Manufacturing Processes

Module 1: Casting Processes

Text Books
 Manufacturing
• Making things has been an essential activity of human
civilizations since before recorded history. Today, the term
manufacturing is used for this activity.
• For technological and economic reasons, manufacturing is
important to the welfare of the India.
• In India, the manufacturing industries will account for about 22%
of gross domestic product (GDP).
• Manufacturing industries not only help in modernizing agriculture
but also reduces the heavy dependence of people on agriculture
income.
• Eradication of Unemployment and poverty.
• Export of manufactured goods expands trade and commerce and
brings in much needed foreign exchange.
• Countries that transform their raw material into a wide variety of
furnished goods of higher value are prosperous.
 Manufacturing
• The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus
(hand) and factus (make); the combination means made by hand.

• Technologically, manufacturing is the application of physical and

chemical processes to alter the geometry, properties, and/or
appearance of a given starting material to make parts or products.

• Manufacturing also includes assembly of multiple parts to make

products.
Two ways to define manufacturing
 Manufacturing Processes
• A manufacturing process is a designed procedure that results in
physical and/or chemical changes to a starting work material with
the intention of increasing the value of that material.

• A manufacturing process is usually carried out as a unit operation,

which means that it is a single step in the sequence of steps
required to transform the starting material into a final product.
Classification of manufacturing processes.
METAL CASTING PROCESSES
Casting Products
Sand Casting Products
 Classification of metal casting processes

Metal Casting Processes

Expendable mold Permanent mold

• the mold is sacrificed in order to • the mold is fabricated out of metal
remove the cast part. (or other durable material) and
• a new mold is required for each can be used many times.
new casting. • higher production rates.
• Low production rate.
 Sand Casting
• Sand casting is the most widely used casting process.
• This process is used for nearly all casting alloys which have high
melting point temperature such as such as steels, nickels, and
titanium.
• Sand casting, also known as sand-mold casting.
• consists of pouring molten metal into a sand mold, allowing the
metal to solidify, and then breaking up the mold to remove the
casting.
• The casting must then be cleaned and inspected, and heat
treatment is sometimes required to improve metallurgical
properties.
• The cavity in the sand mold is formed by packing sand around a
pattern (an approximate duplicate of the part to be cast), and then
removing the pattern by separating the mold into two halves.
 Sand Casting
• The mold also contains the gating and riser system. In addition, if
the casting is to have internal surfaces (e.g., hollow parts or parts
with holes), a core must be included in the mold.
 Patterns and Cores
• Sand casting requires a pattern—a full-sized model of the part,
enlarged to account for shrinkage and machining allowances in the
final casting.
• Materials used to make patterns include wood, plastics, and
metals.
• Wood is a common pattern material because it is easily shaped.
• Its disadvantages are that it tends to warp, and it is abraded by the
sand being compacted around it, thus limiting the number of times
it can be reused.
• Metal patterns are more expensive to make, but they last much
longer.
• Plastics represent a compromise between wood and metal.
• Selection of the appropriate pattern material depends to a large
extent on the total quantity of castings to be made.
 Types of patterns used in sand casting
Solid Pattern Split Pattern

• same geometry as the casting, • Consist of two pieces,

adjusted in size for shrinkage dividing the part along a
and machining. plane coinciding with the
• easiest pattern to fabricate, it is parting line of the mold.
not the easiest to use in making • appropriate for complex part
the sand mold. geometries and moderate
• Determination od parting line production quantities
location between two halves is
difficult.
 Types of patterns used in sand casting
Match-plate Pattern Cope and drag pattern

