Steam Turbine Buy Onkar
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Copyright © 2009, 2006, 2003, New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers
I feel extremely encouraged at the good response to this textbook. Looking upon the feed back
received from its readers third edition of the book is being presented here.
In this edition number of solved and unsolved problems have been added in some of the chapters
and a few new topics have also been added.
I wish to express my sincere thanks to Professors and students for their valuable suggestions
and recommending the book to their students and friends.
I strongly feel that the book would prove to be further useful to students. I would be obliged for
the errors, omissions and suggestions brought to my notice for improvement of the book in its next
edition.
Onkar Singh
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Preface to the First Edition
Onkar Singh
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CONTENTS
Preface to the third edition (v)
Preface to the first edition (vii)
Chapter 1 Fundamental Concepts and Definitions 1
1.1 Introduction and definition of thermodynamics 1
1.2 Dimensions and units 1
1.3 Concept of continuum 3
1.4 Systems, surroundings and universe 4
1.5 Properties and state 5
1.6 Thermodynamic path, process and cycle 5
1.7 Thermodynamic equilibrium 6
1.8 Reversibility and irreversibility 7
1.9 Quasi-static process 7
1.10 Some thermodynamic properties 8
1.11 Energy and its forms 11
1.12 Heat and work 13
1.13 Gas laws 14
1.14 Ideal gas 14
1.15 Dalton’s law, Amagat’s law and property of mixture of gases 15
1.16 Real gas 17
1.17 Vander Waals and other equations of state for real gas 20
Examples 22
Exercises 38
Chapter 2 Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics 40
2.1 Introduction 40
2.2 Principle of temperature measurement and Zeroth law of thermodynamics 40
2.3 Temperature scales 42
2.4 Temperature measurement 43
Examples 46
Exercises 49
Chapter 3 First Law of Thermodynamics 50
3.1 Introduction 50
3.2 Thermodynamic processes and calculation of work 50
3.3 Non-flow work and flow work 57
3.4 First law of thermodynamics 59
3.5 Internal energy and enthalpy 62
3.6 Specific heats and their relation with internal energy and enthalpy 63
(x)
Appendix 917
Table 1 : Ideal gas specific heats of various common gases at 300 K 917
Table 2 : Saturated steam (temperature) table 917
Table 3 : Saturated steam (pressure) table 919
Table 4 : Superheated steam table 921
Table 5 : Compressed liquid water table 927
Table 6 : Saturated ice-steam (temperature) table 928
Table 7 : Critical point data for some substances 929
Table 8 : Saturated ammonia table 930
Table 9 : Superheated ammonia table 931
Table 10 : Saturated Freon – 12 table 933
Table 11 : Superheated Freon – 12 table 934
Table 12 : Enthalpies of Formation, Gibbs Function of Formation, and Absolute
Entropy at 25°C and 1 atm Pressure 937
Chart 1 : Psychrometric chart 938
Chart 2 : Mollier diagram 939
Index 941
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1
Fundamental Concepts and
Definitions
Fig. 1.1 (a) Open system (b) Closed system (c) Isolated system
dV 1 F m
1. Kinetic energy F=m· ∆E = m· = – F · dx x
dt 2
(translation)
(V 2
2
− V12 )
dω 1 θ
2. Kinetic energy T= J· ∆E = J· = – T · dθ
dt 2 T J
(rotational)
(ω 22 − ω12 )
1 F k F
3. Spring stored F = kx ∆E = k· = – F · dx
2 F=0 x
energy (translational)
(x 2
2 − x12 )
1 θ
4. Spring stored T=K·θ ∆E = K· = – T · dθ T=0
2 T K T
energy (rotational)
(θ 22 − θ12 )
F
5. Gravitational F = mg ∆E = mg· = – F · dz m g
z
energy (Z2 – Z1)
q 1 q2 q c
6. Electrical energy u= ∆E = = – u · dq u
c 2 c
(capacitance) 1
= cu2
2
1 L i
7. Electrical energy φ=L·i ∆E =
2
Li2 = – i · dφ u
(inductance) 1 φ2
=
2 L
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 13
Fig 1.9 Graphical representations of gas laws at constant temperature and at constant pressure
Boyle’s and Charle’s law when combined together result in,
p v /T = constant
or p v = R T, where R is the universal gas constant.
From above the gas constant for the mixture can be given as;
m1 R1 + m2 R2 + m3 R3
R = ( m1 + m2 + m3 )
or, in general form,
j
∑ mi ·Ri
i =1
R = j
∑ mi
i =1
Mole fraction xi of a constituent gas can be defined as the ratio of number of moles of that
constituent to the total number of moles of all constituents.
Thus mole fractions of three gases, if number of moles of three gases are n1, n2 and n3;
n1
x1 =
n1 + n2 + n3
n2
x2 =
n1 + n2 + n3
n3
x3 =
n1 + n2 + n3
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 17
ni
or, in general xi =
∑ ni
Total no. of moles,
j
n = n1 + n2 + n3 or, n = ∑ ni
i =1
Sum of mole fractions of all constituent equals to 1,
∑ ni
∑ xi = =1
n
Number of moles of any constituent gas,
ni = n · xi
For Mi being the molecular weight of a constituent gas, the mass mi of that constituent shall be
mi = ni · Mi
or, mi = n · xi · Mi
and the total mass m, shall be
m = ∑ mi = n. ∑ xi · Mi
Molecular weight of mixture shall be:
m
M =
n
= ∑ xi · Mi
(a) Oxygen
1.17 VANDER’ WAALS AND OTHER EQUATIONS OF STATE FOR REAL GAS
Vander’ Waals suggested the equation of state for real gas in 1873. The equation has been obtained
applying the laws of mechanics at molecular level and introducing certain constants in the equation of
state for ideal gas. This equation agrees with real gas behaviour in large range of gas pressures and
temperatures.
Vander’ Waals equation of state for real gas is as follows,
a
p + 2 ( v − b ) = RT
v
a
where ‘a’ is the constant to take care of the mutual attraction amongst the molecules and thus 2
v
accounts for cohesion forces.
27 R 2Tc2
a= , b = ( R·Tc ) / (8 pc )
64 pc
Here, pc , Tc are critical point pressures and temperatures having values as given in appendix.
Thus these constants ‘a’ & ‘b’ are determined from behaviour of substance at the critical point.
In general it is not possible to have a single equation of state which conforms to the real gas
behaviour at all pressures and temperatures.
A few more equations of state for real gas as suggested by various researchers are as follows.
Redlich-Kwong equation of state for real gas,
RT a
p= −
(v − b ) v · ( v + b ) · T
R 2 ·Tc2.5 R· Tc
where a = 0.4278 and b = 0.08664
pc pc
Berthelot equation of state for real gas,
RT a
p= − ,
(v − b ) T · v 2
27· R 2 · Tc3 R· Tc
where a = 64 · and b =
pc 8 pc
Here a and b refer to the constants as suggested in respective equations.
Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state given in 1928, for real gas has five constants determined
experimentally. It is,
R ·T C A
p= 2
1− 3
(v + B ) − 2
(v ) v · T (v )
a b
where, A = A0 1 − and B = B0 1 −
v v
Constants used in Beattie – Bridgeman equation are given in Table 1.7 when p is in k pa, v is in
m3/k mol, T is in K, and R = 8.314 k pa m3/k mol.K.
Table 1.7. Beattie -Bridgeman constants
Gas A0 a B0 b c
Helium 2.1886 0.05984 0.01400 0.0 40
Hydrogen 20.0117 –0.00506 0.02096 –0.04359 504
Oxygen 151.0857 0.02562 0.04624 0.004208 4.80 ×104
Air 131.8441 0.01931 0.04611 –0.001101 4.34 × 104
Carbon dioxide 507.2836 0.07132 0.10476 0.07235 6.60 × 105
22 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Virial equations of state propose a form of equation which can be suitably modified and used for
real gases.
These equations of state are in the form,
pv
= A0 + A1 . p + A2 . p2 + A3 . p3 + .....
RT
pv B B B
or = B0 + 1 + 22 + 33 + .......
RT v v v
Where A0, A1, A2, A3, .........and B0, B1, B2, B3.......
are called the "virial coefficients" and depend upon temperature alone. Virial equations of state
can be suitably modified based on experimental P, v, T data for the real gas analysis. Virial constants
can be calculated if the suitable model for describing the forces of interaction between the molecules
of gas under consideration is known.
EXAMPLES
1. Find out the pressure difference shown by the manometer deflection of 30 cm of Mercury. Take local
acceleration of gravity as 9.78 m/s2 and density of mercury at room temperature as 13,550 kg/m3.
Solution:
From the basic principles of fluid statics,
Pressure difference = ρ·gh
= 13550 × 30 × 10–2 × 9.78
= 39755.70 Pa Ans.
2. An evacuated cylindrical vessel of 30 cm diameter is closed with a circular lid. Estimate the effort
required for lifting the lid, if the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm of mercury column (Take g = 9.78 m/s 2)
Solution:
Effort required for lifting the lid shall be equal to the force acting upon the lid. Thus, effort
required = Pressure × Area
= (76 × 10–2 × 13550 × 9.78) × (3.14 × (30 × 10–2)2/4)
= 7115.48 N Ans.
3. Calculate the actual pressure of air in the tank if the pressure of compressed air measured by manometer
is 30 cm of mercury and atmospheric pressure is 101 kPa. (Take g = 9.78 m/s2)
Solution:
Pressure measured by manometer on the tank is gauge pressure, which shall be
= ρ.g.h
= (13550 × 9.78 × 30 × 10–2)
= 39755.70 Pa
= 39.76 kPa
Actual pressure of air = Gauge pressure + atmospheric pressure
= 39.76 + 101
= 140.76 kPa Ans.
4. Determine gauge pressure at a depth of 1 m in a tank filled with oil of specific gravity 0.8. Take
density of water as 1000 kg/m3 and g = 9.81 m/s2.
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 23
Solution:
Density of oil = Specific gravity × Density of water
ρoil= 0.8 × 1000
ρoil= 800 kg/m3
Gauge pressure = (ρoil× g × h)
= 800 × 9.81 × 1
or = 7848 N/m2
Gauge pressure = 7.848 kPa. Ans.
5. Calculate the gas pressure using a mercury manometer with one limb open to atmosphere as shown in
Fig. 1.14. Barometer reading is 76 cm and density of mercury is 13.6 × 103 kg/m3. Take g = 9.81 m/s2.
Solution:
Figure shows that the difference of height in mercury columns is 40 cm.
In reference to level AB the pressure exerted by gas, pgas can be written as sum of atmospheric
pressure and pressure due to mercury column at AB
pgas = (ρmercury × 9.81 × 40 × 10–2) + Atmospheric pressure
= (13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 40 × 10–2) + (13.6 × 103 × 9.81 × 76 × 10–2)
= 154762.56 N/m2
or Pgas = 154.76 kPa Ans.
Fig. 1.14
6. 1 kg of water falls from an altitude of 1000 m above ground level. What will be change in the
temperature of water at the foot of fall, if there are no losses during the fall. Take specific heat of water
as 1 kcal/kg·K
Solution:
Initially when water is at 1000 m, it shall have potential energy in it. This potential energy shall get
transformed upon its fall and change the temperature of water.
By law of energy conservation
Potential energy = Heat required for heating water
1 × 9.81 × 1000
= = 1 × 1 × 103 × ∆T
4.18
or ∆T = 2.35ºC
Change in temperature of water = 2.35ºC Ans.
24 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
7. A spring balance is used for measurement of weight. At standard gravitational acceleration it gives
weight of an object as 100 N. Determine the spring balance reading for the same object when measured
at a location having gravitational acceleration as 8.5 m/s2.
Solution:
100
At standard gravitational acceleration, mass of object =
9.81
= 10.194 kg
Spring balance reading = Gravitational force in mass
= 10.194 × 8.5
= 86.649 N
= 86.65 N Ans.
8. An incompressible gas in the cylinder of 15 cm diameter is used to
support a piston, as shown. Manometer indicates a difference of 12
cm of Hg column for the gas in cylinder. Estimate the mass of piston
that can be supported by the gas. Take density of mercury as 13.6 ×
103 kg/m3.
Solution:
Piston shall be supported by the gas inside, therefore, let mass of
piston be ‘m’ kg.
Weight of piston = Upward thrust by gas
d2
m.g = p × π × Fig. 1.15
4
ð
m × 9.81 = (12 × 10–2 × 13.6 × 103 × 9.81) × × (15 × 10–2)2
4
m = 28.84 kg
Mass of piston = 28.84 kg. Ans.
9. Determine pressure of steam flowing through a steam pipe when
the U-tube manometer connected to it indicates as shown in figure
1.16. During pressure measurement some steam gets condensed in
manometer tube and occupies a column of height 2 cm (AB) while
mercury gets raised by 10 cm (CD) in open limb. Consider barometer
reading as 76 cm of Hg, density of mercury and water as 13.6 × 103
kg/m3 and 1000 kg/m3 respectively.
Solution:
Let us make pressure balance at plane BC.
psteam + pwater, AB = patm + pHg , CD
psteam = patm + pHg, CD – pwater, AB
patm = (13.6 × 103 × 76 × 10–2 × 9.81)
Fig. 1.16
patm = 101396.16 N/m2
pwater, AB = (1000 × 2 × 10–2 × 9.81)
pwater, AB = 196.2 N/m2
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 25
pHg, CD = (13.6 × 103 × 10 × 10–2 × 9.81)
pHg, CD = 13341.6 N/m2
Substituting for getting steam pressure,
psteam = 101396.16 + 13341.6 – 196.2
psteam = 114541.56 N/m2
or psteam = 114.54 kPa Ans.
10. A vessel has two compartments ‘A’ and ‘B’ as shown with pressure
gauges mounted on each compartment. Pressure gauges of A and B
read 400 kPa and 150 kPa respectively. Determine the absolute
pressures existing in each compartment if the local barometer reads
720 mm Hg.
Solution: Fig. 1.17
Atmospheric pressure from barometer
= (9810) × (13.6) × (0.720)
= 96060 Pa
= 96.06 kPa
Absolute pressure in compartment A,
Pabs, A = Pgauge, A + Patm
= 400 + 96.06 = 496.06 kPa
Absolute pressure in compartment B,
Pabs, B = Pgauge, B + Patm
= 150 + 96.06 = 246.06 kPa
Absolute pressure in compartments A & B
= 496.06 kPa & 246.06 kPa Ans.
11. Determine the air pressure in a tank having multifluid manometer connected to it, with the tube open
to atmosphere as shown in figure. Tank is at an altitude where atmospheric pressure is 90 kPa. Take
densities of water, oil and mercury as 1000 kg/m3, 850 kg/m3 and 13600 kg/m3 respectively.
Fig. 1.18
26 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
It is obvious that the lengths of different fluids in U-tube are due to the air pressure and the
pressure of air in tank can be obtained by equalizing pressures at some reference line. Strating from
point (1) the pressure can be given as under for equilibrium,
p1 + ρwater · g · h1 + ρoil · g · h2= patm + ρmercury · g · h3
Given : ρwater = 1000 kg/m3, ρoil = 850 kg/m3, ρmercury = 13600 kg/m3
h1 = 0.15 m,
h2 = 0.25 m,
h3 = 0.40 m,
patm = 90 kPa
Substituting we get p1 = 139.81 kPa
Air pressure = 139.81 kPa Ans.
12. Estimate the kinetic energy associated with space object revolving around earth with a relative
velocity of 750 m/s and subjected to gravitational force of 4000 N. Gravitational acceleration may be
taken as 8 m/s2.
Solution:
Gravitational force
Mass of object = Gravitational acceleration
4000
=
8
= 500 kg
1
Kinetic energy = × 500 × (750)2
2
= 140625000 J
Kinetic energy = 1.4 × 108 J Ans.
13. Determine the molecular weight of a gas if its specific heats at constant pressure and volume are
cp = 2.286 kJ/kg K and cv = 1.768 kJ/kg K.
Solution:
Gas constant shall be,
R = cp – cv
= 0.518 kJ/kg.K
Molecular weight of gas
R Universal gas constant
= =
R Characteristic gas constant
8.3143
=
0.518
= 16.05 kg/k mol Ans.
14. A perfect gas at pressure of 750 kPa and 600 K is expanded to 2 bar pressure. Determine final
temperature of gas if initial and final volume of gas are 0.2 m3 and 0.5 m3 respectively.
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 27
Solution:
Initial states = 750 × 103 Pa, 600 K, 0.2 m3
Final states = 2 bar or 2 × 105 Pa, 0.5 m3.
Using perfect gas equation,
p1 V1 p2 V2
=
T1 T2
750 × 103 × 0.2 2 × 105 × 0.5
=
600 T2
T2 = 400 K
Final temperature = 400 K or 127º C Ans.
15. A vessel of 5 m3 capacity contains air at 100 kPa and temperature of 300K. Some air is removed
from vessel so as to reduce pressure and temperature to 50 kPa and 7ºC respectively. Find the amount of
of air removed and volume of this mass of air at initial states of air. Take R = 287 J/kg.K for air.
Solution:
Initial states : 100 × 103 Pa, 300 K, 5 m3
Final states : 50 × 103 Pa, 280 K, 5 m3
Let initial and final mass of air be m1 and m2. From perfect gas equation of air,
p1 V1 p2 V2
m1 =
RT1 ; m2 = RT
2
8.314 × 103
RCO2 =
44.01
RCO2 = 188.9 J/kg · K
Substituting in perfect gas equation,
5 × 188.9 × 300
p = = 141675 N/m2
2
Pressure = 1.417 × 105 N/m2 Ans.
(ii) Considering it as real gas let us use Vander-Waals equation;
a
p + 2 (v − b ) = RT
v
where ‘ v ’ is molar specific volume and constants ‘a’ and ‘b’ can be seen from Table 1.6.
R = 8.314 × 103
2 × 44.01
Molar specific volume, v =
5
v =17.604 m3/kg · mol
Vander-Waals Constant,
a = 3628.5 × 102 N . m4/(kg · mol)2
b = 3.14 × 10–2 m3/kg · mol
Substituting values in Vander Waals equation,
3628.5 × 102
p + (17.604 – 3.14 × 10–2) = (8.314 × 103 × 300)
(17.604) 2
p + 1170.86 = 141936.879
p = 140766.019 N/m2
Pressure = 1.408 × 105 N/m2
For CO2 as perfect gas = 1.417 × 105 N/m2
For CO2 as real gas = 1.408 × 105 N/m2 Ans.
(using Vander-Waals equation)
30 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
19. Determine the specific volume of steam at 17672 kPa and 712 K considering it as (a) perfect gas,
(b) considering compressibility effects. Take critical pressure = 22.09 MPa, critical temperature =647.3 K,
Rsteam = 0.4615 kJ/kg·K.
Solution:
(a) Considering steam as perfect gas,
Rsteam ·T
Sp. volume =
p
0.4615 × 712
=
17672
Specific volume = 0.0186 m3/kg Ans.
(b) Considering compressibility effects, the specific volume can be given by product of
compressibility factor ‘Z’ and “specific volume when perfect gas”.
p
Reduced pressure =
Critical pressure
17672
=
22.09×103
Reduced pressure = 0.8
T
Reduced temperature = Critical temperature
712
=
647.3
Reduced temperature = 1.1
From generalized compressibility chart compressibility factor ‘Z’ can be seen for reduced pressure
and reduced temperatures of 0.8 and 1.1. We get,
Z = 0.785
Actual specific volume = 0.785 × 0.0186
= 0.0146 m3/kg. Ans.
20. A spherical balloon of 5 m diameter is filled with Hydrogen at 27ºC and atmospheric pressure of
1.013 bar. It is supposed to lift some load if the surrounding air is at 17ºC. Estimate the maximum load
that can be lifted.
Solution:
Balloon filled with H2 shall be capable of lifting some load due to buoyant forces.
3
4 5
Volume of balloon = . π . = 65.45 m3
3 2
Mass of H2 in balloon can be estimated considering it as perfect gas.
8.314 × 103
Gas constant for H2 = = 4.157 × 103 J/kg · K
2
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 31
Pballoon · Vballoon
Mass of H2 in balloon =
RH 2 · TH 2
1.013 × 10 5 × 65.45
=
4.157 × 103 × 300
mH 2 = 5.316 kg
Volume of air displaced = Volume of balloon
= 65.45 m3
1.013 × 105 × 65.45
Mass of air displaced =
Rair × (17 + 273)
Rair = 0.287 kJ/kg . K
1.013 × 10 5 × 65.45
mair =
0.287 × 103 × 290
mair = 79.66 kg
Load lifting capacity due to buoyant force = mair – mH 2
= 79.66 – 5.316
= 74.344 kg Ans.
21. A pump draws air from large air vessel of 20 m3 at the rate of 0.25 m3/min. If air is initially at
atmospheric pressure and temperature inside receiver remains constant then determine time required to
1
reduce the receiver pressure to th of its original value.
4
Solution:
Let volume of receiver be V, m3 and volume sucking rate of pump be v m3/min, then theoretically
problem can be modelled using perfect gas equation. Here p is pressure in receiver and T is temperature
in vessel.
pV = mRT
Here pressure ‘p’ and temperature ‘T ’ shall change with respect to time t. Differentiating perfect gas
equation with respect to time.
dp dm
V· = RT
dt dt
dm
Here is mass extraction rate from receiver in kg/min. This mass rate can be given using perfect
dt
gas equation when volume flow rate (m3/min) is given as v. So.
dm pv
= − (–ve as mass gets reduced with time)
dt RT
Substituting,
dp pv
V· = – RT·
dt RT
32 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
dp
V· = – pv
dt
t
V t dp
∫ dt = – ∫
v0 p
0
V p2
t = − ln
v p1
p1
Here final pressure, p2 = , V = 20 m2 , v = 0.25 m3/min
4
V 1
So time, t = ln
v 4
20
time = ln (4) = 110.9 minutes
0.25
= 110.9 minutes Ans.
22. In 5 kg mixture of gases at 1.013 bar and 300 K the various constituent gases are as follows,
80% N2, 18% O2, 2% CO2.
Determine the specific heat at constant pressure, gas constant for the constituents and mixture and
also molar mass of mixture taking γ = 1.4 for N2 and O2 and γ = 1.3 for CO2.
Universal gas constant = 8314 J/kg · K
Solution:
Gas constants for constituent gases shall be,
8314 8314
RN 2 = = = 296.9 J/kg · K
mol. wt. of N 2 28
8314 8314
RO2 = = = 259.8 J/kg · K
mol. wt. of O2 32
8314 8314
RCO2 = = = 188.9 J/kg . K
mol. wt. of CO2 44
Gas constant for mixture, Rmixture
mN 2 mO2 mCO2
= .RN 2 + .RO2 + .RCO2
M M M
= (0.80 × 296.9) + (0.18 × 259.8) + (0.02 × 188.9)
Rmixture = 288.06 J/kg . K
Specific heat at constant pressure for constituent gases.
γ 1.4
C p , N2 = . RN 2 = × 296.9 = 1.039 kJ/kg . K
γ −1 0.4
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 33
γ 1.4
C p, O2 = . RO2 = × 259.8 = 0.909 kJ/kg . K
γ −1 0.4
γ 1.3
C p , CO2 = . RCO2 = × 188.9 = 0.819 kJ/kg . K
γ −1 0.3
mN 2 mO2 mCO2
C p , mixture = . CP , N 2 + . CP , O2 + . CP ,CO2
M M M
C p , mixture = (0.80 × 1.039) + (0.18 × 0.909) + (0.02 × 0.819)
= 1.0276 kJ/kg . K
Total mass of mixture
Molar mass of mixture = ∑ xi . Mi =
Total no. of moles
ni
xi = , here Mi = mol. wt. of ith constituent.
∑ ni
No. of moles of constituent gases,
mN 2 0.8 × 5
nN 2 = = = 0.143
Mol. wt. N 2 28
mO2 0.18 × 5
nO2 = = = 0.028
Mol. wt. O2 32
mCO2 0.02 × 5
nCO2 = = = 0.0023
Mol. wt. CO2 44
nO2 0.028
xO2 = = = 0.162
∑ ni 0.1733
nCO2 0.0023
xCO2 = = = 0.0133
∑ ni 0.1733
Molecular wt. of mixture = Molar mass of mixture = ∑xi . Mi
= (0.825 × 28) + (0.162 × 32) + (0.0133 × 44)
= 28.87 kg/kmol Ans.
34 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
23. A gas mixture comprises of 18% O2, 75% N2 and 7% CO2 by volume at 0.5 MPa and 107ºC. For 5
kg mass of mixture carry out gravimetric analysis and determine the partial pressure of gases in mixture.
Solution:
ni Vi
Mole fraction of constituents ⇒ xi = =
n V
where ‘ni’ and ‘Vi’ are no. of moles and volume fraction of constituent while ‘n’ and V are total
no. of moles and total volume of mixture.
0.18
xO2 = = 0.18
1
0.75
xN 2 = = 0.75
1
0.07
xCO2 = = 0.07
1
Molecular weight of mixture = Molar mass
= (0.18 × 32) + (0.75 ×28) + (0.07 × 44)
= 29.84
Gravimetric analysis refers to the mass fraction analysis.
Mass fraction of constituents
mi (Vi / V ) × Mol. wt. of constituent
= =
m Mol. wt. of mixture
0.18 × 32
Mole fraction of O2 = = 0.193
29.84
0.75 × 28
Mole fraction of N2 = = 0.704 Ans.
29.84
0.07 × 44
Mole fraction of CO2 = = 0.104
29.84
Partial pressures of constituents = Volume fraction × Pressure of mixture
Partial pressure of O2 = 0.18 × 0.5 = 0.09 MPa
Partial pressure of N2 = 0.75 × 0.5 = 0.375 MPa Ans.
Partial pressure of CO2 = 0.07 × 0.5 = 0.35 MPa
24. A steel insulated tank of 6 m3 volume is equally divided into two chambers using a partition. The
two portions of tank contain N2 gas at 800 kPa and 480 K and CO2 gas at 400 kPa and 390 K.
Determine the equilibrium temperature and pressure of mixture after removing the partition. Use γ = 1.4
for N2, γ = 1.3 for CO2.
Solution:
Since tank is insulated so adiabatic mixing can be considered. Let us consider N2 and CO2 to
behave as perfect gas.
No. of moles of N2
Fundamental Concepts and Definitions ____________________________________________ 35
p N . VN 2 800 × 103 × 3
2
nN 2 = = = 0.601
R . TN2 8314 × 480
No of moles of CO2
8.314
RH 2 = kJ/kg . K
2
8.314
RN 2 = kJ/kg . K
28
8.314
RCO2 = kJ/kg . K
44
RH 2 = 4.15 kJ/kg . K
RN 2 = 0.297 kJ/kg . K
Tfinal
pfinal = pinitial ×
Tinitial
pfinal = 101.325 × 2 = 202.65 kPa Ans.
27. Determine the ratio of exit to inlet diameter of a duct having heating element in the mid of duct.
Atmospheric air enters the duct at 27ºC and gets heated up to 500 K before leaving the duct. The kinetic
and potential energy changes during passage of air through duct are negligible.
Solution:
Said air heating process is the case of constant pressure process. Let inlet state be ‘1’ and exit
state ‘2’.
Therefore, by Charle’s law volume and temperature can be related as;
V1 V2
=
T1 T2
V2 T2
V1 = T1
π 2
4 × d 2 × Velocity at 2
T2
or π =
T1
× d1 × Velocity at 1
2
4
d 22 T2
Since ∆K.E = 0 , so =
d12 T1
d2 T2
or =
d1 T1
500
Exit to inlet diameter ratio = = 1.29 = 1.29 Ans.
300.15
28. A vessel of 2 m3 volume contains hydrogen at atmospheric pressure and 27ºC temperature. An
evacuating pump is connected to vessel and the evacuation process is continued till its pressure becomes
70 cm of Hg vacuum.
Estimate the mass of hydrogen pumped out. Also determine the final pressure in vessel if cooling
is carried up to 10ºC. Take atmospheric pressure as 76 cm of Hg and universal gas constant as
8.314 kJ/kg. K
Solution:
8.314
For hydrogen, gas constant, R =
2
R = 4.157 kJ/kg . K
Say initial and final states are given by ‘1’ and ‘2’.
Mass of hydrogen pumped out shall be difference of initial and final mass inside vessel.
Final pressure of hydrogen = Atm. pr. – Vacuum pr.
38 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 76 – 70
= 6 cm of Hg.
Therefore, pressure difference = 76 – 6
= 70 cm of Hg.
70
= × 101.325 kPa
76
= 93.33 kPa
p1V1 p2V2
Mass pumped out = −
RT1 RT2 ; here V1 = V2 = V and T1 = T2 = T.
V
= ( p1 − p2 )
RT
2 × 93.33 × 103
=
4.157 × 300.15 × 103
= 0.15 kg. Ans.
During cooling upto 10ºC, the process may be considered as constant volume process. Say the
state before and after cooling are denoted by suffix 2 and 3.
T3
Therefore, p3 = . p2
T2
283.15 6 × 101.325
= ×
300.15 76
Final pressure after cooling = 7.546 kPa. Ans.
-:-4+15-
2
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamics is the branch of science which deals with the energy interactions. In order to find
whether energy interactions are taking place or not some measurable mathematical parameters are
needed. These parameters are called thermodynamic properties. Out of number of thermodynamic
properties discussed earlier the ‘temperature’ is one property.
One is well familiar with the qualitative statement of the state of a system such as cold, hot, too
cold, too hot etc. based on the day to day experience. The degree of hotness or coldness is relative to the
state of observer. For example, let us take an iron bar. Obviously the bar shall have intial temperature
equal to the room temperature. Now let us heat this metal bar. Observations at the molecular level show
that upon heating the molecular activity inside the bar gets increased. This may be attributed to the more
agitated state of molecules as energy is given to them in the form of heating of the bar. From the
physiological sensations it can be felt that this has resulted in increase in the degree of hotness of the bar.
This qualitative indication of the relative hotness can be exactly defined by using thermodynamic property
known as temperature. If this hot bar is brought in contact with another bar at room temperature one
can feel that after some time the two bars which were initially at high and low temperatures attain the
same temperature which is lying between the two temperatures. It is indicative of the fact that there has
been exchange of some entity between two bars resulting in the attainment of final equilibrium temperature.
This state of attainment of common equilibrium temperature is also termed as the state of thermal
equilibrium. Thus, the temperature becomes a potential indicator of the energy interactions in the systems.
A look at the history shows that for quantitative estimation of temperature a German instrument
maker Mr. Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit (1686-1736) came up with idea of instrument like thermometer and
developed mercury in glass thermometer. Here he observed that height of mercury column used to
change as the bulb of thermometer was brought in the environments having different degrees of hotness.
In the year 1742, a Swedish astronomer Mr. Anders Celsius described a scale for temperature
measurement. This scale later on became very popular and is known as Centigrade Scale. For caliberation
of these measuring instruments some reference states of different substances were used initially and the
relative state of temperature of the substance could be quantified. Later on with the passage of time
things were standardised and internationally acceptable temperature scales and instruments were developed.
Thermal Thermal
equilibrium equilibrium
(for temperature (for caliberation)
measurement) Thermometers
373.15
671.67
K ºC ºR
100.0
ºF
212
Steam point
273.15 273.16
491.67 491.69
32.02
–273.15 0.00 0.01
Triple point
of water
–459.67 32.0
Ice point
Fahrenheit
Rankine
Celsius
Kelvin
0.00
0.00
Absolute zero
h
M
B
Bulb
Tubing
B C R
Silica bulb
Reservoir
Manometer
Compensating
bulb
Fig. 2.5 Constant pressure gas thermometer
Initially the reservoir is filled with mercury upto zero marking and the stop cock is closed. The
bulbs ‘B’ ‘R’ and ‘C’ are immersed in melting ice. Tubes are sealed when the pressure on the two sides
as shown by manometer is the same i.e. the pressure in silica bulb ‘B’ and compensating bulb ‘C’ are
same. When the pressure on two sides of the manometer containing sulphuric acid is same the acid level
in two limbs shall be same. This way the pressure of gas and air can be maintained same. Now let us
assume the silica bulb ‘B’ to have definite number of molecules of air. Also, the compensating bulb and
compensating tube contain the same number of molecules of air. If the silica bulb is immersed in the
environment whose temperature is to be measured and compensating bulb being kept in melting ice.
Both connecting tube and compensating tubes are at the room temperature and the air in silica bulb
attains temperature equal to the temperature to be measured.
(c) Electrical resistance thermometer
Electrical resistance thermometer first developed by
Siemen in 1871, also known as ‘Platinum Resistance
Thermometer’ works on the principle of change in
resistance of the thermometric substance (platinum)
with temperature. Thus resistance is the thermometric
property used in these thermometers. It consists of a
pure platinum wire wound in a double spiral on a mica
plate. Two ends of the platinum wire are connected to
the copper leads (for low temperatures) or platinum Galvano
leads (for high temperatures). Principle of Wheatstone meter
EXAMPLES
1. Determine the human body temperature in degree celsius (°C) if the temperature in Fahrenheit is
98.6°F.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 47
Solution:
Degree Celsius and Fahrenheit are related as below,
T º ( F ) − 32
T (°C) =
1.8
Substituting values.
98.6 − 32
T (°C) = = 37°C
1.8
Temperature in degree celsius shall be 37°C. Ans.
2. A temperature scale is being developed using the following relation.
b
t = a · ln(p) +
2
where ‘p’ is thermometric property and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants. Determine celsius temperature
corresponding to thermometric property of 6.5, if ice point and steam point give thermometric property
value of 3 and 8.
Solution:
For Ice point; t = 0°C and p = 3
For Steam point; t = 100°C and p = 8
Using thermometric relation,
b
0 = a ln(3) +
2
b
100 = a ln(8) +
2
Solving the above two equations, we get
a = 101.95
b = 224
224
Thus, t = 101.95. ln(p) +
2
t = 101.95 ln(p) + 112
For p = 6.5, t = 302.83°C Ans.
3. In a thermoelectric thermometer for t°C temperature, the emf is given as;
E = 0.003 · t – 5 × 10–7 · t2 + 0.5 × 10–3, volts
Thermometer is having reference junction at ice point and is calibrated at ice point and steam
points. What temperature shall be shown by the thermometer for a substance at 30°C?
Solution:
At ice point; t = 0°C, E0 = 0.5 × 10–3, volts
At steam point, t = 100°C, E100 = 0.0265, volts
When t = 30°C
E30 = 9.14 × 10–3 volts
Thus temperature shown by this thermometer;
E30 − E0
t = × (T100 – T0)
E100 − E0
48 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
-:-4+15-
3
First Law of Thermodynamics
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Let us take water in a container and heat it from the bottom. What will happen? Container and the water
inside shall start getting heated up. This heating is being sensed by either touching it or by measuring its
initial and final temperatures. What has caused it to happen so?
Let us take bicycle wheel and paddle it very fast, Chained wheel starts rotating very fast. Now let us
apply the brake. The wheel gets stopped. What has made it to stop? Also, if we touch the brake shoe and
observe its temperature it shall show that the brake shoe has got heated up. Why has it happened so?
Answer for the above question lies in the energy interactions.
The heating up of the container and water has been caused by the heat being added through the
burner flame. Heat available in the flame is being transferred to the container resulting into temperature
rise of the container and water.
The fast rotation of the bicycle wheel by paddling has been due to work done in the form of
paddling and causing wheel to rotate. Subsequent application of the brake has brought wheel to rest as
the driving potential with the wheel is gradually dissipated due to the friction between the brake shoe and
wheel. Thus the energy of wheel gets transferred to brake shoe bringing it to rest and heating up of the
brake shoe (observed by the rise in temperature of brake shoe).
Thus, it is obvious that there is some entity which is responsible for the above phenomenon. This
entity is called the energy which is available in different forms, some times causing the wheel rotation,
heating up of water etc. Similar to the cases discussed above one may look at other real life systems and
understand phenomenon occurring in them. It can be concluded that it is the energy interaction in some
form which is responsible for occurrence of such phenomenon. These energy interactions only permit
the transformation of energy from one form to other while making the creation and destruction of
energy impossible. Hence, it is true that “energy can neither be produced nor destroyed, it can only
change it’s form”. The prevailing law of “energy conservation” also states the same thing.
Here in this chapter we shall look into the first law of thermodynamics, heat, work and its definition,
flow and non-flow work, their estimation, steady and unsteady flow processes, their analysis and
limitations of the first law of thermodynamics.
Stirrer
Piston
Pressure
Isobaric process
1 2
pr = p
Gas
Cylinder
V1 V2 Volume
Heating
∫ dQ = ∫ dU + ∫ dW
1 1 1
Q1–2 = m cv (T2 – T1) + P(V2 – V1)
= m cv (T2 – T1) + mR(T2 – T1)
R
Substituting for cv , i.e. cv = (γ − 1)
1
Q1–2 = mR (T2 – T1) + 1
(γ − 1)
(ii) Constant volume process or isochoric process: When a fluid undergoes a thermodynamic
process in a fixed enclosed space such that the process occurs at constant volume, then the process is
called constant volume process or isochoric process. Let us consider
heating of a gas in fixed enclosure at constant volume. On p–V diagram
p2 2
this process is represented by a vertical line as shown in Fig. 3.3.
Pressure
Area under the process line is zero which indicates that there is rise in
pressure but there is no work done as there is no change in volume.
Work involved shall be, p1
1
V2 =V
W1–2 = ∫ P. dV = 0 V Volume
V1 =V
Fig. 3.3 Isochoric process
From first law of thermodynamics,
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 53
dQ = dU + dW
2 2 2 2
∫ dQ = ∫ dU + ∫ dW = ∫ dU + 0
1 1 1 1
or Q1–2 = U2 – U1 = mcv (T2 – T1)
Thus, it indicates that the effect of heat addition in constant volume process is to increase the
temperature and consequently the internal energy of system.
(iii) Constant temperature process or isothermal process: Thermodynamic process in which the
temperature remains constant is called constant temperature or isothermal process. In this case the gas
or vapour may be heated at constant temperature and there shall be no change in internal energy. The
work done will be equal to the amount of heat supplied, as shown ahead. For a perfect gas during
isothermal process;
PV
1 1
p1V1 = p2V2 = Constant, or, P =
V
V2
∫ dQ = ∫ dW + ∫ dU
1 1 1
Q1–2 = W1–2 + (U2 – U1) = W1–2 + 0
as U2 – U1 = mcv (T2 – T1), and T1 = T2
(iv) Adiabatic process: An adiabatic process is the thermodynamic process in which there is no heat
interaction during the process, i.e. during the process, Q = 0. In these processes the work interaction is
there at the expense of internal energy. If we talk of adiabatic expansion then it shall mean that work is
done at the cost of its own internal energy. The adiabatic process follows the law PV γ = constant where
γ is called adiabatic index and is given by the ratio of two specific heats. Thus, it is obvious that adiabatic
expansion shall be accompanied by the fall in temperature while temperature will rise during adiabatic
compression. The adiabatic expansion process is shown on Fig. 3.5. Work done during expansion shall
be,
V2
W1–2 = ∫ P · dV, where PV γ = constant, therefore solving after substitution. Work shall be,
V1
1 1 − P2V2
PV
W1–2 = (γ − 1)
54 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2 2 2
Pressure
Q1–2 = (U2 – U1) + 2
(γ − 1) p2
p1V1 − p2V2
0 = mcv (T2 – T1) + (γ − 1) V1 dV V2 Volume
⇒ W1–2 = mcv (T1 – T2) Fig. 3.5 Adiabatic expansion
(v) Polytropic process: Polytropic process is the most commonly used process in practice. In this,
the thermodynamic process is said to be governed by the law PVn = constant where n is the index which
can vary from – ∞ to + ∞. Figure 3.6 shows some typical cases in which the value of n is varied and the
type of process indicated for different values of n. Thus the various thermodynamics processes discussed
above are special cases of polytropic process. Work interaction in case of polytropic process can be
given as,
V2
W1–2 = ∫ p · dV
n=0
V1 n = 0, isobaric process
n=1
n = 1, isothermal process
whereP1V1n = P2V2n= constant P n=2
n = 2, polytropic process
Solving the above, we get n=∞
n = ∞, isochoric process
p1V1 − p2V2
W1–2 = ( n − 1) V
From first law of thermodynamics, Fig. 3.6 Polytropic process
2 2 2
∫ dQ = ∫ dU + ∫ dW
1 1 1
p1V1 − p2V2
or Q1–2 = (U2 – U1) +
n −1
mR (T1 − T2 )
or Q1–2 = mcv (T2 – T1) + (n − 1)
R
also cv = γ − 1 or R = cv (γ – 1)
(γ − 1)
Q1–2 = mcv {(T2 – T1) + (n − 1) · (T1 – T2)}
Thus heat transfer during a polytropic process for a perfect gas;
γ − n
Q1–2 = mcv (T2 – T1) × 1 − n
or also, substituting for cv
γ − n
Q1–2 = γ − 1 × W
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 55
(vi) Hyperbolic process: Hyperbolic process is the one in which product of pressure and volume
remains constant during the process. The curve for such an expansion process is a rectangular hyperbola
and hence this is known as hyperbolic expansion.
PV
For a perfect gas = Constant, if T is also constant then it means that for a perfect gas the
T
hyperbolic process shall also be isothermal process. Figure 3.7 shows hyperbolic expansion process
between 1 and 2. Work done during process shall be
2
W1–2 = ∫ p · dV and p1V1 = p2V2 = constant
1
V2
p1V1 V2
W1–2 = ∫ dV = p1V1 ln
V1
V1 V
V2
or, W1–2 = p1V1 ln r, where r =
V1 , ratio of final and initial volumes from first law of thermodynamics,
2 2 2 V
∫ dQ = ∫ dU + ∫ dW = (U2 – U1) + p1V1 ln V
2
1 1 1 1
p1 1
PV = constant
Pressure
p2 2
V1 dV V2 Volume
W= ∫ p.dV
1
V2
6. Hyperbolic pV = constant q = cv (T2 – T1) W = RT1 ln
V1
V2
process but not + RT1 ln
V1
necessarily
T = constant
7. Free Unresisted q=0 W=0
expansion in expansion
adiabatic
conditions
Heat addition
Flow out
Wort
∫ dW = ∫ P · dV 1 L 2
1 1
Ñ∫ δq = Ñ∫ δW.
system
60 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Thus first law of thermodynamics states that “in a closed system undergoing a cyclic process, the
net work done is proportional to the net heat taken from the surroundings” or “for any cycle of a closed
system the net heat transfer equals the net work”.
First law of thermodynamics can’t be proved but it is supported by a large number of experiments
and no exceptions have been observed. It is therefore termed as the law of nature.
Mathematical expression for the first law of thermodynamics can be rearranged and it shall be,
Ñ∫ (δq – δW) = 0
which shows that the quantity (δq – δW) is a thermodynamic property.
For non-cyclic process: Let us now take up a system undergoing a non-cyclic process where transfer
of heat and work take place and there is some change in the state of system i.e. initial and final states are
different.
Figure 3.13 shows the non-cyclic process occurring between states 1 and 2. The change in state is
accomplished by the energy interactions. If we assume the system to have the heat interaction ∆Q and
work interaction ∆W, then from the basic principles it can be said that :
Energy lost = Energy gained
as the energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
Therefore, between states 1–2 one can write energy balance as,
Q1–2 – W1–2 = U1–2 1
where Q1–2, W1–2 and U1–2 are the heat, work and stored energy p
values. This stored energy is called as internal energy for a system
having negligible electrical, magnetic, solid distortion and surface 2
tension effects.
General expression based on above can be given as follows : V
∆Q – ∆W = ∆U Fig. 3.13 Non cyclic process
2 2 2
or ∫ dQ – ∫ dW = ∫ dU
1 1 1
or, for elemental interactions; dQ – dW = dU
dQ = dU + dW
Thus, the first law of thermodynamics for non-cyclic processes can be given by
∫ dQ = ∫ dU + ∫ dW
Above equations make it obvious that the internal energy change in the closed system during any
non-cyclic process is obtained by subtracting the net amount of work done by the system from the net
amount of heat added to the system i.e. ∆U = Q – W.
Actually, there is no absolute value of internal energy of any system.
C
Therefore its value may be taken to be zero for any particular state of 1
the system and absolute value in reference to arbitarily assumed state B
may be easily defined. p A
Mathematically, it can be shown that the internal energy is a
thermodynamic property, as explained ahead. Let us consider the non- 2
cyclic process following paths A, B and C in the directions as shown
V
in Fig. 3.14.
As the processes A & B and A & C constitute a thermodynamic Fig. 3.14 Two different
cycle starting and finishing at state 1, the first law of thermodynamics thermodynamic cycles.
for cyclic process can be employed,
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 61
Ñ∫ (δQ – δW) = 0
For the cycle following path 1–A–2–B–1, the first law of thermodynamics says,
Ñ∫ (δQ – δW) = 0
1–A–2–B–1
2 1
2 2
Also, for the cycle following path 1–A–2–C–1, the first law of thermodynamics can be applied as,
Ñ∫ (δQ – δW) = 0
1–A–2–C–1
2 1
2 1
2 2
which shows that (δQ – δW) is some property as it is independent of the path being followed.
Also, it can be rewritten as,
2 2 2
∫ δU = ∫ δU = ∫ δU
1, A 1, B 1, C
C2
or, on unit mass basis; e = u + + gz
2
and the change in stored energy relative to some reference state shall be given as,
∆E = ∆U + ∆KE + ∆PE.
Enthalpy (H) of a substance at any point is quantification of energy content in it, which could be given
by summation of internal energy and flow energy. Enthalpy is very useful thermodynamic property for
the analysis of engineering systems.
Mathematically, it is given as,
H = U + PV
On unit mass basis, the specific enthalpy could be given as,
h = u + pv
A look at expression of enthalpy shows that as we can’t have absolute value of internal energy, the
absolute value of enthalpy can not be obtained. Therefore only change in enthalpy of substance is
considered. For certain frequently used substances such as steam, the enthalpy values of steam are
available in tabulated form in Steam Tables at different thermodynamic states.
