information technology consists of all forms of technology

et al. (1994) involved in the collection, manipulation, communication,
presentation and utilisation of data (which are transformed into
information).
Senn (1998) Information technology contains three components, which are

computers, communication, and know-how. A combination of
the three components creates opportunities for people and
organisations to become more productive, effective, and
generally successful without being separated. Computers and
computer networks are useless without the knowledge of how
to use them. Knowing when to use computers is as important
as knowing how to use them. Besides the ability to use
computers for communication, connecting people through
information technology is also important.
Information technology (IT) is a broad-based technology needed to support

information systems. IT supports activities involving the creation, storage,
manipulation, and communication of information, together with their related
methods, management and applications. The core of IT is the microelectronic
component, that is, the microprocessor chip, which processes data,
information, images, sound, graphics, and so forth, that has given birth to
modern computers. Besides the microprocessor technology; others include

the storage technology, data capture technology, and communication

technology.
Today, computers are connected via telecommunication networks

transcending even the national borders. As such, IT has been taken simply as
a combination of computers and communications. Figure 1.3 shows the main
components of IT consisting of computers, communication networks, and
know-how.
Figure 1.3: Components of Information Technology
1.3.1 Brief history of computers

Microprocessors or computers are the main components of IT. It is,
therefore, very important to look at the history of this technology briefly
before proceeding further into how IT can be used in our everyday life.
History of computers can be traced back to many thousands of years ago –

the use of abacus in China. This device computes using sliding beads arranged
on a rack. This tradition has created a strong foundation in mathematics. A
brief chronological history is presented in Table 1.5

Table 1.5: History of Computers

3000 BC The abacus.
1642 AD Blaise Pascal invented a mechanical calculator.
1812 AD Charles Babbage attempted to build an automatic calculator.

1885 AD William Burroughs produced the first adding machine.
1890 AD Hermann Hollerith managed to represent data on punched cards.
1944 IBM produced an electrically powered computer – this machine
could add two numbers in 0.3 seconds, subtract in 0.3 seconds,
multiply in 6 seconds, and divide in 16 seconds.
1947 UNIVAC developed the ENIAC – this machine weighed 30
tones. It contained 18 000 vacuum tubes, and occupied 1 500
sq ft of space. This machine performed 5 000 additions, or
5 000 subtractions, or 400 multiplications, or 50 divisions in 1
second each. ENIAC is generally considered as the first
functional electronic digital computer.
1951 UNIVAC I was born. It was the start of the first generation
computers – characterised by the use of vacuum tubes.
1959 HONEYWELL 400 was born. It was the start of the second
generation computers – characterised by the use of transistors.
1964 IBM 360 was born. It was the start of the third generation
computers – characterised by integrated circuits (IC). This made
all the previously installed computers obsolete.
1971 The introduction of large-scale integration (more circuits per
unit space) of electronic circuitry. This LSI was said to be the
start of the fourth generation computers.
1972 The first microprocessor was produced by Intel Corp. This

paved the way for the birth of microcomputers.
1977 APPLE II was born. It was the beginning of personal
computers, initially using the 8-bit microprocessor chip.
1981 IBM PC was born. It was the beginning of IBM's involvement
in the PC/ microcomputer business. It was a strategic change of
direction for this computer giant for, traditionally, it was a
mainframe and minicomputer vendor.
1982-99 Personal computers(PC) of various types; printer varieties;

storage varieties; notebook computers; multimedia computers;
personal digital assistants; home computers; teleconferencing;
metropolitan area networks; the Internet, and so on – computers
have become part of people’s daily lives.

In the beginning years of computer technology, computers were used only by

the scientists and engineers. They used computers to do research and
development. Later, computers were used by the business and governmental
organisations. Computers were used to support the running of businesses,
large and small.
Now, computers are being used by professionals, students and the homes.
They have become personal and household items like the TV, radio, telephone
and refrigerator.
In general, microchips have become more and more powerful, memory has
become bigger and bigger in capacity, and other hardware components too
have increased tremendously – all without much increase in their physical
sizes. Therefore, computers have become smaller and cheaper with bigger
capacity and more capability.
1.3.2 Computer classification

You are very familiar with the types of motor vehicles on the road. There are
motorcycles, motorcars, buses, lorries, trailers, trains, and so on. They are
very specialised and useful for various types of jobs. For example,
motorcycles are very handy for a single person, while buses are good for
about 40 or more people.
In the field of IT, likewise, there are various types of computers that you can
use, depending on the job you want to do. There are small computers as well
as very large ones. They are specialised in catering for the types of jobs on
the basis of processing power, speed, cost, security, and various other
criteria. You will see many of these terms being used in the units to come.
There has never been a rigid definition of the various classes of computers.
Indeed, their functions and capabilities keep on expanding and as such the
number of classes is even debatable. However, there is a broad spectrum of
computing hardware ranging from supercomputers to microcomputers, with
no sharp line dividing the classes. In general, computers decrease in size and
cost as you go down from the large supercomputers and mainframes to the
small microcomputers. The classification is briefly discussed.
(a) Microcomputer: It is a desktop computer as well as a personal
computer (PC). The label PC is associated with microcomputers
because they are designed for use by one person at a time. It is not to
be confused with the microprocessor, which is literally a computer on a
chip. In a microcomputer, the microprocessor, electronic circuitry, and

memory chips are mounted on a single circuit board called the

motherboard. It is the motherboard that distinguishes one
microcomputer from another. Important hardware components will be
discussed in detail in the next few units.
(b) Mainframe: This computer is defined as the big-sized commercial

computer designed specifically for a multi-user environment and it is
used by a whole corporate body. It normally has more than 100 remote
terminals. The mainframe is very strong in terms of security,
connectivity, and data management capabilities. It must reside in a
specially controlled environment – with special heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning equipment to control the temperature, humidity and
dust level around the computer.
(c) Minicomputer: Until the late 1960's, all computers were mainframes
only. They were just called computers. Later, computer vendors began
to introduce smaller machines to make them affordable to the smaller
companies. This gave birth to the minicomputers. Today, a
minicomputer can be defined as the smallest computer designed
specifically for a multi-user environment. The system must be able to
service between 2 and 100 remote terminals at one time.
(d) Supercomputer: This is the largest, fastest, and most expensive

computer available. It is extremely powerful and especially designed
for high-speed numerical computations needed in complex engineering
applications. Supercomputers are processor-intensive, whereas the
mainframes are input-output intensive. Supercomputers can perform
arithmetic calculations at a speed of billions of floating-point operations
per second (gigaflops). Cray Research, NEC, and Fujitsu are the
leading manufacturers of supercomputers.
(e) Workstation: There are other classifications of computers like super-

minis, super-micros, midi-computers, and so on – they are the
intermediate stages of an earlier classification. Some computers are
called servers and clients – these are simply service providers and
consumers. The workstation is of significant importance. Indeed,
various people have used the term “workstation” to mean different
things. It is used to mean a network terminal (intelligent, but without a
disc). It often refers to a terminal with RISC processors, instead of
Intel. In general, a workstation is simply a high-end PC.

Self-check 1.1
Differentiate between the terms data, information, and knowledge. Then give
one example for each term.
Activity 1.2
? What do you understand from the term “know-how”?
Explain in your own words.
1.3.3 Brief history of communication

To appreciate IT better, it would be incomplete without looking at a brief
history of communication. Being the second most important component of IT,
communication is responsible for transferring data, information, images,
pictures, colours, and so on. It brings people together without being physically
together.
The history of communication can be traced back to the early history of man.
Speech developed about 200 000 years ago; symbols were developed some
30 000 years ago; while writing started about 7 000 years ago. A brief
chronological history is presented in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6: History of Communication

3500 BC The Phoenicians started to use alphabets
0105 BC The first paper was invented
1450 AD The first newspaper appeared in Europe
1455 AD Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press
1876 AD Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone
1888 AD Hertz discovered radio waves
1894 AD Wireless was born
1901 Marconi sends a radio signal across the Atlantic
1926 Baird Invented television
1941 First microwave transmission
1947 The transistor was invented
1966 Fibre optic cable was invented
1969 ARPANET was launched – this became the Internet
1979 First cellular phone was introduced
1979 First cellular phone was introduced

1992 Tim Berners-Lee launched the World Wide Web (WWW)
2000-now Diffusion of the cellular phones among ordinary people
connectivity of the telephones to computers; widespread use of
the Internet; and so forth – all pave the way for full integration of
computers and communication.
Today, the convergence of computers and communication technologies has

become so real and so common. Hand-phones and laptop computers are
two items that are easily owned by students and laymen. The Internet is a real
manifestation of the merger between computers and communication.
Computers are used to process data, pictures, images, colours, and so on –
which are kept on the Websites. Communication lines are used to transfer
processed data from computers to computers, or between Websites and user
computers.
Similar to computers, communication lines too have become bigger and faster
in capacity (that is, larger bandwidth) making the work easier for pictures,
sound, videos, and other stuff to be carried across to any destination. Thus,
the latest advance in communication network has brought people and
organisations close together without them coming together in the physical way.
1.4 Principles of Information Technology

Debates, stories and references on the effects of information technology (IT)
on its users can be obtained everywhere now. We have seen how IT helps
organisations and special people. We have heard and read how IT can
increase profitability of companies and businesses. On the other hand, we
also know the bad effects of computer viruses such as Love Bug and
Chernobyl, which have caused computer system failures at many
organisations and to individual users.
Certainly, the main objective of using IT is to help people and organisations to

solve problems and to initiate creativity, thereby making them work faster and
more effectively. IT can facilitate them in their daily activities. Therefore, IT
frees people from routine work, enables them to focus more attention on
solving problems, and improves their relationships.
The main principle of IT is the “Principle of High-Tech-High-Touch”, that is,

the more advanced the technology we rely on, the more important will the

“high- touch” (human) aspect. We should not leave everything to the machine
to handle things – that is very dangerous. Human touch needs to accompany
the work of machines. This principle emphasises that we are supposed to
adapt IT to help people, rather than asking people to adapt to IT. Let IT
become the slave of man, rather than putting people to serve
1.5 Functions and Benefits of Information Technology

Senn (1998) says that information technology performs six functions of
information works – that is, collecting, processing, generating, storing,
retrieving and delivering. In most cases, two or more functions are done
simultaneously. These are mentioned in Table 1.7, which illustrates the
functions, definitions and examples of information technology.
Table 1.7: Functions of Information Technology

Functions Definition Example
Collecting Collecting records of Calculating votes, reading
activities to be used later electricity meters
Processing The process of changing, Processing of electricity bills,
analysing, calculating and word processing, processing
synthesising all forms of of taxes
data or information
Generating Assembling information Electricity bills, tables, graphs,
into useful forms, whether charts on discs, tapes, CD-ROM
as text, audio or image files
Storing The computing process of Income tax records,
storing data and society membership
information to be used records, traffic offence
later records
Retrieving Locating (data) and Faxes, e-mails, voice mails
obtaining them again
Delivering Taking/sending/presenting E-mails, voice mails

Table 1.8: Benefits of Information Technology

Benefits
Definition
Speed A relative value – computers can perform within
seconds, at speeds that are much faster than humans.
Consistency Computers are efficient in doing repetitive jobs
consistently, that is, producing the same results for
the same jobs.
Accuracy Computers work very accurately – tracking even small

differences.
Reliability With their speed, consistency and accuracy, we can
trust and rely on computers in producing the same
results again and again.
With the benefits that can be gained from the use of IT (see Table 1.8), we
cannot ignore the opportunities offered by it. In general, there are two
categories of opportunities:
(a) Helping people: For example, assisting special people (the disabled),
increasing human productivity, and helping people towards having
better lives.
(b) Helping to solve problems: For example, assisting in the process of
problem identification, exploring a number of alternative solutions, and
implementing the solution with success.
IT has been used in various fields with the objective of solving problems and
helping people. Hence, we should know basic responsibilities of IT users.
The three basic responsibilities of users are:
(a) Knowing the capabilities and limitations of IT;
(b) Using IT ethically and correctly; and
(c) Ensuring data and information security against various threats.
1.6 Careers and Information Technology

IT is closely linked with most careers today. In general, two categories that
are related to IT and careers are:
(a) Information Technology as a Career: Technical knowledge and skills in
IT provide job opportunities in the field of IT. Among careers in IT are
systems analyst, IT officer, network administrator, network specialist,
software engineer, knowledge engineer, programmer, data processing

manager, computer system consultant, system integrator, system

administrator, chief information officer, systems engineer, website
manager, and so on. They are called IT professionals. Sometimes, they
are also considered as important players behind the computer, that is,
those who develop and maintain software and IT tools.
(b) Information technology users: IT users are generally known as end-

users. End-users get involved in the use of IT, but they are not required
to have technical knowledge of IT. Indeed, they know better about the
use of software or specific hardware. For example, doctors use
computers to access patient information, but they do not need the
technical knowledge of computers. In general, users can be divided
into three types – novice users, semi-skilled users, and skilled users. IT
applications are created for them to use.
Both IT professionals and IT users need to communicate with each other for
the increased use of IT, for creating new ideas, and for getting the desired
benefits.
Self-check 1.2
State six types of careers in the field of information technology.
1.7 Information Technology in Zimbabwe

The just released World Economic Forum Global Information Technology
Report for 2010–2011 ranks Zimbabwe 132 out of 138 countries in the
Network Readiness Index (NRI). This is Zimbabwe’s third time in a row at
this position.
The NRI framework gauges three components to come up with a country’s

total NRI score: the environment component, which measures the
infrastructure, market and I.CT regulation in the country; the readiness
component, which measures the business, government and individual
readiness to use ICTs in their daily activities and the usage component which
measure the actual usage of ICTs in a country.
According to the report, usage of ICTs in Zimbabwe, especially that of

government and individuals, has the lowest score of all indicators measured.

Other NRI indicators that scored low for Zimbabwe include ‘venture capital
availability’, ‘software piracy rate’, ‘International Internet Bandwidth’ and
‘Secure Internet Servers per million people’.
However, there are signs of an increase in the use of IT in the manufacturing

processes of small and medium-sized industries.
1.8 Trends in the ICT Sector

Zimbabwe has been beleaguered by economic, social, and political turmoil in
recent years which has a debilitating effect on its ICT sector. The country
nevertheless has a dedicated national ICT policy that was adopted in 2005
and that makes significant references to the promotion of ICTs in education
including pedagogical use in educational institutions. Zimbabwe also has a
vibrant civil society sector that promotes ICT for development and education.
There is general optimism regarding the role and importance of ICTs for
development and their role in alleviating poverty. The Government of National
Unity (GNU) has realised the need to improve infrastructure and increase
bandwidth to facilitate access to online information.
The emerging trend in the ICT arena was the approval of the new ICT strategy
plan for Zimbabwe in 2010. Among the issues addressed in the plan are
licensing, infrastructure, mobile phone security, digital security, e-governance,
e-education and e- health, as well as the overall growth perspectives for the
ICT sector to “catch up” with other countries on the continent and the world.
The plan aims at bridging the technology gap among Zimbabwe and its African
neighbours by providing modern technology, becoming a hub of software and
hardware development
Given the low level of market development in Zimbabwe, opportunities exist

in all areas of the ICT sector. There are a number of public sector and private
sector projects underway and investment proposals being prepared to
improve the fibre optic cable infrastructure in the country, and to connect,
over land, to various undersea cable landing stations. Econet, NetOne and
Telecel have both launched major network upgrade and expansion initiatives
to cater for the surge in mobile demand and there is a large opportunity for
providing last mile access using different technologies.

1.9 Legislative Environment

Zimbabwe has five laws that govern the terrain of information and
communications:
1. Postal and Communications Act (2004)
2. Broadcasting Act (2001)
3. Access to Information and Protection of Privacy Act (AIPPA) (2002)
4. Interception of Communications Act (ICA) (2007)
5. Criminal Law (Codification and Reform) Act (Criminal Code) (2004)
AIPPA has three components: the first deals with access to information, the
second prohibits misuse of personal information held by public bodies, and
the third has clauses that regulate and restrict the media and journalists.
Although the first component gives everyone the right to access recorded
information held by the government and public bodies, the enjoyment of this
right is very difficult as the type and nature of information available is restricted
and procedures for disclosure are cumbersome. One has to lodge an
application through the Zimbabwe Media Commission (ZMC). Additionally,
there are no provisions requiring the government to be open and transparent
and to assist the public by publishing information regularly and making it
widely accessible.
The second part prevents the misuse of personal information contained in

databases of public bodies; .but does not include commercial and private
bodies. There is a need to expand this section to include clauses that relate to
“individual privacy, security, cyber crimes, ethical and moral conduct,
encryption and digital signatures,” amongst others.
The third section controls the media and the conduct of journalists and has
been much criticised.
The ICA provides for the lawful interception and monitoring of certain
communications in the course of their transmission through any
telecommunication, postal or other related service or system in Zimbabwe.
This law requires operators of telecommunications companies to install
software and hardware to enable them to intercept and store information as
directed by the state.
The Criminal Code contains various clauses that warn journalists against
publishing false statements prejudicial to the state.

Activity 1.4
? There are five ICT related laws that have been passed by
Parliament. In pairs, state all the laws together with their
explanations.
1.10Summary
In this unit we have discussed the meaning of the information era, and the
technology used in this era – that is, information technology. We have also
looked at brief histories of computers and communication. Latest
developments and opportunities in Zimbabwe created by the progress of IT
should not be ignored. We need to share experiences, manpower, expertise,
wisdom – and all these are also termed as “smart partnership” – to grab the
opportunities offered by IT.
Key Terms
Communication
Computers
ICT Laws
Information era
Information technology

References
Hodson, P. (2010). Local Area Network. Letts Educational.
O’Brien, J.A. (2010). Management of Information System. McGraw Hill.
Shelly, G.B. and Vermaat, M.F. (2009). Discovering Computer 2009:
Complete. Boston, USA: Course Technology, Cengage Learning.
Ward, P. (2008). Database Management Systems. Cegage learning.


Unit Two
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.0 Introduction
A computer system can be divided into two main components hardware

and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the computer,
while software consists of the programs that command the working of
hardware. The two components must be present, the absence of anyone of
which would make any computer system useless.
In this unit, we will discuss the most important component of the computer
hardware the Central Processing Unit (CPU). The CPU or the processor is
the centre of all activities responsible for changing raw data into the required
information inside the computer. It is a collection of complex electrical circuits
containing thousands or millions of transistors, which are placed or installed
over an integrated circuit. The integrated circuit is also called the chip, or
microchip, because all the transistors are designed or placed on a very small
silicon chip.
Then we will move on to the next most important computer hardware the
memory. This is the hardware component that works closely with the CPU.
While the CPU performs the complexity of processing, memory lends itself
for storing the data, the intermediate data, and the results for the CPU.
Besides the data being processed, the program codes are also stored inside
the memory. The processor and memory work hand-in-hand while the
computer is on. Next, we will also discuss the system unit, the system clock,
and so forth.
2.1 Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 explain what is a CPU and memory

 discuss data representation and coding scheme
 examine various tools and hardware inside the system
unit
2.2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The CPU or processor is designed and built in various forms. In the personal
computer, a processor is a microprocessor chip. In a bigger system, such as
the mainframes and the supercomputers, a few circuit boards are used. The
CPU can be present in various forms, and is placed on the motherboard, or
system board. The job of a CPU is to execute the stored software instructions,
turning data into information. These instructions are executed in machine
language, as shown in Figure 2.1.

Unit 2 Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Figure 2.1: Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2.2.1 Control unit

The control unit of the processor can be compared with the ‘human brain”. It
informs the entire computer on how to execute program instructions. The job
of the control unit is shown in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Control Unit

In other words, the control unit manages the taking of an instruction, decodes
the instruction to know its aim, instructs the ALU to execute the instruction,
and then directs storing of results to the memory (primary storage), register,
or cache.
2.2.2 Arithmetic logic unit

The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) executes two types of operations, which are,
arithmetic operation and logical operation, (see Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3: Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Self-check 2.1
1. State two sections of the CPU.
2. Explain the functions of the control unit.
3. What are the two types of operations carried out by the arithmetic
logic unit?
Activity 2.1
? In every computer, the CPU is like the “brain” of a computer.
Why is the CPU compared to the brain? Explain. Post your
answer in the forum and compare it with your course mates.
2.3 Microprocessor Chip

Inside bigger computers, such as the mainframes and supercomputers, various
CPU functions are carried out by chips on different circuit boards. However,

for microcomputers, the CPU is usually located on one chip only, which is
termed as the microprocessor. Besides containing the control unit and ALU,
the microprocessor also contains registers and a system clock.
Most new microprocessors have been integrated with multimedia technology,

or 3D graphics. Specific microprocessors for notebooks and servers are also
being made and sold by manufacturers.
Two types of microprocessor chips are:

(a) CISC Chip: Microprocessors that are commonly used are the
Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC) chip. This technology has
been popularised by Intel, and has become the basis of its
microprocessors. This chip design has been used very widely, and
many programmes have been written specifically for this type.
(b) RISC Chip: This type of computer chip uses the approach of Reduced
Instruction Set Computing (RISC), which involves less instruction. Its
design is simpler and cheaper than the CISC chip. This chip is used
mostly inside high- powered microcomputers. Refer to Table 2.1 for
the most popular microprocessors.
Table 2.1: Popular Microprocessors
Microprocessor Type Normal Uses

Pentium CISC Microcomputers
PowerPC RISC Apple Macintosh computer
Alpha RISC Supercomputers, Workstations
MIPS RISC Workstations, Video Players
Self-check 2.2
State two types of microprocessor chips and their uses.
2.4 Memory
The memory is separated from the CPU, but is normally integrated with it,
and is accessed by it. Data and instructions need to be present inside the

memory before being accessed by the CPU. The memory simply holds the
data and instructions temporarily, as long as the programme being used is
operational. In general, the storage space for the memory can be used in five
different forms:
(a) For storing the operating system and other system software
programmes that act as interfaces between hardware and application
programmes and controlling computer resources.
(b) For storing application programmes like word processors,
spreadsheets, and databases.
(c) For storing data temporarily, i.e. data received from input devices or
secondary storage to be processed or to be sent to output devices or
secondary storage after processing.
(d) For storing data required during processing inside an area of storage
work.
(e) For providing additional storage space to programmes or data, if
required. If the computer has excessive storage space for memory, the
excess space is not to be used, but it can or is ready to be used. The
total memory utilisation changes during processing.
Figure 2.4 illustrates how the memory communicates with the processor.
Figure 2.4: How the Memory Communicates with the Processor
Source: http://www.photos8.com/view/computer_memory_ram-other.html

There are three types of memory chips as shown in Figure 2.5.These are,
Random Access Memory (RAM), Read Only Memory (ROM), and Chip
Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS).
Figure 2.5: Three Types of Memory Chips
Self-check 2.3
There are many types of memory inside a computer. What are the main
functions of memory?
2.4.1 Ram
The Random Access Memory (RAM) stores the programs and data being

processed by the CPU. It is a temporary storage because as soon as the

electrical switch is turned off, all that has been saved inside the RAM will be
lost.
However, there is a new type of RAM that can store programmes and data
permanently. The Flash RAM, or Flash memory chip can store data even
when there is an electrical failure. This type of memory is more expensive than
the normal RAM, and is mostly used in portable computers.
The capability or content of the RAM is measured in bytes. Four units of

measurement that are normally used to describe memory capability, are as
shown in Table 2.2:
Table 2.2: Memory Capacity
Unit Capacity
Kilobyte (KB) 1 024 bytes
Megabyte (MB) 1 048 576 bytes
Gigabyte (GB) 1 073 741 824 bytes
Terabyte (TB) 1 099 511 627 776 bytes
Two types of RAM chips that are normally used are:

(i) DRAM
DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, is the memory that holds data in a
dynamic manner. Data is not stored continuously. Instead, the computer
will refresh the data hundreds of times every second. DRAM is
normally used in personal computers.
(ii) SRAM
SRAM stands for Static RAM, is the memory that holds data
continuously for as long as there is electricity, without any refresh
process. SRAM is faster than DRAM, but its design is more complex.
To know in detail about computer memory, please visit the website:
http:// www.howstuffworks.com/computer-memory.htm
2.4.2 ROM
The ROM chip contains a programme that is loaded in the factory. The ROM
chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by users. “Read-Only”
means that the CPU can read or access the programme written inside the
ROM chip. Computers cannot write, code or change any data or instruction

inside the ROM. There are four types of ROM that are normally used, as
shown in Table 2.3:
Table 2.3: Types of ROM
Type of ROM Functions

PROM Programmable ROM.
EPROM Erasable Programmable ROM, the content of which can be
erased by using the Ultra-Violet Ray method.
EEPROM Electrically EPROM that can be erased by electricity, the
content of which can be changed or programmed
electronically.
Flash Memory Also known as Flash ROM. Flash Memory can be erased and
programmed electronically.
2.4.3 CMOS
The CMOS chip provides flexibility and expandability to the computer system.
It contains important information that is required every time the computer
system is started. This chip provides information such as the total RAM size,
type of keyboard, mouse, monitor and disc drive. It uses battery power and
its contents remain permanent even after the electricity supply is disconnected.
Its content changes according to changes inside the computer system, such as
the addition of new hardware and RAM.
Self-check 2.4
What do you know about Flash Memory? State the differences and
similarities between Flash Memory and ROM or RAM.
2.5 Data Representation

Computers consider all data, numbers, alphabets, and symbols as numbers.
Even computer instructions are also in numerical form (machine language).
The numbering systems used by computers are the binary numbers,
hexadecimal numbers, and octal numbers, as shown in Table 2.4. Computers
use binary digits - zero (0) and one (1) - normally called bits, to represent
data.

Table 2.4: Numbering System Symbols

Numbering System No. of Symbols Symbols Used
Binary system 2 0,1
Octal system 8 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
Decimal system 10 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Hexadecimal system 16 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D,
E, F
There are three binary coding schemes; the most popular one uses eight (8)
bits to form one (1) byte. These codes are ASCII, EBCDIC and Unicode, as
explained in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5: Coding Schemes
Code Definition
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange.
EBCIC Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.
Unicode 16-bit code invented to cater for the need of international
languages like Chinese and Japanese.
Code Definition
ASCII EBCICUnicode American Standard Code for Information

Interchange. Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code.16-bit
code invented to cater for the need of international languages like Chinese
and Japanese.
When a key is depressed on the keyboard, the character is changed

automatically to a series of electrical pulses that can be recognised by the
system. For example, when the key A is depressed, it will cause an electrical
signal to be transmitted to the microcomputer system unit. The system unit
will then change the signal into ASCII code, which is, 0100 0001. Before
execution, all instructions and data need to be converted into binary form.
For example, 3 + 5 requires 24 bits with the use of ASCII coding scheme.
It would be good if we understand the concept of converting numbers

between binary, octal and hexadecimal systems as illustrated in Table 2.6:

Table 2.6: Examples of Numbers in Various Numbering Systems
Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

1 00000001 01 01
2 00000010 02 02
5 00000101 05 05
8 00001000 10 08
10 00001010 12 0A
11 00001011 13 0B
15 00001111 17 0F
16 00010000 20 10
20 00010100 24 14
160 10100000 240 A
Please refer to Table 2.7 to see how data is represented in ASCII and
EBCDIC codes.
Table 2.7: Binary Coding Schemas for ASCII and EBCDIC

Symbol ASCII EBCDIC Symbol ASCII EBCDIC
A 0100 0001 1100 0001 ! 0010 0001 0101 1010
B 0100 0010 1100 „ 0010 0010 0111 1111
C 0100 0011 1100 # 0010 0011 0111 1011
D 0100 0100 1100 $ 0010 0100 0101 1011
E 0100 0101 1100 % 0010 0101 0110 1100
F 0100 0110 1100 & 0010 0110 0101 0000
G 0100 0111 1100 ( 0010 1000 0100 1101
H 0100 1000 1100 ) 0010 1001 0101 1101
I 0100 1001 1100 1001 * 0010 1010 0101 1100
J 0100 1010 1101 + 0010 1011 0100 1110
K 0100 1011 1101 0 0011 0000 1111 0000
L 0100 1100 1101 1 0011 0001 1111 0001
M 0100 1101 1101 2 0011 0010 1111 0010
N 0100 1110 1101 3 0011 0011 1111 0011
O 0100 1111 1101 4 0011 0100 1111 0100
P 0101 0000 1101 5 0011 0101 1111 0101
Q 0101 0001 1101 6 0011 0110 1111 0110
R 0101 0010 1101 7 0011 0111 1111 0111
S 0101 0011 1110 8 0011 1000 1111 1000
T 0101 0100 1110 9 0011 1001 1111 1001
U 0101 0101 1110
V 0101 0110 1110
W 0101 0111 1110
X 0101 1000 1110 0111
Y 0101 1001 1010
Z 0101 1010 1110

Self-check 2.5
We know that people interact by using language. How do computers interact?

Explain.
2.6 System Unit

The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor, memory
chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips and related
circuits are placed), and other electrical components are located. It is also
called the “System Cabinet” for the mainframes, or the “System Board” for
the microcomputers. Even though the system unit also includes hard disks,
floppy disks, CD-ROM and others, we are not going to touch on these devices,
as they are located outside the CPU. We are only going to focus on the
sections listed.
2.6.1 Power supply

The power supply plays the role of changing electrical current from Alternating
Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC). Normally, there is a fan to cool down
the transformer and other components. If the electrical power is not uniform,
for example, there is high-and-low voltage or power surge, this may damage
the main board, hard disks and others. Hence, it is advisable to install special
equipment like Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS), voltage regulator, and so
on.
2.6.2 Main/System board

The system board, or main board, is a communication network for the entire
computer system. Every component of the system unit is connected directly
to the system board. It functions as a data-bus that enables various components
to communicate with each other. External devices like the keyboard, mouse
and monitor cannot communicate with the system unit without the system
board.
The system board is a thin circuit board that is filled up with sockets and
electronic components including various types of chips. One chip contains a
very small circuit board embedded in a stamp-size piece of silicon. This chip
is also known as the silicon chip, semiconductor, or integrated circuit. The
chips are packaged and inserted into the sockets of the system board. These
electronic components and chips are fixed to the system board as illustrated
in Figure 2.6.

Figure 2.6: Main Board
2.6.3 ROM chip

The ROM chip contains a program that has been developed or burnt at the
factory, that is, the program that is required for the computer to operate, or to
start operating the computer such as hardware checking, BIOS, and so on.
BIOS stands for Basic Input Output System. The BIOS chip is normally
used, and is partly hardware and partly software.
The BIOS provides a service enabling software to communicate with the

input and output devices. The ROM BIOS contains specific instructions. When
a computer is switched on, the BIOS will perform Power-On Self-Test
(POST), such as diagnostic tests for the CPU and memory. It will then test
communications with the hardware such as the keyboard, disk drive and others.
Finally, the BIOS will boot up the operating system and submit control to the
operating system.
2.6.4 Slot and expansion board

Many computers are of the open architecture, where we can open up and
add-on new devices, and then expand its capability. Expansion means adding
more memory or devices or software. This is made possible through the
expansion slot and the expansion board.

The expansion slot is a socket on the main board, which enables an expansion
card to be installed. An expansion card, or expansion board, or adapter, or
simply card, is actually a circuit board that gives more memory, or input/
output device control, or software.
An expansion card is inserted into the slot inside the system unit. A port on the
card enables cabling to be connected from the added card to the device
outside the system unit. We will see various functions of the boards or cards,
are shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8: Functions of Boards or Cards
Board or Card Functions

Network Adapter Connects one computer to other computers. This is a
Card communication network in which users can share data,
programmes and hardware. This card normally connects the
system unit to a cable that connects other devices in the
network. The network adapter card is inserted into the slot
inside the system unit.
Small Most computers have limited expansion slots. The SCSI

Computer card uses only one slot, but it can connect up to seven
System devices to the system unit. This card is used to connect
Interface devices like the printer, hard disc drive and CD-ROM to the
(SCSI) Card system unit.
TV Adjuster Card The TV board that contains the TV and video adjuster can
change the TV signals to a form that can be displayed on
the monitor.
PC Card Due to the size and limitations of portable computers, an
additional board of credit-card size has been created. This
card can easily be slotted in and changed from the outside
of portable computers. This is called the PC Card, or the
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
(PCMCIA).
Memory It is useful for increasing memory and associating with
Expansion other computers. Enables addition of RAM chips.
Display Adapter Enables various colour video display for monitors being
Card used.
Control Card Enables the CPU to work with various software devices
such as the disk control card.
Accelerator Card Increases the speed of computers.
such as the disk control card.

Accelerator Card Increases the speed of computers.
Emulator Card Enables computers to emulate other devices like the
terminals.
Fax-Modem card Receives fax/data/information via telephone lines.
Graphic Adapter Enables computers to use a certain graphic standard.
Sound Card Translates data into sound output
Voice Card. Enables voice output
2.6.5 Port
The port is a connecting socket located outside the system unit. The port
enables software devices, or input/output devices to be plugged in for
connection to the computer, so that they can communicate with the computer
system. A cable can be used to connect input/output devices to the system
unit through the port, as shown in Figure 2.7.
Figure 2.7: Ports
There are various types of ports and their functions are as shown in Table 2.9.

Table 2.9: Various Types of Ports

Types of Ports Functions
Parallel Port It is used for connecting external devices, which send or receive
data in a big amount at a short distance. This port normally sends
simultaneously 8-bit data via 8 parallel wires. A parallel port is
used to connect a printer to the system unit.
Serial Port It connects the mouse, keyboard, modem and other devices to the
system unit. Serial port sends data 1 bit at a time, and is suitable
for sending information at long distance.
Accelerated It is used for connecting to the monitor, and can support high-
Graphic Port speed graphics and other video inputs.
(AGP)
Universal Serial Bus It is forecasted to replace serial and parallel ports. It is fast, and
(USB) Port one USB port can connect a few devices to the system unit.
Electrical Wire The latest port that is faster than the USB port, and is used to
Port connect high-speed printers and video cameras to the system unit.
2.6.6 PCMCIA card and Slot

This is a new bus standard for notebook computers, hand-held computers,
and portable computers. The PCMCIA card has been used widely for desktop
computers. It enables devices of credit-card size like the memory card (up to
100MB), modem and hard disk to be plugged in. There are four types of
PCMCIA slots, as shown in Table 2.10.
Table 2.10: PCMCIA Slots

PCMCIA Slot Functions
Type I Often used for memory card (RAM, flash, EEPROM),
especially for laptop computers and Personal Digital
Assistant (PDA). About 3.3 mm thick.
Type II Fully capable I/O; used for modem/fax; and adapter for
LAN. About 5 mm thick.
Type III Often used for devices like moveable hard disks.
About 10.5 mm thick.
Type IV Used for high volume disk drive. About 18 mm thick.

Self-check 2.6
1. What are the functions of graphic adapter cards? Give examples.
2. What is the system/main board? Explain the contents of the stem/main
board that is available on your personal computer.
2.7 System Clock

The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electrical pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The control unit
is very dependent on the system clock for doing its job. The system clock
controls the speed of operation inside the computer. This speed is measured
in megahertz (MHz). One megahertz is equal to one million cycles per second.
The faster the clock speed, the faster the computer’s ability to process
information.
2.8 Bus Line

The bus line is also known as data bus, or simply “bus”, which connects the
CPU components with each other. It also connects the CPU to various other
components on the system board. The bus is a data passage way along which
bits move. This data passage way is similar to the highway. The more lanes it
has, the faster the traffic moves. Similarly, the bigger the bus capacity, the
faster the speed of computer execution. Figure 2.8 shows the bus line on the
CPU.
Figure 2.8: Bus line

When a microprocessor chip changes, the bus line also changes. Most of the
devices like the expansion board, will work with one type of bus only. There
are three types of bus lines as shown in Figure 2.9.
Figure 2.9: Three Bus Lines
(a) Industrial Standard Architecture (ISA)

ISA bus was built for the IBM personal computer. It has a capacity of
8-bit and 16-bit. Despite being not fast enough for most of today’s
computer applications, the ISA bus is still used widely.
(b) Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)

PCI was originally built to fulfil video needs as a result of using the
graphical user interface. The PCI bus has a capacity of 32-bit and 64-
bit, which is 20 times faster than the ISA bus. The PCI is used to
connect the CPU, memory and expansion board.
(c) Accelerated Graphics Port (AGP)

AGP is the most recent bus with twice the speed of the PCI bus. The
AGP is used specially for accelerating graphic performances. It is often
used for graphics and 3-D animation, and also for replacing the PCI
bus in video data transfers.
Self-check 2.7
Explain the three types of bus line. List their characteristics and uses.

Activity 2.2
? In groups discuss how data moves inside the computer.
Make a presentation.
2.9 Summary
In this unit we discussed that CPU is divided into two sections, or two units,
which are: Control Unit and Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU). The Control Unit
of the processor can be compared with the “human brain”. It informs the
entire computer on how to execute program instructions. Arithmetic Logic
Unit (ALU) executes two types of operations, which are: arithmetic operations
and logical operations. Both the Central Processing Unit (CPU) and memory
always need each other. However, the memory is not part of the CPU. The
Random Access Memory (RAM) stores the programs and data being
processed by the CPU. The ROM chip contains a programme that is loaded
in the factory. The ROM chip does not evaporate and cannot be changed by
users. The system unit is a hardware unit or a space where the processor,
memory chips, ports, buses, additional slots, board (hardware in which chips
and related circuits are placed), and other electrical components are located.
The system clock is a circuit chip, which generates electrical pulses at a fixed
rate to synchronise or control timing activities of processing. The bus line is
also known as data bus, or simply “bus”, which connects the CPU
components with each other.
Key Terms
Arithmetic Logic Unit
Bus Line
Control Unit
CPU Hardware
PCMCIA
Port
RAM ROM Software

References


Unit Three
Input and Output
3.0 Introduction
I n the previous unit, you have been introduced to the processor and memory,
being the two most important components of computer hardware. To enable
the processor to process data, and to enable the memory to store them, data
needs to be brought into the computer. After processing, the resulting
information needs to be taken out of the computer. These two jobs of taking
and taking out data are done by the input-output unit of the computer system.
In this unit, you will learn about various input and output methods. The
keyboard is the most common input device used. Besides the keyboard, there
are many other latest input and output devices that are available in the market.
They will also be discussed here.
3.1 Objectives
 explain various input methods and devices

 explain various output methods and devices
3.2 Input and Output
Activity 3.1
? In groups, discuss how we can interact with the computer.
Input is like a bridge between data and processing, which is
to enable data to be carried from the users to the computer.
Input may be required to answer questions, and it needs
processing. Output is like a link between computer
processing and people. Output to be produced is
determined by the analysis of user needs. Input and output
devices are also referred to as peripherals. We are going to
see how input and output devices work, as shown in Figure
3.1.