• Used for higher production • Cope-and-drag patterns are

quantities. similar to match-plate patterns
• the two pieces of the split except that split pattern halves
pattern are attached to are attached to separate plates, so
opposite sides of a wood or that the cope and drag sections of
metal plate the mold can be fabricated
independently, instead of using
the same tooling for both.
 Why to use core?
• Patterns define the external shape of the cast part.
• If the casting is to have internal surfaces, a core is required.
• A core is a full-scale model of the interior surfaces of the part.
• It is inserted into the mold cavity prior to pouring, so that the
molten metal will flow and solidify between the mold cavity and
the core to form the casting’s external and internal surfaces.
• The core is usually made of sand, compacted into the desired
shape.
• As with the pattern, the actual size of the core must include
allowances for shrinkage and machining.
• Depending on the geometry of the part, the core may or may not
require supports to hold it in position in the mold cavity during
pouring.
• These supports, called chaplets, are made of a metal with a higher
melting temperature than the casting metal.
• On pouring and solidification, the chaplets becomes bonded into
the casting.
Use of core in casting
 Sand used for metal casting
• Most sand casting uses silica sand (SiO2).
• Silica sand is product of the disintegration of rocks over long
period of time.
• Inexpensive and resistive to high temperature.
• It is of two types; naturally bonded and synthetic.
• Synthetic type is preferred by foundries because of its
controllable composition.
• Sand with fine, round grains can be closely packed and forms
smooth surface.
• Fine-grained sand enhances mould strength, but lowers
mound permeability.
 Pattern
• It is the replica of the object to be made by the casting process
with some modifications.
• The main modifications are the addition of pattern allowances,
and the provision of core prints.
• he quality of the casting produced depends upon the material of
the pattern, its design, and construction.
• The costs of the pattern and the related equipment are reflected in
the overall cost of the casting.
• The use of an expensive pattern is made only when superior
quantity of castings are required.
 Functions of the Pattern
• A pattern prepares a mold cavity for the purpose of making a
casting.
• A pattern may contain projections known as core prints if the
casting requires a core and need to be made hollow.
• Runner, gates, and risers used for feeding molten metal in the
mold cavity may form a part of the pattern.
• Properly made patterns with smooth and finished surfaces
reduces casting defects.
• A properly constructed pattern minimizes the overall cost of the
castings.
 Pattern Material
• Some of the materials used for making patterns are: wood,
metals and alloys, plastic, plaster of Paris, rubbers, wax, and
resins.
• To be suitable for use, the pattern material should be:
 Easily worked, shaped and joined
 Light in weight
 Strong, hard and durable
 Resistant to wear and abrasion
 Resistant to corrosion, and to chemical reactions
 Dimensionally stable and unaffected by variations in
temperature and humidity
 Available at low cost
 Pattern Allowances
• Pattern allowance is an important feature as it affects the
dimensional characteristics of the casting.
• when the pattern is produced, certain allowances must be given
on the sizes specified in the finished component drawing so that a
casting with the particular specification can be made.
• The selection of correct allowances greatly helps to reduce
machining costs and avoid rejections.
• The allowances usually considered on patterns and core boxes are
as follows:
 Shrinkage or contraction allowance
Draft or taper allowance
Machining or finish allowance
Distortion or camber allowance
Rapping allowance
 Shrinkage or Contraction Allowance
• All most all cast metals shrink or contract volumetrically on
cooling.
• The metal shrinkage is of two types:
 Liquid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume
when the metal changes from liquid state to solid state at
the solidus temperature. To account for this shrinkage; riser,
which feed the liquid metal to the casting, are provided in the
mold.
 Solid Shrinkage: it refers to the reduction in volume
caused when metal loses temperature in solid state.
• To account for this, shrinkage allowance is provided on the
patterns.
• The rate of contraction with temperature is dependent on the
material. For example, steel contracts to a higher degree
compared to aluminium
 Draft or Taper Allowance
• Draft means the taper provided by the pattern maker on all
vertical surfaces of the pattern so that it can be removed from the
sand without tearing away the sides of the sand mold.

• Draft allowance varies with the complexity of the sand job.

• In general inner details of the pattern require higher draft than
outer surfaces.
• The amount of draft depends upon the length of the vertical side
of the pattern to be extracted; the intricacy of the pattern; the
method of molding; and pattern material.
 Distortion or Camber Allowance
• Sometimes castings get distorted, during solidification, due to
their typical shape.
• For example, if the casting has the form of the letter U, V, T, or L
etc. it will tend to contract at the closed end causing the vertical
legs to look slightly inclined.
• This can be prevented by making the legs of the U, V, T, or L
shaped pattern converge slightly (inward) so that the casting after
distortion will have its sides vertical
 Distortion or Camber Allowance

• The distortion in casting may occur due to internal stresses.