From the definition of enthalpy;
h = u + pv
or dh = du + p · dv + v · dp.
For a constant pressure process, dp = 0.
dh = du + pdv
or, dh = dqp = constt (From first law of thermodynamics)
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 63
3.6 SPECIFIC HEATS AND THEIR RELATION WITH INTERNAL ENERGY AND
ENTHALPY
Specific heats of the substance refer to the amount of heat interaction required for causing unit change
in temperature of the unit mass of substance. This unit change in temperature may be realized under
constant volume and constant pressure conditions separately.
Therefore, the above heat value obtained with heat interaction occurring under constant volume
conditions is called specific heat at constant volume, denoted as cv. Whereas the above heat value
obtained with heat interaction occurring under constant pressure conditions is called specific heat at
constant pressure, denoted as cp.
Mathematically, the heat interaction causing ∆T temperature change in m mass of substance can be
given as,
For isochoric conditions;
Qv = m · cv · ∆T
and for isobaric conditions
Qp = m · cp · ∆T
Qv
or cv =
m·∆T
Qp
or, cp =
m·∆T
For getting the specific heat values, substituting m = 1, ∆T = 1,
cv = Qv and c p = Q p
The specific heat at constant volume can also be given as the partial derivative of internal energy
with respect to temperature at constant volume.
∂u
Thus cv = ∂T
v
du
or, cv = dT
v
Also from first law of thermodynamics, on unit mass basis
dq = du + pdv
at constant volume, dv = 0
dq = du
or dq = cv · dT = du
dq
cv = , for v = constant
dT
Specific heat at constant pressure can be given as the partial derivative of enthalpy with respect to
temperature at constant pressure.
∂h
Mathematically: cp = ∂T
p
dh
or cp = dT
p
64 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
From definition of enthalpy, at unit mass basis.
h = u + pv
or dh = du + pdv + vdp
at constant pressure, dp = 0
dh = du + pdv
substituting from first law of thermodynamics dq = du + pdv
dh = dq
or dq = cp · dT = dh
dq
cp = , for p = constant
dT
Let us try to establish relationship between cp and cv.
From enthalpy definition, at unit mass basis
h = u + pv
or h = u + RT {for ideal gas}
Taking partial derivative,
dh = du + RdT
Also we know for an ideal gas, cp
dh = cp · dT; du = cv · dT
Substituting dh and du
cp · dT = cv · dT + R · dT
or cp = cv + R
or c p − cv = R
Difference of specific heats at constant pressure and volume is equal to the gas constant for an ideal
gas.
Also the ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and volume could be given as γ,
cp
=γ
cv
Combining above two relations of cp and cv we get,
γ .R R
cp = (γ –1) and cv = (γ –1)
Control boundary Q
3.7 FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
2
APPLIED TO OPEN SYSTEMS
Let us consider an open system as shown in Fig. Open system Outlet
3.15 having inlet at section 1–1 and outlet at section
2
2–2. The cross-section area, pressure, specific 1
volume, mass flow rate, energy at section 1–1 and
Inlet
2–2 are W
Section 1–1 = A1, p1, v1, m1, e1 1
Section 2–2 = A2, p2, v2, m2, e2
Fig. 3.15
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 65
Open system is also having heat and work interactions Q, W as shown in figure above.
Applying the energy balance at the two sections, it can be given as,
Energy added to the system + Stored energy of the fluid at inlet
= Stored energy of the fluid at outlet
Quantifying the various energies;
Energy of fluid at inlet shall comprise of stored energy and flow energy as given here.
= m1(e1 + p1v1)
Similarly, energy of fluid at outlet shall comprise of stored energy and flow energy,
= Stored energy + Flow energy
= m2 (e2 + p2v2)
The energy added to the system shall be the net energy interaction due to heat and work interactions.
=Q–W
Writing energy balance, mathematically;
Q – W + m1 (e1 + p1v1) = m2 (e2 + p2v2)
or Q + m1(e1 + p1v1) = W + m2(e2 + p2v2)
If the mass flow rates at inlet and exit are same, then
Q + m(e1 + p1v1) = W + m(e2 + p2v2)
On unit mass basis
q + e1 + p1v1 = w + e2 + p2v2
Thus,
Heat + (Stored energy + Flow energy)1 = Work + (Stored energy + Flow energy)2
Stored energy at inlet and outlet can be mathematically given as,
C12
e1 = u1 + + gz1
2
C22
and e2 = u2 + + gz2
2
where C1 and C2 are velocities at inlet and exit, u1 and u2 are internal energy at inlet and outlet, z1 and z2
are elevations of inlet and exit.
C12 C22
Q + m1 1
u + + gz + p1 1
v = W + m
u + + gz2 + p2 v2
2
1 2
2
2
and from definition of enthalpy,
h1 = u1 + p1v1
h2 = u2 + p2v2
therefore,
C2 C2
Q + m1 h1 + 1 + gz1 = W + m2 h2 + 2 + gz2
2 2
Above equation is known as steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.). If the mass flow rates at inlet
and exit are same, i.e. m1 = m2 = m
C12 C22
then, Q + m 1 2 + gz1 = W + m
h + 2
h +
2
+ gz2
or, on unit mass basis the S.F.E.E. shall be;
C12 C2
q + h1 + + gz1 = w + h2 + 2 + gz2
2 2
Q W
where q = ,w=
m m
The steady flow energy equation can be used as a tool for carrying out thermodynamic analysis of
engineering system with suitable modifications.
Special Case : Such as for any system of perfectly insulated type, Q = 0
The steady flow energy equation gets modified to;
C12 C2
h1 + + gz1 = w + h2 + 2 + gz2
2 2
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 67
Application of Continuity equation results in, W2
W1 Q1 Q3 Q2
m1 = m2
1 3
A1 C1 A2 C2
or, = In Steady flow system In
v1 v2
For any system having more than one inlets, outlets and 1 3
energy interactions the example is shown below. 2 4
Out Out
2 4
Datum
C22 C42
= W + m2 u2 + + gz2 + p2 v2 + m4 4 2 + gz4 + p4 v4
u +
2
Substituting enthalpy values, h1, h2, h3, h4 and for Q and W;
C2 C2
Q1 − Q2 + Q3 + m1 h1 + 1 + gz1 + m3 h3 + 3 + gz3
2 2
C 2 C 2
= (W1 + W2 ) + m2 h2 + 2 + gz2 + m4 h4 + 4 + gz4
2 2
Case 1
If the inlet and exit velocities are negligible, then
KE1 = KE2 = KE3 = KE4 = 0
68 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
and S.F.E.E. is modified to
Q1 – Q2 + Q3 + m1(h1 + gz1) + m3(h3 + gz3)
= W1 + W2 + m2(h2 + gz2) + m4(h4 + gz4)
Case 2
If there is no change in elevation and mass flow rates at all inlets and outlets are same, then, m1 = m2 =
m3 = m4 = m
Q1 – Q2 + Q3 + m . h1 + m h3 = W1 + W2 + m h2 + m h4
or, on unit mass basis
q1 – q2 + q3 + h1 + h3 = w1 + w2 + h2 + h4
2 Fluid out
Q=0
WT
1
Fluid in
C22 − C12
or, Wpump = m{(p2v2 – p1v1) + + g(z2 – z1)}
2
Wpump
2
Out
1
In
2 Steam out
Q boiler
1
Water in
Steam in
1
2
Condensate out
C22 − C12
or, = h1 – h2
2
C2 = C12 + 2(h1 − h2 )
C2, h2
C1 , h1
1 Nozzle
1 2
f Fuel
mf
1 2
m1 m2
Air in Combustion
products, out
m1 T1 + m2 T2 m1, h1 1
or T3 =
m3 3
1
m3, h3
By mass balance, 2
3 3
m1 + m2 = m3
2
m2 , h2
Fig. 3.26 Adiabatic mixing
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 73
3.10 UNSTEADY FLOW SYSTEMS AND THEIR ANALYSIS
In earlier discussions, for a steady flow system, it has been assumed that the properties do not change
with time.
However, there exist a number of systems such as filling up of a bottle or emptying of a vessel etc.
in which properties change continuously as the process proceeds. Such systems can not be analysed
with the steady state assumptions. Unsteady flow processes are also known as transient flow processes
or variable flow processes.
Let us take example of filling up of the bottle.
The bottle is filled up gradually, therefore it is case of an unsteady system.
By conservation of mass, the unsteady process over a period of time ‘dt’ can
be expressed as following in generic form.
(Mass entering the control volume in time dt)
– (Mass leaving the control volume in time dt)
= Net change in mass in control volume in time dt.
If the mass flow rate at inlet and exit are given as mi, me then
dmi dme dmc v
− = Fig. 3.27 Filling of
dt dt dt the bottle
and also, ∑ mi – ∑ me = (mfinal – minitial)cv
By the conservation of energy principle applied on control volume for time ‘t’, energy balance
yields;
Net energy interaction across the boundary in time dt
+ Energy entering into control volume in time dt
– Energy leaving out of control volume in time dt
= Change in energy in control volume in time dt
Mathematically, it can be given as:
(Q – W) + ∑ Ei – ∑ Ee = ∆Ecv
t
Ci2
where Ei = ∫ i i
m ( h +
2
+ gzi ) . dt
0
t
Ce2
Ee = ∫ me ( he +
2
+ gze ) . dt
0
Thus, the above mass balance and energy balance can be used for analysing the unsteady flow systems
with suitable assumptions.
It may be assumed that the control volume state is uniform and fluid properties are uniform and
steady at inlet and exit.
Simplified form of energy balance written above can be given as;
Ci2 C2
Q – W + ∑ mi ( hi + + gzi ) – ∑ me ( he + e + gze )
2 2
= (mfinal . ufinal – minitial . uinitial)cv
If the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy are negligible, then energy balance gets modified
as;
Q – W + ∑ mi · hi – ∑ me · he = (mfinal · ufinal – minitial · uinitial)cv
74 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Case 1: Let us now use the energy and mass balance to the unsteady flow process of filling up a bottle
as shown in Figure 3.27. Bottle is initially empty and connected to a pipe line through valve for being
filled.
Let us denote initial state of system by subscript 1 and final state by 2.
Initially as bottle is empty, so m1 = 0
From mass balance
∑ mi – ∑ me = (m2 – 0)cv
Here there is no exit from the bottle so me = 0
hence, ∑ mi = m2
or, mi = m2
Mass entered into bottle = Final mass inside the bottle
Applying the energy balance assuming change in kinetic and potential energy to be negligible, treating
bottle filling process to be occurring in insulated environment, and no work interaction, we get
Q ≈ 0, W ≈ 0, ∆KE ≈ 0, ∆PE ≈ 0,
Initial internal energy in bottle = 0
Mass leaving = 0
0 = – ∑ mi · hi + (m2·u2)cv
or mi · hi = m2u2
also hi = u2 as mi = m2
Enthalpy of fluid entering bottle = Final internal energy of fluid in bottle.
If fluid is ideal gas, then cp·Ti = cv ·T2
or T2 = γ ·Ti
cp
where =γ
cv
Case 2: Let us now take a case of emptying of bottle. Arrangement is shown in
Fig. 3.28.
Initially bottle has mass m1 and finally as a result of emptying, say mass
left is m2 after some time.
Fig. 3.28 Emptying of
Applying mass balance, (as mass entering is zero), bottle
or, 0 – ∑ me = (m2 – m1)cv
or ∑ me = (m1 – m2)cv
or me = (m1 – m2)cv
Total mass leaving the bottle = (Mass reduced in bottle)
Applying energy balance, with the assumptions given below;
(i) No heat interaction i.e. Q = 0
(ii) No work interaction i.e. W = 0
(iii) No change in kinetic energy i.e. ∆KE = 0
(iv) No change in potential energy i.e. ∆PE = 0
– ∑ me · he = (m2 u2 – m1u1)cv
or, (– me · he) = (m2u2 – m1u1)cv
Substituting for ‘me’ we get (m2 – m1)cv · he = (m2u2 – m1u1)cv
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 75
In case of complete emptying, m2 = 0
and so, he = u1
EXAMPLES
Gas
Cylinder
Fig. 3.30
Fluid expands from a volume of 0.04 m3
to 0.045 m3 while pressure remains constant. Paddle wheel
in the system does a work of 4.88 kJ on the system. Determine (a) work done by system on the piston (b)
the net amount of work done on or by the system.
Solution:
(a) It is a closed system. If the pressure on face of piston is uniform, then the work done on piston
can be obtained as,
2
W =p ∫ dV
1
= 689 × 103 (0.045 – 0.04)
Work done on piston, W = 3445 J or 3.445 kJ
Work done on piston = 3.445 kJ Ans.
(b) Paddle work done on the system = – 4.88 kJ
Net work of system⇒ Wnet = Wpiston + Wpaddle
= 3445 – 4880
Wnet = –1435 J
Work done on system = 1435 J or 1.435 kJ.
Work done on system = 1.435 kJ Ans.
2. A gas at 65 kPa, 200°C is heated in a closed, rigid vessel till it reaches to 400°C. Determine the
amount of heat required for 0.5 kg of this gas if internal energy at 200°C and 400°C are 26.6 kJ/kg and
37.8 kJ/kg respectively.
Solution: Q=?
Given m = 0.5 kg
u1 = 26.6 kJ/kg Gas
u2 = 37.8 kJ/kg in closed
rigid vessel W=0
As the vessel is rigid therefore work done shall be zero.
W =0
Fig. 3.31
From first law of thermodynamics;
Q = U2 – U1 + W = m(u2 – u1) + 0
Q = 0.5 (37.8 – 26.6)
Q = 5.6 kJ
Heat required = 5.6 kJ Ans.
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 77
3. Carbon dioxide passing through a heat exchanger at a rate of 50 kg/hr is to be cooled down from
800°C to 50°C. Determine the rate of heat removal assuming flow of gas to be of steady and constant
pressure type. Take cp = 1.08 kJ/kg K.
Solution:
1 2
T1 = 800 ºC T2 = 50 ºC
Fig. 3.32
Given, m = 50 kg/hr
Writing down the steady flow energy equation.
C12 C2
q + h1 + + gz1 = h2 + 2 + gz2 + w
2 2
Here let us assume changes in kinetic and potential energy to be negligible. During flow the work
interaction shall also be zero.
Hence q = h2 – h1
or Q = m (h2 – h1)
= m · cp · (T2 – T1)
= 50 × 1.08 × (750)
= 40500 kJ/hr
Heat should be removed at the rate of 40500 kJ/hr Ans.
4. A completely evacuated cylinder of 0.78 m3 volume is filled by opening its valve to atmosphere and
air rushing into it. Determine the work done by the air and by surroundings on system.
Solution : Total work done by the air at atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa,
W= ∫ p. dv + ∫ p. dv
cylinder air
p2V2 − p1V1
=
1− n
(2 × 0.03 − 1 × 0.05) × 103
=
(1 − 1.4)
W = 25 kJ, (–ve)
From first law of thermodynamics,
Heat interaction ∆Q = ∆U + W
= 75 + (–25)
= 50 kJ
Heat = 50 kJ
Work = 25 kJ (–ve) Ans.
Internal energy change = 75 kJ
If 180 kJ heat transfer takes place, then from Ist law,
∆Q = ∆U + W
Since end states remain same, therefore ∆U, i.e. change in internal energy remains unaltered.
180 = 75 + W
or W = 105 kJ
This work is different from previous work because the process is not
quasi-static in this case. Ans.
7. Determine the heat transfer and its direction for a system in which a perfect gas having molecular
weight of 16 is compressed from 101.3 kPa, 20°C to a pressure of 600 kPa following the law pV1.3 =
constant. Take specific heat at constant pressure of gas as 1.7 kJ/kg.K.
Solution:
Universal gas constant
Characteristic gas constant, R =
Molecular weight
8.3143×103
= , J/kg.K
16
= 519.64, J/kg.K
or = 0.51964, kJ/kg.K
R = 0.520, kJ/kg.K
Cv = Cp – R
= 1.7 – 0.520
Cv = 1.18, kJ/kg.K
Cp 1.7
or γ = = = 1.44
Cv 1.18
1/1.3
p1
For polytropic process, V2 = ·V1
p2
80 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1.3−1
p 1.3
or T 2 = T1 2
p1
0.231
600
T 2 = 293 ·
101.3
T 2 = 441.9 K
R (T1 − T2 )
Work, W = (1.3 1)
−
W = 258.1 kJ/kg
For polytropic process
γ −n 1.44 − 1.3
Heat, Q = · W= × 258.1
γ −1 1.44 − 1
= 82.12, kJ/kg (+ve) Ans.
8. In a nozzle air at 627°C and twice atmospheric pressure enters with negligible velocity and leaves at
a temperature of 27°C. Determine velocity of air at exit, assuming no heat loss and nozzle being
horizontal. Take CP = 1.005 kJ/kg.K for air.
Solution: Applying steady flow energy equation with inlet and exit states as 1, 2 with no heat and work
interaction and no change in potential energy.
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Given that, C1 ≈ 0, negligible inlet velocity
C2 = 2(h1 − h2 )
Fig. 3.34
Here let us assume that the pressure is always equal to atmospheric pressure as balloon is flexible,
inelastic and unstressed and no work is done for stretching balloon during its filling. Figure 3.34 shows
the boundary of system before and after filling balloon by firm line and dotted line respectively.
Displacement work, W= ∫ p . dV
+ ∫ p . dV
cylinder balloon
WT (+ve)
Qadd
Condenser
Wp (–ve)
Qrejected
Feed pump
Fig. 3.35
14. In a gas turbine installation air is heated inside heat exchanger upto 750°C from ambient tempera-
ture of 27°C. Hot air then enters into gas turbine with the velocity of 50 m/s and leaves at 600°C. Air
leaving turbine enters a nozzle at 60 m/s velocity and leaves nozzle at temperature of 500°C. For unit
mass flow rate of air determine the following assuming adiabatic expansion in turbine and nozzle,
(a) heat transfer to air in heat exchanger
(b) power output from turbine
(c) velocity at exit of nozzle.
Take cp for air as 1.005 kJ/kg°K.
Solution:
In heat exchanger upon applying S.F.E.E. with assumptions of no change in kinetic energy, no work
interaction, no change in potential energy, for unit mass flow rate of air,
h1 + Q1–2 = h2
Q1–2 = h2 – h1
Q1–2 = Cp · (T2 – T1)
Heat transfer to air in heat exchanger Q1–2 = 726.62 kJ Ans.
27 °C 750 °C
Air
1 2
Heat exchanger
Fig. 3.36
84 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
In gas turbine let us use S.F.E.E., assuming no change in potential energy, for unit mass flow rate
of air
C22 C2
h2 + = h3 + 3 + WT
2 2
C22 − C32
WT = (h2 – h3) + 2
C22 − C32
= Cp(T2 – T3) + 2
502 − 602
= 1.005 (750 – 600) + × 10
–3
2
Power output from turbine = 150.2 kJ/s Ans.
600 °C, 60 m/s
3
WT
2
Gas turbine
50 m/s
750 °C
Fig. 3.37
Applying S.F.E.E. upon nozzle assuming no change in potential energy, no work and heat interac-
tions, for unit mass flow rate,
C32 C2
h3 + = h4 + 4
2 2
C42 C2
= (h3 – h4) + 3
2 2
C32
= Cp(T3 – T4) +
2
602
= 1.005 (600 – 500) + 2 × 10–3
600 °C
60 m/s 500 °C
C42
= 102.3 3 4
2
Nozzle
C4 = 14.3 m/s
Velocity at exit of nozzle = 14.3 m/s Ans. Fig. 3.38
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 85
15. One mol of air at 0.5 MPa and 400 K, initially undergoes following processes, sequentially
(a) heating at constant pressure till the volume gets doubled.
(b) expansion at constant temperature till the volume is six times of initial volume.
Determine the work done by air.
Solution:
For constant pressure heating, say state changes from 1 to 2
2
Wa = ∫ p1 dV
1
Wa = p1 (V2 – V1)
It is given that V2 = 2V1
so Wa = p1 V1
Wa = RT1
For subsequent expansion at constant temperature say state changes from 2 to 3.
V3 V3
Also given that = 6, so =3
V1 V2
3
Work, Wb = ∫ pdV
2
3
RT V
= ∫ V
dV = RT ln 3
2 V2
2
Wb = RT2 ln (3)
Temperature at 2 can be given by perfect gas considerations as,
T2 V2
T1 = V1
or T2 = 2 T1
Total work done by air, W = Wa + Wb
= RT1 + RT2 ln (3)
= RT1 + 2RT1 ln (3)
= RT1 (1 + 2 ln 3) = 8.314 × 400 (1 + 2 ln 3)
Work done = 10632.69 kJ Ans.
16. Determine the work done by gas for the arrangement shown in Fig. 3.39. Here spring exerts a force
upon piston which is proportional to its deformation from equilibrium position. Spring gets deflected
due to heating of gas till its volume becomes thrice of original volume. Initial states are 0.5 MPa and
0.5 m3 while final gas pressure becomes 1 MPa. Atmospheric pressure may be taken as 1.013 × 105 Pa.
Solution:
Let stiffness of spring be k and it undergoes a deflection by ‘x’ along x-axis. Force balance at any
equilibrium position of piston shall be,
p. A = patm · A + kx,
here x shall be linear displacement of piston due to expansion of gas. Let volume of gas change from V0
V − V0
to some value V. Then, x = , V0 is volume of gas when spring is at its natural length.
A
86 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
V − V0
p · A = patm · A + k
A
k (V − V0 )
or (p – patm) =
A2
f
f
k V 2
W = patm (Vf – Vi) + 2 − V0 . V
A 2 i
k V f − Vi
2 2
= patm (Vf – Vi) + − V0 V f + V0 . Vi
A 2
2
k
= (Vf – Vi) patm + 2 ((V f − V0 ) + (Vi − V0 ))(V f − Vi )
2A
k
= (Vf – Vi) Patm ((V f − V0 ) + (Vi − V0 ))
2 A2
k
from above force balance, (pf – patm) = (V f − V0 )
A2
k
(pi – patm) = (Vi − V0 )
A2
p f − patm pi − patm
or W = (Vf – Vi) patm + +
2 2
pi + p f
= (Vf – Vi) 2 , substituting pressure and volume values, Vf = 3Vi
W = 0.75 × 106 J Ans.
y
Atm. pr.
x
Fig. 3.39
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 87
17. A closed insulated container has frictionless and smooth moving insulated partition as shown in
Fig. 3.40 such that it equally divides total 1 m3 of volume, when both the gases are at initial pressure of
0.5 MPa and ambient temperature of 27°C. Subsequently the nitrogen is heated using electrical heating
element such that volume of N2 becomes 3/4 of total volume of Insulated
container. Determine, (i) final pressure of hydrogen, (ii) Work
done by partition, (iii) Workdone by N2 and H2 (iv) Heat added Electric
to N2 by electric heater. heating
element
N2 H2
Take C p , N2 = 1.039 kJ/kg. K, C p , H 2 = 14.307 kJ/kg . K,
Frictionless
RN 2 = 0.2968 kJ/kg . K, RH 2 = 4.1240 kJ/kg . K
moving partition
Solution: Fig. 3.40
With the heating of N2 it will get expanded while H2 gets compressed simultaneously. Compression of H2
in insulated chamber may be considered of adiabatic type.
Adiabatic Index of compression for H2 can be obtained as,
γ
C p , H 2 = RH 2 H 2
γ H −1
2
γ H2
14.307 = 4.124 γ − 1
H2
γ H2 = 1.405
γ N2
Adiabatic Index of expansion for N2, C p , N2 = RN2 γ − 1
N2
γ N2
1.039 = 0.2968 γ − 1
N2
γ N2 = 1.399
γ γ
(i) For hydrogen, p1 V1 = p2 V2
Here γ = γ H 2 = 1.405, V1 = 0.5 m3
p1 = 0.5 × 106 Pa, V2 = 0.25 m3
1.405
0.5
Final pressure of H2 = 0.5 × 106 0.25
= 1.324 MPa Ans.
(ii) Since partition remains in equilibrium throughout hence no work is done by partition. It is a
case similar to free expansion.
Partition work = 0. Ans.
(iii) Work done upon H2,
1 1 − p2V2
PV
WH 2 = (γ − 1)
H2
88 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here p1 = 0.5 × 106 Pa, p2 = 1.324 × 106 Pa, V1 = 0.5 m3, V2 = 0.25 m3.
( −)0.081 × 106
Work done by hydrogen, WH 2 =
0.405
= (–) 2 × 105 J Ans.
Work done by N2 = Work done upon H2
Work done by nitrogen = + 2 × 105 J Ans.
(iv) Heat added to N2 can be obtained using first law of thermodynamics as
QN 2 = ∆U N 2 + WN 2 ⇒ QN 2 = mcv(T2 – T1) + WN 2
Final temperature of N2 can be obtained considering it as perfect gas.
p2V2T1
Therefore, T2 =
p1V1
p2 = Final pressure of N2 which will be equal to that of H2 as the partition is free and
frictionless.
p2 = 1.324 × 106 Pa.
1.324 × 10 6 × 0.75 × 300
T2 = Final temperature of N2 =
0.5 × 106 × 0.5
= 1191.6 K
p1V1 0.5 × 10 6 × 0.5
mass of N2, m = RT = = 2.8 kg.
1 0.2968 × 103 × 300
Specific heat at constant volume, Cv = Cp – R ⇒ Cv , N 2 = 0.7422 kJ/kg . K.
Evacuated bottle
Fig. 3.41
Displacement work; W = 1.0135 × 105
× (0 – 0.5)
W = – 0.50675 × 105 Nm
Heat transfer, Q = 0.50675 × 105 Nm
Heat transfer = 0.50675 × 105 Nm Ans.
21. A compressed air bottle of 0.3 m3 volume contains air at 35 bar, 40°C. This air is used to drive a
turbogenerator sypplying power to a device which consumes 5 W. Calculate the time for which the
device can be operated if the actual output of the turbogenerator is 60% of the maximum theoretical
Cp
output. The ambient pressure to which the tank pressure has fallen is 1 bar. For air, = 1.4.
Cv
[U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
Here turbogenerator is fed with compressed air from a compressed air bottle. Pressure inside bottle
gradually decreases from 35 bar to 1 bar. Expansion from 35 bar to 1 bar occurs isentropically. Thus,
for the initial and final states of pressure, volume, temperature and mass inside bottle being given as P1,
V1, T1 & m1 and P2, V2, T2 & m2 respectively. It is transient flow process similar to emptying of the
bottle.
γ −1
P2 γ T2
=
T1 , Given: P1 = 35 bar, T1 = 40°C or 313 K
T1
V1 = 0.3 m3; V2 = 0.3 m3
P2 = 1 bar.
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 91
γ −1
P γ
T2 = T1 2
T1
T2 = 113.22 K
PV
1 1 35 × 102 × 0.3
By perfect gas law, initial mass in bottle, m1 = =
RT1 0.287 × 313
m1 = 11.68 kg
P2V2 1 × 102 × 0.3
Final mass in bottle, m2 = RT =
2 0.287 × 113.22
m2 = 0.923 kg
Energy available for running turbo generator or work;
W + (m1 – m2) h2 = m1 u1 – m2 u2
W = (m1u1 – m2u2) – (m1 – m2) h2
= (m1 cv T1 – m2 cv T2) – (m1 – m2) · cp · T2
Taking cv = 0.718 kJ/kg . K and cP = 1.005 kJ/kg · K
W = {(11.68 × 0.718 × 313) – (0.923 × 0.718 × 113.22)}
– {(11.68 – 0.923) × 1.005 × 113.22}
W = 1325.86 kJ
This is the maximum work that can be had from the emptying of compressed air bottle between
given pressure limits.
Turbogenerator’s actual output = 5 kJ/s
5
Input to turbogenerator = = 8.33 kJ/s.
0.6
Time duration for which turbogenerator can be run;
1325.86
∆t =
8.33
∆t = 159.17 sec.
Duration ≈ 160 seconds Ans.
22. 3 kg of air at 1.5 bar pressure and 77°C temperature at state 1 is compressed polytropically to state
2 at pressure 7.5 bar, index of compression being 1.2. It is then cooled at constant temperature to its
original state 1. Find the net work done and heat transferred. [U.P.S.C. 1992]
Solution:
Different states as described in the problem are denoted as 1, 2 and 3 and shown on p-V diagram.
Process 1-2 is polytropic process with index 1.2
n −1
T2 P2 n
So,
T1 = P
1
n −1
P n
or, T2 = T1 2
P1
92 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3 P = Constant 2
7.5
bar
1.2
PV = Constant
P
1.5 bar
PV = Constant
1
V
Fig. 3.42
1.2−1
7.5 1.2
= 350 .
1.5
T2 = 457.68 K
At state 1, P1V1 = mRT1
1.5 × 105
· V1 = 3 × 0.287 × 350
103
or, V1 = 2.009 ≈ 2.01 m3
1
PV
1 1
1.2
1.5 × (2.01)1.2 × 105 1.2
For process 1-2, V21.2 = , V2 =
P2 7.5 × 105
or, V2 = 0.526 m3
P2V2 P3V3
Process 2-3 is constant pressure process, so = gets modified as,
T2 T3
V2 · T3
⇒ V3 =
T2
Here process 3-1 is isothermal process, so T1 = T3
0.526 × 350
or, V3 =
457.68
or, V3 = 0.402 m3
During process 1-2 the compression work;
m.R.(T1 − T2 )
W1–2 =
1− n
3 × 0.287(457.68 − 350)
=
(1 − 1.2)
W1–2 = – 463.56 kJ
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 93
Work during process 2-3,
W2–3 = P2 (V3 – V2)
= 7.5 × 105 (0.402 – 0.526)
= – 93 kJ
Work during process 3-1,
V1 2.01
W3–1 = P3V3 ln = 7.5 × 105 × 0.402 × ln
V3 0.402
W3–1 = 485.25 kJ
Net work, Wnet = W1–2 + W2–3 + W3–1
= – 463.56 – 93 + 485.25
Network = – 71.31 kJ Ans.
–ve work shows work done upon the system. Since it is the cycle, so
Wnet = Qnet
φ dW = φ dQ = – 71.31 kJ
Heat transferred from system = 71.31 kJ Ans.
23. A compressed air bottle of volume 0.15 m3
contains air at 40 bar and 27°C. It is used to drive a
turbine which exhausts to atmosphere at 1 bar. If the pressure in the bottle is allowed to fall to 2 bar,
determine the amount of work that could be delivered by the turbine. [U.P.S.C. 1998]
Solution:
cp = 1.005 kJ/kg . K, cv = 0.718 kJ/kg K, γ = 1.4
p1V1 40 × 102 × 0.15
Initial mass of air in bottle ⇒ m1 = =
RT1 0.287 × 300
m1 = 6.97 kg
p2V2
Final mass of air in bottle ⇒ m2 =
RT2
γ −1
T2 P2 γ 2 × 102 × 0.15
T1 = P , m2 =
0.287 × 127.36
1
1.4−1
2 1.4
= , m2 = 0.821 kg.
40
T2 = 127.36 K
Energy available for running of turbine due to emptying of bottle,
= (m1 cv T1 – m2 cv T2) – (m1 – m2) · cp · T2
= {(6.97 × 0.718 × 300) – (0.821 × 0.718 × 127.36)}
– {(6.97 – 0.821) × 1.005 × 127.35}
= 639.27 kJ.
Work available from turbine = 639.27 kJ Ans.
94 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
-:-4+15-
3.1 Define the first law of thermodynamics. Also give supporting mathematical expression for it.
3.2 How the first law of thermodynamics is applied to a closed system undergoing a non-cyclic process?
3.3 Show that internal energy is a property.
3.4 Explain the following :
(a) Free expansion
(b) Polytropic process
(c) Hyperbolic process
Also obtain expressions for work in each case.
3.5 Show that for a polytropic process.
γ −n
Q= W
γ −1
where Q and W are heat and work interactions and n is polytropic index.
3.6 Derive the steady flow energy equation.
3.7 Explain a unsteady flow process.
3.8 Show that for a given quantity of air supplied with a definite amount of heat at constant volume, the
rise in pressure shall be directly proportional to initial absolute pressure and inversely proportional to
initial absolute temperature.
3.9 How much work is done when 0.566 m3 of air initially at a pressure of 1.0335 bar and temperature of 7°C
undergoes an increase in pressure upto 4.13 bar in a closed vessel? [0]
3.10 An ideal gas and a steel block are initially having same volumes at same temperature and pressure.
Pressure on both is increased isothermally to five times of its initial value. Show with the help of P–V
diagram, whether the quantities of work shall be same in two processes or different. If different then
which one is greater. Assume processes to be quasi-static.
3.11 An inventor has developed an engine getting 1055 MJ from fuel and rejecting 26.375 MJ in exhaust
and delivering 25 kWh of mechanical work. Is this engine possible? [No]
3.12 For an ideal gas the pressure is increased isothermally to ‘n’ times its initial value. How high would the
gas be raised if the same amount of work were done in lifting it? Assume process to be quasi-static.
3.13 A system’s state changes from a to b as shown on P–V diagram
c b
a d
Fig. 3.43
Along path ‘acb’ 84.4 kJ of heat flows into the system and system does 31.65 kJ of work. Determine
heat flow into the system along path ‘adb’ if work done is 10.55 kJ. When system returns from ‘b’ to
‘a’ following the curved path then work done on system is 21.1 kJ. How much heat is absorbed or
rejected? If internal energy at ‘a’ and ‘d’ are 0 and 42.2 kJ, find the heat absorbed in processes ‘ad’ and
‘db’. [63.3 kJ, – 73.85 kJ, 52.75 kJ, 10.55 kJ]
3.14 A tank contains 2.26 m3 of air at a pressure of 24.12 bar. If air is cooled until its pressure and temperature
becomes 13.78 bar and 21.1°C respectively. Determine the decrease of internal energy.
[– 5857.36 kJ]
First Law of Thermodynamics _____________________________________________________ 95
3.15 Water in a rigid, insulating tank is set in rotation and left. Water comes to rest after some time due to
viscous forces. Considering the tank and water to constitute the system answer the following.
(i) Is any work done during the process of water coming to rest?
(ii) Is there a flow of heat?
(iii) Is there any change in internal energy (U)?
(iv) Is there any change in total energy (E)? [No, No, Yes, No]
3.16 Fuel-air mixture in a rigid insulated tank is burnt by a spark inside causing increase in both temperature
and pressure. Considering the heat energy added by spark to be negligible, answer the following :
(i) Is there a flow of heat into the system?
(ii) Is there any work done by the system?
(iii) Is there any change in internal energy (U) of system?
(iv) Is there any change in total energy (E) of system? [No, No, No, No]
3.17 Calculate the work if in a closed system the pressure changes as per relation p = 300 . V + 1000 and
volume changes from 6 to 4 m3. Here pressure ‘p’ is in Pa and volume ‘V’ is in m3. [– 5000J]
3.18 Hydrogen from cylinder is used for inflating a balloon to a volume of 35m3 slowly. Determine the work
done by hydrogen if the atmospheric pressure is 101.325 kPa. [3.55 MJ]
3.19 Show that the work done by an ideal gas is mRT1, if gas is heated from initial temperature T1 to twice
of initial temperature at constant volume and subsequently cooled isobarically to initial state.
3.20 Derive expression for work done by the gas in following system. Piston-cylinder device shown has a
gas initially at pressure and volume given by P1, V1. Initially the spring does not exert any force on
piston. Upon heating the gas, its volume gets doubled and pressure becomes P2.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Earlier discussions in article 3.11 throw some light on the limitations of first law of thermodynamics. A
few situations have been explained where first law of thermodynamics fails to mathematically explain
non-occurrence of certain processes, direction of process etc. Therefore, need was felt to have some
more law of thermodynamics to handle such complex situations. Second law came up as embodiment
of real happenings while retaining the basic nature of first law of thermodynamics. Feasibility of process,
direction of process and grades of energy such as low and high are the potential answers provided by
IInd law. Second law of thermodynamics is capable of indicating the maximum possible efficiencies of
heat engines, coefficient of performance of heat pumps and refrigerators, defining a temperature scale
independent of physical properties etc.
T1, Source
Q1
HE W(=Q1–Q2)
Q2
T2, Sink
Qadd
Thigh Heat exchanger 1, Source
2
1 WT
WC
C T
G
4 3
C : Compressor
T : Turbine
G : Generator
Qrejected Tlow Heat exchanger 2, Sink
Qadd = Q1
HE (WT–WC) = W
Qrejected = Q2
Tlow Sink
Fig. 4.3 Heat engine representation for gas turbine plant
Efficiency of heat engine can be given by the ratio of net work and heat supplied.
Net work W
ηheat engine = =
Heat supplied Q1
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 99
For gas turbine plant shown
W = WT – WC
and Q1 = Qadd
Also since it is operating in cycle, so;
WT – WC = Qadd – Qrejected
therefore, efficiency of heat engine can be given as;
WT − WC
ηheat engine =
Qadd
Qadd − Qrejected
=
Qadd
Qrejected
ηheat engine = 1 −
Qadd
B o dy, T 1
Q1
T 1 > T2 H P W H P : H e at pu m p
Q2
Low tem p.
s urrou ndings
T2
Q1
(COP)HP =
W
also W = Q1 – Q2
Q1
so (COP) HP =
Q1 − Q2
Refrigerator is a device similar to heat pump but with reverse objective. It maintains a body at
temperature lower than that of surroundings while operating in a cycle. Block diagram representation of
refrigerator is shown in Fig 4.5.
Refrigerator also performs a non spontaneous process of extracting heat from low temperature
body for maintaining it cool, therefore external work W is to be done for realizing it.
Block diagram shows how refrigerator extracts heat Q2 for maintaining body at low temperature T2
at the expense of work W and rejects heat to high temperature surroundings.
High temp. T1
surroundings
Q1
T2 < T1 R W R : Refrigerator
Q2
Body, T2
Fig. 4.5 Refrigerator
Performance of refrigerator is also quantified by coefficient of performance, which could be defined
as:
Desired effect Q2
(COP)refrigerator = =
Net work W
Here W = Q1 – Q2
Q2
or (COP)refrigerator =
Q1 − Q2
COP values of heat pump and refrigerator can be interrelated as:
(COP)HP = (COP)refrigerator + 1
Q1 Q1 = Q2
HE W = Q1 HP W=0
Q2 = 0 Q2
Source, T1
Q3 Q1
W
HP HE T1 > T2
W
Q2
Sink, T2
Source, T1
Q3
HP due to
HE and
HP together
Q2
Sink, T2
Source, T1
Q1 = Q2 Q3 = Q1
T1 > T2
HP HE W = Q3 – Q4
W=0
Q2 Q2
Sink, T2
(i) Reversible process can not be realized (i) All practical processes occurring are
in practice irreversible processes
(ii) The process can be carried out in the (ii) Process, when carried out in reverse direction
reverse direction following the same follows the path different from that in
path as followed in forward direction forward direction.
(iii) A reversible process leaves no trace of (iii) The evidences of process having occurred
occurrence of process upon the system are evident even after reversal of irreversible
and surroundings after its' reversal. process.
(iv) Such processes can occur in either (iv) Occurrence of irreversible processes in
directions without violating second law either direction is not possible, as in one
of thermodynamics. direction it shall be accompanied with the
violation of second law of thermodynamics.
(v) A system undergoing reversible processes (v) System having irreversible processes do not
has maximum efficiency. So the system have maximum efficiency as it is accompanied
with reversible processes are considered by the wastage of energy.
as reference systems or bench marks.
(vi) Reversible process occurs at infinitesimal (vi) Irreversible processes occur at finite rate.
rate i.e. quasi-static process.
(vii) System remains throughout in (vii) System does not remain in thermodynamic
thermodynamic equilibrium during equilibrium during occurrence of irreversible
occurrence of such process. processes.
(viii) Examples; (viii) Examples;
Frictionless motion, controlled expansion Viscous fluid flow, inelastic deformation and
and compression, Elastic deformations, hysteresis effect, Free expansion, Electric
Electric circuit with no resistance, circuit with resistance, Mixing of dissimilar
Electrolysis, Polarization and gases, Throttling process etc.
magnetisation process etc.
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 105
4.8 CARNOT CYCLE AND CARNOT ENGINE
Nicholas Leonard Sadi Carnot, an engineer in French army originated use of cycle (Carnot) in
thermodynamic analysis in 1824 and these concepts provided basics upon which second law of
thermodynamics was stated by Clausius and others.
Carnot cycle is a reversible thermodynamic cycle comprising of four reversible processes.
Thermodynamic processes constituting Carnot cycle are;
(i) Reversible isothermal heat addition process, (1–2, Qadd)
(ii) Reversible adiabatic expansion process (2–3, Wexpn +ve)
(iii) Reversible isothermal heat release process (3–4, Qrejected)
(iv) Reversible adiabatic compression process (4–1, Wcompr –ve)
Carnot cycle is shown on P–V diagram between states 1, 2, 3 4, and 1. A reciprocating piston-
cylinder assembly is also shown below P–V diagram.
Process 1 –2 is isothermal heat addition process of reversible type in which heat is transferred to
system isothermally. In the piston cylinder arrangement heat Qadd can be transferred to gas from a
constant temperature source T1 through a cylinder head of conductor type.
First law of thermodynamics applied on 1–2 yields;
Qadd = U2 – U1 + W1–2
Reversible adiabatics
1
Qadd
2
Wcompr.
P
Reversible
Wexpn isothermals
4
3
Qrejected
V
Cylinder
head of System
insulated
type
Piston
Insulated cylinder
Cylinder head of
conducting type
1 2 Wexpn
WCompr
C T
4 3 C : Compressor
T : Turbine
T3
Qrejected Heat exchanger 2
or Wcompr = (U1 − U 4 )
∑W = ∑Q
cycle cycle
Qlow
ηrev, HE = 1 −
Qhigh
Qlow
ηCarnot = 1 −
Qhigh
Piston-cylinder arrangement shown and discussed for realizing Carnot cycle is not practically feasible
as;
(i) Frequent change of cylinder head i.e. of insulating type and diathermic type for adiabatic and
isothermal processes is very difficult.
(ii) Isothermal heat addition and isothermal-heat rejection are practically very difficult to be
realized
(iii) Reversible adiabatic expansion and compression are not possible.
(iv) Even if near reversible isothermal heat addition and rejection is to be achieved then time
duration for heat interaction should be very large i.e. infinitesimal heat interaction occurring
at dead slow speed. Near reversible adiabatic processes can be achieved by making them to
occur fast. In a piston-cylinder reciprocating engine arrangement such speed fluctuation in a
single cycle is not possible.
Carnot heat engine arrangement is also shown with turbine, compressor and heat exchangers for
adiabatic and isothermal processes. Fluid is compressed in compressor adiabatically, heated in heat
exchanger at temperature T1, expanded in turbine adiabatically, cooled in heat exchanger at temperature
T3 and sent to compressor for compression. Here also following practical difficulties are confronted;
(i) Reversible isothermal heat addition and rejection are not possible.
(ii) Reversible adiabatic expansion and compression are not possible.
Carnot cycle can also operate reversibly as all processes constituting it are of reversible type.
Reversed Carnot cycle is shown below;
108 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1
Qadd
2
Wcompr. T1 = constant
P
Wexpn
4
3 T3 = constant
Qrejected
V
Source, T1 Source, T1
Q1, I Q1, II = Q1, I
Q1, I Q1, II Q1, I Q1, II
WI WI W II WI W II
HEI HEII HEI HEII HEI HEII
W II
Q2, I Q2, II Q2, I (W II – W I) Q2, II (W II – W I)
Q2, I Q2, II
Sink, T2 Sink, T2
Sink, T2
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 4.13 Proof of Carnots theorem
Arrangement shown has heat engine, HE1 getting Q1,I from source, rejecting Q2, I and producing
work WI. Heat engine, HEII receives Q1,II, rejects Q2,II and produces work WII.
WI = Q1, I – Q2, I
WII = Q1, II – Q2, II
Efficiency of engines HEI, HEII
WI
ηHEI = Q
1,I
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 109
WII
ηHEII = Q
1,II
Now let us assume that engine HE1 is reversible engine while HEII is any engine.
As per Carnot’s theorem efficiency of HEI (reversible engine) is always more than that of HEII. Let
us start with violation of above statement, i.e., efficiency of HEII is more than that of HEI
ηHEI < ηHEII
WI WII
or < Q
Q1,I 1,II
Source, T1
Q1
Source, Thigh
HE1 W1
Qhigh
Q2
T2, Hypothetical
HE W Temperature reservoir
HE2 W2
Qlow
Q3
Sink, Tlow
Sink, T3
(a) (b)
Qhigh
= φ (Thigh, Tlow)
Qlow
Thus, some functional relationship as defined by ‘φ’ is established between heat interactions and
temperatures.
Let us now have more than one reversible heat engines operating in series as shown in Figure 4.14b,
between source and sink having T1 and T3 temperatures. In between an imaginary reservoir at temperature
T2 may be considered.
From the above for two reversible heat engines;
Q1
Q2 = φ (T1, T2)
Q2
and
Q3 = φ (T2, T3)
Combination of two heat engines may be given as shown here,
Source, T1
Q1
HE W
Q3
Sink, T3
Fig. 4.15 Equivalent heat engine for two reversible heat engines operating in series.
Q1 Q1 / Q2
=
Q3 Q2 / Q3
Q1
or
Q3 = φ (T1, T3)
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 111
Q1 Q1 Q2
= .
Q3 Q2 Q3
or φ (T1, T3) = φ (T1, T2) . φ (T2, T3)
Above functional relation is possible only if it is given by another function ψ as follows.