Unit 3 Input and Output
Figure 3.1: Input Devices
3.3 Input Methods

Various types of source documents require various input methods and devices.
Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the machine (computer)
and transferred as input directly into the computer. Indirect data entry requires
various media and processing of the data source before the actual computer
processing. In general, there are three approaches to data entry, as shown in

Table 3.1: Types of Data Entry

Types of Input Data Definition
Off-line data entry After data has been entered, it will be changed into a
suitable form, and will be verified. Data will be
corrected if there are errors. All data that has been
confirmed as correct will be processed. This method is
less often used now, and this is also referred to as the
batch method.
On-line data entry Similar to off-line data entry; the difference is that the
data entered is directly examined and corrected. After
all the data has been entered, processing will then be
done on them.
Interactive data entry Similar to on-line data entry, except that, data is
examined every time it is entered and processing on the
data is done immediately. There is no need to wait for
all the data to be entered.
Input devices take data and programmes that can be read or understood by
humans, and convert them into a form that can be processed by the computer.
This new form consists of electronic signals of 0 and 1, which can be read by
machines as explained in the section on data representation.
There are two types of input devices:

(a) Entry via the Keyboard: Data is transferred as input into the computer
via a keyboard that resembles the keyboard of a typewriter, but
contains a few additional keys. For this type of entry, users read the
original document, called the source document. The contents of this
document will be entered via the keyboard.
(a) Direct entry: Data is already in a machine-readable form, and it is

simultaneously entered into the computer, without using the keyboard.
An example of an input device that uses both types of entries, entry via the
keyboard and direct entry, is the Point-Of-Sale (POS) terminal. It is a kind of
electronic cash register that is used widely in business.
Self-check 3.1
What is the difference between off-line data entry and interactive data entry?

3.3.1 Keyboard
Devices that are often used are the keyboard for data entry, and the terminal
for displaying what has been entered. There are various forms, styles, sizes,
arrangements, touch or feel, and the number of keys.
(a) Number of Keys
Normally there are 101 keys, but it also depends on the types of
computers, especially the types of microcomputers, whether they are
desktop or handheld. Hand-held computers provide fewer numbers
of keys because of their small size.
(b) Group/Type of Keys

There are various groups/types of keys as shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2: Types of Keys
Types of Keys Definition

Alphanumeric Consists of numbers and alphabets, similar to the
typewriter.
Cursor Movement Cursor, the symbol on the display screen, which

shows the site of data to be entered, is also called
the arrow.
Numeric Also called the numeric keypad, these are separate

keys for numbers 0-9, which have been arranged
like a calculator. Sometimes, there are two
objectives, depending on the Num Lock key, that
is, cursor or numeric movements.
(d) Functions
Keys that are labelled as F, and normally F1-F12, have their functions
defined by the software.
(e) Special objectives

Normally called additional keys, these are keys which have specific
tasks like Backspace, Delete, Insert, Escape, Home, Pause, Print
Screen, and others.
(e) Arrangement
Arrangements of alphanumeric keys, which normally follows the

QWERTY order because the first five keys at the top line for
alphanumeric letters are Q, W, E, R, T and Y. A new arrangement is
the DVORAK order. This new arrangement of keys is made following
the use of keys, i.e. the keys that are always used will be placed at an
easily accessible location. As such, vowel letters A, E, I, O and U are
normally placed on the left, while D, H, N, S, T on the right. The next
five keys that are most often used are placed on the top most line, and
so on.
(f) Touch/feel
Now, the softness of pressing the keys and the sound emitted can be
controlled by software.
(g) Styles (and size or shape)

These are designed according to its inventor, to be user-friendly and
more ergonomic. Ergonomics is a study of how to make something
user-friendly, or less danger-prone, or less uncomfortable to users.
Figure 3.2: Keyboard
The keyboard contains a control and buffer keys. Whatever is typed will be
stored inside a buffer (which can store more than one symbol), and will later
be scanned by the computer processor after receiving interrupt signals from
the control key.

3.3.2 Terminal
The terminal is an input (and output) device that connects you to a mainframe
or other types of computers, called a host computer, or server. There are
three types of terminals: dumb terminals, intelligent terminals, and network
terminals.
Their functions are defined and shown in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3: Types of Terminals

Types of Definition
Terminal
Dumb Used for input and to receive data, but cannot process data by
Terminals themselves. They are used only to access information from the
computer and are often found at airline companies, post offices and
RTD offices.
Intelligent They have a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage like a
Terminals magnetic disk. Basically, an intelligent terminal is a microcomputer
with the communication software and modem or other
communication connectivity. This connects the terminals to a bigger
computer, or the Internet. The more popular type is NetPC.
Network Also known as network computers, they are cheaper alternatives to

Terminals intelligent terminals. Most network terminals do not have a hard disk
drive, and must rely on the host computer or the server for their
system and application software.
3.3.3 Pointing device
Activity 3.2
? Normally, data is entered into the computer via the
keyboard. Do you know of other methods that are used to
enter data?
Pointing is a natural human activity. There are several devices that utilise this
method, as shown in Figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Pointing Devices

(a) Mouse: Move (roll) to direct a pointer/cursor/icon on the screen.
When the ball at the bottom of the mouse rolls, the vertical and
horizontal coordinates (position) of the mouse cursor changes. By
checking the coordinate, a computer can determine the cursor’s
position and displays the cursor on the screen. It is considered to be
the most user-friendly device.

Figure 3.4: Mouse
There are various models of the mouse as illustrated in Table 3.4.
Table 3.4: Models of the Mouse
Types of Mouse Definition

Ball Mouse It uses balls to move, and also known as a
mechanical mouse.
Optical Mouse It uses light and requires a mouse pad that can
reflect the light.
This mouse contains a section called photo-
detector. It functions like the ball mouse, and is
normally used on a high- powered computer
like the server.
Touch SensitiveMouse This has a pad that is sensitive to finger touch,
for moving the icon/cursor.
Wireless Mouse It communicates with the computer by emitting

infrared signals or low-intensity radio signals.

Figure 3.5: Wireless Mouse

(b) Touch Screen: It is a monitor screen that is overlaid with a plastic
layer. At the back of the layer, there is an invisible, criss-crossing
infrared light. This arrangement enables a user to choose either an action
or instruction on the screen by using fingers. The touch screen is easier
to use, especially when someone requires information immediately. It is
usually used at automatic teller machines (ATM), information kiosks,
Pizza Hut restaurants, and PETRONAS petrol stations.
(c) Light Pen: It is a pen, or is a device like a pen, that is light sensitive and
is connected via a cable to the computer. The location (or choice) is
identified by pressing its button against a specific position on the screen.
It is normally used for drawing images and selection of the menu.
(d) Digital board: It is a device that can be used to plot or to copy a

certain drawing or picture. The item to be copied is placed on a digital
tablet. Then, a specific stylus connected to the computer is used to plot
the material. As the stylus moves from one location to another, the
computer records the locations from the digital tablet. When the material
has been plotted, the image can be displayed on screen, printed on
paper, or stored in a computer system for future use. Digitisers are
normally used by designers, architects, and engineers.
(e) Pen-based system: This uses a pen to enter handwritings or marks

into the computer containing software to identify and digitise
handwritings and also hand drawings. There are various types of hand-
based systems like those illustrated in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5: Types of Pen-Based Systems

Types Definition
Recognition of Signal A system that can recognise various reading
Movement or Electronic marks, letters, and printed numbers.
Checking
Handwriting Saved as a Handwriting is saved as a brief, and not as a type-

Sketch/Brief written text.
Handwriting Changed to Type A system that can be trained to recognise clear

Written Text with Training and good handwriting.
Handwriting Changed to Type This system is the most difficult and complex.
Written Text without Training
Self-check 3.2
1. How do computers receive data from the mouse?
2. State two types of pointing devices often used.
3.3.4 Scanning device

Scanning devices translate images, texts, drawings, pictures and similar items
into a digital form for direct entry to the computer. Images that have been
processed can be displayed on the screen, saved on the storage device, and
sent to other computers. There are two technologies optical recogniser and
magnetic recogniser, as illustrated in Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6: Recognition Technology

(a) Optical Recognition: This technology-device, also known as the
optical reader, uses light to scan images. An example of an optical
recognition device is illustrated in Figure 3.7.
(i) Barcode Reader: Barcode Reader is used for reading input in bar-
form - marks that resemble vertically-shaped zebra stripes.
(ii) Optical Mark Reader (OMR): OMR is used as a device that reads
pencil marks in UPSR and PMR examinations and can be used for
marking the objective questions of Section A, OUM final examinations
(iii) Optical Character Reader (OCR): OCR is used for reading specific
pre-printed characters (in specific font), for example the OCR-A font
(the one perfected by ANSI).
(iv) Optical Handwriting Reader: Optical Handwriting Reader is used
for reading handwriting, but its capability is still limited.

Figure 3.7: Optical Recognition

(v) Fax Machine: Fax machine is used for scanning images and sending
them electronically via telephone line to a destination (fax machine).
There are two types: Dedicated Fax Machine or simply known as the
fax machine; and Fax Modem which is installed in a computer to enable
electronic documents to be sent directly to its receiver (either fax
machine or computer). It is faster but it cannot scan non- electronic
documents.

Figure 3.8: Fax Machine

(vi) Imaging System is an image scanning device that converts all texts,
drawings, pictures and others into digital form. Imaging system
technology has created imaging industries by combining the use of
scanners, cameras, and so on.
(b) Magnetic Recognition: This uses magnetic methods to scan magnetic
writing. The technological device used is the Magnetic Ink Character
Reader (MICR). The MICR reads the number (in strange form) that is
printed using magnetic ink. The MICR is often used in cheques to
facilitate sorting, as done by the Central Bank of Zimbabwe, and other
banks.
(c) Voice Recognition Device: It converts human voice/speech into digital
codes. Human voice is transferred through a microphone that is
connected to a computer. When this input device is combined with
sound cards and appropriate software, a system of sound recognition
is formed. This system enables a user to operate a microcomputer to
develop documents by giving orders using the human voice. It has the
potential to be used as a security method.

(d) Smart and Optical Card: The smart card refers to the multi-purpose
card, or MyKad, distributed by the National Registration Department
(JPN), as well as credit and debit cards distributed by various
commercial banks like Maybank and CIMB.
The use of the optical card is still restricted despite its ability to store information
of up to 2 000 pages as compared to smart cards (able to store information
of up to 30 pages, depending on the capability of the microprocessor), and
magnetic cards (able to store information of up to half a page).
3.3.5 Other input devices

There are other input devices that can receive input in the form of audio,
video, electronic pictures, senses and human biology. Most of these tools
enable the use of multimedia, and there are some used for security objectives,
such as the concept of biometry. We can see various other input devices in
Figure 3.9.
Figure 3.9: Other Input Devices

(a) Audio Input Device: It is used to record and play analogue music into
digital form. It can generally receive various forms of sound as input,
whereas, a sound recognition device can receive only one type of audio
input, i.e. sound input. There are two methods of digitising the audio:
(i) Audio Board: The board that changes analogue sound to digital sound
and saves it for future use.
(ii) MIDI Board: Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) board emits
digital music, which normally uses the MIDI keyboard.
(b) Video Input Device: Enables video pictures to be converted into digital
form through a specific card. There are two types of video card:
(i) Frame Capture: Can digitise one frame at a time only.
(ii) Full Movement: Can convert at the rate of 30 frames per second.
The main problem here is storage, not the input. Nowadays, digital video
cameras are available in the market, where the output is in digital form. Digital
video recorders will facilitate multimedia presentation or a form of new
broadcasting on the Internet, that is, web television.
(c) Electronic/Digital Camera: It is similar to the traditional camera
except that images are recorded digitally in the camera, or inside the
camera memory, and not on film. You can snap a picture, look at it, and
place it on the website within a few minutes.
(d) Sensor: These are input devices that collect data in specific forms directly
from the environment and send them to the computer. Sensors can be
used to track data such as speed, weight, temperature, image, shape,
light, air pollution, and so on. Have you ever weighed yourself using an
audio-enabled weighing scale at a supermarket? That is one example
of a sensing device used to measure your weight, and also your height.

Figure 3.10: Digital Camera
3.4 Input Control
Activity 3.3
? How do we know the data we have entered into the
computer is correct?
There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and to prevent
them from becoming Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO). Input control is a
collection of manual and computer control methods that have been designed
to ensure all input data are actually precise when entered into the computer.
Now, you have understood why information system needs to be developed.

Answer the questions.
Self-check 3.3
1. What is the most common type of input device? Why are there various
types of input devices?
2. State two examples of optical recognition and magnetic recognition
technologies.

3.5 Output Methods
Activity 3.4
? How do we view the processing results that we have done
inside a computer? Figure out how the results are displayed
and discuss it with your classmates.
Output can take various forms such as screen output, printed-paper, cathode
ray, signals, voice, microfilm, and so forth. In general, there are two types of
output:
Figure 3.11: Types of Output

(a) Soft Copy: This refers to a non-permanent copy of data shown on the
display screen, in audio or voice form, or in a stored electronic form in
secondary storage. This type is most suitable for data or information
that changes constantly, and is always updated.
(b) Hard Copy: This refers to a permanent copy of data in a printed form.
Anything that comes in printed form (whether text, graphic, or microfilm)
are considered hard copies. This type of output is most suitable for
data or information that does not change quickly.
Besides soft and hard copies, decisions on output largely depend on a number
of factors, such as:
(a) The frequency of output required whether always, regular, upon request,
or unpredictable.
(b) Cost involved.

(c) How much output to be produced.

(d) How fast the information is required.
(e) The situation of users.
3.6 Output Devices

Data entered needs to be processed by the computer so that they are in a
machine readable form until the output device converts them into a form that
can be read by humans. Output devices used together with microcomputers
are the monitor, printer, plotter, and voice output device. We can see examples
of output devices as illustrated in Figure 3.12.
Figure 3.12: Output Devices

3.6.1 Printer
The image displayed on the monitor is often referred to as the soft copy.
Information that is produced on paper, whether from printer or plotter, is
called a hard copy (See Figure 3.13).
Figure 3.13: Printer
Three popular types of printers always used together with microcomputers

are ink jet, laser, and thermal printers.
(a) Ink Jet Printer: Sends out droplets of ink at high speed onto the surface
of paper. This process does not only produce images of high quality
letters, but also allows printing to happen in various colours. An ink jet
printer is a printer that is reliable, quiet and cheap.
(b) Laser Printer: Utilises the emission of a laser beam onto the drum,
and is transferred onto paper by using the toner (as in the photocopy
machine). There is a laser printer that is classified as a PostScript
printer.PostScript is a printer language, often called Page Description
Language (PDL), which has been accepted as a standard for laser
printer.
(c) Term Printer: Uses heat element to produce images on heat-sensitive

paper. Originally, this printer was used in scientific laboratories to
record data. This printer is used specifically for producing output that is
almost the same as photographs.

The measure of printer speed depends on the type of printer or the method of
printing, that is, whether on the basis of characters, lines or pages. The speed
is characters per second, lines per minute or pages per minute. Most printer
models are desktop printers which are difficult move around (depending on
size). The use of laptop computers leads to portable printers.
Among the criteria in choosing printers are image quality, speed, level of noise,
and cost of operation such as ink cost, spare parts, and so on.
Self-check 3.4
1. What are the factors that influence the speed of a printer?
2. Give two types of printers that are popular now.
3.6.2 Monitor
Monitors are used for output as well as for input. There are two types of
monitors, cathode ray tube and flat panel display.
(a) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT): It is a vacuum tube that is used as a display
screen for the computer or video display terminal. The technology is
the same as the television. TheCRT is an output device commonly used
together with the computer. The smallest unit on the screen is called a
pixel (picture element).
Figure 3.14: Cathode Ray Tube Monitor

(b) Flat Panel Display: It is lighter, thinner, and uses less power as
compared to the CRT. This panel is made of two pieces of glass/plastic
that have activated materials between them.
The clarity of a monitor is determined by the resolution which is measured in
pixels. A pixel is a dot or “picture element” that forms an image on the monitor.
For a certain monitor size, higher resolution (more pixels) leads to clearer
image. For a certain degree of clarity, a bigger monitor requires a higher
resolution.
Standard
A number of standards have been developed for determining the degree of

computer resolutions. Four standards that are commonly used now are SVGA,
XGA, SXGA and UXGA. The definitions of these standards are as shown in
Table 3.6.
Table 3.6: Computer Resolution Standards
Standard Definition
VGA A short form for Super Video Graphics Array, it has a

minimum resolution of 800 x 600 pixels
XGA A short form for Extended Graphics Array, it has a
resolution of up to 1 024 x 768 pixels. XGA is a
popular standard now.
SXGA Representing Super Extended Graphics Array, this
standard has a resolution of 1 280 x 1 024 pixels.
UXGA A short form for Ultra Extended Graphics Array, it is
the latest and highest standard. Its use is continuously
growing, especially for engineering designs at high level
and for graphical fine arts.
3.6.3 Plotter
Activity 3.5
? In your opinion, what is the difference between a printer
and a plotter ?

Plotters are used specifically for producing bar charts, maps, architectural
drawings, and three-dimensional illustrations. A plotter can produce multi-
coloured documents of high quality, and also documents bigger than that
produced by other printers. There are four types of plotters: pen, ink jet,
electrostatic, and direct imaging.
(a) Pen Plotter: It moves pens or pencils on the paper draft. This plotter
is very cheap and easy to maintain, but it is slow and less capable of
producing voluminous images and shaded images.
(b) Electrostatic Plotter: It uses electrostatic charge that is faster than a

pen plotter, or ink jet plotter. An electrostatic plotter is used for
applications that require voluminous output of high quality, such as
those in advertising and design of graphic arts.
(c) Ink Jet Plotter: It produces art lines and multi-coloured output by
emitting droplets of ink onto the paper surface. Its best characteristics
are speed, high quality output, and operating quietly. Its main weakness
is the possibility of its jet getting blocked, and this requires more
maintenance.
(d) Direct Imaging Plotter or Thermal Plotter: It produces an image by

using heat-sensitive paper and pin heated by electricity. Its cost is
almost the same as the electrostatic plotter. It is reliable and suitable for
voluminous amount of work. Its main weakness is the need for
expensive paper, and it normally produces an output of two colours
only. It is suitable for map-making applications.
Self-check 3.5
1. What is the use of a plotter? Elaborate.
2. State the differences between a “cathode ray” tube monitor and a “flat
panel display” monitor.
3.6.4 Voice Output Device

There are two types of technology, i.e. voice-output technology (speech coding
and synthesising), and sound-output technology (FM synthesising and virtual
acoustic).
(a) Voice Output: A voice output device converts digital data into sound,
such as speech. There are two voice-output technologies, as illustrated
in Figure 3.15.

Figure 3.15: Voice Output

(i) Speech Coding: It uses the human voice that speaks certain words
and is stored in digital form. After accessing the voice, it will re-
produce the words of the spoken voice, such as in tele-saham services,
tele-fardhu, tele-saman, and so on.
(ii) Speech Synthesising: It uses a total of 40 phonemes (suitable for

English) as the basis for speech in electronic form to create any word.
This method does not use the human voice. Computers convert texts
into voice, for example, Wiyl biy ray5t bae5k will produce a voice We
will be right back.
(b) Sound Output

A sound output device produces digital sounds, such as beeping and
music. It requires software and a voice card or digital audio board (like
the Sound Blaster). There are two technologies that is, FM synthesis
and virtual acoustic, as illustrated in Figure 3.16. In both cases, sound
output will be sent to a mixer before being sent to a speaker.
Figure 3.16: Sound Output

(i) FM Synthesis: It is a synthesiser that mimics various musical

instruments by using stored sound unlike the original musical instrument.
(ii) Virtual Acoustic: A method that does not use stored sound, but stores
software that models certain real musical instruments. It is important
for multimedia applications.
3.7 Summary
In this unit we discussed that, Input is like a bridge between data and
processing, which is to enable data to be carried from the users to the
computer. Output is like a link between computer processing and people.
Direct data entry consists of data that can be read by the machine (computer)
and transferred as input directly into the computer. Indirect data entry requires
various media and processing of the data source before the actual computer
processing. There must be input control to safeguard the integrity of data and
to prevent them from becoming Garbage In Garbage Out (GIGO). Output
can take various forms such as screen output, printed-paper, cathode ray,
signals, voice, microfilm, and so forth. Output devices used together with
microcomputers are the monitor, printer, plotter, and voice output device.
Key Terms
Acoustic Data entry Hardcopy
Input devices
Magnetic recognition
Optical recognition Output devices
Soft copy

References


Unit Four
Secondary Storage
4.0 Introduction
A fter discussing input and output in the previous unit, we shall now touch
on another computer component which is the secondary storage. You
will be introduced to various types of secondary storage in the market together
with their comparisons.
4.1 Objectives
 explain three types of magnetic storage

 examine four types of optical storage
 discuss the advantages of secondary storage
4.2 Basic Storage
Activity 4.1
? Why do we need storage inside a computer? Explain.
Secondary storage is a storage device that has been designed to store data
and instructions in a permanent form. This storage does not disappear because
data is stored in magnetic, optical or optical-magnetic form as illustrated in
Figure 4.1. It is also a method of storing data, information, and instructions
outside the computer.
In the latest technological development, primary storage is moving towards a

large capacity using small micro-electrical circuits, while secondary storage is
moving towards a large capacity using magnetic and optical media. Data inside
a storage device, whether primary or secondary, is measured in terms of
byte, i.e. KB (kilobyte), MB (megabyte), GB (gigabyte) and TB (terabyte).
Secondary storage sizes normally come in 512 MB, 1.2 GB, 6.0 GB or 10
TB. The advantages of secondary storage are listed in Table 4.1.
Table 4.1: Advantages of Secondary Storage

Characteristics Advantages
Size Can accommodate large amounts of data.
Data stored can reach GB or TB.
Reliability It can be considered safe.
Comfort Data can be accessed immediately.
Economic Storage costs can be reduced.
Life-time It is permanent and can be used for archiving.
Some storage has a life-span of up to 100 years.
Figure 4.1 illustrates the types of secondary storage.

Unit 4 Secondary Storage
Figure 4.1: Types of Secondary Storage
4.3 Magnetic Storage

There are two types of secondary storage that are mainly in use, that is,
magnetic and optical types. For the magnetic storage, there are three types
that are normally used magnetic tape, floppy disc, and hard disc.
4.3.1 Magnetic tape

A magnetic tape is a secondary storage media whereby its data are stored
inside the tape roll. To be specific, a magnetic tape is a thin plastic tape that
has been covered with materials which can be magnetised. Data on the tape
is represented by magnetic particles that are digital data in discrete forms of
“zero” and “one”.
A tape contains a number of tracks or channels which are normally used to

store data. Normally, there are 7 or 9 tracks. Data on the tape will be deleted
before new data is written on it. The number of tracks on the tape depends on
the number of read/write heads that are present on the tape drive unit.

As the tape is in roll form, data will be stored serially. Every tape column (7 or
9 tracks) will represent one character. For data that is stored serially, the
storage method used is serpentine where data is stored one by one along one
or two tracks at one time. Data will be written from the beginning to the end
of the track concerned, and this will continue onto the part that has not yet
been used as shown in Figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2: Magnetic Tape
Besides that, there is also data that is stored in parallel. For the parallel type,
data will be written block by block or record by record. Every block of data
will be separated by a space, which is called the inter-block gap. For record
by record, the space is called the inter-record gap. The space is needed
because the tape cannot stop immediately after it has been rolled. Normally,
the usage of tape is only 35% or 70% depending on the blocking factor.
A magnetic tape drive is measured by how much data can be stored on the
magnetic tape and also the speed of the tape passing through the read/write
head. The combination of these two determines the rate of transfer or the
number of characters per second that can be sent to the primary storage.
Tape density is measured by character per inch, or bit per inch. Data density
varies from 800 bpi to 7 000 bpi. The tape length is normally 600, 1 200 or
2 400 feet.
Therefore, a tape of 2 400 feet with 6 250 bpi can store up to 180 MB of
data. The size of data that can be stored is normally between 40 MB to 5 GB.
The drive that can upgrade its maximum loading is DAT (digital audio tape). A
DAT drive consists of two read heads and two write heads which read/write
one type of magnetic pole only. Data on the tape will be accessed and written
serially.
There are two types of magnetic tape the magnetic tape unit for large computers
and the tape cartridge unit for personal computers. Currently, most tapes are
used for safe storage and copy storage because they are portable and cheap.
Storage size for a normal magnetic tape is between 20 GB and 40 GB.
The disadvantage of a magnetic tape is the slow rate of serial data access. Its
advantages are that it is cheap, portable and long lasting.
Self-check 4.1
1. Give two advantages of secondary storage.
2. Various types of storage are available in the market. State three types
of magnetic storage which are commonly choose by consumers.
4.3.2 Floppy disc

The floppy disc or diskette is a rounded plastic piece (Mylar) that is flat and
can spin inside a jacket. Data is stored in the form of electromagnetic charge
over the metal oxide layer that covers the Mylar plastic. Data and programmes
are represented by the presence or absence of the charge by using the ASCII
or EBCDIC codes for data representation. The floppy disc is also called the
flexible disc because the plastic disc is present inside the flexible diskette
cover.
(a) Floppy Disc Standards: Floppy discs that were once popular are the
ones with 1.44 MB capacity with 3 inches in size. This disc is usually
labelled as 2HD which means” two sides, high density”. This disc can
store 1.44 MB of data which is equivalent to 400 type-written pages.
When the disc is inserted into the disc drive, its moveable lid is opened
to expose the 3-inch flexible disc. The read/write head of the disc drive
moves across the exposed disc area for storing and reading the disc.
This disc contains a write-protection notch. When this notch is opened, data
cannot be written or added onto the disc. It is protection against non-
deliberate writing over the information already saved inside the disc.Three
types of disc that are popularly known are Zip disc, Super-disc and HiFD
disc.

(i) Zip Disc: Produced by Iomega and normally has a capacity of 100
MB, 250
MB or 750 MB. A Zip drive is a standard feature in most system units today.
It is used widely for storing multimedia files, databases, large texts and
spreadsheets. Many observers predict the Zip disc will become the new
standard floppy disc in the future, see Figure 4.3.
Figure 4.3: Zip Disc

(ii) Super-Disc: Produced by Imation with a capacity of 240 MB. One
main advantage it has over the Zip disc is the fact that it can read and
store data on the standard 1.44 MB disc, whereas the Zip disc cannot.
The Super-Disc is becoming more popularly used in notebook
computers.
(iii) HiFD Disc: Produced by Sony Corporation is a competitor. It has a
capacity of 200 MB and, similar to that of Super-Disc, HiFD disc
drive can use the standard 1.44 MB disc.
Every disc mentioned will be upgraded in terms of capacity and speed
in the near future.
(b) Floppy Disc Parts: Data is stored inside the disc in circular form called
the track. This track is not a spiral like you find on a singing disc. Tracks
contain invisible lanes, which appear like a smooth surface when

observed on the exposed floppy disc. Each track is divided into a

number of sectors. However, there are also discs without tracks and
sectors. They should be made suitable with the types of
microcomputers and disc drives being used, as shown in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4: 3-inch Floppy Disc
4.3.3 Hard disc

The hard disc uses a thick and strong metallic plate. The hard disc can store
and access data faster and has a higher capacity. The hard disc is a very
sensitive device. Its read/write head floats on the disc surface at a distance of
0.000001 inch. This very close distance allows dusts, atoms of smoke, human
hair and finger-prints to cause destruction to the read-write head. This
damage can cause some or all the data on the hard disc to be destroyed as
well.
There are three types of hard discs:

(a) Internal Hard Disc: Also called the fixed disc because it is placed in
the system unit. It is used to store programmes and the metallic plate
which is kept in a container. The container has a motor which can rotate
the disc. There are access arms and read/write heads so that data can
be read from and written on to the disc. The hard disc can have a
capacity of 500 GB.
(b) Hard Disc Cartridge: Can easily be moved like taking out cassettes
from the video cassette recorder. The total storage available on the

computer system is limited to the number of cartridges. Originally, the

hard disc cartridge is used to complement the internal hard disc. It is
very useful for protecting and ensuring the safety of sensitive
information. The normal capacity for the hard disc cartridge is 1 TB.
(c) Hard Disc Pack: A moveable storage device used to store a huge
amount of information. Its capacity is much higher than that of any other
hard disc. Microcomputers that access the Internet, minicomputers and
mainframes normally have access to the external hard disc pack
through communication lines as shown in Figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5: Hard Disc Pack
A hard disc pack contains a number of plates arranged one on top of another.
It looks like an assembly of song-recorded discs. The difference is only the
presence of spaces in between the discs to enable access arms to move in
and out. Each access arm contains read/write heads to read the surfaces and
the disc. One disc pack contains 11 discs and 20 surfaces for recording,
except the top most surface and the bottom most surface.
All the access arms move in and out together. Only one arm is used at one
time. Access time is the time difference between the time that a computer
requests data from the secondary storage and the time that data is actually
transferred back to the computer.
4.4 Optical Storage

An optical storage device provides an alternative for the need to store a lot of

data. This device uses the principle of light rather than the magnetic principle
of storing data. The emission of a laser beam determines the data to be written
or read.
During the writing of data onto the surface of an optical device, a high
powered laser beam is used to form microscopic holes (pits) on the disc.
Each pit represents data “0” while part of the disc without a pit represents
data “1”. During reading of the optical disc, a low powered laser beam is
directed on the disc surface. Reflection of the laser beam depends on the
holes on the surface. If there are holes, reflection of the beam disperses and
cannot be detected by the light detector. This portrays the “0” state. If there is
no hole or if the surface is flat (land), reflection of the beam focuses and can
be detected by the light detector. This portrays the “1” state.
There are several optical disc technologies in use by computers, such as CD-
ROM disc, CD-R disc, WORM disc and CD-RW disc.
(a) CD-ROM Disc: Stands for compact disc read-only memory, similar to
the music CD in the market. Read-only means it cannot be written or
erased by users. A user can only access data that has been written by
the writer. CD-ROM is also used for distributing databases,
application software packages, and huge references.
(b) CD-R: Stands for recordable compact disc, or also called WORM
(write once, read many). CD-R means a compact disc that is
recordable, that is, a disc that enables us to record data or information.
We can only write once on to the disc. It is appropriate for use as
multimedia storage and for archival. A special drive is required for
recoding data onto the CD-R.
(c) CD-RW: Stands for re-writeable compact disc. It is also known as
erasable optical disc as can be seen in Figure 4.6. This disc is similar to
the other CD-R except that its surface is altered whenever data is
recorded. Since it can be altered, CD-RW is normally used in building
and editing multimedia presentations.

Figure 4.6: CD-RW

(d) DVD (Digital Video Disk): An all-digital disc with a type of storage
which is almost the same as the CD-ROM. It has the ability to store
135 minutes of video data in digital form. It can also be used as storage
for computers. The DVD drive can read a CD-ROM but the CD-
ROM drive cannot read a DVD. Each DVD can store as much as 17
GB of data.
4.5 Data Organisation Hierarchy

Data is stored in secondary storage on the basis of hierarchies. We can also
see how much capacity various storage types have, as illustrated in Table 4.2.
Data organisation hierarchy is divided into five levels, which are:
(a) Bit: It is represented by 0 and 1 that is operated by hardware.
(b) Character/Byte: A byte is formed by 8 bits. A character is formed by
a group of bits, and is not necessarily made up of 8 bits it depends on
the type of coding system, such as ASCII, EBCDIC. Examples are
characters A, B, D, U, L.
(c) Field: It is a unit of data that is made up of one or more characters.
This is the lowest logical level of data unit. Examples of fields are:
(i) Name: It is fixed at 40 characters, for example MOHD AKIL.

(ii) Identity Card Number: It is fixed at 8 characters (old IC), and 10

digits/characters (new IC), such as 740820-03-1233.
Table 4.2: Comparison of Storage Types

Types of Cost/Storage Life-span Size
Storage Size
Flash Memory $2/GB 3-5 years 256GB
Hard Disc $0.05/ GB 3-5 years 320GB - 6TB
CD-R $0.20/GB 100 years 700 MB
CD-RW $0.22/GB 100 years 700 MB
Magnetic Tape $0.2/GB 5-10 years 10 GB - 3.5TB
DVD $0.638/GB 100 years 4.5GB
RAM $0.1/ GB Volatile 64 MB - 8 GB
Zip $0.025/GB 5-10 years 250 - 750 MB
(d) Record: It is a collection of several related fields. It can also explain a

certain event, that is, a number of related fields of a certain event is combined
together logically to form a record. An example of a student personal record
is made up of several fields on student personal information, such as:
(i) Registration number: 7192.
(ii) Name: Natalie Mashamba
(iii) Place: Faculty of IT and Multimedia Communications
(iv) IC number: 780402-11-1438.
(v) Place of Birth: Zvishavane
(vi) Current address: ZOU,Harare
(e) File: It is a collection of several related records. An example of this is
the Student Personal File containing several student personal records.
4.6 Upgrade in Performance

Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard discs are racking the disc,
Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID), and compressing/de-
compressing the files.
(a) Racking the Disk: This can upgrade the performance of a hard disc
by predicting data that are wanted. This is a combination of hardware

and software. While the processor is quiet, data always used will be
read from the hard disc into the cache memory. When the data is
required, they will be accessed directly from this memory. The rate of
transfer from memory is faster than that of the hard disc. The result is
that the system performance normally goes up by 30 percent.
(b) Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID): This increases the
performance by having more external storage. A collection of cheap
hard discs are arranged by using a special network and software. This
group of discs is considered like a large hard disc. However, it
performs better than a single disc of the same capacity.
(c) Compressing/De-compressing the Files: This is required to remove
excessive spaces from the computer files that have reduced total
available storage space. This situation is important because:
(i) It saves time while sending files through the network.
(ii) It reduces the size of file storage.
(iii) It is for the purpose of archiving.
Dt Data files that have been compressed need to be de-compressed before
they can be used as normal. This technique is called data decompression.
Normally data that has been compressed has a special suffix such as .zip,
.tgz, .Z, .gz, .lha, .arc, .zoo, and .rar. Compression and decompression
techniques are called codec. Sometimes, this process is also called zip and
unzip.
Two main techniques of data compression are:

(a) Lossless Technique: Where data compression is done by preserving
all input data. In other words, all input data will be used in the
compression process. This enables data that have been decompressed
to be the same as the input data.
This technique only re-packages the data for storage or transmission purpose.
Examples of software products that use this technique are Winzip, Stacke,r
Superstor and DriveSpace. Graphic image in the .gif format (graphic
interchange format) is in the form of lossless compression.
(b) Lossy Technique: This is a compression technique that removes data
permanently during the compression process but users will not feel any
loss. Data lost is not important and can be re-generated by using special
functions. Examples are like removing some colours or small sounds
that are not felt by users. These colours and sounds are over-
shadowed by a clearer colour or sound. Data in the .jpeg (joint

photographic experts group), mp3 (mpeg level 3), mpeg (moving

picture experts group) formats are in the lossy format.
There are many compression standards in the market. Therefore, for the
purpose of decompression, suitable software must be used to avoid problems.
Examples of software that can be used for compression and decompression
are Winzip, PKUnzip, gunzip and unzip.
Self-check 4.2
1. Data organisation hierarchy is divided into six levels. State these levels.
2. Name three types of hard discs.
3. Explain two data compression techniques.
4.7 Summary
In this unit we discussed that secondary storage is a storage device that has
been designed to store data and instructions in a permanent form. There are
two types of secondary storage that are mainly in use, i.e. magnetic and optical
types. A magnetic tape is a secondary storage media whereby its data are
stored inside the tape roll. The floppy disc or diskette is a rounded plastic
piece (Mylar) that is flat and can spin inside a jacket. The hard disc uses a
thick and strong metallic plate. The hard disc can store and access data faster
and has a higher capacity. An optical storage device provides an alternative
for the need to store a lot of data. This device uses the principle of light rather
than the magnetic principle of storing data. Data is stored in secondary storage
on the basis of hierarchies. Three ways to upgrade the performances of hard
discs are racking the disc, Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks (RAID),
and compressing/de-compressing the files.
Key Terms
Bit Field Lossless Lossy
Magnetic storage Optical storage Secondary storage

References


Unit Five
Computer Software
5.0 Introduction
I n the earlier unit, you have been told that a computer system is made up of
hardware and software. Hardware is the physical manifestation of the
computer, while software consists of the programs that command the hardware.
Computer software can be divided into system software and application
software. Both softwares can be divided further into a few categories as
illustrated in Figure 1.1. Each of these categories will be explained in greater
detail later in this unit.
Figure 5.1: Computer Software
5.1 Objectives
 identify four categories of system software

 explain the meaning and roles of system software
 discuss the functions and features of the operating system
 explain the strengths and weaknesses of the operating
system
 analyse the categories of application software
5.2 Software
For most people, when they think about computers, they normally think about
the hardware such as the keyboard, monitor, processor and others. They do
not realise the presence and the importance of software. Computer software
is actually a set of planned instructions and step by step action that is required
to convert data into information and making the computer useful.
In general, software can be categorised into system software and application

software. The system software is also rarely talked about but discussions
about it normally revolve around a subset of the system software, known as
the “operating system”. The operating system is the basic software found in
all computers.

Unit 5 Computer Software
The system software is actually divided into the operating system, utility
programs, device drivers and language translators. The operating system has
various functions and features like multitasking, multi-user, multiprocessor,
and so on. There are many operating systems in the market and each has its
own strengths and weaknesses. Windows is a personal computer operating
system that is the most popular and has been developed by Microsoft
Corporation. UNIX is mostly used in the server system. Linux contains various
features of UNIX and is becoming more popular because it is a free and
reliable operating system.
Computer software is developed by using a programming language. There

are many types of programming languages such as the imperative language,
object-oriented language, logic-based language and function-based language.
Each language has its own strength in solving certain problems. There are
several generations of programming languages, beginning with the machine
language up to the natural language. Various popular programming languages
are C, C++, Java and others that will be discussed here together with examples.
Application software is used by many people to solve specific problems like

providing documents, generating reports, making presentations, performing
calculations and others. Computers require instructions from humans to
perform certain tasks. There are various types of application software in the
market now. The most often used are word processing, spreadsheet, databases
and graphic software. Figure 5.2 illustrates the relationship between the
computer hardware, operating system and application software.

Figure 5.2: The Relationship between the Computer Hardware,

Operating System and Application Software

5.3 System Software

Software consists of instructions that run inside the computer. A system software
is used to start the computer and it is located on the back of the application
software. It also coordinates the hardware components and the application
software. A system software enables users to interact directly with the
computer.
A system software operates through the complexities of the computer

hardware. Among the main roles of a system software is to inform the computer
how to translate data and instructions, how to operate computer devices such
as printers and disc drives and how to use computer hardware. A system
software is divided into four categories, i.e. the operating system, utility
programmes, device driver and language translators. In short, the roles of the
four categories are shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: System Software Categories

(a) The Operating System is the programme that operates your
microcomputers. It coordinates resources, provides interfaces between
users and the computer and runs the applications.
(b) Utility Programmes perform special tasks related to the management
of computer resources and files. It includes programmes that help users
to identify problems on the hardware, searching lost files and making
copies of data. In other words, a utility programme functions as a virus

scanner, hard disc formatter, compression software and copy-making

software.
(c) A Device Driver is a programme that is specially designed to allow
input and output devices to communicate with other computer systems.
(d) Language Translators translate programme instructions that have been
written by a programmer into a language that is understood and
processed by the computer. Language translators will be explained in
greater detail in the programming language section. Language
translators include compilers, translators and assemblers.
Self-check 5.1
What are the main uses of a system software? Explain.
5.4 Operating System

Every computer system, whether large or small, has an operating system and
every operating system has three basic functions, i.e. to manage resources, to
provide interfaces and to run the applications as illustrated in Figure 5.4. The
resources managed by an operating system include the mouse, printer,
keyboard, storage device and memory. User-interfaces are provided by the
operating system to enable users to interact with the application programs
and the hardware. The operating system loads and runs the applications such
as word processing.
Figure 5.4: Three Basic Functions of Operating System

The operating system manages and controls all processing activities in the
computer. It determines how the Random Access Memory (RAM) is allocated
to the programmes, determines the importance of the needed tasks and controls
the flow of information to and from the processor. An operating system is a
complex computer programme that is very important to the computer. For
example, the Windows 2 000 operating system is said to have 30 million lines
of program code, built by over 5 000 programmers within more than three
(3) years with a cost of nearly RM 3.8 billion. The Linux operating system has
almost 2.5 million lines of programme code developed by 150 programmers.
The operating system enables a computer to perform various types of tasks.