• These internal stresses are caused on account of unequal cooling
of different sections of the casting and hindered contraction.
• Measure taken to prevent the distortion in casting include
 Modification of casting design.
Providing sufficient machining allowance to cover the
distortion effect.
Providing suitable allowance on the pattern, called camber
or distortion allowance (inverse reflection)
 Rapping Allowance
• When the pattern is removed from casting, it will slightly increase
the dimension of casting.
• To compensate this changes, the pattern is made slightly smaller
from casting. This change in dimension is known as rapping
allowance.
Machining Allowance
• Casting gives poor surface finish and rough surfaces, because the
pattern is made manually which does not fixed accurate angles and
dimensions of mating parts.
• Final casting product should be properly finished and
dimensionally accurate.
• To avoid these problems, casting made slightly larger and after
solidification machining is done on it for better surface finish and
accurate dimensions.
 Molding Material and Properties
• Molding material include molding sand, backing sand, facing
sand, parting sand, and core sand.
• The choice of molding materials is based on their processing
properties.
• The properties that are generally required in molding materials
are:
 Refractoriness
 Permeability
 Green Strength
 Dry Strength
 Hot Strength
 Collapsibility
 Molding materials properties
• Refractoriness
It is the ability of the molding material to resist the
temperature of the liquid metal to be poured so that it does not
get fused with the metal. The refractoriness of the silica
sand is highest.
• Permeability
 During pouring and subsequent solidification of a casting, a
large amount of gases and steam is generated.
 These gases have been absorbed by the metal during melting,
air absorbed from the atmosphere and the steam generated by
the molding and core sand.
 If these gases are not allowed to escape from the mold, they
would be entrapped inside the casting and cause casting
defects.
 To overcome this problem the molding material must be
porous..
 Molding materials properties
• Green Strength
 The molding sand that contains moisture is termed as green
sand.
 The green sand particles must have the ability to bind to each
other to impart sufficient strength to the mold.
 The green sand must have enough strength so that the
constructed mold retains its shape.
• Dry Strength
 When the molten metal is poured in the mold, the sand around
the mold cavity is quickly converted into dry sand as the
moisture in the sand evaporates due to the heat of the molten
metal.
 At this stage the molding sand must posses the sufficient
strength to retain the exact shape of the mold cavity and at the
same time it must be able to withstand the metallostatic pressure
of the liquid material.
 Molding materials properties
• Hot Strength
 As soon as the moisture is eliminated, the sand would reach at a
high temperature when the metal in the mold is still in liquid
state.
 The strength of the sand that is required to hold the shape of
the cavity is called hot strength.
• Collapsibility
 ability of the mold to give way and allow the casting to shrink
without cracking the casting; it also refers to the ability to
remove the sand from the casting during cleaning;

• Besides these specific properties the molding material should be

cheap, reusable and should have good thermal conductivity
 Molding Sand Composition
The main ingredients of any molding sand are:
 Base sand
 Binder
 Moisture
Base Sand
 Silica sand is most commonly used base sand.
 Other base sands that are also used for making mold are zircon
sand, Chromite sand, and olivine sand.
 Silica sand is cheapest among all types of base sand and it is
easily available.
Binder
Binders are of many types such as:
 Clay binders
 Organic binders
 Inorganic binders
 Molding Sand Composition
 Clay binders are most commonly used binding agents mixed
with the molding sands to provide the strength.
 The most popular clay types are:
Kaolinite or fire clay (Al2O3 2 SiO2 2 H2O)
Bentonite (Al2O3 4 SiO2 nH2O)
Of the two the Bentonite can absorb more water which increases its
bonding power.
Moisture
 Clay acquires its bonding action only in the presence of the
required amount of moisture.
 When water is added to clay, it penetrates the mixture and forms
a microfilm, which coats the surface of each flake of the clay.
 The amount of water used should be properly controlled. This is
because a part of the water, which coats the surface of the clay
flakes, helps in bonding, while the remainder helps in improving
the plasticity
 A Typical Composition of Molding Sand