ψ (T1 )
φ (T1, T2) = ψ (T )
2
ψ (T2 )
φ (T2, T3) = ψ (T )
3
ψ (T1 )
φ (T1, T3) = ψ (T )
3
Thus,
Q1 ψ (T1 )
= ( )
Q2 ψ T2
Q2 ψ (T2 )
= ( )
Q3 ψ T3
Q1 ψ (T1 )
=
Q3 ψ (T3 )
Lord Kelvin based upon his observations proposed that the function ψ (T) can be arbitrarily chosen
based on Kelvin scale or absolute thermodynamic temperature scale as;
ψ (T) = Temperature T in Kelvin Scale
Therefore,
Q1 ψ (T1 ) T1
= ( )=
Q2 ψ T2 T2
Q2 ψ (T2 ) T2
= ( )=
Q3 ψ T3 T3
Q1 ψ (T1 ) T1
= ( )=
Q3 ψ T3 T3
where T1, T2, T3 are temperatures in absolute thermodynamic scale.
Here heat absorbed and heat rejected is directly proportional to temperatures of reservoirs supplying
and accepting heats to heat engine. For a Carnot heat engine or reversible heat engine operating between
reservoirs at temperature T and triple point of water, Tt;
Q T T
= =
Qt Tt 273.16
Q
or T = 273.16.
Qt
112 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here for a known Q and Qt values the temperature T can be defined. Thus, heat interaction acts as
thermometric property in thermodynamic temperature scale, which is independent of thermometric
substance. It may be noted that negative temperatures cannot exist on thermodynamic temperature
scale.
Let us now have a large number of reversible heat engines (Carnot engines) operating in series as
shown in Figure 4.16.
Source, T1
Q1
HE1 W1
Q2
HE2 W2
Q3
HE3 W3
Q4 All temperature are in Kelvin
HE4 W4
Q5
HE5 W5
Q6
Qn
HEn Wn
Qn + 1
Tn + 1
Sink
Q2 T2
Q3 = T3
Q3 T3
Q4 = T4
For nth engine
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 113
Qn Tn
=
Qn+1 Tn+1
Here work output from each engine shall continuously diminish the heat supplied to subsequent heat
engine. Let us assume work outputs from ‘n’ engines to be same; i.e.
W1 = W2 = W3 = W4 = ... = Wn
or (Q1 – Q2) = (Q2 – Q3) = (Q3 – Q4) = ... = (Qn – Qn + 1)
or (T1 – T2) = (T2 – T3) = (T3 – T4) = ... = (Tn – Tn + 1)
It is obvious that for a large number of heat engines the heat rejected by nth engine shall be negligible
i.e for very large value of n, Qn + 1→ 0
or for Lim n → ∞, Lim Qn + 1 → 0
Thus, from thermodynamic temperature scale when heat rejection approaches zero, the temperature
of heat rejection also tends to zero as a limiting case. But in such a situation when heat rejection is zero,
the heat engine takes form of a perpetual motion machine of 2nd kind, where work is produced with
only heat supplied to it. Thus, it leads to violation of Kelvin-Planck statement. Hence it is not possible.
Also it can be said that “it is impossible to attain absolute zero temperature in finite number of
operations.” There exists absolute zero temperature on thermodynamic temperature scale, but cannot be
attained without violation of second law of thermodynamics. This fact is popularly explained by third
law of thermodynamics.
Carnot cycle efficiency can now be precisely defined as function of source and sink temperatures.
Qlow
ηcarnot = 1 – Q
high
Tlow
ηcarnot = 1 – T
high
Thus, it is seen that Carnot cycle efficiency depends only upon lower and higher temperatures.
Carnot cycle efficiency is high for small values of sink temperature (Tlow) and larger values of source
temperature (Thigh).
Therefore for maximum efficiency, Carnot cycle must operate between maximum possible source
and minimum possible sink temperatures.
EXAMPLES
1. Using IInd law of thermodynamics show that the following are irreversible
(i) Free expansion.
(ii) Heat transfer through finite temperature difference.
Solution:
(i) Let us consider a perfectly insulated tank having two compartments divided by thin wall.
Compartment I has gas while II has vacuum. When wall is punctured then gas in I expands
till pressure in I and II gets equalised. Let us assume that free expansion is reversible i.e. the
gas in II returns into I and original states are restored.
When gas is allowed to expand, say it produces work W from a device D due to expansion. This
work W is available due to change in internal energy of gas. Internal energy of gas can be restored by
adding equivalent heat Q to it from a source as shown. This whole arrangement if consolidated can be
114 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
treated as a device which is producing work while exchanging heat with single body. Thus, it is violation
of IInd law of thermodynamics, therefore the assumption that free expansion is reversible is incorrect.
Free expansion is irreversible.
Source
Gas Vacuum I II Q
I II
Source, T1 Source, T1
T1 > T2 Q1 Q1
Q1–2 Q2–1
HE W HE W
Q2 Q2
Sink, T2
Sink, T2
Q1 673
Thus = (1)
Q2 288
and Q1 – Q2 = 200 kJ (2)
From equations 1 and 2, upon solving
Q1 = 349.6 kJ
and Q2 = 149.6 kJ
Heat to be supplied = 349.6 kJ Ans.
3. A refrigerator operates on reversed Carnot cycle. Determine the power required to drive refrigerator
between temperatures of 42ºC and 4ºC if heat at the rate of 2 kJ/s is extracted from the low temperature
region.
Solution:
T1
(273 + 42) K
Q1
R W
Q2
(273 + 4) K
T2
Fig. 4.20
To find out, W= ?
Given : T 1 = 315 K, T2 = 277 K
and Q2 = 2 kJ/s
From thermodynamic temperature scale;
Q1 T1
=
Q2 T2
Q1 315
or =
2 277
or Q1 = 2.274 kJ/s
Power/Work input required = Q1 – Q2
= 2.274 – 2
Power required = 0.274 kJ/s
Power required for driving refrigerator = 0.274 kW Ans.
4. A reversible heat engine operates between two reservoirs at 827ºC and 27ºC. Engine drives a Carnot
refrigerator maintaining –13ºC and rejecting heat to reservoir at 27ºC. Heat input to the engine is 2000
kJ and the net work available is 300 kJ. How much heat is transferred to refrigerant and total heat
rejected to reservoir at 27ºC?
Solution:
Block diagram based on the arrangement stated;
116 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
WE WR
HE R
Q2 300 kJ Q4
27 °C T2 Low temperature
reservoir
Fig. 4.21
Q1 T1
We can write, for heat engine, Q2 = T2
Q1 1100
Q2 = 300
Substituting Q1 = 2000 kJ, we get Q2 = 545.45 kJ
Also WE = Q1 – Q2 = 1454.55 kJ
For refrigerator,
Q3 260
= (1)
Q4 300
Also, WR = Q4 – Q3 (2)
and WE – WR = 300
or WR = 1154.55 kJ
Equations (1) & (2) result in,
Q4 – Q3 = 1154.55 (3)
From equations (1) & (3),
Q3 = 7504.58 kJ
Q4 = 8659.13 kJ
Total heat transferred to low temperature reservoir
= Q2 + Q4 = 9204.68 kJ
Heat transferred to refrigerant = 7504.58 kJ
Total heat transferred to low temperature reservoir = 9204.68 kJ Ans.
5. In a winter season when outside temperature is –1ºC, the inside of house is to be maintained at 25ºC.
Estimate the minimum power required to run the heat pump of maintaining the temperature. Assume
heating load as 125 MJ/h.
Solution:
Q1 Q1 1
COPHP = = =
W Q1 − Q2 Q2
1 −
Q1
Also we know
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 117
Q1 298.15 2 5ºC
=
Q2 272.15
Q 1 = 12 5 M J/ h
Thus COPHP = 11.47
W
Q1 HP
Also COPHP = , Substituting Q1
W Q2
therefore W= 10.89 MJ/h – 1ºC
or, W= 3.02 kW
Minimum power required = 3.02 kW Ans. Fig. 4.22
1
6. A cold storage plant of 40 tonnes of refrigeration capacity runs with its performance just th of its
4
Carnot COP. Inside temperature is –15ºC and atmospheric temperature is 35ºC. Determine the power
required to run the plant. [Take : One ton of refrigeration as 3.52 kW]
Solution:
Cold storage plant can be considered as a refrigerator operating 35°C
between given temperatures limits.
Capacity of plant = Heat to be extracted = 140.8 kW Q1
1
W
( ) −1
Carnot COP of plant = R
308
258.15
Q2 = 140.8 kW
= 5.18
–15°C
5.18
Actual COP = = 1.295 Fig. 4.23
4
Q2
Also actual COP = , hence W = 108.73 kW.
W
Power required = 108.73 kW Ans.
7. What would be maximum efficiency of engine that can be had between the temperatures of 1150ºC
and 27ºC ?
Solution:
Highest efficiency is that of Carnot engine, so let us find the Carnot cycle efficiency for given temperature
limits.
273 + 27
η= 1 –
273 + 1150
η = 0.7891 or 78.91% Ans.
8. A domestic refrigerator maintains temperature of – 8ºC when the atmospheric air temperature is 27ºC.
Assuming the leakage of 7.5 kJ/min from outside to refrigerator determine power required to run this
refrigerator. Consider refrigerator as Carnot refrigerator.
Solution:
Here heat to be removed continuously from refrigerated space shall be 7.5 kJ/min or 0.125 kJ/s.
For refrigerator, C.O.P. shall be,
118 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
9. Three reversible engines of Carnot type are operating in series as shown 7.5 kJ/min
between the limiting temperatures of 1100 K and 300 K. Determine the
– 8°C 7.5 kJ/min
intermediate temperatures if the work output from engines is in proportion
of 3 : 2 : 1. Fig. 4.23
Solution:
Here, W1 : W2 : W3 = 3 : 2 : 1
Efficiency of engine, HE1,
W1 T2 1100.W1
= 1 − ⇒ Q1 = (1100
Q1 1100 − T2 )
for HE2 engine,
W2 T3
= 1 −
Q2 T2
for HE3 engine,
W3 300
= 1 −
Q3 T3
From energy balance on engine, HE1
Q1 = W1 + Q2 ⇒ Q2 = Q1 – W1
Above gives,
1100 W1 T2
Q1 = (1100 − T ) − W1 = W1 1100 − T
2 2
Substituting Q2 in efficiency of HE2
W2 T3
= 1 −
T2 T2
W1
1100 − T2
W2 T2 T2 − T3 T2 − T3
or = 1100
W1 − T2 T2 = 1100 − T2
2 T2 − T3
or =
3 1100 − T2
or 2200 – 2T2 = 3T2 – 3T3
5T2 − 3T3 = 2200
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 119
Energy balance on engine HE2 gives, 1100 K
Q2 = W2 + Q3 Q1
Substituting in efficiency of HE2,
HE1 W1
W2 T2 − T3 Q2
=
(W2 + Q3 ) T2 T2
HE2 W2
or W2. T2 = (W2 + Q3) (T2 – T3)
Q3
W2 T3 T3
or Q3 = (
T2 − T3 ) HE3 W3
Substituting Q3 in efficiency of HE3, Q4
W3 T3 − 300 300 K
=
W2T3 T3
T2 − T3
Fig. 4.25
W3 T3 T3 − 300
=
W2 T2 − T3 T3
1 T3 − 300
=
2 T2 − T3
3T3 – T2 = 600
Solving, equations of T2 and T3, T3 = 433.33 K
T 2 = 700 K
Intermediate temperatures: 700 K and 433.33 K Ans.
10. A Carnot engine getting heat at 800 K is used to drive a Carnot refrigerator maintaining 280 K
temperature. Both engine and refrigerator reject heat at some temperature, T, when heat given to engine
is equal to heat absorbed by refrigerator. Determine efficiency of engine and C.O.P. of refrigerator.
Solution:
Efficiency of engine,
W 800 − T
=
Q1 800
For refrigerator, COP
Q3 280
=
W (T − 280)
It is given that Q1 = Q3 = Q
so, from engine
W 800 − T
=
Q 800
From refrigerator,
Q 280
=
W T − 280
120 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
800 K 280 K
Q1 Q3
W
HE R
Q2 Q4
T, K
Fig. 4.26
Q
From above two may be equated,
W
T − 280 800 − T
=
280 800
Temperature, T = 414.8 K
800 − 414.8
Efficiency of engine = = 0.4815 Ans.
800
280
C.O.P. of refrigerator = = 2.077 Ans.
414.8 − 280
11. 0.5 kg of air executes a Carnot power cycle having a thermal efficiency of 50%. The heat transfer
to the air during isothermal expansion is 40 kJ. At the beginning of the isothermal expansion the
pressure is 7 bar and the volume is 0.12 m3. Determine the maximum and minimum temperatures for the
cycle in Kelvin, the volume at the end of isothermal expansion in m3, and the work and heat transfer for
each of the four processes in kJ. For air cP = 1.008 kJ/kg . K, cv= 0.721 kJ/kg. K. [U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
Given : ηcarnot = 0.5, m = 0.5 kg
P 2 = 7 bar, V2 = 0.12 m3
Let thermodynamic properties be denoted with respect to salient states;
T1
Carnot efficiency ηCarnot = 1 –
T2
2 40 kJ 3
1 4
Fig. 4.27
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 121
T1
or,
T2 = 0.5
or, T 2 = 2T1
Corresponding to state 2, P2 V2 = mRT2
7 × 105 × 0.12 = 0.5 × 287 × T2
T 2 = 585.36 K
Heat transferred during process 2-3 (isothermal expansion), Q23 = 40 kJ
V3
Q23 = W23 = P2V2 ln
V2
V3 V3
40 = mRT2 ln × = 0.5 × 0.287 × 585.36 ln
V2 0.12
V 3 = 0.1932 m3
T2
Temperature at state 1, T1 =
2
T 1 = 292.68 K
During process 1–2,
γ −1
T2 P2 γ
T1 = P
1
cp 1.008
γ= = , γ = 1.398
cυ 0.721
Thus, P 1 = 0.613 bar
P1 V1 = mRT1
0.613 × 105 × V1 = 0.5 × 287 × 292.68
V1 = 6.85 × 10–4 m3
Heat transferred during process 4 – 1 (isothermal compression) shall be equal to the heat transferred
during process 2 – 3 (isothermal expansion).
For isentropic process, dQ = 0
dW = dU
During process 1 – 2, isentropic process, W12 = –mcv (T2 – T1)
Q12 = 0, W12 = –0.5 × 0.721 (585.36 – 292.68)
W12 = – 105.51 kJ, (–ve work)
During process 3 – 4, isentropic process, W34 = –mcv (T4 – T3)
Q34 = 0, W34 = + 0.5 × 0.721 × (585.36 – 292.68)
W34 = + 105.51 kJ (+ve work)
Ans. Process Heat transfer Work interaction
1–2 0 – 105.51, kJ
2–3 40 kJ 40 kJ
3–4 0 + 105.51, kJ
4–1 – 40 kJ – 40 kJ
122 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
12. A reversible engine as shown in figure during a cycle of operation draws 5 mJ from the 400 K
reservoir and does 840 kJ of work. Find the amount and direction of heat interaction with other reservoirs.
[U.P.S.C. 1999]
200 K 300 K 400 K
Q3 Q2 Q1 = 5 mJ
HE
W = 840 kJ
Fig. 4.28
Solution:
Let us assume that heat engine rejects Q2 and Q3 heat to reservoir at 300 K and 200 K respectively. Let
us assume that there are two heat engines operating between 400 K and 300 K temperature reservoirs
and between 400 K and 200 K temperature reservoirs. Let each heat engine receive Q1′ and Q1′′ from
reservoir at 400 K as shown below:
400 K
HE' HE'
W = 840 kJ
Q2 Q3
300 K 300 K
4
Substituting Q3, Q + 2(4160 – Q2) = 5000
3 2
4
Q – 2 Q2 = 5000 – 8320
3 2
−2Q2
= – 3320
3
Q2 = 4980 kJ
and Q3 = – 820 kJ
Negative sign with Q3 shows that the assumed direction of heat Q3 is not correct and actually Q3
heat will flow from reservoir to engine. Actual sign of heat transfers and magnitudes are as under:
200 K 300 K 400 K
Q2 = 4980 kJ
Q3 = 820 kJ Q1 = 5 mJ
HE
W = 840 kJ
Fig 4.30
Q1 − Q2 Q4 Q2
0.7407 =
Q1 W
HP HE
Q2
0.7407 = 1 – Q3 Q1
Q1
3°C 1077 °C
Q2 = 0.2593 Q1 or or
276 K 1350 K
350 Q4
COPHP = =
350 − 276 Q4 − Q3
⇒ Q4 = 1.27Q3
Work output from engine = Work input to pump
Q4
Q1 – Q2 = Q4 – Q3 ⇒ Q1 – 0.2593 Q1 = Q4 –
1.27
Also it is given that Q2 + Q4 = 100
Substituting Q2 and Q4 as function of Q1 in following expression,
Q2 + Q4 = 100
Q1
0.2593 Q1 + = 100
0.287
Q1 = 26.71 kJ
Energy taken by engine from reservoir at 1077ºC
= 26.71 kJ Ans.
14. A reversible engine is used for only driving a reversible refrigerator. Engine is supplied 2000 kJ/s
heat from a source at 1500 K and rejects some energy to a low temperature sink. Refrigerator is desired
to maintain the temperature of 15ºC while rejecting heat to the same low temperature sink. Determine
the temperature of sink if total 3000 kJ/s heat is received by the sink.
Solution:
Let temperature of sink be Tsink K.
Given: Qsink, HE + Qsink, R = 3000 kJ/s
Since complete work output from engine is used to run refrigerator so,
2000 – Qsink, HE = Qsink, R – QR
Q R = 3000 – 2000 = 1000 kJ/s Source 15 °C
Also for engine, 1500 K or
288 K
2000 Q 4
= sink, HE ⇒ Qsink, HE = 3 Tsink, 2000 kJ/s QR
1500 Tsink
W
For refrigerator, HE R
T1 = 773 K T3 = 723 K
Q1 Q3
W 2W
3 3
Auxiliary HE HP
Q2 Q'2
T2 = 200º C or 473 K
Fig. 4.33
K . A . T24 T2
=
W T1 − T2
W
⇒ A =
− T2 ) . K
T23 (T1
In order to have minimum surface area the denominator in above expression of A should be maximum
i.e. T23 (T1 – T2) should be maximum. Differentiating with respect to T2.
d
3
dT2 {( T2 (T1 – T2))} = 0
3T1. T22 – 4 T23 = 0
T2 3 3
⇒ T1 = 4 ⇒ T2 = T1 . 4
Taking second differential
d2
{ T23 . (T1 – T2)} = 6T1 . T2 – 12 T22
dT22
T2 3
Upon substitution it is –ive so = is the condition for { T23 (T1 – T2)} to be maximum and so
T1 4
the minimum surface area
T2 3
=
T1 4 Ans.
17. A cold body is to be maintained at low temperature T2 when the temperature of surrounding is T3. A
source is available at high temperature T1. Obtain the expression for minimum theoretical ratio of heat
supplied from source to heat absorbed from cold body.
Solution:
Let us consider a refrigerator for maintaining cold body and also a reversible heat engine for driving
refrigerator to operate together, Fig 4.35.
Q1
To obtain;
Q3
W T1 − T3
For heat engine, =
Q1 T1
Q3 T2
For refrigerator, =
W T3 − T2
Combining the above two:
Q1 T1 × (T3 − T2 )
=
Q3 T2 × (T1 − T3 )
T1.(T3 − T2 )
Ratio of heat supplied from source to heat absorbed from cold body = T .(T − T ) Ans.
2 1 3
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 127
T2
T1 Source
Q1 Q3
HE R
W
Q2 Q4
T3 , Sink
Fig. 4.35
18. A heat pump is run by a reversible heat engine operating between reservoirs at 800°C and 50°C.
The heat pump working on Carnot cycle picks up 15 kW heat from reservoir at 10°C and delivers it to
a reservoir at 50°C. The reversible engine also runs a machine that needs 25 kW. Determine the heat
received from highest temperature reservoir and heat rejected to reservoir at 50°C.
Solution:
Schematic arrangement for the problem is given in figure.
For heat engine, 800°C 10°C
or or
WHE 323 1173K 283K
ηHE = = 1−
Q1 1173
Q1 Q3 = 15 kW
WHE WHE WHP
⇒ = 0.7246
Q1 HE HP
T4 Q4
COP = = 50°C
T4 − T3 Q4 − Q3 or 323 K
WHE
ηHE = 0.7246 =
Q1
⇒ Q1 = 37.427 kW
⇒ Q2 = Q1 – WHE
128 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 37.427 – 27.12
Q2 = 10.307 kW
Hence heat rejected to reservoir at 50°C
= Q2 + Q4
⇒ = 10.307 + 17.12
= 27.427 kW Ans.
Heat received from highest temperature reservoir = 37.427kW Ans.
19. Two insulated tanks are connected through a pipe with closed valve in between. Initially one tank
having volume of 1.8m3 has argon gas at 12 bar, 40°C and other tank having volume of 3.6m3 is
completely empty. Subsequently valve is opened and the argon pressure gets equalized in two tanks.
Determine, (a) the final pressure & temperature (b) the change of enthalpy and (c) the work done
considering argon as perfect gas and gas constant as 0.208 kJ/kg. K
Solution:
Total volume, V = V1 + V2 = 5.4 m3
By perfect gas law, p1V1 = mRT1 Argon Empty
1.8 m3 initially
12 × 102 × 1.8 = m × 0.208 × 313 Valve 3.6 m3
p1V1 = pfinal×Vfinal
12 × 102 × 1.8 = pfinal × 5.4
Final pressure ⇒ pfinal = 400 kPa or 4 bar Ans.
Here since it is insulated system and it has no heat transfer so, there will be no change in internal
energy, hence there will be no change in temperature. Also by Ist law of thermodynamics, since there is
no heat transfer due to system being insulated and no work due to frictionless expansion;
Final temperature = 313K.
dq = du + dw ⇒ du = 0
i.e. Tinitial = Tfinal
Change in enthalpy = 0 Ans.
Work done = 0 Ans.
-:-4+15-
4.1 State the Kelvin Planck and Clausius statements of 2nd law of thermodynamics.
4.2 Show the equivalence of two statements of 2nd law of thermodynamics.
4.3 Write short notes on the following:
Heat reservoir, Heat engine, Heat pump and refrigerator.
4.4 Explain the reversible and irreversible processes.
4.5 Describe Carnot cycle and obtain expression for its efficiency as applied to a heat engine.
Second Law of Thermodynamics ___________________________________________________ 129
T1
Q1
HE1 W1
Q2
T2
HE2 W2
Q3
T3
Fig. 4.36
4.19 A domestic refrigerator is intended to freeze water at 0ºC while water is available at 20ºC. COP of
refrigerator is 2.5 and power input to run it is 0.4 kW. Determine capacity of refrigerator if it takes 14
minutes to freeze. Take specific heat of water as 4.2 kJ/kg. ºC. [10 kg]
130 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
4.20 A cold storage plant of 49.64 hp power rating removes 7.4 MJ/min and discharges heat to atmospheric
air at 30ºC. Determine the temperature maintained inside the cold storage. [–40ºC]
4.21 A house is to be maintained at 21ºC from inside during winter season and at 26ºC during summer. Heat
leakage through the walls, windows and roof is about 3 × 103 kJ/hr per degree temperature difference
between the interior of house and environment temperature. A reversible heat pump is proposed for
realizing the desired heating/cooling. What minimum power shall be required to run the heat pump in
reversed cycle if outside temperature during summer is 36ºC? Also find the lowest environment
temperature during winter for which the inside of house can be maintained at 21ºC. [0.279 kW, 11ºC]
4.22 Estimate the minimum power requirement of a heat pump for maintaining a commercial premises at 22ºC
when environment temperature is –5ºC. The heat load on pump is 1 × 107 kJ/day.
4.23 A reversible engine having 50% thermal efficiency operates between a reservoir at 1527ºC and a
reservoir at some temperature T. Determine temperature T in K.
4.24 A reversible heat engine cycle gives output of 10 kW when 10 kJ of heat per cycle is supplied from a
source at 1227ºC. Heat is rejected to cooling water at 27ºC. Estimate the minimum theoretical number of
cycles required per minute. [75]
4.25 Some heat engine A and a reversible heat engine B operate between same two heat reservoirs. Engine
A has thermal efficiency equal to two-third of that of reversible engine B. Using second law of
thermodynamics show that engine A shall be irreversible engine.
4.26 Show that the COP of a refrigeration cycle operating between two reservoirs shall be, COPref =
1
− 1 , if η refers to thermal efficiency of a reversible engine operating between same
ηmax max
temperature limits.
4.27 A heat pump is used for maintaining a building at 20ºC. Heat loss through roofs and walls is at the rate
of 6 × 104 kJ/h. An electric motor of 1 kW rating is used for driving heat pump. On some day when
environment temperature is 0ºC, would it be possible for pump to maintain building at desired
temperature? [No]
4.28 Three heat engines working on carnot cycle produce work output in proportion of 5 : 4 : 3 when
operating in series between two reservoirs at 727°C and 27°C. Determine the temperature of intermediate
reservoirs. [435.34°C, 202°C]
4.29 Determine the power required for running a heat pump which has to maintain temperature of 20°C
when atmospheric temperature is –10°C. The heat losses through the walls of room are 650 W per unit
temperature difference of inside room and atmosphere. [2 kW]
4.30 A heat pump is run between reservoirs with temperatures of 7°C and 77°C. Heat pump is run by a
reversible heat engine which takes heat from reservoir at 1097°C and rejects heat to reservoir at 77°C.
Determine the heat supplied by reservoir at 1097°C if the total heat supplied to reservoir at 77°C is
100 kW. [25.14 kW]
4.31 A refrigerator is used to maintain temperature of 243K when ambient temperature is 303K. A heat
engine working between high temperature reservoir of 200°C and ambient temperature is used to run
this refrigerator. Considering all processes to be reversible, determine the ratio of heat transferred from
high temperature reservoir to heat transferred from refrigerated space. [0.69]
5
Entropy
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Till now the detailed explanation of Zeroth law, first law and second law of thermodynamics have been
made. Also we have seen that the first law of thermodynamics defined a very useful property called
internal energy. For overcoming the limitations of first law, the second law of thermodynamics had been
stated. Now we need some mathematical parameter for being used as decision maker in respect of
feasibility of process, irreversibility, nature of process etc. Here in this chapter a mathematical function
called ‘entropy’ has been explained. ‘Entropy’ is the outcome of second law and is a thermodynamic
property. Entropy is defined in the form of calculus operation, hence no exact physical description of it
can be given. However, it has immense significance in thermodynamic process analysis.
1
Reversible adiabatic
1′
p
Reversible
isothermal
2′
2
Reversible
isothermal
Reversible
a 1 5 adiabatic
2
6 Q1–2
1
2
p
3 Reversible cycle
4
7 3
b 4
8 Q3– 4
Magnified view
V
Fig. 5.2 A reversible cycle replaced by reversible adiabatics and reversible isotherms
Figure 5.2 shows replacement of original processes in cycle a – b – a by adiabatic and isothermals.
This shall result in a number of Carnot cycles appearing together in place of original cycle. Two Carnot
cycles thus formed are shown by 1 –2 – 4 –3 and 5 – 6 – 8 – 7. Magnified view of first Carnot cycle is
also shown separately where heat supplied at high temperature is Q1 –2 and heat rejected at low temperature
is Q3 –4.
From thermodynamic temperature scale;
For Carnot cycle 1 – 2 – 4 – 3,
Q1−2 T1− 2
Q3−4 = T3− 4
Q1−2 Q3−4
or
T1− 2 = T3−4
For Carnot cycle 5 – 6 – 8 – 7,
Q5−6 Q7 −8
T5− 6 = T7 −8
Now taking sign conventions for heat added and rejected;
Q1−2 Q3−4
+ =0
T1− 2 T3−4
Q5−6 Q7 −8
and + =0
T5− 6 T7 −8
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 133
Hence, if there are ‘n’ number of Carnot cycles replacing the original reversible cycle, then
Q1− 2 Q3− 4 Q5− 6 Q7 −8
+ + + + ... = 0
T1− 2 T3− 4 T5–6 T7 −8
or, it can be given as summation of the ratio of heat interaction (Q) to the temperature (T) at which
it occurs, being equal to zero.
Q
∑T = 0
If number of Carnot cycles is very large, then the zig-zag path formed due to replacing adiabatics
and isotherms shall reach very close to original cycle.
Q
In such situation the cyclic integral of may be given in place of above.
T
dQ
or Ñ∫ =0
T rev
dQ
Here it indicates that is some thermodynamic property. Above expression developed for a
T
reversible heat engine cycle also remains valid for internally reversible engines. In case of internally
reversible engines T shall be temperature of working fluid at the time of heat interaction.
dQ
Ñ∫ T int, rev = 0
dQ
Let us now try to find out what happens to Ñ∫ T
when we have an irreversible engine cycle. Let
there be a reversible and irreversible heat engine operating between same temperature limits, such that
heat added to them is same.
From Carnot’s theorem for both reversible and irreversible heat engine cycles,
ηrev > ηirrev
Qrejected Qrejected
or 1 − > 1 −
Qadd rev Qadd irrev
Qrejected Qrejected
or >
Qadd irrev Qadd rev
For same heat added, i.e. Qadd, rev = Qadd, irrev = Qadd
Qrejected, irrev > Qrejected, rev
Qrejected, irrev
or Qrejected, rev > 1
For absolute thermodynamic temperature scale,
Qadd Tadd
= , upon substitution we get,
Qrejected rev Trejected
134 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
dQ
or Ñ∫
T irrev
<0
Now combining for reversible and irreversible paths it can be given as;
dQ
Ñ∫ ≤0
T
This is called Clausius inequality.
dQ
here, Ñ∫ = 0 for reversible cycle
T
dQ
Ñ∫ < 0, for irreversible cycle
T
dQ
Ñ∫ T
> 0, for impossible cycle
Let us take a reversible cycle comprising of two processes A and B as shown and apply Clausius
inequality.
b a
dQ
∫
dQ
∫
a path A T
+
b path B T
=0
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 135
b a
dQ dQ
∫
a path A T
=– ∫ T
b path B
b b
dQ
or ∫
dQ
T
= ∫
a path A T
a path A
a
B
Rev. cycle
A b
dQ
Hence, it shows that is some property and does not depend upon path followed. This
T
thermodynamic property is called “entropy”. Entropy is generally denoted by ‘S’ or ‘φ’.
Thus, the energy interactions in the form of heat are accompanied by entropy changes.
Writing it as function of entropy change.
b b
dQ
∫
a path A T
= ∫
dQ
T
= Sb – Sa
a path A
dQ
or ∫
T rev = ∫ dS
Since entropy is point function and depends only upon end states therefore entropy change for any
process following reversible or irreversible path shall be same.
(Sb – Sa)rev, path = (Sb – Sa)irrev, path
b
dQrev
∫ T
= ∆S rev, path = ∆S irrev,path
a
Entropy is an extensive property and has units J/K. Specific entropy may be given on unit mass basis;
S
s=(J/kg K)
m
Entropy, as obvious from definition is defined for change in entropy value, therefore absolute value
of entropy cannot be defined. Entropy is always given as change, i.e. relative values can be expressed.
Let us now have two thermodynamic cycles a – b – a following paths (a – R – b, b – R – a) and
(a – R – b, b – I – a).
136 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
a
R Here R : denotes reversible path
I : denotes irreversible path
p R
I b
b a
dQ dQ
∫ T + ∫ T
=0
a, R b, R
b a
dQ dQ
or ∫ T + ∫ T
<0
a, R b, I
b
dQ a
or ∫ T <– ∫
dQ
a, R
b, I
T
Also from definition of entropy.
dQ
∫
T rev = ∫ dS
so from above
b b
dQ
∫ T = ∫ dS
a, R a
dQ
or = dS
T rev
For reversible cycle.
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 137
b a
dQ
∫
dQ
a, R
T
=– ∫ T
b, R
Substituting it in expression for irreversible cycle.
a a
dQ dQ
– ∫ T <– ∫ T
b, R b, I
also from definition of entropy.
a a
– ∫ dS < –
dQ
b
∫ T
b, I
a a
dQ
or ∫ T
< ∫ dS
b, I b
or, in general it can be given as,
dQ
< dS
T irrev
Combining the above two we get inequality as following,
dQ
dS ≥
T
dQ
where dS =
for reversible process
T
dQ
dS > for irreversible process
T
Mathematical formulation for entropy (dQrev = T · dS) can be used for getting property diagrams
between “temperature and entropy” (T – S), “enthalpy and entropy” (h – S).
1 dA = Tds = dq
ds
T 2
Surrounding
System
State change of
Tsurrounding
system from 1 to 2
Qsurrounding
Qsurrounding
or – ∆Stotal = Sgen = (S2 – S1) + T
surrounding
or S2 – S1 = m(s2 – s1)
where m is mass in system and s1 and s2 are specific entropy values at initial and final state, then
Qsurrounding
Sgen = m( s2 − s1 ) +
Tsurrounding
For open systems
In case of open systems the mass interactions also take place along with energy interactions. Here mass
flow into and out of system shall also cause some entropy change, so a control volume as shown in
figure is to be considered. Entropy entering and leaving at section i – i and o – o are considered. Mass
flow carries both energy and entropy into or out of control volume. Entropy transfer with mass flow is
called “entropy transport”. It is absent in closed systems.
Surrounding
Control volume o
o
Outlet
i
Qsurrounding
i
Inlet
Fig. 5.7 Open system
If control volume undergoes state change from 1 to 2, then entropy change in control volume shall
be (S2 – S1) while entropy entering and leaving out may be given as Si and So respectively.
By principle of entropy increase, total entropy change shall be,
Qsurrounding
∆Stotal = Sgen = (S2 – S1) + (So – Si) + T
surrounding
Entropy entering and leaving out may be given as sum of entropy of all mass flows into and out of
system in case of uniform flow process.
140 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Therefore Si = ∑ mi . si
So = ∑ mo . so
where mi and mo are mass flows into and out of system, and si and so are specific entropy associated
with mass entering and leaving.
Substituting,
∆Stotal = Sgen = ( S2 − S1 )
Qsurrounding
+ (∑ mo . so − ∑ mi . si ) +
Tsurrounding
In case of steady flow process since properties do not change with respect to time during any
process, therefore within control volume there shall be no change in entropy.
i.e. S1 = S2
Total entropy change or entropy generation for this case shall be;
Qsurrounding
∆Stotal = Sgen = (So – Si) + T
surrounding
Qsurrounding
∆Stotal = Sgen = ( ∑ mo . so − ∑ mi . si ) +
Tsurrounding
In all the cases discussed above ∆Stotal ≥ 0 or Sgen ≥ 0.
Entropy generated can be taken as criterion to indicate feasibility of process as follows;
* If Sgen or ∆Stotal = 0 then process is reversible.
* If Sgen or ∆Stotal > 0 then process is irreversible.
* If Sgen or ∆Stotal < 0 then process is impossible.
One thing is very important about entropy generated that Sgen is not a thermodynamic property and
it’s value depends on the path followed whereas entropy change of system (S2 – S1) is a point function
and so thermodynamic property. It is because of the fact that entropy change is cumulative effect of
entropy transfer/change in system and surroundings.
∫ dQ
1
or ∆Sa – b =
T a
Qa −b
or ∆S a − b =
T
where Qa – b is total heat interaction during state change a – b at temperature T.
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 141
Isentropic process
It is the process during which change in entropy is zero and entropy remains constant during process.
Isentropic process
T b
d'
d
a
c
b'
b
ha − hb '
ηisen,expn =
ha − hb
142 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Similarly, isentropic and non-isentropic compression process are shown as c – d and c – d'
respectively.
Isentropic compression efficiency can be defined on same lines as,
Ideal work in expansion
ηisen, compr =
Actual work in expansion
hd − hc
ηisen, compr =
hd ' − hc
For ideal gases
Combination of first and second law yields;
Tds = du + pdv
RT
also we know du = cv · dT and for perfect gas p =
v
substituting for du and R
RT
T · ds = cv · dT + · dv
v
dT Rd v
or ds = cv · +
T v
2 2
dT Rd v
or s2 – s1 = ∫ cv · +∫
T 1 v
1
If cv is function of temperature then,
2
dT v
s2 − s1 = ∫ cv (T ) · + R · ln 2
1
T v1
p1 v2 T1
= ×
p2 v1 T2
Above two pressure ratios give,
1
v2 T1 n –1
=
v1 T2
v2
Substituting in the entropy change relation derived earlier.
v1
T2 v
s2 – s1 = cv ln + R ln 2
T1 v1
1
T T n –1
= c v ln 2 + R ln 1
T1 T2
T R T1
s2 – s1 = c v ln 2 + . ln
T1 n − 1 T2
For perfect gas R = cp – cv
R = γ . cv – cv
144 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
R = cv (γ –1)
Substituting R in entropy change
T c (γ − 1) T1
s2 – s1 = cv ln 2 + v ln
T1 ( n − 1) T2
T2 γ − 1
= cv ln 1 −
T1 n − 1
T2 n − γ
s2 – s1 = cv ln
T1 n − 1
Entropy change in polytropic process.
T n − γ
s2 − s1 = c v · ln 2
T1 n − 1
Constant pressure
T lines
s
Fig. 5.10 T-s diagram showing isobaric and isochoric process.
146 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
5.8 THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
‘Third law of thermodynamics’, an independent principle uncovered by ‘Nernst’ and formulated by
‘Planck’, states that the “Entropy of a pure substance approaches zero at absolute zero temperature.”
This fact can also be corroborated by the definition of entropy which says it is a measure of molecular
disorderness. At absolute zero temperature substance molecules get frozen and do not have any activity,
therefore it may be assigned zero entropy value at crystalline state. Although the attainment of absolute
zero temperature is impossible practically, however theoretically it can be used for defining absolute
entropy value with respect to zero entropy at absolute zero temperature. Second law of thermodynamics
also shows that absolute zero temperature can’t be achieved, as proved earlier in article 4.10. Third law
of thermodynamics is of high theoretical significance for the sake of absolute property definitions and
has found great utility in thermodynamics.
EXAMPLES
1. Calculate the change in entropy of air, if it is throttled from 5 bar, 27ºC to 2 bar adiabatically.
Solution:
Here p1 = 5 bar, T1 = 300 K.
p2 = 2 bar, cp air = 1.004 kJ/kg.K
R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K
Entropy change may be given as;
T p
s2 – s1 = c p ln 2 − R ln 2
T1 p1
for throttling process h1 = h2
i.e. cpT1 = cpT2
or T1 = T2
Hence,
2
Change in entropy = 1.004 ln (1) – 0.287 ln
5
= 0.263 kJ/kg.K
Change in entropy = 0.263 kJ/kg.K Ans.
2. Find the change in entropy of steam generated at 400ºC from 5 kg of water at 27ºC and atmospheric
pressure. Take specific heat of water to be 4.2 kJ/kg.K, heat of vaporization at 100ºC as 2260 kJ/kg and
specific heat for steam given by; cp = R (3.5 + 1.2T + 0.14T2), J/kg.K
Solution:
Total entropy change = Entropy change during water temperature rise (∆S1).
+ Entropy change during water to steam change (∆S2)
+ Entropy change during steam temperature rise (∆S3)
Q1
∆S1 =
T1 where Q1 = m cp · ∆T
Heat added for increasing water temperature from 27ºC to 100ºC.
= 5 × 4.2 × (100 – 27)
= 1533 kJ
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 147
1533
therefore, ∆S1 = = 5.11 kJ/K
300
Entropy change during phase transformation;
Q2
∆S2 = T
2
Here Q2 = Heat of vaporization = 5 × 2260 = 11300 kJ
11300
Entropy change, ∆S2= = 30.28 kJ/K.
373.15
Entropy change during steam temperature rise;
673.15
dQ
∆S3 = ∫ T
373.15
8.314
Here dQ = mcp · dT; for steam R = = 0.462 kJ/kg.K
18
Therefore, cp for steam = 0.462 (3.5 + 1.2 · T + 0.14T 2) × 10–3
= (1.617 + 0.5544 T + 0.065 T 2) × 10–3
673.15
1.617
or ∆S3 = ∫ 5 × 10–3 ×
T
+ 0.5544 + 0.065 T dT
373.15
Here hot block is put into sea water, so block shall cool down upto sea water at 25ºC as sea may be
treated as sink.
Therefore, T1 = 150ºC or 423.15 K
and T2 = 25ºC or 298.15 K
298.15
∆Sblock = 1 × 0.393 × ln
423.15
= – 0.1376 kJ/K
Heat lost by block = Heat gained by water
= – 1 × 0.393 × (423.15 – 298.15)
= – 49.125 kJ
49.125
Therefore, ∆Swater = = 0.165 kJ/k
298.15
Thus, ∆Suniverse = – 0.1376 + 0.165
= 0.0274 kJ/k or 27.4 J/K
Entropy change of universe = 27.4 J/K Ans.
5. Determine change in entropy of universe if a copper block of 1 kg at 27ºC is dropped from a height
of 200 m in the sea water at 27ºC. (Heat capacity for copper= 0.393 kJ/kg.K)
Solution:
∆Suniverse = ∆Sblock + ∆Ssea water
Since block and sea water both are at the same temperature so,
∆Suniverse = ∆Ssea water
Conservation of energy equation yields;
Q – W = ∆U + ∆PE + ∆KE
Since in this case, W = 0, ∆KE = 0, ∆U = 0
Q = ∆PE
Change in potential energy = ∆PE = mgh = 1 × 9.81 × 200
= 1962 J
Q = 1962 J
1962
∆Suniverse = ∆Ssea water =
= 6.54 J/kg K
300
Entropy change of universe = 6.54 J/kg.K Ans.
6. Determine entropy change of universe, if two copper blocks of 1 kg & 0.5 kg at 150ºC and 0ºC are
joined together. Specific heats for copper at 150ºC and 0ºC are 0.393 kJ/kg K and 0.381 kJ/kg K
respectively.
Solution:
Here, ∆Suniverse = ∆Sblock 1 + ∆Sblock 2
Two blocks at different temperatures shall first attain equilibrium temperature. Let equilibrium
temperature be Tƒ.
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 149
Then from energy conservation.
1 × 0.393 × (423.15 – Tƒ) = 0.5 × 0.381 × (Tƒ – 273.15)
T ƒ = 374.19 K
Hence, entropy change in block 1, due to temperature changing from 423.15 K to 374.19 K.
374.19
∆S1 = 1 × 0.393 × ln = – 0.0483 kJ/K
423.15
Entropy change in block 2
374.19
∆S2 = 0.5 × 0.381 × ln = 0.0599 kJ/K
273.15
Entropy change of universe = 0.0599 – 0.0483
= 0.0116 kJ/K
Entropy change of universe = 0.0116 kJ/K Ans.
7. A cool body at temperature T1 is brought in contact with high temperature reservoir at temperature T2.
Body comes in equilibrium with reservoir at constant pressure. Considering heat capacity of body as C,
show that entropy change of universe can be given as;
T − T T
C 1 2 − ln 1
T2 T2
Solution:
Since body is brought in contact with reservoir at temperature T2, the body shall come in equilibrium
when it attains temperature equal to that of reservoir, but there shall be no change in temperature of the
reservoir.
Entropy change of universe ∆Suniverse = ∆Sbody+ ∆Sreservoir
T2
∆Sbody = C ln T
1
−C (T2 − T1 )
∆Sreservoir = T2
as, heat gained by body = Heat lost by reservoir
= C (T2 – T1)
T2 C (T2 − T1 )
Thus, ∆Suniverse = C ln −
T1 T2
or, rearranging the terms,
C (T1 − T2 ) T1
∆Suniverse = – C ln
T2 T2
Hence proved.
8. Determine the rate of power loss due to irreversibility in a heat engine operating between temperatures
of 1800 K and 300 K. Engine delivers 2 MW of power when heat is added at the rate of 5 MW.
150 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
For irreversible operation of engine 1800 K T1
Q1 Q2
Rate of entropy generation = + Q1
T1 T2
HE W
−5 Q2
= 1800 + T Q2
2
given W = 2 MW = 2 × 106 W
Fig. 5.11
so Q2 = 3 × 106 W
Therefore,
−5 3
entropy generated = + × 106
1800 300
∆Sgen = 7222.22 W/K
Work lost = T2 × ∆Sgen
= 300 × 7222.22
= 2.16 × 106 W
or = 2.16 MW.
Work lost = 2.16 MW Ans.
9. A system at 500 K and a heat reservoir at 300 K are available for designing a work producing device.
Estimate the maximum work that can be produced by the device if heat capacity of system is given as;
C = 0.05 T 2 + 0.10T + 0.085, J/K
Solution:
System and reservoir can be treated as source and sink. Device thought of can be a Carnot engine
operating between these two limits. Maximum heat available from system shall be the heat rejected till
it’s temperature drops from 500 K to 300 K.
System T1 = 500 K
Q1
HE W
Q2
Reservoir T2 = 300 K
Fig. 5.12
Therefore,
T2
Maximum heat Q1 = ∫ C ·dT
T1
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 151
300
Q1 = ∫ (0.05 T 2 + 0.10T + 0.085) dT
500
Q1 = 1641.35 × 103 J
300
∫
dT
Entropy change of system, ∆Ssystem = C
500 T
= – 4020.043 J/K
Q2 Q1 − W
∆Sreservoir = =
T2 T2
1641.35 × 103 − W
=
300
Also, we know from entropy principle
∆Suniverse ≥ 0
and ∆Suniverse = ∆Ssystem + ∆Sreservoir
Thus, upon substituting
(∆Ssystem + ∆Sreservoir) ≥ 0
1641.35 × 103 − W
−4020.043 + ≥ 0
300
W
or 1451.123 – ≥0
300
W
1451.123 ≥
300
W ≤ 435337.10
or W ≤ 435.34 kJ
Hence Maximum work = 435.34 kJ
For the given arrangement, device can produce maximum 435.34 kJ of work. Ans.
10. Determine the change in enthalpy and entropy if air undergoes reversible adiabatic expansion from
3MPa, 0.05 m3 to 0.3 m3.