The operating system also enables a computer to perform more than one task
simultaneously. It enables the computer to identify the processor (CPU), the
main memory (RAM), keyboard, video displays, disc drive and others. The
operating system also provides facilities for users to communicate with the
computer and acts as the enabler for running the application software.
The operating system normally contains a number of basic programmes. An

important programme inside the operating system is called the supervisor.
This programme is also known as the monitor, executive, or kernel. For
example, the supervisor programme in Windows 98 is win.32.dll and in Linux
it is vmlinux.
The operating system is normally stored on the hard disc. When a computer
is switched on, it will first perform the power on self-test (POST). Then the
basic input-output system (BIOS) inside the read-only memory (ROM) will
search for the operating system to boot-up the system. The BIOS will search
for the operating system on the “master boot record” (MBR) sector on the
floppy disc. If there is no operating system on the floppy disc, the BIOS will
search for it on the MBR sector of the hard disc. The MBR sector contains
information on the operating system of the computer. After reading data from
the MBR and meeting the supervisor programme, the BIOS will load the
supervisor programme into the main memory (RAM). Then, the BIOS will
pass on the computer management job to the supervisor programme. Now,
the computer is under the control of the operating system and can accept
commands from users.
Part of the operating system will remain in the main memory for as long as the
computer is on. This portion will always be in the memory and is said to be
resident (permanent) and is made up of the supervisor programme. The
supervisor programme will control the overall operating system and will load
into the main memory of other operating system programs from the hard disc

when needed. The operating system programs that are located in the hard
disc are non-resident.
The operating system forms the core that enables the computer to function. It
works behind the scenes and becomes the middleman for requests from users
and programmes. It manages and drives computer hardware and reads and
writes data from and onto the disc drive. When a user works on an application
programme, the supervisor programme will load the software into the main
memory before the programme is executed. When a user uses the computer,
the main memory has the supervisor programme, the application software to
be run and the data or information being processed. Thus, a larger RAM size
in a certain computer will enable it to function faster and in a comfortable
manner. If a computer does not contain enough RAM to run the software,
then the computer will run slowly or it may hang.
Activity 5.1
? Print a very informative Website (home page) and explain
the features that are important for that operating system.
5.5 Functions of Operating System

In general, the functions of an operating system are to:
(a) Provide Interfaces for Users: There are two types of interfaces -
command-line interface and graphical user-interface. By using the
command-line interface, users need to type a command like the one
shown in Figure 5.6. An example of an operating system using a
command-line is the MS-DOS which was very popular in the 1980s.

Figure 5.6: Command-line Interface
For example, look at the following command-line: C:\>copy c:\myfile

a:\yourfile. This command-line directs the computer to copy a file from the
hard disc C to the floppy disc A. You will need to use a clear command when
using the command-line. This command-line also shows that you need to
inform the computer where to find MYFILE and where to copy YOURFILE
to. If you forget important information or use a wrong format, an error message
will be displayed on the screen. In general, the command-line interface is
more suitable for skilled users who have been using computers for a long time
and can remember the required commands. The UNIX and Linux operating
systems also use the command-line. This interface is also called the character
user interface (CUI). Normally, the operating system based on the CUI has
one other layer that acts as a translator of the commands to the supervisor
programme. This layer is called the shell. An example of a shell for Linux is
csh (C Shell) and bash (Born Again Shell).
Currently, the number of computers using the command-line interface is on

the decline. It is still being used in the mainframe system and also in the server
system that uses the UNIX platform. The operating system trend is moving
towards a user-friendly environment and becoming graphic-oriented, known

as the graphical interface. The graphical interface depends on software based

graphics that enable texts to be integrated with graphic images.
Among the components inside the graphical user-interface (GUI) are icons,
dialogue box and menu. Examples of software that uses graphical interfaces
are BeOS, Macintosh and Windows. GUI users interact with the operating
system and other software packages by using pointing devices like the mouse
and keyboard to enter instructions. Now, users do not have to type every line
of command; users only need to select from screen displays. Users use the
mouse to manipulate icons, dialogue box and menu. In GUI, an icon is a
graphic image that represents a processing activity. For example, a user may
select the “Recycle Bin” icon to delete a file from storage. The GUI was first
introduced in 1983 in the Macintosh computer. The GUI simplifies a lot of
things for users where they now do not have to memorise and enter difficult
instructions as shown in Figure 5.7.
(b) Manage Hardware: Such as input components (mouse, keyboard,
scanner), output components (printer, screen, audio, video), secondary
storage (hard disc) and main memory. The operating system
coordinates and performs according to the programme requiring the
hardware required.
(c) Manage the Hard Disc File System: The operating system manages
the movement of data from the input component (keyboard) to the
output component (monitor) and from secondary storage to the main
memory apart from the main memory to secondary storage.

Figure 5.7: Graphical Interfaces

d) Manage the Processing or the Running of Other Software: Assume the
execution of one programme as one process. If a user uses
programmes simultaneously – (for example, producing graphs using
CorelDraw surfing the Internet using Internet Explorer and listening to
music on the Internet using (RealAudio) – hence, there are three
different programs being executed in the computer. The operating
system is responsible for ensuring that the three processes execute well
and do not cause the computer to hang. This ability in using the three
programmes simultaneously is known as “multi-tasking”. A very
important characteristic of the operating system in managing multi-
tasking is robustness, that is, if one programme fails it does not cause
the computer or other processes to hang. Operating systems that have
the robust characteristic are UNIX, Linux and BeOS.
Other main functions of the operating system are to:
a) Help the interaction between computers and users;
b) Help communication between computer components;
c) Reduce the time for executing user’s instructions;
d) Optimise the use of computer system resources;
e) Arrive at all the files in the disc storage;
f) Ensure safety of the computer system; and
g) Examine all system activities and give warnings to users on all matters.

Self-check 5.2
1. State the advantages of the graphical user-interface (GUI) over the
command-line interface.
2. State two methods of opening files using GUI.
5.6 Features of Operating System

Every operating system has its own features. Even the ability of every system
is different. Among the main features of an operating system are multi-tasking,
multi-processing, batch processing and virtual memory as shown in Figure
5.8.
Figure 5.8: Operating System Features
5.6.1 Multi-tasking
The ability of a computer system to perform more than one task at one time
(simultaneously) is known as multi-tasking.
If an operating system allows only one task to be performed at one time, such
a system is called single tasking.
Multi-tasking enables a user to perform a new task without having to exit

from the task currently being performed and may even use the result of the
second task inside the first task. For example, a user can produce a chart
using spread-sheet software while using a word processing software and later

insert the chart into the document being typed. Multi-tasking is divided into
two types, as shown in Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.9: Multi-tasking

(a) Cooperative Multitasking is a programme written to enable it to ask
the operating system at regular intervals whether there is another
programme that needs to use the processor. If there is another
programme in need of the processor, this programme will release the
processor. Examples of operating systems using cooperative
multitasking are Macintosh and Windows XP.
(b) Pre-emptive Multitasking is an operating system that serves one
process, which consists of each programme being executed. The
operating system will maintain a list of processes being executed. This
way, the operating system determines the priority of executing each
programme. The operating system has the power to interrupt and change
the priority as well as determining how long to serve each process
before executing other processes. It can also halt the process currently
being executed and replace it with a more important process every
time. Examples of operating systems with this capability are Linux,
BeOS, OS/2 and Windows 2000.

Users normally do not see the tangible differences between these two types
of multi-tasking. Tangible differences may be seen in real-time applications.
Pre-emptive multitasking is more robust and more stable than cooperative
multi-tasking.
5.6.2 Multi-user
If an operating system is capable of accepting more than one user to access
the Computer at one time, it is said to be a multi-user system.
Sometimes, multi-tasking is also referred to as “time-sharing”. Normally, a

multi-user operating system allows multitasking as well. Every user gets an
equal slice of time. Examples of operating systems that have the multi-user
capability are UNIX, Windows 2000 and Linux.
5.6.3 Multi-processor
Multi-processing refers to an operating system that is capable of handling
more than one processor simultaneously. The use of more than one processor
is suitable for scientific computers because computers of this type perform a
lot of calculations and processing. As such, scientific computers require
operating systems that can manage more than one processor. Examples of
multi-processor type of operating system are UNIX (Solaris), Linux, BeOS
and Windows 2000. Table 5.1 illustrates the operating systems and their
maximum processors.
Table 5.1: Operating Systems and Their Maximum Processors
Operating System Maximum Number of Processors

BeOS 8
Sun Solaris 64
Linux 16
SGI Irix 128
5.6.4 Batch processing
Batch processing refers to the processing mode of an operating system. During
the early computer era, data processing was done using the batch mode. This
means that data and programmes are prepared on batch mode for processing.
Users cannot enter data during the running of programmes. Data and
programmes are collected and prepared first, and are later entered at one go

for processing by the computer. Batch processing is still being used now in
the mainframe system environment. Nowadays, the interactive processing type
of operating system is very popular where users can enter data while the
programmes are being executed.
5.6.5 Virtual memory

Usually the operating system will load the application software into the main
memory (RAM) to run the application software. If the RAM size is small or if
the software size is large, the software may not fit in and cannot be run. To
overcome this problem, the operating system uses the concept of virtual
memory. With this method, the operating system will use the secondary storage
(hard disc) as part of the main memory.
In this method, the operating system loads a portion of the application software
into the main memory and another portion into the virtual memory. When this
happens, the running of the computers will slow down because access to
secondary storage is slower than that to the main memory.
For example, users often find computers running slowly when two or three
softwares are run simultaneously. This is because the operating system needs
to transfer data from the main memory (RAM) to the secondary storage (hard
disc) and vice versa. This process of data transfer is slow and often involves
some noise signifying that the computer is accessing the hard disc.
The process of transferring data from virtual memory to the main memory and
from the main memory to the virtual memory is called “swap”.
Swap space (page) on the hard disc is the storage size that is used as virtual
memory, as illustrated in Figure 5.10.

Figure 5.10: Page Swapping
5.7 Application Software

Application software contains programmes developed to fulfil the need of
certain users. Application software is divided into two sections, that is, basic
application software and advanced application software. The basic consists
of software used to increase productivity of users while the advanced consists
of software for specific objectives and requires a little expertise to operate.
With the help of computers, various operations can now be performed that
were previously done only by people with expertise and training. Application
software consists of programmes that have been developed to fulfil specific
needs of users.
If the system software is considered as behind the “scene programmes”, the

application software is considered as programmes for performing beneficial
work like typing, calculations and drawings. Basic application software is
also called “general purpose application programme”. Its objective is to
increase productivity of users by helping them to perform normal tasks. They
can be referred to as productivity packages, for example, word processing,
spreadsheet, database management, batch software, groupware software,
communications and desk-top accessories.

Advanced application software consists of specific purpose programmes and

requires a little expertise to operate. This category of software is specific in
nature and can be further categorised as shown in Figure 5.11.
Figure 5.11: Categories of Advanced Application Software

(a.) Business Application Programmes are software for solving the needs
of business functions and industry – like accounting, sales, finance,
operation management, and so on.
(b.) Application Programmes are software for performing the processing
tasks related to science like natural science, physical science,
behavioural science, mathematics, statistics, engineering, and so forth.
(c.) Other Application Programmes are software apart from the ones
mentioned. These include the software for education, medicine, and
so on.
Self-check 5.3
What is the difference between basic application software and advanced

application software?

5.8 Application Software Technology

All application software contains basic features like window, cursor, fixed
menu, pull-down menu, help menu, pop-up menu, dialogue box, macro, tutorial
and documentation. With the Windows operating system, two types of
technologies being used for the application software are diagrammatic data
exchange (DDE) and Object linking and embedding (OLE). Figure 5.12 shows
the application software technology.
Figure 5.12: Application Software Technology
DDE (Dynamic Data Exchange) is the technology that enables different

application software to share data. For example, data from MS-Access
database software can be referred into MS-Word word processing software
document. However, DDE technology contains one limitation – users cannot
update database software data via the word processing document affected.
Users need to update spreadsheet software data or database application data
and later, execute the word processing application to update the said data.
OLE (Object Linking and Embedding) is the technology for repairing the
weakness of DDE. It enables users to create an object inside application
software – for example, a table inside a spreadsheet software can later be
inserted into another application software like a word processing software.
With DDE, data is not inserted into the document but data is only referred
into the document.
In OLE, when data has been inserted into the said application, they are
considered as one object and can be modified. However, the data (original
file) cannot actually be altered. If it needs to be modified, we need to click
twice on the object. For example, a spreadsheet software table and the said
object will be opened under the original application software. The modification

made will not alter the original file because OLE only pulls the software and
not the data.
A later technology introduced by Microsoft is COM (Component Object

Model) and a more recent one is DCOM (Distributed Component Object
Model). The examples given involve the spreadsheet software and word
processing but users can insert whatever data inside word processing
documents such as audio, video, graphic, and so on.
Windows 95/98/NT also introduced OCX (OLE Custom eXtension), a small

components that can be grouped together to develop software. For example,
users can group together a number of OCX to build editors or spreadsheet
software. This technology has been called ActiveX in 1996.
5.9 Basic Types of Software

5.9.1 Word processing
Those who are involved in business make use of the word processor to prepare
information in the form of documents like memos, reports, letters, minutes of
meetings and whatever required to be typed. Users in a house environment
type assignments, letters, journals, a log of cinema titles and many others.
A word processing software enables you to create, edit, format, store and
print texts and graphics in one document.
Since you can save memos or documents that you have typed into the disc,
you can access them at other times to modify them, re-print or do whatever
you want with them. Parts of existing documents that do not change do not
need to be re-typed; the entire document that has been checked can be re-
printed as new. An assignment often done by computer users is to prepare
information in the form of documents. Word processing software is software
mostly used by users. Five important activities of word processing are
information entry, information display, information edit, storage and retrieval
and information printing as illustrated in Figure 5.13.

Figure 5.13: Five Activities of Word Processing
The concept of word processing in personal computers is based on the concept

of WYSIWYG (what you see is what you get). What is seen on the screen is
how a certain document will be produced by printers – font, graphic and
others. Font refers to the type, size and shape of characters. Most word
processors contain additional features to upgrade their capabilities. These
features are tools like spelling-checker, grammar-checker, thesaurus, macro,
sorting and underlining of ideas. Activities that can be done during word
processing are editing of document, search and replace, merging of e-mails,
document footing and heading, foot-notes, mathematical functions, index
generator, content generator and document import and export. You can search
any word quickly inside a document by using the search command inside a
word processor. A replace command can replace one word with another.
Besides that, spellings can be verified by the spelling-checker programme.
The grammar checker will identify the use of inaccurate sentences, incorrect
grammar or sentences that are too long. The earliest word processing software
was Wordstar. Examples of currently and widely used word processing
software are Word Perfect, Ami Pro and MS-Word.
With the addition of more features into word processing packages, word
processing has crossed the boundary into desk-top publishing. Desk-top

publishing packages are normally better than word processing packages in

fulfilling the needs of high level publishing, specifically on the choice of characters
and re-production of colours. Many magazines and newspapers today depend
on desktop publishing software. Businesses use them to produce newspapers
that look professional, reports and leaflets that can improve communications
and to give better pictures to the outside world.
When a document is being edited by a user, the word processing software

will load a copy of the document from the secondary storage (hard disc) into
the main memory (RAM). All editing activities will be done on this copy inside
the main memory. This is because data access from the main memory is faster
than data access from the secondary memory. When the user completes editing,
he can save the document again into the secondary storage to replace the
older copy.
Documents produced by commercial word processing software like Word

Perfect and MS-Word are in a certain format and not in the form of texts or
ASCII. For example, MS-Word uses its own format to store documents.
Therefore, an MS-Word document is not portable because the document
cannot be used on platforms other than Windows.
Format pdf (portable document format) is a document format that is portable.

This can cause problems in a mixed environment where operating systems
like Unix, OS/2, BeOS, Windows and Linux exist in one place.
Various methods can be used to produce a form of document that is portable.

Among the methods are producing document in pdf or ps format or in mark-
up languages like SGML, XML or TeX.
Users can use this format to produce portable documents between different
operating systems. All forms of documents like those from spreadsheet, power
point presentation, word processing and graphics can be converted into pdf
format by using the Distiller software. The pdf documents produced have the
hypertext capability, can be printed, can be displayed on the computer but
cannot be edited. The pdf format was introduced by Adobe (a company).
Most articles freely available on the Internet are in postscript or pdf format.
Documents with postscript or pdf format can be displayed with Ghostview

software which can be obtained freely at http://www.cs.wisc.edu/~gost. Adobe
gives out for free the pdf display software, that is. Adobe Acrobat at http://
www.adobe.com. Users can also use the ps (postscript) format. Actually,
postscript is a page description language and is mostly used in laser printers
to produce high quality printing.

An example of a document in ps format is shown in Figure 5.14. This document

will produce another document stating “Selamat datang ke OUM” if printed
by a printer with postscript capability.
/TeXtDict 300 dict def TeXDict begin /Ndefdef /Bbind defN

/FMat[1 0 0 -1 0 0]N /FBB[0 0 0]N /nn 0 N /IE 0 N /ctr 0 N
4 MB /w0 rmovetoB /Ip -4 wB /mp -3 wB /np
-2 wB /op p 1 wB /rp 2 wB /sp 3 /tp 4 wB /x0
S rmovetoB /y
aB /bos/SS save NB /eosSS restoreB end
TeXDict begin 39158280 55380996 1000 600 600(hello.dvi)

@start
/Fa 14 117 dfl116 D E
Figure 5.14: Example of ps (postscript) Format
Users can also produce portable documents in a mark-up language like HTML
(Hypertext Mark-up Language), SGML (Standardised Mark-up Language)
and XML (Extensible Mark-up Language). The main objective of producing
documents in a mark-up language is to separate information from the document
format. This concept is the same as the concept of separating a programme
from data in databases. This way, the document format can be modified easily
without involving the information that is present in the document.
SGML is an international standard for producing electronic documents that

are platform-free and hardware-free. This means that documents in SGML
can be used in UNIX, Windows, Linux and other platforms without being
changed. Documents in SGML form can also be changed into various types
of format like pdf, CD-ROM, ps, databases, information system, hypertext
or whatever format that is required. It was initially introduced in the 1960s.
HTML is a subset of SGML for use over the Internet. XML was introduced
to overcome the weakness of HTML; XML is the superset of HTML and a
subset of SGML.
Users can also use TEX software to produce portable documents from
documents in the form of TEX mark-up language. Document based on TEX
can be processed to produce another document in the form of pdf, ps and dvi
(Device Independence). TEX is mostly used in producing mathematical and
scientific documents.

Self-check 5.4
1. What do you understand by the concept of WYSIWYG?
2. List a number of additional features of a word processor that you know.
5.10Spreadsheet Software
A spreadsheet which consists of rows and columns has been used as a business
tool for a few centuries. Spreadsheets produced manually are difficult to prepare
and when there is a change, a lot of calculations need to be redone. A
spreadsheet software can perform the calculations again automatically
whenever a number changes. For example, a function of a spreadsheet is to
calculate distance based on speed and time – changes in speed will cause
another round of automatic calculation which will alter the distance. This ability
enables businessmen to try out a set of different numbers and obtain the results
quickly. The ability to ask “What if?” and later see the results on the computer
before committing to buying resources enables businessmen to make decisions
faster and better. In short, a spreadsheet software is a software for doing
analysis, calculation, planning and mathematical modelling on the computer.
What about spreadsheet software for users at home? The ability to enter a set
of numbers in meaningful ways, such as a set of deposit and interest rates for
buying a house and offer financial ideas to users who cannot do it themselves
(manually). Home users can use a spreadsheet to perform various tasks from
budget preparation to considering whether to accept a new job or not.
It can be used to create a model based on mathematics and other business

activities. Currently, this software has replaced paper spreadsheets, calculators
and pencils.
Among the traditional functions that are supported by spreadsheet software

are:
(a) Storing data automatically;
(b) Accepting summarised raw data and producing information; and
(c) Performing analysis and improving planning.
The strength of a spreadsheet is the ability to calculate automatically, speedily
and accurately. As such, it can be used to perform “what if” analysis, sensitivity
analysis, expense requirement, profit forecasting, graphic creation and
simulation. Any problem involving data that can be entered into rows and
columns are suitable for spreadsheets. Examples of this type of software are
Quattro Pro and Lotus 1-2-3.

A spreadsheet is divided into rows and columns. Each row is numbered,

while each column is given a name. The intersection between each row and
column is called a “cell”. Each cell contains a reference address and a fixed
address. In each cell, a user can type in a number, text or mathematical formula.
Basically, a solution to a problem using a spreadsheet can be divided into four
steps:
(a) Problem definition stage which covers the objective of the
spreadsheet, the type of required output, the type of input variables,
assumption in the calculation and the type of formula to be used.
(b) Planning for presentation stage which covers how to arrange labels,
data, formula and other instructions to achieve maximum efficiency,
clarity and flexibility.
(c) Data entry stage which involves the required type of commands for
input, edit and store values, label, formula and functions in the required
presentation.
(d) Testing and using stage is a stage that tests whether the spreadsheet
produces the results accurately when data is entered.
Other features that are available in electronic spreadsheet are macro (a short
programme which can be used to repeat specific steps), mathematical
functions, plot 3-D, active function and integration with other applications.
Figure 5.15 illustrates an Excel electronic spreadsheet

Figure 5.15: Excel Electronic Spreadsheet
Self-check 5.5
State the uses of electronic spreadsheets in business.
5.11 Database
This software can store, update, manipulate, access, report in various views
and print data in various forms.
When data is available as a report, i.e. a form that is useful to users, data has
become information.

Concert organisers, for example, can store and change data of the date of the
next concert, seat number, ticket cost and sales. When this has been done,
organisers can use the software to access information, such as the number of
tickets sold in every price range or the percentage of tickets sold on the day
before the concert.
Database software is useful for someone who needs to reach out to a large
number of people. For example, a volunteer who is looking for blood donors
for the National Blood Bank can store a file of all donors in his area so that he
can access their names and telephone numbers to enquire on the type of
blood donated, postcode or the last date he donated blood.
The database management system (DBMS ) software is also known as the

database manager. The DBMS is a computer-based system for defining,
manipulating, controlling, managing, maintaining and using the database. A
database can be defined as:
(a) A collection of data or information and the relationship among them; or
(b) A collection of data with a related set of entities.
Data can be in the form of text, video, graphics, audio and others. Databases
are stored in the secondary storage. To fulfil the need of organisations, data
needs to be collected, stored and accessed effectively. Databases can help
with these three processes. They also enable data to be processed and shared
by various parties. Data can also be edited, added and erased easily. Users
can perform queries over the database to solve problems. A number of
important terms in databases are entities, attributes, field, record and
relationship.
Entities are things, people, places or events whereby the data and information
stored are about them. Examples of entities are universities, students,
employees, cars and doctors.
Attributes or fields are data or information that explains the characteristics or

features of a certain entity. For a student entity, examples of attributes are
name, address, date of birth, identity card number, matrix number and gender.
Record is a collection of related attributes for a certain entity. It also can

explain a certain event, that is, a number of related fields about a certain event
grouped together logically to form a record. An example of a record which
groups together a number of attributes for a student entity is presented:

Name: Moyo Adam. Matrix number: 789.
Address: No.7, 27 Crescent, Glengroove, Harare.
Date of birth: 1/1/1977.
Files are various collections of records containing the same attributes. An

example is a file of a First Year Student containing all records of Year 1 students
in the Faculty of IT and Multimedia Communications.
Database is a collection of several files that are related to one another. The
main source of data for a computer-based information system is the database.
Another objective of the database is to reduce data duplication. For example,
a student database may consist of a combination of the student’s personal file,
a file of courses offered at ZOU, the co-curriculum activities file and the student
finance file as shown in Figure 5.16. Figure 5.17 illustrates different stages of
data inside a database.
Figure 5.16: Database

Figure 5.17: Stages of Data in Database
5.11.1 Types of database

There are four types of database - relational, networked, hierarchical and
object- oriented as shown in Figure 5.18.
Figure 5.18: Types of Database

A relational database type is the most widely used today. In this type of
database, data is arranged in a table with rows and columns. Each column
constitutes one attribute and each row constitutes one record. The table of
data also has the following features:
(a) Each column describes one attribute only.
(b) Sequential arrangement of columns and rows are not important.
(c) Every row is unique.
5.11.2 DBMS organisation

DBMS has the function of managing data and information stored inside the
database. It can be regarded as an interface between users and the database
whereby it acts as a facilitator to allow users to access and manipulate data
elements embedded in the database. Examples of DBMS for personal
computers are MS-Access, dBase V, FileMaker Pro, FoxPro, Visual Fox
Pro and Paradox.
DBMS is different from traditional file management. The traditional file

management is a system containing files which are separate from each other.
For example, a student file and a file of courses offered every semester are
different and are not related to each other. This makes processing difficult if
information from several files is required. For example, we have a record and
attributes as follows:
(a) Student file – name, matrix, I/C, department;
(b) Course TZ1443 registration file – matrix, name, department;
(c) Course TU2983 registration file – matrix, name, department;
(d) Lecturer’s room file – lecturer name, room no.
With the traditional file system, we may face a problem in getting a list of
students’ names based on department or a list of courses taken by student A
because the information is present inside three different files.
Traditional file processing system has the following weaknesses:

(a) Data Redundancy: The same data attributes are repeatedly present in
different files;
(b) Data Integrity Problem: Data needs to be updated in all files to ensure
that they are consistent throughout; and
(c) Programme and Data Independence Problem: Program and data are
closely related as data is created to feed into a programme.
DBMS is created as a means for solving the problems. It has the following
objectives:

(a) It enables integration of data from various file sources or databases;

(b) It avoids data redundancy;
(c) It enables the sharing of data among different applications;
(d) Data integrity can be retained in terms of security and reliability; and
(e) Data inside the database can be changed as required.
Inside the database, each file has a relationship with other files. Relationships
among files are made through key fields. In a database, data dictionary stores
information in data and the database structure. In building a database
application, the following steps are done as illustrated in Figure 5.19.
Figure 5.19: Steps in Building Database Applications
These steps are usually discussed in greater detail in the Systems Analysis and
Design course. DBMS is required to free data and application programmes
to make them independent of each other. This will simplify data access and

editing, minimise data redundancy, define the data, manage data security and
maintain data integrity. It can be regarded as a software layer surrounding the
database. The software includes query language, report generator and utilities,
and graphics.
DBMS has a number of weaknesses. Firstly, the software is expensive. For a

personal computer, the DBMS software costs between RM1 000 – RM2
500 each. This software is meant for single users and has a limited number of
files that can be created.
For a mainframe computer such as the database software used in student

registration at UKM, car registration at JPJ or patient registration at HUKM,
the cost of the DBMS software is high. Examples of DBMS with high capacity
are IDMS, DB2, Oracle, Sybase and Informix. The use of DBMS requires a
large secondary storage and high-powered CPU. There is also a need for
skilled personnel to manage the DBMS software. The person who manages
DBMS is known as the Database Administrator (DBA). Development of
information systems based on DBMS is more complex, time-consuming and
costly.
However, DBMS is the core software for any organisation, whether big or
small, in managing information.Almost all large organisations in various industries
use DBMS software to manage information. Some people say that
organisations cannot function without a good DBMS system.
There are three types of relationships that can exist in databases – one-to-
one, one-to-many and many-to-many as shown in Figure 5.20. For example,
let us take the database of a business containing their customer files, sales file,
inventory files and supplier files. One-to-one relationship means that one data
can only have a relationship with one other data – for example, a relationship
between the customer file and the sales file. One-to-many relationship means
that one data can have a relationship with more than one other data – for
example, the customer file with the sales file if a customer makes many
purchases. Many-to-many relationship means that one or more data can have
a relationship with one or more other data – for example, many suppliers can
supply many items.

Figure 5.20: Examples of One-to-one, One-to-many and Many-to-many

Relationships
There are several types of database organisations. These are hierarchical,

networked and relational and they will be discussed here.
Figure 5.21: Example of Hierarchical Database
In the hierarchical database, records are arranged or combined in related

groups that resemble a family tree, i.e. the concept of father and son. This
database functions well if it has a one-to-many relationship. The structure has

to be defined from the beginning. Every son can only have one father and
there is no relationship among the sons. The many-to-many relationship cannot
be established here. This type of database was introduced in the 1960s. Figure
5.21 shows an example of the hierarchical database.
In the networked database, every son can have more than one father. This
arrangement can be bent easily as compared to the hierarchical database but
there is a limit on the bent and it needs definitions prior to its use. This type of
database can have all types of relationships. It was first introduced in the
1970s. Both the hierarchical and networked types are not widely used today.
Figure 5.22 shows an example of a networked database.
Figure 5.22: Example of Networked Database
Relational database is the most stable and most flexible database. Its model
was first introduced by E.F. Codd. It does not require the database structure
to be initially defined. Data is arranged in the form of a table with rows and
columns.
A name is given to each table and each column. Every table is given a unique
column, known as the main key. This main key is used to link different tables.
Relational databases are widely used today. Figure 5.23 shows an example
of a relational database.

Figure 5.23: Example of a Relational Database
In a hierarchical, networked or relational database, data is stored inside the

database. The programmes to process the data are stored separately outside
the database. However, there is a new approach in which data and programmes
are stored inside the database simultaneously. This is known as the object-
oriented database. This new type of database is not widely used yet. Now,
there is also an object-oriented relational database.

Figure 5.24 shows the summary of the four types of DBMS

organisations
5.11.3 Client-server
Most DBMS are stored inside the server. DBMS software will store and
manage data in the server computer. The client computer will be used by
users to access and process the data contained inside the database of the
server computer. This method is known as the client-server system. The client-
server system enables a database to be shared by many more users. Examples
of server-based DBMS are Oracle, Informix and Sybase. An example of a
software that can build a user-interface software is PowerBuilder.
The client-server system has the following advantages:

(a) The server has the main function as storage and processing is done by
clients;
(b) Data security at the server is more assured, and
(c) Hardware requirements can be added easily to the server.
Databases can be arranged in three ways - centralised, distributed and client-
server. In a centralised database, all organisational databases are present in
one computer only, usually in a mainframe computer. This technique simplifies

management but has a risk if the computer breaks down. For example, for a
university, all databases on students, staff, finance, etc, can be stored on one
computer. This technique is known as a centralised database. Figure 5.25
shows the categories of databases.
Figure 5.25: Categories of Databases
In a distributed database, all databases are stored on several computers

located in different places (buildings, rooms, areas). For example in a university,
information on the Language Faculty students are stored in the Language
Faculty database and the information on the Science Faculty students are
stored in the Science Faculty database. This approach is known as the
distributed database. This approach is more difficult to maintain.
In a client-server database, clients do the database applications while the

server does part or all of the actual DBMS. An example of this type of database
is the student online registration at ZOU.
There are two ways on how to access data in a database, i.e. through a query
language and through application programmes as shown in Figure 5.26.
Figure 5.26: Ways to Access Data

Query language is a language used by users to capture data from the database.
With this language, users can add, edit, delete and access the database. An
example of the query language is Structured Query Language (SQL) which
can be used to access relational type of databases. An example of SQL
instructions are:
SELECT OWNERID, ‘is in Orders & Antiques’
FROM ORDERS, ANTIQUES
WHERE OWNERID = BUYERID
UNION
SELECT BUYERID, ‘is in Antiques Only’
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID NOT IN
(SELECT OWNERID FROM ORDERS)
Users can also access databases through programmes that are written in
programming languages like COBOL or C which contain SQL statements
that are embedded inside the programmes. This technique is known as
embedded SQL (see Figure 5.27).

/* example of embedded SQL using C */

#include
EXEC SQL BEGIN DECLARE SECTION; Int BUYERID;
char FirstName[100], LastName[100], Item[100];
main ( )
{ EXEC SQL CONNECT UserID/Password;
EXEC SQL DECLARE Itemcursor CURSOR FOR
SELECT BUYERID
ITEM,
FROM ANTIQUES
ORDER BY ITEMS;
EXEC
SQL OPEN ItemCursor;
EXEC SQL FETCH
Item Cursor INTO :Item :BUYERID; While(!sqlca.sqlcode)
{ EXEC SQL SELECT OWNER FIRST NAME,

OWNER LAST NAME INTO: FirstName :LastName
FROM ANTIQUES
WHERE BUYERID = :BuyerID;
Printf(‘%s %s %s’, FirstNamre, LastName, Item);
}
exit ();
}
Figure 5.27: Example of Embedded SQL
A concept that is widely used today is the data warehouse, that is, a
combination of several large databases inside an organisation in a form that is
suitable for use by users. A data warehouse may contain a very large amount
of data and this may cause difficulty for users to analyse the data.
This leads to the technique of data mining, that is, a technique of analysing a
voluminous amount of data by using statistical techniques, machine learning,
artificial intelligence, and so on.
Self-check 5.6
What is the advantage of having a database?

5.12Document Processing Software

TEX is a document processing system for producing documents of high quality.
It is mostly used in the publication of academic journals or magazines. This
system is suitable for use mainly in documents that involve many mathematical
formulas. TEX documents are in the form of ASCII which contains mark-ups
such as an HTML document. This document will later be processed to produce
a form of portable document like .ps (postscript) or .pdf (portable document
format). Figure 5.28 shows the Gostview software which can be used to
display ps and pdf documents.
Figure 5.28: Gostview Software that Displays Postscript Documents
5.13Graphics Software
Displaying graphics to businessmen may look non-beneficial at first because
there is number printing that is normally done by the computer. However,
graphs, maps and charts can help people to compare data, identify pathways
with ease and make decisions more quickly. Research has shown that human
beings learn more from information presented visually. Furthermore, visual
information is normally more meaningful than a page of numbers. Besides

representing numbers and facts, graphs are often used together with messages
by businessmen or whoever as part of their presentation.
Graphic software combines various visual objects to produce presentations

that are attractive and joyful.
The use of graphic software is very satisfactory if the work is done by a

graphic artist who has the ability in both the artistic aspect as well as the ability
to use sophisticated graphic software to translate ideas. An artist uses the
software as a tool for producing fantastic computer-based arts. Graphic
software is a software that converts numerical data into a graphic display
form, such as the bar chart, pie chart, and so on. It enables users to produce
various types of graphical forms. Types of graphic software are shown in
Figure 5.29.
Figure 5.29: Types of Graphic Software

(a) Decorative graphics are used to improve document production and
not for delivering information. They are normally embedded inside
word processors like clip drawing. Examples of decorative graphic
software are Paint (given out free inside the Windows operating system
as shown in Figure 5.30), Paint Shop Pro and Adobe Photoshop.

Figure 5.30: Microsoft Paint

(b) Business/analytical graphics simplify numerical data so that they are
easily understood. Examples of such graphics are bar chart, pie chart,
dotted area chart, line graph, pictogram, and so forth. These are
normally obtained by using spreadsheet or statistical software.
(d) Presentation graphics are used to present data/ideas to customers.

This presentation may consist of a text, table, clip drawing, picture or
business graphics. Examples of such graphics are Microsoft
PowerPoint as shown in Figure 5.31, Freelance and Harvard
Graphic.

Figure 5.31: Microsoft PowerPoint

(d) Illustration graphics is a type of presentation graphic that is used
professionally. Three types of illustration software are drawing, painting
and image editing. An example of this software is Adobe Illustrator as
shown in Figure 5.32.

Figure 5.32: Adobe Illustrator

(e) Animation graphics add movement over the image and drawing.
Examples of such graphics are Pixar software that has been used to produce
Toy Story and Toy Story 2.
5.14Integrated Software
Integrated software is a collection of several application programmes inside
one package with a set of common instructions and the ability to work as a
software unit sharing data. The objective is for users to execute various tasks
without having to move from one programme to another. It is normal to find a
collection of word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
communication, and so on. Examples are Microsoft office and Claris Works.
This type of software is normally less powerful as compared to separate
software modules.

5.15Groupware Software
Groupware software is a software used inside a network of a group of users
working on one project. It normally consists of four different types, such as
the basic groupware software like Lotus Notes, workflow software like Action
Workflow, meeting software like Vetana’s Group and scheduling software
like MS-Project.
5.15.1 Set of software

A set of software is a collection of software units sold as a group with prices
that are low when compared to buying each of them separately. This type of
software is different from integrated software. Examples of such software are
Microsoft Office, Lotus SmartSuite, Novell PerfectOffice and Sun StarOffice.
5.15.2 Desk-top publishing software

Desktop publishing software is a software used for printing or publishing and
is more advanced than word processing software. The features of this software
are the ability to mix and match texts and graphics, various types of styles and
presentation, importing elements in different format and page description
language. Examples of desktop publishing software are Microsoft Publisher,
PageMaker, FrameMaker and QuarkXPress. Figure 5.33 shows an example
of an interface of a PageMaker software.
Figure 5.33: Adobe PageMaker

5.15.3 Multimedia software

Multimedia presentation software or multimedia composition enables users
to combine text, graphic, animation, video, music, voice and sound in their
presentation. This software simplifies multimedia-based software development.
Examples of multimedia software are Multimedia ToolBook, Authorware,
Flash and Director. Figure 5.34 shows an example of the Flash software.
Figure 5.34: Macromedia Flash
5.16Summary
In this unit we discussed that, although system software is rarely talked about,
its importance cannot be denied. The operating system manages resources,
provides the user-interface and executes applications. Windows, Mac OS,
UNIX and Linux are commonly used operating systems. Application software
is often used to increase the productivity of organisations and individuals.
Examples are word-processing, spreadsheet, databases, groupware
software, and so on.

Key Terms
Batch processing
Compiler
Database
Device Drivers
Multi-tasking
(Ward, 2008)Multi-processing
Spreadsheet
User-interface
Utility program
Virtual Memory

References



Unit Six
Programming Language
6.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall learn about what is meant by programming language.

Computer programs are developed by using programming languages.
A programme is a set of instructions followed by the computer so that data
can be processed. The process of producing a program is called programming.
Programming is also known as software development and it consists of steps
in producing a set of instructions. The steps in programming are program
specification, program design, program coding, program testing and program
maintenance.
Please note that in the UK, you can either spell “program” or “programme”.
The term “program” normally refers to “computer program”, while
“programme” normally refers to the TV programme, Masters degree
programme, other programmes of study, and so on. It is very important for

you to use the correct spelling, and Zimbabwe generally uses the UK version
of English.
In the USA, on the other hand, the term “program” refers to computer program,
TV program, Masters degree program, and so on. The word “programme” is
not used at all. Besides “computer programs”, other technological terms appear
to be the same for the UK and the USA.
6.1 Objectives
 explain the concept of programming languages

 discuss the five generations of computer languages
 recognise different types of programming languages
6.2 Programming Language

It is also called an artificial language for computer programming. In general,
the computer itself is deaf and dumb and it cannot think on its own. It requires
instructions from humans to perform certain tasks, ranging from a simple task
(such as performing a 2+2 operation) to a very complex task (such as launching
a spacecraft to Mars). Therefore, we use a programming language to
communicate with and instruct the computer to perform certain tasks.
Instructions inside a program are arranged logically through the process of
programming. There are many types of programming languages that can be
used by programmers to communicate with the computer.
A programming language is similar to a natural language like English in several

aspects. For example, it resembles words, symbols and syntax. To write a
program, a programmer needs to know the words, symbols and syntax of the
programming language used. There are many programming languages such as
APL, Pascal, Java, Perl, Eifel, C, C++, Basic, FORTRAN, List, Scheme,
BETA, Lua, Visual Basic, Prolog, Haskell, Hugs and COBOL.
Each programming language is invented for a different purpose as shown in

Table 6.1.