Molding Sand Constituent Weight Percent

Silica sand 92
Clay (Sodium Bentonite) 8
Water 4

• Other bonding agents can be used in place of clay, including

organic resins (e.g., phenolic resins) and inorganic binders
(e.g., sodium silicate and phosphate).
 Formation of the mold cavity
• The traditional method is to compact the molding sand around
the pattern for both cope and drag in a container called a flask.
• The packing process is performed by various methods. The
simplest is hand ramming, accomplished manually by a foundry
worker.
• Various machines have been developed to mechanize the packing
procedure. These machine works on
(1) squeezing the sand around the pattern by pneumatic
pressure
(2) a jolting action in which the sand, contained in the
flask with the pattern, is dropped repeatedly in
order to pack it into place
(3) a slinging action, in which the sand grains are impacted
against the pattern at high speed
 Types of Sand molds
• Sand molds are often classified as
 green-sand mold
dry-sand mold
skin-dried mold
Green sand mold
• Made of a mixture of sand, clay, and water, the word green
referring to the fact that the mold contains moisture at the
time of pouring.
• Green-sand molds possess sufficient strength for most
applications, good collapsibility, good permeability, good
reusability.
• Least expensive of the molds
Dry-sand mold
• It is made using organic binders rather than clay.
• The mold is baked in a large oven at temperatures ranging from
2000C to 3200C.
• Oven baking strengthens the mold and hardens the cavity
surface.
• A dry-sand mold provides better dimensional control in the cast
product, compared to green-sand molding.
• However, dry-sand molding is more expensive, and production
rate is reduced because of drying time.
• Applications are generally limited to medium and large castings
in low to medium production rates.
Skin-dried mold
• The surface of a green-sand mold is dried to a depth of 10 to
25 mm at the mold cavity surface, using torches, heating
lamps, or other means.
• Special bonding materials must be added to the sand mixture to
strengthen the cavity surface.
 Major components of sand molds
 Flask
 Cope and drag
 Pouring basin
 Sprue
 Runner system
 Risers
 Cores
 vents
 Major components of sand molds
• A pouring basin or pouring cup, into which the molten metal,
is poured.
• A sprue, through which the molten metal enters runner.
• The runner system, which has channels that carry the molten
metal from the sprue to the mold cavity.
• Gated system
It consists of the pouring basin, sprue, runner and gate. Its
function is to fill the mold cavity in time so that the molten
material does not solidify before filling the entire mold cavity.
Gates are the inlets into the mold cavity.
• Riser
 A riser or feeder is a reservoir build into a metal casting
mold to prevent cavities due to shrinkage.
 Because metals are less dense as liquids than as solids,
castings shrink as they cool.
 Major components of sand molds
 This can leave a void, generally at the last point to solidify.
Risers prevent this by providing molten metal at the point of
likely shrinkage, so that the cavity forms in the cavity forms in
the riser, not the casting.
Risers, which supply additional metal to the casting as it
shrinks during solidification.
• Cores, which are inserts made from sand. They are placed in the
mold to form hollow regions or otherwise define the interior
surface of the casting.
• Caplets - Chaplets are small metal props, placed in the mold
cavity to support the core.
• Vents, which are placed in the molds to carry off gases
produced when the molten metal comes into contact with the
sand in the molds and cores. They also exhaust air from the mold
cavity as the molten metal flows into the mold
 Sand casting steps
1) Make the mold.
2) Melt the required metal
3) Pour the molten metal into sand mold
4) Allow time for metal to solidify
5) Break up the mould to remove casting
6) Clean and inspect casting
7) Heat treatment of casting is sometimes required to improve
metallurgical properties
 Shell Molding
• Shell molding is a casting process in which the mold is a thin
shell (typically 9 mm) made of sand held together by a
thermosetting resin binder.
 Steps in shell molding
(1) a match-plate or cope-and-drag metal pattern is heated and
placed over a box containing sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
(2) box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot pattern,
causing a layer of the mixture to partially cure on the surface to
form a hard shell.
(3) box is repositioned so that loose, uncured particles drop away.
(4) sand shell is heated in oven for several minutes to complete
curing
(5) shell mold is stripped from the pattern.
(6) two halves of the shell mold are assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
The finished casting with sprue removed is shown in (7)
 Advantages of the Shell-molding Process
• Smoothness of shell mold cavity permits easier flow of molten
metal during pouring and better surface finish on the final
casting. Finishes of 2.5mm(100m-in) can be obtained.
• Good dimensional accuracy is also achieved, with tolerances of
0.25 mm.
• No need for further machining.
• Collapsibility of the mold is generally sufficient to avoid tearing
and cracking of the casting.
 Disadvantages of the Shell-molding Process
• More expensive metal pattern than the corresponding pattern for
green-sand molding.
• Not economical for small quantities of parts.

Applications
• It seems particularly suited to steel castings of less than 10 kg.
• Parts made using shell molding include gears, valve bodies,
bushings, and camshafts.
 Vacuum Molding
• Vacuum molding, also called the V-process.
• It uses a sand mold held together by vacuum pressure rather than
by a chemical binder.
• The term vacuum in this process refers to the making of the mold
rather than the casting operation itself.
• As no binders are used, the sand is readily recovered in vacuum
molding.
• Since no water is mixed with the sand, moisture related defects
are absent from the product.
• It is relatively slow and not readily adaptable to mechanization
Steps in vacuum molding
 Steps in vacuum molding
(1) a thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn over a match-plate or
cope-and-drag pattern by vacuum—the pattern has small vent
holes to facilitate vacuum forming;
(2) A specially designed flask is placed over the pattern plate and
filled with sand, and a sprue and pouring cup are formed in the
sand;
(3) another thin plastic sheet is placed over the flask, and a vacuum
is drawn that causes the sand grains to be held together, forming a
rigid mold.
(4) the vacuum on the mold pattern is released to permit the pattern
to be stripped from the mold;
(5) this mold is assembled with its matching half to form the cope
and drag, and with vacuum maintained on both halves, pouring is
accomplished.
(6) The plastic sheet quickly burns away on contacting the molten
metal. After solidification, nearly all of the sand
can be recovered for reuse.
 Expanded Polystyrene Process
• It uses a mold of sand packed around a polystyrene foam pattern
that vaporizes when the molten metal is poured into the mold.
• Other names, include lost-foam process, lost pattern process,
evaporative-foam process, and full-mold process.
• The foam pattern includes the sprue, risers, and gating system,
and it may also contain internal cores.
• Since the foam pattern itself becomes the cavity in the mold,
considerations of draft and parting lines can be ignored.
• The pattern is normally coated with a refractory compound to
provide a smoother surface on the pattern and to improve its high
temperature resistance.
Steps in expanded polystyrene casting process
 Steps in expanded polystyrene casting process
(1) Pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory compound.
(2) Foam pattern is placed in mold box, and sand is compacted
around the pattern.
(3) molten metal is poured into the portion of the pattern that forms
the pouring cup and sprue.
As the metal enters the mold, the polystyrene foam is vaporized
ahead of the advancing liquid, thus allowing the resulting mold
cavity to be filled.
 Investment Casting
• A pattern made of wax is coated with a refractory material to
make the mold, after which the wax is melted away prior to
pouring the molten metal.
• The term investment comes from one of the less familiar
definitions of the word invest, which is ‘‘to cover completely,’’
this referring to the coating of the refractory material around the
wax pattern.
• It is a precision casting process, because it is capable of making
castings of high accuracy and intricate detail.
• Also known as the lost-wax process, because the wax pattern is
lost from the mold prior to casting.
• Separate pattern must be made for every casting.
Steps in investment casting
 Steps in investment casting
(1) wax patterns are produced.
(2) several patterns are attached to a sprue to form a pattern
tree.
(3) the pattern tree is coated with a thin layer of refractory material.
(4) the full mold is formed by covering the coated tree with
sufficient refractory material to make it rigid.
(5) the mold is held in an inverted position and heated to melt the
wax and permit it to drip out of the cavity.
(6) the mold is preheated to a high temperature, which ensures that
all contaminants are eliminated from the mold; it also permits the
liquid metal to flow more easily into the detailed cavity; the molten
metal is poured and it solidifies.
(7) the mold is broken away from the finished casting. Parts are
separated from the sprue.
 Advantages of investment casting
(1) parts of great complexity and intricacy can be cast.
(2) close dimensional control—tolerances of 0.075 mm are
possible.
(3) good surface finish is possible
(4) the wax can usually be recovered for reuse
(5) additional machining is not normally required