Solution:
For reversible adiabatic process, governing equation for expansion,
PV 1.4 = Constt.
Also, for such process entropy change = 0.
Initial state : 3MPa, 0.05 m3
Final state : 0.3 m3
1
1.4
p2 V1 p1 V11.4 1.4
Using = or V =
p1 V2 p
we get p2 = 0.244 MPa
152 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
From first law, second law and definition of enthalpy;
dH = T·dS + Vdp
or, for adiabatic process of reversible type, dS = 0.
dH = V·dp
2 2
∫ dH = ∫ V · dp
1 1
Substituting V, and actual states
1
244
3000 × 0.051.4 1.4
H2 – H1 = ∫ dp
3000 p
or ∆H = 268.8 kJ
Enthalpy change = 268.8 kJ.
Entropy change = 0 Ans.
11. During a free expansion 2 kg air expands from 1 m3 to 10m3 volume in an insulated vessel.
Determine entropy change of (a) the air (b) the surroundings (c) the universe.
Solution:
During free expansion temperature remains same and it is an irreversible process. For getting change in
entropy let us approximate this expansion process as a reversible isothermal expansion.
(a) Change in entropy of air
V2
∆Sair = m.R ln V
1
10
= 2 × 287 ln
1
∆Sair = 1321.68 J/K
= 1321.68 J/K Ans.
(b) During free expansion on heat is gained or lost to surroundings so,
∆Ssurroundings = 0
Entropy change of surroundings,
= 0 Ans.
(c) Entropy change of universe
∆Suniverse = ∆Sair + ∆Ssurroundings
= 1321.68 J/K
= 1321.68 J/K Ans.
12. Determine the change in entropy of 0.5 kg of air compressed polytropically from 1.013 × 105 Pa to
0.8 MPa and 800 K following index 1.2. Take Cv = 0.71 kJ/kg . K.
Solution:
Let initial and final states be denoted by 1 and 2.
For polytropic process pressure and temperature can be related as,
n −1
p2 n T2
=
T1
p1
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 153
1.2 −1
0.8 × 106 1.2
or T2 = 800 × 5
1.013 × 10
Temperature after compression = 1128.94 K
Substituting in entropy change expression for polytropic process,
n −γ T2
(s2 – s1) = Cv . ln
n − 1 T1
Tƒ Tƒ
or mC p ln + ln = 0
T1 T2
Tƒ2
or mCp · ln =0
T · T2
1
Tƒ2
Here, mCp ≠ 0, so, ln =0
T1 · T2
or Tƒ = T1 · T2
Maximum work = Qsupplied – Qrejected
= mCp(T1 – Tƒ) – mCp(Tƒ – T2)
= mCp{T1 – 2Tƒ + T2}
154 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= mCp{T1 – 2 · T1 · T2 + T2}
{ }
2
Maximum work = mCp T1 – T2 Ans.
14. A heat engine operates between source at 600 K and sink at 300 K. Heat supplied by source is 500
kcal/s. Evaluate feasibility of engine and nature of cycle for the following conditions. (i) Heat rejected
being 200 kcal/s, (ii) Heat rejected being 400 kcal/s (iii) Heat rejected being 250 kcal/s.
Solution:
Clausius inequality can be used for cyclic process as given below; consider ‘1’ for source and ‘2’ for
sink.
dQ Q1 Q2
Ñ∫ T
= −
T1 T2
(i) For Q2 = 200 kcal/s
dQ 500 200
Ñ∫ T
= −
600 300
= 0.1667
dQ
As Ñ∫ T
> 0, therefore under these conditions engine is not possible. Ans.
(ii) For Q2 = 400 kcal/s
dQ 500 400
Ñ∫ T
= −
600 300
= – 0.5
dQ
Here Ñ∫
T
< 0, so engine is feasible and cycle is irreversible Ans.
γ −n T2
Change in entropy during polytropic process, ∆S23 = mcv ln T
n −1 1
Since the entropy change is same, so
∆S12 = ∆S23
T2 γ −n T2
mcv ln T = mcv ln T
1 n − 1 1
γ +1
or n= Ans.
2
17. A closed system executed a reversible cycle 1–2–3–4–5–6–1 consisting of six processes. During
processes 1–2 and 3–4 the system receives 1000 kJ and 800 kJ of heat, respectively at constant temperatures
of 500 K and 400 K, respectively. Processes 2–3 and 4–5 are adiabatic expansions in which the steam
temperature is reduced from 500 K to 400 K and from 400 K to 300 K respectively. During process 5–6
the system rejects heat at a temperature of 300 K. Process 6–1 is an adiabatic compression process.
Determine the work done by the system during the cycle and thermal efficiency of the cycle.
[U.P.S.C. 1995]
Solution:
Q12 = 1000 kJ
1 2
500 K
Q34 = 800 kJ
3 4
T 400 K
300 K 5
6
Q56
Fig. 5.13
Heat added = Q12 + Q14
Total heat added = 1800 kJ
156 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
For heat addition process 1–2,
Q12 = T1 · (S2 – S1)
1000 = 500 · (S2 – S1)
or, S2 – S1 = 2
For heat addition process 3–4, Q34 = T3 · (S4 – S3)
800 = 400 · (S4 – S3)
or, S4 – S3 = 2
Heat rejected in process 5–6
Q56 = T5 · (S5 – S6)
= T5 · {(S2 – S1) + (S4 – S3)}
Q56 = 300 · {2 + 2} = 1200 kJ
Net work done = Net heat
= (Q12 + Q34) – Q56
Wnet = 1800 – 1200
Wnet = 600 kJ
Wnet
Thermal efficiency of cycle =
Heat added
600
=
1800
= 0.3333 or 33.33%
Work done = 600 kJ
Thermal efficiency = 33.33% Ans.
18. A reversible heat engine has heat interaction from three reservoirs at 600 K, 700 K and 800 K. The
engine rejects 10 kJ/s to the sink at 320 K after doing 20 kW of work. The heat supplied by reservoir at
800 K is 70% of the heat supplied by reservoir at 700 K then determine the exact amount of heat
interaction with each high temperature reservoir.
Q1
HE W = 20 kW
Q2 = 10 kW
320 K
Fig. 5.14
Solution:
Let heat supplied by reservoir at 800 K, 700 K and 600 K be Q'1, Q"1, Q'''1.
Here,
Q1 – Q2 = W
⇒ Q1 = 30 kJ/s
Also given that, Q'1 = 0.7 Q''1
Q'''1 = Q1 – (0.7 Q"1 + Q"1)
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 157
Q'''1 = Q1 – 1.7 Q''1
For reversible engine
Q1' Q" Q" ' Q
⇒ + 1 + 1 − 2 = 0
800 700 600 320
V2 T2
Change of entropy, (S2 – S1) = mRln + mcv ln
V1 T1
(S2 – S1) = 0.4677 {0.287 × ln2 + 0.71 ln1)
= 0.09304 kJ/K
From reversibility/irreversibility considerations the entropy change should be compared with
2
dQ
∫ .
T rev
1
158 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2
dQ
In this case; ∫ T
= 0, while entropy change = 0.09304 kJ/K.
rev
1
2
dQ
Here (S2 – S1) > ∫ T
, which means the process is irreversible.
rev
Ans.
1
20. Two tanks A and B are connected through a pipe with valve in between. Initially valve is closed and
tanks A and B contain 0.6 kg of air at 90°C, 1 bar and 1 kg of air at 45°C, 2 bar respectively.
Subsequently valve is opened and air is allowed to mix until equilibrium. Considering the complete
system to be insulated determine the final temperature, final pressure and entropy change.
Solution:
In this case due to perfectly insulated system, Q = 0, Also W = 0
Let the final state be given by subscript f ′ and initial states of tank be given by subscripts ‘A’
and ‘B’. pA = 1 bar, TA = 363 K, mA = 0.6 kg; TB = 318K, mB = 1kg, pB = 2 bar
∆Q = ∆W + ∆U
0 = 0 + {(mA + mB) + Cv.Tf – (mA.CvTA) – (mB.Cv.TB)}
( mA + mB ).RT f
pf =
(VA +VB )
mA RTA m RT
VA = ; VB = B B
pA pB
VA = 0.625 m3; VB = 0.456 m3
Tf pf Tf p f
= mA C p ln − R ln + mB C p ln − R ln
TA pA TB pB
334.88 142.25
∆S = 0.6 1.005ln − 0.287 ln
363 100
334.88 142.25
+ 11.005ln − 0.287ln
318 200
∆S = { – 0.1093 + 014977}
= 0.04047 kJ/K
Entropy produced = 0.04047 kJ/K Ans.
21. Three tanks of equal volume of 4m3 each are connected to each other through tubes of negligible
volume and valves in between. Tank A contains air at 6 bar, 90°C, tank B has air at 3 bar, 200oC and
tank C contains nitrogen at 12 bar, 50oC. Considering adiabatic mixing determine (i) the entropy change
when valve between tank A and B is opened until equilibrium, (ii) the entropy change when valves
between tank C; tank A and tank B are opened until equilibrium. Consider RAir = 0.287 kJ/kg.K, gAir =
1.4, RNitrogen = 0.297 kJ/kg. K and gNitrogen = 1.4.
Solution:
Let states in tanks A, B & C be denoted by subscripts A, B & C respectively.
(i)When tank A and B are connected;
RAir
Cv,Air = = 0.718kJ/kg.K
(rAir − 1)
After adiabatic mixing let the states be denoted by subscript ‘D’.
Internal energy before mixing = Internal energy after mixing
mA .CvAir .TA + mB . Cv,Air .TB = ( mA + mB ).CV , Air .TD
( mA .TA + mB .TB )
⇒ TD =
( m A + mB )
p A .VA 6 × 102 × 4
Using gas laws, mA = = = 23.04kg
RAirTA 0.287 × 363
pB .VB 3 × 102 × 4
mB = = = 7.29kg
RAir TB 0.287 × 573
TD p
∆S = ( mA .C p , Air ln − mA .RAir ln D ) +
TA pA
TD p
( mB .C p , Air ln − mB .RAir ln D )
TB pB
413.47
∆S = 23.04 × 1.005ln −
363
449.89 413.47
23.04 × 0.287 ln 600 + 7.29 × 1.005ln 573
449.89
– 7.29 × 0.287 ln
300
= {3.014 + 1.904 + (– 2.391) – 0.848}
Entropy chnage, ∆S = 1.679 kJ/K Ans.
(ii) After the three tanks A, B, and C are interconnected then the equilibrium will be attained
amongst three. Equilibrium between A & B will result in state D as estimated in part (i) above.
Thus it may be considered as the mixing of state D and nitrogen in tank C. Let the final state
attained be ‘F’.
After adiabatic mixing the final gas properties (as a result of mixing of air, state D and
nitrogen, state C) may be estimated as under
pc .Vc 12 × 102 × 4
mc = =
RNitrogen .Tc 0.297 × 323
mc = 50.04 kg ; mD = mA + mB = 30.33 kg
RNitrogen 0.297
Cv, Nitrogen = = = 0.7425 kJ/kgK
γNitrogen –1 (1.4 −1)
mD .RAir + mc .RNitrogen
RF =
(mD + mC )
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 161
TF p
∆S = mD C p, Air ln − RAir ln F + mC C p , Nitrogen ln TF − RNitrogen ln pF
TD pD TC pC
-:-4+15-
5.1 Discuss the significance of Clausius inequality.
5.2 Define the ‘entropy’. Also explain how it is a measure of irreversibility?
5.3 Explain the difference between isentropic process and adiabatic process.
5.4 How does the second law of thermodynamics overcome limitations of first law of thermodynamics?
5.5 Show that entropy of universe is increasing.
5.6 Is the adiabatic mixing of fluids irreversible ? If yes, explain.
5.7 Why does entropy generally increase ? Explain.
5.8 Explain the entropy principle and apply it to a closed system.
5.9 How the feasibility of any process can be ensured?
5.10 Give the third law of thermodynamics.
5.11 Explain why the slope of constant volume line is more than the slope of constant pressure line on
T–S diagram.
5.12 Explain, whether the arrangement shown below for a reversible engine is feasible. If no then why?
Give the correct arrangement.
162 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
20 K 400 K
0.82 mJ 5 mJ
HE 840 kJ
4.98 mJ
300 K
Fig. 5.15
5.13 Using second law of thermodynamics check the following and also indicate nature of cycle.
(i) Heat engine receiving 1000 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 500 K and rejecting 700 kJ heat to a sink
at 27ºC.
(ii) Heat engine receiving 1000 kJ of heat from a reservoir at 500 K and rejecting 600 kJ of heat to a sink
at 27ºC.
(i) Possible, irreversible cycle
(ii) Possible, reversible cycle
5.14 Determine the change in entropy of air during it's heating in a perfectly insulated rigid tank having 5
kg of air at 2 atm. Air is heated from 40ºC to 80ºC temperature.
5.15 Calculate change in entropy of air during the process in which a heat engine rejects 1500 kJ of heat to
atmosphere at 27ºC during its operation. [5 kJ/K]
5.16 Determine the final temperature and total entropy change during a process in which metal piece of 5
kg at 200ºC falls into an insulated tank containing 125 kg of water at 20ºC. Specific heat of metal = 0.9
kJ/kg.K, Specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ/kg.K. [21.53ºC, 0.592 kJ/K]
5.17 Show that for air undergoing isentropic expansion process;
dv dp
ds = c p + cv
v p
5.18 Determine the change in entropy of air, if it is heated in a rigid tank from 27ºC to 150ºC at low pressure.
[246.8 J/kg.K]
5.19 An electrical resistance of 100 ohm is maintained at constant temperature of 27ºC by a continuously
flowing cooling water. What is the change in entropy of the resistor in a time interval of one minute ?
[0]
5.20 A water tank of steel is kept exposed to sun. Tank has capacity of 10 m3 and is full of water. Mass of
steel tank is 50 kg and during bright sun temperature of water is 35ºC and by the evening water cools
down to 30ºC. Estimate the entropy change during this process. Take specific heat for steel as 0.45 kJ/
kg.K and water as 4.18 kJ/kg.K. [5.63 kJ/K]
5.21 Heat engine operating on Carnot cycle has a isothermal heat addition process in which 1 MJ heat is
supplied from a source at 427ºC. Determine change in entropy of (i) working fluid, (ii) source, (iii) total
entropy change in process. [1.43 kJ/K, – 1.43 kJ/K, 0]
5.22 A system operating in thermodynamic cycle receives Q 1 heat at T1 temperature and rejects Q 2
at temperature T2. Assuming no other heat transfer show that the net work developed per cycle is
given as,
Q1 T2
Wcycle = Q1 + 1 − − T2 · Sgen
T1 T1
Entropy _______________________________________________________________________ 163
where Sgen is amount of entropy produced per cycle due to irreversibilities in the system.
5.23 A rigid tank contains 5 kg of ammonia at 0.2 MPa and 298 K. Ammonia is then cooled until its pressure
drops to 80 kPa. Determine the difference in entropy of ammonia between initial and final state.
[–14.8 kJ/K]
5.24 Determine the change in entropy in each of the processes of a thermodynamic cycle having following
processes;
(i) Constant pressure cooling from 1 to 2, P1 = 0.5 MPa, V1 = 0.01 m3
(ii) Isothermal heating from 2 to 3, P3 = 0.1 MPa, T3 = 25ºC, V3 = 0.01 m3
(iii) Constant volume heating from 3 to 1.
Take Cp = 1 kJ/kg . K for perfect gas as fluid.
[–0.0188 kJ/kg . K, 0.00654 kJ/kg . K, 0.0134 kJ/kg . K]
5.25 Conceptualize some toys that may approach close to perpetual motion machines. Discuss them in
detail.
5.26 Heat is added to air at 600 kPa, 110°C to raise its temperature to 650°C isochorically. This 0.4 kg air is
subsequently expanded polytropically up to initial temperature following index of 1.32 and finally
compressed isothermally up to original volume. Determine the change in entropy in each process and
pressure at the end of each process. Also show processes on p-V and T-s diagram, Assume
Cv = 0.718 kJ/kg.K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg.K [0.2526 kJ/K, 0.0628 kJ/K, 0.3155 kJ/K
1445 kPa, 38.45 kPa]
5.27 Air expands reversibly in a piston-cylinder arrangement isothermally at temperature of 260°C while its
volume becomes twice of original. Subsequently heat is rejected isobarically till volume is similar to
original. Considering mass of air as 1 kg and process to be reversible determine net heat interaction
and total change in entropy. Also show processes on T-s diagram.
[– 161.8 kJ/kg, – 0.497 kJ/kg.K]
5.28 Ethane gas at 690 kPa, 260°C is expanded isentropically up to pressure of 105 kPa, 380K. Considering
initial volume of ethane as 0.06 m3 determine the work done if it behaves like perfect gas.
Also determine the change in entropy and heat transfer if the same ethane at 105 kPa, 380K is
compressed up to 690 kPa following p.V. 1.4 = constant. [0.8608 kJ/K, 43.57 kJ]
5.29 Determine the net change in entropy and net flow of heat from or to the air which is initially at 105 kPa,
15°C. This 0.02 m3 air is heated isochorically till pressure becomes 420 kPa and then cooled isobarically
back up to original temperature. [– 0.011kJ/K, – 6.3 kJ]
5.30 Air initially at 103 kPa, 15°C is heated through reversible isobaric process till it attains temperature of
300°C and is subsequently cooled following reversible isochoric process up to 15°C temperature.
Determine the net heat interaction and net entropy change. [101.9 kJ, 0.246 kJ/K]
5.31 Calculate the entropy change when 0.05 kg of carbon dioxide is compressed from 1 bar, 15°C to 830 kPa
pressure and 0.004m3 volume. Take Cp = 0.88 kJ/kg.K. This final state may be attained following
isobaric and isothermal process. [0.0113 kJ/K]
5.32 Two insulated tanks containing 1 kg air at 200 kPa, 50°C and 0.5 kg air at 100 kPa, 80°C are connected
through pipe with valve. Valve is opened to allow mixing till the equilibrium. Calculate the amount of
entropy produced. [0.03175 kJ/K]
164 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
6
Thermodynamic Properties of
Pure Substance
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Engineering systems have an inherent requirement of some substance to act as working fluid i.e. transport
agent for energy and mass interactions. Number of working fluids are available and are being used in
different systems suiting to the system requirements. Steam is also one of such working fluids used
exhaustively because of its favourable properties. In thermal power plants steam is being extensively
used. Water has capability to retain its chemical composition in all of its’ phases i.e. steam and ice, and
also it is almost freely available as gift of nature.
Pure substance refers to the “substance with chemical homogeneity and constant chemical
composition.” H2O is a pure substance as it meets both the above requirements. Any substance, which
undergoes a chemical reaction, cannot be pure substance.
Vapour
Solid + Vapour Triple point line
SV
V
Isotherms
S Liquid
+ V
Vapour, LV
200 °C f
100 °C e
d
T
0 °C c b
–20°C a
Critical point
nt
ta
ns
t
an
co
t
ns
=
co
P2
1
=
P
L
T V
Liquid-vapour Vapour region
region LV
Saturated Saturated
liquid line vapour line
V
Fig. 6.5 T-V diagram for water
(ii) P-T diagram: It is the property diagram having pressure on Y-axis and temperature on X-axis.
This can also be obtained by identifying and marking salient states during phase transformation
and subsequently generating locii of identical states at different pressures.
For the phase change discussed in article 6.3, pressure and temperature variation shall be as described
ahead. This phase change occurs at constant pressure of 1 atm.
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 169
a – b: Temperature rises from –20°C to 0°C, phase is solid.
b – c: Temperature does not rise, phase changes from ice to water (solid to liquid)
c – d: Temperature rises from 0°C to 100°C, phase is liquid
d – e: Temperature does not rise, phase changes from liquid to gas (water to steam)
e – f: Temperature rises from 100°C to 200°C, phase is gas (steam).
p2
a2 b 2,c 2 d 2, e 2 f2
p1
a1 b 1,c 1 d1, e1 f1
1 atm
p a b, c d, e f
– 20 °C
T
Fig. 6.6 P-T variation for phase transformation at constant pressures
p L
S V
Triple point
0.01 °C T
Fig. 6.7 P-T diagram for water
(iii) P-V-T surface: This is the three dimensional variation describing three thermodynamic properties
P, V and T. As we know that for defining a state at least two properties are needed, therefore on
P-V-T surface also, by knowing any two the third can be seen and continuous variation of these
properties is available. Here pressure, volume and temperature are taken on mutually perpendicular
axis and surface obtained is depicted below with all salient points. P-V-T surface shall be
different for different substances depending on their characteristics. Here P-V-T surface for
two substances having opposite characteristics are given in Fig. 6.8.
P
Critical point
Liquid
Solid LV
Vap
T
SV
Triple point
V line
(A) P-V-T surface for water (which expands upon freezing.)
170 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Critical point
Liquid
Solid
LV Gas
Vap
SV T
Triple point
V
line
(B) P-V-T surface for Carbon dioxide (which contracts upon freezing.)
Fig. 6.8 P-V-T surface for water and CO2
1 atm pressure
200 °C f
100 °C e
d
T
0 °C c
b
–20 °C a
Se–f
Sc–d Sd–e
Sb–c s
Sa–b
Critical point
r
ba
Critical state
2
1.
tc = 374.15 °C Saturated
22
vapour line
=
L P2 = C
P
SL
t
ns
P2 > P1 P= Const
Co
P1 = C T L
S
=
LV V
P
V
Triple point line Saturated
T LV
liquid line
P increasing
SV Sfg
s Sf Sg
Fig. 6.10 T–s diagram for water Fig. 6.11 T–s diagram showing liquid and vapour regions
mg mg
or v = 1 – · vf + · v
m m g
mg mg
or v = 1 – · vf + · v
m m g
mg mg
From definition, x = m +m =
f g m
or, v = (1 – x) · vf + x · vg
or, v = vf + x · (vg – vf)
or, v = vf + x · vfg.
here vfg indicates change in specific volume from liquid to vapour
Similarly, enthalpy, entropy and internal energy may be defined for such states in wet region.
i.e.
h = hf + x (hg – hf)
or h = hf + x · hfg
here hfg is difference in enthalpy between saturated liquid and vapour states. Actually hfg is energy or
heat required for vaporization or heat to be extracted for condensation i.e. latent heat.
Similarly, s = sf + x · sfg where sfg = sg – sf
u = uf + x · ufg where ufg = ug – uf .
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 175
6.7 STEAM TABLES AND MOLLIER DIAGRAM
Steam being pure substance has its unique and constant properties at different pressures and temperatures.
Therefore, thermodynamic properties can be estimated once and tabulated for future use. Steam table is
a tabular presentation of properties such as specific enthalpy, entropy, internal energy and specific
volume at different saturation pressures and temperatures. Steam table may be on pressure basis or on
temperature basis. The table on pressure basis has continuous variation of pressure and corresponding
to it : saturation temperature (Tsat), enthalpy of saturated liquid (hf), enthalpy of saturated vapour (hg),
entropy of saturated liquid (sf), entropy of saturated vapour (sg), specific volume of saturated liquid (vf),
specific volume of saturated vapour (vg), internal energy of saturated liquid (uf), internal energy of
saturated vapour (ug) are given on unit mass basis, i.e. as shown in table 6.2.
Similar to above the temperature based table which gives continuous variation of temperature and
corresponding to it saturation pressure and other properties as hf , hg, hfg, sf , sg, sfg, vf , vg, uf , ug and ufg
are given.
Similarly, steam properties for superheated steam are also estimated and tabulated at some discrete
pressures for varying degree of superheat. Super heated steam table are available for getting enthalpy,
entropy, specific volume and internal energy separately. Example of superheated steam table for enthalpy
is given here:
Table 6.2 Pressure based steam table
Critical point
L
SL V
S
h LV
Saturated vapour line
SV
Triple point line
Critical C : Constant
point
Constant temperature
Sat lines
liq.
line
c
p=
c T=c
h p= V
hg
c) T=c
(p = c/T =
hfg
L
ht Saturated vapour
line
sfg LV
st s sg
Const. pressure p1
CP
p2
h
1 2
In the above expression h f at p1 and h fg at p1 can be seen from steam table if pressure of wet steam
is known. Also the enthalpy at state 2 (end of throttling) can be seen from superheated steam table if
pressure and temperature at ‘2’ are known.
Substituting in, h1 = h2
hf at p + x × hfg at p = h2
1 1
Here h2, hf at p , hfg at p are all known as explained above.
1 1
h2 − h f at p1
Therefore, x = h fg at p
1
Now the arrangements are to be made for, (a) measurement of pressure of wet steam in the begining,
(b) throttling of wet mixture such that state at the end of throttling lies in superheated region,
(c) measurement of pressure, temperature of throttled steam. Arrangement used in throttling calorimeter
is as shown in Fig. 6.16.
Sampling
bulb T2
P1
Pressure measurement
before throttling
Pressure of steam
Exhaust to
after throttling
condenser
Steam main
Wet mixture
Perfectly insulated
Valve
Sampling
bulb Vapour out
Separating chamber
Valve
1 1' 2
Sampling
Pr. gauge
bulb
1 1' 2
Cold water in
Valve Condenser out
Separating and throttling processes occurring are also shown on h–s diagram in Fig. 6.19.
p1
p2
h 1'
1 2
x2
x1
s
Steam main
Electrical
Valve heater Insulation Temperature
measurement
1 2
Sampling
bulb Pressure
measurement
1 2
Qadd
Exhaust steam
collection (m.kg)
EXAMPLES
T2 h fg
swet = cp water ln +x·
T1 T2
(g) Entropy of super heated steam: Entropy change during constant pressure heating for superheating
unit mass of the steam.
Tsup
= cp steam ln
Tsat
Total entropy of super heated steam, starting with water at temperature T1.
10 MPa
0.05 MPa
1 2
h
Fig. 6.21
Dryness fraction is 0.968. Ans.
3. Determine internal energy of steam if its enthalpy, pressure and specific volumes are 2848 kJ/kg, 12
MPa and 0.017 m3/kg.
Solution:
Internal energy, u = h – pv
= (2848 – 12 × 103 × 0.017) kJ/kg
= 2644 kJ/kg
Internal energy = 2644 kJ/kg Ans.
4. Determine entropy of 5 kg of steam at 2 MPa and 300°C. Take specific heat of super heated steam as
2.1 kJ/kg.K.
Solution:
Steam state 2 MPa and 300°C lies in superheated region as saturation temperature at 2 MPa is
212.42°C and hfg = 1890.7 kJ/kg.
Entropy of unit mass of superheated steam with reference to absolute zero.
Tsat h fg ,2MPa Tsuper heat
= cp water In + + cp superheat ln
273.15 Tsat Tsat
Substituting values
485.57 1890.7 573.15
= 4.18 ln + + 2.1 ln
273.15 485.57 485.57
= 6.646 kJ/kg.K.
Entropy of 5 kg of steam = 33.23 kJ/K
Entropy of steam = 33.23 kJ/K Ans.
5. Water in a pond boils at 110°C at certain depth in water. At what temperature the water shall boil if
we intend to boil it at 50 cm depth from above mentioned level.
Solution:
Boiling point = 110°C, pressure at which it boils = 143.27 kPa (from steam table, sat. pressure for
110°C)
At further depth of 50 cm the pressure
= 143.27 – ((103 × 9.81 × 0.50) × 10–3)
= 138.365 kPa.
184 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Boiling point at this depth = Tsat, 138.365
From steam table this temperature = 108.866 = 108.87°C
Boiling point = 108.87°C Ans.
6. Water-vapour mixture at 100°C is contained in a rigid vessel of 0.5 m3 capacity. Water is now heated
till it reaches critical state. What was the mass and volume of water initially?
Solution:
In a rigid vessel it can be treated as constant volume process.
v 1 = v2
Since final state is given to be critical state, then specific volume at critical point,
v 2 = 0.003155 m3/kg
At 100°C saturation temperature, from steam table
v f = 0.001044 m3/kg, vg = 1.6729 m3/kg
Thus for initial quality being x1
v 1 = vf 100°C + x1 · vfg100°C
or 0.003155 = 0.001044 + x1 × 1.671856
x1 = 0.0012627
Mass of water initially = Total mass · (1 – x1)
V 0.5
Total mass of fluid = v = = 158.48 kg
2 0.003155
Mass of water = 158.48 kg
Volume of water = 158.48 × 0.001044
= 0.1652 m3
Mass of water = 158.48 kg, Ans.
Volume of water = 0.1652 m3
7. Determine slope of an isobar at 2 MPa and 500°C on mollier diagram.
Solution:
On mollier diagram (h – s diagram) the slope of isobaric line may be given as
dh
= Slope of isobar
ds p = const
From Ist and IInd law combined;
Tds = dh – vdp
for constant pressure
dh
=T
ds p = const
Here temperature T = 773.15 K
dh
hence slope = ds = 773.15
p = const
200 kPa
T 2
p1
30 °C
1
Fig. 6.22
12. A rigid vessel contains liquid-vapour mixture in the ratio of 3:2 by volume. Determine quality of
water vapour mixture and total mass of fluid in vessel if the volume of vessel is 2 m3 and initial
temperature is 150°C.
Solution:
From steam table at 150°C,
v f = 0.001091 m3/kg, vg = 0.3928 m3/kg
Volume occupied by water = 1.2 m3
Volume of steam = 0.8 m3
1.2
Mass of water ⇒ mf = = 1099.91 kg
0.001091
0.8
Mass of steam ⇒ mg = = 2.04 kg
0.3928
Total mass in tank = mf + mg = 1103.99 kg
2.04
Quality or Dryness fraction, x = = 0.001848
1103.99
Mass = 1103.99 kg, Quality = 0.001848 Ans.
188 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
13. Steam turbine expands steam reversibly and adiabatically from 4 MPa, 300°C to 50°C at turbine
exit. Determine the work output per kg of steam.
Solution:
From SFEE on steam turbine;
W = (h1 – h2)
Initially at 4 MPa, 300°C the steam is super heated so enthalpy from superheated steam table or
Mollier diagram.
h1 = 2886.2 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.2285 kJ/kg.K
Reversible adiabatic expansion process has entropy remaining constant. On Mollier diagram the
state 2 can be simply located at intersection of constant temperature line for 50°C and isentropic expansion
line.
Else from steam tables at 50°C saturation temperature;
hf = 209.33 kJ/kg, sf = 0.7038 kJ/kg.K
hfg = 2382.7 kJ/kg, sfg = 7.3725 kJ/kg.K
Here s1 = s2, let dryness fraction at 2 be x2,
6.2285 = 0.7038 + x2 × 7.3725
x2 = 0.7494
Hence enthalpy at state 2,
h2 = hf + x2.hfg = 209.33 + 0.7494 × 2382.7
h2 = 1994.93 kJ/kg
Steam turbine work = (2886.2 – 1994.93)
= 891.27 kJ/kg
Turbine output = 891.27 kJ/kg Ans.
4 MPa, 300 °C
1
T p1
50 °C
2
s
Fig. 6.23
14. In a closed vessel the 100 kg of steam at 100 kPa, 0.5 dry is to be brought to a pressure of 1000 kPa
inside vessel. Determine the mass of dry saturated steam admitted at 2000 kPa for raising pressure. Also
determine the final quality.
Solution:
It is a constant volume process.
Volume of vessel V = (Mass of vapour) × (Specific volume of vapour)
Initial specific volume, v1
v 1 = vf, 100kPa + x1.vfg, 100kPa
at 100 kPa from steam table;
hf, 100 kPa = 417.46 kJ/kg
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 189
uf, 100 kPa = 417.36 kJ/kg
vf, 100 kPa = 0.001043 m3/kg
hfg, 100 kPa = 2258 kJ/kg,
ufg, 100 kPa = 2088.7 kJ/kg,
vg, 100 kPa = 1.6940 m3/kg
given x1 = 0.5, v1 = 0.8475 m3/kg
2
T
Fig. 6.24
Steam
Cooling water
Hot well
Condensate
Fig. 6.25
Solution:
From Dalton’s law of partial pressure the total pressure inside condenser will be sum of partial pressures
of vapour and liquid inside.
76.8 − 71.5
Condenser pressure = × 101.325 kPa
(73.55)
= 7.30 kPa
Partial pressure of steam corresponding to 35°C from steam table;
= 5.628 kPa
Enthalpy corresponding to 35°C from steam table,
hf = 146.68 kJ/kg
hfg = 2418.6 kJ/kg
Let quality of steam entering be ‘x’.
From energy balance;
mw(26.24 – 8.51) × 4.18 = 1930 (146.68 + x × 2418.6 – 4.18 × 27.6)
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 191
or 62000 (17.73 × 4.18) = 1930 (31.31 + x × 2418.6)
which gives x = 0.97
Dryness fraction of steam entering = 0.97 Ans.
16. In a vertical vessel of circular cross section having diameter of 20 cm water is filled upto a depth of
2 cm at a temperature of 150°C. A tight fitting frictionless piston is kept over the water surface and a
force of 10 kN is externally applied upon the piston. If 600 kJ of heat is supplied to water determine the
dryness fraction of resulting steam and change in internal energy. Also find the work done.
Solution:
Heating of water in vessel as described above is a constant pressure heating. Pressure at which process
occurs
Force
= + atmospheric pressure
area
10
= + 101.3 kPa
π
(0.2)
2
4
= 419.61 kPa
π
Volume of water contained = × (0.2)2 × (0.02)
4
Volume = 6.28 × 10–4 m3
Mass of water = 6.28 × 10–4 × 103 = 0.628 kg
Constant pressure
T
1 2
Fig. 6.26
Heat supplied shall cause sensible heating and latent heating.
Hence, Enthalpy change = Heat supplied
600 = {(hf at 419.6 kPa + x.hfg at 419.6 kPa) – (4.18 × 150)} × 0.628
600 = {(612.1 + x.2128.7) – 627} × 0.628
Dryness fraction x = 0.456
Dryness fraction of steam produced = 0.456 Ans.
Internal energy of water, initially
U1 = mh1 – p1V1
= (0.628 × 4.18 × 150) – (419.61 × 6.28 × 10–4)
U1 = 393.5 kJ
192 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Finally, internal energy of wet steam
U2 = mh2 – p2V2
Here V2 = m·x·vg at 419.61 kPa
= 0.456 × 0.4435 × 0.628
= 0.127 m3
Hence U2 = (0.628 × 1582.8) – (419.61 × 0.127)
U2 = 940.71 kJ
Change in internal energy = U2 – U1.
Change in internal energy = 547.21 kJ Ans.
Work done = P · (V2 – V1)
= 419.61 × (0.127 – 6.28 × 10–4)
Work done = 53.03 kJ
Work done = 53.03 kJ Ans.
17. In a separating and throttling calorimeter the total quantity of steam passed was 40 kg and 2.2 kg
of water was collected from separator. Steam pressure before throttling was 1.47 MPa and temperature
and pressure after throttling are 120°C and 107.88 kPa. Determine the dryness fraction of steam before
entering to calorimeter. Specific heat of superheated steam may be considered as 2.09 kJ/kg.K.
Separating Throttling
calorimeter calorimeter
40 kg 2 3
1.47 MPa 107.88 kPa
2.2 kg 120 °C
Fig. 6.27
Solution:
Consider throttling calorimeter alone,
Degree of superheat = 120 – 101.8 = 18.2°C
Enthalpy of superheated steam = (2673.95 + (18.2 × 2.09))
= 2711.988 kJ/kg
Enthalpy before throttling = Enthalpy after throttling
840.513 + x2.1951.02 = 2711.988
or x2 = 0.9592
40 − 2.2
For separating calorimeter alone, dryness fraction, x1 =
40
x1 = 0.945
Overall dryness fraction = (x1.x2) = (0.945 × 0.9592)
= 0.9064
Dryness fraction : 0.9064 Ans.
18. A rigid vessel is divided into two parts A and B by means of frictionless, perfectly conducting piston.
Initially, part A contains 0.4 m3 of air (ideal gas) at 10 bar pressure and part B contains 0.4 m3 of wet
steam at 10 bar. Heat is now added to both parts until all the water in part B is evaporated. At this
condition the pressure in part B is 15 bar. Determine the initial quality of steam in part B and the total
amount of heat added to both parts. [U.P.S.C. 1995]
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 193
Solution:
Here heat addition to part B shall cause evaporation of water and subsequently the rise in pressure.
Final, part B has dry steam at 15 bar. In order to have equilibrium the part A shall also have pressure of
15 bar. Thus, heat added
Q = V(P2 – P1)
= 0.4(15 – 10) × 102
Q = 200 kJ
Final enthalpy of dry steam at 15 bar, h2 = hg at 15 bar
h2 = 2792.2 kJ/kg
Let initial dryness fraction be x1. Initial enthalpy,
h1 = hf at 10bar + x1·hfg at 10 bar
h1 = 762.83 + x1·2015.3
Heat balance yields,
h1 + Q = h2
(762.83 + x1·2015.3) + 200 = 2792.2
x1 = 0.907
Heat added = 200 kJ
Initial quality = 0.907 Ans.
19. A piston-cylinder contains 3 kg of wet steam at 1.4 bar. The initial volume is 2.25 m3. The steam is
heated until its’ temperature reaches 400°C. The piston is free to move up or down unless it reaches the
stops at the top. When the piston is up against the stops the cylinder volume is 4.65 m3. Determine the
amounts of work and heat transfer to or from steam. [U.P.S.C. 1994]
Solution:
From steam table, specific volume of steam at 1.4 bar = 1.2455 m3/kg
= vg at 1.4 bar
2.25
Specific volume of wet steam in cylinder, v1 = = 0.75 m3/kg
3
0.75
Dryness fraction of initial steam, x1 = = 0.602
1.2455
Initial enthalpy of wet steam, h1 = hf at 1.4 bar + x1 · hfg at 1.4 bar
= 457.99 + (0.602 × 2232.3) ⇒ h1 = 1801.83 kJ/kg
4.65
At 400°C specific volume of steam, v2 = = 1.55 m3/kg
3
For specific volume of 1.55 m3/kg at 400°C the pressure can be seen from the steam table. From
superheated steam tables the specific volume of 1.55 m3/kg lies between the pressure of 0.10 MPa
(specific volume 3.103 m3/kg at 400°C) and 0.20 MPa (specific volume 1.5493 m3/kg at 400°C). Actual
pressure can be obtained by interpolation;
0.20 − 0.10
P2 = 0.10 + × (1.55 – 3.103)
(1.5493 − 3.103)
P2 = 0.199 MPa ≈ 0.20 MPa
Saturation pressure at 0.20 MPa = 120.23°C
194 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Finally the degree of superheat = 400 – 120.23
= 279.77°C
Final enthalpy of steam at 0.20 MPa and 400°C, h2 = 3276.6 kJ/kg
Heat added during process = m (h2 – h1)
= 3 × (3276.6 – 1801.83)
∆Q = 4424.31 kJ
Internal energy of initial wet steam, u1 = uf at 1.4 bar + x1.ufg at 1.4 bar
u1 = 457.84 + (0.607 × 2059.34)
u1 = 1707.86 kJ/kg
Internal energy of final state,
u2 = uat 0.2 MPa, 400°C
u2 = 2966.7 kJ/kg
Change in internal energy ⇒ ∆U = m(u2 – u1)
= 3 × (2966.7 – 1707.86)
∆U = 3776.52 kJ
From first law of thermodynamics,
Work done ∆W = ∆Q – ∆U
= 4424.31 – 3776.52
Work done, ∆W = 647.79 kJ
Heat transfer = 4424.31 kJ
Work transfer = 647.79 kJ Ans.
20. An insulated vessel is divided into two compartments connected by a valve. Initially, one compart-
ment contains steam at 10 bar, 500°C, and the other is evacuated. The valve is opened and the steam is
allowed to fill the entire volume, achieving a final pressure of 1 bar. Determine the final temperature, in
°C, the percentage of the vessel volume initially occupied by steam and the amount of entropy produced,
in kJ/kg. K. [U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
Here throttling process is occurring therefore enthalpy before and after expansion remains same. Let
initial and final states be given by 1 and 2. Initial enthalpy, from steam table.
h1 at 10 bar and 500°C = 3478.5 kJ/kg
s1 at 10 bar and 500°C = 7.7622 kJ/kg.K
v1 at 10 bar and 500°C = 0.3541 m3/kg
Finally pressure becomes 1 bar so the final enthalpy at this pressure (of 1 bar) is also 3478.5 kJ/kg
which lies between superheat temperature of 400°C and 500°C at 1 bar. Let temperature be T2,
hat 1 bar, 400°C = 3278.2 kJ/kg
hat 1 bar, 500°C = 3488.1 kJ/kg
( hat 1 bar,500ºC − hat 1 bar,400ºC )
h2 = 3478.5 = hat 1 bar, 400°C + (T2 – 400)
(500 − 400)
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 195
3488.1 − 3278.2
3478.5 = 3278.2 + (T2 – 400)
100
T 2 = 495.43°C,
Final temperature = 495.43°C Ans.
Entropy for final state,
8.8342 − 8.5435
s2 = 8.5435 + × (95.43)
100
s2 = 8.8209 kJ/kg. K
Change in entropy, ∆s = 8.8209 – 7.7622
= 1.0587 kJ/kg . K
Change in entropy = 1.0587 kJ/kg K Ans.
Final specific volume, v2 = vat 1 bar, 400°C
3.565 − 3.103
= 3.103 + × 95.43
100
v 2 = 3.544 m3/kg
0.3541
Percentage volume occupied by steam = × 100 = 9.99%
3.544
Percentage of vessel volume initially occupied by steam = 9.99% Ans.
21. Determine the maximum work per kg of steam entering the 2.5 MPa, 350°C, 1kg/s
turbine and the irreversibility in a steam turbine receiving steam
at 2.5 MPa, 350°C and rejecting steam at 20 kPa, 0.92 dry. Dur- 1 Steam Turbine
ing the expansion the one-quarter of initial steam is bled at 30
kPa, 200°C. Consider the heat loss during expansion as 10kJ/s
and atmospheric temperature as 30°C.
Solution: 3 0.75kg/s
For the states shown on turbine in the figure, the steam table
can be used to get following values: 2 20 kPa. 0.92 dry
30 kPa, 200°C
At 2.5 MPa, 350°C, 0.25kg/s
h1 = 3126.3 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.8403 kJ/kg.K
Fig. 6.28
196 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At 30 MPa, 200°C,
h2 = 2878.6 kJ/kg.
s2 = 8.5309 kJ/kg.K
At 20 kPa, 0.92 dry,
hf = 251.40kJ/kg, hg = 2609.7kJ/kg
sf = 0.8320 kJ/kg.K, sfg = 7.0766 kJ/kg.K
⇒ h3 = 251.40 + 0.92 × (2609.7 – 251.40)
h3 = 2421.04 kJ/kg
s3 = 0.8320 + (0.92 × 7.0766)
s3 = 7.3425 kJ/kg.K
At atmospheric temperature,
hf at 30°C = h0 = 125.79 kJ/kgs; sfat 30°C = s0 = 0.4369kJ/kg.K
Availability of steam entering turbine,
A1 = (h1 – h0) – T0(s1 – s0)
= (3126.3 – 125.79) – 303(6.8403 – 0.4369)
= 1060.28 kJ/kg
Availability of steam leaving turbine at state 2 & 3,
A 2 = (h2 – h0) – T0(s2 – s0) = (2878.6 – 125.79)
– 303(8.5309 – 0.4369)
A2 = 300.328 kJ/kg
A3 = (h3 – h0) – T0(s3 – s0)
= (2421.04 – 125.79) – 303(7.3425 – 0.4369)
A3 = 202.85 kJ/kg
Maximum work per kg of steam entering turbine for
Wmax = 1 × A1 – m2A2 – m3A3
Wmax = A1 – (0.25)A2 – 0.75A3
= 1060.28 – (0.25 × 300.328) – (0.75 × 202.85)
Wmax = 833.06 kJ/kg Ans.
Irreversibility, I = T0 (m2 × s2 + m3 × s3 – m1s1) – Q.
= 303 (0.25 × 8.5309 + 0.75 × 7.3425 – 6.8403) – (– 10)
Irreversibility, I = 252.19 kJ/s Ans.
22. Determine the change in availability due to throttling of steam from 6 MPa and 400°C to 5 MPa
when surroundings are at 100 kPa and 20°C. The changes in KE and PE may be considered negligible.
Solution:
From steam tables
Initially at 6 MPa, 400°C, h1 = 3177.2 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.5408 kJ/kg.K
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 197
After throttling at 5 Mpa,
h2 = h1; in view of throttling process.
Hence at 5 MPa and
h2 = 3177.2 kJ/kg
Superheated Steam table gives,
at 5 MPa, hat 350°C = 3068.4 kJ/kg
at 5 MPa, hat 400°C = 3195.7 kJ/kg
Hence by interpolation at 5 MPa, enthalpy of 3177.2 kJ/kg will be at
(400 − 350) × (3177.2 − 3068.4)
T2 = 350 +
(3195.7 − 3068.4)
T2 = 392.7°C
After throttling steam will be at 5 MPa, 392.7°C.
By interpolation Entropy, s2 = 6.6172 kJ/kg.K
6MPa
5MPa
1
2
Fig. 6.29
At dead state of 20°C,
hf at 20°C = h0 = 83.96 kJ/kg
sf at 20°C = s0 = 0.2966 kJ/kg
Hence availability at state 1,
1
A1 = (h1 – h0) – T0 (s1 – s0) + ( C12 ) + g ( z1 − z 0 )
2
⇒ A1 = (3177.2 – 83.96) – 293(6.5408 – 0.2966) + 0 + 0
A1 = 1263.68 kJ/kg
Availability of steam after throttling,
1
A2 = (h2 – h0) – T0 (s2 – s0) + ( C 2 ) + g ( z 2 − z 0 )
2
2
198 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A2 = (3177.2 – 83.96) – 293 (6.6172 – 0.2966)
A2 = 1241.30 kJ/kg
Change in availability = A2 – A1
= (1241.30 – 1263.68)
= – 22.5 kJ/kg
= 22.5 kJ/kg, decrease. Ans.