Unit 6 Programming Language
Table 6.1: Programming Language Evolution
Decade Programming Language

50s Lisp, FORTRAN
60s -70s Basic, C, SmallTalk, Pascal, Scheme
90s Objective-C, C++, BETA, Java, Prolog
There are languages for specific purposes as well, such as parallel programming
like Concurrent-C, Orca and Leda. Figure 6.1 shows the relationship model
between the users, programming language and computer.
Figure 6.1: Relationship Model among Users, Programming Language

and Computer
6.3 Why Do We Need To Know Programming Languages?

Users can use whatever programming language they know in solving problems.
However, if the user knows only one programming language, the solution
provided may not be optimal and efficient. Therefore, a user needs to
understand the potential of a certain programming language so that he can
evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the said language in solving the
problem faced. After evaluation, the user can adopt the most effective method
from a list of possible methods to solve the problem. Among the benefits of
understanding programming languages are:
(a) Knowing the superiority of the programming language and where it is
suitable for use.
For example, if development involves a rapid prototype, then it is more
efficient to use a scripting language like Python rather than using C or C++.

(a) Understanding the weaknesses of the programming language. Each

language is suitable for one field but not for another field. For example,
to develop GUI, it is more efficient to use C++ or Java rather than C.
To do a lot of calculations, FORTRAN is more suitable than Java or C.
(b) Producing more efficient solutions. If a user understands a few
programming languages, he/she can use a language that is the most
efficient for solving the problem to be attempted. For example, if the
solution requires access to databases, it is better to use a scripting
language like Python for linking rather than C or C++.
(d) Programming languages will influence the user’s thinking in solving
problems. For example, an object-oriented language will make the user
think of a solution based on the object concept, while a logic-based
language will make the user think of the solution based on logic.
(e) Programming languages are tools for solving problems by using the
computer. Most problems are more efficiently solved by experts in the
respective fields. Therefore, experts in certain fields can learn
appropriate programming languages in order to solve their problems.
It is common for a programmer to know more than one programming language.
Normally, each programming language has similar characteristics. After
mastering one programming language, it is easy to master another programming
language because the programming concept is the same only the language
syntax changes.
6.4 Programming Language Generations and Examples

In general, programming languages can be categorised into five (5) generations.
The first generation is known as the machine language. When computers were
first invented, the language adopted was the machine language, using binary
digits of 0 (zero) and 1 (one) to represent instructions and data. Programs
that were written in the machine language needed no translation into the object
code before computer execution because the machine language format already
adhered to the computer architecture. Computer language generation is said
to have begun from the low level up to the high level. A programming language
is said to be a low level one when it resembles the language that is actually
used by the computer. A high level programming language, on the other hand,
closely resembles the language used by human beings like the Malay Language.
Table 6.2 shows the programming language generations.

Table 6.2: Summary of Five Generations of Programming

Generation Programming Language
First: Machine 10010001
Second: Assembly ADD 210(8,13), 02B(4,7)
Third: Algorithm Over_time := 0
Fourth: Problem FIND Name = “MAZLAN”
Fifth: Natural IF patient is sick THEN examine body temperature
(a) The First Generation programming language is the machine language.

With the machine language, a programmer can write an optimal
program. However, this method is quite difficult because the
programmer needs to remember the binary code and numbers.
Therefore, the machine language is rarely used today. The machine
language is also dependent on the computer brand and this adds to
more difficulties in using it. An example of the machine language being
used to represent instructions and data is:
01011010 00010000 01111100 11101001
(b) The Second Generation consists of the assembly language. The

invention of the assembly language is the first step in the development
of software that is easier and more effective. An assembly language is
easier to remember because its forms are short. It is also dependent on
the type of computer.
It uses symbols and words to represent instructions and data and it does not
use binary digits like the machine language. An example of a program in the
assembly language is given:
V86_signal_return:
Call SYMBOL_NAME (save_v86_state)
movl xorl
call SYMBOL_NAME (do_signal)
jmp restore_all
ALIGN

Since a program in the assembly language is not in the machine language

understood by the computer, it needs to be converted into the machine
language first before it can be processed by the computer. A software called
the “assembler” used to convert programs from the assembly language into
the machine language.
(c) The Third Generation programming languages consist of languages
produced in the 1950's, that is, the high level languages. They are still
being used today, for example, C, COBOL and FORTRAN. They
resemble more the human natural languages. This simplifies the
programmers in writing their programs. This generation of languages is
also known as the high level languages and is designed for use in various
machines with little change. With the third generation languages, users
no longer need to write many instructions like those in the machine or
assembly language. Instead, users need to type only one instruction to
perform something that requires many instructions in the machine
language. Among the reasons for the invention of the high level languages
are to:
(i) Simplify writing, unlike the machine and assembly languages;
(ii) Enable a program to be run on more than one machine, as it only needs
to be re-compiled before being run on a different machine; and
(iii) Enable a programmer to concentrate more on fulfilling users’ needs.
Examples of programming languages produced in this generation are Algol-
68, FORTRAN, C, ADA, COBOL, Simula, APL, BCPL, Basic, PL/1,
Pascal, Logo, Modula, and so on.
Most high level languages are languages based on algorithms or procedures.

With procedure-based language, a programmer needs to use programming
logic to solve problems. In other words, a programmer needs to write
instructions in a certain order to be implemented for solving the problem.
Programs that are written in high level languages are called source codes.
They need to be converted into the machine language, which is called the
object code, to enable the programs to be executed by the computer. This
conversion process is done by language processors. There are three types of
language processors and they are:
(i) Assembler: Assembler is used to convert an assembly language into
machine codes.
(ii) Compiler: Compiler is used to convert a high level language (for
example, Basic, C, Pascal) into machine codes.
(iii) Interpreters: Interpreters is used to interpret and execute instructions

one by one in a high level language. Interpreted languages are slower

than the compiled programs.
(d) The Fourth Generation is known as problem-oriented language.
Languages of this generation, also known as 4GL, require even less
instructions as compared to the third generation languages when
performing a certain job. The definition of 4GL is different depending
on vendors. Normally, this language is combined with a software
package like the database management system (DBMS). Normally,
4GL is used to access information from files and databases.
4GL instructions resemble English Language instructions for accessing and
formatting data. Languages of this generation are easy to use. This enables
professional and non-professional users to develop software easily. Some
people do not consider 4GL as a procedure-oriented language because it
places emphasis on what needs to be done and not on how it should be done
(method). 4GL will not replace the third generation language because it
focuses more on one task.
Most 4GL procedures are automatically generated by the computer and users
only need to state what needs to be done and not how to do them. A few
examples of the fourth generation languages are:
(i) Query languages like SQL, QBE and Intellect. These languages are
used to change, edit, create and access information from databases.
(ii) Report generators are languages used to generate queries and reports
from databases.
(iii) Application generators perform more than query languages and report
generators. They are tools that generate software according to users’
needs with regards to data requirements needed to be processed and
reported.
(e) The Fifth Generation programming languages are the natural languages,
that is, languages that are the same as the query languages, except that
users are not required to learn the dictionary, grammar and syntax.
They use natural languages like English. The use of natural languages
touches on the artificial intelligence field of study, for instance, a field
that studies on how to make computers think like humans.
Self-check 6.1
1. What makes a “low level” programming language different from a “high
level” programming language?
2. Give two benefits that can be obtained if you understand programming
language.

6.5 Classification of Programming Languages

6.5.1 Characteristics
Programming languages can be classified based on the characteristics of the
language such as imperative, object-oriented, functional, logic, parallel,
scripting and visual as shown in Figure 6.2. Each characteristic has its own
strengths and weaknesses. The following sections will discuss the strengths
and weaknesses of each characteristic.
Figure 6.2: Programming Language Characteristics
6.5.2 Imperative language

Imperative means instruction order or command.
Therefore, the imperative language is a language where every instruction for

solving a problem needs to be stated clearly. Each instruction for solving a
problem will be executed step by step. An imperative language can be likened
to that of a recipe for cooking. In this language, the technique used is of the
form “do A, then do B”. Examples of imperative languages are shown in
Table 6.3.
There are times when it is known as a procedural language. The basic idea in
the imperative language is that users need to state every step needed in solving
the problem.

Table 6.3: Examples of Imperative Language
Imperative Language
C
Ada
C++
Pascal
Modula 2
FORTRAN
COBOL
Algol 68
PL/1
Simula
Turing
Oberon
BASIC
For example, we are requested to print all odd numbers between 1 and 40,
so the codes in an imperative language are given as follows:
for (i = 1; i <= 40; i++)
if (i % 2 ! = 0)
printf (“ganjil % d \ n”, i);
6.5.3 Object-oriented language

Object-oriented language was invented to develop systems that are large and
complex.
The need for an object-oriented language arose when existing languages could
no longer fulfil the need of systems that are becoming more complex. The
advantages of object-orientation are the ease of system management, the
ability to change the system properly and the re-usability of the components
in a new system. The structure of an object-oriented language makes a program
easier to design and understand. Object-oriented languages handle images,
audio, video and sound much easier than procedural languages (third
generation). The basic idea is to focus on the objects inside a system, not on
the functions that occur inside the system.

Important concepts in an object-oriented language are class, object,

encapsulation, inheritance, polymorphism and dynamic binding. One class
explains one object, where the object contains data on the object and
operations that can be processed by the object. For example, a user wants to
model a restaurant as shown in Figure 6.3. A technique as shown in Figure
6.4 can be used in an object-oriented language.
Figure 6.3: Objects Inside Object-oriented Program
class Employee:
def init (self, name, salary=0) :
,
self.name name =
self.salary salary =
def promotion Salary(self,peratus) :
self.salary = self.salary + (self.salary*peratus)
def work(self) :
print salef.name, ‘buat kerja’
def repr__(self) :
return ‘Employee: name:%s salary=%s’
% (self.nama self.salary) ,
class Cook(Employee) :
def init (self,name) :
Employee. init (self,name,500)
def work(self) :
print self.name, ‘gideon gono’
class Waiter(Employee)
def init (self,name) :
Employee. init (self,name,400)
def work(self) :
print self.name, ‘chipo mutara’
Figure 6.4: Part of An Object-based Program

If we observe carefully, this code explains three objects: (Employee), (Cook)

and (Waiter). The Employee object has data on (name), (salary) and operation
on how to calculate salary increment. The Cook object and Waiter object
have data on work to be done like “cook food” and “serve clients”.
Inheritance concept enables a user to produce a new object based on an

existing object. For example, the Cook object is inherited from the Employee
object. This means, the Cook object has the same data and operations as the
Employee object. Observe that the Cook object redefines information, that
is:
def work (self):

print self. name, 'buat kerja'
To
def kerja (self) :

print self. name, ‘masak lauk’
The technique of designing an object to contain data and operations is called

encapsulation. Encapsulation means putting into a container. Polymorphism
refers to many forms, that is, data inside an object can be of many shapes.
For example, data self.salary is not stated its form, whether it is an integer,
floating point or character. For example, the form for data.salary is not stated.
know whether it is an integer, floating point or character.
Sending messages is used when an object wishes to communicate with another

object. Object interactions are done via messages. The concept of object-
oriented programming is difficult to accept in the beginning, but the use of this
concept can be utilised in the development of large and complex systems. In
short, three basic concepts in object-oriented languages are:
(a) Encapsulation: Which means an object contains data and operations.
(b) Inheritance: Which means an object can inherit data and operations
from another object higher in the hierarchy. A class is a group of objects
that contains the same characteristics.
(c) Polymorphism: This means “many forms”. Data inside an object does
not inform us of its forms. “Poly” means many, while “morphism”
means changes in shape.

An advantage of the object-oriented language is re-usability. Any object that

has been declared as re-usable can be used inside another program. This
simplifies and speeds up application development. Object-oriented language
was first introduced in 1970 in Simula language, followed by Smalltalk and
C++.
Examples of object languages are C++, Smalltalk, Java and Objective-C,

Object-oriented Pascal, Delphi, Beta, HyperTalk, Limbo, Python and Eifel.
These types of languages began to get major attention in the 1980s and 1990s.
Self-check 6.2
What is meant by object-oriented programming?
6.5.4 Logic-based language

Logic-based language focuses more on problem statement, not on how to
solve the problem. The software system is responsible for solving the stated
problem. This language is based on logic, that is, facts and rules. Facts and
rules are stated in the form of IF-THEN statement. For example, users can
state facts and rules as follows:
IF X is-father-of Y AND Y is-father-of Z, THEN X is-grand-father-of Z.
In writing a logic-based program, users make use of the Horn-logic, that is, a
statement that uses IF-THEN. All facts and rules will be stated in Horn-logic
form. Subsequently, the user will state the problem to be solved. The system
will try to solve the said problem based on the facts and rules that have been
given. For example, we can produce the following information based on the
Horn-logic:
happy (x) <– rich (x), famous

(x) happy (x) <– young (x), in-
love (x) happy (x) <– old (x),
wise (x) famous x) <– actor (x)
famous (x) < singer (x)
Subsequently, we can state the following fact:
actor {ali}
rich {ali}
Finally, we can ask the system the following question which means is ali
happy?:

? – happy (ali)
The system will answer yes or no based on the information given before. An
example of the logic language is Prolog.
Examples of the languages discussed above and their fields of application are
shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.4: Examples of Programming Languages and their Fields of

Application
Programming Language Fields Year
FORTRAN Scientific Calculations 1956
Lisp Symbol calculation, artificial intelligence 1957

C System Development 1974
COBOL Business 1960
Visual Basic System development, GUI 1990
C++ Large and complex system development 1984
Java Internet, GUI, system development 1995
Perl Internet, CGI, text 1990
6.5.5 Function-based language

A function-based language emphasises what needs to be calculated and not
how to calculate. The program is in the form of functions, that is, a function
that is almost the same as a mathematical function. The codes written in the
function language are normally short and concise. For example, to get all the
odd numbers between 1 and 20, a function-based program is given: [x|x <–
[1..20]; x mod 2 = 1]. Examples of function languages are Lisp, FP, Scheme,
Common Lisp, Hope, Standard ML, Miranda, Haskell, Hugs, and Lucid.
6.5.6 Others
Scripting languages are translated languages that are normally produced for a
certain objective. They can be used for developing prototypes rapidly. This
type of language is portable between various types of computer platforms.
Systems that have been developed in scripting languages run slower. Examples
of scripting languages are awk, sed, Perl, Python, REXX, rebol and ruby.

Besides the above mentioned characteristics, there are also other languages
like:
(a) Constraint programming.
(b) Accessed-oriented programming.
(c) Single data structure programming, for example, APL language treats
all data in the form of matrix or sequential order; Icon language treats
all data in the form of expressions.
(d) Database language, for example, SQL.
6.6 Visual Language

Programming using a visual language replaces instructions based on text with
icon symbols. Each icon represents an object or general programming
function like copy, delete, open file, and so forth. An example of visual
language is Visual Basic and it is the most popularly used visual language
among normal and professional users. Other visual languages in the market
are Visual FoxPro and Visual C++.
6.7 Examples of Programs

6.7.1 C
It is a small language with attractive features. The C language is mostly used in
the development of system software and application software.
Programs in C are portable, where users only need to re-compile the

programs of the new operating system in order to produce suitable object
codes.
For example, the Linux and UNIX operating systems were developed in C
language. The C programming course is a core subject in computer science
programs of any university. The C language is quite difficult to learn for new
users but it is a language that has various capabilities and is very powerful.
Figure 6.5 is an example of a C program obtaining prime numbers based on

the Eratosthenes algorithm.

/* sieve of Eratosthenes */
#DEFINE N 10000 main ()

{int I, j, a[N];
for (i = 2; i < N; i++) a[i] = 1;
for (i = 2; i < N; i++)
if(a[i])
for (j = i; j < N / I; j++) a[i * j] = 0;
for (i = 2; I < N; i++)
if (a[i]) printf (‘ ‘);
printf (‘\\n’);}
Figure 6.5: Part of C Program
6.7.2 C++
It adds on object features to the C language based on ideas from the Simula
language. Initially, it was known as C with Classes language. This language is
mostly used in large and complex systems development, such as telephone
switching, GUI system, traffic control on the road, and so on.
Figure 6.6 shows an example of the program based on objects in C++:
void gen_array::read(istream& in, strings)

{ clear(); cout
<< s; int i = 0;
while (in && i < sz) read _el(v[i++],in);
while(i < sz) init_entry(v[i++];
}
gen_array::gen_array(int a, int b)
{ if (a>b) error_handler(1, string(“string: bad
[%d..%d]’,a,b));
Low = a; High
= b; sz = b-a+1
v = new GenPtr[sa];
if (v==0) error_handler(99,”array: out of memory’);
last = v+sz-1;
}
Figure 6.6: Part of C++ program

6.7.3 Java
Java is an object-based language invented in 1995 by James Gosling. It has
the features of C++ and Simula.
Java converts Java programs into byte code, not to object code, where the
byte code can be run in any operating system by using the Java virtual machine
without any changes. This technique enables any Java program to be portable
among many computer systems.
Initially, Java was mostly used in producing graphics and animation on websites.
Experts predict that Java will become a widely used programming language in
the future. Java has been popular with the slogan “Write once, runs
everywhere”.
Detailed information at http://www.javasoft.com. An on-line tutorial is available

at http://www.java.sun.com/docs/books/tutorial/.
An example of a Java program searching for prime numbers is shown in Figure

6.7.
// Sieve of Eratosthenes
Import java.awt.*;
public class Sieve extends java.applet.Applet implements
Runnable
Thread sieveThread; String results1, results2;
public void start ()

sieveThread = new Thread(this);
sieveThread.start();
void runSieve()
int SIZE = 8190;
Boolean flags[] = new Boolean[SIZE+1];
int I, prime, k, iter, count;
if(flags [i])
startTime = System.currentTimeMillis();
while (true)
count = 0;
for (1=0; i<=Size; i++) flags[i]=true;
for (i=0; i<=SIZE; i++)
if(flags[i])
if(flags[i])
prime=i+i+3;
for(k =i+prime; k<=SIZE; k<=prime)
flags[k]=false;
count++;
iterations++;
Figure 6.7: Part of Java Interface
6.7.4 Perl
Perl is a scripting language that can be used in the processing of text, CGI,
database communication, and so forth.
PERL has the portability feature. To know more about PERL, log on to http:/
/www.perl.org.
An example of the Perl program in processing document is shown in Figure

6.8.
@in = split(/[&;]/,$in);
push(@in, @ARGV) if $cmdflag;
foreach $i (0 .. $#in) {
$in[$i] =~ s/\+/ /g;
($key,$val)= split(/=/,$in[$i],2);#splits on the first =.
$key =~ s/%([A-Fa-f0-9]{2})/pack(“c”,hex($1))/ge;
$val =~ s/%([A-Fa-f0-9]{2})/pack(“c”,hex($1))/ge;
$in{$key} .= “\0” if (defined($in{$key}));
$in{$key} .= $val;
}
$name=~/([-\w]+)/;#This allows $insfn{$name} to be
untainted if (defined $1) {
$insfn{$1} .= “\0” if defined $insfn{$1};
$insfn{$1} .= $fn if $fn;
}$
Figure 6.8: Part of Perl Interface

6.7.5 Python
Python is a scripting language based on objects which can be used to develop
a prototype, to process data based on text, to communicate with databases,
etc.
Among applications that have been built using Python are Web applications,
address book, computer network management and astronomical software.
Python is an alternative to Perl.
Detailed information on Python can be obtained at http://www.python.org.
An example of the Perl program is shown in Figure 6.9 which can be used to
count the number of words in a document.
from sys import

* from string
import * count
= {}
for line in open(argv[1], ‘r’).readlines():
for words in
split(line):
if count.has_key(word):
count[word] = count[word] + 1
else
: count[word] = 1
Figure 6.9: Part of Python Program
6.8 Compiler, Assembler, Interpreter

Programs that have been written in a programming language are called source
codes. Source codes are in the form of text or ASCII. It can be written by
using the editor.
Examples of IDE mostly used are Borland C++ and Visual Studio.
An example of a source code used for the C programming language is shown:
This source code needs to be compiled or converted into object code before
it can be run in any computer. The compilation process is done by the compiler.

#include main ( )
{
printf (“hello world \ n”);
{
If this program is compiled in Linux, it can only be run in Linux. If it is compiled

in Windows, it can only be run in Windows.
This problem is said to be non-portable, that is, any software that is compiled
in operating system (Type A) cannot be run in operating system (Type B).
The problem of non-portable arises because the object code produced from
the compilation process is different for different operating systems. This object
code is specific for one type of operating system only.
While the source code is compiled, it will be linked to the library, that is, a set
of existing instructions inside the operating system. In the Windows operating
system, the library is given extended .dll (dynamic loading library). Examples
of libraries in the Windows operating system are vb200.dll and vb3000.dll.
The software (or object code) that is produced requires this library to be run.
Since the library is present in the specific operating system (for example,
Windows) only, the object code that is produced can be run in the said Windows
system only.
Every processor (CPU) is built using a different architecture such as CISC,

SPARC, Motorola 6800 or RISC. Each architecture contains a set of
instructions which are different from one type to another. Since the set of
instructions is different, the machine language of each processor is also different.
The object code that is generated from the compilation process is in the form
of machine language. Since the machine language is different, the object code
produced is also different. Therefore, the object code can be run in the
processor that produces it only.
For example, two types of architecture for the processor are RISC and CISC.
Examples of CISC processors are Intel, AMD and Cyrix while examples of
RISC processors are Alpha, Motorola 6800 and PowerPC. Any software
that is compiled for an Intel processor cannot run on an Alpha processor
because both contain different object codes.
To convert assembly language programs into object code, we need to use the
assembler.The object code produced is not portable. We can use assembly
language to write a program. The assembly language is mostly used in the
development of operating systems and it is used specifically in certain operating
systems.

Interpreter is a computer program that translates and executes programs line

by line.
It does not convert programs into object code. Programs in the interpreter
are portable, that is, it can be run using any operating system. Programs inside
the interpreter are far slower than programs that are compiled and run in the
form of object code. Every programming language has its own strengths and
is suitable for a certain domain.
It is normal for a programmer to know more than one language. Usually, after
learning one language, it is very easy for him/her to learn another language
because the structure of most languages is the same. This can be seen in
Figure 6.10.
Figure 6.10: Compiler, Assembler and Interpreter
6.9 Summary
In this unit we highlighted that programming languages can be divided into
stages or generations, beginning from the lowest to the highest. The higher the
language, the nearer it is to the human form. Most high level languages are
languages based on algorithms or procedures. 4GL instructions resemble
English Language instructions for accessing and formatting data. Programming
languages can be classified based on the characteristics of the language such
as imperative, object-oriented, functional, logic, parallel, scripting and visual.
The imperative language is a language where every instruction for solving a
problem needs to be stated clearly. Object-oriented language was invented

to develop systems that are large and complex. Important concepts in an

object-oriented language are class, object, encapsulation, inheritance,
polymorphism and dynamic binding.
Key Terms
Encapsulation Functional Imperative language Inheritance
Logic
Object-oriented Parallel
Polymorphism Program
Visual Language

References


Unit Seven
The Internet
7.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall focus on the development and history of the Internet.
You may already be familiar with browsing the Internet – but do you know
what the real capability of the Internet is? In this unit, we shall learn of the
things that are found over the Internet and the activities that can be done on
the Internet. Besides that, you will also identify the effective process of
searching for information on the Internet.
7.1 Objectives
 discuss the history of the internet

 explain the things that are available over the internet
 identify activities that can be done on the internet
 explain the effective process of an information search on
the internet
7.2 Definition
In any organisation such as a government office, private company or
university, computers are usually linked to a computer network called the
LAN (local area network). This enables users to share resources like printers,
communicate via e-mails, share databases, and so forth. When two or more
LAN (and other networks) are combined into one big network, it is called
inter-network or the Internet. Figure 7.1 shows the Internet structure.
Figure 7.1: The Internet Structure
Now, imagine that all computer networks in the world are linked to form one
big network of a global nature. The network formed is called the Internet, that

Unit 7 The Internet
is, a network formed by a combination of computer networks in the entire

world.
With the Internet, a computer in Kuala Lumpur can access a computer in

China, India, the USA, Japan, Saudi Arabia and anywhere else in the world.
The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very large, and covers
the whole world. It operates using the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP) protocols.
There were various proprietary networks linking several countries before the
Internet era – such as the MAS network linking Malaysian Airline offices
world- wide – but these were not the Internet. The Internet has adopted the
TCP/IP protocols in order to enable various types of computers to work
together. The Internet has been successful in creating a global village where a
community can communicate with another community easily without physical
and time boundaries.
The term “Intranet” refers to a portion of the Internet that is located inside one
organisation. Intra means inside.
For example, the portion of the Internet located in all the faculties in the
Zimbabwe Open University constitute an intranet. The portion must be guarded
by special firewalls to ensure that outsiders could not simply come into the
ZOU to access its confidential files. So, intranet is really a subset of the Internet
– one at the organisation level, while the other at the global level.
As many intranets were built, companies discovered more competitive

advantage if they link them together. Thus, an extranet is formed by linking
two or more intranets.
Self-check 7.1
1. In your own words, give the definition of the following terms:
(a) Internet;
(b) Intranet; and
(c) Extranet.
2. Based on the answer above, explain how they differ from one another.
7.3 History
The Internet network has an interesting history. By looking at the history, we
are able to evaluate the advantages, disadvantages, weaknesses, past

development and the future of the Internet better. The Internet network was
born in the USA in 1969. The Defence Department of USA formed the
Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) which started the network. This
organisation was responsible for upgrading the activities of research and
development in the field of technology to compete with the USSR (Union of
Soviet Socialist Republic), the predecessor of today’s Russia. This was the
answer to the success of the USSR government in its launching of the Sputnik
satellite communication. In the 1970s, the USA and the USSR were in the
Cold War period. Many people thought that the success of the USSR had
awakened the USA from asleep.
7.3.1 How the Internet began

Two main researches in ARPA were intellectual sharing and computer resource
sharing. Intellectual sharing research touched on how researchers could share
opinions among themselves no matter where they were. Computer resource
sharing research touched on how a researcher could use computer resources
at other places easily. It needs to be noted that, in that decade, computers
were very expensive, limited and large. A computer often cost millions of
dollars and occupied one big room. Only organisations like the Defence
Department and large companies could afford to own a computer. Personal
computers were not yet available.
As a result of that research, a computer network called ARPANET was

established in 1969. It connected four computers that were available at different
locations– the University of California in Los Angeles (UCLA), the University
of California in Santa Barbara (UCSB), the University of Utah and the Stanford
Research Institute (SRI). In 1971, a total of 23 computers joined ARPANET,
mostly universities and research centres. In 1973, the numbers increased
several fold. In 1971, e-mail facilities were introduced into ARPANET.
In the 1970s, initiatives were taken to create a standard in data sharing among
various types of computer networks. At that time, every computer company
introduced network systems that were different from one another. This initiative
enabled all computers of different brands in various types of networks to
share data or to communicate among themselves easily. In 1974, a data sharing
technique called Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) was introduced. Later,
in 1978, this technique was expanded to what was called Transfer Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP).

Unit 7 The Internet
Activity 7.1
? As we know, the Internet dominates almost every aspect of
the human life today. Write an essay on how it all started.
Present it to your classmates.
7.3.2 The Internet as a phenomenon

In 1982, the ARPANET network used TCP/IP fully as the standard in data
sharing. This enabled various types of computers in ARPANET to share data
among themselves. The success of ARPANET in using TCP/IP resulted in
many universities and other organisations joining ARPANET. In 1984, about
1,000 computers were inside ARPANET. The main activities of the Internet
during that time were e-mail, file transfers, remote log-in and USENET.
In 1986, the NFSNET, a high-speed network, was formed. This network

became the backbone network that connected universities, research centres
and government agencies with the supercomputer centre. In 1990, the
ARPANET network was terminated and its functions were taken over by
NFSNET. In 1997, the NFSNET which functioned as the backbone network
was taken over by a private party.
In the 1980s and early 1990s, Internet usage was still confined to universities,
research centres and government organisations. Its main applications were e-
mail, ftp and USENET. In 1989, a big incident occurred in the European
Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN), a large research centre in Switzerland
that was destined to change the Internet forever. Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher
at CERN, proposed an information sharing technique based on hypertext for
the Internet environment.
1990, Berners-Lee introduced a protocol or technique called “Hypertext

Transfer Protocol” (HTTP), that is, a technique that can be used to develop
distributed multimedia systems based on networking.
This multimedia system contains graphics, text, audio and video which can be
indexed and accessed easily by users in the entire world. This system has
been given various names like the World Wide Web, W3, web or WWW. As
we know now, the Internet was born! World Wide Web or web or WWW
can be defined as a network of various types of information like graphics,
audio, video and its text is based on hypertext. The original term for hypertext
was introduced by Ted Nelson in 1967. Originally, hypertext only involved
document texts but now it involves documents based on graphics, audio,
video and others. (Obtain the article “As We May Think” from the Internet).

Ted Nelson worked to develop a hypertext system that was named Xanadu.
The basic idea of the hypertext was once presented by Vannevar Bush in an
article “As We May Think” in 1947. According to Nelson, the hypertext
means a collection of documents or nodes that have links or references among
themselves.
Users can read a document and access other documents via interactive links.
The basic concepts in hypertext are link, accessibility and interactivity. With
hypertext, the information provided is linked among themselves like a cobweb.
7.3.3 Marc Andreessen

The technique of http was introduced to the Internet in 1991.
In 1992, there were 70 sites that offered http and WWW services on the
entire Internet. The http protocol was still not widely used enough because
there was no Internet browser that was good and attractive for users. Most
Internet browsers at that time were based on text. In 1993, a browser based
on graphics was developed by Marc Andreessen and Eric Bina at the National
Centre for Supercomputing Application (NCSA) in USA. This browser, called
Mosaic, was given out free to users. It contains interface features that are
attractive and user- friendly. A combination of ideas from Berners-Lee’s
hypertext and Mosaic browser was finally successful in popularising the http
protocol on the Internet.
Mosaic software is considered the main invention, that is, a great application
that has successfully popularised the Internet to general users instantly. At the
end of 1993, within 24 months of the introduction of http, there were 700
WWW sites. The Internet began to attract the media and the general public.
A lot of news concerning the Internet was found in magazines, newspapers
and TV.
On the commercial aspect, the Internet began attracting the attention of giant
commercial organisations. Many people think that the Internet is the key to
their future successes in business. Many Internet-based companies have been
formed in big numbers. Marc Andreessen and a few friends have set up an
Internet technology company and produced an Internet browser called
Netscape. This browser is given free to all users. The giant Microsoft
Corporation was quite late in entering the Internet. This company produced
the Internet Explorer browser as a means of dominating the Internet.
Competition between these two Internet browser software brands in attracting
the Internet users market is very interesting. Many people think that whoever
dominates the browser software will dominate the Internet.

Unit 7 The Internet
7.3.4 Development of the Internet

It is estimated that the number of Internet users will double every 18 months.
The period from 1997 to 1999 was the period of the Internet explosion where
the Internet became a hot unit for talks and discussion. Internet fever began to
reach every user who wanted to set up his-own private website and his-own
e-mail account. Various benefits and specialties of the Internet have been
proposed by the media and other parties. Among the benefits the Internet
could give were that it could create a global village, remove the boundaries of
nations, provide information quickly, close the gap between developed and
developing nations, open on-line education and create borderless economies.
However, most of the statements have not been achieved fully or they can still
be debated upon.
Year 2000 was a difficult year for the Internet. Weaknesses on the Internet
were felt by users. Among problems that arose was difficulty in searching for
relevant information, network congestion, unfiltered news, various rumours,
the spread of viruses through e-mails, low security level when credit cards
were used in transactions, computer invasion, wide-spread pornographic
materials on-line, and so on. Many dotcom companies suffered from losses
and closed down. Based on research, companies that made profits on the
Internet were those that operated websites selling pornographic materials.
Activity 7.3
? 1. Get a newspaper-cutting on the Internet for the years
between 1997 and 2010. In their thirst to popularise the
Internet, some of the statements made could have been
exaggerated. Based on current facts, which statements
are true and which statements are false?
2. In your opinion, what will be the changes to the Internet
in the next seven years?
Self-check 7.2
Obtain a list of dotcom companies in Zimbabwe. What are the problems of

setting up dotcom companies in Zimbabwe?

7.4 Internet Evolution

Some people think that the Internet opened up a new era in economy. In this
new economic era, a company does not need a building or a physical site.
Instead, it needs only a website for dealing with customers. All transactions
can be done via the Internet. Many Internet-based companies, also called
dotcom companies, are formed all over the world. Many of these companies
are listed on the stock exchange and receive extraordinary responses from
investors. There are companies that are listed at RM 2.00, but the next day,
they are transacted at RM 200 per share. The Internet will continue to develop.
Table 7.1 shows the history of the Internet and how it has changed throughout
the course of history.
Table 7.1: Phases of Change of the Internet

Evolution Explanation
First Phase Birth of ARPANET for the purposes of research and
(Before-1969) computer resource sharing in the USA only. Most users were
scientists, students and academicians. The Internet was used
as a tool for sharing computer resources.
Second Phase Communication like e-mail, ftp, USENET were used widely.
(1970-1990) Usage was still confined to universities and government
agencies. Internet usage concentrated in the USA, Europe and
Japan. The Internet was used as a tool of communication.
Third Phase Hypertext technique was used widely in network information.

(1990-1997) The Internet began to attract public attention because the
Internet browser had attractive and user-friendly interfaces.
Fourth Phase The Internet explosion. The number of users expanded
(1997-2000) rapidly. The Internet was used for business transactions. It
became the subject of conversations and many articles
regarding the Internet were written in various magazines.
Fifth Phase The Internet reality. Many dotcom companies closed down.
(2001-after) Realities of Internet advantages and disadvantages were felt.
Some initiatives to improve the Internet continued.
7.4.1 Internet time line

Table 7.2 shows the Internet time line.

Unit 7 The Internet
Table 7.2: Internet Time Line
7.4.1 Internet time line

Table 7.2 shows the Internet time line.
Table 7.2: Internet Time Line
1969 Four computers were connected on the ARPANET network in USA.
The computers were from UCLA (University of California at Los
Angeles), UCSB (University of California at Santa Barbara), SRI
(Stanford Research Institute) and the University of Utah.
1971 The number of computers in the ARPANET shot up to 21. A
technique of e-mail communication was introduced.
1973 The University College of London was connected to ARPANET, the

first connection of ARPANET outside the USA.
1978 TCP/IP data sharing technique was introduced.
1979 USENET was introduced. It involved two computers in ARPANET.

1982 ARPANET used TCP/IP completely. Definitions of Internet and

internet were introduced. "Internet" refers to the (world-wide)
grouping of computer networks that uses TCP/IP while "internet"
refers to a computer network that uses TCP/IP.
1984 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1 000 units.
1987 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 10 000 units –

that is, an increase of 1 000%.
1988 The Internet was massively attacked by Internet worms which were
computer softwares that spread on their own. This incident shows the
low level of safety on the Internet. CERT (Computer Emergency
Response Team) was set up to monitor security on the Internet.
1989 The number of computers exceeded 100 000 units. A book entitled
“Cuckoo Nest” was published. This book explained how a group of
invaders from Germany were successful in entering a few USA
military computers without permission via the Internet.
1990 ARPANET was terminated and replaced by NFSNET network.
1991 HTTP was produced by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. This became the
basis for the development of WWW on the Internet.
1992 The number of computers on the Internet exceeded 1 000 000 units.
Books entitled "Surfing the Internet" (at http://www.netmomcom/
about/surfing.shtm.l) and "Zen and the Art of the Internet" (at
http://www.cs.indiana.edu/docproject/zen/ zen-1.0 _toc.html) were
produced and distributed for free on the Internet.
1993 There was an increase in the number of WWW servers by 341 643%.
Mosaic browser was introduced and given out for free to users.
1996 Browser war between Netscape Communicator and Internet

Explorer. At that time, almost 80% of users were using Netscape.
In the Internet history and time line, we have found rapid development of the
Internet just within a period of 30 years. The Internet began as a research
network. Then it became a communication and data sharing network and
finally a network for e-commerce. The Internet has removed the physical
boundaries that divided the world and created a global village that transcends
time and space.

Unit 7 The Internet
Do you know that Internet protocol (IP) number for the entire Internet is
coordinated by a body with its centre at http://www.internic.net while for
computers in Asia, it is coordinated by APNIC (Asia Pacific Network
Information Centre) with its centre in Japan. Normally, IP number is only
given to organisations, universities and government agencies. It is not given to
individuals. The distribution of IP numbers in Zimbabwe is managed by ISPs.
An IP number is used by a computer to communicate with another computer

on the Internet. Without an IP number, computers cannot enter the Internet.
Activity 7.4
? Try to imagine the impact of the Internet on society whether
in Zimbabwe or the rest of the world. Try to imagine if the
Internet does not exist today. What are the activities that
users cannot do without the Internet? Discuss.
7.5 Computers on the Internet

There are two types of computers on the Internet, that is, host computers and
server computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which
has an IP (Internet Protocol) number. IP numbers are four sequential numbers
a.b.c.d. Examples of IP numbers are 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and
192.228.128.18. Each sequence a,b,c,d consists of numbers between 0 and
277.. A good analogy for an IP number is the Identity Card number. It is
unique to a certain host. There are no two hosts on the Internet that have the
same IP number. A computer needs to have an IP number to access the Internet.
As a simple rule, if the computer is a personal computer and has an IP number,

then the computer is a host computer. If a user accesses the Internet using
services provided by the Internet Service Provider like tm.net.my, jaring.my
or maxis.my via a home computer, the user does not need an IP number. The
user’s computer will be given an IP number dynamically by the Internet service
provider.
Computers can also function as servers, that is, computers that can be accessed
by users on the Internet. A server is a high-powered computer that is used as
a platform for websites, e-mails, electronic discussions, archives, file server,
and so on. Normally a server would use UNIX, Linux, Solaris or Windows
2000 Server as its operating system.