• All types of metals, including steels, stainless steels, and

other high temperature alloys, can be investment cast.
• Examples of parts include complex machinery parts, blades,
and other components for turbine engines, jewelry, and
dental fixtures
 Plaster-mold Casting
• Similar to sand casting except that the mold is made of plaster of
Paris (gypsum, CaSO4–2H2O) instead of sand.
• Additives such as talc and silica flour are mixed with the plaster
to control contraction and setting time, reduce cracking, an
increase strength.
• To make the mold, the plaster mixture combined with water is
poured over a plastic or metal pattern in a flask and allowed to
set.
• Wood patterns are generally unsatisfactory due to the extended
contact with water in the plaster.
• the plaster mixture readily flow around the pattern, capturing its
details and surface finish.
Disadvantages
• Curing time is high, about 20 min.
• Moisture from the mols needs to be removed by backing.
• Mold is not permeable.
• Plaster molds cannot withstand the same high temperatures as
sand molds.
• Limited to the casting of lower-melting-point alloys, such as
aluminium, magnesium, and some copper-base alloys.
Applications
• Plastic and rubber molding, pump and turbine impellers, and
other parts of relatively intricate geometry.
• Casting sizes range from about 20 g - 100 kg common.
 Ceramic-mold casting
• Similar to plaster-mold casting, except that the mold is made of
refractory ceramic materials that can withstand higher
temperatures than plaster.
• Ceramic molding can be used to cast steels, cast irons, and other
high temperature alloys.
 Permanent-mold Casting Processes
• It uses a metal mold constructed of two sections that are
designed for easy, precise opening and closing.
• These molds are commonly made of steel or cast iron.
• The cavity, with gating system included, is machined into the two
halves to provide accurate dimensions and good surface finish.
• Metals commonly cast in permanent molds include aluminium,
magnesium, copper-base alloys, and cast iron.
• The very high pouring temperatures of steel make permanent
molds unsuitable for this metal.
• Semipermanent-mold casting: sand cores (oil bonded or resin
bonded) are used if it is difficult to remove metal core
Steps in permanent-mold casting
 Steps in permanent-mold casting
(1) Mold is preheated up 1500C – 2000C and coated with
refractory slurry (sodium silicate and clay).
(2) Cores (if used) are inserted, and mold is closed
(3) Molten metal is poured into the mold and
(4) Mold is opened
(5) Finished part
 Permanent-mold Casting Processes
Advantages of permanent-mold casting
• Good surface finish and close dimensional control
• More rapid solidification caused by the metal mold
• Finer grain structure, so stronger castings are produced
• High-volume production and can be automated accordingly
Disadvantages of permanent-mold casting
• Process is generally limited to metals of lower melting points
such as aluminium, magnesium, copper-base alloys.
• Simple part geometries compared to sand casting
• Higher cost of mold
Applications
• Automotive pistons, cylinder heads, connecting rod, gear
blanks, pump bodies, and certain castings for aircraft and
missiles.
 Slush Casting
• A hollow casting is formed by inverting the mold after partial
freezing at the surface to drain out the liquid metal in the centre.
• Solidification begins at the mold walls because they are
relatively cool, and it progresses over time toward the middle of
the casting.
• Thickness of the shell is controlled by the length of time allowed
before draining.
• The flow of metal into the mold cavity is caused by gravity
• Used to make statues, lamp pedestals, and toys out of low-
melting-point metals such as zinc and tin.
• Particularly used when the exterior appearance is important,
than the strength and interior geometry of the casting.
 Low-Pressure Casting
• The liquid metal is forced into the cavity under low pressure
approximately 0.1 MPa from beneath so that the flow is upward.
 Low-Pressure Casting
• Clean molten metal from the center of the ladle is introduced
into the mold, rather than metal that has been exposed to air.
• Gas porosity and oxidation defects are thereby minimized.
• Mechanical properties are improved.
• Little or no turbulance during flow of molten metal.
• Typical metals that can be cast includes aluminum magnesium
and copper.
 Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
• It is a variation of low-pressure casting in which a vacuum is
used to draw the molten metal into the mold cavity.
• Reduced air pressure from the vacuum in the mold is used to
draw the liquid metal into the cavity.
• Air porosity and related defects are reduced, and greater
strength is given to the cast product.
• Thin walled castings can be produced with excellent surface
finish quality
• Final casting products ranges in 0.2 – 5 kg
• Better mechanical properties than low pressure casting
process.
• Cleaner molten metal is available than low pressure casting
process.
Vacuum Permanent-Mold Casting
 Die Casting
• Die casting is a permanent-mold casting process in which the
molten metal is injected into the mold cavity under high
pressure.
• Typical pressures are 7 to 350 MPa .
• The pressure is maintained during solidification, after which
the mold is opened and the part is removed.
• Die casting operations are carried out in special die casting
machines.
 Die Casting
• There are two main types of die casting machines:
(1) Hot-chamber and
(2) Cold-chamber
differentiated by how the molten metal is injected into the cavity