23. A parallel flow heat exchanger has hot water flowing at 95°C for heating cold water at 15°C to
45°C. Hot water flows at the rate of 800 gm/sec and the temperature of this hot water stream should not
be less than 50°C at exit. Estimate the second law efficiency and rate of exergy destruction considering
dead state temperature of 25°C.
Solution:
Let hot stream and cold stream be shown to enter at section 1–1 and leave at 2 – 2
Given; TH = 95°C, TH = 50°C, mH = 800 gm/s
1 2
T C = 15°C, TC = 45°C mH = 0.8kg/s
1 2
1 2
Hot, T H1 TH2 , mH
Cold, TC1 T , mC
1 2
Heat exchanger - Parallel flow
T
T
Fig. 6.30
For parallel flow heat exchanger as shown in figure;
mH × Cp,H.(TH – TH ) = mc × Cp,c.(TC – TC )
1 2 2 1
⇒ 0.8 × (95 – 50) = mc (45 – 15)
⇒ mc = 1.2 kg/s
or 10.11% Ans.
Rate of exergy loss in hot stream,
∆A H = mH{(hH – hH ) – T0(sH – sH )}
1 2 1 2
∆A H = 0.8{(397.96 – 209.33) – 298(1.25 – 0.7038)}
∆A H = 20.69 kJ/s
Hence exergy destruction
= ∆AH – ∆AC
= 20.69 – 2.43
= 18.26 kJ/s Ans.
-:-4+15-
6.1 Discuss generation of steam from ice at –5°C at 1 atm with the help of T–S and P–V diagrams.
6.2 What is meant by mollier diagram? Explain.
6.3 Write short notes on the following;
Sensible heating, Latent heating, Critical point, Triple point
6.4 Discuss different zones on T–V diagram for steam.
200 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
6.5 Derive the expression for enthalpy change during steam generation from feed water to superheated
steam.
6.6 Discuss the throttling calorimeter for dryness fraction measurement.
6.7 Give a neat sketch of “separating and throttling calorimeter” for dryness fraction measurement.
6.8 Sketch the throttling and superheating processes on h–s and T–S diagrams.
6.9 Determine the final condition of steam if it is passed through a reducing valve which lowers the
pressure from 2 MPa to 1 MPa. Assume initial state of steam to be 15% wet. [0.87]
6.10 Determine the final condition of steam, workdone, heat transferred and change in entropy if 0.5 kg of
steam at 1 MPa and 0.8 dry is heated at constant pressure until its volume gets doubled.
[408.6°C, 77.5 kJ, 453.5 kJ, 0.895 kJ/K]
6.11 Determine the state of substance if 3346 kJ of heat is added to wet steam in a closed rigid vessel of 3m3
volume containing 5 kg of wet steam at a pressure of 200 kPa till its pressure become 304 kPa. [Dry]
6.12 Complete the following table from steam table.
Pressure Temperature Enthalpy Quality Specific volume Entropy
(MPa) (°C) (kJ/kg) (x) (m 3/kg) (kJ/kg.K)
(a) 1 – – – – 6.5865
(b) – 250.4 – 0 – –
(c) 10 – – 0.8 – –
(d) 20 700 – – – –
(e) 15 800 – – – –
(a) 179.9°C, 762.8 kJ/kg, 1, 0.1944 m3/kg.
(b) 4 MPa, 1087.31 kJ/kg, 1.252 m3/kg, 2.7964 kJ/kg.K
(c) 311.06°C, 2461.33 kJ/kg, 0.01442 m3/kg, 5.1632 kJ/kg.K
(d) 3809 kJ/kg, 1, 0.02113 m3/kg, 6.7993 kJ/kg.
(e) 4092.4 kJ/kg, 1, 0.0321 m3/kg, 7.204 kJ/kg.K.
6.13 Determine the pressure in a rigid vessel and volume of rigid vessel if it contains 500 kg of water at 65°C.
[25 kPa, 0.51 m3]
6.14 Estimate the change in volume of water and the total heat required for its’ vaporization in a boiler
producing saturated steam at 75 kPa. One kg feed water is supplied to boiler as saturated water.
[2.22 m3, 2.28 MJ]
6.15 Determine enthalpy, entropy and specific volume for following cases
(i) Steam at 4 MPa and 80% wet. (ii) Steam at 10 MPa and 550°C.
(iii) Steam at 8 MPa and 295°C.
Also estimate the above properties using Mollier diagram and quantify the percentage variation
[1430.13 kJ/kg, 3.45 kJ/kg.K, 0.011 m3/kg]
[3500.9 kJ/kg, 6.76 kJ/kg.K, 0.036 m3/kg]
[2758 kJ/kg, 5.74 kJ/kg.K, 0.024 m3/kg]
6.16 Determine the temperature of steam at 20 MPa if its specific volume is 0.0155m3/kg. [520°C]
6.17 Steam undergoes reversible adiabatic expansion in steam turbine from 500 kPa, 300°C to 50 kPa.
Determine the work output per kg of steam turbine and quality of steam leaving steam turbine.
[357.64 kJ/kg, 0.98]
6.18 Steam flowing through two pipelines at 0.5 MPa are mixed together so as to result in a mixture flowing
at 2.2 kg/s and mass flow ratio of two is 0.8. One stream has quality of 0.8. Determine the temperature
of second stream so as to result in the final mixture having dryness fraction of 0.994.
[300°C approx.]
6.19 A steam turbine operates with isentropic efficiency of 90%. Turbine handles 6 kg/s of steam at 0.980
MPa and 200°C and leaves at 0.294 MPa. Determine the power developed in hp and change of entropy
from inlet to exit. [1660 hp, 0.050 kJ/kg.K]
Thermodynamic Properties of Pure Substance ________________________________________ 201
6.20 A boiler is fed with water velocity of 2m/s, 1.96 MPa, 100°C. Steam is produced at 400°C temperature
and comes out with velocity of 50 m/s. Determine the rate at which heat should be supplied per kg of
steam for above operation of boiler. [2824.8 kJ/kg]
6.21 A steam nozzle is supplied steam at 1 MPa, 200°C and 100 m/s. Expansion upto 0.3 MPa occurs in the
nozzle. Assuming isentropic efficiency of nozzle to be 0.9 determine final steam velocity.
6.22 Combined separating and throttling calorimeter is used to determine quality of steam. Following
observations are made;
Steam inlet pressure = 1.4 MPa
Pressure after throttling = 0.1 MPa
Temperature after throttling = 120°C
Water collected in separator = 0.45 kg
Steam condensed after throttling = 6.75 kg
Take specific heat of superheated steam = 2.1 kJ/kg.K
Also find the limiting quality of steam to be measured by above throttling calorimeter alone assuming
that separating calorimeter is not there. [0.90, 0.94]
6.23 Steam at 400kPa, dryness fraction of 0.963 is isentropically compressed till it becomes dry saturated.
This one kg steam is then heated isobarically till the initial volume is attained and subsequently steam
is restored to initial state following isochoric cooling. Determine the net work and net heat interac-
tions. Also show processes on T-s diagram. [29.93 kJ/kg, 29.93 kJ/kg]
3
6.24 Wet steam at 1 MPa, 0.125m volume and enthalpy of 1814 kJ is throttled up to 0.7 bar pressure.
Determine the final state of steam, initial mass and dryness fraction considering cp = 2.1 kJ/kg.K
[101.57°C, 0.675kg, 0.953]
6.25 Steam initially at 5 bar, 0.6 dry is isochorically heated till its pressure becomes 10 bar. This 15 kg steam
is expanded up to 3 bar following pv1.3 = constant. Subsequently steam is cooled at constant pressure
till its dryness fraction becomes half of that existed after second process. Determine the heat, work
and entropy change in three processes.
[I process: 13.38 MJ, 0, 30,285 kJ/K.
II process: – 1.25MJ, 2.73 MJ, – 2.99kJ/K
III process: – 15.22 MJ, – 1.28 MJ, 37.4 kJ/K]
6.26 Determine the heat transfer and change in entropy in each process when steam at 20 bar, 250°C
expands till it reaches 4 bar following pv1.35 = constant and subsequently heated at constant volume
till its pressure becomes 8 bar. [– 319.36 kJ/kg, & – 0.725 kJ/kg.K
764.95kJ/kg & 1.65 kJ/kg.K]
6.27 A closed vessel of 0.6 m3 initially has steam at 15 bar, 250°C. Steam is blown off till pressure drops up
to 4 bar. Subsequently vessel is cooled at constant pressure till it becomes 3 bar. Considering the
expansion of gas to be isentropic during blow-off determine heat transferred during cooling process.
[– 620.38 kJ]
6.28 Determine the heat transferred when steam is taken out isobarically from a boiler tank till boiler is left
with 80% water only. Volume of boiler tank is 10m3 and initially it has equal volumes of steam and water
at 10 bar. [1.75 × 106 kJ]
6.29 Determine the temperature of steam at 1.5 MPa having mass of 50 gm and stored in vessel with volume
of 0.0076 m3. Vessel is cooled until pressure in vessel becomes 1.1 MPa. Determine the temperature at
which steam will be just dry saturated during cooling process. Also determine the final dryness
fraction and total heat rejected. [250°C, 191.6°C, 0.85, 18.63 kJ]
6.30 Calculate the dryness fraction of steam after throttling when it is throttled from 1.4 MPa to 1 MPa &
423K.
Also determine the final condition of steam if this pressure drop takes place in closed vessel of 0.56 m3
volume and heat is lost by conduction and radiation. [0.98, 0.298]
202 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
7
Availability and General
Thermodynamic Relations
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present civilization the use of energy resources has increased tremendously. Fast depleting fossil
fuel reserves have inevitably gathered the attention of one and all to think and devise for optimum energy
utilization. In order to optimally use energy, the efforts are required for identification and elimination of
the sources of inefficiency during it’s use, which obviously requires in depth study and analysis. A look
into the laws of thermodynamics shows that the first law of thermodynamics bases upon the series of
experiments done by James Joules, demonstrating the bidirectional numerical equivalence of converting
work into heat while second law of thermodynamics exhibits a unidirectional equivalence between work
and heat, i.e. for a given amount of heat the equivalent amount of work cannot be obtained whereas
vice-a-versa may be there. Thus, the concept of quality of energy came into existence and work is
considered as high grade of energy and heat as low grade of energy. Other forms of high grade energy
are electrical energy, wind energy, tidal energy etc. and low grade energy may be heat from nuclear
reactions, heat from combustion of fuel etc. Engineers have been using the first law of thermodynamics
stating the energy conservation, therefore it could be concluded that energy can not be destroyed and
exists with matters in all forms everywhere. It is now quite convincing to understand that the scarcity
of energy resources and energy crisis is a paradox. Still in real life we find scarcity of energy, as in
practice one is interested in the ability to feed, drive machines and occurrence of energy processes etc.
Such discussions gave birth to the concept of ‘available energy’ and ‘unavailable energy’ or a concept of
‘maximum work’.
This concept became very important in phenomenological thermodynamics, as it referred to the
possibilities of performing work in real conditions. G. Gouy and A. Stodola pioneered in the studies
pertaining to effect of ambient temperature upon the obtainable work and law of the loss of maximum
work. The law of the loss of maximum work says that the work obtained is always less than the
maximum obtainable work due to the irreversibility in thermal processes. Available energy concept came
out of these propositions. Quality of energy, its convertibility into other forms and capability to perform
work etc. are quantitatively defined using availability analysis. New term ‘exergy’ was introduced by Z.
Rant in 1956 so as to differentiate it from energy. ‘Exergy’ analysis or ‘availability’ analysis has capability
to identify and quantify the causes of thermodynamic imperfections in thermodynamic processes and
thus indicate about the possibilities of improving the processes. It is preferred over energy analysis as
energy analysis can not detect majority of thermodynamic imperfections. Such as the irreversible heat
transfer, throttling and adiabatic combustion etc. do not have any energy loss but make the quality of
energy inferior. Energy entering with fuel, electricity, flowing streams of matter and so on can be
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 203
accounted for in products and by products. Energy cannot be destroyed. The idea that something can
be destroyed is useful but should not be applied to ‘energy’, however it could be applied to another
variable ‘exergy’. Moreover, it is exergy and not energy that properly gauges the quality (utility), say one
kJ of electricity generated by a power plant versus one kJ in plant cooling water stream. Electricity
obviously has greater quality and the greater economic value.
These phenomenon can be evaluated by second law analysis easily. Exergy analysis could be integrated
with principles of engineering economics to determine the potential for cost effective improvement of
existing systems. Exergy and costing principles can also be used at initial design stage to develop
systems that are ‘optimized in annualized cost’, ‘sparing in use of fossil fuels’ and ‘environmentally
friendly’.
Let us see a electricity generating power cycle as shown.
25 units, electricity
100 units
75 units, surroundings
68-70
units 25 units, electricity
100 units
Control surface of
combined system
W
Control Q
system
Wc
Environment at
T0 & p0
Availability or exergy, A = Wc, max = {(E – U0) + p0(V – V0) – T0(S – S0)}
Availability or exergy cannot be less than zero as the maximum work interaction can not be less than
zero.
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 207
Also it can be given as,
Wc = A – T0 . ∆Sc
Above expression shows that some work done by combined system gets lost i.e. the irreversibilities
causing entropy production keep work below its’ maximum value.
Availability or exergy is not conserved like energy. Exergy gets destroyed by irreversibilities when
the control system changes to dead state and no work is done by combined system as in case of
spontaneous change.
Availability destruction is proportional to entropy generation due to irreversibilities in processes.
Irreversibility can be given as the product of dead state temperature and entropy generation due to
irreversible process.
I = T0 . ∆Sc and Wc = A – I and I = A – Wc
Above discussion indicates that the maximum work shall be obtained when a process takes place in
reversible manner. But in fact almost all the processes in real life occur in irreversible manner, so some
portion of energy is always unavailable. As irreversible processes are continuously increasing therefore
unavailable energy is also gradually increasing. This phenomenon is also called principle of degradation
of energy or law of degradation of energy.
Availability, A = {(E – U0) – T0(S – S0) + p0(V – V0)}, kJ
Availability per unit mass,
ω = {(e – u0) – T0(s – s0) + p0(v – v0)}, kJ/kg
Availability or exergy is thus a measure of departure of state of system from that of environment.
Thus, it is an attribute of system and environment together. However, once the environment is specified,
a numerical value can be assigned to availability in terms of property values for system only. Hence,
exergy can be regarded as property of the system.
Environment, T0 Environment, T0
(– dQ0) dQ0
Reversible Reversible dW = (– dQ) – dQ0
dW = (– dQ0) – dQ
H.E. H.E.
(– dQ0) > 0 T > T0
(dQ) (– dQ) (– dQ) > 0
dQ > 0
T < T0 (dQ0) > 0
Control system Control system
T T
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7.3
Let us consider a reversible heat engine transferring heat δQ to the control system at temperature T
from environment at temperature T0. From second law of thermodynamics,
208 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
δQ −δQ0
=
T T0
T0
work, δW = − 1 .δQ
T
Let us now consider a reversible heat engine transferring heat δQ from control system to environment
at T0. From second law of thermodynamics,
δQ0 −δQ
=
T0 T
T0
so work, δW = 1 − (– δQ)
T
T0
= − 1 .δQ
T
Availability associated with heat transfer : Let us consider a control system at dead state interacting
with other system and there is heat interaction Q in control system. Let the final state of control system
be given by ‘f ’. Due to heat interaction Q the control system may get heated up or cooled so that the
final state is different from that of environment. Control system’s temperature may increase from T0 to
Tf or decrease from Tf to T0 but in every case availability shall increase. Availability of control system
at final state gives maximum work that will be available from the combined system (control system +
environment) as control system returns to dead state.
Work available from a reversible heat engine when control system gets heated or cooled by
environment,
0 T
Wmax = ∫ f T0 − 1 δQ
f T
Availability associated with heat transfer = ∫0 1 − T0 δQ
T
AQ = ∫ 1 − 0 δQ
T
If there is irreversibility present within control system due to internal irreversibilities, then availability
change from initial to final state can be given as
T
AQ = ∫ 1 − 0 δQ − I
T
Since, here control system’s initial state was dead state having zero availability so the change in
availability
T
∆AQ = ∫ 1 − 0 δQ − I
T
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 209
Availability associated with work : Let us consider a control system initially at dead state. Control
system has adiabatic compression occurring in it due to work interaction with some other system. – W
work is done on control system and it attains some final state, ‘f ’. Availability in this case shall be the
maximum work available from the combined system of control system and environment as control
system returns to the dead state.
If the work W is done by the control system as it returns from final state ‘f ’ to dead state and the
change in volume Vf to V0 takes place by displacing the environment (pdV work), then availability
associated with work,
Aw = ∆Aw = [W – p0(Vf – V0)]
In case no boundary work is there, then Vf = V0
Aw = W = ∆Aw
Here it is also the availability change as system is returning to dead state. In case there is availability
loss due to internal irreversibilities then change in availability,
Aw = [W – p0(Vf – V0)] – I = ∆Aw
Similarly, availability associated with kinetic energy and potential energy can be given as,
1
AKE = mV 2 ; availability with K.E.
2
Generally, for any control mass in control system the availability change can be given as,
2 T
∆A1−2 = ∫ 1 − 0 ·dQ − (W − p0 ∆V ) − I
1 T
Above availability change can also be given on per unit time basis.
Energy loss
η =1−
Energy input
Availability output
(by second law), Effectiveness, ε =
Availability in
ηth
ε = η
th,rev
Useful work
For work producing systems, effectiveness =
Reversible work or maximum work
COP
For refrigerators and heat pumps, effectiveness =
COPrev.
Availability used
In general terms, Second law efficiency or effectiveness = Availability supplied
Surroundings
1 Q
m1,c1,
h1,z1, W
1
2
m2,c2,
h2,z2,
2
c12 c22
or, W = m1 h1 + 2 + gz1 − T0 s1 – m2 h2 + 2 + gz2 − T0 s2 – T0 · Sgen
W can be quantified as above. This W shall be actual work available from system. Here entropy
generation due to irreversibilities in processes reduce W and so for fully reversible processes Sgen = 0 and
we get maximum available work;
c12 c22
Wmax = m1 h1 + 2 + gz1 − T0 s1 – m2 h2 + 2 + gz2 − T0 s2
In general terms, actual work available in this kind of systems where boundary work (p.dV) is
absent can be given as under,
ci2 ce2
W = ∑mi ( hi + + gzi − T0 ·si ) – ∑me e 2 + gze − T0 ·se – T0 · Sgen
h +
2
where subscript ‘i’ and ‘e’ refer to inlet and exit in system.
For no irreversibilities present or for reversible processes,
c2 c2
Wmax = ∑ mi hi + i + gzi − T0 ·si − ∑ me he + e + gze − T0 ·se
2 2
Expression 1
Change in availability,
ci2 ce2
∆A = ∑mi i ( h − h0 ) + + gzi − T (
0 is − s0 – ∑m · e
) ( h − h0 ) + + gze − T0 (se − s0 )
2 e
2
on unit mass basis,
∆ω = {T0 · ∆s – ∆h – ∆K.E. – ∆P.E.} kJ/kg
where ∆K.E. and ∆P.E. refer to kinetic energy and potential energy changes in system.
It indicates that the change in availability can be given by the difference of fluid stream availability at
inlet and exit. “Fluid stream availability” can be defined in respect to dead state as, c0 = 0, z0 = 0
c2
ψ = (h – h0) + + gz – T0(s – s0) kJ/kg
2
c2
ψ = (u − u0 ) + p0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz, kJ/kg.
2
Here underlined terms are called physical exergy, c2/2 is kinetic exergy and gz is potential exergy
∆A = Wmax = ∑mi ψi – ∑me . ψe
Change of availability can be obtained using stream availability as described above. “Stream availability”
is quantification of availability at a point.
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 213
Irreversibility rate in steady flow process can be given as, I = T0.Sgen, (kW)
Exergy (Availability) and energy can be compared based upon their characteristics as given below.
Exergy (availability) Energy
1. Exergy does not follow the law of 1. Energy follows the law of conservation.
conservation.
2. It is function of states of the matter under 2. It is function of the state of matter under
consideration and the ‘environment’. consideration.
3. It is estimated with respect to the state 3. It may be calculated based upon the assumed
of reference imposed by environment. state of reference.
4. Exergy always depends upon pressure. 4. In case of ideal gas energy does not depend
upon pressure.
5. Exergy increases with temperature drop at 5. Energy increases with rise of temperature.
low temperatures. For constant pressure
processes exergy attains minimum value at
the temperature of environment.
6. Exergy has positive value for ideal vacuum. 6. Energy is zero for an ideal vacuum.
∂z ∂z
where, M = , N = i.e. M is partial derivative of z with respect to x when variable y is held
∂x y ∂y x
constant and N is partial derivative of z with respect to y when variable x is held constant.
Here, since M and N have continuous first partial derivative therefore, order of differentiation is
immaterial for properties and second partial derivative can be given as,
214 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
∂ ∂z ∂ ∂z
∂y ∂x y = ∂x ∂y
x
x y
∂M ∂N
or, =
∂y x ∂x y
Thus, the test of exactness for any property shall be,
∂M ∂N
=
∂y x ∂x y
Reciprocity relation and cyclic relation : Let us consider three variables x, y, z such that any two of
these are independent variables. Thus, we can write
x = x(y, z); y = y(x, z)
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂y
In differential form, dx = ∂y · dy + ∂z · dz; dy = ∂ dx + ∂ dz
z y x z z x
Combining above two relations we get
∂x ∂y ∂x ∂y ∂x
1 − dx = + dz
∂y z ∂x z ∂y z ∂z x ∂z y
As x and z are independent variables so let us keep z constant and vary x, i.e. dz = 0 and dx ≠ 0 which
yields reciprocity relation as,
∂x ∂y
1 − = 0
∂y z ∂x z
∂x ∂y
or, =1
∂y z ∂x z
∂x 1
= ∂
or, ∂y z y Reciprocity relation
∂x z
Similarly, let us keep x constant and vary z i.e. dx = 0, dz ≠ 0 which shall be possible only when;
∂x ∂y ∂x
+ = 0
∂y z ∂z x ∂z y
∂x ∂y ∂z
or = −1 Cyclic relation
∂y z ∂z x ∂x y
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 215
7.6.1 Gibbs and Helmholtz Functions
For a simple compressible system of fixed chemical composition thermodynamic properties can be
given from combination of first law and second law of thermodynamics as,
du = T · ds – pdv
dh = T · ds + vdp
Gibbs function (g) and Helmholtz function (f) are properties defined as below.
Gibbs function,
g = h − T · s , on unit mass basis i.e. specific Gibb’s function
also, G = H − T · S
Helmholtz function,
ƒ = u – T · s , on unit mass basis i.e. specific Helmholtz function
also, F = U – T · S
In differential form Gibbs function can be given as below for an infinitesimal reversible process
dg = dh – T · ds – s · dT
2 2
dg = vdp − sdT for a reversible isothermal process, ∫1 dg = ∫1 vdp
2 2
or, also dG = Vdp − SdT for reversible isothermal process; ∫1 dG = ∫1 Vdp
For a “reversible isobaric and isothermal process”, dp = 0, dT = 0 dG = 0
i.e. G = constant
‘Gibbs function’ is also termed as ‘Gibbs free energy’. For a reversible isobaric and isothermal
process Gibbs free energy remains constant or Gibbs function of the process remains constant. Such
reversible thermodynamic processes may occur in the processes involving change of phase, such as
sublimation, fusion, vaporization etc., in which Gibbs free energy remains constant.
‘Helmholtz function’ is also called ‘Helmholtz free energy’. For any infinitesimal reversible process
Helmholtz function can be given in differential form as,
dƒ = du – T · ds – sdT
or, df = − pdv − sdT
or, F = Constant
Above concludes that the Helmholtz free energy remains constant during a reversible isothermal and
isochoric process. Such processes may occur during chemical reactions occurring isothermally and
isochorically.
7.6.2 Maxwell Relations
Differential equations of thermodynamic properties, u, h, f and g can be given as function of p, T, v, s
as below:
du = T · ds – pdv
dh = T · ds + vdp
df = – pdv – s · dT
dg = vdp – s · dT
Above equations can be used for defining the functions u, h, f, g based upon analogy with,
∂M ∂N
dz = M · dx + N · dy, for z = z(x, y) and = .
∂y x ∂x y
From above four equations for properties to be exact differentials, we can write functions;
u = u(s, v)
h = h(s, p)
f = f(v, T)
g = g(p, T)
For differential of function ‘u’ to be exact;
∂T ∂p
=–
∂v s ∂s v
∂T ∂v
For differential of function ‘h’ to be exact; ∂p = ∂s
s p
∂p ∂s
For differential of function ‘f’ to be exact; ∂T = ∂v
v T
∂v ∂s
For differential of function ‘g’ to be exact; ∂T = – ∂p
p T
Above four conditions for exact differentials of thermodynamic properties result into “Maxwell
relations”.
Thus, “Maxwell relations” are :
∂T ∂p
=–
∂v s ∂s v
∂T ∂v
= ∂s
∂p s p
∂p ∂s
=
∂T v ∂v T
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 217
∂v ∂s
= –
∂T p ∂p T
Maxwell relations have large significance as these relations help in estimating the changes in entropy,
internal energy and enthalpy by knowing p, v and T. Some applications of these equations are discussed
in subsequent articles.
7.6.3 Clapeyron Equation
Let us look upon phase change at fixed temperature and pressure and estimate changes in specific
entropy, internal energy and enthalpy during phase change. Let us start with one of Maxwell relations;
∂p ∂s
=
∂T v ∂v T
From earlier discussions on pure substances we have seen that during phase transformation at
some temperature the pressure is saturation pressure. Thus pressure is also independent of specific
volume and can be determined by temperature alone. Hence, psat = f (Tsat)
∂p dp
or =
∂T v dT sat
dp
Here is the slope of saturation curve on pressure-temperature (p – T) diagram at some
dT sat
point determined by fixed constant temperature during phase transformation and is independent of
specific volume.
Substituting in the Maxwell relation.
∂s dp
=
∂
T
v dT sat
Pressure dp
Slope =
Solid Liquid dT Sat
P
Vapour
T Temperature
Fig. 7.5 Pressure-temperature diagram for pure substance
Thus, during vaporization i.e. phase transformation from liquid to vapour state, above relation can
be given as,
dry vapour dp
∫
dry vapour
∫sat. liquid ds =
sat. liquid dT sat · dv
218 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Using notations for dry vapour and saturated liquid it can be given as,
dp
(sg – sf) = · (vg – vf)
dT sat
dp sg − s f
or, = −
dT sat vg v f
dp s fg
=
dT sat v fg
From differential form of specific enthalpy,
dh = T·ds + v·dp
for phase change occurring at constant pressure and temperature,
dh = T·ds
for saturated liquid to dry vapour transformation,
(hg – hf) = T·(sg – sf)
hfg = T·sfg
h fg dp
Substituting in place of entropy sfg in
T dT sat
dp h fg
= Clapeyron equation
dT sat T ·v fg
Above equation is called Clapeyron equation. It can be used for determination of change in enthalpy
during phase change i.e. hfg from the p, v and T values which can be easily measured. Thus, Clapeyron
equation can also be used for “sublimation process” or “ melting occurring at constant temperature and
pressure” just by knowing slope of saturation curve on p-T diagram, temperature and change in specific
volume.
Hence, for initial state ‘1’ getting transformed into final state ‘2’ due to phase transformation at
constant pressure and temperature, general form of Clapeyron equation:
dp h12
=
dT sat T ·v12
At low pressure during liquid-vapour transformation it is seen that specific volume of saturated
liquid state is very small as compared to dry vapour state, i.e. vf <<< vg. Also at low pressure the
substance in vapour phase may be treated as perfect gas. Therefore, Clapeyron equation can be modified
in the light of two approximations of “vf being negligible compared to vg at low pressures” and “ideal gas
RT
equation of state during vapour phase at low pressure, vg = ”.
p
Clapeyron equation thus becomes, Clausius-Clapeyron equation as given here,
dp ( hg − h f )
= ( · )
dT sat T vg
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 219
dp hg − h f
or, =
dT sat T ·( RT / p)
dp h fg · p
or, = 2
dT sat RT
dp dT
or, = h fg · Clausius-Clapeyron equation
p sat RT 2 sat
Integrating between two states 1 and 2
p h fg 1 1
ln 2 = −
p1 sat R T1 T2 sat
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is thus a modified form of Clapeyron equation based upon certain
approximations and is valid for low pressure phase transformations of liquid-vapour or solid-vapour
type.
7.6.4 General Relations for Change in Entropy, Enthalpy, Internal Energy and Specific Heats
Let us now derive expressions for changes in entropy, enthalpy, internal energy and specific heats as a
function of thermodynamic properties, p, v and T. For defining a state any two of the properties
amongst the p, v, and T may be regarded as independent properties. Let us take (T, p) and (T, v) as two
sets of independent properties for defining other dependent properties.
Temperature and Pressure (T, p) as Independent Properties : By considering T and p as independent
properties, dependent property say entropy can be given as,
s = s(T, p)
Writing differential form of entropy function,
∂s ∂s
ds = · dT + · dp
∂T p ∂p T
∂s ∂v
From Maxwell relations the partial derivative can be substituted by – as,
∂p T ∂T p
∂s ∂v
ds = · dT − · dp
∂T p ∂T p
Similarly, specific enthalpy can be given as function of T and p; h = h(T, p)
∂h ∂h
Writing differential form; dh = ∂T dT + ∂p · dp
p T
We have already seen that specific heat at constant pressure can be given as function of specific
enthalpy and temperature at constant pressure.
∂h
Cp = ∂
T P
220 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Substituting Cp in dh,
∂h
dh = C p · dT + · dp
∂p T
From definition of enthalpy, first and second law combined,
dh = T · ds + vdp
Substituting dh and ds from above,
∂h ∂s ∂v
Cp · dT + ∂p · dp = T · ∂T dT – T ∂T · dp + v· dp
T p p
or,
∂h ∂v ∂s
+ T − v dp = T · − C p dT
∂p T ∂T p ∂T p
Here T and p are considered to be independent variables so let us keep pressure constant and vary
temperature i.e. dp = 0, dT ≠ 0. It yields in modified form of above underlined equation as,
∂s
T · − C p dT = 0
∂T p
∂s
or, CP = T·
∂T p
∂s Cp
or, =
∂T p T
C p dT ∂v
∂s ds = − ·dp
Substituting in ds expression we get, T ∂T p
∂T p
Similarly, temperature can be kept constant and pressure varied independently as,
dT = 0, dp ≠ 0
Above underlined equation gets modified as,
∂h ∂v
+ T − v dp = 0
∂p T ∂T p
∂h ∂v
or, = v−T
∂
T
p ∂T p
∂h
Substituting in expression for dh we get
∂p T
∂v
or, dh = C p dT + v − T dp
∂T p
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 221
T2 p2 ∂v
h2 – h1 = ∫T1 C p dT + ∫ v − T dp
p1
∂T p
Temperature and Specific Volume (T, v) as independent property: Considering T and v as independent
properties the dependent properties can be given as,
u = u(T, v)
Writing differential form of specific internal energy.
∂u ∂u
du = · dT + dv
∂T v ∂v T
∂u
From definition of specific heat at constant volume, Cv = ∂T
v
∂u
or, du = Cv ·dT + dv
∂v T
Writing specific entropy as function of T and v,
s = s(T, v)
∂s ∂s
ds = dT + dv
∂T v ∂v T
∂s ∂p
From Maxwell relations, = ; substituting in above we get
∂v T ∂T v
∂s ∂p
ds = dT + dv
∂T v ∂T v
From I and II law combined, du = T · ds – pdv
Substituting du and ds in above equation,
∂u ∂s ∂p
Cv dT + ∂ dv = T ∂ dT + T · ∂ dv – pdv
T
v T v T v
Rearranging terms,
∂u ∂p ∂s
−T + p dv = T · − C v dT
∂ v T ∂ T v ∂ T v
As T and v are considered independent variables therefore let us keep T as constant and v as
variable, i.e. dT = 0, dv ≠ 0. It yields,
∂u ∂p
− T + p dv = 0
∂v T ∂T v
∂u ∂p
or, =T −p
∂
T
v ∂T v
222 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Similarly, let us keep v constant and T as variable i.e dv = 0 dT ≠ 0. It yields,
∂s
T − Cv dT = 0
∂T v
∂s
or, T − Cv = 0
∂T v
∂s ∂s Cv
or, Cv = T · or, ∂T =
∂T v v T
∂u
Let us now substitute in the differential function du which yields,
∂v T
∂p
du = Cv ·dT + T · − p dv
∂T v
For any state change from 1 to 2 we can get change in internal energy, as
T2 ∂p
v2
u2 − u1 = ∫T1 Cv dT + ∫v1 T · ∂T v − p dv
∂s
Also, let us substitute in the expression of entropy change ‘ds’. It results in,
∂T v
C dT ∂p
ds = v + dv
T ∂T v
Thus, number of expressions are available for getting the change in h, u and s, which are summarized
as under.
∂v
dh = C p dT + v − T dp
∂T p
∂p
du = Cv dT + T − p dv
∂T v
C p ·dT ∂v
ds = − · dp
T ∂T p
C dT ∂p
ds = v + · dv
T ∂T v
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 223
From above two expressions of entropy change, the difference between Cp and Cv values can be
obtained as,
∂p ∂v
(Cp – Cv)dT = T · dv + T ∂T dp
∂T v p
Let us write from equation of state, the function p = p(T, v)
∂p ∂p
Differential, dp = ∂T dT + ∂v dv
v T
Substituting dp in above equation of (Cp – Cv) dT we get,
∂p ∂v ∂p ∂v ∂p
(Cp – Cv) dT = T ∂T dv + T ∂T · ∂T dT + T ∂T ∂v dv
v p v p T
or,
∂v ∂p ∂p ∂v ∂p
(C p − Cv ) − T dT = T +T dv
∂T p ∂T v ∂T v ∂T p ∂v T
Since T and v are independent so let us keep T as constant and v as variable i.e dT = 0 dv ≠ 0.
∂p ∂v ∂p
T +T dv = 0
∂T v ∂T p ∂v T
∂p ∂v ∂p
or, =–
∂T v ∂T p ∂v T
Similarly keeping v as constant and T variable i.e., dv = 0, dT ≠ 0
∂v ∂p
(C p − Cv ) − T dT = 0
∂T p ∂T v
∂v ∂p
(C p − Cv ) = T
or, ∂T p ∂T v
∂p
Substituting for from above in (Cp – Cv) we get,
∂T v
2
∂v ∂p
(C p − Cv ) = −T · ∂
∂T p v T
In single phase region the specific volume can also be given as function of T & p and the differential
of function v shall be,
v = v (T, p)
224 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
∂v ∂v
or, dv = dT + dp
∂T p ∂p T
The above differential form of specific volume indicates that it depends upon partial derivatives of
specific volume with respect to temperature and pressure. Partial derivatives of v with respect to
temperature can be related to “volume expansivity” or “coefficient of volume expansion” as below,
1 ∂v
Volume expansivity, β =
v ∂T p
Partial derivative of specific volume with respect to pressure can be related to “isothermal
compressibility”, α as below.
−1 ∂v
Isothermal compressibility,α =
v ∂p T
Inverse of isothermal compressibility is called “isothermal bulk modulus”,
∂p
BT = – v
∂v T
Thus, volume expansivity gives the change in volume that occurs when temperature changes while
pressure remains constant. Isothermal compressibility gives change in volume when pressure changes
while temperature remains constant. These volume expansivity and isothermal compressibility are
thermodynamic properties.
Similarly, the change in specific volume with change in pressure isentropically is also called “isentropic
−1 ∂v
compressibility” or “adiabatic compressibility”, Mathematically αs = . Reciprocal of isentropic
v ∂p s
∂p
compressibility is called “isentropic bulk modulus,” Bs = – v
∂v s
Substituting β and α in (Cp – Cv) expression;
−1
Cp – Cv = – T(β2 · v2)
α · v
or,
v · T ·β 2
C p − Cv = Mayer relation
α
Above difference in specific heat expression is called “Mayer relation” and helps in getting significant
conclusion such as,
l The difference between specific heats is zero at absolute zero temperature i.e. specific heats at
constant pressure and constant volume shall be same at absolute zero temperature (T = 0 K).
l Specific heat at constant pressure shall be generally more than specific heat at constant volume
i.e., Cp ≥ Cv. It may be attributed to the fact that ‘α’ the isothermal compressibility shall always be
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 225
+ve and volume expansivity ‘β ’ being squared in (Cp – Cv) expression shall also be +ve. Therefore
(Cp – Cv), shall be either zero or positive value depending upon magnitudes of v, T, β and α.
l For incompressible substances having dv = 0, the difference (Cp – Cv) shall be nearly zero.
Hence, specific heats at constant pressure and at constant volume are identical.
Let us obtain expression for ratio of specific heats. Earlier we have obtained Cp and Cv as below,
∂s C ∂s
Cp = T · or, p =
∂T p T ∂T p
∂s C ∂s
and Cv = T · ∂T or v =
v T ∂T v
By cyclic relation we can write for p, T and s properties;
∂s ∂T ∂p
·
∂T p ∂p s ∂s T = – 1
·
∂s −1
or, =
∂T p ∂T ∂p
∂ · ∂
p s s T
Similarly for s, T and v properties we can write using cyclic relation;
∂s ∂T ∂v
∂ . ∂ . ∂ = –1
T v v s s T
∂s −1
or, =
∂T v ∂T ∂v
.
∂v s ∂s T
Cv
Substituting in the relation for (Cp/T) and .
T
Cp −1
=
T ∂T ∂p
·
∂p s ∂s T
Cv −1
and =
T ∂T ∂v
·
∂v s ∂s T
Taking ratio of two specific heats,
∂T ∂v
·
Cp ∂v s ∂s T
=
Cv ∂T ∂p
∂ · ∂
p s s T
226 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Cp ∂T ∂v ∂p · ∂s
or, = · ·
v
C ∂v s ∂s T ∂T s ∂p T
Cp ∂v ∂s ∂p ∂T
= ∂s · ∂p · ∂T · ∂v
Cv T T s s
By chain rule of calculus we can write,
∂v ∂v ∂s
= ·
∂
p T ∂s T ∂p T
∂p ∂p ∂T
and = ·
∂
s
v ∂T s ∂v s
Upon substitution in specific heat ratio we get,
Cp ∂v ∂p
= ·
v
C ∂p T ∂v s
−1 ∂v 1
or, = ·
v ∂p T −1 ∂v
v ∂p s
Cp α Isothermal compressibility
= =
Cv αs Isentropic compressibility
Thus, ratio of specific heats at constant pressure and constant volume can be given by the ratio of
isothermal compressibility and isentropic compressibility.
7.6.5 Joule-Thomson Coefficient
Joule-Thomson coefficient is defined as the rate of change of temperature with pressure during an
isenthalpic process or throttling process. Mathematically, Joule-Thomson coefficient (µ) can be given
∂T
as, µ =
∂p h
It is defined in terms of thermodynamic properties and is itself a property. Joule-Thomson coefficient
gives slope of constant enthalpy lines on temperature—pressure diagram. Thus, it is a parameter for
characterizing the throttling process. Slope of isenthalpic line may be positive, zero or negative, i.e. µ >
0, µ = 0 and µ < 0 respectively. Mathematically evaluating the consequence of µ we see,
– for µ > 0, temperature decreases during the process.
– for µ = 0, temperature remains constant during the process.
– for µ < 0, temperature increases during the process.
Joule-Thomson expansion can be shown as in Fig. 7.6. Here gas or liquid is passed through porous
plug for causing isenthalpic process. Valve put near exit is used for regulating pressure after constant
enthalpy process i.e. p2.
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 227
Inversion line
Inversion states or points
Porous plug
µ<0 µ<0 T1,p1
Inlet
p1,T1 p2,T2 Exit T ∂T
Valve ∂p = slope, µ
Cooling
region
h = Constant lines
Heating region
p
Fig. 7.6 Joule-Thomson expansion
If pressure p2 is varied then the temperature variation occurs in the isenthalpic manner as shown in
T-p diagram. This graphical representation of isenthalpic curve gives the Joule-Thomson coefficient by
its slope at any point. Slope may be positive, negative or zero at different points on the curve. The points
at which slope has zero value or Joule-Thomson coefficient is zero are called “inversion points” or
“inversion states”. Temperature at these inversion states is called “inversion temperature”. Locii of these
inversion states is called “inversion line”. Thus, inversion line as shown divides T-p diagram into two
distinct region i.e. one on the left of line and other on the right of line. For the states lying on left of the
inversion line temperature shall decrease during throttling process while for the states on right of inversion
line throttling shall cause heating of fluid being throttled. Temperature at the intersection of inversion line
with zero pressure line is called “maximum inversion temperature”.
7.6.6 Chemical Potential
In case of multicomponent systems such as non-reacting gas mixtures the partial molal properties are
used for describing the behaviour of mixtures and solutions. Partial molal properties are intensive properties
of the mixture and can be defined as,
∂X
Xi =
∂ni T , p, nk
where X is extensive property for multi component system in single phase.
X = X(T, p, n) i.e. function of temperature, pressure and no. of moles of each component nk refers
to the all n values with varing k values and are kept constant except for ni.
In multicomponent systems the partial molal Gibbs function for different constituents are called
“chemical potential” for particular constituent. Chemical potential, µ can be defined for ith component
as,
∂
µi = G
∂ni T , p, nk
where G, ni, nk , T and P have usual meanings. Chemical potential being a partial molal property is
intensive property.
Also, it can be given as,
j
G = ∑ (ni · µi )
i =1
Thus, for non reacting gas mixture the expression for internal energy, enthalpy, Helmholtz function
can be given using G defined as above,
228 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
j
Internal energy, U = TS – pV + ∑ ni µi
i =1
j
Enthalpy, H = TS + ∑ ni · µi
i =1
j
Helmholtz function, F = – pV + ∑ ni · µi
i =1
Writing differential of G considering it as function of (T, p, n1, n2, ... nj)
G = G(T, p, n1, n2, n3 ...nj)
j
∂G ∂G ∂G
dG =
∂p T , n
dp +
∂T p , n
dT + ∂n ∑ dni
i =1 i T , p, nk
From definition of Gibbs function dG = Vdp – SdT, for T = constant,
∂G
V =
∂p T , n
∂G
for pressure as constant, – S =
∂T p , n
Therefore,
j
dG = Vdp – SdT + ∑ ( µi · dni )
i =1
j
Also from G = ∑ (ni · µi ) we can write differential as,
i =1
j j
dG = ∑ (ni · dµi ) +∑ ( µi · dni )
i =1 i =1
From two differential of function G we get,
j
Vdp − SdT = ∑ (ni · dµi )
i =1
Above equation is also called Gibbs-Duhem equation.
7.6.7 Fugacity
From earlier discussions for a single component system one can write,
G= n · µ
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 229
G
or, µ = ⇒ Chemical potential for pure substance = Gibbs function per mole.
n
G
or g = =µ
n
For Gibbs function written on unit mole basis,
∂µ
For constant temperature v = ∂p
T
RT
If single component system is perfect gas then, v =
p
∂µ RT
or, =
∂p T p
or µ T = RT ln p + constant
Here chemical potential may have any value depending upon the value of pressure. Above mathematical
formulation is valid only for perfect gas behaviour being exhibited by the system. For a real gas above
mathematical equation may be valid if pressure is replaced by some other property called ‘fugacity’.
Fugacity was first used by Lewis.
Fugacity denoted by ‘. ’ can be substituted for pressure in above equation,
µ = RT ln . + Constant
∂µ
For constant pressure using v = and above equation, we get
∂p T
∂ ln .
RT = v
∂p T
Thus, for a limiting case when ideal gas behaviour is approached the fugacity of a pure component
shall equal the pressure in limit of zero pressure.
.
lim = 1
p→0 p
For an ideal gas . =p
For real gas, equation of state can be given using compressibility factor as,
p v = ZRT
ZRT
or, v = p
Substituting the fugacity function,
ZRT ∂ ln .
= RT
p ∂p T
230 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
∂ ln . Z
=
∂ p T p
∂ ln .
or, = Z. Here as p → 0 the Z → 1
∂ ln p T
Also we have seen
µ T = R T ln . + constant
or, (dµ)T = R T d (ln . )T
or, dgT = R Td (ln . )T
Integrating between very low pressure p* and high pressure p.
g* .*
∫g dg T =
∫. RT d(ln . )T
.
or g = g* + RT ln *
.
Here for very low pressure, . * = p*
.
or, g = g* + RT ln *
p
.
When low pressure is 1 atm then the ratio is called “activity”.
.*
EXAMPLES
1. Steam at 1.6 MPa, 300ºC enters a flow device with negligible velocity and leaves at 0.1 MPa, 150ºC
with a velocity of 150 m/s. During the flow heat interaction occurs only with the surroundings at 15ºC
and steam mass flow rate is 2.5 kg/s. Estimate the maximum possible output from the device.
Solution:
Let us neglect the potential energy change during the flow.
Surroundings at 15°C
2
p2 = 0.1 MPa
T2 = 150°C Flow device
1
p1 = 1.6 MPa
T1 = 300°C
Fig. 7.7
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 231
Applying S.F.E.E., neglecting inlet velocity and change in potential energy,
C2
h2 + 2 − T0 s 2
Wmax = (h1 – T0 s1) – 2
C2
Wmax = (h1 – h2) – T0(s1 – s2) – 2
2
From steam tables,
h1 = hat 1.6 MPa, 300ºC = 3034.8 kJ/kg
s1 = sat 1.6 MPa, 300ºC = 6.8844 kJ/kg · K
h2 = hat 0.1 MPa, 150ºC = 2776.4 kJ/kg
s2 = sat 0.1 MPa, 150ºC = 7.6134 kJ/kg · K
Given; T0 = 288 K
(150) 2
Wmax = (3034.8 – 2776.4) – 288(6.8844 – 7.6134) – × 10–3
2
= 457.1 kJ/kg
Maximum possible work = 2.5 × 457.1 kJ/s = 1142.75 kW
Maximum possible work = 1142.75 kW Ans.