A server has two forms of identification – that is, IP number and FQDN
name. Examples of FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name) names for a server
are www.xxx.zw (192.228.128.18) or oum.edu.my (202.187.48.7). The
analogy here is that a person has an ID number and name, so a server too has
an IP number and FQDN name. As a simple rule, if the computer is high
powered and has an IP number and FQDN, then the computer is a server.
FQDN names are used to assist Internet users, because it is easier to remember
a FQDN name www.xxx.zw rather than an IP number 192.228.128.18.
Therefore, every server on the Internet has an IP number and name for
identification. A FQDN name gives a lot of information regarding a certain
server. For example, the server name pkrisc.cc.zou.zw gives the following
meaning –pkrisc is the computer, cc is the faculty or centre name, zou is the
organisation name and zw is the country name. Therefore, in general, the
namepkrisc.ac.zou.my refers to a server located at the Computer centre,
Zimbabwe Open University, Zimbabwe. (indexpkrisc.ac.zou.zw)
The end part of the server name normally shows the location or type of
organisation in which the server resides. For example .edu refers to an
educational institution, .org refers to a non-commercial organisation, .com
refers to a company, .zw refers to Zimbabwe, .de refers to Germany, . uk
refers to United Kingdom, .ch refers to China, etc. We can see an example
of an Internet address in Figure 7.2 while the explanation on its domain is
Figure 7.2: E-mail Address

Unit 7 The Internet
Did you know this? Nowadays, most server names are in the form of URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) that has been the basis of http protocol. An
example of a URL name is http://www.zou.ac.zw and http://www.xxx.zw.
http refers to http protocol, www refers to website, zou refers to Zimbabwe
Open University ac refers to academic institution and zw refers to the country
Zimbabwe.
Figure 7.3: Internet Domain

Self-check 7.3
What do you understand by a server computer? Explain.
7.6 Internet Statistics

This section contains various statistics on the Internet. It aims to provide an
overall picture of the Internet.
7.6.1 Number of users

The number of Internet users by the end year 2000 for some countries was

like a matrix. It was estimated that by 2002, the number of Internet users
would have reached 470 million people all over the world. Almost one-third
of the world’s Internet users were from the USA.
However, the latest figure in 2009 proved to be a lot of different. China alone
achieved more than 300 million users, Japan with more than 100 millions
users, and India with more than 80 million users. That easily placed Asia as
the world’s top Internet users.
7.6.2 Internet size

According to a survey, there were 2.1 billion websites on the Internet in 2000.
It was estimated that the Internet size increased by 7 million Websites per
day. In 2002, the number of websites was estimated to have increased two
times. 87% of the Websites were in the USA. If a user browses a website for
one minute, how long will a user take to browse 2.1 billion websites on the
Internet in one year? This shows how big the size of the Internet is.
No one can give the exact number of web servers on the Internet. This is
because web servers can be developed and removed easily by any
organisation.
7.6.3 Internet language

What is the common language used over the Internet? Undoubtedly, the most
commonly used language for communication over the Internet is English.
Therefore, a conclusion can be made here – if users wish to benefit the most
from information on the Internet, they need to be good at English. To read
other information, users need to learn Japanese, German and French. We can
see the statistics of language usage on the Internet as shown in Table 7.3.

Unit 7 The Internet
Table 7.3: Percentage of Language Used on the Internet
Language Website (Million) Percentage

English 214 68%
Japanese 18 6%
German 18 6%
Chinese 18 3.8%
French 9.2 2.96%
7.7 What is the Internet Content?
Activity 7.5
? In your opinion, what is really available on the Internet that
can be of benefit to users? What can be done on the
Internet? What process can be improved on the Internet?
The Internet is a network initially meant for doing research. It was mostly
used by universities, research centres and government agencies. That is the
reason why there are many documents of an academic nature on it. They
include books, technical reports, research output, translations, data, articles,
discussions, programme source codes, research software, lecture notes,
software guides, pictures, sound, and so on. Normally the information is free
and can be accessed via the websites. Based on this scenario, the Internet
can be likened to a huge virtual library which contains numerous types of
information.
The Internet also offers various forms of communication like e-mail, on-line
discussion, USENET and e-mail based discussion. These communication
techniques have successfully created a global village.
With e-mail, users can communicate with anyone, anywhere. E-mail is a type
of communication that is cheap and fast. An e-mail sent from the Zimbabwe
Open University takes only 7 seconds to reach the United Kingdom. By
using e-mail, users can send attachments like MS Word documents, software,
zipped files, graphics or audio.
Nowadays, there are many Websites like www.yahoo.com and

www.hotmail.com that offer free e-mail accounts for users. It can be said that

nearly all Internet users have e-mail accounts. An example of an e-mail account
address is [email protected].
The Internet also offers various on-line discussion units via USENET. There
are over 7,000 units discussed inside USENET and users can choose from
various units that interest them. In a USENET discussion, anyone from any
part of the world can give opinions or ideas freely.
There are two ways of accessing the USENET. Firstly, a user can access a
USENET server such as http://www.groups.google.com. Secondly, if a user
subscribes to the Internet via www.xxx.zw, the user can access a USENET
server at news.xxx.zw.
The Internet also offers discussions based on e-mails. Discussions normally

focus on a specific unit. Users need to have e-mail accounts to participate in
the discussions. There are several locations that offer discussions based on e-
mail for free such as http://www.groups.yahoo.com.
On the Internet, you can also search and get various types of information for
reference and reading. There are various types of information available on the
Internet. A user can get the entire literary works of William Shakespeare,
translations of the Koran, sayings of Prophet Mohamed, classical Malay literary
works, recipes for cake making, lecture notes, CIA reports on Zimbabwe,
and so on. Many foreign and local universities have placed their lecture sources
like notes, sample examination paper and on-line software onto the Internet
to be accessed and these benefits the students. Examples of lecture Websites
are www.utexas.edu/world/lecturer and http://www.vlib.org.
The Internet is also a large archive of computer software. It contains various

types of software like graphics, word processing, databases, games, and so
forth. Most software is free. Examples of websites that contain a lot of software
are http://www.tucows.com and http://www.gnu.org.
A type of software that is getting wide attention on the Internet today is the
open source software. The open source software consists of high quality
software and can be obtained together with programme codes. Why is this
interesting? Firstly, anyone on the Internet can help to improve the software
to make it better. Any error in the software can be corrected quickly. Secondly,
high quality software can be shared and this serves as a catalyst in the process
of invention. This also cuts down costs for those who cannot afford to buy it.
The basic idea behind open software is that software is as important as the air
we breath and thus must be shared so that users can create inventions, have
intellectual sharing and do work in an optimum manner.

Unit 7 The Internet
Websites that offer various open source software are:

(a) http://www.gnu.org,
(b) http://www.source.net and
(c) http://www.opensource.org.
Examples of popular open source software are Linux operating system, R
Statistical software, Apache Web server software, Open Office automation
software and Emacs editor.
The Internet also offers various news sources which are up-to-date and fast
via newspaper and television websites. Examples of news websites are:
(a) http://www.cnn.com,
(a) http://www.thestar.com, and
(c) http://www.france24.com.
Through news websites, users can obtain news that is more up-to-date,
unbiased, precise and holistic on certain issues.
Users can also buy various things via the Internet. For example, users can buy
reference books from companies in Germany via the Internet. Purchases via
the Internet normally require credit cards. It is estimated that total sales via
the Internet, also called e-commerce, could reach 7 billion in the near future.
Examples of popular e-commerce Websites are:
(a) http://www.amazon.com,
(b) http://www.download.com , and
(c) http://www.sourceforge.net.
The Internet also offers various types of entertainments, light music and sites
for resting. Examples of entertainments are IRC (Internet Relay Chat), MUD
(Multi User Dungeon), ICQ (I Seek You) and on-line games. IRC can be
likened to a cyber café. With IRC, users can talk amongst themselves on the
Internet using real-time applications. Most units discussed are trivial in nature
and for amusement purposes. IRC is very popular among school and university
students. To enter IRC, users need to access the IRC server host by using the
IRC software.
On the Internet, you can also find various websites that have been built by
people for the purpose of promotion, advertising, and so on. Users can visit
websites of a museum, a university, a company or of an individual person and
see various types of information being displayed. These websites contain a
variety of information in the form of text, audio, video, graphics, cinema,
software, and so forth. In other words, there are numerous materials on
hundreds of websites that can be accessed on the Internet.

Based on the discussions, we can think of the Internet as a very large virtual
environment, without boundaries, without a clear map and without anyone in
control, and which covers the entire world. It can be said to contain a reservoir
of knowledge about the world. It also offers ways of communication to human
beings efficiently and quickly. We can see the summary of things available on
the Internet as shown in Figure 7.4.
Figure 7.4: Things Available on the Internet
Listed are websites that were often frequented in March 2001. If you observe
Table 7.4, popular sites visited were portals, search engines and the news.
Table 7.4: Popular Sites on the Internet
Sites Number (Million)
yahoo.com 59
lycos.com 33
about.com 27.6
amazon.com 19.2
cnet.com 18.57
altavista.com 18.2
napster.com 15.7
AskJeeves 14
Googles.com 10.9

Unit 7 The Internet
Listed are search engines and their logos are available on the Internet as
Figure 7.5: Search Engines
Assume that the Internet has 1 000 000 Websites and users take 7 minutes to
access a website. This means that users need 7 000 000 minutes or 83 333
hours or 3 472 days or 9.77 years to visit all websites. There is no large index
that lists the types of information and host names for the entire Internet. Two
contemporary techniques of helping users to search for information are search
engines and portal sites. The information obtained is also unfiltered. Anyone
at any location can place any kind of information on the Internet. There is no
one to give any value to the information available over the Internet. There are
also users who place forbidden material, pornographic material and
controversial material on the Internet.
The lingua franca or the language of communication used on the Internet is

English. Almost 80% of the information available is in English. This makes it
difficult for those who are not proficient enough in English.

Almost 77% of websites originate from the USA and Europe. These websites
may cause negative effects on teenage-users with information that is
contradictory to local customs and traditions. For example, websites that
highlight drug abuse, fire arms, music for devil-worshippers and sex may have
negative effects on teenagers.
Activity 7.6
? Discuss the strategy for handling the following issue:
The level of data security over the Internet for e-commerce
transactions is still being questioned by users. What is the
guarantee provided by companies that credit card numbers
used in e-commerce transactions are safe? There have
been many stories where thousands of users’ credit card
numbers were stolen by intruders from company servers.
7.8 Managing Internet Information

Nowadays, users can follow news bulletins, videos and audios directly via
the Internet. This approach is quite slow and can cause traffic congestion on
the Internet. Therefore, various researches have been carried out so that the
process of sending video and audio over the Internet can be done faster and
with greater satisfaction.
The Internet is a big source of information. How do we manage information

on the Internet efficiently? Users need to understand this approach because it
will help users to search for information and use this information efficiently.
The process of managing Internet information consists of two main steps –
searching and manipulating.
Searching for information involves the process of searching the place where
the required information is present. This is an important process. Many users
spend a lot of time exploring the Internet searching for information but to no
avail. The user obtains information that is not relevant and out-of-date.
Two main ways of searching for information over the Internet are through
search engines and portals. Other minor approaches that can also be used
are the USENET, FAQ, e-mail discussion forums and archive sites. Examples
of components used to search the information on the Internet can be seen in
Figure 7.6.

Unit 7 The Internet
Figure 7.6: Components in Searching for Information on the Internet
Manipulating information involves the process of wisely using the information

that has been obtained. Often, users spend their time obtaining information
which cannot be used in the end because they do not know how to manipulate
the information. For example, users obtain a document with the title – “Get-
rich- in-20-days.pdf”. This document can help users to become rich in 20
days. The question is, how can users read this document? If the user does not
know, he has wasted his time in searching and retrieving this document.
The Internet security level has improved a lot. Despite that, there are still
invaders who are successful in entering host computers without permission. If
they succeed, they will steal data, change the website, steal credit card numbers,
and so forth.

7.8.1 Search engine

The first step in searching for information is to use a search engine. Users will
use one or more key words to search for the desired information. Then, the
search engine will search for Websites based on the key words.
Figure 7.7: www.google.zw search engine
Search engines are not intelligent but they are also not stupid either. They
function based on robot and index.
A robot is a kind of software that is sent by the search engine to wander around
the Internet.
A search engine will send many robots to wander around the Internet. These
robots will bring back data on the web servers visited.
Based on the data brought back by the robots, an index will be built. This
index basically contains key words and in which servers the key words are
present. Every search engine has different techniques in building the index.
Therefore, two different search engines will give different answers for the
same key words.
Since the size of the Internet is so large, not all Internet servers are accessed
by robots. When users make a request based on key words in a search
engine site, the search engine will refer to the index to get relevant servers.
The search engine will always do the updating process over the index.

Unit 7 The Internet
7.8.2 Search engine method

The method employed by the search engine in searching for information has a
number of limitations and they are as follows:
(a) The Internet is very large. This makes the process of indexing difficult
to complete. It is estimated that only 30% - 40% of the Internet are
accessed by robots for the purpose of indexing.
(b) The information and hosts on the Internet change quickly. This causes
references to servers or information difficult to be indexed as some will
be missing in action. This often happens as the index takes 2-3 times
to be updated.
(c) The size of information increases exponentially every 6 months. This is
called an information explosion. If there are 1 million websites today,
the number will jump to 3 million in about 6 months time. This makes
the process of building an index that reflects the real situation of the
Internet difficult.
(d) The current searching technique is based on key words only. What if
users want to search for pictures, audio or video on a certain unit?
(e) How can we determine the level of relevance of any document? For
example, users wish to find information on the history of “Langkawi”
island. The search engine will display a host that precisely matches the
key word “Langkawi”. How can we determine whether the document
in host A is more relevant than that in host B?
(f) The connection is quite slow. The Internet connection in Zimbabwe is
still quite slow.
This often causes difficulties to users in accessing the Internet.
7.8.3 Portals
The second best way to access information is to use portals. A portal is a
server that contains a directory of several servers on the Internet based on
categories of information available on the servers. Users can find information
by accessing the servers in related categories. Examples of popular portals
are:
(a) http://www.directory.google.org
(b) http://www.yahoo.com
(c) http://www.netscape.aol.com
(d) http://www.jaring.my
(e) http://www.bigbook.com
Portals require human beings to arrange and classify servers into certain
categories. This method produces a list of servers that are more orderly and

can be used easily. For example, if a user wants to know more about the Java
programming language, he/she can access servers that are available in the
category of computer programming language. This method often produces
information that is suitable and relevant. The portal (site) at http://
www.dmoz.org is an initiative of Internet volunteers in building a portal.
Commercial portals are those like http:// www.yahoo.com and http://
www.netscape.com. An example of a portal (website) for BlueHyppo is shown
in Figure 7.8.
Figure 7.8: Portal (site) for BlueHyppo
7.8.4 Other methods

Besides search engines and portals, users can also search for information by
means of FAQ. Just remember that USENET is an on-line discussion corner.
There are various discussion corners inside USENET. In one discussion corner,
new users may be asking very trivial questions in the eyes of experienced

Unit 7 The Internet
users. Often, whenever trivial questions are asked in the discussion corners,
experienced users would say – “RTFM or the FAQ” . What do all these
mean?
The acronym RTFM means “Read the Fine Manual”, that is, the new user
should have read the manual first before asking trivial questions. The acronym
FAQ means “Frequently Asked Questions”, that is, a document in the form of
questions and answers. Questions in FAQ are those that are often asked
inside USENET discussion corners. There are thousands of USENET
discussion corners, so there are thousands of FAQ documents. Before
participating in any USENET discussion corner, users need to read FAQ
documents related to the discussion forum.
Many FAQ can be read at the site http://www.faqs.org. Figure 7.10 shows
an example of FAQ from the discussion corner of sci.math inside USENET
which discusses prime numbers.
What is the current status on Mersenne primes?

The following Mersenne primes are known.
Number p Year
33 879433 1994
34 1277787 1996
37 1398269 1996
36 2976221 1996
The way to determine if 2^p - 1 is prime is to use the Lucas-Lehmer test:

Lucas_Lehmer_Test(p):
u := 4
for i from 3 to p do
u := U ^2-2 mod 2^p-1
od
if 0 == u then
2^p-1 is prime
else2^p-1 is composite
fi
All exponents less than 1 481 800 have now been tested at least once.
Figure 7.10: Example of FAQ from Discussion Forum
Source: Math Inside USENET

Besides FAQ and RTFM, users can also search for information on the archive
server, that is a server that contains a lot of information on certain specific
units. The address of the archive normally can be obtained from FAQ portals
or documents. Many hosts on the Internet serve as archives or centres of
information gathering in certain fields.
Examples of websites that serve as archives or centres of information gathering

in certain fields are:
(a) http://www.cs.cmu.edu/ - An archive in the field of artificial intelligence.
(b) http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/ - An archive in the field of statistics.
(c) http://www.ibiblio.org/ (Formerly known as metalab.unc.edu) - An
archive for open source software.
(d) http://www.tucows.com/ - A software archive for Windows XP.
7.8.5 Example of information searching

Assume that a user wishes to search for information on the history and
comparison of various object-oriented computer programming languages. The
following steps can be taken:
(a) The user can use a search engine at http://www.google.com. Use
suitable key words like “programming language object oriented
language comparison”. The more precise the key words used, the
better the search results.
(b) The user can use a portal at http://directory.google.com/Top/
Computers/Software/Object-Oriented/ and access the sites listed. This
site is richly loaded with information on object-oriented programming
languages.
(c) The user can participate in the USENET discussion corner that
discusses the field of object-oriented programming. The USENET
website that can be accessed is http://www.groups.google.com/.
(d) The user can also participate in e-mail discussion corners on the unit of
object-oriented programming. Information on how and where to
participate is available inside the FAQ.
Self-check 7.4
1. How can users find useful information on the Internet within a short
period of time?
2. Explain the advantages of communication through:
(a) E-mail.
(b) USENET.

Unit 7 The Internet
7.9 Manipulation of Information

After spending a lot of time obtaining the information, a user needs to manipulate
the information. For example, if the information is a document, then the user
can print it. However, if the document is a programme, then the user needs to
compile it. There are various types of information formats like graphics,
postscripts, videos, data, sound, zipped files, software, programme codes,
and so on.
Some of the information can be displayed on the screen, some need to be

printed while the other needs to be compiled. There is also information that
can specifically be used in the UNIX or Linux operating system only. The
information obtained will be useless if it cannot be fully used.
Most information from the Internet is in the form of condensed or zipped files.
They need special software to unzip the information. The objective of
condensation is to save storage space and to save download time from the
Internet. Normally, condensed files have the suffix .zip or .gz . WinZip software
can be used to unzip the information for the Windows XP operating system
while the gunzip software can be used for UNIX.
There are various types of information on the Internet. The types of information
can be identified by looking at the suffix of the name of the information. For
example, a piece of information that has been given the name of nasilemak.zip
shows that the information is in the condensed (zipped) form for the Windows
XP operating system. Therefore, users need to have the WinZip software and
Windows XP for using the said information. The types of suffix that are
normally used are given in Table 7.5.

Table 7.5: Table of Information Format

Ending Types Operating/ System Software
zip Condensed file Windows 95/98/Me Wi

tar.gz, tgz, .z Condensed file UNIX/ Linux n
Gunzip
.pdf Portable Document in any Acrobat Reader

.jpg Graphics format
Any Photoshop
.gif
.mpg Video Any Mpeg Player
.ps Postscript Any Ghostscript
.dvi Device independent Any Dvips, Xdvi
.c C programme UNIX gcc compiler
.txt Text Any Any
.doc MS-Word file Windows MS-Word
.html, .htm HTML document Any TeX
.ppt Presentation Windows 95/98/Me PowerPoint
.xls Spreadsheet Windows 95/98/Me Excel
7.10 The Internet Today

Originally, the Internet was a network for research and academic purposes.
Therefore, most of the original information on the Internet is of the academic
type. When the Internet was first built, there was trust among all the Internet
users. Security issues on the Internet were not that important. The Internet
also provided an infrastructure for communication and intellectual sharing via
e- mails, USENET and discussion corners.
Today, activities of the Internet include e-commerce, news, multimedia material,

hypertext, websites, entertainment, and so on. This situation gives rise to issues
that were not previously important such as access, information filters, user’s
privacy, Internet passage congestion and data security. These began to get
more attention later. It was predicted that the Internet will become a basic
need for every household like the telephone or TV in the near future.
Businesses too will increase via the Internet. Various steps are being taken to
make the Internet more widespread and easily used by users, for example,
Internet access via TV, 3G approach to mobile phones, the use of optical

Unit 7 The Internet
fibres and high powered lines to houses. Based on the discussion earlier, we
find the Internet too has problems. By understanding these problems, users
will be aware of the limitations and the future of the Internet, and will not
easily believe everything that is found on the Internet. The Internet is a virtual
space and has a very wide coverage.
7.11 Summary
In this unit we highlighted that, beginning in 1969 up until today, computers
and the Internet have undergone various phases and have become a major
part of our life. The Internet is a grouping of computer networks that is very
large, and covers the whole world. The term “Intranet” refers to a grouping of
some local area networks inside an organisation only (intra means inside).
There are two types of computers on the Internet, that is, host computers and
server computers. A host computer is a unique computer on the Internet which
has an IP (Internet Protoc.ol) number. IP numbers are four sequential numbers
a.b.c.d. Examples of IP numbers are: 202.187.48.7, 202.187.46.197 and
192.228.128.18. Two main ways of searching for information over the Internet
are through search engines and portals.
Key Terms
Extranet
Http
Internet
Intranet
TCP/IP
USENET

References


Unit Eight
Software on the Internet
8.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall learn about software that is available on the Internet.
Software can be obtained free of charge but some have to be bought. This
unit will also discuss a popular Internet communication technique, that is, e-
mails. In the beginning, e-mails were text-based, but now you can even send
several types of data together with e-mails such as text documents, graphics,
audios, PowerPoint presentations and many more. At the end of this unit, we
will touch briefly on Internet scripting language such as HTML and XML.
8.1 Objectives
 explain the seven types of software that are available on

the internet
 explain how you can use e-mails as an effective
communication technique on the internet
 explain the difference between Internet scripting
languages: HTML, XML and CGI
8.2 Internet Software

There are various types of software on the Internet. This can be shown in
Figure 8.1. One type of software is the shareware, that is, a type of software
that can be used by users for free within a certain duration. After that period,
if the user continues to use the software, he needs to send payment to the
programmer of the said software. Examples of shareware are WinZip and
McAfee (anti-virus). Besides shareware, there are also freeware and public
domain software. Both types of software can be obtained for free from the
Internet.
A type of software that continues to gain much attention on the Internet now
is the open source software (OSS), i.e. the software that can be obtained
together with its source codes free of charge by users. Distribution of the
software together with its source codes has the following advantages:
(a) Users can modify the software with no strings attached to any
company;
(b) Users have the opportunity to remove errors that may be present inside
the source codes; and
(c) Users can also learn how the software is built based on the source
codes.

Unit 8 Software on the Internet
Figure 8.1: Types of Software on the Internet
8.3 Open Source Software

The open source software begins with the GNU project (Gnu is not UNIX),
that is, a project founded by Richard Stallman from MIT in the beginning of
the 1980s. The original aim of this project was to produce a system based on
UNIX for free. This project has been successful in producing software of
high quality such as GCC compilers, lisp programme compiler, EMACS editor,
and others. All GNU software use the copyright called GPL (GNU Public
Licence) which states that anyone can modify the programme source code
but the modification must be shared with other users. Basically, GNU
encourages software and source code sharing among users so that high quality
software can be produced. Detailed information concerning GNU can be
obtained at www.gnu.org.

The GPL concept is the opposite of the commercial software concept.

Commercial software would tie users to the said software company. If the
software contains errors, users will have to wait for the newer version to be
produced and this will take a long time. If the software company raises the
price, users will have to accept that and pay more for the new version of the
software.
Users can make any modification to the source code of the open software but
users are requested to share the said modification with other users via the
Internet. With this intellectual sharing, it is hoped that the software will be
continuously modified so that it will become high quality software. Examples
of open source software widely used today are Linux (operating system),
Apache (Web server), GCC (C language compiler), Perl and R (statistical
software). We can see the definition of GPL as shown in Table 8.1. There are
thousands of high quality open source software pieces available over the
Internet for users. Detailed information on this can be obtained on the websites
http:// www.opensource.org and http://www.gnu.org.
Table 8.1: GPL Software

GPL Definition
Software
Linux Operating system for a computer. It is an alternative to
commercial software like Windows 95/98/Me/NT, MacOS and
Sun Solaris. It is widely used in universities, research centres,
private companies and by the public. It contains lasting
characteristics (one Linux can operate for years without
stopping), multiprocessing, multiuser and other sophisticated
characteristics. Today, the Linux system has a desktop
environment similar to Windows 98/Me/NT in terms of user-
friendliness. It can be installed together with Windows 98/Me
on one computer.
TeX A document processing system. It is used to produce various
types of documents and books, especially those that involve
many mathematical expressions. Detailed information can be
obtained on the website http://www.tug.org. TEX is produced
by Donald Knuth, a famous mathematician and computer
scientist. One amongst his writings is The Art of Computer
Programming in three volumes. Donald Knuth’s website is
www-cs-faculty.stanford.edu/~knuth/.
Open Office High quality office software which contains word processing,

Open Office High quality office software which contains word processing,
spreadsheet, database and presentation software for free. This is
an alternative to the MS-Office or PerfectOffice. All types of
documents inside MS-Office can be read by StarOffice. Many
government organisations today have changed to StarOffice.
Note! Users need a minimum memory of 64MB and at least a
Pentium processor to use the StarOffice with comfort.
GNU A project started by Richard Stallman at MIT in 1981 to

produce a free UNIX system. Among the software products of
this project are gcc C compiler, Emacs editor, R statistical
software, Perl language, Awk processor and FORTRAN g77
compiler. All Gnu software use a GPL licence. Detailed
information at www.gnu.org.
Python An object-oriented programming language. It can be used for
building a prototype, Internet (programmes), data processing,
scientific calculations, and so on. Among organisations that use
this language are NASA, Disney, Boeing and Google.com.
Detailed information at www.python.org.
R Software for data analysis. It can be obtained for Windows

98/Me and UNIX systems. It contains various facilities for
statistical analysis like regression analysis, time series and
hypothesis testing. R Website is at http://www.r-project.org. It
is an alternative to SPSS and SAS commercial software.
Self-check 8.1
1. What do you understand by the term GPL? Explain.

2. Give examples of two shareware that is available on the Internet.
8.4 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

FTP (file transfer protocol) is a technique of downloading data from anyftp
server on the Internet onto the user’s computer.
We can see an example of the said website as shown in Figure 8.2.

Figure 8.2: FTP Using Netscape at Host ftp://ftp.jaring.my
Many servers offer anonymous ftp services, i.e. the server allows anyone
anywhere to download data from it. Examples of servers that offer anonymous
ftp are ftp://ftp.jaring.my and ftp://www.unsite.unc.edu. Users can use
Netscape software to produce ftp. For example, a URL address that requires
use of ftp at ftp.jaring.my server is ftp://www.ftp.jaring.my.
8.5 Telnet
Telnet is a technique of communicating with a server and using facilities available
on the computer.
To use the telnet, a user needs to have a user account on the server to be
accessed. The telnet technique can be used to access servers at foreign
university libraries, USENET server, IRC server, MUD server or database
server. Several servers that can be accessed via telnet or http are telnet://
pac.carl.org and telnet://locis.loc.gov. An example of the use of telnet: Assume
that a user wants to perform complex computations that require a
supercomputer.
A supercomputer is a kind of computer with high capability and cost. It can

be used to perform simulations, car modelling, complex calculations, weather

forecasting, and others. Users can access the supercomputer anywhere via
the Internet. Alternatively, users can telnet to the supercomputer and perform
computations on the computer remotely. Therefore, the telnet technique enables
the sharing of supercomputer resources for all users wherever they may be in
Zimbabwe.
8.6 E-mail
The e-mail is a communication technique between users on the Internet. In
the early days, e-mails were only text-based. Today, users can send various
types of data together with e-mails, such as MS-Word documents, Power
Point presentations, Excel spreadsheets, graphic .jpg, audio .mp3 and others.
The computer server that manages an e-mail is called the SMTP (simple mail
transfer protocol) server.
To use e-mails, users need to have an e-mail account on the e-mail server.
Most organisations like universities and private companies give out free e-
mail accounts to their staff.
There are websites that offer free e-mail accounts such as, www.hotmail.com
and www.geocities.com. Users can access the website http://www.hotmail.com
and register to get an e-mail account. These free e-mail websites are popular
among students and other individuals.
An e-mail account contains two parts – the account name and the name of the
SMTP server (domain name). For example, a user with the name Anis Shafiqah
has an account name of ashafiqah on the host server SMTP zou.ac.zw. If the
user registers at www.hotmail.com with the account name Anis Shafiqah, the
user’s e-mail account is [email protected]. The account name has
a minimum of 8 characters and a maximum of 32 characters, on condition that
it does not contain special characters or space. The following e-mail account
names are not valid: anis shafiqah a, shafiqah; while the following account
names are valid: anis_shafiqah and a_shafiqah. Select a good account name
that is suitable and can be easily remembered by other users. Names such as
brutal99, lanunlaut, amy89810 and mahakaya are certainly not suitable. Imagine
the feelings of the receiver when he receives an e-mail from someone with the
name [email protected].
To read an e-mail on the user account on the SMTP server, users can use two
techniques and they are:

(a) Users can use the server software and access the said SMTP server.
(b) Users can download e-mail from the SMTP server onto a personal
computer using the POP3 (post office protocol) technique.
If the user is an Internet subscriber with www.gmail.com, the POP3 technique
is used to download e-mails from pop.jaring.my onto their personal computer.
The e-mail software that can be used is Eudora, Pegasus and Microsoft
Outlook. We can see an example of an e-mail communication website, such
as, GMAIL as shown in Figure 8.3.
Figure 8.3: Website at http://www.gmail.com
8.6.1 E-mail discussion

With e-mails, users can participate in various e-mail discussion corners. There
are thousands of discussion corners that cover various interesting units such
as economics, science, computers and religion. One can participate in these
corners by writing an e-mail to the server that manages the discussion corners.
Normally, e-mail discussions are managed automatically by the computer
without human intervention. Do remember that users communicate with the
computer via e-mails. Therefore, follow the instructions to participate or to

exit from the discussion corner correctly. A list of e-mail discussion corners
can be obtained at the websites http://www.n2h2.com/KOVACS, http://
www.groups.yahoo.com and http://www.tile.net. Advantages and
disadvantages of participating in discussion corners are listed in Table 8.2.
Table 8.2: Advantages and Disadvantages of Participating in E-mail

Discussion Corners
Advantages Disadvantages
Can discuss with and pose questions to The number of e-mails received may be
many Internet users who are a lot. Certain active discussion corners
knowledgeable in certain fields. will see more than 200 e-mails a day.
Answers to questions may be obtained Users need to spend a lot of time
very quickly. reading e- mails.
Can share opinions and information with Most e-mail contents are rubbish and
people who have the same interest. not beneficial.
Low cost.
8.6.2 Ethics of E-mail discussion

Several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-mail discussions are:
(a) Observing the traditional customs during discussions. Always respect
other user’s opinions even if they disagree. Agree to disagree.
(b) Remembering that it is a virtual discussion corner. Users do not know
other users or their background. Other users may be older or may
have more experience. They may be a professor, researcher,
programme expert, CEO, campus-mate, neighbour, and so on.
(c) Showing good conduct. This demonstrates your personality to other
users. If a user is noisy and obnoxious during discussions, most likely
his questions will not be entertained by other users.
(d) Sharing your expertise and asking questions if you need the expertise
of other users. By sharing, a user can establish communication with
other users.
(e) Respecting the privacy of other users and not touching on private
issues.
(f) (Very important) – not posting users’ private e-mails onto the
discussion forums without permission of the concerned users. This
violates the privacy act of certain countries.
(g) Willing to forgive other user’s mistakes and ready to help in solving
problems. Do not entertain people who like to quarrel.

(h) Discussion forums are archived. Maybe in ten years time, if users
search on the Internet, they may find their old e-mails again. Therefore,
be careful when writing them.
8.6.3 Smiley
E-mail content in the form of text makes it difficult for users to express emotions
like anger, happiness, sleepiness, hatred, tears and laughter. Therefore, the
smiley technique is used. A smiley contains text-based symbols used inside e-
mails to represent a certain emotion like anger, hatred, laughter, and so forth.
To view a smiley, users need to tilt their heads 90 degrees left-wards. Observe
the following e-mail with and without smileys:
What to do. It’s luck. May be you can help.
What to do. It’s luck. :-( May be you can help. :-)
Smiley symbols are :-) and :-(. The second e-mail shows that the writer feels
sad and jokingly asks if the receiver can help. There are hundreds of smiley
symbols and the most common ones are shown in Table 8.3:
Table 8.3: Smiley Symbols
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning

:-) Smile ;-) Smile, wink
:-( Sad, do not agree :-# Secret
8-) Wearing glasses :-O Eye surprised
8.6.4 Acronyms
What is ASAP, ROTFL, RTFM, YMMV and BTW? These characters are
acronyms or short-forms that are used to represent phrases that are normally
used on the Internet. In Table 8.4, some of the popular acronyms are shown.

Table 8.4: Some Popular Acronyms

Acronym Meaning
ROTFL (rolling on the floor laughing) Laughing while rolling on the floor. A
cynical expression.
BTW (by the way) By the way
RTFM( read the fine manual) Advised to read the manual before asking.
AFAIK (as far as I know) As far as I am concerned

ASAP (as soon as possible) An advice to speed up
FYI (for your information) For your information
IMHO (in my humble opinion) My view point

OTOH (on the other hand) On the contrary
YMMV (your mileage may vary) It may be different with you
Activity 8.1
? Explain your opinion on the following statement:
If users receive the following e-mail, what do you understand?
“Please send the programme ASAP. Your proposal makes me ROTFL.

Regarding the TEX programme, please RTFM. I experience power upgrade
of 20 times after adding more RAM, YMMV. BTW, I am going to Ipoh
tomorrow. IMHO, Sarah’s proposal is better than Anis’ proposal.”
8.6.5 E-mail signature

An e-mail signature is a message at the end of an e-mail. It may contain the
address of the user, a URL, words of wisdom, graphics, text, and so on. to
give a unique personality to the e-mail. An example of an e-mail signature is as
follows:
ctivit8.1 Steve Marara
Faculty of Information Technology and
Multimedia Communication
and so on

8.6.6 Smart E-mail

A few guidelines for the intelligent use of e-mails are shown in Table 8.5:
Table 8.5: Guidelines on the Use of E-mails Effectively

Guide on Using E-Mail Meaning
Ensure that your e-mail This makes it easier for the receiver to read your
content is short and e-mail. It is not proper to send a long- winded e-
precise. mail hoping the receiver will read it. Remember,
the receiver is also busy with other work and
may receive hundreds of e-mails a day.
Ensure that an exact title is This will help the receiver to determine the
used. importance of the e-mail received.
Do not enclose a large- This would cause problems to the SMTP.

sized attachment. Limit the size of your attachment to less than
1MB. There are cases when users send e-mail
attachments of 50MB in size.
Ensure that the e-mail sent Use the virus scanner to examine the e-mail
and received does not received.
contain a virus.
Process your e-mail in a For example, before going out for lunch, solve
batch. all your e-mail communication directly. Do not
postpone.
Archive all important e-

mails.
Do not subscribe to many e- For example, if you subscribe to 5 discussion

mail discussion corners. corners, each discussion has 100 e-mails a day.
So, you will receive an average of 500 e-mails a
day. Your day will be used to read e-mails only.
Do not reply to e-mails E-mail enables you to reply directly even to those
while you are angry. who you are not comfortable with. You may
regret sending the reply. Once replied, an e-mail
cannot be retracted.

8.7 USENET
Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free. A USENET
discussion does not involve e-mails. Users do not have to register with any
server to enter USENET.
USENET discussion is divided into a number of major units like comp

(computer), soc (society), alt (alternative), biz (business), sci (science), talk
(talk), misc (miscellaneous), humanities and rec (recreation). These units are
later broken down into more specific sub-units. Therefore, users can easily
search for discussion corners that are of interest, as shown in Figure 8.4.
For example, a user wants to read an article inside the C programming language
discussion corner. The user can access the discussion corner comp.lang.c .
An example of an article inside comp.lang.c is shown in Figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5: Example of an Article Inside comp.lang.c

rom: holism
([email protected])
Message 18 in thread
Subject: Re: Learning C
Newsgroups: comp.lang.c
Date: 2001-04-11 21:43:55 PST
>>Anyone have any suggestions for a good introductory book on C?
The C Programming Language by Kernighan and Richie is a pretty awesome book. Lots of
short and sweet examples from the guys who created the language. It’s just the C language
minus most of the fat you find in beginner books, so if you already know basic
programming concepts it should be a good book to get you into C.
Nick
Inside USENET discussion forums, users can share opinions, request for
help, argue, spread rumours, sell items, fire at someone, criticise someone,
get to know each other, etc. There is no filtering of the USENET contents.
Therefore, the USENET contents may be true or false. Users are reminded
not to readily believe stories such as get-rich-quick-schemes or pills for
preventing old age that are available inside USENET.
Inside USENET discussion corners, the same questions are occasionally asked
by a new user. To avoid this, veteran users of discussion forums have taken
the initiative to produce a document called frequently asked questions (FAQ),
i.e. a document containing questions that are frequently asked by users and
their answers to these questions. Therefore, FAQ originates from various
USENET discussion corners. For example, if there is a new user involved in
comp.text.tex discussing TEX document processing software, the user may
want to know the background of TEX, its history, how to use TEX and others.
The new user can ask these questions inside comp.text.tex. A better way is
for the user to read the FAQ for the comp.text.tex discussion corner. Normally,
each discussion corner has a FAQ sent to the corner every month.
Users are advised to browse the website http://groups.google.com and read

several USENET discussion pages.
It is wise to read the FAQ first before posing questions because it contains
useful information for new users to refer to and to know. An archived FAQ
document is available at the website http://www.faqs.org. Figure 8.6 shows
an example of the Google Website.