Hot-chamber machines
• The metal is melted in a container attached to the machine,
and a piston is used to inject the liquid metal under high
pressure into the die.
• applications is limited to low melting point metals that do not
chemically attack the plunger and other mechanical components.
• The metals include zinc, tin, lead, and sometimes magnesium.
• High production rate
• Pressure ranges upto 35 MPa
Hot-chamber die casting
 Steps in hot chamber die casting
1) with die closed and plunger withdrawn, molten metal flows into
the chamber.
2) plunger forces metal in chamber to flow into die, maintaining
pressure during cooling and solidification.
3) plunger is withdrawn, die is opened, and solidified part is
ejected.
 Cold chamber die casting
• Molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from an
external melting container.
• A piston is used to inject the metal under high pressure into the
die cavity.
• Injection pressures used in these machines are typically 14 to
140 MPa.
• Typically used for casting aluminium, brass, and magnesium
alloys.
 Steps in cold-chamber casting
(1) with die closed and ram withdrawn, molten metal is poured into
the chamber.
(2) ram forces metal to flow into die, maintaining pressure during
cooling a solidification.
(3) ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and part is ejected. (Gating
system is simplified.)
Steps in cold-chamber casting
Materials used for Molds in Die casting
• Molds used in die casting operations are usually made of tool
steel, mold steel, Tungsten and molybdenum
• venting holes and passageways must be built into the dies at the
parting line to evacuate the air and gases in the cavity.
• formation of flash is common in die casting, in which the liquid
metal under high pressure squeezes into the small space between
the die halves at the parting line or into the clearances around the
cores and ejector pins.
 Advantages of die casting include
(1) high production rates possible
(2) economical for large production quantities.
(3) close tolerances possible, on the order of 0.076 mm for small
parts
(4) good surface finish
(5) thin sections are possible, down to about 0.5mm.
(6) rapid cooling provides small grain size and good strength to
the casting
 Centrifugal Casting
• Centrifugal casting refers to several casting methods in which the
mold is rotated at high speed so that centrifugal force
distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die cavity.

Types of Centrifugal casting

(1) true centrifugal casting
(2) semi-centrifugal casting
(3) centrifuge casting.
 True Centrifugal Casting
• In true centrifugal casting, molten metal is poured into a rotating
mold to produce a tubular part.
• Examples of parts made: pipes, tubes, bushings, and rings.
• Molten metal is poured into a horizontal rotating mold at one
end.
• In some operations, mold rotation commences after pouring has
occurred rather than beforehand.
• The high-speed rotation results in centrifugal forces that cause
the metal to take the shape of the mold cavity.
• Thus, the outside shape of the casting can be round, octagonal,
hexagonal, and so on.
• However, the inside shape of the casting is (theoretically)
perfectly round, due to the radially symmetric forces at work.
 True Centrifugal Casting