2. Two tanks A and B contain 1 kg of air at 1 bar, 50ºC and 3 bar, 50ºC when atmosphere is at 1 bar,
15ºC. Identify the tank in which stored energy is more. Also find the availability of air in each tank.
Solution:
In these tanks the air stored is at same temperature of 50ºC. Therefore, for air behaving as perfect gas
the internal energy of air in tanks shall be same as it depends upon temperature alone. But the availability
shall be different.
Both the tanks have same internal energy Ans.
Availability of air in tank
A = {E – U0} + p0(V – V0) – T0(S – S0)
= m {(e – u0) + p0(v – v0) – T0(s – s0)}
RT RT0 T p
= m cv (T − T0 ) + p0 − − T0 c p ln − R ln
p p0 p0
T0
P0 T p
A = m cv (T − T0 ) + R T − T0 − T0 c p ln + T0 R ln
p T0 p0
For tank A, m = 1 kg, cv = 0.717 kJ/kg · K, T = 323 K, R = 0.287 kJ/kg · K, T0 = 288 K, p0 = 1 bar,
cp = 1.004 kJ/kg · K
323 3
288 × 1.004 ln + 288 × 0.287 ln = 30.98 kJ
288 1
Availability of air in tank B is more than that of tank A.
Availability of air in tank A = 1.98 kJ Ans.
Availability of air in tank B = 30.98 kJ
3. 15 kg/s steam enters a perfectly insulated steam turbine at 10 bar, 300ºC and leaves at 0.05 bar, 0.95
dry with velocity of 160 m/s. Considering atmospheric pressure to be 1 bar, 15ºC. Determine (a) power
output, (b) the maximum power for given end states, (c) the maximum power that could be obtained
from exhaust steam. Turbine rejects heat to a pond having water at 15ºC.
Solution:
From steam tables,
Enthalpy at inlet to turbine, h1 = 3051.2 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.1229 kJ/kg · K
15 kg/s
10 bar, 300°C
1
W
1 bar, 15°C
Fig. 7.8
Enthalpy at exit of turbine, h2 = hat 0.05 bar, 0.95 dry
s 2 = sf at 0.05 bar + (0.95 × sfg at 0.05 bar)
s 2 = 0.4764 + (0.95 × 7.9187)
s 2 = 7.999 kJ/kg · K
Similarly, h2 = hf at 0.05 bar + (0.95 × hfg at 0.05 bar)
= 137.82 + (0.95 × 2423.7)
h2 = 2440.34 kJ/kg
Neglecting the change in potential energy and velocity at inlet to turbine, the steady flow energy
equation may be written as to give work output.
V22
w = (h1 – h2) –
2
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 233
(160) 2 −3
w = (3051.2 – 2440.34) – 2 × 10
w = 598.06 kJ/kg
Power output = m.w = 15 × 598.06 = 8970.9 kW
Power output = 8970.9 kW Ans.
Maximum work for given end states,
V2
h2 + 2 − T0 ·s2
wmax = (h1 – T0 · s1) – 2
(160) 2 × 10−3
wmax = (3051.2 – 288 × 7.1229) – 2440.34 + − 288 × 7.999
2
wmax = 850.38 kJ/kg
Wmax = m·wmax = 15 × 850.38 = 12755.7 kW
V22
= (h2 – h0) + – T0 (s2 – s0)
2
Approximately the enthalpy of water at dead state of 1 bar, 15ºC can be approximated to saturated liquid
at 15ºC.
h0 = hf at 15ºC = 62.99 kJ/kg
s0 = sf at 15ºC = 0.2245 kJ/kg · K
Maximum work available from exhaust steam
(160) 2
= (2440.34 – 62.99) + × 10−3 – 288 (7.999 – 0.2245)
2
Aexhaust = 151.1 kJ/kg
Maximum power that could be obtained from exhaust steam
= m × Aexhaust
= 15 × 151.1 = 2266.5 kW
Maximum power from exhaust steam = 2266.5 kW Ans.
234 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
4. 5 kg of steam, initially at elevation of 10 m and velocity of 25 m/s undergoes some process such that
finally it is at elevation of 2m and velocity of 10 m/s. Determine the availability corresponding to the
initial and final states. Also estimate the change in availability assuming environment temperature and
pressure at 25ºC and 100 kPa respectively. Thermodynamic properties u, v, s are as under.
Dead state of water
u0 = 104.86 kJ/kg
v 0 = 1.0029 × 10–3 m3/kg
s0 = 0.3673 kJ/kg · K
Initial state
u1 = 2550 kJ/kg
v 1 = 0.5089 m3/kg
s1 = 6.93 kJ/kg · K
Final state
u2 = 83.94 kJ/kg
v 2 = 1.0018 × 10–3 m3/kg
s2 = 0.2966 kJ/kg · K
Solution:
Availability at any state can be given by,
V2
A = m (u − u0 ) + P0 (v − v0 ) − T0 ( s − s0 ) + + gz
2
Availability at initial state,
−3
A1 = 5 (2550 − 104.86) × 10 + 100 × 10 (0.5089 − 1.0029 × 10 )
3 3
(25)2
− 298(6.93 – 0.3673) × 103 + + (9.81 × 10)
2
A1 = 2704.84 kJ.
= 2704.84 kJ Availability at initial state Ans.
Availability at final state
−3
A2 = 5 (83.93 − 104.86) × 10 + 100 × 10 (1.0018 × 10 − 1.0029
3 3
(10) 2
×10−3 ) − 298(0.2966 − 0.3673) × 103 + + (9.81 × 2)
2
A2 = 1.09 kJ
Availability at final state = 1.09 kJ Ans.
Change in availability: A2 – A1 = 1.09 – 2704.84
= – 2703.75 kJ
Hence availability decreases by 2703.75 kJ Ans.
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 235
5. For a steady flow process as shown below, prove that irreversibility, I = T0 Sgen’ where T0 and P0 are
temperature and pressure at dead state.
Q1 at temperature T1
1 2
m m
Fig. 7.9
Solution:
Let us assume changes in kinetic and potential energy to be negligible. Let us use subscript 1 for inlet
and 2 for outlet.
From first law of thermodynamics;
Q1 + m1h1 = m2h2, here m1 = m2 = m
or Q1 = m(h2 –h1)
From second law of thermodynamics,
Q1 Q1
Sgen + + ms1 = ms2; m(s2 – s1) = + Sgen
T1 T1
From availability considerations in control volume,
T0
1 − Q1 + ma1 = m·a2 + I
T1
T0
or, 1 − Q1 + m{(h1 – h0) – T0(s1 –s0)} = m{(h2 – h0) – T0(s2 – s0)} + I
T1
or,
Upon substituting from above equations,
Q1 I
m(s2 – s1) = +
T1 T0
or it can be given that
I
= Sgen
T0
6. Exhaust gases leave an internal combustion engine at 800ºC and 1 atmosphere, after having done
1050 kJ of work per kg of gas in engine. (cp of gas = 1.1 kJ/kg · K). The temperature of surrounding is
30ºC
(i) How much available energy per kg of gas is lost by throwing away the exhaust gases?
(ii) What is the ratio of the lost available exhaust gas energy to engine work?
Solution:
Loss of available energy = Irreversibility = T0 · ∆Sc
Here, T0 = 303 K = Temperature of surroundings
∆Sc = ∆Ss + ∆Se
236 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1050
Change in entropy of system =
(273 + 800) = 0.9786 kJ/kg · K
− c p ·(800 − 30)
Change in entropy of surroundings =
(273 + 30)
−1.1× 770
=
303
= – 2.7954 kJ/kg · K
Loss of available energy = 303 (– 2.7954 + 0.9786)
= – 550.49 kJ/kg
Loss of available energy = 550.49 kJ/kg
550.49
Ratio of lost available exhaust gas energy to engine work =
1050
0.524
= Ans.
1
7. 10 kg of water undergoes transformation from initial saturated vapour at 150ºC, velocity of 25 m/s
and elevation of 10 m to saturated liquid at 20ºC, velocity of 10 m/s and elevation of 3 m. Determine
the availability for initial state, final state and change of availability considering environment to be at
0.1 MPa and 25ºC and g = 9.8 m/s2.
Solution:
Let us consider velocities and elevations to be given in reference to environment. Availability is given by
C2
A = m (u – u0) + P0(v – v0) – T0(s – s0) + + gz
2
Dead state of water, u0 = 104.88 kJ/kg
v 0 = 1.003 × 10–3 m3/kg
s0 = 0.3674 kJ/kg · K
For initial state of saturated vapour at 150ºC.
u1 = 2559.5 kJ/kg, v1 = 0.3928 m3/kg, s1 = 6.8379 kJ/kg · K
For final state of saturated liquid at 20ºC,
u2 = 83.95 kJ/kg, v2 = 0.001002 m3/kg, s2 = 0.2966 kJ/kg · K
Substituting in the expression for availability
Initial state availability,
A1 = 10 × [(2559.5 – 104.88) + (0.1 × 103 × (0.3928 – 0.001003) – (298.15 ×
(25) 2 −3
(6.8379 – 0.3674)) + 2 × 10 + (9.81 × 10 × 10–3)]
A1 = 5650.28 kJ
Final state availability
A2 = 10[(83.95 – 104.88 + (0.1 × 103 × (0.001002 – 0.001003)) – (298.15 ×
(10) 2 −3
(0.2966 – 0.3674)) + 2 × 10 + (9.81 × 3 × 10–3)
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 237
A 2 = 2.5835 kJ ; 2.58 kJ
Change in availability, ∆A = A2 – A1
= 2.58 – 5650.28
= – 5647.70 kJ
Initial availability = 5650.28 kJ
Final availability = 2.58 kJ
Change in availability = Decrease by 5647.70 kJ Ans.
8. A steam turbine has steam flowing at steady rate of 5 kg/s entering at 5 MPa and 500ºC and leaving
at 0.2 MPa and 140ºC. During flow through turbine a heat loss of 600 kJ/s occurs to the environment at
1 atm and 25ºC. Determine
(i) the availability of steam at inlet to turbine,
(ii) the turbine output
(iii) the maximum possible turbine output, and
(iv) the irreversibility
Neglect the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy during flow.
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states of turbine be denoted as 1 and 2.
At inlet to turbine,
p1 = 5 MPa, T1 = 500ºC, h1 = 3433.8 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.9759 kJ/kg · K
At exit from turbine.
p2 = 0.2 MPa, T2 = 140ºC, h2 = 2748 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.228 kJ/kg · K
At dead state,
p0 = 101.3 kPa, T0 = 25ºC, h0 = 104.96 kJ/kg, s0 = 0.3673 kJ/kg · K
Availability of steam at inlet, A1 = m[(h1 – h0) – T0 (s1 – s0)]
A 1 = 5 [(3433.8 – 104.96) – 298.15 (6.9759 – 0.3673)]
A 1 = 6792.43 kJ
Availability of steam at inlet = 6792.43 kJ Ans.
Applying first law of thermodynamics
Q + mh1 = mh2 + W.
W = m(h1 – h2) – Q
= 5(3433.8 – 2748) – 600
W = 2829 kJ/s
Turbine output = 2829 kW Ans.
Maximum possible turbine output will be available when irreversibility is zero.
Wrev = Wmax = A1 – A2
= m [(h1 – h2) – T0(s1 – s2)]
= 5[(3433.8 – 2748) – 298.15 (6.9759 – 7.228)]
Wmax = 3053.18 kJ/s
9. Show that the sublimation line and vaporization lines have different slopes at triple point on the
phase diagram of water.
Solution:
It is desired to show that slope of sublimation line shown by 0–1 is different than vaporization line
1 – 2.
Fusion line
e
n lin 2
ti o
iza
P
p or
Va
1 Triple point
Sublimation line
0 T
Fig 7.10
dp
To show the slope let us find values at triple point 1. Here i, f, g subscripts refer to ice, water and
dT
steam states,
By Clapeyron equation.
dp dp sig s fg
− = −
dT 0−1 dT 1−2 vig v fg
For triple point state sig = sif + sfg
and v ig = vif + vfg
Substituting in above slope difference expression
dp dp sif + s fg s fg
− = −
dT 0−1 dT 1−2 vif + v fg v fg
sif · v fg + s fg · v fg − s fg vif − s fg v fg
= (vif + v fg ) · v fg
sif · v fg − s fg · vif
= (v + v ) · v
if fg fg
It is seen that vif <<< vfg but the order of sif being less than sfg is not very small as compared to vif <<<
vfg. Neglecting smaller terms by order of magnitude
dp dp sif
− =
dT 0 −1 dT 1− 2 v fg
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 239
sif
Here, sif and vfg both are positive quantities so the ratio is also positive and hence difference of
v fg
slopes between sublimation line and vaporization line is positive. Thus, it shows that slope of sublimation
line and vaporization line are different.
10. Obtain the expression for change in internal energy of gas obeying the Vander Waals equation of
state.
Solution:
Van der Waals equation of state can be given as under,
a RT a RT a
p + 2 (v – b) = RT ⇒ p = − 2 ⇒ =p+ 2
v v −b v v −b v
Differentiating this equation of state, partially w.r.t. T at constant volume,
∂p R
=
∂T v v −b
General expression for change in internal energy can be given as under,
∂p
du = Cv dT + T − p dv
∂T v
Substituting in the expression for change in internal energy
R
du = Cv · dT + T · (v − b) − p dv
RT
Substituting for is expression of du,
v−b
a
du = Cv · dT + p + 2 − p dv
v
a
du = Cv · dT + dv
v2
The change in internal energy between states 1 and 2,
1
1
∫1 du = u2 – u1 = ∫1 Cv dT – a v2 − v1
2 2
2 1 1
u2 – u1 = ∫1 Cv .dT – a – Ans.
v2 v1
11. 500 kJ of heat is removed from a constant temperature heat reservoir maintained at 835 K. Heat is
received by a system at constant temperature of 720 K. Temperature of the surroundings, the lowest
available temperature is 280 K. Determine the net loss of available energy as a result of this irreversible
heat transfer. [U.P.S.C. 1992]
240 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Here, T0 = 280 K, i.e surrounding temperature.
Availability for heat reservoir = T0 · ∆Sreservoir
500
= 280 ×
835
= 167.67 kJ/kg · K
Availability for system = T0 · ∆Ssystem
500
= 280 ×
720
= 194.44 kJ/kg · K
Net loss of available energy = (167.67 – 194.44)
= – 26.77 kJ/kg · K
Loss of available energy = 26.77 kJ/kg · K Ans.
12. Steam flows through an adiabatic steady flow turbine. The enthalpy at entrance is 4142 kJ/kg and
at exit 2585 kJ/kg. The values of flow availability of steam at entrance and exit are 1787 kJ/kg and 140
kJ/kg respectively, dead state temperature T0 is 300 K, determine per kg of steam, the actual work, the
maximum possible work for the given change of state of steam and the change in entropy of steam.
Neglect changes in kinetic and potential energy. [U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
Here dead state is given as 300 K and the maximum possible work for given change of state of steam
can be estimated by the difference of flow availability as given under:
Wmax = 1787 – 140 = 1647 kJ/kg
Actual work from turbine, Wactual = 4142 – 2585
Actual work = 1557 kJ/kg
Actual work = 1557 kJ/kg
Maximum possible work = 1647 kJ/kg Ans.
13. What shall be second law efficiency of a heat engine having efficiency of 0.25 and working between
reservoirs of 500ºC and 20ºC?
Solution:
Tmin 293
Reversible engine efficiency, ηrev = 1 – =1– = 0.6209
Tmax 773
η 0.25
Second law efficiency = η = = 0.4026 or 40.26%
rev 0.6209
= 40.26% Ans.
14. An adiabatic cylinder of volume 10 m3 is divided into two compartments A and B each of volume
6 m3 and 4 m3 respectively, by a thin sliding partition. Initially the compartment A is filled with air at
6 bar and 600 K, while there is a vacuum in the compartment B. Air expands and fills both the
compartments.Calculate the loss in available energy. Assume atmosphere is at 1 bar and 300 K.
[U.P.S.C. 1997]
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 241
Solution:
A B
6 bar, 600 K 4 m3
6 m3
Fig 7.11
PV
1 1 6 × 105 × 6
Mass of air, m = = = 20.91 kg
RT1 287 × 600
T2 V2
Change in entropy of control system, (S2 – S1) = mcv ln + mR ln
T1 V1
489.12 10
∆SS = (S2 – S1) = 20.91 0.718 × ln + 0.287 ln
600 6
–3
= –2.01 × 10 kJ/K
Here, there is no change in entropy of environment, ∆Se = 0
Total entropy change of combined system = ∆Sc = ∆Ss + ∆Se
= – 2.01 × 10–3 kJ/K
Loss of available energy = Irreversibility = T0 · ∆Sc
= 300 × (–2.01 × 10–3)
= – 0.603 kJ
Loss of available energy = 0.603 kJ Ans.
15. Prove that ideal gas equation satisfies the cyclic relation.
Solution:
Ideal gas equation, Pv = RT
Let us consider two variable (v, T) to be independent and P as dependent variable.
242 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
RT
P = P(v, T) =
v
By cyclic relation,
∂P ∂v ∂T
· · = −1
∂v T ∂T p ∂P v
Let us find the three partial derivatives separately and then substitute.
∂P − RT ∂v R ∂T v
= , = , =
∂v T v ∂p p p ∂P v R
2
Substituting
− RT R v − RT
2 · · = = – 1 Hence proved.
v
P R Pv
16. A heat engine is working between 700º C and 30ºC. The temperature of surroundings is 17ºC. Engine
receives heat at the rate of 2×104 kJ/min and the measured output of engine is 0.13 MW. Determine the
availability, rate of irreversibility and second law efficiency of engine.
Solution:
303
Availability or reversible work, Wrev = ηrev · Q1 = 1 − × 2 × 104
573
= 1.38 × 104 kJ/min
Rate of irreversibility, I = Wrev – Wuseful
1.38 × 104
= − 0.13 × 103 = 100 kJ/s
60
Wuseful
Second law efficiency =
Wrev
0.13 ×103
= = 0.5652 or 56.52%
1.38 × 104
60
Availability = 1.38 × 104 kJ/min,
Rate of irreversibility = 100 kW, Second law efficiency = 56.52% Ans.
17. A rigid tank contains air at 1.5 bar and 60ºC. The pressure of air is raised to 2.5 bar by transfer of
heat from a constant temperature reservoir at 400ºC. The temperature of surroundings is 27ºC. Determine
per kg of air, the loss of available energy due to heat transfer. [U.P.S.C. 1998]
Solution:
Loss of available energy = Irreversibility = T0 · ∆Sc
T0 = 300 K, ∆Sc = ∆Ss + ∆Se
Change in entropy of system = ∆Ss
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 243
Change in entropy of environment/surroundings = ∆Se
Here heat addition process causing rise in pressure from 1.5 bar to 2.5 bar occurs isochorically. Let
initial and final states be given by subscript 1 and 2.
P1 P2
= , T1 = 333 K, T2 = ?, P1 = 1.5 bar, P2 = 2.5 bar
T1 T2
2.5 × 333
T2 = = 555 K
1.5
Heat addition to air in tank,
Q = m · cp · ∆T = 1× 1.005 × (555 – 333)
Q = 223.11 kJ/kg
Q 223.11
∆Ss = T = = 0.67 kJ/kg · K
1 333
−Q −223.11
∆Se = = = – 0.332 kJ/kg · K
Treservoir 673
∆Sc = 0.67 – 0.332
∆Sc = 0.338 kJ/kg · K
Loss of available energy = 300 × (0.338)
= 101.4 kJ/kg
Loss of available energy = 101.4 kJ/kg Ans.
∂v
18. Using the Maxwell relation derive the following T · ds equation, T · ds = Cp · dT – T· ∂T dp
p
[U.P.S.C. 1998]
Solution:
Let s = s(T, p)
∂s ∂s
ds = · dT + · dp
∂
T p ∂p T
∂s ∂s
or, T·ds = T· ·dT + T· · dp
∂T p ∂p T
∂s ∂v
Using Maxwell’s relation, = –
∂p T ∂T p
∂s
and T· = Cp
∂T p
Substitution yields,
∂v
T ·ds = C p ·dT − T · · ∂p Hence proved
∂T p
244 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
19. Determine the enthapy of vaporization of water at 200ºC using Clapeyron equation. Compare it with
tabulated value.
Solution:
dp
Clapeyron equation says, hfg = T · vfg · dT
sat
From steam tables
v fg = (vg – vf)at 200ºC = (0.12736 – 0.001157) = 0.126203 m3/kg
Let us approximate,
dp ∆p Psat at 205ºC − Psat at 195ºC
= ∆T =
dT sat, 200ºC sat, 200ºC (205 − 195)
(1.7230 − 1.3978)
= = 0.03252 MPa/ºC
10
Substituting in Clapeyron equation,
hfg = (273 + 200) × 0.126203 × 0.03252 ×103
= 1941.25 kJ/kg
Calculated enthalpy of vaporization = 1941.25 kJ/kg.
Enthalpy of vaporization from steam table = 1940.7 kJ/kg. Ans.
20. Determine hfg of R –12 refrigerant at – 10ºC using both Clapeyron equation and the Clapeyron-
Clausius equation. Give the deviation in %. Take
Psat at – 5ºC = 260.96 kPa
Psat at – 15ºC = 182.60 kPa.
vg at – 10ºC = 0.07665 m3/kg
vf at – 10ºC = 0.00070 m3/kg
R = 0.06876 kJ/kg · K
hfg at – 10ºC = 156.3 kJ/kg from tables.
Solution:
By Clapeyron equation
dP
hfg = T · vfg
dT sat
∆P
= T · (vg – vf)
∆T
Psat at −5ºC h fg 1 1
ln = −
Psat at −15ºC R Tsat at −15ºC Tsat at − 5ºC
260.96 h fg 1 1
ln = × –
182.60 0.06876 (−15 + 273) (−5 + 273)
⇒ hfg = 169.76 kJ/kg
% deviation from Clapeyron equation
169.76 − 159.49
= × 100
159.49
= 6.44%
hfg by Clapeyron equation = 159.49 kJ/kg
hfg by Clapeyron-Clausius equation = 169.76 kJ/kg
% deviation in hfg value by Clapeyron-Clausius equation compared to the value
from Clapeyron equation = 6.44% Ans.
21. Determine the volume expansivity and isothermal compressibility of steam at 300 kPa and 300ºC.
Solution:
1 é ¶v ù
Volume expansivity = v ê ¶T ú
ë ûP
-1 é ¶v ù
v êë ¶P úûT
Isothermal compressibility =
¶v Dv ¶v Dv
Let us write = and = . The differences may be taken for small pressure and temperature
¶T DT ¶P DP
changes.
Volume expansivity,
1 é ¶v ù
v êë ¶T úû300 kpa
=
1 v350º C − v250ºC
= v
at 300 kpa, 300ºC (350 − 250) 300 kpa
1 é 0.9534 - 0.7964 ù
0.8753 êë ú
=
100 û 300 kpa
−1 v350kpa − v250kpa
= v
at 300kpa, 300ºC (350 − 250) 300° C
–1 é 0.76505 - 1.09575 ù
0.8753 êë ú
=
100 û
= 3.778 × 10–3 KPa–1
Isothermal compressibility = 3.778 × 10–3 kPa–1 Ans.
22. An evacuated tank of 0.5 m3 is filled by atmospheric air at 1 bar till the pressure inside tank becomes
equal to atmospheric temperature. Considering filling of tank to occur adiabatically determine final
temperature inside the tank and also the irreversibility and change in entropy. Take atmospheric temperature
as 25ºC.
Solution:
Filling of the tank is a transient flow (unsteady flow) process. For the transient filling process, consid-
ering subscripts ‘i’ and ‘f’ for initial and final states,
hi = uf
cp Ti = cv Tf
cp
Tf = Ti
cv
1.005
Tf = × 298.15
0.718
23. A closed vessel stores 75 kg of hot water at 400ºC. A heat engine transfers heat from the hot water
to environment which is maintained at 27ºC. This operation of heat engine changes temperature of hot
water from 400ºC to 27ºC over a finite time. Determine the maximum possible work output from engine.
Take specific heat of water as 4.18 kJ/kg· K.
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 247
Solution:
Here the combined closed system consists of hot water and heat engine. Here there is no thermal
reservoir in the system under consideration. For the maximum work output, irreversibility = 0
d
Therefore, (E – T0 S) = Wmax
dt
or Wmax = (E – T0 S)1 – (E – T0 S)2
Here E 1 = U1 = m cp T1, E2 = U2 = m cp T2
T1 = 400 + 273 = 673 K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K = T0
Therefore,
Wmax = mcp (T1 – T2) – T0(S1 – S2)
T1
= mcp (T1 – T2) – T0 · m·cp ln
T2
673
= 75 × 4.18 × (673 − 300) − 300 × ln
300
= 40946.6 kJ
Maximum work = 40946.6 kJ Ans.
24. In a steam turbine the steam enters at 50 bar, 600ºC and 150 m/s and leaves as saturated vapour at
0.1 bar, 50 m/s. During expansion, work of 1000 kJ/kg is delivered. Determine the inlet stream availability,
exit stream availability and the irreversibility. Take dead state temperature as 25ºC.
Solution:
h1 = hat 50 bar, 600ºC = 3666.5 kJ/kg, s1 = sat 50 bar, 600ºC = 7.2589 kJ/kg · K
h2 = hg at 0.1 bar = 2584.7 kJ/kg, s2 = sg at 0.1 bar = 8.1502 kJ/kg · K
æ c12 ö
Inlet stream availability = ç h1 + ÷ – T0s1
è 2ø
æ (150)2 ´ 10-3 ö
= ç 3666.5 + ÷ – (298 × 7.2589)
è 2 ø
= 1514.59 kJ/kg
Input stream availability is equal to the input absolute availability.
æ c22 ö
+
Exit stream availability = ç 2 2 ÷ – T0 s2
h
è ø
(50) 2 ×10−3
= 2584.7 + – (298 × 8.1502)
2
= 157.19 kJ/kg
248 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Exit stream availability is equal to the exit absolute availability.
Wrev = 1514.59 – 157.19 = 1357.4 kJ/kg
Irreversibility = Wrev – W = 1357.4 – 1000 = 357.4 kJ/kg
This irreversibility is in fact the availability loss.
Inlet stream availability = 1514.59 kJ/kg
Exit stream availability = 157.19 kJ/kg
Irreversibility = 357.4 kJ/kg Ans.
-:-4+15-
7.1 Define ‘available energy’ and ‘unavailable energy’.
7.2 What do you understand by second law efficiency? How does it differ from first law efficiency?
7.3 What is meant by a dead state? Discuss its’ importance.
7.4 Define availability. Obtain an expression for availability of closed system.
7.5 Differentiate between useful work and maximum useful work in reference to the availability.
7.6 What do you understand by Gibbs function? How does it differ from the availability function?
7.7 Describe the Helmholtz function.
7.8 What are Maxwell relations? Discuss their significance?
7.9 Describe Clapeyron equation.
7.10 What do you understand by Joule-Thomson coefficient? Explain.
7.11 Describe chemical potential.
7.12 Write short notes on the following:
(i) Clapeyron-Clausius equation,
(ii) Volume expansivity
(iii) Fugacity,
(iv) Second law analysis of engineering systems.
7.13 Determine the loss of availability when 1 kg air at 260ºC is reversibly and isothermally expanded from
0.145 m3 initial volume to 0.58 m3 final volume. [70.56 kJ/kg]
7.14 Determine the entropy generation and decrease in available energy when a heat source of 727ºC
transfers heat to a body at 127ºC at the rate of 8.35 MJ/min. Consider the temperature of sink as 27ºC.
[12.54 kJ/K · min, 3762 kJ]
7.15 Determine the available energy of furnace having the gases getting cooled from 987ºC to 207ºC at
constant temperature while the temperature of surroundings is 22ºC. [–518.1 kJ/kg]
7.16 Determine the available amount of energy removed and the entropy increase of universe when 5 kg air
at 1.38 bar, 500 K is cooled down to 300 K isobarically. The temperature of surroundings may be taken
as 4ºC. [–268.7 kJ. 3.316 kJ/K]
7.17 Determine the entropy change, unavailable energy and available energy for the process in which 2 kg
air is heated isobarically so as to cause increase in its temperature from 21ºC to 315ºC. Take T0 = 10ºC.
[1.393 kJ/K, 394.2 kJ, 196.6 kJ]
7.18 Steam enters in a steam turbine at 60 bar, 500ºC and leaves at 0.1 bar, 0.89 dry with a flow rate of 3.2652
× 104 kg/hr. Determine the loss of available energy. [1286.2 kJ/s]
7.19 Determine the available portion of heat removed from 2.5 kg air being cooled from 2.1 bar, 205ºC to 5ºC
at constant volume. The heat is rejected to surroundings at – 4ºC. [– 97.2 kJ]
Availability and General Thermodynamic Relations __________________________________ 249
7.20 Prove that heat is an inexact differential. {Q (T, s)}.
7.21 Derive an expression for change in entropy of a gas obeying Vander Waals equation of state.
7.22 Determine the coefficient of thermal expansion and coefficient of isothermal compressibility for a gas
obeying Vander Waals equation of state.
7.23 Determine the second law efficiency of a heat engine operating between 700ºC and 30ºC. The heat
engine has efficiency of 0.40. [55.74%]
7.24 Determine the amount of heat that can be converted to the useful work if total heat at 1000 kJ is
available at 500ºC. The temperature of environment is 17ºC. [624.84 kJ]
3 3
7.25 Determine the change in availability of air contained in an insulated vessel of 20 × 10 cm . The initial
state of air is 1 bar. 40ºC. The air is heated so as to arrive at temperature of 150ºC. The temperature of
surrounding environment may be considered as 20ºC. [0.027 kJ]
7.26 Determine the enthalpy of vaporization of water at 50ºC using the Clapeyron equation.
[2396.44 kJ/kg]
7.27 Determine the % variation in the enthalpy of vaporization of steam at 500 kPa using Clapeyron
equation as compared to value in steam table. [0.201%]
7.28 Air enters a compressor at 40ºC, 500 kPa for being compressed upto 2000 kPa. Consider the compression
to be at constant temperature without internal irreversibilities. Air flows into compressor at 6 kg/min.
Neglecting the changes in kinetic energy and potential energy determine the availability transfers
accompanying heat and work and irreversibility. Take T0 = 25ºC, P0 = 1 bar. The control volume may be
taken as under,
(i) Control volume comprises of compressor alone
(ii) Control volume comprises of compressor and its immediate surroundings so that heat transfer
occurs at T0.
[(i) – 0.597 kJ/s, –12.46 kJ/s, 0.597 kJ/s
(ii) 0 kJ/s, –12.46 kJ/s, 0.597 kJ/s]
7.29 Steam expands in a cylinder from 22 bar, 450ºC to 4.5 bar, 250ºC. The environment may be considered
to be at 1 bar, 25ºC. Determine
(i) the availability of steam at inlet, exit and change in availability.
(ii) the irreversibilities in the expansion process. [196 kJ, 132 kJ, –64 kJ, 5.5 kJ]
7.30 In a steam power cycle steam enters at 60 bar, 500ºC into turbine and leaves at 0.04 bar. The isentropic
efficiency of turbine is 85% and that of pump is 70%. Considering the environment to have T0 = 25ºC,
P0 =1 bar, determine the second law efficiency of constituent components i.e. boiler, turbine, condenser
and pump. [67.6%, 99%, 84.4%, 65%]
250 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
8
Vapour Power Cycles
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamic cycles can be primarily classified based on their utility such as for power generation,
refrigeration etc. Based on this thermodynamic cycles can be categorized as;
(i) Power cycles,
(ii) Refrigeration and heat pump cycles.
(i) Power cycles: Thermodynamic cycles which are used in devices producing power are called
power cycles. Power production can be had by using working fluid either in vapour form or in gaseous
form. When vapour is the working fluid then they are called vapour power cycles, whereas in case of
working fluid being gas these are called gas power cycles. Thus, power cycles shall be of two types,
(a) Vapour power cycle,
(b) Gas power cycle.
Vapour power cycles can be further classified as,
1. Carnot vapour power cycle
2. Rankine cycle
3. Reheat cycle
4. Regenerative cycle.
Gas power cycles can be classified as,
1. Carnot gas power cycle
2. Otto cycle
3. Diesel cycle
4. Dual cycle
5. Stirling cycle
6. Ericsson cycle
7. Brayton cycle
Here in the present text Carnot, Rankine, reheat and regenerative cycles are discussed.
(ii) Refrigeration and heat pump cycles: Thermodynamic cycles used for refrigeration and heat
pump are under this category. Similar to power cycles, here also these cycles can be classified as “air
cycles” and “vapour cycles” based on type of working fluid used.
Boiler 2
B Steam turbine
1 2 (Steam)
ST
1
T 3 3 Condenser
4
Feed pump
Water
s 4
Water
Fig 8.1 Carnot vapour power cycle Fig 8.2 Arrangement for Carnot cycle
Assuming steady flow processes in the cycle and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energies,
thermodynamic analysis may be carried out.
252 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Net work
Thermal efficiency =
Heat added
Net work = Turbine work – Compression/Pumping work
For unit mass flow.
W = (h2 – h3) – (h1 – h4)
Heat added, Qadd = (h2 – h1)
( h2 − h3 ) − ( h1 − h4 )
ηCarnot = (h2 − h1 )
h3 − h4
=1–
h2 − h1
Here heat rejected, Qrejected = (h3 – h4)
Qrejected
or ηCarnot = 1 –
Qadd
Also, heat added and rejected may be given as function of temperature and entropy as follows:
Qadd = T1 × (s2 – s1)
Qrejected = T3 × (s3 – s4)
Also, s1 = s4 and s2 = s3
T3
Therefore, substituting values: ηCarnot = 1 –
T1
Tminimum
or ηCarnot = 1 – T
maximum
Let us critically evaluate the processes in Carnot cycle and see why it is not practically possible.
1–2: Reversible Isothermal Heat Addition
Isothermal heat addition can be easily realised in boiler within wet region as isothermal and isobaric lines
coincide in wet region. But the superheating of steam can’t be undertaken in case of Carnot cycle as
beyond saturated steam point isothermal heat addition can’t be had inside boiler. This fact may also be
understood from T–S diagram as beyond 2 the constant pressure line and constant temperature lines
start diverging. It may be noted that boiler is a device which generates steam at constant pressure.
2–3: Reversible Adiabatic Expansion
Saturated steam generated in boiler at state ‘2’ is sent for adiabatic expansion in steam turbine upto state
3. During this expansion process positive work is produced by steam turbine and a portion of this work
available is used for driving the pump.
3–4: Reversible Isothermal Heat Rejection
Heat release process is carried out from state 3 to 4 in the condenser. Condenser is a device in which
constant pressure heat rejection can be realized. Since expanded steam from steam turbine is available in
wet region at state 3. Therefore, constant temperature heat rejection can be had as constant temperature
and constant pressure lines coincide in wet region.
Heat rejection process is to be limited at state 4 which should be vertically below state 1. Practically
it is very difficult to have such kind of control.
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 253
4–1: Reversible Adiabatic Compression (Pumping)
Carnot cycle has reversible adiabatic compression process occurring between 4 and 1, which could be
considered for pumping of water into boiler.
In fact it is very difficult for a pump to handle wet mixture which undergoes simultaneous change
in its phase as its pressure increases.
Above discussion indicates that Carnot vapour power cycle is merely theoretical cycle and cannot
be used for a practical working arrangement. Also the maximum efficiency of Carnot cycle is limited by
maximum and minimum temperatures in the cycle. Highest temperature attainable depends upon
metallurgical limits of boiler material.
s s V
Boiler 2
B Steam turbine
(Steam)
ST
1
3 Condenser
Feed pump
Water
Water 4
2
11'
T 4 33'
Fig. 8.5 Rankine cycle showing non-ideal expansion and pumping process
Wt,actual W2−3'
Isentropic turbine efficiency, ηisen, t = = ; Actually, W2–3′ < W2–3
Wt,ideal W2−3
h2 − h3'
or, ηisen, t =
h2 − h3
Another important location for irreversibilities is the pump. During pumping some additional work is
required to overcome frictional effects. Ideally pumping is assumed to take place with no heat transfer
during pumping whereas actually it may not be so. Thus the pumping process as shown by ideal
process 4–1 gets’ modified to 4–1' which is accompanied by increase in entropy across the pump.
Isentropic efficiency of pump is a parameter to account for non-idealities of pump operation. Isentropic
efficiency of pump is defined by;
Wp,ideal W4 −1
ηisen, p = W = ; Actually, W4–1 < W4–1′
p,actual W4−1'
h −h
or, ηisen, p = 1 4
h1' − h4
Thus, it indicates that actually pump work required shall be more than ideal pump work requirement.
Apart from the turbine and pump irreversibilities explained above there may be other sources of
inefficiency too. These turbine and pump irreversibilities accounted for by isentropic efficiency of
turbine and pump are called external irreversibility. Sources of internal irreversibilities are heat transfer
from system to surroundings, frictional pressure loss in rest of components etc. There also occurs the
steam pressure drop due to friction between pipe surface and working fluid.
P1
2'
T2' 2
T2
1
P3
T 4 3 3'
5 6 6'
s
P1
2
1
1' P3
T 3
5
4
P3'
4' 3'
6' 6 S
2 4
Boiler
HPST LPST
Condenser
Feed pump
6
Fig 8.10 Reheat cycle
2
4
1
3
6 5
S
Fig 8.11 T–S representation for reheat cycle
Secondary advantage of reheating is marginal improvement in thermal efficiency when steam pressure
is above 100 bar. At low steam pressure reheating does not show gain in cycle thermal efficiency and
even the efficiency may be less than that of Rankine cycle due to mean temperature of heat addition
being lower. Generally, with modern high pressure boilers and supercritical boilers reheating is essentially
employed. Reheating is disadvantageous from economy of plant perspective as the cost of plant increases
due to arrangement for reheating and increased condensation requirements due to increased dryness
fraction of steam after expansion.
Thermodynamic analysis of reheat cycle as shown on T–S diagram may be carried out for estimation
of different parameters as below,
Total turbine work output = WHPST + WLPST
Net work, Wnet = (Total turbine work output) – (Pump work)
Wnet = WHPST + WLPST – Wp
where different works for ms mass of steam are,
HP steam turbine, WHPST = ms · (h2 –h3)
260 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
LP steam turbine, WLPST = ms · (h4 –h5)
Feed Pump, Wp = (h1 –h6) · ms
Wnet = {(h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5) – (h1 – h6)} · ms
Heat supplied for ms mass of steam; Qadd = (h2 – h1) · ms + ms · (h4 – h3)
Wnet
Cycle thermal efficiency, ηReheat =
Qadd
2 ST
B
1
3
B : Boiler
ST : Steam Turbine
Condenser
4
p1 5
2
1 Feed pump
5
p3
4 3
4' 3'
T
6 7 8 9 s
Fig 8.12 Schematic for theoretical regenerative cycle and T-s representation.
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 261
Theoretical arrangement shows that the steam enters the turbine at state 2 (temperature T2) and
expands to (temperature T3) state 3. Condensate at state 5 enters the turbine casing which has annular
space around turbine. Feed water enters turbine casing at state 5 and gets infinitesimally heated upto
state 1 while flowing opposite to that of expanding steam. This hot feed water enters into boiler where
steam generation occurs at desired state, say 2. Feed water heating in steam turbine casing is assumed
to occur reversibly as the heating of feed water occurs by expanding steam with infinitesimal temperature
difference and is called “regenerative heating”. This cycle is called regenerative cycle due to regenerative
heating employed in it. Regenerative heating refers to the arrangement in which working fluid at one
state is used for heating itself and no external heat source is used for this purpose. Here feed water picks
up heat from steam expanding in steam turbine, thus the expansion process in steam turbine shall get
modified from 2-3' ideally to 2-3. Heat picked up by feed water for getting heated up from state 5 to 1
is shown by hatched area A17651 on T-S diagram. Under ideal conditions for cent per cent heat exchange
effectiveness the two areas i.e. A29832 indicating heat extraction from steam turbine and A17651 indicating
heat recovered by feed water shall be same. Thus, T-S representation of regenerative cycle indicates that
the cycle efficiency shall be more than that of Rankine cycle due to higher average temperature of heat
addition.
But there exists serious limitation regarding realization of the arrangement described above. Limitations
are due to impossibility of having a steam turbine which shall work as both expander for getting work
output and heat exchanger for feed water heating. Also with the heat extraction from steam turbine the
state of expanded steam at exhaust pressure shall be extremely wet, hence not desired. Due to these
limitations the regenerative cycle is realized employing the concept of bleeding out steam from turbine
and using it for feed water heating in feed water heaters.
Feed Water Heaters: The feed water heater refers to the device in which heat exchange occurs
between two fluids i.e. steam and feed water either in direct contact or indirect contact. Direct contact
feed water heater is the one in which bled steam and feed water come in direct contact. These are also
called open feed water heater.
b b
a a
Feed Feed
Mixture of water d water
feed water
& Bled steam c
c
Open feed water Closed feed water heater
heater or, direct contact or, Indirect contact feed
feed water heater water heater or, surface
type feed water heater
Steam A A
A inlet A
Air vent
Inside of feed water heater
Condensate out
Direct contact heaters or open type heaters are more efficient than indirect contact type due to
direct contact between two fluids. Feed water can achieve saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure of heating steam. In this case the terminal temperature difference is zero. During heating the
non-condensable gases dissolved in water get released and are thrown out through vent passage. Deaerator
is a type of open feed water heater. Schematic is shown in subsequent article on deaerator.
Deaerator: Deaerator is a type of open type feed water heater employed for the removal of dissolved
oxygen and carbon dioxide from the feed water. The dissolved oxygen when not removed gets
disintegrated into nascent oxygen at high temperature and pressure and forms iron oxide upon coming
in contact with metal. This iron oxide formed causes pitting on the metal surface. At high temperature
and pressure, dissolved CO2 combines with metal and forms carbolic acid which causes mild pitting on
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 263
metal surfaces. Therefore, it becomes necessary to remove dissolved gases from the feed water. Although
feed water treatment plant is there but still the impurities may creep in along with the make up water
added to compensate for loss of water from system due to leakages at valve, pipe flanges, steam valve
spindles and boiler blow down etc. Normally added water is 3-5% of total boiler feed.
Deaeration of water is based on the principle of decreasing partial pressure of gas for removal of
dissolved gases. Henery's law and Dalton's law of partial pressure may be considered in this reference
for understanding the phenomenon. Henery's law states that, “the mass of gas dissolved in a definite
mass of liquid at a given temperature is directly proportional to partial pressure of gas in contact with
liquid”. It is good for the gases having no chemical reaction with water.
Decrease in partial pressure of gas in water is achieved by increasing the vapour pressure by heating
the water. Here feed water is heated by low pressure steam for heating it upto its saturation temperature.
Feed water entering deaerator is broken into small particles so as to increase contact area for better heat
exchange with high temperature steam. Constructional detail of deaerator is shown in Fig. 8.15 which
has basically deaerator head and storage tank. Water enters deaerator head from top on to a distributor
plate. The water trickles down from upper most tray to the bottom trays through tiny holes in these
trays. Steam enters storage tank from one end and enters deaerator head after passing through water
collected in tank. Steam gradually heats feed water flowing downward with its’ portion getting condensed
and remaining steam flowing along with liberated gases out of deaerator head. Steam and gas mixture
vented out from the top of deaerator head may be used for preheating make up water or feed water
entering deaerator, if economical. The deaerated water is collected in storage tank below the deaerator
head. A bubbler line is also provided in deaerator tank for fast heating of deaerator system during start up
of unit. Bubbler line is a perforated pipe laid at bottom of storage tank through which steam for heating
the water is supplied.
Condensate inlet
Condensate
Steam
Deaerated condensate
Boiler feed
pump m1 m2
(1 – m1 – m2 )
1 kg (1–m1 ) m1
Expanded steam
(1 – m1 – m2 ), p3
(1 – m1 – m2 )
m2
m1
Hot well
Fig 8.18 Arrangement with surface type feed water heaters and hotwell
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 265
(iv) Cascade method: This arrangement is shown in Fig. 8.19. Here bled steam condensate is throttled
and cascaded into low pressure surface heaters. Bled steam condensate from last heater is sent to
hotwell from where it is picked up and pumped through surface type heaters. For lowering the
pressure of condensate before mixing the traps may also be used. A trap allows the liquid to be
throttled to a lower pressure and also traps the vapour.
Throttle valve
m1 Throttle
valve (Trap) (Trap) (m1 + m2) (1 – m1 – m2 )
1 kg 2
Turbine
Boiler
1
m, kg, 6 3, (1 – m), kg
Condenser
Open feed water heater
4
5
Condensate
extraction pump
7
1 kg
Feed pump
Fig. 8.20 Schematic for regenerative cycle with one open feed water heater
266 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Feed water leaving at state 7 as shown on T-S diagram is being pumped upto boiler pressure through
feed pump. T-S diagram indicates that the amount of heat picked up by feed water is shown by hatched
area A1751'. In case of absence of bleeding and feed heater the feed water will enter into boiler at state 1'
as compared to state 1 when regenerative heating is employed. Thus, advantage of hotter feed water to
boiler can be realized by bleeding expanding steam from turbine. Regeneration can be seen in the feed
water heating as the bled steam gets mixed with feed water at state 5 thus resulting into hot feed water.