The term WWW refers to a combination of server hosts on the Internet that
offers HTTP-based information. HTTP is a protocol for sending and receiving
hypertext-based information. Information in the form of hypertext can be
related or linked to other information to create a linkage or a web of wider
information. HTTP server has the ‘prefix’ of www such as www.zou.ac.zw,
www.uz.ac.zw and www.um.edu.my. A HTTP server is also known as a web
server.
Figure 8.6: Website http://www.google.com
8.8 INTERNET Scripting Languages – HTML, XML

and CGI
8.8.1 HTML mark-up language
A website consists of documents based on hypertext on the web server. To
access a website, users need to use the Internet browser software such as

Netscape Navigator or Opera. Websites are developed by using a mark-up

language called HTML (hypertext mark-up language). HTML language was
founded on SGML (standard generalised mark-up language), that is, a mark-
up language that is used to produce technical documents like software manuals.
HTML language is easy, suitable for document and text, and is static in nature.
After the Internet expanded and its use widened, especially in e-commerce,
HTML was felt to be unsuitable for use. Remember that HTML was produced
for a hypertext system based on the text inside a network. It was not produced
for commercial, graphics, animation, interactive, e-commerce and specific
effects purposes. Among the tangible weaknesses of HTML are its static
nature, limited type of marking-up documents, unsuitable for e-commerce
and has no technique for creating special effects. To overcome these
weaknesses, a few additional techniques have been introduced, such as CSS
(cascading style sheet) and JavaScript. For example, a sample of website
using the HTML is shown in Figure 8.7.
<html>
<head>
<style type=”text/css”>
A:link {text-decoration:none;} /*unvisited link*/
A:visited {text-decoration:none;} /*visited links*/
A:active {text-decoration:none;} /*active links*/
</style>
<script language=”JavaScript”>
function openWin(windowURL,windowName,windowFeatures)
{config = ‘toolbar=0,menubar=0,scrollbars=1,
resizable=0,width=730,height=450'
return window.open(windowURL,windowName,config);
}</script>
<title>Zimbabwe Open University, Kuala Lumpur</title>
</head>
<body bgcolor=”#000000\" link=”#FFFFFF” vlink=”#FFFFFF”

alink=”#FFFFFF” text=”#FFFFFF”>
<table>
<tr><td>
<a href=”../baru/penyelidikan.html”></a>
<a href=”../2000/MaklumatUmum/”</a>
<a href=”../2000/akademik/default.htm”></a>
Zimbabwe Open University,<br>

Zimbabwe.<br>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
</body>
</html>
Figure 8.7: Example of Website Using HTML

8.8.2 XML language

Realising the weaknesses of HTML, XML (extensible mark-up language)
was introduced. XML language is a mark-up language for documents that
have structured information like on-line order forms, on-line books, on-line
lectures, on-line insurance claims, and so on. It is easily twisted to
accommodate various processes over the Internet where new mark-ups can
be added on. With the presence of XML, various types of documents can be
presented on the Internet. Every XML document has an XML schema that
interprets mark-ups on the XML document. An example of an XML document
is shown in Figure 8.8.
<?XML version=”1.0\"?>
<!— **** Basket **** —>
<PRODUCT>
<product_id>98758</product_id>
<product_name>basket</product_name>
<unit_of_measure>each</unit_of_measure>
<specification>
<variable>color</variable>
<value>blue</value>
</specification>
<specification>
<variable>size</variable>
<value>large</value>
</specification>
<specification></specification>
<specification/>
</PRODUCT>
Figure 8.8: Example of XML Document

XML schema for the XML document is shown in Figure 8.9:
<!DOCTYPE PRODUCT
[<!ELEMENT PRODUCT (product_id, product_name,
unit_of_measure?, specification*)><!ELEMENT product_id
(#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT product_name (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT unit_of_measure (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT specification (variable, value)>
<!ELEMENT variable (#PCDATA)>
<!ELEMENT value (#PCDATA)>
Figure 8.9: Example of XML schema for XML Document

Information on the Internet should be useable by all types of computers

irrespective of the name or types of operating systems. Information should
not be stored in a proprietary format that is determined by only a certain
computer company. What will happen if the company changes its format or
incurs some kind of fee for using that format? Information should be made
available in a format that is portable and re-usable in various formats to reduce
wastage of energy and time. XML is a standard in building a structured
document and it is independent of any computer company. XML specifications
are open and free.
HTML and XML are based on SGML. HTML has taken only small parts of
SGML while XML can be thought of as a simplified SGML. SGML is a
mark-up language that was created in the early 1980s by Charles Goldfard of
IBM. XML was developed in 1998 and became the standard in 1998. XML
is being used as an official mark-up language in data and document exchange
over the Internet and for all on-line businesses. With the presence of XML, a
document will become portable between various types of computers.
Documents in XML can also be easily processed into different forms like pdf,
postscript, CD-ROM, HTML and others.
A few other mark-up languages have also been developed to build structured
documents on the Internet, such as MathML (math mark-up language) that
has been built to display mathematical documents on the Website, XSL
(extensible style language) and SMIL (synchronized multimedia integration
language). Please refer to the website http://www.w3.orc for details.
8.8.3 Common gateway interface (CGI)

Normally, a website is connected to a database for performing any query.
For example, when a user registers at http://www.hotmail.com, his username
will be stored inside a database. This process involves CGI (common gateway
interface), that is, a technique of connecting a website to the database or a
software on the web server. With CGI, the website can interact with users.
This enables the website to be used in e-commerce, on-line education, search
engines, and others. Among the languages that can be used to develop CGI
are Java, Javascript, Python, Perl and C.
Self-check 8.2
1. Why is XML important? Why do we not use documents in the form of
MS-Word for exchanging information on the Internet?
2. What is the most popular conversation service on the Internet?
3. State two advantages and two weaknesses of participating in e-mail
discussion forums.

8.9 Summary
In this unit we discussed that there are various types of software on the
Internet. One type of software is the shareware, that is, a type of software
that can be used by users for free within certain duration. The open source
software begins with the GNU project (Gnu is not UNIX), that is, a project
founded by Richard Stallman from MIT in the beginning of the 1980s. The
original aim of this project was to produce a system based on UNIX to be
used for free. FTP (file transfer protocol) is a technique of downloading data
from any ftp server on the Internet onto the user’s computer. Telnet is a
technique of communicating with a server and using facilities available on the
computer. The e-mail is a communication technique between users on the
Internet. There are several ethical issues that need to be observed during e-
mail discussions. A smiley contains text-based symbols used in e-mails to
represent a certain emotion like anger, hatred, laughter, and so on. USENET
is an Internet discussion corner that is open, independent and free. HTML
language was founded on SGML (standard generalised mark-up language) ,
that is, a mark-up language that is used to produce technical documents like
software manuals. XML language is a mark-up language for documents that
have structured information like on-line order forms, on-line books, on-line
lectures, on-line insurance claims, and so forth.
Key Terms
CGI
Freeware
FTP HTML
Open source software
Shareware Smiley
Telnet
USENET
XML

References

Unit Nine
The Internet in Zimbabwe
9.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall learn about the developmental history of the Internet in
Zimbabwe. You will also be presented with various interesting stories from
the Internet. Among them is NAPSTER, a popular site at one time which
enabled users, especially teenagers to share musical files with other users via
the Internet. In this unit too, you will learn about the laws and security of the
Internet.
9.1 Objectives
 explain briefly about the development of the Internet in

Zimbabwe
 discuss the laws and security over the Internet
 assess the future of the Internet
9.2 The Internet in Zimbabwe

There have been a number of dial-up e-mail service providers in Zimbabwe
since 1990. In 1995, Data Control, a local family-owned business, became
the first Internet Service Provider (ISP) in Zimbabwe as an affiliate of UUNET
Internet Africa. Internet services have all been operating unofficially due to
the restriction on the resale of telecommunications by the Posts and
Telecommunications Corporation (PTC).
In 1997, the national Posts and Telecommunication Corporation (PTC) built

a national Internet backbone and began selling bandwidth to private Internet
service providers (ISPs). Postal and Telecommunications RegulatoryAuthority
of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ) oversees ISP licensing. Licenses cost US$2–4
million, depending on the level of service the ISP wishes to provide, plus 3.5
percent of the ISP’s annual gross income.
The most recent membership list on the Zimbabwe Internet Service Providers
Association (ZISPA) Web site comprises 27 ISPs which include: Africa Online,
Africom, Arachnid Design, Earth Internet, Global Internet, Goldnet, Harvey
Micro Systems (HMS), Cyberplex Africa, Design@7, Ecoweb,E-World,
Zimbabwe Business Network (Zimbiz), Zimlink, Zambezi Net, ZARNet,
Zimbabwe Internet Mail, Zimbabwe Online (ZOL), Venekera,
WorksTechnologies, Webdev, WebSolutions, Yo!Africa, MANGO, MWEB
Zimbabwe, Reliant Computers, Roach Web Design, Taurai Zimbabwe, Telco
Internet, Utande and InternetServices. Government-owned communications
company TelOne, which is not part of ZISPA, is Zimbabwe’s largest ISP; it
provides bandwidth to most other ISPs in the country.
According to a United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) report, in

2002 Zimbabwe was recorded among the top 11 countries with substantial
Internet usage with more than 35 000 dial-up Internet subscribers who had
accounts with the country’s six major internet service providers (ISPs) at that
time.

Unit 9 The Internet in Zimbabwe
In September 2006, international satellite communications provider Intelsat

cut service to TelOne after the company failed to pay its USD700 000 debt.
TelOne requested money from Zimbabwe’s Reserve Bank to pay the debt,
but the money was delayed for several weeks. During this time, Internet users
in the country experienced severe delays. The service was restored after the
Reserve Bank paid the outstanding debt.
Internet access has expanded rapidly in Zimbabwe, from a penetration rate

of 0.3 percent in 2000 to about 11 percent (or 1.4 million of the country’s
estimated 11.4 million people) by the end of 2009. The high cost of mobile
phones and repeated tariff hikes brought the mobile-to-mobile cost per minute
to as much as ZWD72 million (USD0.12 at June 2008 exchange rates) – has
made the Internet a comparatively cheaper, and therefore more popular form
of communication. The mushrooming of cybercafes in most of the country’s
urban centres, coupled with the migration of many Zimbabweans to South
Africa, the United Kingdom, Australia, and other countries as a result of the
economic crisis, created a favourable environment for increased Internet usage,
as the new expatriates sought to stay in touch with friends and family in
Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the restrictive traditional media environment, which
is dominated by state-owned outlets, has made the Internet popular with
citizens seeking alternative information.
There is a vast divide between urban and rural areas with respect to Internet
penetration. Most rural communities are geographically isolated and
economically disadvantaged, and have consequently failed to attract the interest
of commercial service providers. Telephone penetration in rural areas is
minimal, with lack of electricity representing a major challenge; radio remains
the main communication medium in such regions. Many rural telephone
connections are still shared or “party” lines, leading to poor or unreliable
transmission quality, slow connection speeds, and difficulty initiating dial-up
internet connections.
Mobile-phone penetration is far higher than Internet penetration, at almost 50

percent of the population (more than five million people) as of September
2010, an increase from 9 percent in early 2009.
Econet Wireless introduced third-generation (3G) technology in July 2009

and fourth- generation (4G) technology in May 2010, after two years of waiting
for an allocation of frequencies by the Postal and Telecommunications
RegulatoryAuthority of Zimbabwe (POTRAZ). Given the monthly subscription
fee of US$25, the 3G service is only affordable for the few who are still
gainfully employed in the country.

In 2009, the government established a new Ministry of Information and

Communications Technology that focuses on ICT growth and development.
Because of inadequate infrastructural development, the current 3G Internet is

frustratingly slow. 4G mobile Internet access is even more expensive. Initial
equipment costs about US$175, and the current monthly subscription stands
at US$115 per month.
The rate for pre-paid mobile web access is US$0.20 per megabyte, with
“bundles” ranging from 1 to 1 000 megabytes. Despite the high costs, during
the first week of re-launching its mobile broadband package in October 2010,
Econet reported 100 000 new subscribers, and the number continued to
grow through to year end.
Dial-up Internet services have been negatively affected by the collapse of the
landline infrastructure, with the state-owned telecommunications firm TelOne
failing to upgrade or repair its network. Broadband in Zimbabwe consists
mainly of direct satellite connections through VSAT. Other access technologies
include GSM, WiMax, and optic-fibre or copper-wire ADSL. Broadband is
available in major urban areas, particularly in Harare, Bulawayo, and Mutare,
and there are plans to extend coverage to other cities. However, in addition
to the prohibitive cost, broadband is still very slow at 256 kbps. It is largely
used by companies, non-governmental organisations (NGOs), and universities,
as most households cannot afford it. The cost of broadband is expected to
fall when Econet finishes laying optic-fibre cables.
In April 2009, the government announced a plan to establish Internet cafés at

post offices in rural areas. However, given the state of the country’s economy,
progress in the ICT sector is slow. Internet usage is expected to continue
expanding quickly as the world’s main Internet usage is expected to continue
expanding quickly as the world’s main multimedia communication media in
the 21st Century. The main challenge for us is to prepare Zimbabwean society
to always be ready to use Internet technology to the fullest while knowing its
limitations.
The number of internet users has increased significantly for the past 10 years
as shown in Figure 9.1.

Figure 9.1: Internet usage in Zimbabwe
Activity 9.1
? What is your opinion on the development of the Internet in
Zimbabwe compared with other countries in the world?
9.3 Interesting Stories on the Development of the

Internet
There are many interesting stories as a result of the advancement of the Internet.
Among them some are given below:
(a) Napster: In January 1999, Shawn Fanning, a student in Boston, USA,
produced a software that enabled users to share files easily over the
Internet. In May 1999, the website http://www.napster.com was set
up. This website enabled users, especially university students, to share
music files with other users via the Internet. The sharing of music files,
which were copyright materials, resulted in protests by the society of
music producers in the USA.

In December 1999, the society of music producers sued Napster. In October

2000, Napster was found guilty by the court of contravening laws for
distributing copyrighted music files without permission and facilitating pirated
copies among users.
This incident shows how the Internet can be used to build a new economic
model. In this model, producers deal directly with users without any
middleman via the Internet. This saves cost. Previously, a music lover needed
to buy a music CD or cassette at a high price from a music seller. Now, with
Napster and the Internet, music lovers can acquire or download the music of
their interest at a low price or even for free. Many people have the opinion
that music lovers use Napster as a protest against the very expensive price of
music and the high profit obtained by music companies.
(b) DeCSS: In 1996, film production companies began to produce films in
the form of DVD (Digital Video Disc). To avoid pirated copies, they
used a protection scheme called CSS (Content Scrambling System). A
DVD disc can store data up to 10 times more than a VCD. To see a
film on a DVD, users need a DVD player, similar to the VCD player,
but more expensive. At that time, the DVD was not yet popular.
In 1999, two groups of programmers, one in Germany and one in Russia,
were successful in cracking the CSS scheme and called their programme
DeCSS. This programme enabled the film on DVD discs to be viewed on the
computer. A 15-year old programmer was often highlighted in the media as
the first person to have cracked the CSS scheme. This was not true. DVD
film producers then sued all those involved in the production and distribution
of DeCSS codes on the basis of infringing copyright.
(a) Netscape/Microsoft: From the year 1996 to 1999, there was a war on
Internet browser software - the software that is used to surf the Internet
- between software giant Microsoft and Netscape. Why? Many
people thought that whoever managed to control the market in the
Internet browser software would ultimately control the Internet because
the Internet browser is the “vehicle” for accessing the Internet.
In 1996, Netscape (company) produced the Netscape Navigator software
and it was given out for free to users. The result was that Netscape controlled
80% of the Internet browser software. At that time, the Internet was becoming
popular. Many companies began to realise the Internet as an attractive
business opportunity. Many websites were developed, goods began to be
sold and various services were offered. The question was how to access the
Internet? Users began to use the Internet browser software. So, whoever
was in control of the Internet browser market would also control the Internet.

Microsoft Corporation entered the Internet business quite late. After realising
the importance of the Internet, Microsoft began to set out a strategy for
controlling the Internet. Remember that Microsoft was controlling 90% of the
PC operating system’s market. (9 out of 10 personal computers sold were
using Windows 95/98/ME/XP system). As a first step, Microsoft produced
the Internet Explorer and it was given out for free to customers. As a result, in
1998, almost 90% of the browser market was controlled by Internet Explorer.
In 1998, the Department of Justice (USA) sued Microsoft on the grounds of

misusing the power of monopoly. Microsoft was said to be misusing the
power of monopoly in computer operating systems to create a monopoly
inside the Internet browser market.
In Figure 9.2, we can see an example of the display on a computer.
Figure 9.2: Computer’s desktop

(b) Computer Virus ILOVEYOU: In May 2000, an e-mail virus called
ILOVEYOU was widely distributed over the Internet. This virus was
sent via e-mails as an attachment with the title ILOVEYOU. Users
then received these e-mails and opened the ILOVEYOU attachment
which would cause the user’s computer to get infected by the virus.
This virus would then send its own copy to all e-mail addresses found
inside the e-mail address book.

This virus only works if the user uses Windows 95/98/ME and Microsoft
Outlook e-mail software. It spread quickly and widely. Many e-mail servers
became paralysed because of this virus. It destroyes data a the computer and
was also difficult to remove.
This incident points to a number of things. Firstly, the virus was very easy to
write. For example, the ILOVEYOU virus was written by a student from the
Philippines in Visual Basic. Secondly, the spread of this virus was wide and
quick via e-mails. Within just a few hours, this virus spread to the USA and
Europe. Thirdly, users are often not careful when they read attachments. The
click action to open an attachment comes with a high risk. It is advisable that
users use e-mail software that is safe, such as Eudora.
After this incident, a number of new e-mail viruses began to spread with
worse effects. For example, the NEWLOVE virus could wipe out data on
the computer. It is advisable that users must often be aware of e-mails received
and use anti-virus software to protect their computers.
9.4 Examples of Information from the Internet

This section discusses several examples of information. The objective is to
show various types of information available on the Internet.
9.4.1 Recipe
The Internet also contains daily information. For example, a recipe as shown
in Figure 9.3 can be obtained from the Internet. A user who has tried this
recipe is requested to send a piece of cake to her friend as a gift.
Amaretto Cheesecake
Categories: Cheesecakes, Cakes, Desserts, Nuts
Yield: 10 servings
1/2 c Whole almonds,
1 lb Cream cheese,
3/4 c Sugar,
3 Eggs,

1 ts Vanilla extract,
2 tb Amaretto,
3/4 c Sour cream
Spread nuts in a baking pan and bake in a preheated 325F oven for
8 minutes or until lightly toasted. Cool and finely chop. With an
electric mixer, beat cheese and sugar until smooth. Mix in eggs,
vanilla, Amaretto and sour cream. Reserve 2 tablespoons of nuts,
and stir in the remaining nuts. Pour batter into a greased 9-inch
spring form pan. Sprinkle reserved nuts over the top. Bake in the
middle of a preheated 325F oven for 25 minutes or until just barely
set. Turn off the oven, leave the door ajar, and cool in the oven for 1
hour longer. Chill. To serve, remove pan sides and cut into wedges.
Figure 9.3: Example of a Recipe Obtained from the Internet
9.5 Internet Laws

The Internet does not have any law and it is not owned by anyone. Since
every country with Internet has its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control
legally. For example, the distribution of immoral acts, political controversies
and illegal materials are allowed on websites in the USA because such
distribution is based on the concept of freedom of speech being practised
over there. However, such websites can be accessed anywhere on the Internet,
including in Zimbabwe, most of which may be wrong from the legal perspective.
Consequently, even though such materials may be legally wrong, users in
Zimbabwe can still access them.
9.6 Internet Security, Hackers and Crackers

Do you know the differences between a Hacker and a Cracker? Today’s
media reports many cases of illegal intrusion of websites. The term often used
for website intruders is hacker. However, this is not accurate.
According to Internet tradition, a hacker is a person who is interested in a

certain field or who is an expert in computer programmes or who is interested
in overcoming an intellectual challenge he is facing or who is fond of various
computer programming techniques.

This term is said to have begun around the 1960s at MIT, referring to a group
of computer users who had the skills and expertise in the field of Artificial
Intelligence (AI). Many veterans on the Internet considered the title of hacker
as a sign of high respect for the skills and the ability that the person has. For
example, Linus Torvalds who invented Linux or Richard Stallman who
produced Emacs editor, were often regarded as hackers. Therefore, using
the term hacker for website intruders is not accurate.
Hackers have important work ethics, i.e. information sharing is a good practice.
So, a hacker must share expertise, source codes and computer resources
with other users. Many people have the opinion that hackers are responsible
for the development of the Internet. They share various things like software,
expertise and source codes.
Website intruders are supposed to be called crackers. Many hackers think

that crackers are irresponsible and immoral people. Usually, crackers or
vandals are users of between 18 to 30 years of age, male and less skilled in
computers. They only use various vandalism techniques that are easily
obtainable from the Internet and target blindly to intrude any website. The
media is usually inaccurate in using these two terms.
A student needs to be encouraged to become a hacker because he may

produce something important and interesting for everyone to use. A student
should avoid becoming a cracker (or vandal). Appropriate punishment needs
to be imposed upon crackers.
Activity 9.2
? In your opinion, is the present day Internet capable of
satisfying the Internet users of the future? Do we need
another Internet or “Internet 2” in the future? Discuss.
9.7 Future of the Internet

It is difficult to accurately predict the future of the Internet. Various new
networks and Internet technologies have been introduced in the past two
years. Information and data have increased exponentially on the Internet. The
number of Internet users continues to grow in densely populated countries
like China and India. A few predictions are:
(a) The Internet will be widely used for e-commerce. Users will use the

Internet to buy books, pizza, cars and flowers, to book flights, etc.
(b) The Internet will become another basic household item like refrigerators
and telephones. There will be devices for browsing the Internet, just
like the telephone and TV.
(c) Ipv6 protocol and 3G technology will be used widely.
(d) The number of Internet users will grow and will cause traffic congestion.
Upgrading works are needed to create high capacity lines for the
Internet, such as research for developing Internet-2.
(e) Data will increase exponentially. New search techniques will be
introduced to search for information more easily and effectively.
(f) Wireless Internet users via mobile phones will increase steadily.
(g) P2P (peer-to-peer) services and B2B (business-to-business) services
via the Internet will grow.
(h) On-line education or e-learning will become a reality where many
learning institutions will offer various on-line courses like the Zimbabwe
Open University (ZOU).
Self-check 9.1
1. What do you understand by the terms hacker and cracker? Clarify
their differences.
2. Give your opinion on the Napster issue where Napster was found guilty
of infringing on the laws and helping to distribute copyrighted music
files without permission. Do you agree (or disagree) with the court’s
decision? Explain.
9.7 Summary
In this unit we highlighted that, development of the Internet in Zimbabwe began
in 1995 when the first network pioneer, Data Control, mooted the idea of
linking up Zimbabwe to the world via the Internet. The Internet does not have
any law and it is not owned by anyone. Since every country with Internet has
its own laws, the Internet is difficult to control legally. A hacker is a person
who is interested in a certain field or who is an expert in computer programmes
or who is interested in overcoming an intellectual challenge he is facing or who
is fond of various computer programming techniques.
Key Terms
Computer virus Hacker
Internet Laws Cracker

References

Unit Ten
Communication
10.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall learn one of the important components in the

development of information technology (IT), that is, “communication”.
Indeed, we need to understand deeper about data communication, and
communication networks so that we can adequately cover the full scope of
IT.
Communication is simply the transfer or exchange of messages, ideas, thoughts,
information, or knowledge by means of whatever forms like words, writing,
behaviour, or even body language. Data communication is a more specialised
term targeting at the collection and distribution of electronic data in the form
of text, voice, pictures, graphics, video, and so on via the communication
network.
There are four important elements that need to be known before any type of
communication can happen. These elements are the message, the sender, the
receiver and the media. In this unit, we shall study each of these basic elements
closely.
10.1Objectives
 describe the four basic elements of communication

 identify communication as an important component of IT
 explain about coder-decoder in a communication system
 describe the two types of electromagnetic signals for data
transmission
 identify the two modes of transmitting data
 discuss the three techniques of controlling data flow
direction
 analyse the three types of wires used as media for
transmission
 explain the concept of cellular radio technology
10.2 Information and Communication Technology

Many people say that information technology (IT) has been expanded. It is
now known as ICT, which is an acronym for “Information and Communication
Technology”. In an earlier unit, we have also seen one definition that says IT
components are computer, communication and know-how. This clearly shows
that communication is a very important component in the development of IT.
Among the developments related to communication technology are the Internet,

the Web, teleconference, video conference, hand phone, wireless
communication, satellite, interactive TV, 3G, e-commerce, and many more
that we shall learn about later. The development of communication technology
has also enabled computers to be networked for us to share information
resources. When computers are connected, they form a network. There needs
to be a mechanism and communication protocol for sending data from one
computer to another computer; from one input device to a different computer;
from one computer to a different computer’s output device; or from an input
device to an output device via computers. This mechanism of data transmission

Unit 10 Communication
will be discussed in this unit, while the techniques of networking the computers
will be discussed under the title of computer network.
Activity 10.1
? Give your opinion on the statement in terms of its
definition:
“There is another definition that says IT components are
computer, communication and also know-how.”
10.3 Important Elements of Communication

Communication is a process of sending data or information from one person
(or device) to another person (or device). Data or information can be in various
forms, including text, images, audios, signals, videos, graphics and others.
Communication can happen between people, between computers, between
computers and people, between tools, and many more. Communication cannot
take place if, for example, both persons speak at the same time and none of
them listens.
Examples of daily communication are face-to-face conversations, reading

books, looking at the beauties of nature, reading or receiving letters, watching
the TV, listening to speeches, and certainly listening to lectures. Networking is
a mechanism for communication.
There are four elements for each type of communication to happen. The
elements are the message, the sender, the receiver and the media. Figure 10.1
shows the sender, the receiver, the message and the media with regards to a
telephone communication.

Figure 10.1: Communication via Telephone
Let us learn about each of them in detail.

(a) The Sender: The sender is the message transmitter or the place where
a message begins. The sender may be a person, an application, a
machine that can create messages or replies without human assistance,
system user, sensor, staff card reader or other input devices.
(b) The Message: Certainly, when you communicate, a message is needed.
A message exists in various formats and forms. A message can be in the
form of files, requests, replies, status, controls or mail. When we ask
someone, the message of asking may be in the form of voice, letter of
ordering, eye movement or body movement. There are long messages
like letters. There are short messages like an order to “read”. When we
access a website, for example, we type the address of the website
www.zou.ac.zw. The website address is a message that we send to the
website concerned or we ask the computer software to search for the
website concerned. Thus, we are the sender, the computer is the
receiver, the website address is the message and the Internet is the
media.
(c) The Receiver: There can be a message, media and sender but without
a receiver, communication cannot happen. For example, we can cry
for help inside a jungle; so there is a message, there is a sender, there is
a media but there is no receiver; hence, there is no communication
taking place. The receiver is the target of the message. The receiver
may be a computer, terminal, printer, people, remote control device,
and others. In the computer network, the receiver and the sender can
be present on the same computer. For example, the sender of an e-
mail [email protected] sends an e-mail to [email protected];
both the sender and receiver are present on the same mail.zou.ac.zw
e-mail server.

(d) The Media: A message is carried from sender to receiver via the
communication media. The media is the channel or vehicle for carrying
the message. For example, in a communication that involves two people
talking face-to-face, the medium is the air; while in the communication
of telephone conversation, the medium could be the telephone line, a
microwave or a wireless or a combination of these.
10.3.1 Coder-decoder
Think of how the message we send can be understood by the receiver. The
message needs to be altered into a suitable form so that it can pass through
the media and is altered again into a form that can be understood by the
receiver. In this respect, the coder and decoder are required. The coder’s
function is to code the message of the sender so that it is altered into a suitable
form for the media and the decoder converts it back into a form that is
understood by the receiver. Figure 10.2 clarifies the general situation of coder
and decoder inside the communication system.
Figure 10.2: Communication System
10.3.2 Message understanding

Even if the four elements (that is, the sender, receiver, media and message)
are present but the message is not understood, the actual communication still
does not take place. In human communication, language becomes the main
obstacle that often requires a third party, that is, the translator. In computer
communication, data representation code or information will become the
obstacle. As such, there is a standard code for representing data such as
ASCII, EBCDIC, and the latest is Unicode.

10.3.3 Error detector

In a communication between sender and receiver, there is a need for an error
detector to ensure that the data sent is the same as the one received by the
receiver. This error may be described as noise or disturbances in the process
of transmission via the media, just like the climatic condition when the medium
is the air or microwave. If communication happens between people, the person
himself can perform the detection and correction of errors based on human
ability. If communication happens between computers, error detection is much
needed to provide a scheme of detection and correction of the message error
by attaching additional data or information while sending the data so as to
increase the opportunity for error detection. This scheme will be discussed
later.
10.3.4 Security
When data is sent, it will become an attraction for eavesdropping. An example
is buying goods via the Internet using credit cards. The credit card number
sent via this medium will be easily stolen if security measures are not taken.
Among security measures often used is encryption. We shall discuss this issue
in another unit later.
Self Check 10.1

1. In order to create communication, there are several requirements.
Among them is the message. What are the other requirements?
2. Explain the functions of the following communication elements:
(a) Receiver.
(b) Error detector.
3. What are the jobs of coder and decoder in a communication system?
4. State the need for a standard code in communication among computers.
5. Human beings communicate by various methods such as speaking, sign
language and others. The progress of information technology enables
human beings to communicate by various new methods. Can you state
the techniques of communicating via computers?
6. Identify the sender, the receiver and the media in the following
communication:

(a) A lecturer giving lectures in a hall. (b) A telephone conversation

between two persons at long distances.
(c) A broadcasting programme on TV (d) Communication using

“WHO wants to be a millionaire” the walkie-talkie
10.4Data Communication
Data communication refers to the form of electronic communication which
usually involves data transmission between users and computer, between
computer and computer, and between computer and devices. Features of
data communication are the types of signal, the mode of transmission, data
flow direction, and the rate of transmission.
10.4.1 Types of signals

Can you think of how electromagnetic signals that carry information are
delivered to the receiver?

Electromagnetic signals can be used to deliver information through various

transmission media. Two forms of signals that can represent information for
transmission via the communication lines are:
(a) Analogue signals: Analogue signals are continuous, that is, when
signals are sent via the media (for example, telephone wires), the
electrical signals that are transmitted are represented in the form of
continuous sine wave, as shown in Figure 10.3. The sine wave is
featured by three parameters, that is, frequency, amplitude and phases
as shown in Figure 10.4.
(i) Frequency is the number of recurring waves (see Figure 10.3). It is
measured in Hertz, that is, one cycle per second. Signals with 40 Hertz
recur 40 cycles per second.
Figure 10.3: Wave frequency
Figure 10.4: Sine Wave

(ii) Amplitude is the height of the wave or the wave’s highest energy level, as
shown in Figure 10.5. Amplitude is measured in various units, for example,
voltage (V) or decibel (dB). The stronger the signal, the higher is the amplitude
of the signal.
Figure 10.5: Wave Amplitude
(iii) Phase is the rate of signal change with time, or the measure of time shift of
the waves that is measured in degrees (0). Signals with the same frequency
can have different phases, if they are compared. In Figure 11.4, the bottom
wave (b) has a different phase, that is, phase 1800 compared with the top
wave (a). One complete wave cycle begins at a point and continues until it
reaches the point again. A shift in phases happens when one cycle is not yet
complete, but one new cycle has already begun, that is, before the previous
cycle has completed fully. This happens at point 1 in Figure 10.6(c).
Figure 10.6: Signal Phases
Analogue signals are used in the low-speed telephone lines. Analogue signals
are transmitted via public-switched telephone network (PSTN).

(b) Digital Signals: Digital signal is like a discrete wave when compared
with the analogue signal, which is like a continuous sine wave. In the digital
transmission, a series of discrete pulses are transmitted or sent, for example,
carrying digit 0 and 1. These 0 and 1 values are similar to the binary data
representation in the computer.
Digital signals are in two states only, that is, low voltage and high voltage OFF
and ON or 0 and 1.
Normally, digital signals are represented as rectangular waves as shown in

Figure 10.7.
Figure 10.7: Digital Signals
Digital signals cannot be transmitted via PSTN, except after changing to the
analogue signals. The process of changing digital signals into the analogue one
is called modulating, while the reverse process is called de-modulating.
Self-check 10.2
Explain the differences between analogue and digital signals.
10.5 Mode of Data Transmission

Computers that have been networked perform their jobs individually.
Destination computers do not know when information from source computers
would arrive. Therefore, there needs to be a strategy to enable a destination
computer to realise that a source computer has sent information, and the
information has arrived to enable it to act on the information. The strategy of
making it known is called mode of data transmission.
Data transmission between two points or between two computers can happen
in two forms, that is, in parallel or in series. Data that are sent by the parallel

transmission will be delivered in one go, normally in one byte (8 bits)

simultaneously. If 8-bit data are sent, 8 parallel wires are used to send the
data, that is, each bit is sent via separate wires, as shown in Figure 10.8.
Extra wires are needed to send data between the sender and receiver. These
signals allow data to be sent in a proper sequence.
Figure 10.8: Parallel Transmission
Printers, for example, receive data from computers via the parallel ports that
are transmitted in parallel, that is, character (byte) by character (byte). This
transmission is suitable for short distances. Parallel transmission is not practical
for data communication. Computers normally transmit data in serial form
because of the high speed. Centronics parallel interface is an example of the
parallel format.
Serial transmission is transmitting data serially, that is, data being sent one bit
after one bit, as shown in Figure 10.9.
Figure 10.9: Serial Transmission
Serial transmission is slower than parallel transmission, but is more suitable

for long distances. Serial transmission is the normal method of data transmission
in a communication network. In data communication, data are transmitted
serially.

Two modes of transmission for serially transmitted data are synchronous

transmission and asynchronous transmission.
10.5.1 Asynchronous transmission

This type of transmission has become popular after the invention of teletype-
writers that are used to send telegrams. Characters are sent one by one. The
time of transmission too cannot be determined; characters can be sent at any
time. To enable the destination computer to realise that one character has
arrived, each character is wrapped with one start bit and one stop bit, as well
as one parity bit, as shown in Figure 10.10.
Parity bit is used to track errors. Start bit informs the receiver that data
will be sent. Stop bit means data have all been sent.
Figure 10.10: Asynchronous Transmission
Each character can be separated by a different time space, which means that
there is no synchronisation between sender and receiver, especially when
there is no data being sent. Synchronisation is achieved only at each character.
The receiver will synchronise with the sender when start bit is received. Several
agreements between sender and receiver are the number of bits per word,
parity check whether odd or even, the speed of transmission, and how the
message is ended.
For sending each character, two additional bits are also sent. For example,
100 characters are sent, so the total bits being sent are 1 000 bits (that is, 8
bits per character + 2 bits for start/stop, times 100). These 1 000 bits are
equivalent to 125 characters, where 25 additional characters constitute the
overheads for the asynchronous transmission. The asynchronous transmission
is clearly not efficient for sending a large amount of data. It is suitable for the
low-speed data communication, normally up to 32 000 bps.

10.5.2Synchronous transmission
One weakness of the asynchronous transmission is the overhead that needs

to be carried during data transmission. In the synchronous transmission, a
high efficiency level is achieved by sending a group or a block of characters at
one go, and to replace the wrapper bits (start and stop) by header and tail.
Figure 10.11: Synchronous Transmission
The receiver will check the data bits received until a header is found that
contains SYN characters and start bit, as shown in Figure 10.11 above. Next,
both the sender and receiver will mutually synchronise between them. The
receiver will receive all characters until a tail is found containing the last character
and SYN character. Data block (or packet) size varies from a few characters
to hundreds of characters. The bigger the data block, the speedier will be the
transmission.
Synchronous transmission is faster and more efficient than the asynchronous

transmission. The efficiency level of synchronous transmission is up to 98%,
while that of asynchronous one is up to 80% only. However, if there are
errors in synchronous transmission, the entire block of data (all characters)
will be spoilt, whereas only one character will spoil in the asynchronous
transmission. The hardware used to perform synchronous transmission is more
expensive and more complex than that for the asynchronous transmission.
Any kind of data can be transmitted synchronously, while only characters can
be transmitted by the asynchronous means.
Self-check 10.3
1. What do you understand by “mode of transmission”? Explain.
2. Clarify the differences between synchronous transmission and
asynchronous transmission.
10.6 Data Flow Direction

Data communication network has three categories of line operation to control
data-flow, that is, simplex, half-duplex and full duplex lines. These three flow-

types of data transmission have advantages and disadvantages.
10.6.1 Simplex
Simplex data transmission allows data to move in one direction only, that is,
similar to the one-way traffic, as shown in Figure 10.12.
Figure 10.12: Simplex Transmission
Examples are TV broadcasting and radio broadcasting. Other examples are

terminals receiving data only (like the normal TV) to display share price data
at the share trading centre and to display plane arrivals at the airports, sensing
devices at the traffic light crossing that track the arrival of vehicles, and printers.
All these examples confirm the data flow in one direction only.
10.6.2 Half duplex

Half duplex data transmission confirms that data move in two directions, but
only in one direction at a time. For example, moving through a very narrow
bridge allows you to move only one car at one time, climbing the road to
Fraser’s Hill where going up and coming down are fixed at different hours,
people who communicate using walkie-talkie or radio taxi, or communication
between two computers using modems, as shown in Figure 10.13.

Figure 10.13: Half-duplex Transmission
This technique is quite slow because:

(a) The time for the device to change its role from sender to receiver, and
vice versa.
(b) The waiting time while the sender device transmits a message to confirm
readiness to receive data to the receiver device.
(c) The waiting time for the sender device while waiting for the reply on
readiness to receive data from receiver device.
10.6.3 Full duplex

Full duplex transmission allows data to be sent in two opposite directions all
the time, that is, just like the two-way street, as shown in Figure 10.14.
Figure 10.14: Full Duplex Transmission
This technique allows the communication device to be capable of sending and

receiving data completely and independently. This technique also increases
the efficiency of the transmission system as compared with the half-duplex

mode of transmission. The required device here is more expensive than the
above two types, but this type is faster.
Activity 10.3
? 1. Based on the simplex, half-duplex, and full duplex types
of communication, discuss which type of communication
is the most effective in terms of the cost factor.
2. Data move in three types of flow. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of each of the three types?
10.7Rate of Data Transmission

Transmission rate can be said to be the bit rate or the baud rate.
Bit rate is the real measure of the number of bits transmitted every second. Bit
rate or data rate is measured in bits per second (bps). For example, modem
speed is 14 400 bps or 14.4K bps.
Baud rate is a measure of the number of changes of line states per second.
Change of line state means a change from state 0 to state 1, or vice versa, for
the digital signal. For the binary digital signal, baud rate = bit rate.
The rate of transmission depends on the frequency and the bandwidth.
Frequency is the amount of data being sent via a channel or line at wave
frequency (the cycle of waves per second). Frequency is stated in Hertz (Hz)
or cycles per second.
Bandwidth is the difference between the highest frequency and the lowest
one that is supported by a certain channel or line.
Data can be sent at various frequencies in a certain bandwidth. The maximum

transmission speed depends on the available bandwidth. The bigger the
bandwidth, the higher will be the transmission rate or the speed of transmission.
There are three grades of bandwidth, that is, voice band, medium band, and
broad band, as shown in Figure 10.15.

Figure 10.15: Three Grades of Bandwidth
Let us learn more about each grade of bandwidth in Table 10.1.
Table 10.1: The Three Grades of Bandwidth

Bandwidth Description
Voice band The bandwidth that is present in the public-switched

telephone network (PSTN). It is called voice band because
PSTN is built, from history, for voice communication
instead of data. The width of its bandwidth is 4 000 Hertz,
which is sufficient for sending voice. Since its bandwidth is
small, it is used for communication at the rate of up to 28
800 bps (28.8K bps).
Medium band Normally used for communication that involves mainframe

computers and mini-computers. Its normal speed is 56 000
up to 264 million bps (56K-264M bps).
Broad band It involves the satellite, microwave, co-axial cable, and

optical fibre. It is used for high-speed computers and has a
speed of 56 000 up to 30 billion bps (56K - 30G bps).
Self-check 10.4
1. Discuss the differences between bit rate and baud rate. When will both
the bit rate and the baud rate be equal?

2. State the advantages and the disadvantages of each technique of data

flow direction.
3. List three types of bandwidth grades that you know.
10.8Data Transmission Media

In this section, we shall focus on the transmission media. Transmission media
depends on the form of data that are altered for communication. Among the
basic forms of data that can be altered for communication are electrical pulses,
light pulses, electromagnetic waves, and infrared waves.
The types of transmission media for carrying signals depend on the types of
signals. Twisted wire pair and co-axial cable carry signals in the form of
electrical pulses. Light pulses can be carried via the optical fibre cable. For
the electromagnetic wave that penetrates the air, it requires the support of
microwave and satellite systems. The three forms of data light pulses,
electromagnetic wave and infrared waves come with the wireless type of
transmission media.
Transmission media can be classified as guided (via the physical media such
as twisted wire pair, co-axial cable, and optical fibre cable), or unguided (via
the air, vacuum, and water).
10.8.1 Twisted wire pair

Twisted pair wire is the medium that is normally used to send data in the form
of electrical pulses. It is also known as twisted pair cable. Twisted pair wire
consists of a number of coloured and shielded wires that are twisted to reduce
magnetic fields, and so will reduce noise disturbances. Normally there are
four or eight wires (forming two or four pairs). In general, each pair of wires
supports one voice channel. This kind of wires is often used for the telephones.
Twisted pair wires are cheap and easily obtainable, but the signals that pass
through are easily carried away and disturbed, while its transmission rate is
low. An example of the twisted pair wire is shown in Figure 10.16.