• Orientation of the axis of mold rotation can be either horizontal

or vertical.
• Lighter metal elements such as dross, impurities, and pieces of
the refractory linings tend to collect on the inner surface of the
casting because of density differences.
• Cylindrical parts ranging from 13 mm to 3 m in diameter and
16 m long can be cast centrifugally with wall thickness ranging
from 6 – 125 mm.
 Mold rotation in centrifugal casting
Centrifugal force is defined by

where F = force in N; m = mass in kg; v = velocity, m/s ,

R = inside radius of the mold in m.
The force of gravity is its weight, W = mg
where W is given in kg, and g = acceleration of gravity, 9.8 m/s2
• The so-called G-factor GF is the ratio of centrifugal force
divided by weight

• Velocity v can be expressed as

Where N = rotational speed, rev/min
• rotational speed N, in terms of mold diameter D is given by

• If the G-factor is too low in centrifugal casting, the liquid metal

will not remain forced against the mold wall during the upper
half of the circular path but will ‘‘rain’’ inside the cavity.
• Slipping occurs between the molten metal and the mold wall,
which means that the rotational speed of the metal is less than
that of the mold.
• On an empirical basis, values of GF = 60 to 80 are found to be
appropriate for horizontal centrifugal casting.
 Semicentrifugal Casting
• centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than
tubular parts.
• The rotation speed in semicentrifugal casting is usually set so that
G-factors of around 15 are obtained.
• Molds are designed with risers at the center to supply feed metal.
• Density of metal in the final casting is greater in the outer
sections than at the center of rotation.
• The process is often used on parts in which the center of the
casting is machined away, thus eliminating the portion of the
casting where the quality is lowest.
• Wheels and pulleys are examples of castings that can be made
by this process.
Semicentrifugal Casting
 Centrifuge Casting
• The mold is designed with part cavities located away from the
axis of rotation, so that the molten metal poured into the mold is
distributed to these cavities by centrifugal force.
• The process is used for smaller parts.
• radial symmetry of the part is not a requirement as it is for the
other two centrifugal casting methods.
 Melting Furnaces
• The types of furnaces most commonly used in foundries are
(1) Cupolas
(2) Direct fuel-fired furnaces
(3) Crucible furnaces
(4) Electric-arc furnaces
(5) Induction furnaces
• Selection of the most appropriate furnace type depends on
 the casting alloy
 its melting and pouring temperatures
 capacity requirements of the furnace
 costs of investment, operation, and maintenance
 environmental pollution considerations.
 Cupola Furnace
• It is cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its
base.
• Cupolas are used only for melting cast irons.
• The largest tonnage of cast iron is melted in cupolas.
• It consist of large shell of steel plate lined with refractory.
• The ‘‘charge’’ consisting of iron, coke, flux, and possible
alloying elements, is loaded through a charging door located less
than halfway up the height of the cupola.
• The iron is usually a mixture of pig iron and scrap (including
risers, runners, and sprues left over from previous castings).
• Coke is the fuel used to heat the furnace.
• The flux is a basic compound such as limestone that reacts with
coke ash and other impurities to form slag
 Cupola Furnace
• The slag serves to cover the melt, protecting it from reaction
with the environment inside the cupola and reducing heat loss.
• As the mixture is heated and melting of the iron occurs, the
furnace is periodically tapped to provide liquid metal for the pour.
 Direct Fuel-Fired Furnaces
• It contains a small open-hearth, in which the metal charge is
heated by fuel burners located on the side of the furnace.
• The roof of the furnace assists the heating action by reflecting
the flame down against the charge.
• Typical fuel used is natural gas.
• The combustion products exit the furnace through a stack.
• At the bottom of the hearth is a tap hole to release the molten
metal.
• Direct fuel-fired furnaces are generally used for melting
nonferrous metals such as copper base alloys and
aluminium.
 Crucible Furnaces
• These furnaces melt the metal without direct contact with a
burning fuel mixture.
• Three types of crucible furnaces are used in foundries
(a) lift-out type,
(b) stationary
(c) tilting
• They all utilize a container (the crucible) made out of a suitable
refractory material (e.g., a clay–graphite mixture) or high-
temperature steel alloy to hold the charge.
 Crucible Furnaces
• In the lift-out crucible furnace, the crucible is placed in a furnace
and heated sufficiently to melt the metal charge.
• Oil, gas, or powdered coal are typical fuels for these furnaces.
• When the metal is melted, the crucible is lifted out of the furnace
and used as a pouring ladle