2
1 kg
1
1'
m, kg
5 7 6
T
(1 – m), kg
4 3
Fig. 8.21 T-s representation for regenerative cycle with one open feed water heater
As described earlier the bleeding offers advantage in terms of increased cycle efficiency due to
increased mean temperature of heat addition. Hotter feed water also offers advantage in terms of reduced
thermal stresses in boiler due to reduced temperature difference and less tendency of condensation of
sulphur dioxide. Bleeding of steam causes reduced mass flow in condenser thereby reducing size of
condenser. Bleeding is also disadvantageous because the work done per unit mass of steam gets reduced,
thus increasing cost of the plant. Boiler capacity is to be increased for a given output.
Here it can be concluded that if the number of feed heaters be increased then their could be substantial
increase in feed water temperature, thus offering a cycle having high mean temperature of heat addition,
close to Carnot cycle. But it shall be accompanied by reduced work output and increased cost of the
plant. Generally, the number of feed water heaters employed lies between 3 to 8 with average temperature
rise in each heater being 10–15ºC. For example, if there are six heaters then first two may be surface
type or indirect contact type followed by open type or direct contact feed water heater which shall also
act as deaerator followed by three surface type feed water heaters.
For the regenerative cycle considered, with unit mass of steam leaving boiler and ‘m’ kg of steam
bled out for feed water heating:
Steam turbine work = (h2 – h6) + (1 – m) · (h6 – h3)
Pump work = (1 – m) · (h5 – h4) + 1 · (h1 – h7)
Net work = {(h2 – h6) + (1 – m) · (h6 – h3)} – {(1 – m) · (h5 – h4) + (h1 – h7)}
Heat added = 1 · (h2 – h1)
Net work
Hence, regenerative cycle efficiency =
Heat added
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 267
Boiler
1
6
7 3
Condenser
SH1 SH2
13 5 4
12 11
Pump 1
14 8 10 9 SH = Surface heater
Pump 3 Pump 2
Fig. 8.22 (a) Schematic of regenerative cycle with two surface type heaters
268 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
p1
2
13
1 p6
5
m6 p7
8 6
m1 p3
T
9 7
4 (1 – m6 – m7) 3
s
(b) T-s diagram
Fig. 8.22 Schematic and T-S representation for regenerative cycle with two surface type heaters
On pump 2,
v9(p1 – p7) = h10 – h9
h10 = v9 (p1 – p7) + h9
On pump 3,
v8(p1 – p6) = h14 – h8
h14 = v8 (p1 – p6) + h8
Above different enthalpy expressions can be used for getting enthalpy values at salient points of
interest in order to get the net work and cycle efficiency of this arrangement.
a
1
MT ST
M erc ury
b oile r
2 b
e
3
c
P um p d
4 P um p
Mercury-steam binary vapour cycle
M erc ury cy c le : 1 23 4 1
4
T a
3 2
d e
Stea m cy c le : a bc d ea
c b
s
Thermodynamic cycle for mercury-steam binary vapour cycle
Fig. 8.23 Schematic of binary vapour cycle
270 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Net work from cycle shall be, Wnet = WMT + WST – ∑Wpump
Work from mercury turbine, WMT = mMT · (h1 – h2)
Work from steam turbine, WST = mST · (ha – hb)
Pump work = mMT · (h4 – h3) + mST · (hd – hc)
Heat added to the cycle, Qadd = mMT · (h1 – h4) + mST · (ha – he)
Wnet
Binary Cycle efficiency, binary =
Qadd
GT Exhaust
mf HRSG
4 (ma + mf) ms
fuel
6 ms 12
CC
2 3
C GT ST
1 ma
Atm. Air.
10 m's
BFP : Boiler feed pump 7
C : Compressor
CC : Combustion chamber Condenser
CEP : Condensate extraction pump
GT : Gas Turbine 8
HRSG: Heat recovery steam generator Deaerator
ST : Steam turbine 9
CEP
ma : Mass flow rate of air, kg/s
mf : Mass flow rate of fuel, kg/s
ms : Mass flow rate of steam, kg/s
m′s : Mass flow rate of bled steam, kg/s 11
BFP
(a) Layout of gas/steam combined cycle
3
2 2'
5 4 4'
Approach
Pinch point temperature
temp. difference 6
12
10
9 11
T
8 7 7'
S
(b) T-s diagram representation for combined cycle.
Fig. 8.24 (a) Layout of gas/steam combined cycle
(b) T-S diagram representation for combined cycle
272 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Thus the work requirement in compressor,
Wc = ma (h2 – h1)
Heat addition in combustion chamber, for fuel having calorific value CV
Qadd = mf × CV
Energy balance upon combustion chamber yields,
ma × h2 + mf × CV = (ma + mf) h3
Work available from gas turbine
WGT = (ma + mf) (h3 – h4)
Net work from topping cycle, Wtopping = WGT – Wc
Work available from steam turbine, for bled steam mass flow rate for deaeration being ms.
WST = {ms (h6 – h7) + (ms – m′s) (h7 – h10)}
Pump works
WCEP = (ms – ms′) (h9 – h8)
WBFP = ms.(h12 – h11)
Net work available from bottoming cycle
Wbottoming = WST – WCEP – WBFP
Hence total work output from combined cycle
Wcombined = Wtopping + Wbottoming
Thermal efficiency of combined cycle,
Wcombined
ηcombined =
Qadd
Thermal efficiency of topping cycle (gas turbine cycle),
Wtopping
ηtopping =
Qadd
We can see that work output of gas turbine cycle is less than combined cycle work output, while
the heat addition remains same. Thus, thermal efficiency of combined cycle is more than gas turbine
cycle (topping cycle),
As, Wcombined > Wtopping ⇒ ηcombined > ηtopping
5
9 6 2
Process
Heating Condenser
Pump
8 7 3
4 Pump
Fig. 8.25 Schematic for cogeneration
Cogeneration arrangement is popularly used in cold countries for district heating where, in this
arrangement the power plant supplies electricity along with steam for process needs, such as space
heating and domestic water heating.
Thermodynamic analysis of the cogeneration arrangement shows;
Heat added in boiler Qadd = m1 (h1 – h9)
Heat used in process heating Qprocess = {m5 (h5 – h7) + m6 (h6 –h7)}
Turbine work: WT = {(m1 – m5) · (h1 –h6) + (m1 – m5 – m6) · (h6 – h2)}
Pump work: WP = {(m5 + m6) · (h8 –h7) + (m1 – m5 – m6) · (h4 – h3)}
When there is no process heating then; m5 = 0 and m6 = 0
3 4
Pump
8 7
Fig. 8.26 Back pressure turbine
Steam out
Mixed Pressure
Turbine
EXAMPLES
1. A Carnot cycle works on steam between the pressure limits of 7 MPa and 7 kPa. Determine thermal
efficiency, turbine work and compression work per kg of steam.
Solution:
T-s representation for the Carnot cycle operating between pressure of 7 MPa and 7 kPa is shown in
Fig. 8.29
Enthalpy at state 2, h2 = hg at 7 MPa
h = 2772.1 kJ/kg 7 MPa
Entropy at state 2, s2 = sg at 7 MPa 3
2
s2 = 5.8133 kJ/kg · K 7 kPa
T
Enthalpy and entropy at state 3, 4 1
h3 = hƒ at 7 MPa = 1267 kJ/kg
s3 = sƒ at 7 MPa = 3.1211 kJ/kg ·K s
For process 2 –1, s1 = s2· Let dryness fraction at state 1 be x1. Fig. 8.29
2. A steam power plant uses steam as working fluid and operates at a boiler pressure of 5 MPa, dry
saturated and a condenser pressure of 5 kPa. Determine the cycle efficiency for (a) Carnot cycle
(b) Rankine cycle. Also show the T-s representation for both the cycles.
Solution:
From steam tables:
At 5 MPa hƒ, 5MPa = 1154.23 kJ/kg, sƒ, 5 MPa = 2.92 kJ/kg · K
hg, 5MPa = 2794.3 kJ/kg, sg, 5 MPa = 5.97 kJ/kg · K 5 MPa
1 2
At 5 kPa 6
5 kPa
hƒ, 5kPa = 137.82 kJ/kg, sƒ, 5kPa = 0.4764 kJ/kg · K
T
hg, 5kPa = 2561.5 kJ/kg, sg, 5kPa = 8.3951 kJ/kg · K 54 3
350°C
40 bar
1 2
0.05 bar
T
4 3
Fig. 8.31
Let dryness fraction at state 3 be x3,
For ideal process, 2-3, s2 = s3
s2 = s3 = 6.5821 = sƒ at 0.05 bar + x3 · sfg at 0.05 bar
6.5821 = 0.4764 + x3 · 7.9187
x3 = 0.7711
h3 = hƒ at 0.05 bar + x3 · hƒg at 0.05 bar
= 137.82 + (0.7711 × 2423.7)
h3 = 2006.74 kJ/kg
For pumping process
h1 – h4 = v4 · ∆p = v4 × (p1 – p4)
h1 = h4 + v4 × (p1 – p4)
= 137.82 + (0.001005 × (40 – 0.05) × 102)
h1 = 141.84 kJ/kg
Pump work per kg of steam = (h1 – h4) = 4.02 kJ/kg
Net work per kg of steam = (Expansion work – Pump work) per kg of steam
= (h2 – h3) – (h1 – h4)
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 279
= 1081.74 kJ/kg
Net work
Cycle efficiency =
Heat added
1081.74
= (h − h )
2 1
1081.74
= (3092.5 − 141.84)
= 0.3667 or 36.67%
Net work per kg of steam = 1081.74 kJ/kg
Cycle efficiency = 36.67%
Pump work per kg of steam = 4.02 kJ/kg Ans.
4. A steam power plant running on Rankine cycle has steam entering HP turbine at 20 MPa, 500ºC and
leaving LP turbine at 90% dryness. Considering condenser pressure of 0.005 MPa and reheating occurring
upto the temperature of 500ºC determine,
(a) the pressure at wich steam leaves HP turbine
(b) the thermal efficiency
Solution:
Let us assume that the condensate leaves condenser as saturated liquid and the expansion in turbine and
pumping processes are isentropic.
From steam tables,
h2 = hat 20 MPa, 500ºC = 3238.2 kJ/kg
s2 = 6.1401 kJ/kg · K
h5 = hat 0.005 MPa, 0.90 dry
h5 = hƒ at 0.005 MPa, + 0.9 × hƒg at 0.005 MPa
= 137.82 + (0.9 × 2423.7)
h5 = 2319.15 kJ/kg
s5 = sƒ at 0.005 MPa, + 0.9 × sƒg at 0.005 MPa
20 MPa
= 0.4764 + (0.9 × 7.9187) 2 0.005 MPa
4
s5 = 7.6032 kJ/kg · K
h6 = hƒ at 0.005 MPa = 137.82 kJ/kg
1 3
It is given that temperature at state 4 is 500ºC and due to T
isentropic process s4 = s5 = 7.6032 kJ/kg ·K. The state 4 can
be conveniently located on Mollier chart by the intersection 6 5
of 500ºC constant temperature line and entropy value of
7.6032 kJ/kg · K and the pressure and enthalpy obtained. But
s
these shall be approximate.
Fig. 8.32
280 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
The state 4 can also be located by interpolation using steam table. The entropy value of 7.6032 kJ kg
· K lies between the superheated steam states given under, p = 1.20 MPa, s at 1.20 MPa and 500ºC
= 7.6759 kJ/kg · K
p = 1.40 MPa, sat 1.40 MPa and 500ºC = 7.6027 kJ/kg · K
By interpolation state 4 lies at pressure
(1.40 − 1.20)
= 1.20 +
(7.6027 − 7.6759) (7.6032 – 7.6759)
= 1.399 MPa ≈ 1.40 MPa
Thus, steam leaves HP turbine at 1.4 MPa
Enthalpy at state 4, h4 = 3474.1 kJ/kg
For process 2-3, s2 = s3 = 6.1401 kJ/kg · K. The state 3 thus lies in wet region as s3 < sg at 1.40 MPa. Let
dryness fraction at state 3 be x3.
s3 = sƒ at 1.4 MPa + x3 · sfg at 1.4 MPa
6.1401 = 2.2842 + x3 · 4.1850
x3 = 0.9214
h3 = hƒ at 1.4 MPa + x3 · hƒg at 1.4 MPa
= 830.3 + (0.9214 × 1959.7) = 2635.97 kJ/kg
Enthalpy at 1, h1 = h6 + v6(p1 – p6)
= hƒ at 0.005 MPa + vƒ at 0.005 MPa (20 – 0.005) × 103
= 137.82 + (0.001005 × 19.995 × 103)
h1 = 157.91 kJ/kg
Net work per kg of steam = (h2 –h3) + (h4 – h5) – (h1 – h6)
= 1737.09 kJ/kg
Heat added per kg of steam = (h2 – h1) = 3080.29 kJ/kg
5. In a steam turbine installation running on ideal Rankine cycle steam leaves the boiler at 10 MPa and
700ºC and leaves turbine at 0.005 MPa. For the 50 MW output of the plant and cooling water entering
and leaving condenser at 15ºC and 30ºC respectively determine
(a) the mass flow rate of steam in kg/s
(b) the mass flow rate of condenser cooling water in kg/s
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 281
(c) the thermal efficiency of cycle
(d) the ratio of heat supplied and rejected (in boiler and condenser respectively).
Neglet K.E. and P.E. changes.
Solution:
From steam table
At inlet to turbine, h2 = hat 10 MPa, 700ºC
h2 = 3870.5 kJ/kg
s2 = 7.1687 kJ/kg · K
For process 2-3, s2= s3 and s3 < sƒ at 0.005 MPa so state 3 lies in wet region. Let dryness fraction at state
3 be x3.
s3 = 7.1687 = sƒ at 0.005 MPa + x3 · sƒg at 0.005 MPa
7.1687 = 0.4764 + (x3 × 7.9187)
x3 = 0.845
h3 = hƒ at 0.005 MPa + x3 · hfg at 0.005 MPa
= 137.82 + (0.845 × 2423.7)
h3 = 2185.85 kJ/kg
h4 = hƒ at 0.005 MPa = 137.82 kJ/kg
For pumping process, (h1 – h4) = v4 × (p1 – p4)
10 MPa
2
0.005 MPa
T
4 3
Fig. 8.33
v4 = vƒ at 0.005 MPa = 0.001005 m3/kg
h1 = 137.82 + (0.001005 × (10 – 0.005)) × 102
h1 = 138.82 kJ/kg
Net output per kg of steam, wnet = (h2 – h3) – (h1 – h4)
= (3870.5 – 2185.85) – (138.82 – 137.82)
wnet = 1683.65 kJ/kg
50 × 103
Mass flow rate of steam, ms = = 29.69 kg/s
1683.65
282 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3, h3 = 2185.85 kJ/kg
15 °C, water
30 °C, water
4, h4 = 137.82 kJ/kg
Fig. 8.34
By heat balance on condenser, for mass flow rate of water being mw kg/s.
(h3 – h4) × ms = mw · Cp, w (Tw, out – Tw, in)
29.69 × (2185.85 – 137.82) = mw × 4.18 (15)
m w = 969.79 kg/s
The heat added per kg of steam qadd = (h2 – h1) = 3731.68 kJ/kg
wnet 1683.65
Thermal efficiency = q = = 0.4512 or 45.12%
add 3731.68
( h2 − h1 )
Ratio of heat supplied and rejected = (
h3 − h4 ) = 1.822
6. A regenerative Rankine cycle has steam entering turbine at 200 bar, 650ºC and leaving at 0.05 bar.
Considering feed water heaters to be of open type determine thermal efficiency for the following
conditions;
(a) there is no feed water heater
(b) there is only one feed water heater working at 8 bar
(c) there are two feed water heaters working at 40 bar and 4 bar respectively.
Also give layout and T-s representation for each of the case described above.
Solution:
Case (a) When there is no feed water heater
( h2 − h3 ) − ( h1 − h4 )
Thermal efficiency of cycle = (h2 − h1 )
From steam tables,
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 283
h2 = hat 200 bar, 650ºC = 3675.3 kJ/kg
s2 = sat 200 bar, 650ºC = 6.6582 kJ/kg · K
h4 = hƒ at 0.05 bar = 137.82 kJ/kg
v 4 = vƒ at 0.05 bar = 0.001005 m3/kg.
hƒ at 0.05 bar = 137.82 kJ/kg, hƒg at 0.05 bar = 2423.7 kJ/kg
sƒ at 0.05 bar = 0.4764 kJ/kg · K, sƒg at 0.05 bar = 7.9187 kJ/kg · K
For process 2 – 3, s2 = s3. Let dryness fraction at 3 be x3.
s3 = 6.6582 = sƒ at 0.05 bar + x3 · sƒg at 0.05 bar
6.6582 = 0.4764 + x3 · 7.9187
x3 = 0.781
h3 = hƒ at 0.05 bar + x3 · hfg at 0.05 bar
= 2030.73 kJ/kg
For pumping process 4-1,
h1 – h4 = v4 · ∆p
h1 – 137.82 = 0.001005 × (200 – 0.05) × 102
h1 = 157.92 kJ/kg
(3675.3 − 2030.73) − (157.92 − 137.82)
Thermal efficiency of cycle =
(3675.3 − 157.92)
1
1 3 0.05 bar 0.05 bar
Condenser T
4 3
4
Feed pump s
FP S
200 bar
2
1¢
40 bar
m1
12 13 10
4 bar
T
m2 9 0.05 bar
8 11
(1–m1– m2 )
4 3
S
Fig. 8.37 Layout and T-s diagram. (Q6.c)
For process 13-1' i.e. in FP1, h'1= h13 + v13(200 – 40) × 102
= 1087.31 + (0.001252 × 160 × 102)
h'1 = 1107.34 kJ/kg
(m1 × 3141.81) + (1 – m1) × 608.64 = 1087.31
m1 = 0.189 kg
Applying energy balance an open feed water heater 1 (OFWH1)
(m1 × h10) + (1 – m1) × h12 = 1 × h13
(m1 × 3141.81) + (1 – m1) × 608.64 = 1087.31
m1 = 0.189 kg
Applying energy balance an open feed water heater 2 (OFWH2)
m2 × h9 + (1 – m1 – m2) h8 = (1 – m1) × h11
(m2 × 2639.53) + (1 – 0.189 – m2) × 138.22 = (1– 0.189) × 604.74, m2 = 0.151 kg
Thermal efficiency of cycle,
{( h2 − h10 ) + (1 − m1 )( h10 − h9 ) + (1 − m1 − m2 )( h9 − h3 )} − {WCEP + WFP + WFP }
η=
1 2
( h2 − h1' )
WCEP = (1– m1 – m2) (h8 – h4) = 0.264 kJ/kg steam from boiler
WFP = (h – h ) = 20.03 kJ/kg of steam from boiler
1 1' 13
WFP = (1 – m1) (h12 – h11) = 3.16 kJ/kg of steam from boiler
2
50 bar
2
5 bar
4
1
3
0.05 bar
T
6 5
Fig. 8.38
For expansion process 4-5, s4 = s5 = 7.7938 kJ/kg · K
Let dryness fraction at state 5 be x5.
s5 = sf at 0.05 bar + x5 × sfg at 0.05 bar
7.7938 = 0.4764 + x5 × 7.9187
x5 = 0.924
h5 = hf at 0.05 bar + x5 × hfg at 0.05 bar
h5 = 137.82 + 0.924 × 2423.7 = 2377.32 kJ/kg
h6 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.82 kJ/kg
h6 = vf at 0.05 bar = 0.001005 m3/kg
For process 6-1 in feed pump, h1 = h6 + v6 × (50 – 0.05) × 102
h1 = 137.82 + 0.001005 × (49.95 × 102)
h1 = 142.84 kJ/kg
288 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Wnet
Cycle efficiency =
Qadd
W T = (h2 – h3) + (h4 – h5)
= (3433.8 – 2818.03) + (3271.9 – 2377.32)
= 1510.35 kJ/kg
Wpump = (h1 – h6) = 142.84 – 137.82 = 5.02 kJ/kg
Wnet = WT – Wpump = 1505.33 kJ/kg
Qadd = (h2 – h1) = 3433.8 – 142.84 = 3290.96 kJ/kg
1505.33
Cycle efficiency = = 0.4574 or 45.74%
3290.96
We know, 1 hp = 0.7457 kW
0.7457 × 3600
Specific steam consumption = = 1.78 kg/hp · hr
1505.33
Net work Wnet 1505.33
Work ratio = = = = 0.9967
Positive work WT 1510.35
8. In a steam power plant the high pressure turbine is fed with steam at 60 bar, 450ºC and enters low
pressure turbine at 3 bar with a portion of steam bled out for feed heating at this intermediate pressure.
Steam finally leaves low pressure turbine at 0.05 bar for inlet to condenser. Closed feed heater raises the
condensate temperature to 115ºC. Bled steam leaving closed feed heater is passed through trap to mix
with condensate leaving condenser. Consider actual alternator output to be 30 MW, boiler efficiency as
90% and alternator efficiency of 98%. Determine,
(a) the mass of steam bled for feed heating,
(b) the capacity of boiler in kg/hr.
(c) the overall thermal efficiency of plant
Also give layout and T-s diagram.
Solution:
From steam tables,
At state 2, h2 = 3301.8 kJ/kg, s2 = 6.7193 kJ/kg · K
h5 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.82 kJ/kg, v5 = vf at 0.05 bar = 0.001005 m3/kg
Let mass of steam bled for feed heating be m kg/kg of steam generated in boiler. Let us also assume that
condensate leaves closed feed water heater as saturated liquid i.e.
h8 = hf at 3 bar
h8 = 561.47 kJ/kg
For process 2–3–4, s2 = s3 = s4 = 6.7193 kJ/kg · K
Let dryness fraction at state 3 and state 4 be x3 and x4 respectively.
s3 = 6.7193 = sf at 3 bar + x3 · sfg at 3 bar
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 289
= 1.6718 + x3 × 5.3201
x3 = 0.949
s4 = 6.7193 = sf at 0.05 bar + x4 · sfg at 0.05 bar
= 0.4764 + x4 × 7.9187
x4 = 0.788
60 bar, 450 °C
2
Boiler HPT LPT
60 bar
3 bar 3 2
1 4 0.05 bar
1 1 kg
Condenser 7 3 bar
m kg 0.05 bar
5 T
8 3
7
6 5 (1 – m) kg
FP 6
9 4
8
s
9
Steam bled for feed heating = 0.144 kg/kg steam generated. Ans.
The net power output Wnet = (h2 – h3) + (1 – m) (h3 – h4) – (1– m) × (h7 – h6)
= 1167.28 kJ/kg steam generated
30 ×103
Mass of steam required to be generated =
0.98 × Wnet
290 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
30 ×103
= = 26.23 kg/s
0.98 × 1167.28
= 94428 kg/hr
Capacity of boiler required = 94428 kg/hr Ans.
Wnet
Overall thermal efficiency =
Qadd
( h2 − h1 ) (3301.8 − 4.18 × 115)
Qadd = =
0.90 0.90
= 3134.56 kJ/kg
1167.28
Overall thermal efficiency = = 0.3724 or 37.24%
3134.56
9. A steam power plant has expansion occurring stages in three stages with steam entering first stage at
30 bar, 400°C and leaving first stage at 6 bar for being sent to second stage with some steam being bled
out for feed heating in closed feed water heater. Steam leaves second stage at 1 bar and enters third
stage with some more steam being bled out for feed heating in closed feed water heater. Steam finally
leaves third stage at 0.075 bar after complete expansion and enters condenser. Condensate temperature
is 38ºC at inlet to second heater, temperature of feed water after first heater and second heater is 150ºC
and 95ºC respectively. Bled steam is condensed to saturated liquid with no undercooling in each of feed
heater. Drain from first heater is passed through steam trap into second feed heater and combined drain
from second heater is pumped by drain pump into feed line after second heater. Considering efficiency
ratio of turbine as 0.8 and turbine output of 15 MW determine the capacity of drain pump. Neglect
drain pump work.
Solution:
30 bar, 400 °C
30 bar
2
Boiler
2
HPT IPT LPT
3 1bar 13
6 bar 4
1 5 10
(1 – m1 –m2) 6 8
9 6 bar
m1 m2 3 3'
Condenser 1 bar
11 0.075 bar
CFWH-1 CFWH-2 T 4 4'
10 9 6 6' 7 12
13 6' 5 5'
CEP
8
11 12 7
FP s
1 kg , 10 9 (1 – m 1 – m 2 )
(m 1+ m 2) 8
15 × 103
Rate of steam generation required = = 19.22 kg/s
780.446
or = 69192 kg/hr
Capacity of drain pump i.e. FP shown in layout = (m1 + m2) × 69192
= 16273.96 kg/hr
10. A steam power plant has steam entering at 70 bar, 450ºC into HP turbine. Steam is extracted at 30
bar and reheated upto 400ºC before being expanded in LP turbine upto 0.075 bar. Some portion of
steam is bled out during expansion in LP turbine so as to yield saturated liquid at 140ºC at the exit of
open feed water heater. Considering HP and LP turbine efficiencies of 80% and 85% determine the
cycle efficiency. Also give layout and T-s diagram.
Solution:
At inlet to HP turbine, h2= 3287.1 kJ/kg, s2 = 6.6327 kJ/kg.K
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 293
3 4
2
Boiler
HPT IPT
5 6
1 Condenser
7
OFWH
8
CEP
9
FP
70 bar
450 °C 2 30 bar CEP = Condensate extraction pump
FP = Feed pump
400 °C 4 OFWH = Open feed water heater
3'
328.98 °C 3
1
T
5 0.075 bar
8 9 5'
6
7 6'
11. A steam power plant works on regenerative cycle with steam entering first turbine stage at 150 bar,
500ºC and getting expanded in three subsequent stages upto the condenser pressure of 0.05 bar. Some
steam is bled out between first and second stage for feed heating in closed feed water heater at 10 bar
with the saturated liquid condensate being pumped ahead into the boiler feed water line. Feed water
leaves closed feed water heater at 150 bar, 150ºC. Steam is also taken out between second and third
stages at 1.5 bar for being fed into an open feed water heater working at that pressure. Saturated liquid
at 1.5 bar leaves open feed water heater for being sent to closed feed water heater. Considering mass
flow rate of 300 kg/s into the first stage of turbine determine cycle thermal efficiency and net power
developed in kW. Also give lay out and T-s representation.
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 295
Solution:
Enthalpy of steam entering ST1, h2 = 3308.6 kJ/kg, s2 = 6.3443 kJ/kg · K
For isentropic expansion 2-3-4-5, s2 = s3 = s4 = s5
Let dryness fraction of states 3, 4 and 5 be x3, x4 and x5
s3 = 6.3443 = sƒ at 10 bar + x3 · sƒg at 10 bar
⇒ x3 = 0.945
h3 = 2667.26 kJ/kg
s4 = 6.3443 = sƒ at 1.5 bar + x4 · sƒg at 1.5 bar
⇒ x4 = 0.848 ⇒ h4 = 2355.18 kJ/kg
s5 = 6.3443 = sƒ at 0.05 bar + x5 · sƒg at 0.05 bar
⇒ x5 = 0.739 · h5 = 1928.93 kJ/kg
h6 = hf at 0.05 bar = 137.82 kJ/kg
v 6 = 0.001005 m3/kg
= vf at 0.05 bar
h7 = h6 + v6 (1.5 – 0.05) × 102 = 137.96 kJ/kg
2
Boiler ST1 ST2 ST3
3 4
1 5
Condenser
CFWH OFWH
11
7 6
9
12 8
10 CEP
FP1
FP2
150 bar
2
CEP = Condensate extraction pump
FP = Feed pump
CFWH = Closed feed water heater
OFWH = Open feed water heater
1
11 12 10 bar
9
10 1.5 bar
T 3
8
7 4
0.05 bar
6 5
S
Fig. 8.42 Layout and T-s diagram
296 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
h8 = hƒ at 1.5 bar = 467.11 kJ/kg,
v 8 = 0.001053 m3/kg = vƒ at 1.5 bar
h9 = h8 + v8(150 – 1.5) × 102 = 482.75 kJ/kg m 1 , h3
h10 = hƒ at 150 bar = 1610.5 kJ/kg 3
m 2 , h4 4
7
(1 – m1– m2), h7
(1 – m1), h8 8
11
298 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1
3
9 10
4 bar
T
4'
8 0.075 bar
11 4
7
6 5 5'
m1
3
200 °C, 9
1 1 kg
m1 10
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 299
Applying heat balance at open feed water,
m1 h11 + m2 · h4 + (1 – m1 – m2) · h7 = h8
(m1 · 908.79) + (m2 × 2612.65) + ((1 – m1 – m2) · 169.18) = 604.74, m2 = 0.144 kg
m 2 , h4 4
m1, h11 7
11 (1 – m1– m2), h7
1kg h8 8
100 ×103
Steam generation rate = = 87.99 kg/s
wnet
3 3'
Boiler 4'
5'
1
20 bar, 400°C
OFWH
CFWH
11 7
9
6
10 8
CEP
Trap FP
4′
3
9 7
1 11
10
8
wnet
Thermal efficiency η= q = 0.4503 or 45.03%
add
0.4503 − 0.4478
% Increase in thermal efficiency due to reheating = × 100
0.4478
= 0.56%
Thermal efficiency of reheat cycle = 45.03%
% Increase in efficiency due to reheating = 0.56% Ans.
13. In a binary vapour cycle working on mercury and steam, the mercury vapour is generated dry
saturated at 8.45 bar and expanded upto 0.07 bar in mercury turbine. The condenser or mercury cycle is
used for generating steam at 40 bar, 0.98 dry. The steam is superheated separately upto 450ºC and then
supplied into steam turbine for being expanded upto 0.075 bar. Two closed feed water heaters are used
by bleeding out steam at 8 bar and 1 bar so as to provide feed water leaving at 150ºC and 90ºC
respectively. Condensate leaves feed water heater as saturated liquid at respective pressures and is mixed
with the hot feed water leaving the respective feed heater. The turbine running on mercury has capability
of converting 85% of available heat into work. The enthalpies of mercury may be taken as,
enthalpy of dry saturated vapour at 8.45 bar = 349 kJ/kg
enthalpy after isentropic expansion to 0.07 bar = 234.5 kJ/kg
enthalpy of saturated liquid at 0.07 bar = 35 kJ/kg
Assume feed water to enter at 150ºC into mercury condenser. Neglect pump work for getting efficiency.
Determine the steam generation rate per kg of mercury and efficiency of cycle.
Solution:
For mercury cycle,
Insentropic heat drop = 349 – 234.5 = 114.5 kJ/kg Hg
Actual heat drop = 0.85 × 114.5 = 97.325 kJ/kg Hg
Heat rejected in condenser = [349 – 97.325 – 35]
= 216.675 kJ/kg
Heat added in boiler = 349 – 35 = 314 kJ/kg
For steam cycle,
Enthalpy of steam generated = hat 40 bar, 0.98 dry = 2767.13 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of steam at inlet to steam turbine h2 = h at 40 bar, 450ºC = 3330.3 kJ/kg
Entropy of steam at inlet to steam turbine, s2 = 6.9363 kJ/kg · K
Therefore, heat added in condenser of mercury cycle
= hat 40 bar, 0.98 dry – hfeed at 40 bar
= 2767.13 – 4.18 × 150 = 2140.13 kJ/kg
2140.13
Therefore, mercury required per kg of steam =
Heat rejected in condenser
8.45 bar a
m1 m2
steam 40 bar
CFWH1 CFWH2
15 12 2
0.07 bar b
8 bar
11 7 6 b′
1
14 10 14
T
13 9 3 1 bar
11 m1
10 13
m2 4 0.075 bar
8 12
FP2 7 9
FP1 5
6
Regenerative arrangement
14. A steam power plant has mixed pressure turbine of output 2500 hp with high pressure steam entering
at 20 bar, 300ºC and low pressure steam entering at 2 bar and dry saturated. The steam leaves turbine at
0.075 bar and efficiency ratio of both HP and LP stages are 0.8. The Willan’s line for both are straight
line and steam consumption at no load is 10% of full load. Determine the HP steam required for
producing 1000 hp if low pressure steam is available at the rate of 1.5 kg/s.
Solution:
This is a mixed pressure turbine so the output of turbine shall be sum of the contributions by HP and LP
steam streams.
For HP: At Inlet of HP steam, ⇒ h1 = 3023.5 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.7664 kJ/kg · K
Ideally, s2 = s1 = 6.7664
s2 = 6.7664 = sƒ at 0.075 bar + x3 × sƒg at 0.075 bar
2 bar, dry saturated
⇒ x3 = 0.806 20 bar, 300°C
2
h3HP = hƒ at 0.075 bar + x3 · hfg at 0.075 bar = 2108.03 kJ/kg 1
Actual enthalpy drop in HP = (h1 – h3HP) × 0.8 = 732.38 kJ/kg Mixed ST
For LP: At inlet of LP steam
h2 = 2706.7 kJ/kg, s2 = 7.1271 kJ/kg · K
Enthalpy at exit, h3LP = 2222.34 kJ/kg 0.075 bar 3
Actual enthalpy drop in LP = (h1 – h3LP) × 0.8 = 387.49 kJ/kg
304 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2500 × 0.7457
HP steam consumption at full load = = 2.54 kg/s
732.38
HP steam consumption at no load = 0.1 × 2.54 = 0.254 kg/s
2500 × 0.7457
LP steam consumption at full load = = 4.81 kg/s
387.49
LP steam consumption at no load = 0.1 × 4.81 = 0.481 kg/s
The problem can be solved geometrically by drawing Willan’s line as per scale on graph paper and
finding out the HP stream requirement for getting 1000 hp if LP steam is available at 1.5 kg/s.
or,
Analytically the equation for Willan’s line can be obtained for above full load and no load conditions
for HP and LP separately.
Willan's line for HP: y = mx + C, here y = steam consumption, kg/s
x = load, hp
yHP = mHP · x + CHP
2.54 = mHP · 2500 + CHP
0.254 = mHP · 0 + CHP ⇒ CHP = 0.254 and mHP = 9.144 × 10–4
⇒ yHP = 9.144 × 10–4 · xHP + 0.254
y LP
Willan's line for LP: yLP = mLP · xLP + CLP HP
4.81 = mLP · 2500 + CLP kg/s
0.481 = mLP · CLP ⇒ CLP = 0.481, mLP = 1.732 × 10–3
yLP = 1.732 × 10–3 · xLP + 0.481 0 x
load, hp
Total output (load) from mixed turbine, x = xHP + xLP
Fig. 8.46 Tentative
For load of 1000 hp to be met by mixed turbine, let us find out the load
representation of
shared by LP for steam flow rate of 1.5 kg/s Willan’s line
1.5 = 1.732 × 10–3 · xLP + 0.481
xLP = 588.34 hp
Since by 1.5 kg/s of LP steam only 588.34 hp output contribution is made so remaining (1000 – 588.34
= 411.66 hp), 411.66 hp should be contributed by HP steam. By Willan’s line for HP turbine,
yHP = (9.144 × 10–4 × 411.66) + 0.254 = 0.63 kg/s
So, HP steam requirement = 0.63 kg/s
HP steam required = 0.63 kg/s Ans.
15. A steam power plant installation has steam leaving boiler at 40 bar, 300ºC and expanding in HP
turbine upto 2 bar. Half of steam leaving HP turbine is sent for process heating and remaining enters a
separator where all the moisture is removed. Dry steam from separator is sent to low pressure LP turbine
at 2 bar and gets expanded upto 0.075 bar.
The drain (moisture) of separator gets mixed with condensate from process heater and combined flow
enters the hot well at 90ºC. Trap is provided at exit of both process heater and separator. Condensate
extraction pump extracts condensate from condenser and sends it to hot well at 40ºC. Neglecting pump
work and radiation losses etc. determine temperature of water leaving hotwell and heat transferred per
kg in process heater. Also find out thermal efficiency of installation and give layout.
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 305
Solution:
Let us carry out analysis for 1 kg of steam generated in boiler.
Enthalpy at inlet to HPT, h2 = 2960.7 kJ/kg, s2 = 6.3615 kJ/kg · K
State at 3 i.e. exit from HPT can be identified by s2 = s3 = 6.3615 kJ/kg · K
Let dryness fraction be x3, s3 = 6.3615 = sƒ at 2 bar + x3 · sƒg at 2 bar
⇒ x3 = 0.863 h3 = 2404.94 kJ/kg
If one kg of steam is generated in boiler then at exit of HPT, 0.5 kg goes into process heater and 0.5 kg
goes into separator
40 bar, 300°C
2
HPT IPT
Boiler
2 bar
1 3
Process heater
9 10
4
5
Separator
Trap 6 Condenser
Hotwell 8 11
12
CEP
13
FP
Heat transferred per kg steam generated = 1023.175 kJ/kg steam generated Ans.
For state 10 at exit of LPT, s10 = s3 = s2 = 6.3615 kJ/kg · K
Let dryness fraction be x10
s10 = 6.3615 = sƒ at 0.075 bar + x10 · sƒg at 0.075 bar
⇒ x10 = 0.754
⇒ h10 = hf at 0.075 bar + x10 · hfg at 0.075 bar
h10 = 1982.91
Net work output, neglecting pump work per kg of steam generated,
wnet = (h2 – h3) × 1 + 0.4315 × (h3 – h10)
= 555.76 + 182.11
wnet = 737.87 kJ/kg steam generated
Heat added in boiler per kg steam generated, qadd = (h2 – h1)
= (2960.7 – 4.18 × 68.425)
qadd = 2674.68 kJ/kg
wnet
Thermal efficiency = q = 0.2758 or 27.58%
add
16. In a steam power plant operating on Rankine cycle, the steam enters the turbine at 70 bar and 550ºC
with a velocity of 30 m/s. It discharges to the condenser at 0.20 bar with a velocity 90 m/s. If the steam
flow rate is 35 kg/s, find the thermal efficiency and net power produced. [U.P.S.C. 1992]
Solution:
From steam tables, h1 = 3530.9 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.9486 kJ/kg · K
Assuming isentropic expansion in nozzle, s1 = s2 = 6.9486 kJ/kg · K
0.20 bar 2 4
0.02 bar
Condenser
T
3 3 2
4
Condensate extraction
(a) (b) s
and feed pump
17. The following data refers to a steam turbine power plant employing one stage of regenerative feed
heating:
State of steam entering HP stage : 10 MPa, 600ºC
State of steam entering LP stage: 2 MPa, 400ºC
Condenser pressure: 10 KPa
308 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
The correct amount of steam is bled for feed heating at exit from the HP stage. Calculate the mass of
steam bled per kg of steam passing through the HP stage and the amount of heat supplied in the boiler
per second for an output of 10 MW. Neglect pump work, [U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
1
1 10 MPa
Boiler HPT LPT
7
2 MPa
2 3
5 2 10 kPa
Condenser 6
T
5 4 4 3
7 6
CEP
Feed pump
S
18. Steam enters the first stage of a turbine at 100 bar, 500ºC and expands isentropically to 10 bar. It is
then reheated to 500ºC and expanded in the second stage to the condenser pressure of 0.1 bar. Steam is
bled from the first stage at 20 bar and fed to a closed feed water heater. Feed water leaves the closed
heater at 100 bar, 200ºC (enthalpy = 856.8 kJ/kg), while the condensate is supplied to the open heater
into which steam is bled at 4 bar pressure. Saturated liquid at 4 bar exits from the open heater and enters
the closed heater. The net output of the turbine is 50 MW. Assuming the turbine and pump processes to
be isentropic, determine the mass of steam bled at each feed water heater per kg of steam entering the
first stage, the mass of steam entering the first stage per second, and the thermal efficiency.
[U.P.S.C. 1995]
Solution:
From steam table, at inlet to first stage of turbine,
h1 = hat 100 bar, 500ºC = 3373.7 kJ/kg
s1 = sat 100 bar, 500ºC = 6.5966 kJ/kg · K
1 kg 2 (1 – m6)
1 3 1
500 °C
HPT LPT
Boiler
m6 100 bar 3
(1 – m6 – m8) 11 6
1 kg 6 8
4 10 20 bar
m8 7
Condenser 10 bar 8
2
T 4 bar
CFWH 7' 5 4' 5 9 7'
0.1 bar
11 OFWH CEP 4' 4
m6 10
9
7 S
1 kg
FP
50 × 103
=
92496.075
= 0.54056 or 54.06%
Mass of steam bled at 20 bar = 0.135 kg per kg of steam entering first stage
Mass of steam bled at 4 bar = 0.105 kg per kg of steam entering first stage
Mass of steam entering first stage = 36.75 kg/s
Thermal efficiency = 54.06% Ans.
312 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
19. A steam power plant installation has reheating and regenerative feed water heating employing
a surface type feed heater and other contact type feed heater on high pressure side and low pressure side
respectively. Steam enters HP turbine at 100 bar, 803 K and leaves high pressure turbine at 25 bar from
where some steam is bled for feed heating in high pressure surface type heater and remaining is reheated
up to 823 K and then expanded in low pressure turbine up to 0.05 bar pressure. The contact type feed
heater is supplied with steam bled at 6 bar from LP steam turbine. There occurs throttling pressure loss
of 3 bar in reheater. Surface type feed heater sends the drain to contact type feed heater from where the
total feed is sent to surface type feed heater employing a boiler feed water pump as saturated water at
pressure of 100 bar. Determine the amounts of steam bled off, overall thermal efficiency and specific
steam consumption in kg/kwh. Considering tubring efficiency pump efficiency, generator efficiency,
and mechanical efficiency as 0.85, 0.90 & 0.95 respectively and plant output as 120 MW. Consider
discharges of drains at saturated liquid state at respective pressures in feed heaters. Also show how the
processes on T-s and h-s diagrams along with line sketch of arrangement.
Solution: From steam table,
At 100 bar, 803 K the state of inlet steam
h1 = 3450.02 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.6923 kJ/kgK
At inlet to LP steam turbine at 22 bar, 823K
h3 = 3576.99 kJ/kg, s3 = 7.52411 kJ/kg.K
For exit from HP turbine, s1 = s2
Using Mollier diagram
h2 = 3010, kJ/kg.K.
22 bar, 823 K
Boiler
2
100 bar, 1 3
803 K
HP LP
Turbine Turbine
120 MW
12
4, 0.05bar
25 bar 9
7 is similar to 2 6 bar
Condenser
B.F.P.
5
11 C.E.P.
Surface type 6
feed heater 8
Contact
type feed
10 heater
100 bar 1
25 bar
1kg 1
12 3
11' 6 bar
11 25 bar
2'7'
m1 kg 22 bar 2, 7 2'7'
8 0.05 bar
2 3 9
7 6 bar m1
T m2 kg h
9 9'
6' 0.05 bar
4'
10 m2 4
6 (1 – m1 – m2)
4'
5 4 (1 – m1 – m2 )
S S
Fig. 8.51
Let us consider 1 kg of steam generated in boiler and bled fractions be m1 & m2.
h1 − h2′
Considering turbine efficiency, ηturb =
h1 − h2
3450.02 − h2′
0.85 =
(3450.02 − 3010)
⇒ h2′ = 3076.003 kJ/kg
From Mollier diagram, considering isentropic expansion in LP turbine
h9 = 3175 kJ/kg
h4 = 2300kJ/kg
h3 − h9′
Considering turbine efficiency, 0.85 =
h3 − h9
(3576.99 − h9′ )
0.85 =
(3576.99 − 3175)
⇒ h 9′ = 3235.29 kJ/kg
( h11′ − h12 )
m1 × h7 + h11′ = h12 + m1h8 ⇒ m1 =
( h8 − h7 )
( h11′ − h12 )
In this arrangement, h2 = h7 ⇒ m1 =
( h8 − h2′ )
Energy balance at contact type heater yields
m1 × h8 + m2 × h9 + (1 – m1 – m2)h6′ = 1 × h10
for process 5–6 in condensate extraction pump,
h6 – h5 = v5. ∆p = v5 × (p6 – p5)
h6 – 137.82 = 0.001005 × (6 – 0.05) × 102
⇒ h6 = 138.42 kJ/kg
(h6 − h5 )
Considering pump efficiency ηpump =
( h6′ − h5 )
(138.42 − 137.82)
0.90 =
( h6′ − 137.82)
h6′ = 138.49 kJ/kg
From steam tables,
h10 = hf at 6 bar = 670.56 kJ/kg
v 10 = vf at 6 bar = 0.001101 m3/kg
h8 = hf at 25 bar = 962.11 kJ/kg
Substituting in heat balance of contact type feed heater,
(m1 × 962.11) + (m2 × 3175) + ((1 – m1 – m2) × 138.49) = 670.56
(m1 × 823.62) + (m2 × 3036.51) = 532.07
For process 10-11 in boiler feed pump;
(h11 – h10) = v10.∆p = 0.001101 × (100 – 6) × 102
h11 = 670.56 + (0.001101 × 94 × 102)
h11 = 680.91
h11 − h10
Considering pump efficiency, 0.90 =
h11′ − h10
h11′ = 682.06 kJ/kg
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 315
(682.06 − 1407.56)
Substituting values, m1 =
(962.11 − 3076.003)
= 0.343 kg/kg of inlet steam to HP turbine
Also substitution yields;
(0.343 × 823.62) + (m2 × 3036.51) = 532.07
m2 = 0.082 kg/kg of inlet steam to HP turbine
Work from HP turbine, WHP = (h1 – h2′)
WHP = (3450.02 – 3076.003) = 374.017 KJ/kg
Work from LP turbine,
WLP = (1 – m1) (h3 – h9′) + (1 – m1 – m2) (h9′–h4′)
WLP = (1 – 0.343)(3576.99 – 3235.29) + (1 – 0.343 – 0.082) × (3235.29 – 2491.5)
WLP = 652.18 kJ/kg
Pump work = WCEP + WBFP = (1 – m1 – m2) (h6′ – h5) + ( h11′– h10)
Wpump = (1 – 0.343 – 0.082) (138.49 – 137.82) + (682.06 – 670.56)
= 0.38525 + 11.5 = 11.885 kJ/kg
Net work, Wnet = WHP + WLP – Wpump
= 374.017 + 652.18 – 11.885
= 1014.312 kJ/kg
3600
Specific steam consumption =
Wnet × ηgen × ηmech
3600
=
(1014.312 × 0.95 × 0.95)
Specific steam consumption = 3.93 kg/kw.h Ans.