Figure 10.16: Twisted Pair Wires
There are two types of wires or cables, i.e. unshielded twisted pair (UTP),
and shielded twisted pair (STP). UTP wires are cheaper and easier to handle,
but can be disturbed easily, and have a shorter coverage distance as compared
with the STP.
Besides being classified into UTP and STP, twisted pair wires are also classified
according to categories set by EIA/TIA-568. In general, the factors that
differentiate between these categories are the thickness of wires according to
AWG, and the error features.
10.8.2 Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable, also called shielded cable, is made up of one or more copper
wire strings that are shielded by insulator and covered with iron mesh. This
cable is widely used to support long distance connections. This kind of cable
offers a higher rate of data transmission as compared with the twisted pair
cable, and can be used to send all types of data (not limited to voice or text
only). Examples of the coaxial cables are the TV cable, the cable used to
connect TV and the receiver of TV wave, and the short link between computer
and local area network. This cable can carry data or signals of electrical
pulses type.
In the voice communication system, every coaxial cable can support about
60 voice channels. Such cables that support multiple voices are called
bandwidth coaxial cables with a speed of up to 100 Mbps. This kind of cable
is called thick coaxial cable, or thicknets, or 10Base5, which is also called

thick Ethernet. Another kind of this cable is the basic band coaxial cable that
is used to send data at high speed such in the local area network. Cable that
is often used in the local area network is the RG-58AU cable that is often
called the thin coaxial cable, or thinnets, or 10Base2, which is also called thin
Ethernet with a speed of up to 10 Mbps. An example of the coaxial cable can
be seen in Figure 10.17.
Figure 10.17: Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable offers bandwidth and a degree of immunity from highly unstable
signals. In addition, this cable is cheap to install, and follows the standard.
However, this cable incurs high cost for long distances because of the need
for repeaters. The safety level of this cable is not yet high. Termination and
connecting points of this cable need to be done correctly to avoid spoilage
that can create congestion on the network, thus preventing access to it.
10.8.3 Fibre optic cable

Optical fibre is a medium in which data are transmitted in the form of light
pulses. Optical fibre technology is a new communication technology that is
low cost, high volume of transmission, low error rate, and secure for the
message. Signals are converted into light pulses and shot by laser via the
shielded optical fibre. That light will move and refract along the cable shield.
This fibre can transmit data at a speed of 80G bps. A picture of the optical
fibre cable can be seen in Figure 10.18.

Figure 10.18: Optical Fibre Cable
Optical fibre is made from silicon fibre, or silica, that is thinner than the human
hair. It can be used to transmit various types of data such as video, pictures,
multimedia, music, graphics and others. Since data are transmitted via light,
they are not affected by electrical disturbances, and that will reduce errors in
data transmission. This fibre is also lighter than the coaxial cable. Optical fibre
cable is used for linking long distances or linking between continents. Each
fibre can support multiple voice channels or TV channels.
10.8.4 Microwave system

Microwave does not use cables as its transmission media, but uses the air or
the sky space. Microwave uses the radio system which uses high frequency
to send and receive data. Microwave signals are sent in the form of line-of-
sight. These signals cannot be bent according to the surface of the earth; or to
avoid the hills, mountains, and tall buildings. Therefore, relay stations are used
to link up microwave signals. The number of relay stations depends on the
shape of the earth, but normally they are 30-50 km apart. Relay stations are
normally placed on top of tall buildings, hills and tall towers. The frequency of
microwave transmission is between 2 to 40 GHz. An example of the relay
station can be seen in Figure 10.19.

Figure 10.19: Wave Relay Station
Microwave technique is used for high volume communication and long

distances. Parabola discs and towers require high costs to be built. Therefore,
the cost of a microwave system is expensive. This technique is suitable for
communication between tall buildings in the city areas, especially when the
cost of installing optical fibre cable is so expensive. Now, microwave systems
are often used to link up networks between buildings inside campuses and
towns.
For a medium-size microwave system, the cost is medium, can be divided

into sub-channels, and can be extended to long distances, but it can be easily
disturbed by noise from weather and electricity, and need to overcome the
line-of-sight problem as well as geography. The use of microwave also follows
tight rules in order to avoid overlapping.
10.8.5 Satellite system

The satellite approach is used when the transmission distance is long and
there exists many obstacles. Data or signals that are carried via the satellite
are in the microwave form for representing voice, data, and video. Satellite is
an electronic device that contains up to 100 transponders (small, specific
radios) that receive, strengthen, and re-send the signals. Satellite acts as a
relay station between one earth station and another earth station. The signal
frequency that is up-linked to the satellite is different from the signal frequency
that is down-linked to the earth station. Types of satellites are classified
according to their locations from the earth’s surface, and also the signal

frequency to uplink and to downlink. Example of satellite is shown in Figure

10.20.
Figure 10.20: The Satellite
Satellite system is expensive but cost-effective for sending large volumes of

data. The satellite coverage area on earth is called footprint. The position
between satellites needs to follow certain rules to avoid signal disturbances
between each other. The advantages of using the satellite system are the wide
area of the earth that can be covered, the high loading, and the low cost for
each user. However, among the disadvantages are:
(a) Signals become weaker/noisier at long distances;
(b) Useful for 7-10 years duration, beyond which it will run out of real
orbit;
(c) Data transmitted can be heard by anyone, except for encrypted data;
(d) Satellite transmissions can be disturbed by other people;
(e) High cost for installation and transmission;
(f) It requires parabolic dish and decoder;
(g) There are delays in receiving the signals.

10.8.6 Infra-red
Infra-red technology is data transmission in the form of infra-red radiation
without going through wires. This approach is limited to one small area only,
and is based on the line-of-sight. The transmission rate is about 10 Mbps.
This technology can be used for wireless computer network. Another
application example is the remote control unit of TV.
10.8.7 Radio
Radio frequency technology that utilises the wireless transmission is divided
into two, i.e. high frequency and low frequency. High frequency radio
technology, such as cellular radio, can penetrate office walls but has limited
coverage. Low frequency radio technology utilises the radio spectrum
technology, has a big penetrating power, wide coverage but has a problem of
disturbances. Radio spectrum technology utilises the normal radio frequency
such as AM, FM, and short wave. This technology is normally used for pagers.
Pager is actually a radio receiver that receives a message or signals at a certain

frequency sent by a sender.
Cellular radio technology is designed for mobile computing, and it often uses
mobile phone, also called the cellular telephone. In Zimbabwe, there are many
cellular telephone operators like ZTE and G-Tide. This cellular technology
uses radio frequency and cell sites. Cell site is a geographical area of a circular
shape that operates the cellular phone inside a specified physical area. Users
move from one cell to another cell. Each cell is linked to the master cell site
that provides a link to the normal telephone network. Normally, data transfer
rate for the cellular radio is up to 19 200 bps.
Cellular radio technology can also use the low earth orbit satellite. Examples
of the cellular radio satellites are Iridium and Teledesic. Cellular radio
technology has progressed and the new technology is G3.
10.8.8 Telephone network

The telephone network used by the public is called “public-switched
telephone Network” (PSTN) that handles voice. PSTN is also sometimes
called plain old telephone service (POTS). Now, PSTN has used various
media such as optical fibre, microwave system, and satellite system. Data
inside PSTN can be sent by dial-up lines, or leased lines, or dedicated lines.

10.9Summary
In this unit we discussed that communication normally occurs between people
and computer, and between computer and computer. This electronic form of
communication is known as data communication. The sender is the message
transmitter or the place where a message begins. The sender may be a person,
a software application, a machine that can create messages or replies without
human assistance, a system user, a sensor, a staff card reader, or other input
devices. A message can be in the form of files, requests, replies, status,
controls or mail. The receiver may be a computer, terminal, printer, people,
remote control device, and others. A message is carried from sender to
receiver via the communication media. The media is the channel or vehicle for
carrying the message. Cellular radio technology concept has become more
popular now. Many communication companies like Maxis, Celcom, and DiGi
use this technology.
Key Terms
Analogue signals Infra-red system
Asynchronous Transmission Media
Coaxial cable Microwave system
Coder-decoder Networking
Communication Radio
Data communication Satellite system
Digital signals Simplex
Fibre optic cable Synchronous transmission
Full-duplex Telephone network
Half-duplex Receiver Sender
Information and Communication Twisted wire pair
Technology

References

Stallings, W. (2009). Data and Computer communications (seventh edition
ed.) Pearson.

Unit Eleven
Computer Network
11.0 Introduction
I n this unit, we shall focus on computer networks. Computers can be

expanded in terms of processing power and storage capacity by linking
them together. A computer network is a collection of computers that are linked
together among themselves, by using various communication media and
devices which enable users to share data, information, hardware and
software. Networks can be of various sizes, numbers and arrangements. A
simple network can be made by linking two computers.
There is another related term, called communication network. This is a wider
term covering more than computers, including even the telephones. Currently,
the telephone network is the largest network in the world, but the Internet is
the largest computer network in the world. The Internet is a combination of
computers and communication.
11.1 Objectives
 describe the three main topologies for computer network

 discuss the three network access methods
 analyse the three types of computer networks and their
characteristics
 explain local area network (LAN) in detail
 explain PC network, wireless LAN and the Ethernet
LAN
 explain the meanings of protocols and standards
 describe several network devices that are commonly
used today
Every computer can have a hardware device that may be expensive for one
user. Sharing the hardware device is therefore a better option. For example,
a laser printer can be shared by users if connected to the network. Expensive
software too can be shared by all users by storing it in one computer in a
network. Data or information stored on a computer connected to a network
can be accessed and shared by many users.
A computer network can be arranged or configured in different ways. Three

main network topologies that will be discussed here are the star topology, bus
topology, and ring topology. Besides that, we will also discuss three network
access methods. Towards the end, we will touch on another interesting unit,
that is, types of network. Among the types of network are LAN, metropolitan
area network (MAN) and wide area network (WAN). A detailed explanation
of LAN will be provided. Finally, this unit will be listing out devices commonly
used for constructing computer networks.
11.2 Network Topology

Can you think of how the physical arrangement of a computer and another
computer in a certain network?
Network topology is how to arrange or configure one physical computer with

other computers in a certain network. It refers to the way of linking the end-
points, or stations, or computers, to the network. Topology is also a
representation of the physical network. Another view about topology is how
the transmission media are installed and linked to the nodes. Three common

Unit 11 Computer Network
topologies are the star topology, bus topology, and ring topology.
11.2.1 Ring topology

Figure 11.1 shows the shape of a ring topology, that is, all the nodes or
computers are linked up to form a close a loop, and there is no central
computer (node) in the system.
Figure 11.1: Ring Topology
Data and messages are sent in one direction. If node A wishes to send a
message to node C, the message token will be sent from node A to node B.
Node B will ignore this message because it is not for the node, as shown in
Figure 11.2(a). Later, B will send the message token to C. Node C will accept
the message as shown in Figure 11.2(b), and will send the receipt token to
node A via node D, as shown in Figure 11.2(c).

Figure 11.2: Sending Message Token in a Ring Network
In this ring topology, a token containing message will be sent from one node
to an adjacent node until the token reaches the destination node. Each node
cannot keep the token without a time limit. Unrelated token will continue to
be sent on to the adjacent node. Token that has reached the desired node will
immediately be sent to its adjacent node, after its content is taken/ read. So,
there is no single node that will control or monopolise the token. Ring topology
normally uses the twisted wire and optical fibre cable with the normal speed
of 4, 15, and 100 Mbps.
In the ring network, node will be linked to a device that is called multi-station
access unit (MAU) that forms a ring of internal wires. There are several
standards related to the ring network such as those specified by ANSI, as
shown in Table 11.1.
Table 11.1: ANSI Standard for Ring Network
ANSI Standard for Ring Network Definition

Fibre Distributed Data Interface One that uses optical fibre as the media,
(FDDI) that can be used up to 200 km long, with a
speed of 100 Mbps. It is used as the back-
bone network.
Cuprum Distributed Data Interface One that uses twisted pair wires (UTP or
(CDDI) STP) as the media, but only for short
distances.

Self-check 11.1
Compare FDDI with CDDI.
11.2.2 Bus topology

In the bus topology, as shown in Figure 11.3, the transmission medium is
made up of a single wire or cable from which every node will be connected.
Both ends of the cable are not connected like the ring topology. Each end of
the cable is installed with a terminator for preventing a loss of signals or
feedback of signals.
Figure 11.3: Bus Topology
Each node has its own identifier or address. For example, station A wants to
send message frames to station D. That message frame will enter station D
address in the frame header. This frame will move inside the bus through
station B (see Figure 11.3). B reads the address and ignores the frame as it is
not for station B. D finds that the frame is for station D, and so will copy the
frame content. Every station will send the frame to one after another in a
cooperative manner among them.
Bus network also has a number of standards. The most well-known standard
is the Ethernet or IEEE802.3. The usual speed of bus network is 10, 100,
and 1 000 Mbps, using twisted pair wires and optical fibre cable.

11.2.3 Star topology

In the star topology, all the stations or nodes will be connected to one node
(the central station), as shown in Figure 11.4.
Figure 11.4: Star Topology
Central station or node can be implemented in two ways. The first approach
is that this node will broadcast a message frame to all the nodes that are
linked to it, and there is only one station that can send the message. This
concept of a central node is called the hub. The second approach is that the
central node sends the message to the destination station only, and more than
one transmission can be done at one time. This second concept is called the
switch concept.
Self-check 11.2
1. What is topology?
2. What do you understand by the switch concept in Ring Topology?

11.3 Network Access Methods

We do practise an access method in our daily lives, that is, the way we act
politely to begin with a conversation, to attract attention, so that our message
reaches the target. The same case applies to the network that determines the
methods of accessing the network facilities in sending and receiving messages.
There are three access methods for a station/node to access and share the
network for sending and receiving data that is, polling method, contention
method, and token-passing method, as shown in Figure 11.5. Access methods
are reflections of the network topology. Methods of accessing media or
network are parts of the rules in the data link layer protocol.
Figure 11.5: Access Methods
11.3.1 Polling Method

In the polling method, the central processor device or the central node will do
polling (calls) to every station in the network to determine if the station wants
to send a message. Next, every station’s turn will be determined for sending
the message. This method is used in the star topology, which will reduce data
accidents.
11.3.2 Contention method

Every station/node has an equal chance of access. In the contention method,
a station/node sends a message to the network on the basis of first come first
served.

In this contention method, every station polls the network to see if there is a
message being sent. If none, a station/node begins sending a message. The
method of detecting whether a message is being sent in the network is called
carrier sensing. The ability of each node/station to access the network media
for sending the message is called multiple-access. Sending a lot of messages
concurrently will cause messages to jam-up or disturb each other. This
disturbance is called collision.
All the three methods are collectively termed as the carrier-sense multiple-
access with collision detection (CSMA/CD). With the CSMA/CD method,
the station/node will send a message if the network is felt not being used. This
method is used in the bus topology. The protocol for this method is also
known as the Ethernet protocol.
11.3.3 Token-passing method

Token is a bit pattern that has been defined in the form of size or shape.
In the token-passing method, stations/ nodes will use a token to send messages
(token can be thought of as an empty container). There is only one token in a
network. This token will always be moving in the network. A station/node will
take the token if it wishes to send data. If the token is empty, the station/node
will put in data into it and release the token back into the network. If the token
is not empty, the station/node will release the token back into the network
without any action. Token filled with data will be sent to the entire network.
All the other stations/nodes will see this token. If the data inside the token is
for any one, that data will be taken, and the emptied token is released into the
network. This process will continue. In this method, data collision can be
avoided. The token technique is used in the ring and bus topologies.
11.4 Types of Network

Among the types of network are the local area network (LAN), the
metropolitan area network (MAN), and the wide area network (WAN). As a
pre-requisite to understand the types of network, several important terms are
introduced:
(a) Node: A node refers to a device that is connected to a point on the
network. Example of a node is a computer or a storage device. It is an
official member (point) on the network, whether or not a device is
attached.

(b) Server: One server node can share resources with other nodes. It
stores data that are accessible by client nodes. It is also known as file
server, print server, Web server or database server. Server computer’s
function also includes network management. Normally, it is a high
powered computer that uses the UNIX or Linux operating system.
(c) Client/Workstation: One computer that can be used to get services
like data and processing power from the server computer, accesses
the Internet, and others. It may consist of a personal computer or a
workstation.
(d) Host Computer: This refers to the mainframe computer, the
minicomputer, or the server computer which is the main computer in
the network system.
11.4.1 Local area network (LAN)

Local area network (LAN) is a local network that is used to share software,
data storage, printers and others. It is usually of the small size and does not
involve telephone lines. LAN connects computers in a limited geographical
area, such as office, school and others. LAN requires communication channel,
computers and network devices, network interface card, and network operating
system.
The media used consist of twisted cable, co-axial cable, or optical fibre.
Devices used include hub, printer and personal computers. Every computer
needs to have a network interface card (NIC) for extending to the network.
Two technologies that are normally used for LAN are Ethernet and token
ring. To connect two LANs, a bridge or a router can be used. A gateway can
be used to connect a LAN to the outside world.
11.4.2 Wide area network (WAN)

Wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that involves a long distance
or a wide geographical area like a state. This network requires a combination
of telephone lines, microwave, satellite and other transmission media. WAN
can be considered as a combination of two or more LANs. Computers inside
a WAN are normally connected by a public network. Figure 11.6 shows an
example of a WAN.

Figure 11.6: Wide Area Network (WAN)
11.4.3 Metropolitan area network (MAN)

Metropolitan area network (MAN) is placed in between LAN and WAN. It
uses LAN technology, but provides more services than LAN, including a
combination of voice, data, image and video. MAN normally optimises the
transmission of voice and data. MAN does not operate using the public
telephone line. MAN uses a high performance transmission media (normally
optical fibre) spread over the entire city.
11.5 Network Protocols and Standards

In a layman’s term, protocol is a code of diplomatic or military etiquette. It is
generally a set of precisely defined rules and conventions for behaviour between
two parties. The term has been used widely for diplomats and for people
involved with official ceremonies. Different community-cultures have different
ways of greeting or welcoming visitors, friends and relatives, for example,
shake hands (in different ways), embraces, kisses, some body languages, and
so on. With respect to data communication and computer network, a protocol
is defined as the rules of exchange between entities, generally at the same
layers of the OSI Model.

Protocol is a certain standard for exchanging data between one computer

and another computer. It is used to control communication inside a network.
Similarly, standard normally means an acceptable measure for weights,

lengths, quality or degree of excellence. Thus, we have expressions like:
(a) This university imposes a very high standard.
(b) He lives with a high moral standard.
(c) His verbal English is of a low standard .
(d) A high standard of living is one with plenty of material and other
comforts.
In ICT, standards are agreed specifications, which have been used widely for
hardware and software components as a result of international, national,
industrial, and manufacturer agreements. Nowadays, even services and
quality can be subjected to certain agreed standards. Examples of standards,
in general, are:
(a) IBM-PC standards, OSI standard, Microsoft standard,
(b) CODASYL standard, ANSI standard, ISO-9000 quality standard,
and so on.
Protocol is found in the networking software and communication hardware.
Protocol specifies how a receiver and sender communicate. With the availability
of protocol, two devices can communicate between them. It ensures that
data can be sent, the speed of data being sent is optimal, the determination of
duplex mode, and so on. With the presence of protocols, devices from different
manufacturers can be used with devices from other manufacturers. Networks
that have different protocols cannot share data among themselves. Many
protocols have been developed for the purpose of data transmission in the
network. We are going to look at two very important protocols and standards;
TCP/IP and OSI reference model.

11.5.1 TCP/IP Model

Table 11.2: Layers of TCP/IP Model
Layers Description
Application Layer This contains a mechanism for supporting various user
applications, like file transfers.
Transport layer It is also called host-to-host layer. This layer provides a
mechanism for ensuring all data reach their destinations
safely. The protocol often used is the Transmission control
protocol (TCP).
Internet Layer Its function is to access and direct data via the network or
multiple networks. The protocol used is the Internet
Protocol (IP).
Network Interface Its function is to ensure data exchange between two
computers via the network. The sender computer will
provide the destination address.
Physical Layer Its function is to determine the characteristics of the
transmission media, signal form, data rate, and related
matter. It also includes the physical interface between data
transmission device (for example, computer) and the
transmission media or network.
TCP/IP protocol is the result of research and development by ARPANET.

This model consists of a set of protocols produced as the Internet protocol
by the Internet Activity Board (IAB). TCP/IP model has been stabilised by
the industry through its use, as it does not have any official model like the OSI
reference model. In general, TCP/IP model can be divided into five independent
layers, that is, application layer, transport layer, Internet layer, network access
layer, and physical layer, as shown in Table 11.2 but according to some authors
it has four layers (Application Layer, Transport layer, Internet layer and
Network Access).
TCP/IP model is a combination of TCP protocol at the transport layer and IP

protocol at the Internet layer. Both TCP and IP protocols are coordinated by
the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).
Data that have been transmitted from sender to receiver will pass through
layer after layer, and each time at the layer, one data header will be added on
to the data. Similarly, that header will be removed one by one when the data

pass through layer after layer at the receiver computer. Among the TCP/IP
standard applications are the simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP), file transfer
protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), and telnet.
11.5.2 OSI Reference Model

OSI stands for “Open System Interconnection”. OSI Reference Model was
developed by ISO in 1983 to enable data to be sent and received between
two computers. Its main objective is: “to provide a basis for all parties, for
coordinating the development of their standards, aimed at inter-connecting
open systems, while allowing their old standards to continue to exist within
this reference model”.
This model is computer protocol architecture. It deals with how a certain data
transmission occurs, and it is almost similar to the way we send a letter, may
be by post, or by a dispatch boy, until it arrives at the receiver. The OSI
model is based on the layer approach, with each layer being responsible for
implementing a certain function. This model enables two different computers
to exchange data among them. It defines voltage and signals in the cable,
adaptation of the network, control of errors, and others. OSI model is made
up of seven layers, and it facilitates the development of software that is suitable
for data transfers. Table 11.3 shows the function of each layer.
Table 11.3: Layers of OSI Reference Model

Layers Description
Application Layer Tasks or functions depend on the application implemented,
for example, to provide the application for accessing
network services.
Presentation Layer It receives messages from the application layer, and sends
them to the next layer, that is, session layer. This layer
provides facilities for formatting data to enable data
exchange, such as data condensation, encryption, and the
change of date format.
Session Layer This provides a control structure for communication
between applications, that is, to stabilise, manage,
extend/begin and to end sessions between two applications.
Transport Layer It re-ensures that all messages or data can be sent and
received without loss, duplication, or error.
Network Layer It is responsible for addressing or directing messages or data
so that they can reach the right destination, translate the
logical address and name into physical destination address.
so that they can reach the right destination, translate the

logical address and name into physical destination address.
This layer is also responsible for searching pathways inside
the network leading to the destination computer.
Data Link Layer It provides data transfer facilities via the physical link, that
is, to send synchronous data frames, data control, and the
required flow control.
Physical Layer It is responsible for the actual data transmission via the
communication media. This layer determines data
representation in the media, physical extension, and the
speed of transmission.
At the sender computer, data are transmitted from an upper layer to the next
lower layer until they reach the physical layer which then sends data to the
network cable. When data passes through layer after layer, data become
bigger as each time they are added with related information at each layer, until
the data become quite big. However, when data are sent upward by the
receiver computer, from one layer to another, they are trimmed off one element
each time, until only the original data are left when they arrive at the application
layer.
OSI model was developed to replace TCP/IP model which had become the
standard through its wide applications. Besides the famous OSI and TCP/IP
protocols, there are other protocols too that are available in the market. Among
them are those shown in Table 11.4.
Table 11.4: Protocols in the Market

Protocol Explanation
SNA (System Network This protocol is used in a network that involves
Architecture) from IBM mainframe computers and minicomputers.
NetBEUI from Microsoft This protocol is used to link computers in one local
network. As an example, the method of
neighbourhood network sharing that is present in
Windows 95/98 is based on this protocol.
AppleTalk from Apple This protocol is used for Macintosh computers.

IPX/SPX from Novell This protocol is used for personal computer network.
At time, this protocol was very much used in PC
computer network. (IPX = internet packet exchange,
SPX = sequenced packet exchange).
NetBIOS from IBM This protocol is used in personal computer network.

It is also present in Windows 95/98.
X.25 Protocol for public data network.
X.400 Protocol for sending e-mail between computers.

Self-check 11.3
1. What are the differences between WAN and LAN?
2. What is meant by LAN topology?
3. State two types of protocols that are available in the market?
11.6 Types of Local Area Network

LAN is not restricted to the PC network only, as it can also contain mainframe
computers, workstations, and others. In this section, therefore, we shall discuss
several types of LAN in greater details. In general, there are two types of the
popular and normal LAN network, that is, the peer-to-peer network, and the
client/server network.
11.6.1 Peer-to-peer network

The peer-to-peer network is the easiest and cheapest network. This network
can support up to less than 10 computers by using the UTP wire or co-axial
cable. Every computer in this network can share hardware like printers, data,
or information that is allowed on any computer. Every computer must have its
own network operating system. Windows (98 and 2000) operating system
provides the basis of peer-to-peer facilities, as shown in Figure 11.7. Each
PC is of the same status, that is, no one PC controls the others.
Figure 11.7: Peer-to-peer Network

11.6.2 Client/Server network

The client/server network is a network in which one or more computers
constitute the servers, while other computers constitute the clients. The server
computer will control access to hardware and software, including the sharing
of storage space for storing data and information, as shown in Figure 11.8.
Each PC needs to have a network interface card (NIC). The server needs to
be installed with the network operating system. This type of network needs a
network administrator to ensure that all the network facilities are in good and
complete condition.
Figure 11.8: Client/server Network
11.6.3 PC network
PC network is a network that is always used by most organisations, especially
in offices, and also at home. Most of them use the PC network to access the
Internet. Ethernet LAN is a popular LAN technology. Most of the PC networks
in the office are built based on the simple Ethernet LAN. PC networks require
all the layers of OSI being used with success. LAN is simply a delivery service
inside the PC network. A simple PC network can be in the form of peer-to-
peer network, and client/server network.
A simple PC network based on client/server consists of several PC clients,

PC severs, hub, or 10BaseT Ethernet switch. Each PC needs to have a
network interface card (NIC). The sever PC will use the network operating
system (NOS), or the server operating system (SOS). NIC is required to
handle all the network communications at the physical layer and the data
access layer. Thus, PC needs to implement the Internet, the transport, and the
application layers.

Self-check 11.4
Discuss a simple PC network. What are the devices used in a simple PC

network?
11.6.4 Ethernet LAN

Ethernet is a very popular LAN technology. Perhaps, more than 80% of all
the LAN traffics are done over the Ethernet LAN. Ethernet LAN usually
uses the bus topology with Ethernet hub, and switch topology with Ethernet
switch. Ethernet LAN uses the IEEE802.3 Ethernet protocol. Computers
will be linked using the UTP wires, co-axial cables, or optical fibre. Only one
hub is used in a small Ethernet LAN. This kind of Ethernet LAN is normally
called the traditional Ethernet LAN which supports up to 10 Mbps.
Ethernet LAN can be expanded into a large Ethernet LAN that contains
more than one hub. The hubs will be connected into a tree-like form, as
Figure 11.9: Large Ethernet LAN
Self-check 11.5
What is the speed supported by Ethernet LAN?

Various media can be used including UTP, co-axial cable, or optical fibre
cable. Similarly, the speed provided by hubs can also differ such as 10 Mbps,
100 Mbps, and 1Gbps. Switches too have different speeds 10/100 Mbps.
Ethernet LAN that supports 100 Mbps is called Fast Ethernet, while that
which supports 1 000 Mbps (1Gbps) is called Gigabit Ethernet. In the Gigabit
Ethernet, the media must be capable of supporting up to 1Gbps. Switches
are required to change line-speed that is high to low, or vice versa. For example,
the 10/100 Mbps switch is used to connect line-speed 10 Mbps with line-
speed 100 Mbps.
Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet are classified as high speed LANs. Besides
being based on the Ethernet, high speed LAN can also be based on token
ring (up to 100 Mbps), and optical fibre channel (100 Mbps -3.2 Gbps).
11.6.5 Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN began to gain attention lately, especially with the development
of cellular phones and also the PDA, like palmtop computers. Wireless LAN
also expanded to fulfil the mobility needs, ad hoc network, relocation and
coverage for which it is difficult to install wires. The media used must be the
wireless transmission media, such as microwave and infrared rays.
Most of the wireless LAN is part of the bigger LAN, called the LAN extension.
In the wired LAN (LAN backbone), there is an access node which is also
called the Control Module (CM). This control module will interact with
computers or user module (UM) via wireless media, as shown in Figure 11.10.
Wireless LAN is still not widely used because of high cost, low data transfer
rate, conscious of work safety, and the need for licence. The standard for
wireless LAN is IEEE802.11.

Figure 11.10: Wireless Network
Self-check 11.6
What are the main differences between client/server network and peer-to-
peer network?
11.7 Network Devices

The signals that pass through the transmission media are of various forms, for
example, electrical pulses, light pulses, or microwaves. It is possible that signals
move from one medium to another medium, and this requires devices to convert
them. This is where the knowledge of network devices is very important.
Network devices enable the signals to move through one protocol after
another, such as to convert analogue signals into digital signals. This section
will discuss the communication and network devices in sufficient details. The
devices are modem, codec, multiplexer, repeater, bridge, router, hub, switch
and gateway.

11.7.1 Modem
A modem is a device for transforming digital signals into analogue signals to
enable analogue signals to move inside analogue lines (usually analogue
telephone line), and then to reconvert from analogue signals to digital signals,
when they arrive at the receiver computer as shown in Figure 11.11. Modem
is a popular device especially with the development of the Internet, whereby,
this device is often installed at home because most of the homes today access
the Internet via the analogue telephone line.
The modem is a short form for modulator demodulator
Figure 11.11: Roles of Modem
DTE-data terminal equipment; DCE-data communications equipment
Modulation process is the process of converting digital signals into analogue

signals. Modulation frequencies represent a high frequency with digit 1, and a
low frequency with digit 0. Demodulation process is a process of converting
analogue signals into digital signals. Common modem speed today is 33 600
bps and 56 000 bps.
There are several types of modems, i.e. internal modem, external modem,
PC card modem, and fax modem, as shown in Figure 11.12.

Figure 11.12: Types of Modem
Internal modem is placed on the circuit board, and installed at one slot of the
main board of the computer. External modem is a modem that lies outside of
the PC, and is linked to the PC via a serial port. PC card modem is a modem
that is loaded inside the PC and is entered via a PC card slot. PC card modem
is often used for laptop computers or notebook computers. Fax modem is a
modem that is combined with fax, and is often installed internally or externally.
A fax modem functions as a modem and a fax machine, where the fax received
will be stored electronically (on disc).
11.7.2 Codec
Codec device plays a role in converting analogue data into digital bit stream
(digital signals) and vice versa as shown in Figure 11.13. Codec is an acronym
for coder-decoder. Coder is a processor for converting analogue data, normally
from an analogue device, into digital bit stream (digital signals), normally to
the digital transmission line. Decoder is a processor for converting digital bit
stream (digital signals) into analogue data. The conversion of analogue data
which represent voice and data into the form of digital signals enables the use
of digital transmission equipment and new switching. Codec is required if the

transmission line is ISDN or DSL, and the signal resource device is an analogue
device (telephone).
Figure 11.13: Functions of Codec
11.7.3 Multiplexer
Multiplexer’s function is to consolidate multiple signals from multiple devices
into a group of signals for sending via one line and, thereafter, the multiplexer
changes back the group into multiple signals, as they were originally sent, as
shown in Figure 11.14. A multiplexer device is a kind of device that contains
one communication channel for carrying all data transmitted from many devices.
This device will group together all messages that are to be sent to the related
device. This technique saves cost, for example in renting one line that is cheaper
than 14 lines if you were to use without the multiplexer.
Figure 11.14: Multiplexing
11.7.4 Repeater
This device is used to overcome the length limitation of a cable or the distance
that a wave travels. For example, IEEE802.3 standard only allows the length

of cable or wave up to 500 metres. A repeater is used to receive signals from

one cable, to regenerate them, and to re-transmit them to the following cable.
Signal strengthening is so important so that the signal is strong enough to be
heard by all computers related to the cable. The signal or packet being
transmitted is not recognised or not to be understood by the repeater. The
repeater only provides the passage for the signals and transmits them to the
following line segment, as shown in Figure 11.15. Repeaters are interfaces at
the physical layer in the OSI model.
Figure 11.15: Repeater
Self-check 11.8
1. What is the function of a repeater? What is the circumstance under
which repeaters can be used?
2. Why is a multiplexer said to be a money-saving technique?
11.7.5 Bridge
Bridge connects two local area networks (LANs) that use the same protocol,
as shown in Figure 11.16. Bridge interprets data packets link and determines
whether there is a need to be sent to the related LAN. In other words, a
bridge will read all the data packets and will only receive the packets that
need to be sent to another LAN. Bridge does not alter any information; it only
copies the packet from one LAN and repeats it in another LAN. Bridge
operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. There are two types of
bridges, i.e. external bridge and internal bridge. Internal bridge is the second
network adaptor card that is placed in the file server. External bridge contains
a separate PC that has an interface card that is used when the file server has
too many activities to support the functions of a bridge, or when there is no
port to handle interface cards. More than two LANs can be connected by a
bridge.

Figure 11.6: Bridge Operation
11.7.6 Router
Router’s function is like the bridge. Router operates at the network layer, that
is, the layer that is responsible for routing packets and collecting account
information. Routers also provide the service of choosing the best pathway
for data (whether the cheapest or the fastest); the service of reducing network
overload that can slow down packet transmission; and the service of handling
packets of various sizes. The cost of a router is quite expensive, and the
speed of a router is slow. Because of the cost, routers have been replaced by
hubs or switch, and that pushes the position of routers further from the PC
network, as shown in Figure 11.17. Routers also can be used to isolate some
of the LAN from other LAN, so it is used to implement LAN security. Routers
can be used for linking various types of networks.

Figure 11.17: Roles of Routers
Sel- check 11.9
Explain the functions of the following devices, in a network system:

(a) Bridge
(b) Router
11.7.7 Hub
A hub is used to combine all the lines in a certain network, which is only
suitable and specific for one type of network. LAN hub of the star type is
different from other LAN hubs. Hubs will send or broadcast all packets to
other ports of the same hub, as shown in Figure 11.18. If one PC is sending
data, other PC inside the same hub will have to wait until the first PC has
finished sending. This situation makes hub quite slow and can cause a jam,
and so packets may not be able to move, especially when the number of
stations is high. Normally, a hub contains 8, 12 or 16 ports. Hub is normally
used for the star topology.

Figure 11.18: Operation of a Hub
11.7.8 Switch
Switch is similar to hub, but is more intelligent in terms of transmitting data to
all stations. Switch does not send data to all stations, but send data only to a
destination port or station. At the same time, more stations can send and
receive data simultaneously, as shown in Figure 11.19. Most switches operate
at the second layer, that is, data link layer. However, now there are switches
at the third and fourth layers, that is, switch for the network layer, and switch
for the transport layer (of the OSI model).
Figure 11.19: Operation of a Switch

Sometimes, a switch is also called a switch hub. Switch provides facilities for
sharing broad-band and also dedicated broad-band, support new
technologies, and guarantees investment in network installation that has been
done.
11.7.9 Gateway
Gateway is used to connect two networks that have different protocols, such
as to link LAN and WAN. Gateway operates at the network layer and above,
inside the OSI model. So, gateway serves as a protocol converter by uniting
the differences among the networks, i.e. to convert the packet header and tail
so that it is consistent with the network protocol or the message data link that
is to be sent.
Self-check 11.10
1. What is the function of a gateway? What is the condition that enables a
gateway to be used?
2. List two communication and network devices that are related to
signals.
3. What are the differences between a hub and a switch? Please explain.
11.8 Summary
In this unit we highlighted that a computer network is a communication system
that links up two or more computers that cooperate to exchange information
and to share resources. The network can be simple or complex, local or
distributed over wide areas. The main difference between LAN, MAN, and
WAN is the coverage area. Each of them may contain various hardware
combinations like microcomputers, minicomputers, mainframes, and varieties
of network devices. You have been exposed to a discussion on various
communication and network devices. In general, these devices can be
classified into those concerned with signals, and those concerned with
protocols. The one that is related to signals is about transmitting analogue or
digital signals over the analogue or digital lines. These devices are modem and
codec. The one that deals with protocols are repeater, bridge, router, hub,
switch and gateway. Multiplexer can be used as a front-end processor and
for sharing line linking to other networks.
Key Terms
LAN MAN WAN

References
Stallings, W. (2007). Data and Computer communications (seventh edition
ed.). Pearson.

Unit Twelve
Information Technology Issues

and Opportunities
12.0 Introduction
N ow, we are vigorously going through the process of information

revolution where the technology of information (IT) has revolutionised
our capability of extracting, manipulating, storing, communicating and
presenting information. As discussed in a number of the previous units, IT is
not only made up of computer hardware and software, but also people with
the know-how and people as users of the technology.
Because of the human element with different kinds of behaviour, IT and IS
(information system) can be used for doing good as well as for doing bad. In
this unit, we shall study and see how the human element creates various issues
in this field and the opportunities presented to us by IT.
12.1Objectives
 discuss the importance of ethical issues in IT

 explain the meaning of privacy, security and ergonomics
in IT
12.2 Professionalism, Ethics and Society

The IT revolution has generated a lot of controversy. This controversy has
raised questions about what is (and what is not) ethical with regards to the
activities involving IT.
Ethics is a philosophy that deals with the principles of doing good and bad
especially in the context of morality. Morality is a traditional belief or religious
belief in the conduct of doing right and wrong.
Ethics is about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings about good or
bad influences on human beings.
When this issue is raised, you may be asking, what is the relationship between
ethics and information technology? The advancement of IT has created a
world without borders. We can now interact with anyone regardless of
location, while data too can be moved from one location to another. Even
your confidential data that are used to be kept in your drawer before can be
easily opened now, if they have been converted into the electronic form.
Behind these facilities provided by IT, we need to be aware of irresponsible
parties who take advantage of our carelessness in using IT in our daily
activities. So, it is now very important to emphasise the ethical aspect of IT to
people who use this technology.
In most organisations, computers are used to help the management to ensure

smooth and efficient running. Top management too can make use of IT in the
making of important strategic decisions. Ethical problems are often discussed
in the human resource management, whereby, IT has opened up new ways of
doing ethical and unethical business electronically. IT users are now
confronted with a series of ethical issues, especially when they perform duties
in the office. Examples include the following:
(a) Does the management need to monitor staff activities electronically?
(b) Is there a need to see all the e-mails of junior staff to ensure that they
do not use e-mails for personal objectives?