lift-out crucible stationary pot tilting-pot furnace

 Crucible Furnaces
• In the stationary pot furnace, the furnace is stationary and the
molten metal is ladled out of the container.
• In the tilting pot furnace, the entire assembly can be tilted for
pouring.
• Crucible furnaces are used for nonferrous metals such as
bronze, brass, and alloys of zinc and aluminium.
 Electric-Arc Furnaces
• In this furnace type, the charge is melted by heat generated from
an electric arc.
• Power consumption is high, but electric-arc furnaces can be
designed for high melting capacity (23,000–45,000 kg/hr or 25–
50 tons/hr).
• They are used primarily for casting steel.
 Induction Furnaces
• An induction furnace uses alternating current passing through a
coil to develop a magnetic field in the metal.
• The resulting induced current causes rapid heating and melting of
the metal.
• The electromagnetic force field causes a mixing action to
occur in the liquid metal.
• The metal does not come in direct contact with the heating
elements.
• The environment in which melting takes place can be closely
controlled.
• This results in molten metals of high quality and purity.
• Melting steel, cast iron, and aluminium alloys are common
applications in foundry work.
Induction Furnaces
 Defects in casting
1) Misruns, which are castings that solidify before completely
filling the mold cavity.
Typical causes include
(1) fluidity of the molten metal is insufficient
(2) pouring temperature is too low
(3) pouring is done too slowly, and/or
(4) cross-section of the mold cavity is too thin.
 Defects in casting
2) Cold Shuts, which occur when two portions of the metal flow
together but there is a lack of fusion between them due to
premature freezing. Its causes are similar to those of a misrun.

3) Cold shots, which result from splattering during pouring,

causing the formation of solid globules of metal that become
entrapped in the casting.
 Defects in casting
4) Shrinkage cavity is a depression in the surface or an internal
void in the casting, caused by solidification shrinkage that restricts
the amount of molten metal available in the last region to freeze.
• It often occurs near the top of the casting, in which case it is
referred to as a ‘‘pipe.’’
• The problem can often be solved by proper riser design.
 Defects in casting
Microporosity
• It consists of a network of small voids distributed throughout
the casting caused by localized solidification shrinkage of the
final molten metal in the dendritic structure.
• The defect is usually associated with alloys, because of the
protracted manner in which freezing occurs in these metals
 Defects in casting
Hot tearing
• It also called hot cracking.
• occurs when the casting is restrained from
contraction by an unyielding mold during the
final stages of solidification or early stages of
cooling after solidification.
• The defect is manifested as a separation of the
metal (hence, the terms tearing and cracking) at a
point of high tensile stress caused by the metal’s
inability to shrink naturally.
• In sand casting and other expendable-mold
processes, it is prevented by compounding the
mold to be collapsible.
• In permanent-mold processes, hot tearing is
reduced by removing the part from the mold
immediately after solidification.
Casting defects related to the use of sand molds
Sand blow
• It is a defect consisting of a balloon-shaped gas
cavity caused by release of mold gases during
pouring.
• It occurs at or below the casting surface near
the top of the casting.
• Low permeability, poor venting, and high
moisture content of the sand mold are the usual
causes.
Pinholes
• It is caused by release of gases during
pouring, consist of many small gas cavities
formed at or slightly below the surface of the
casting.
Casting defects related to the use of sand molds
Sand wash
• It is an irregularity in the surface of the
casting that results from erosion of the sand
mold during pouring, and the contour of the
erosion is formed in the surface of the final
cast part.
Scabs
• These are rough areas on the surface of the
casting due to encrustations of sand and
metal.
• It is caused by portions of the mold surface
flaking off during solidification and
becoming imbedded in the casting surface.
Casting defects related to the use of sand molds
Penetration
• It a surface defect that occurs when the
fluidity of the liquid metal is high, and it
penetrates into the sand mold or sand core.
• Upon freezing, the casting surface consists of
a mixture of sand grains and metal.
• Harder packing of the sand mold helps to
alleviate this condition

Mold shift
• It refers to a defect caused by a sidewise
displacement of the mold cope relative to
the drag, the result of which is a step in the
cast product at the parting line
Casting defects related to the use of sand molds
Core shift
• It is similar to mold shift, but it is the core
that is displaced, and the displacement is
usually vertical.
• Core shift and mold shift are caused by
buoyancy of the molten metal

Mold crack
• It occurs when mold strength is insufficient,
and a crack develops, into which liquid metal
can seep to form a ‘‘fin’’ on the final casting
 Inspection Methods
Foundry inspection procedures include
(1) visual inspection to detect obvious defects such as misruns,
cold shuts, and severe surface flaws
(2) dimensional measurements to ensure that tolerances have
been meet
(3) metallurgical, chemical, physical, and other tests concerned
with the inherent quality of the cast metal
(a) pressure testing: to locate leaks in the casting
(b) radiographic methods, magnetic particle tests, the
use of fluorescent penetrants, and supersonic
testing: to detect either surface or internal defects in the
casting
(c) mechanical testing : to determine properties such as
tensile strength and hardness.