Unit 12 Information Technology Issues and Opportunities
(c) Is all the staff allowed to access the files of other people?
(d) Is it possible to sell customer information to other people?
There are many aspects of ethical practices in our society with regards to the
application of IT. For example, using IT creates an impact on the society, and
this gives rise to ethical considerations in many other areas. IT has both
positive and negative effects on the society in many fields as illustrated in
Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1: Impact of Information Technology on Society

(a) Societal solutions: IT can address the needs of people-on-the-street

and provide solutions to several problems in our society. Societal
networking software, like e-mails and ‘facebook’, helps people to
communicate and interact easily and quickly making distance quite a
trivial matter. The world has become a global village.
(b) Employment: The impact on workers who feel financially threatened,
such as in factories where the management can reduce staff-size
because some processes can be replaced by robots. Similarly in the
banking field when they use automated teller machine (ATM) and on-
line banking, which make the traditional cashiers redundant.
(c) Working conditions: The use of IT improves the quality of work and
the environment. What used to be physical has now become largely
mental work.
(a) Health: Where the use of IT hardware can endanger its users, such as,
spoiling eye- sight, exposure to radiation, strain on the back, and so
on.
(b) Privacy: Where personal information, computerised comparison,
information mining, and e-mails are exposed to personal trespassing.
(c) Individuality: In system development, one must think of the human
factor, ergonomic factor, and the possibility of information system
failure.
(g) Crime: This can happen as a result of a wide use of IT such as cloning
credit cards, siphoning money out of a bank account, and so on.
An example of the IT ethical issue is described as follows:
“A software engineer claims that he could complete a software development

job within 10 months, whereas to be completely well done, he needs about
12 to 15 months. The main reason is that if he tells 12 or 15 months, it would
probably be unacceptable to the customer.”
This is unethically done in the interest of the business.
Activity 12.1
? Nowadays there are companies that monitor Internet
activities and Websites. Most of these firms sell a list of
mails and detailed personal profiles without permission.
How do you safeguard yourself? Share your answer with
your classmates.

Many ethical risks may arise when IT is implemented as a result of

information error, trespassing privacy and environmental pollution. Ten points
that have been proposed by the Computer Ethics Institute as a guide for users
and computer professionals are as follows:
(a) Not to use computers to destroy human beings.
(b) Not to disturb another person’s computer work.
(c) Not to trespass into another person’s computer files.
(d) Not to use computers to steal.
(e) Not to use computers for acting as a false witness.
(f) Not to use or copy software that is not purchased legally.
(g) Not to use another person’s computer resource without permission or
payment.
(h) Not to use another person’s intellectual output without permission.
(i) To think of the social impact of the programmes or systems being
developed.
(j) To use computers with consideration and respect for other people.
If all computer users follow all these proposed guidelines, we may not worry
about security. Therefore, as discussed, ethics is a standard moral conduct
while computer ethics is a guideline for using computers so as to be morally
acceptable in our society. We can generalise the ethics of using computers
into four main issues as shown in Figure 12.2.
Figure 12.2: Ethics on the Use of Computers

(a) Individuality is about the collection and use of data for an individual.
(b) Accuracy is about the responsibility of data collectors to ensure that
data is true and accurate.
(c) Ownership is related to someone who owns data and has a right over
the software.

(a) Accessibility is related to the responsibility of someone who has the

data to control who can use the data.
The Centre for Democracy and Technology controls the issue of individuality
and egality. To know the details of this organisation, please visit Website
www.cdt.org.
12.3 Computer System Control and Security Issues

Will there be bad consequences with the advancement of technology? Experts
on IT agree that society needs to be careful with the potential negative impact
of technology on security and individual issues. We also need to pay attention
to the negative impact on the environment as a result of the products
generated by computers. Let us discuss these issues one by one.
12.3.1 Threat on computer security

Security can be defined in several ways. In the context of computers and
information system (IS), it is essentially “the protection of data from accidental
or deliberate threats which might cause unauthorized modification, disclosure,
or destruction of the data. It also refers to the protection of IS from degradation
(or non-availability) of services”. Thus, not only intruders need to be prevented,
insiders too need to be prevented from becoming worse.
Things that can threaten computer security are computer crimes, computer
virus, electronic vandalism, natural disasters and other calamities. The most
important resource inside computers is data. The confidentiality of data and
information being stored depends on how well computers are kept away
from criminals, natural disasters and other threats. The threats to computer
security are shown in Figure 12.3.
Figure 12.3: Threats to Computer Security

(a) Computer criminals: Computer crimes are the unauthorised works

of criminals who use specific knowledge in computer technology.
Computer criminals may consist of:
(i) Staff: The largest category of computer criminals is made up of those
who can easily access computers. They are normally staffs who know
the company’s secrets. By far, this is the biggest threat to security the
dishonesty and the incompetence of the employees. Auditing should be
able to detect these problems before they become too late.
(ii) Outside Users: Not only the staff, but suppliers and customers can also
access the company’s computer system, for example, bank customers
who use the ATM. Similar to staff, authorised users can obtain the
secret password or look for alternative ways of committing computer
crimes.
(iii) Hackers and Vandals: There are people who say that these two groups
are similar but actually they are not. Hackers are people who gain
unauthorised access to a computer system for the purpose of fun and
facing the challenge of computers. Vandals perform the same thing but
for the purpose of vengeance. They may intend to steal technical
information or to introduce what is called a logical bomb, that is, a
computer programme that destroys the computer.
(iv) Cloning Crimes: These are carried out by members of criminal gangs
who run businesses but use computer technology for evil purposes.
Examples are they copy, clone and imitate passports, identity cards,
driving licenses and copyrights.
(b) Computer crimes: Computer crimes are made up of various forms
like:
(i) Destruction: Workers who are not happy with their employers may try
to destroy the computer, programmes or files. Hackers and vandals
can produce and spread dangerous programs such as viruses. A virus
is a program that spreads via the network and operating system. It
always moves from one computer to another through external drives,
programs downloaded from the Internet or e-mail circulation.
(ii) Theft: Theft can happen on hardware, software, data and services.
Hardware theft can happen in the computer laboratory where thieves
can enter and steal computer equipment inside the laboratory.
Professional thieves may steal important company data and information
and sell them to outsiders. They may also steal services provided by
the company and use them for personal gains. Without realising it, we
may also steal some software. This happens when ever we borrow
Microsoft C or other software from friends and copy them onto our
own computers at home. Actually, the copying we have done was not

accompanied by authorised permissions. According to the Copyright

Act (Amended) 1997, the doer can be sued according to law and can
be punished, imprisoned or punished and imprisoned at the same time.
(iii) Manipulation: A hacker may succeed in entering the network and
leaving a message. This can cause anger to computer users. According
to Computer Crime Act 1997, unauthorised access on computer
material is punishable for imprisonment for five to ten years.
(c) Disasters: There are other factors that can threaten computer system
and data security such as:
(i) Natural Disaster: Natural disasters cannot be avoided, for example
fire, flood, wind, typhoon and earthquakes. A copy of the programs,
data and information needs to be stored at a safe location to avoid
disasters that cannot be predicted.
(ii) Sabotage: In a country that is rocked by political problems, riots, war
or sabotage, these may involve destruction of computer systems.
(iii) Technological Failure: The use of computer systems causes us to be
too dependent on the technology and sometimes this technology may
not be able to perform the required jobs. This may be due to excessive
voltage because of lightning, the absence of electricity, short circuit
and other factors. If we do not make copies, data may be lost.
(iv) Human Error: As human beings, we may make a lot of mistakes. Data
entered may contain errors. Programmes developed may also have
mistakes. There are several mistakes in system designs and this may
cause system’s procedures to be disorganised.
Self-check 12.1
1. What are the three types of computer crimes? In each case, give one
example on how it can affect with the normal computer use.
2. What are the differences between hackers and vandals?
12.3.2 Controls for computer security

Security of information, hardware and software need to be safeguarded
against unauthorised use and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage
and natural disasters. We can see why the security issue is a constantly
expanding field. The four types of controls to ensure quality and security of
computer-based systems are shown in Figure 12.4.

Figure 12.4: Four Types of Computer Security Controls

(a) Information system controls: This puts controls on the information
system itself. This type of control uses the method or device that
ensures accuracy, originality and ownership of the information system.
The controls shown in Table 12.1 need to be implemented:
Table 12.1: Information System Controls
Controls Examples
Input control Security codes, data entry screen, error signals and control totals.
Processing control Software control, hardware control and checkpoint control.
Output control Security codes, control total, list control and user feedbacks.
Security codes, storage files, library method and database
Storage control administration.
(b) Program control: This is a control on the program that runs on the
computer. Control of this type is a method of determining how
information services organisations operate with guaranteed security.
Among the controls performed are:
(i) Division of Work into system development, computer operations, and
others as different groups.
(ii) Standard Method and Documentation which is regularly updated for

example the ISO 9002 system.

(iii) Authorisation Requirement is used for all requests of system
development, programme and computer alterations which need to be
approved first and such alterations need to be signed by the doers so
as to be easily recognised.
(iv) Disaster Recovery needs to be planned in case of natural disasters,
human errors and technical failure of computer systems.
(c) End-user computing control: This is a method for systems that are
developed in accordance with organisational policies, that is, a method
of informing users when changes occur and there is a need for training.
This control is much needed for critical applications.
(d) Control on physical facilities: This control is a method for
safeguarding the physical facilities and their content from loss or being
destroyed. It is normally based on:
(i) Things we own like keys, identity cards, and so on.
(ii) Things we know like passwords, IC numbers, and so forth.
(iii) Things we do like signatures, and so on.
(iv) Things related to our bodies like voice, thumb prints, and so forth.
Examples of physical facilities controls are:
1) Encryption and firewalls: Encryption is a method used to alter a
message into a certain form so that nobody can read the message
except the receiver. Encryption issue is important for e-commerce
implementation. An example of free software for encrypting documents
is PGP. Firewall is a computer program or a host computer with the
function of controlling a computer network from attacks by outsiders.
This technique is widely used by organisations to prevent attacks by
vandals from the Internet.
2) Physical protection control: It is given for physical protection in
facing natural disasters, such as using soft bags for small laptop
computers to reduce damage from shaking and falling.
3) Biometric Control: It uses security characteristics of finger prints,
voice, and others based on one’s biometric profile.
4) Control on Computer Failure: It uses a fault-tolerant technique to
overcome failures that may be due to electricity, damages in electric
circuits, programming, device and human errors.
12.3.3 Privacy issues

Today, there are more than 300 million computers being used. Every computer
user should be aware of the main clauses of ethical conduct and privacy laws.
Here, a discussion is made on privacy rights that should be observed while

we communicate and use IT applications. Among the definitions used for

individuality are:
(a) Rights for privacy; and
(b) Rights of individual persons, groups or organisations to determine for
themselves, when, how and what kind of information about themselves
can be distributed to other people.
IT has facilitated the process of data collection and storage. For example, a
bank stores data on every customer which includes age, marital status, total
savings, total loans, saving conduct and others. Universities keep student
records which include academic achievements, co-curricular activities, types
of studies, types of financial support, age, parent occupations, nationality and
others. Road Transport Department keeps car owners names and their
detailed particulars. All these are cases where individual privacy can be
misused by the keepers of information.
If customers have credit cards, the bank will have data on spending habits,
methods of debt repayments, types of purchase, income and others.
Therefore, bank and road transport officers may use these data to sell to
some interested parties for marketing and other purposes. All these data from
banks, universities, and road transport department are personal private data
which can be used for evaluating an individual’s way of life. Privacy issues can
be:
(a) Who has the right over these data?
(b) Can the bank sell personal data on individuals to other companies for
marketing purposes?
(c) Can a bank provide information on individual savings to other banks
for the purpose of loan approvals?
(d) How can individuals determine that their personal data are accurate?
(e) Can the road transport department sell information about cars and their
owners?
The Internet has opened up this issue of privacy even more widely. With the
Internet, users can use e-mails for communication. Privacy issues that may
arise from the use of e-mails are:
(a) Whether the contents of e-mails are secured against intrusion?
(b) Whether the contents of e-mails are regarded as personal items that
cannot be publicised to other parties?
(c) Whether the employer has the right to read e-mails of his employees?
(d) Whether the government has the right to filter e-mail contents?
(e) Can the contents of e-mails be used in court as evidence?

Actually, e-mails that are sent through the Internet are not safe as anyone
from anywhere can simply read them. The e-mail is like a piece of post-card.
All e-mail messages are open for all to read. A number of techniques have
been introduced to ensure safety of messages inside e-mails. A technique is to
encrypt the message, whereby it is converted into a form of codes, but the
codes will be reconverted back to the actual message upon reaching its
destination. Research on encryption is still on-going and various techniques
have been devised to better safeguard against intrusion by irresponsible
persons.
Another example is the use of multi-purpose smart cards. MyKad is a prime

project that has been developed for the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC).
This card contains information on identity card numbers, driving licence
numbers, passport information, ATM, touch-and-go and health information.
The smart card that has been introduced is a kind of smart card with multiple
purposes. Before this, most of the smart cards that have been introduced all
over the world were multi-purpose, such as for boarding transit train systems,
toll payments and calling pre-paid phones. The smart card being used in
Zimbabwe is a smart card that contains personal information. Such cards
have been introduced in other countries before, but they were not successful.
Privacy issues that arise as a result of using the smart card are:
(a) The validity of information contained in the smart card.
(b) Data security against intrusion by other parties if the card is lost or
stolen.
(c) How to update data inside the smart card.
Nowadays privacy is an ethical issue because many records stored by the
non- governmental organisations are not covered by existing laws. In spite of
that, individuals have shown that they are very concerned with the control of
who has the right over personal information and how it is used.
12.3.4 Guide for safe computing

As computer users, we are advised to use computers in proper ways and
some good guidelines that should be followed are as below:
(a) When sharing information or data, ensure that they are done carefully
to avoid the spread of virus.
(b) Be careful with civil software like BBS that normally contains Trojan
horse, that is, software that is uncertain of being good/bad.
(c) Do not make unauthorised copies of software.
(d) Examine and delete viruses regularly by using antivirus software.

(e) Take care of external drives.

(f) If there is sensitive information, secure the computer and its files.
(g) Make copies frequently.
(h) When sending sensitive information via the Internet, encrypt the
information.
(i) Be prepared for the worst situations, for example:
(1) Computers cannot boot because of viruses.
(2) Hard disk cannot be accessed.
(3) A thesis file that is almost complete but cannot be read.
(4) A thesis has been typed completely but the computer suddenly crashes,
or printer is not working.
(5) All test data are attacked by a virus and cannot be rescued.
(6) Processor fails, keyboard fails, and others during week-ends.
Self-check 12.2
State some of the actions that can be taken to safeguard computer security.
12.4 Health and Ergonomics

The use of computers enables one to be more productive in one’s work, but
sometimes it may also result in lesser productivity. As a result, scientists and
experts have developed an interest to do more research in this field, known
as ergonomics.
Ergonomics is the study of ways on how to ensure that humans can handle
computer and other equipment in an easy to use manner to minimise
movement, energy, strain, and to ensure healthy life.
It is concerned with adapting work (equipment) to suit workers and not to

force workers to adapt themselves to the work (equipment). It is also known
as human factor engineering, that is, a study or science of design to ensure a
working environment that is healthy, safe and entertaining. Such an
environment will upgrade staff morale and productivity and avoid putting
health at risk.
Workplace Designs is one of the main distributors of ergonomic equipment.

For further details of this company, please visit Website
www.ergointerfaces.com.

12.4.1 Health problems

Staring at the screen for too long with uncomfortable seating can give rise to
physical problems. The use of IT equipment at work and elsewhere, will give
rise to health issues like:
(a) Job stress because of the situation in the work environment.
(b) Exposure to radiation because of using the computer monitor.
(c) Computer vision syndrome like eye pain, eye dryness, itchiness,
unclear sight and headache as a result of staring at the computer screen
for too long.
(d) Effects on tissues like hands and, neck because of discomfort.
Examples are:
(i) Repetitive stress injuries because of typing for too long.
(ii) Muscular skeletal disorder (MSD), that is, design of computer
equipment that creates discomfort that results in organs becoming
fatigued.
(iii) Cumulative trauma disorder, that is, pain in fingers, wrist, arm, neck
and backbone.
(e) Video operator’s distress syndrome caused by excessive use of
terminals.
(f) Cumulative trauma disorder caused by excessive use of terminals.
(g) Death because of work pressure or accident.
Several techniques that can be used to overcome the health problems are:
(a) To use equipment that is more ergonomic. Equipment includes
adjustable chair, table, keyboard, mouse and others.
(b) To adopt green computerisation. The use of monitors and printers that
fulfils the guidelines from Environment Protection Agency (EPA), in
USA, known as Energy Star.
(c) To use anti-glare on the monitor. This technique is said to prevent users
from getting head-aches and unclear vision if they face the computer
monitor for too long.
(d) To use an ELF screen that provides air for 6 feet around the monitor.
(e) To create healthy environment and culture, such as:
(i) Resting your eyes for 15 minutes for every 2 hours of work, by staring
at green objects or far distances.
(ii) Work according to your own energy capacity, not according to
pressure or workload.
(iii) Exercise appropriately, such as exercising while sitting, eye exercise,
and so on.
(f) Have ready with a paper holder for placing documents that need typing.
(g) Monitor screen needs to be 3 or 4 times clearer than the room light.

(h) Screen needs to be 15-30 degrees to the eye.

(i) Fingers need to be over 10 degrees to from the elbow while typing.
(j) The use of a resting place for hands and feet.
In Figure 12.5, a proposed sketch is shown for the ideal situation while using
computers.
Figure 12.5: Ideal Situation While Using Computers
12.4.2 Green computerisation

Computer equipment constitutes the biggest electricity consumption at the
work place. The EPA has set up the Energy Star programme to encourage an
effective use of energy in the computer industry. In a study conducted by
EPA, 30%-40% of computer users operate their machines during the day,
night and weekend. The EPA also estimates that during 80% of monitor time,
it is left on without anyone looking at it. This agency therefore has created a
programme to encourage effective use of energy in the computer industry.
This industry has responded well to the concept of green computerisation.
Basic elements of green computerisation are:
(a) System unit: To use portable computers, where their system units:
(i) Use processors that require minimum total energy.

(ii) Use processors and hard disc drives that save energy and are capable
of changing to idle mode when not in use.
(iii) Do not have air fans.
(b) Displays
(i) Use displays that save electrical energy.
(ii) Use display units that replace CRT with flat panels using special low-
energy monitors.
(iii) Use software that can alter screen displays into idle mode when not in
use.
(a) Manufacturers
(i) Computer manufacturers like Intel, Apple, Compaq, and so on, use
chemical elements that are less dangerous in their production such as
Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC).
(ii) Poisonous nickel and other heavy metals have begun to be eliminated
or reduced in manufacturing processes.
Self-check 12.3
1. What are activities you can do to avoid eye stress, headache, pain in
the back-bone and neck that are related to computers?
2. State several physical health problems that are related to frequent use
of computers.
12.5 Summary
In this unit we highlighted that efficient end-users need to be aware of the
potential impact of technology on human beings. They should be responsive
and knowledgeable about individuality, privacy, organisational safety,
ergonomics and the impact of technology towards the environment. Ethics is
about behaviour and moral conduct; whether it brings about good or bad
influences on human beings. Many ethical risks may arise when IT is
implemented as a result of information error, trespassing privacy and
environmental pollution. Ten points that have been proposed by the Computer
Ethics Institute as a guide for users and computer professionals are:
(a) Not to use computers to destroy human beings.
(b) Not to disturb another person’s computer work.
(c) Not to trespass into another person’s computer files.
(d) Not to use computers to steal.
(e) Not to use computers for acting as a false witness.
(f) Not to use or copy software that is not purchased legally.
(g) Not to use another person’s computer resource without permission.

(h) Not to use another person’s intellectual output without permission.

(i) To think of the social impact of the program or system being
developed.
(j) To use computers with consideration and respect for other people.
Things that can threaten computer security are computer crimes (including
viruses, electronic vandalism), natural disasters and other calamities. Security
of hardware and software need to be safeguarded against unauthorised use
and destruction because of trespasses, sabotage and natural disasters.
Encryption is a method used to alter a message into a certain form so that

nobody can read the message except the receiver.
Ergonomics is the study of ways of ensuring a healthy life in relation to the use
of computer equipment.
Key Terms
Cloning Encryption
Electronic vandalism Ergonomics
Green computerisation
Privacy
Security

References
O’Brien, J.A. (2010). Management of Information System. McGraw Hil

Unit Thirteen
Information Technology and

Society
13.0 Introduction
I n this last unit, we will review the nature of modern information technology
(IT), which has evolved to be quite different from the old days of computer
technology. If you still remember, the most basic and most important
component of IT is the microprocessor chip, which processes data, numbers,
text, images, pictures, colours, and so on. This has led to the study of
computers which is a bigger field than microprocessors. Computers include
memory, storage, input-output, and so on. Later, computer technology has
been extended to cover computer networks and, therefore, communication
has been included into this newly coined term – Information and
Communication Technology. The term IT started to appear in the research
literature since the late 1980s, and today it has become a very common and
popular word just like computers and information systems.
13.1Objectives
 describe the impact of IT on society

 discuss the opportunities available in IT
 explain several trends in the development of IT
 examine new technologies in the future
In this unit, we will also identify many opportunities present in the field of IT,
such as work opportunities and research opportunities. Finally, we will
forecast the development trend in this field, such as what will be in the near
future. The main focus here will be in-depth examples of the issues associated
with IT in our daily lives so that immediate benefits can be realised and
implemented.
13.2 The New Term “ICT”

Information technology (IT) has brought in “communication” as another
important component, besides “computers”, that many people have known.
The progress of computers and communication technology has changed the
lives of many people. The technology has changed the way people think and
the way they live. This wide-ranging roles that computers and communication
technology has penetrated and impacted upon the lives of many people in our
society has led some people to call it information and communication technology
(ICT), rather than just IT. Indeed, this appears to be a more accurate term
and this has led some universities to award degrees in ICT. It is this ICT that
we are going to discuss more in this unit.
Let us take the small hand-phone as an equipment. It is very convenient for

being very small that it is easy to carry and certainly a very useful equipment
for long distance communication. It has penetrated the lives of many people
that some sources have claimed the number of hand-phones in Zimbabwe as
greater than its population size. It is true that, traditionally, a hand-phone was
used for communication only. However, today, a hand-phone can even be
used to do a lot of things, many of which are clearly part of ICT. Examples of
what a hand-phone can do today are:
(a) To communicate at a long distance;
(b) To do simple calculations like a calculator;
(c) To store names, addresses and messages;

Unit 13 Information Technology and Society
(d) To link up computers together;

(e) To see the person you are talking to, despite a long distance;
(f) To take photographs like a camera;
(g) To upload SMS messages, photographs, and other data onto
computers;
(h) To surf the Internet;
(i) And the list is expanding every day.
Let us take another popular equipment today, especially among students – a
laptop computer. With a very cheap laptop computer now, cheaper than a
desktop, students can easily work on their college assignments while on the
train. They can produce assignment answers with high quality, while typing
and spreadsheet manipulations can become so easy and quick. Smallness of
computers make them very handy to be carried along for the purpose of
doing personal and office works, note taking, and surfing the Internet. Laptop
computers are certainly more powerful than the hand-phones in terms of
processing power and storage capacity, but hand-phones are better in terms
of performing communication related jobs.
Both hand-phones and laptop computers have each other’s facilities in a limited
way. That presents a choice whether you want processing power more or
communicating power more, and whether you can provide the space when
you travel. In between comes other equipment, such as the personal digital
assistant (PDA), handheld computers, i-phones, and others. These are the
kinds of ICT equipment that have come to live together as parts of our
everyday lives – they are small and powerful. The very large and very powerful
computers are confined to companies and research organisations.
This widespread ownership and usage of the hand-phones, laptop computers,

and even the personal digital assistants (PDs) are proof that ICT has been
very successful. Both the hand-phones and laptop computers have diffused
very well into the society. Initially they penetrated the city areas, universities
and colleges, but later they moved into towns and village areas.
The government’s campaign to see one computer in every household has

certainly resulted in many people buying computers for use at home. Desktop
computers have become one of the household items like the TV, refrigerator,
washing machines, motor-cycles, and so on. Therefore, most people in our
society have realised the importance of ICT and many have joined the rank of
computer literate people.
The proliferation of the Internet and cyber-cafes too is another proof that
ICT has penetrated deeply into the lives of the people in our society. By

2009, the number of Internet users in Zimbabwe had exceeded 10% of the
Zimbabwe population figure. Thus, it is very essential for us now to take a
look at these phenomena and try to understand what will be the future like in
our country. What will it be like in 2020?
13.3 Opportunities in IT
The development of IT has opened up opportunities for the people. Among
these opportunities are:
(a) Getting involved in the development of software and hardware.
Examples of software that have successfully changed the way people
use IT are spreadsheet, the web browser and HTTP protocol.
(b) Getting involved in the provision of IT services such as expertise
providers, hardware service-provider, hardware and software sales,
information portal service-provider and consultants.
(c) Getting involved in the design work of IT applications in organisations,
e.g. development of a policy in the use of IT tools for an organisation,
system design and network design.
(d) Getting involved in system analysis and design work involving data,
databases, staff information systems, and so on.
(e) Getting involved in IT education by delivering speeches, lectures,
tutorials, teaching, research, and so on.
(f) Getting involved in disseminating IT to society in general through
writings, lectures, social services, and so forth.
(g) Transferring IT knowledge and skills to lesser developed countries, for
example, from Zimbabwe to many ASEAN countries, OIC countries,
and other developing countries of Asia and Africa.
(h) Develop new Web applications for the world market, by making use of
the facilities and linkages offered by our Multimedia Super-Corridor
(MSC).
(i) Development of IT, networks, and other infrastructural works for
companies and the government – such as the federal government, state
governments, and local governments.
Activity 13.1
? In groups, think of how computers have changed the
business world. Present it in your class.

13.4 Information Technology and the Future

What kind of development is expected in the future? Because technology has
developed so rapidly, we cannot predict what will be the new discoveries of
computer scientists in the future. However, we can see that IT has been defined
as having three components – that is, computers, communication and know-
how. It can expand in any of these three directions in the near future.
In the direction of computers, we have seen that computers have become

smaller in terms of their physical sizes, but cheaper in terms of their prices.
This will continue, and the time will come when this price becomes low enough
to replace some old equipment that people have been using in the past.
In the direction of communication, we have also seen the Internet and the
expansion of bandwidth. This is likely to be the direction of business applications
in future. Web-based applications have become so popular and more cost-
effective that the government, the banks, and other organisations have wasted
no time in adopting them. E-government applications will continue, and so
will be in the areas of online banking.
In the direction of know-how, a lot of things can happen too. This refers to
the expertise, the knowledge of methods, and the skills that our people have.
Someone has coined the term humanware a long time ago – this refers to the
human aspect of computer systems, besides the hardware and software. In
this direction, people’s imagination can expand to create something out of
nothing.
Technology transfers take place very quickly now between Europe, America
and parts of Asia. A team of researchers and translators in Japan are always
ready to translate American books into the Japanese language – this happen
every day and just the next day the book is out in the market. Similarly, the
American counterparts are doing just the same thing for good science and
technology books published in Japanese. In Europe, similar situations happen
in Germany and France. It is also the job of our researchers to look for new
things to be adopted by the people so that we can increase the level of
humanware in our society.
13.5What is “CIO”?
CIO stands for Chief Information Officer. It is a new senior position in IT,
linking strategic planning, IT planning and reengineering. Large companies

realise that to increase return on investment, IT must be tied into its business
strategy. Anyway, companies have been experimenting with this position –
but another similar and comparable post that can be equated to CIO is Vice
President (IT Division), or General Manager (IT Division). This position should
be attractive for people who aspire to reach this highest position in the field of
IT.
Lately it is clear that successful companies in a certain industry attempt to

position themselves relative to their competitors by adopting one of the
following three basic strategies, to:
(a) Become the lowest-cost producer
(b) Develop specialised products and services
(c) Concentrate on a particular market or a product niche
IT applications that support the lowest-cost-producer strategy are not the
same as those needed to support a product differentiation strategy. Thus,
understanding the firm’s basic strategy is an essential first step towards selecting
an appropriate IT application.
The need to align IT projects with corporate strategy means that project
identification and prioritisation need direction and inputs from the business
managers, rather than just the technology managers. This has created a need
for the CIO to build an effective working partnership between the business
strategists and the information technologists.
The roles of a CIO can therefore be summarised as follows:

(a) His/her role as head of a division (or a business unit)
(b) His/her role as an expert in IS and IT infrastructure
(c) His/her role as a business strategist
Therefore, a very strong and influential IT department or division is headed
by a CIO reporting directly to the “Chief Executive Officer” (CEO). In several
banks today, IT divisions are already headed by people designated as General
Managers (GM). However sometimes, an IT department is headed by an IT
manager reporting to CEO, GM, Vice President, etc. Others have IT sections
which report to head of functional departments only, such as finance,
manufacturing, human resources, etc. The latter form suggests that IT is not
very important in their organisations.

13.6Development Trend
Information technology trends that will continue into the future are listed below:
(a) Computing power doubles every 18 months. This will result more
organisations using computers, and more will take advantage to depend
on computer systems for critical operations.
(b) Data storage cost declines rapidly. This will attract more organisations
to use databases for storing information on individuals – whether
employees, customers or suppliers. Cheap and vast storage allows them
to create and maintain detailed profiles of individual behaviour.
(c) The World Wide Web (WWW) has expanded to become a way of life
for many people. Users come to WWW for information, communication,
entertainment and others. There are more than one billion Internet users
in the whole world today. With the Internet, e-commerce applications
will continue to develop rapidly. More companies will introduce their
Websites for selling products directly to their customers.
(d) E-government is an Internet related application to digitally enable the
government and public sector agencies to establish a relationship with
the citizens, the business community, and other parties. Its main objective
is to improve delivery of government services. Thus, citizens would be
able to renew driving licences, pay income tax, pay telephone and
electricity bills, submit various applications, and so on electronically. In
future, more services will be enabled.
(e) A digital firm refers to a firm in which most of its significant business
relationships with customers, suppliers and employees are digitally
enabled and mediated. For example, a firm may be electronically linked
to suppliers and customers. In future, digital firms will be a reality with
deeper electronic contents.
(f) E-consumer is another term with an electronic label. The term refers to
consumers or customers who make use of the Internet or other computer
networks to do shopping. As more and more people use the Internet to
do shopping, they become more confident of doing further shopping.
Through word of mouth, this number will multiply, and soon we will
have a critical mass of people who can make e-commerce a common
way to do business for people in our society. Besides the Internet,
SMS messages too can be used to pay for something – this is the
mobile way. Meanwhile, direct purchases will be made more through
plastic cards rather than cash. Consumers will use credit cards, debit
cards and ATM cards more than cash, leading to a cashless society.

What is the next big thing in IT? Well, we are in the middle of a new revolution
inside an old revolution. The new revolution is driven by the Internet. Internet-
based applications will continue to progress a lot into the future. Besides e-
government, there will be a series of other electronic applications via the
Internet.
In the area of information systems, companies are getting bigger and bigger
with more and more customers, suppliers, and products. Data warehouse
technology allows companies to store massive amount of data in one place in
a reliable way. Large companies want the data to be available for a large
number of users with different needs. With these data, companies can use
them to improve customer contact, identify key customers, and purge those
that are not profitable. To create such a huge warehouse of data is not that
expensive anymore, in future, since data storage devices have become bigger
and cheaper. Large companies will take advantage of this development.
13.7Critical Technologies
There are several critical technologies that may be introduced in the near
future, such as:
(a) MRAM is a non-volatile memory. Unlike DRAM, the data is not stored
in a electric charge flows, but by magnetic storage elements. The storage
elements are formed by two ferromagnetic plates, each of which can
hold a magnetic field, separated by a thin insulating layer.
Figure 13.1: Magnetic RAM
Source: http://www.everspin.com/

(b) RAMBUS RAM is a type of (secondary memory) RAM for

computers of very high performance. With this new RAM, applications
that are intensely graphic, multimedia-based and simulation type can
be executed very well.
(c) Wireless Technology is used in IT. An example is the use of mobile
phones to surf the Internet. Motorola has invented the DSP56690 chip,
i.e. one chip that can be used for any device. Among the possibilities is
that users can use a watch to get information on stocks and shares or to
send information through a pen.
Figure 13.2: Wireless Technology

Source: http://www.tentechnologies.com/tag/new/
(d) The Use of Voice in Computers and the Internet will enable users to
use voice instructions for computers to execute them. Users may
receive Web pages verbally read out by computers to them.
(e) The Use of Intelligent Machines in human lives may be possible. For
example, Sony has produced an intelligent dog known as Aibo. This
dog has features of a real dog and can learn from humans. The
technology used inside Aibo is called Artificial Intelligence (AI). It is
believed that the use of AI technology will increase further.
(f) Biometrics is used for identification. For example, use of finger prints
or retina images for identification. Consumers may not need the ATM
cards for cash withdrawals but instead they need to use the eye-
scanning technique.

Self-check 13.1
1. What do you understand by the term “electronic consumers”?
2. Give one example on how technology can change the way we compete
in business.
3. Give two critical technologies that you predict will be introduced in the
near future.
13.8 Other New Technologies

Information Technology is just one of the most prominent technologies today.
Indeed, IT is still the leading technology in the world. In this section, you will
be introduced the term “technology”. Then, we will explain two prominent
technologies today – biotechnology and nanotechnology. The idea here is
that you need to be aware of what is happening in the world around us with
regards to technology, not just IT or ICT that you already have known a lot
by now.
By the time you reach the last unit of the module, the term technology is not
strange to you at all. You probably can guess its meaning by inferring from a
lot of examples and cases on information technology. Well, a simple definition
of technology says that it is the applications of science, scientific discoveries,
and the scientific methods. Technology can be embodied in the form of
hardware, or disembodied in the form of software, industrial property rights,
unpatented know-how, management system, techniques, methods, designs,
and other invisible forms. This is a very wide definition. Thus, you have heard
about computer technology, communication technology, data storage
technology, automobile technology, and so on. Many of these technologies
have merged together to form a larger group, such as ICT.
There is a prestigious position in the industry today, called CIO which has
been introduced, while other companies call it Chief Technology Officer (CTO).
These are the top IT and technology positions which are normally held by
people with IT qualifications and experience. However, CTO is a wider field
which includes the duties of handling technology matters – that is, IT and
other technologies.
So, it is very important for you to know something about technology, in case
you may step into this position one day. Two new technologies of great promise
are biotechnology and nanotechnology.
Biotechnology comes from the words “biology” and “technology”. So it is

basically the use of technological techniques and methods to realise biological

results. More accurately, it is the application of the advances made in the
techniques and instruments of research in biological sciences. An example of
the substances that have been produced in this manner is the human interferon,
that is, a natural virus-fighting substance. Others include human insulin, and
human growth hormone.
The technique of genetic engineering also offers the possibility that some heredity
disorders may be corrected by manipulation. Thus splitting, transplanting, and
chemical replantation of repressed, non-functional genes can also be done.
Biotechnology has a lot of promises in the production of various clones for
plants, fishes, and other biological organisms. This technology is set to be
more popular than ICT after 2020 or 2030.
Nanotechnolgy comes from the word “nano” and “technology”. In Greek,

nano means “dwarf” – i.e. much smaller than the usual size. This technology
involves the manipulation and manufacture of materials and devices on the
scale of atoms or small group of atoms. Nanoscale is typically measured in
nanometres, or billionths of a metre. Materials built at such a very small scale
can exhibit distinctive physical, chemical and even biological properties due
to the quantum mechanical effects.
Nanotechnology enables you to manufacture things that are lighter, stronger,

and even programmable materials that can result in fuel efficiency – such as in
the area of transportation business. Nano coating can result in materials that
are resistant to corrosion, scratches and radiation. This technology is very
interdisciplinary, which involves physics, chemistry, biology, material science,
and a full range of engineering disciplines. It can manipulate physical, chemical
and biological properties – that includes the non-living things as well as the
living ones.
13.9Summary
In this unit we found out that it is difficult to predict the development of
information technology in the future. Its uses now have even advanced to be
nearer to the human way of life, being embedded inside our daily tools like the
kitchen, washing machine and others. The use of IT has increased the
productivity of companies and users. It is also important to be aware new IT
inventions, new areas of IT, and new areas of technology in the making so
that we will not be left behind. Therefore, as a citizen of Zimbabwe or any

country for that matter, we need to equip ourselves before entering such fields
as e-commerce and others in order not to be left behind in the future.
Key Terms
Biometrics E-government
Biotechnology Electronic consumers
Chief information officer Intelligent machine
Chief technology officer Nanotechnology
Digital firms Wireless technology

References
O’Brien, J.A. (2010). Management of Info

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Bachelor of Information

Technology and Software

Module BITH 101

Editor: Clemence Matembo

P.O. Box MP1119

The Zimbabwe Open University is a distance teaching and

Printers : ZOU Press

Typeset in Times New Roman, 12 point on auto leading

© Zimbabwe Open University. All rights reserved. No part of this

As a progressive university that is forward

The six hour tutorials should be so structured that the

Session I (Two Hours)

Session II (Two Hours)

Session III (Two Hours)

Conclusion for this course, but also to prepare yourself to

__________ Overview ________________________________________________________ 1

Unit One: Introduction to Information Era

1.0 ________ Introduction ______________________________________________________ 7

Unit Two: Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 27

Unit Three: Input and Output

3.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 47

Unit Four: Secondary Storage

4.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 73

5.0 ________ Introduction _____________________________________________________ 87

Unit Six: Programming Language

6.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 135

Unit Seven: The Internet

7.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 157

Unit Eight: Software on the Internet

8.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 187

Unit Nine: The Internet in Zimbabwe

9.0 ________ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 207

Unit Ten: Communication

10.0 ______ Introduction ___________________________________________________ 219

Unit Eleven: Computer Network

11.0 _______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 245

Unit Twelve: Information Technology Issues and Opportunities

12.0 ______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 273

Unit Thirteen: Information Technology and Society

13.0 ______ Introduction ____________________________________________________ 291

This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Information

By the end of this course, you should be able to:

Unit 4 introduces another computer component - the secondary storage.

2 Zimbabwe Open University

Unit 6 discusses programming languages. Computer programmes are

Unit 9 explains the history and developmental of the Internet in Zimbabwe.

Unit 10 explains the important component in the development of information

Zimbabwe Open University 3

Unit 11 focuses on computer network a group of computers linked up together

Text Arrangement Guide

Self check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

4 Zimbabwe Open University

References: References is where a list of relevant and useful textbooks,

This is an introductory course on information technology. Hence, there is no

Zimbabwe Open University 5

Assessment will be through assignments and the final examination.

6 Zimbabwe Open University

Introduction to Information Era

 define ‘information era’

Overview ______________________________________________ 1

1.0 Introduction ______________________________________________ 7

2.0 Introduction _____________________________________________ 27

3.0 Introduction _____________________________________________ 47

4.0 Introduction _____________________________________________ 73

5.0 Introduction _____________________________________________ 87

6.0 Introduction ____________________________________________ 135

7.0 Introduction ____________________________________________ 157

8.0 Introduction ____________________________________________ 187

9.0 Introduction ____________________________________________ 207

10.0 Introduction _____________________________________________ 219

11.0 _ Introduction ______________________________________________ 245

12.0 Introduction ______________________________________________ 273

13.0 Introduction ______________________________________________ 291