20 bar
1 350°C
r
ba
1.5
h
2'
2
s
Fig. 8.52
At 20 bar, 350°C
h1 = 3137.0 kJ/kg, s1 = 6.9563 kJ/kg.K
s1 = s2 = 6.9563 kJ/kg.K, let dryness fraction be x2 at '2'
s2 = 6.9563 kJ/kg.K = sf at 1.5 bar + x2 sfg at 1.5 bar
⇒ 6.9563 = 1.4336 + x2 × 7.2233
⇒ x2 = 0.765, Enthalpy at '2',
h2 = hf at 1.5 bar + x2.hfg at 1.5 bar
h2 = 467.11 + (0.765 × 2226.5)
h2 = 2170.38 kJ/kg.K
(h1 − h2 )
For given efficiency ratio of turbine; 0.75 = ′
(h1 − h2 )
h2′ = 2412.04 kJ/kg.K.
Enthalpy of condensed steam = hf at 1.5 bar = 467.11 kJ/kg.K
In this back pressure turbine the steam at state h2′ will be available for heaitng till it becomes
condensed steam with enthalpy hf at 1.5 bar
Thus mass of steam required for heating action.
(Heating to be done)
=
(h2 − hf at 1.5 bar )
′
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 317
14000
= = 7.198 kg/s
(2412.04 − 467.11)
Hence power available to generator
= mass flow rate of steam × (h1 – h2′)
= 7.198 × (3137 – 2412.04)
= 5218.26 kW
21. In a back pressure turbine installation the steam is supplied at pressure of 20 bar, 350°C and
the exhaust steam from turbine at pressure of 2 bar is used for process heating. Condensate from heater
is returned to boiler at 120°C. Considering turbine isentropic efficiency of 0.8, boiler efficiency of
80% and heat required for heating being 9000 kW determine the power generated and boiler heat
requirement.
Solution: From steam table,
20 bar
1 350°C
2 bar
h
2'
2
s
Fig. 8.53
h1 = 3137 kJ/kg
s1 = 6.9563 kJ/kg.K.
At 2 bar pressure, let dryness fractions fraction be x2.
s2 = s1 = 6.9563 = sf at 2 bar + x2.sfg at 2 bar
6.9563 = 1.5301 + (x2 × 5.597)
⇒ x2 = 0.969
hence, h2 = hf at 2 bar + x2.hfg at 2 bar
= 504.70 + (0.969 × 2201.9)
h2 = 2638.34 kJ/kg
Considering turbine insentripic efficiency
h1 − h2′ 3137 − h2′
0.8 = =
h1 − h2 (3137 − 2638.34)
⇒ h2′ = 2738.07 kJ/kg
318 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Let us consider the condensate going to boiler to be saturated liquid at 120°C. Let the mass
flow rate of steam be ms kg/s.
Thus, heat supplied for process heating = 9000 kW
9000 = ms (h2′ – hf at 120°C)
9000 = ms(2738.07 – 503.71)
⇒ ms = 4.03 kg/s
Thus, power developed = ms × (h1 – h2′) = 4.03(3137 – 2738.07)
Power develped = 1607.68 kW
Total heat consumption in in boiler = (h1 – hf at 120°C) × ms
= (3137 – 503.71) × 4.03
= 10612.16 kW
10612.16
Actual heat consumption in boiler = = 13265.2 kJ/s
0.8
22. A pass out turbine is fed with steam at 20 bar, 250°C. The pass out steam pressure is 5 bar and
the exhaust pressure is 0.075 bar. In this installation the total power required is 4500 kW and heat load
is 15000 kW. The efficiency of HP and LP turbine stages is 0.8 in each stage. Considering the reduction
in total steam consumption to result in steam consumption rate of 10 kg/s, determine the new power
output if the heat load remains same. Also assume the nozzle control governing and throttle governing
at the inlets of HP turbine and LP turbine respectively.
Solution: 20 bar
1 5 bar
For first part of expanssion in HP stage.
P3''
From steam table 2'
2 3'' 0.075 bar
h1 = 3137 kJ/kg
h
s1 = 6.9563 kJ/kg.K.
4'
2' 4
It indicates that state of steam after expansion in HP 3 3'
stage lies in superheated region.
s
From superheated steam table,
Fig. 8.54
degree of superheat may be estimated.
At 5 bar,
sg at 5 bar, 151.86°C = 6.8213 kJ/kg.K
sat 5 bar, 200°C = 7.0592 kJ/kg.K
(2885.4 − 2748.7)
h2 = 2748.7 + × (179.18 − 151.86)
(200 − 151.86)
h2 = 2813.41 kJ/kg.
( h1 − h2′ )
Considering turbine efficiency, 0.8 =
( h1 − h2 )
(3137 − h2′ )
0.8 =
(3137 − 2813.41)
h2′ = 2878.13 kJ/kg
Heat available for process heating = h2′ – hf at 5 bar
= 2878.13 – 640.23
= 2237.9 kJ/kg
Let mass flow rate of steam be ms, HP to HP turbine and ms,heat for process heating after HP.
Thus, mass flow rate of steam required for process heating of 15000 kW
15000
ms, heat = = 6.70 kg/s.
2237.9
The h-s diagram shows two different arrangements. One arrangement shown by (1 – 2′ – 3′)
indicates the case of no extraction in turbine. While (1 – 2′ – 3′′ – 4′) shows the case of passout
turbine.
For the first case
(T − T ′ )
Using turbine efficiency, 0.8 = 1 2
(T1 − T2 )
⇒ T 2 ′ = T1 – 0.8 (T1 – T2) = 350 – 0.8(350 – 179.18)
T 2 ′ = 213.34°C
(7.0592 − 6.8213)
⇒ s2′ = 6.8213 + × (213.34 − 151.86)
(200 − 151.86)
s2′ = 7.125 kJ.kg.K
s3 = s2′ = 7.125 kJ/kg.K
Let dryness fraction at 3 be x3
s3 = sf at 0.075 bar + x3 × sfg at 0.075 bar
7.125 = 0.5754 + (x3 × 7.675)
⇒ x3 = 0.853
320 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
⇒ h3 = hf at 0.075 bar + x3.hfg at 0.075 bar
= 168.79 + (0.853 × 2406)
h3 = 2221.11 kJ/kg
Using LP turbine stage efficiency,
( h2′ − h3′ )
0.8 =
( h2′ − h3 )
(2878.13 − h3′ )
0.8 =
(2878.13 − 2221.11)
h3′ = 2352.5 kJ/kg
Power produced by HP stage, = ms,HP × (h1 – h2′)
= ms,HP (3137 – 2878.13)
P,HP = 258.87 ms,HP
Power produced by LP stage, = (ms,HP – ms,heat) (h2′ – h3′)
= (ms,HP – 6.7) (2878.13 – 2352.51)
P,LP = (ms,HP – 6.7)525.62
Total power produced = PHP + PLP
= 258.87 ms,HP + 525.62 (ms,HP – 6.7)
4500 = (784.49 ms,HP – 3521.65)
ms,HP = 10.23 kg/s
For the IInd case when steam consumption changes
Since total steam consumption is reduced to 10 kg/s, i.e., ms,HP = 10kg/s, but heat load remains
save, so steam required for process heating would not change and ms,heat remains as 6.7 kg/s.
Thus ms,HP, new = 10 kg/s & ms, heat, new = 6.7 kg/s.
Also it is given in problem that the nozzle control governing employed at entrance of HP turbine
stage therefore pressure at inlet to turbine remains same as 20 bar.
1
1'
5 bar
4 bar
2' 0.075 bar
2 3
h
4
4'
s
Fig. 8.55
Let us assume total steam consumption rate be m1 kg/s and mh be the mass flowrate of steam for
process heating and m3 kg/s be steam flow rate to LP stage for expansion.
Let us find out remaining enthalpy and other properties through mollier diagram.
entropy s1′ = s2 = 7 kJ/kg.K.
h2 = 2830 kJ/kg.
Considering HP stage efficiency,
h1 − h2
0.8 = ′ ′
h1′ − h2
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 323
(3137 − h2 )
0.8 = ′ ⇒ h = 2891.4 kJ/kg
(3137 − 2830) 2′
Consider discharge of 8 kg/s to be the steam flow rate through LP turbine, i.e., m3 = 8 kg/s.
The power made available to alternator can be estimated by considering electric power developed.
8
Power available to alternator = = 8.2051 MW
0.975
Total power produced = 8.2051 × 103 + 50 = 8255.1 kW
Power produced by LP turbine = m3 × (h3 – h4′) = 5451.2 kW.
Power produced by HP turbine = 8255.1 – 5451.2
= 2803.9 kW
2803.9
Mass flow rate through HP turbine ⇒ m1 =
(h1′ − h2′ )
2803.9
m1 =
(3137 − 2891.4)
Total steam consumption rate. m1 = 11.42 kg/s
Heat available for process heating = mh × (h2 – hf at 90°C)
= (m1 – m3) (2830 – 376.92)
= (11.42 – 8) (2830 – 376.92)
= 8389.53 kW
24. A mixed pressure turbine has high pressure steam entering at 12 bar, 300°C, low pressure
steam entering at 2 bar, dry and saturated and exhausts steam at 0.075 bar Turbine delivers 720 kW and
mechanical efficiency is 90%. The efficiency of HP and LP turbine stages is 80% each. Determine the
steam consumption rate in kg/kW.h at inlet of both HP and LP modes.
324 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution: The expansion processes are shown on h-s diagram.
from steam table, for HP steam, 12 bar
h1 = hat 12 bar,300°C = 3045.8 kJ/kg
300°C
1
s1 = 7.0317 kJ/kg.K., s4 = s1 2 bar
⇒ x4 = 0.841 h
( h2 − h3′ )
Considering LP efficiency, 0.8 =
(h2 − h3 )
(2706.7 − h3′ )
0.8 =
(2706.7 − 2223.51)
h3′ = 2320.15 kJ/kg
For given turbine output of 720 kW and mechanical efficiency of 90% the power developed in
720
turbine = = 800 kW
0.9
Let the steam consumption rate (in kg/s) of HP and LP steam be mHP & mLP and power produced
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 325
(in kW) be PHP and PLP.
P HP = mHP × (h1 – h4′)
mHP 3600
HP steam consumption, kg/kWh = = = 5.27 kg/kWh
PHP (h1 − h4′ )
mLP 3600
LP steam consumption, kg/kWh = = = 9.31 kg/kWh.
PLP ( h2 − h3′ )
25. Determine the power output from a mixed pressure turbine fed with 2 kg/s of HP steam at 16
bar, 300°C and 1.5 kg/s of LP steam at 2 bar dry saturated. The expansion efficiency is 90% for both
and the exhaust pressure is 0.075 bar. Consider that low pressure steam is admitted through a throttle
value and there is no throttling of high pressure steam. This mixed pressure turbine develops 3 MW
power full output when dry and saturated steam at 2 bar is supplied and leaves at 0.075 bar. Neglect the
throttling losses.
Solution:
Let us assume that pressure after mixing of high pressure and low pressure streams is p2 bar.
16 bar
300°C
2 bar
P2
2
2'
0.075 bar
3 4
3'
h
5 5'
s
Fig. 8.58
2 bar
in
0.075 bar
out'
out
Fig. 8.59
Vapour Power Cycles ___________________________________________________________ 327
Mixed pressure turbine is being fed with HP steam too along with LP steam. This is normally done
when power available cannot be met by LP steam. During this mixed pressure operation it is quite
possible that pressure of steam at exit of HP turbine may not be same as LP steam pressure of 2 bar and
let us assume that the steam pressure at exit from HP steam be p2. In this case LP steam has to be
throttled up to pressure p2 while maintaining speed constant. Thus, for throttle governing considerations.
p2 2 × 102
=
( mHP + mLP ) ms
2 × 102 × (2 + 1.5)
p2 = = 1.017 × 102 kPa
6.88
For state after mixing;
h4 − h5′
Considering expansion efficiency, 0.9 =
h4 − h5
-:-4+15-
9
Gas Power Cycles
9.1 INTRODUCTION
In the preceding chapter brief description is made for thermodynamic cycles comprising of both power
and refrigeration cycles. In the present chapter the thermodynamic cycles operating on gas as working
fluid and producing power are studied. Gas power cycles are commonly used for power production as
in gas turbine plants, internal combustion engines and other applications. Here performance prediction
based on thermodynamic analysis is presented for ideal cycles of different types used for gas turbine
installations and internal combustion engines.
heat rejected
ηair = 1 −
heat supplied
Mean effective pressure (m.e.p.) is the parameter which indicates the average pressure throughout
the cycle. Mathematically, it is given as follows:
work done per cycle
m.e.p. =
stroke volume
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 331
Graphically it is given by mean height of P – V diagram.
Air standard cycle analysis for Carnot gas power cycle has already been discussed in chapter 4.
Otto Cycle : This is a modified form of Carnot cycle in order to make it a realistic cycle. Otto cycle
has two constant volume and two adiabatic processes as shown below.
3
3
Qadd
p Wexpn. 4
2 T
2
Wcompr. 4
Qreject
1
1
V S
Fig 9.1 p-V and T-S representations of Otto cycle
Thermodynamic processes constituting Otto cycle are
1 – 2 = Adiabatic compression process, (–ve work, Wcompr)
2 – 3 = Constant volume heat addition process (+ve heat, Qadd)
3 – 4 = Adiabatic expansion process, (+ve work, Wexpan)
4 – 1 = Constant volume heat rejection process (–ve heat, Qreject)
In order to have an engine based on Otto cycle let us find out the relevance of above processes.
Spark ignition type internal combustion engines are based on this cycle.
Process 1 – 2, adiabatic compression process can be realized by piston moving from volume V1 to
V2 and therefore compressing air.
Process 2 – 3, heat addition process can be undertaken in constant volume manner with piston at
volume V2 and heat added to woking fluid.
Heat addition is practically realized by combustion of fuel and air. As a result of heat addition the
compressed air attains state 3 and it is allowed to expand from 3–4 adiabatically. After expansion air is
brought back to original state 1 by extracting heat from it at volume V1.
Internal combustion engine based on Otto cycle is explained ahead. Let us find air-standard thermal
efficiency of Otto cycle.
Compression ratio for the cycle shown can be given by the ratio of volumes of air before and after
compression. It is generally denoted by r. For unit mass of air and properties at states given with
subscript 1, 2, 3, 4, we can write,
V1 V4
r= V =V
2 3
Heat added during 2–3, constant volume process
qadd = cv × (T3 – T2)
Heat rejected during 4–1, constant volume process
qrejected = cv × (T4 – T1)
Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle
Net work
ηotto =
Heat added
For a cycle,
332 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Net work = Heat added – Heat rejected
= cv {(T3 – T2) – (T4 – T1)}
Substituting in the expression for efficiency;
cv {(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )}
ηotto = cv (T3 − T2 )
(T4 − T1 )
or ηotto = 1– (T − T )
3 2
For perfect gas, by gas laws,
γ −1
T2 V1
T1 = = r γ–1
V2
γ −1
T3 V4
and T4 = = rγ–1
V3
T2 T3 T2 T1
from above T1 = T4 ⇒ T3 = T4
T2 T1
or 1– =1–
T3 T4
T3 − T2 T3
or = γ–1
T4 − T1 T4 = r
Substituting in the expression for ηotto
1
ηotto =1 – γ −1
r
Air standard efficiency of Otto cycle thus depends upon compression ratio (r) alone.
For r = 1, ηotto = 0
As compression ratio increases, the Otto cycle efficiency increases as shown in Fig. 9.2.
100
γ = 1.67 (Theoretical monotomic gas)
80
γ = 1.40 (Air standard)
60
γ = 1.20
η%
40
20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
Compression ratio
Fig. 9.2 Otto cycle efficiency vs. compression ratio
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 333
Mean effective pressure for Otto cycle can be estimated by knowing the area of diagram (work)
and length of diagram (volume).
Mean effective pressure (m.e.p.)
Net Work (W)
=
Volume change ( ∆V)
Net work can be obtained from the area enclosed by cycle on P–V diagram.
Thus, Net work = Area of diagram
p3 V3 − p4 V4 p2 V2 − p1 V1
= −
(γ − 1) (γ − 1)
1 p3 V3 p2 V2
or = (γ − 1) p4 V4 p V − 1 − p1 V1 p V − 1
4 4 1 1
If V 2 = V3 1, i.e. unity clearance volume,
Then V 1 = r and V4 = r
Therefore, Net work
1 p p
r 3 − 1 − p1· r 2 − 1
= (γ − 1) p4
p4 · r p1 · r
Also, for adiabatic expansion and compression process;
p2 p3
= γ
p1 p4 = (r)
Substituting in expression for Net work,
1
Net work = γ – 1 –1) – p · r (rγ – 1 – 1)}
(γ − 1) {p4 · r · (r 1
r
or = γ – 1 –1) · (p – p )
(γ − 1) (r 4 1
Writing expression for m.e.p. as ratio of area of diagram and length of diagram (V1 – V2).
r ( rγ −1 − 1)·( p4 − p1 )
(m.e.p.)Otto =
(V1 − V2 )·(γ − 1)
r (r γ−1 − 1)·( p4 − p1 )
or =
( r − 1) ( γ − 1)
p4
Let us write ratio p1 = α,
Therefore
r (r γ−1 − 1)· p1 ·(α − 1)
(m.e.p.)Otto =
(r − 1)·( γ − 1)
334 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Otto cycle has limitations such as isochoric heat addition and rejection is difficult in piston cylinder
arrangement. Also, adiabatic compression and expansions are difficult to be realized in practice.
Diesel cycle : Diesel cycle is modified form of Otto cycle. Here heat addition process is replaced
from constant volume type to constant pressure type. In a piston cylinder arrangement heat addition
with piston at one position allows very little time for heat supply in Otto cycle. By having heat addition
at constant pressure the sufficient time is available for heat supply in Diesel cycle. Compression ignition
engines work based on Diesel cycles.
Thermodynamic processes constituting Diesel cycle are as given below.
1 – 2 = Adiabatic compression, (–ve work, Wcompr)
2 – 3 = Heat addition at constant pressure (+ve heat, Qadd)
3 – 4 = Adiabatic expansion, (+ve work, Wexpn)
4 – 1 = Heat rejection at constant volume (–ve heat, Qrejected)
Constant
pressure line
Qadd 3
2 3
2
p Wexpn. Constant
T 4
volume line
4
Wcompr.
Qrejected 1
1
V S
1 (T4 − T1 )
ηdiesel = 1 – γ
(T3 − T2 )
Using perfect gas equation and governing equation for thermodynamic process 1 –2;
p1 V1 p2 V2
T1 = T2
ρ γ −1
T 4 = T1 · ρ · rγ–1 × γ −1
r
T 4 = T1 · ργ
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 337
or
4
Qadd,p 3
3 4
Qadd,v Wexpn. 5
p
2
T
2
5
Wcompr. Qrejected
1
1
V S
V4
Cut-off ratio, ρ =
V3
p3
Pressure ratio during heat addition, α =
p2
For unit mass of air as working fluid throughout the cycle.
Total Heat added = Heat added at constant volume (2 –3) + Heat added at constant pressure (3 – 4)
Qadd = cv (T3 – T2) + cp (T4 – T3)
Heat rejected, Qrejected = cv (T5 – T1)
Air standard efficiency for Dual cycle can be given as;
338 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
c v (T5 − T1 )
=1–
c v (T3 − T2 ) + c p (T4 − T3 )
(T5 − T1 )
or =1–
(T3 − T2 ) + γ (T4 − T3 )
From gas laws applied to process 2–3,
p3 p2
=
T3 T2
p2
or T2 = T3 × p
3
T3
T2 =
α
For process 3–4,
V4 V3
=
T4 T3
V4
or T4 = T3 ×
V3
T4 = ρ · T3
For adiabatic process 4–5
γ −1
T4 V5
=
T5 V4
T4
or T5 = γ −1
V5
V4
T4 ·ρ γ −1
T5 =
r γ −1
Substituting T4
T3 ·ρ γ
or T5 =
r γ −1
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 339
For adiabatic process 1–2
γ −1
T2 V1
T1 =
V2
T2
or T1 =
r γ −1
Substituting for T2
T3
T1 =
α ·r γ −1
Substituting for T1, T2, T4, T5 in expression for efficiency.
1 α ·ρ γ − 1
ηdual = 1 −
γ −1
r (α − 1) + α ·γ ( ρ − 1)
For unity cut off ratio i.e. absence of 3 – 4 process, cycle becomes equal to Otto cycle.
1
i.e. for ρ = 1, ηdual = 1 – = ηotto
γ −1
r
For the pressure ratio α being unity, cycle gets modified to Diesel cycle.
1 ργ −1
i.e. for α = 1, ηdual = 1 – = ηdiesel
γ · r γ −1 ( ρ − 1)
Mean effective pressure of dual cycle can be obtained as follows:
Net work = Area enclosed in P – V diagram
p4 V4 − p5 V5 p2 V2 − p1 V1
= p3 (V4 – V3) + −
γ −1 γ −1
p3 ρ − p5 ·r − p2 + p1 ·r
or = p3(ρ – 1) + (γ − 1)
Making suitable substitutions for p1, p2 and p5, it gets modified as
p3 α ·γ ( ρ − 1) + (α − 1) − r1−γ ·(α ·ρ γ − 1)
Net work =
α (γ − 1)
Substituting for mean effective pressure
Area of diagram
(m.e.p.) dual =
Length of diagram
p3 α ·γ ( ρ − 1) + (α − 1) − r1−γ ·(α · ρ γ − 1)
1
= × α (γ − 1)
( r − 1)
Substituting p3 as function of p1
or
p1·r γ α ·γ ( ρ − 1) + (α − 1) − r1−γ ·(α · ρ γ − 1)
(m.e.p.) dual =
(γ − 1)(r − 1)
340 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
9.3 BRAYTON CYCLE
Brayton cycle, popularly used for gas turbine power plants comprises of adiabatic compression process,
constant pressure heat addition, adiabatic expansion process and constant pressure heat release process.
A schematic diagram for air-standard Brayton cycle is shown in Fig. 9.6. Simple gas turbine power plant
working on Brayton cycle is also shown here.
3
2 3
6
4
T 2
p
5 1
1 4
V 7 S 8
F Qadd
HE1
C.C WC WT
WC WT
2 3 2 3
G G
C C
1 4 1 4
HE2
Qrejected
C : Compressor F : Fuel
CC : Combustion chamber G : Generator
HC : Heat exchanger
(a) Open type (b) Closed type
Fig. 9.7 Simple gas turbine plant
Thermodynamic cycle shows following processes:
1-2 : Adiabatic compression, involving (–ve) work, WC in compressor.
2-3 : Constant pressure heat addition, involving heat Qadd in combustion chamber or heat exchanger.
3-4 : Adiabatic expansion, involving (+ve) work, WT in turbine.
4-1 : Constant pressure heat rejection, involving heat, Qrejected in atmosphere or heat exchanger.
In the gas turbine plant layout shown process 1–2 (adiabatic compression) is seen to occur in
compressor, heat addition process 2–3 occurs in combustion chamber having open type arrangement
and in heat exchanger in closed type arrangement. Process 3–4 of adiabatic expansion occurs in turbine.
In open type arrangement exhaust from turbine is discharged to atmosphere while in closed type, heat
rejection occurs in heat exchanger. In gas turbine plant of open type, air entering compressor gets
compressed and subsequently brought up to elevated temperature in combustion chamber where fuel is
added to high pressure air and combustion occurs. High pressure and high temperature combustion
products are sent for expansion in turbine where its’ expansion yields positive work. Expanded combustion
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 341
products are subsequently discharged to atmosphere. Negative work required for compression is drawn
from the positive work available from turbine and residual positive work is available as shaft work for
driving generator.
In gas turbine plant of closed type the working fluid is recycled and performs different processes
without getting contaminated. Working fluid is compressed in compressor and subsequently heated up
in heat exchanger through indirect heating. High pressure and high temperature working fluid is sent for
getting positive work from turbine and the expanded working fluid leaving turbine is passed through
heat exchanger where heat is picked up from working fluid. Thus, the arrangement shows that even
costly working fluids can also be used in closed type as it remains uncontaminated and is being recycled.
Air standard analysis of Brayton cycle gives work for compression and expansion as;
WC = m1 · (h2 – h1)
WT = m3 · (h3 – h4)
for air standard analysis, m1 = m3, where as in actual cycle
m3 = m1 + mf , in open type gas turbine
m3 = m1, in closed type gas turbine
For the fuel having calorific value CV the heat added in air standard cycle;
Qadd = m1(h3 – h2), whereas Qadd = mf × CV for actual cycle.
Net work = WT – WC
Wnet = {m3 (h3 – h4) – m1(h2 – h1)}
Wnet
Air standard cycle efficiency =
Qadd
m1{( h3 − h4 ) − (h2 − h1 )}
=
m1 ( h3 − h2 )
( h4 − h1 )
ηBrayton = 1 −
( h3 − h2 )
(T4 − T1 )
ηBrayton = 1 − (T − T ) as, (h4 – h1) = cp (T4 – T1)
3 2
and (h3 – h2) = cp (T3 – T2)
For processes 1–2 and 3–4, which are of isentropic type,
(γ −1) (γ −1)
T2 p2 γ T3 p γ
T1 = p and T = 2
1 4 p1
p2
Let the pressure ratio be,
p1 = r,
(γ −1) (γ −1)
T2 T3 γ
= (r ) γ and = (r )
T1 T4
T2 T3
so, =
T1 T4
342 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
T4 T3
T1 = T2
T4 − T1 T3 − T2
=
T1 T2
γ −1
(T4 − T1 ) T1 p1 γ
(T3 − T2 ) = T2 = p
2
(T4 − T1 )
Making substitution for in cycle efficiency:
(T3 − T2 )
γ −1
T1 p
γ
1
ηBrayton = 1 − = 1 – 1 =1– γ −1
T2 p2 γ
r
1
Air standard Brayton cycle efficiency: ηBrayton = 1 − γ −1
γ
r
Thus, it is obvious from the expression of efficiency that it depends only on pressure ratio (r) and
nature of gas (γ). For pressure ratio of unity, efficiency shall be zero. For a particular gas the cycle
efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio. Here the variation of efficiency with pressure ratio is
shown for air (γ = 1.4) and monoatomic gas as argon (γ = 1.66).
100
80
Efficiency, η%
γ = 1.66
60
γ = 1.4
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Pressure ratio, r
Fig. 9.8 Efficiency vs. pressure ratio in simple cycle
Specific work output for the plant can be given as below:
w = {(h3 –h4) – (h2 –h1)}, as m1 = 1
w = cp {(T3 – T4) – (T2 –T1)}
w T3 T4 T2
or, = − − − 1
c p T1 T1 T1 T1
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 343
T3 T4 ·T1 T2
= T 1 − T ·T − T − 1
1 3 1 1
In the cycle, states 3 and 1 refer to the states having highest temperature and pressure and lowest
temperature and pressure states. T3 is also referred as turbine inlet temperature while T1 is ambient
T3 T3
temperature in case of open type arrangement. Let the ratio be given by some constant ‘t’ i.e. = t.
T1 T1
Therefore, upon making substitutions,
w T4 T2
= t ·1 − − − 1
c p T1 T3 T1
γ −1
T4 1 T2 γ
as, r
T3 = γ −1 and
T1 =
γ
r
γ −1
w 1 γ
= t · 1 − γ −1 − r − 1
c pT1
γ
r
w
Here is a non-dimensional form of specific work output.
c pT1
In general for a given arrangement T1 being ambient temperature remains fixed (mostly atmospheric
temperature). So specific work output may be said to depend upon ‘t’ (temperature ratio) and pressure
w
ratio ‘r’. Specific work output shall be zero for unity pressure ratio value i.e. for r = 1, = 0.
c p T1
For certain value of temperature ratio specific work output shall increase with increasing pressure
ratio value. Graphical pattern showing variation of specific work output with pressure ratio is shown
below for certain values of ‘t’.
t=5
1.6
Specific work output W/cp T1
1.4
1.2
4
1.0
0.8
3
0.6
0.4
0.2 2
00 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Pressure ratio, r
Fig. 9.9 Specific work output vs. pressure ratio for simple cycle
344 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
The temperature ratio ‘t’ is generally used as design parameter. Higher is the ‘t’ value higher shall be
specific work output. Maximum value of ‘t’ depends upon the maximum temperature which the highly
stressed parts of turbine can withstand for the required working life (also called metallurgical limit).
In the modern gas turbine value of ‘t’ ranges from 3.5 to 6. Further higher values of turbine inlet
temperature and thus ‘t’ value can be realized with improved gas turbine blade cooling.
Specific work output vs. pressure ratio variation shows that there exist some optimum pressure
ratio value at which specific work output is maximum at given ‘t’ value. Let us differentiate expression
γ −1
for specific work output with respect to
γ .
r
γ −1
γ
Let r = a, t = constant
γ −1
1 γ
w = cp T1 t · 1 − γ −1 − r −1
r γ
1
w = cp T1 t ·1 − − (a − 1)
a
dw 1
= cp T1 t · 2 − 1
da a
dw t
Equating = 0, so 2 –1 = 0
da a
t = a2
a= t , or r = t γ / 2(γ −1)
γ −1
γ −1 γ −1
γ γ γ
Thus, r = t or, r ⋅r =t
γ −1
Substituting for γ and t;
r
T2 T3 T3
× =
T1 T4 T1
or, T2 = T4
Thus, the specific work output is seen to be maximum for a given ‘t’ value when the pressure ratio
is such that temperature at compressor outlet and turbine outlet are equal.
For all values of pressure ratio ‘r’ lying between 1 and t γ/2(γ–1) temperature T4 is greater than T2. In
order to reduce heat transfer from external source for improving efficiency a heat exchanger can be
incorporated. This concept of using heat exchanger gives birth to modified form of simple gas turbine
cycle with heat exchange. This modified form of cycle is also called regenerative gas turbine cycle.
Simple gas turbine cycles with modifications of reheat and intercooling are also used for improved
performance.
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 345
9.4 REGENERATIVE GAS TURBINE CYCLE
In earlier discussions it is seen that for the maximization of specific work output the gas turbine exhaust
temperature should be equal to compressor exhaust temperature. The turbine exhaust temperature is
normally much above the ambient temperature. Thus, their exist potential for tapping the heat energy
getting lost to surroundings with exhaust gases. Here it is devised to use this potential by means of a heat
exchanger called regenerator, which shall preheat the air leaving compressor before entering the
combustion chamber, thereby reducing the amount of fuel to be burnt inside combustion chamber
(combustor).
Regenerative air standard gas turbine cycle shown ahead in Fig. 9.10 has a regenerator (counter
flow heat exchanger) through which the hot turbine exhaust gas and comparatively cooler air coming
from compressor flow in opposite directions. Under ideal conditions, no frictional pressure drop occurs
in either fluid stream while turbine exhaust gas gets cooled from 4 to 4' while compressed air is heated
from 2 to 2'. Assuming regenerator effectiveness as 100% the temperature rise from 2–2' and drop from
4 to 4' is shown on T-S diagram.
3
4'
Regenerator
Fuel 4 T
2' 2'
2 2 Heat exchange 4
CC 4'
3
C T 1
G S
1
Fig. 9.10 Regenerative air standard gas turbine cycle.
h2 ' − h2
Regenerator effectiveness, ε =
h4 − h2 , where ‘h’ refers to specific enthalpy values.
Thus, thermodynamically the amount of heat now added shall be
Qadd, regen = m(h3 – h2')
where as without regenerator the heat added; Qadd = m(h3 – h2)
Here it is obvious that, Qadd, regen < Qadd.
This shows an obvious improvement in cycle thermal efficiency as every thing else remains same.
Net work produced per unit mass flow is not altered by the use of regenerator.
( h3 − h4 ) − ( h2 − h1 )
Air standard cycle thermal efficiency, ηregen =
( h3 − h2′ )
c p ·(T3 − T4 ) − c p (T2 − T1 )
ηregen =
c p (T3 − T2′ )
Thus, regenerative gas turbine cycle efficiency approaches to Carnot cycle efficiency at r = 1
which is because in this limiting situation the Carnot cycle requirement of total heat addition and rejection
at maximum and minimum cycle temperature is satisfied. Variation of efficiency with cycle pressure
ratio for regenerative cycle is shown in Fig. 9.11 for fixed ‘t’ values.
346 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Cycle efficiency is seen to decrease with increasing pressure ratio till pressure ratio becomes equal
γ −1
2γ
to r = t . In earlier discussions it has been shown that at this pressure ratio value the specific work
output becomes maximum. Same specific work output variation is true for this case too. For further
higher values of pressure ratio the heat exchanger shall cool the air leaving compressor and lower the
cycle efficiency than simple cycle efficiency.
This is because of which the constant ‘t’ lines are not extended beyond the point where they meet
efficiency curve for simple cycle.
100
80
Efficiency, η%
t=5
60 4
3
2
40
20
0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Pressure ratio, r
Fig. 9.11 Efficiency vs. pressure ratio for regenerative gas turbine cycle.
Thus, it can be concluded that for getting improvement in efficiency by incorporating regenerator
the pressure ratio ‘r’ appreciably less than the optimum one for maximum specific work output should
be used. Also maximum turbine inlet temperature should be used.
For ideal heat exchange in regenerator with 100% effectiveness,
Upon substitution it yields T2' = T4
(T3 − T4 ) − (T2 − T1 )
ηregen = (T3 − T4 )
(T2 − T1 )
ηregen = 1 – (T − T )
3 4
From thermodynamic processes
γ −1
T2 T3
γ
= = r
T1 T4
T2 − T1 T1
or, =
T3 − T4 T4
T2 − T1 T1 T3
or, = ×
T3 − T4 T3 T4
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 347
Also we know
T3
= t;
T1
γ −1
T2 − T1 r γ
or,
T3 − T4 = t
Substituting in expression for efficiency,
γ −1
γ
r
ηregen = 1 –
t
Thus, the expression for regenerative cycle efficiency shows that efficiency of regenerative gas
turbine cycle depends upon maximum temperature (T3) in cycle and efficiency increases with increasing
‘t’ value or turbine inlet temperature (T3) at constant cycle pressure ratio. Also the efficiency decreases
with increasing pressure ratio for fixed ‘t’ value, contrary to the behaviour of efficiency shown in case
of simple gas turbine cycle where efficiency increases with increasing pressure ratio.
1 T1 Tmin
At r = 1, ηregen = 1 – =1– T =1– T
t 3 max
i.e. ηregen = ηCarnot at r = 1
Reheating
f f
3
5
2 CC 4 RCC
3 5
4
C G T 6
HPT LPT 2
4'
1 6
1
S
2T3 T4 T6 T2
Wnet, reheat = m cp T1 T − T − T − T − 1
1 1 1 1
γ
T3 T γ −1
Here = t; pressure ratio, r = 2
T1
T1
Let pressure ratio for HP turbine be r1 and for LP turbine be r2 then;
r = r1 × r2
γ γ
T3 γ −1 T5 γ −1 r
r1 = , r2 = = ;
r1
T4 T6
γ −1
T5 r γ
T3
or, = =
T6 r1 T6
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 349
γ −1
Wnet, reheat T4 T3 T6 T3 γ
= 2t − · − × − r − 1
mc p T1 T3 T1 T3 T1
Wnet, reheat
=w
Let mc p T1
γ −1 γ −1
r γ
− 1 × t − r γ − 1
t
then w = 2t −
γ −
r
1
( r1 ) γ
dw
1− γ t γ − 1 t 1
0− × − × −0
dr1 = γ 2γ −1 γ r11/ γ γ −1
r1 γ
γ
r
dw 1 1 γ −1 γ −1
Equating to zero, 2γ −1/ γ = γ −1 ⇒
γ
= r 2 γ
dr1 r1 r 1
γ 1/ γ
r ·r1
or, r1 = r = r2
Thus, expansion pressure ratio for high pressure turbine and low pressure turbine should be same
for maximum work output from the cycle. With such optimum division the expression for work output
and efficiency can be given as,
t γ −1
w = 2t − − r γ − 1
t
− γ −1
γ −1
( r ) 2γ ( r )
2γ
γ −1
Let, r γ = c then,
Wnet, reheat 2t
= 2t − − (c − 1)
mc p T1
c
Wnet, reheat 2t
= 2t − − c + 1
mc pT1 c
Efficiency for reheat cycle
Wnet, reheat
ηreheat =
m(h3 − h2 ) + m( h5 − h4 )
350 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Wnet, reheat
= mc {(T − T ) + (T − T )}
p 3 2 5 4
Wnet, reheat
ηreheat =
T T T T
mc pT1 3 − 2 + 5 − 4
T1 T1 T1 T1
Let us simplify denominator first,
T T T T
= m cp T1 3 − 2 + 5 − 4
T1 T1 T1 T1
T3
We know T5 = T3 and T = t
1
T T
= m cp T1 t − 2 + t − 4
T1 T1
γ −1 γ −1
T2 T
γ
Also = r , 3 = r 2γ
T1 T4
Substituting,
γ −1
γ + t − T4 × T3
= m cp T1 −
T3 T1
t r
γ −1
γ t
= m cp T1 2t − r −
γ −1
γ
r
2
t
Thus, Denominator = m cp T1 2t − c −
c
Substituting in expression for efficiency for optimum division of pressure ratio;
Wnet, reheat
ηreheat =
t
mc pT1 2t − c −
c
2t
2t − − c + 1
=
c
ηreheat
t
2t − c −
c
352 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
reducing compression work. It is based on the fact that for a fixed compression ratio higher is the inlet
temperature higher shall be compression work requirement and vice-a-versa. Schematic for intercooled
gas turbine cycle is given in Fig. 9.15.
Thermodynamic processes involved in multistage intercooled compression are shown in Figs. 9.16,
9.17. First stage compression occurs in low pressure compressor (LPC) and compressed air leaving
LPC at ‘2’ is sent to intercooler where temperature of compressed air is lowered down to state 3 at
constant pressure. In case of perfect intercooling the temperatures at 3 and 1 are same. Intercooler is a
kind of heat exchanger where heat is picked up from high temperature compressed air. The amount of
compression work saved due to intercooling is obvious from p-V diagram and shown by area 2342'.
Area 2342' gives the amount of work saved due to intercooling between compression.
Intercooler
Q fuel
6
4 CC
2 5
3
LPC HPC T
G
1
CC : Combustion chamber
LPC : Low pressure compressor
HPC : High pressure compressor
T: Turbine
G: Generator
Fig. 9.15 Gas turbine cycle with intercooling
4' 4 2'
1 – 4' = Isothermal process 5
1 – 2 = Adiabatic compression
3 – 4 = Adiabatic compression
2'
2
3 T 4
p 2
6
1 3 1
V S
Fig. 9.16 Intercooled compression Fig. 9.17 T-S diagram for gas turbine
cycle with intercooling
Some large compressors have several stages of compression with intercooling between stages. Use
of multistage compression with intercooling in a gas turbine power plant increases the net work produced
because of reduction in compressor work. Intercooled compression results in reduced temperature at
the end of final compression. T-S diagram for gas turbine cycle with intercooling shows that in the
absence of intercooling within same pressure limits the state at the end of compression would be 2'
while with perfect intercooling this state is at 4 i.e., T2' > T4. The reduced temperature at compressor
356 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3
3 c
p=
c p=
2 2s 2
4
4
T 4s
T c
c p=
p= 1
1
s s
(b )
(a )
Fig. 9.22 Effect of irreversibilities and losses in gas turbine cycle.
Isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor can be mathematically given as below:
h3 − h4
Isentropic efficiency of turbine, ηisen, t =
h3 − h4s
Actual expansion work
i.e. ηisen, t =
Ideal expansion work
h2 s − h1
Isentropic efficiency of compressor, ηisen, c =
h2 − h1
Ideal compressor work
i.e. ηisen, c =
Actual compressor work
Other factors causing the real cycle to be different from ideal cycle are as given below:
(i) Fluid velocities in turbomachines are very high and there exists substantial change in kinetic
energy between inlet and outlet of each component. In the analysis carried out earlier the
changes in kinetic energy have been neglected whereas for exact analysis it cannot be.
(ii) In case of regenerator the compressed air cannot be heated to the temperature of gas leaving
turbine as the terminal temperature difference shall always exist.
(iii) Compression process shall involve work more than theoretically estimated value in order to
overcome bearing and windage friction losses.
Different factors described above can be accounted for by stagnation properties, compressor and
turbine isentropic efficiency and polytropic efficiency.
Stagnation properties: Stagnation properties are properties corresponding to stagnation states.
Stagnation state of a fluid refers to the state at which fluid is adiabatically brought to the state of rest
without work transfer. By using stagnation properties for themodynamic analysis the effect of kinetic
energy variation is taken care and analysis becomes realistic. Let us write down the steady flow energy
equation considering no heat and work interactions between states 1 and state 0. Let state ‘2’ be the
stagnation state. Generally stagnation states are denoted by using subscript ‘0’.
At stagnation state velocity of fluid shall be zero.
c12 c2
h1 + = h0 + 0, or, h0 = h1 + 1
2 2
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 357
c2
or, h0 = h +
2
When the fluid is perfect gas, then
c2
c p T0 = c pT +
2
c2
T0 = T +
2c p
S
Fig. 9.23 Compression process representation
using static and stagnation states
358 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
9.11 COMPRESSOR AND TURBINE EFFICIENCY
Isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine as defined earlier can also be given in terms of stagnation
properties.
Wideal ∆h0 '
Isentropic compressor efficiency, ηisen, c = W = ∆h
actual 0
In terms of temperature values, assuming mean specific heat value over a range of temperature, the
efficiency can be given as,
T02 ' − T01
ηisen, c = T − T
02 01
Wactual
Isentropic turbine efficiency, ηisen, t = W
ideal
T03 − T04
ηisen, t = T − T
03 04 '
p03
p3
03
3
p04
p4
T
04
04'
4
4'
s
Fig. 9.24 Expansion process representation using static and stagnation states
Polytropic efficiency: In case of multistage compression and expansion the isentropic efficiency of
complete machine as defined earlier may vary with pressure ratio. Actually it is found that compressor
isentropic efficiency decreases with pressure ratio while turbine isentropic efficiency increases with
pressure ratio, therefore use of fixed typical values of these efficiencies is not proper.
Let us consider an axial flow compressor comprising of number of stages having equal stage
efficiency for all constituent stages as ηs.
Let isentropic temperature rise in a stage be ∆Ts' while actual temperature rise is ∆Ts. Let isentropic
temperature rise in whole compressor be ∆T' while actual temperature rise be ∆T.
∆T s '
For a stage, ηs =
∆Ts
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 359
2
2'
3
T T
4
1 4'
S S
Multi stage compression Multi stage expansion
Fig. 9.25
∆T '
Isentropic efficiency of compression, ηisen, c =
∆T
From stage efficiency expression,
∆Ts '
∑ ∆Ts = ∑
ηs
∑ ∆Ts '
or ∑ ∆Ts =
ηs
It is obvious that, ∑ ∆Ts = ∆T for multistage compressor
so,
∑ ∆Ts '
∆T =
ηs
Substituting from compressor isentropic efficiency in stage efficiency expression
∆T ' ∑ ∆Ts '
ηisen, c = ηs
∆T '
ηisen, c = η s
or ∑ ∆T '
s
From the nature of constant pressure lines on T-S diagram it could be concluded that constant
pressure lines are of diverging type.
Therefore, ∆T' < ∑ ∆Ts'
Hence, ηisen, c < ηs
With the increasing pressure ratio this difference between ∑ ∆Ts' and ∆T' goes on increasing and so
with increasing pressure ratio the ηisen, c goes on reducing despite constant stage efficiency. This
360 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
phenomenon may be attributed to the fact that the increase in temperature due to friction in a stage
results in more work requirement on next stage. This effect is also termed as the ‘preheat’ effect.
For multistage expansion in turbine: Let expansion in turbine be of multistage tpye with each stage
having equal stage efficiency of ηs and stage isentropic temperature drop as ∆T's and actual stage
temperature drop as ∆Ts. Let overall temperature drop in turbine be ∆T' for isentropic expansion and ∆T
for actual expansion while turbine isentropic efficiency is ηisen, t.
∆Ts
Stage efficiency of turbine, ηs =
∆Ts'
Cumulatively
∑ ∆Ts
∑ ∆Ts′ = ηs
It is obvious from Fig. 9.25 showing multistage expansion that,
∑ ∆Ts = ∆T
∆T
So, ∑ ∆Ts′ = η
s
∆T
or, ηs =
∑ ∆Ts′
∆T
Turbine isentropic efficiency, ηisen, t. =
∆T '
Combining two expressions for turbine isentropic efficiency and stage efficiency, it yields,
∑ ∆Ts′
ηisen, t = ηs ·
∆T ′
It may also be seen that due to diverging nature of constant pressure lines on T-S diagram,
∆T ′ < ∑ ∆Ts′ .
Therefore, ηisen, t > ηs
With increasing pressure ratio this difference between ∆T ′ and ∑ ∆Ts' goes on increasing and thus
with increasing pressure ratio ηisen, t goes on increasing despite constant stage efficiency.
This may be attributed to the fact that frictional reheating in one stage is partially recovered as work
in next stage. Graphical pattern showing behaviour of ηisen, c and ηisen, t is shown in Fig. 9.26.
95
Isentropic efficiency %
Turbine
90
85
Compressor
80
75
Pressure ratio r
Fig. 9.26 Isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine with pressure ratio
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 361
Thus, it is seen that isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor are not suitable parameters to
account for non-idealities in turbines and compressors. Hence the polytropic efficiency, also called
small-stage efficiency is used for turbines and compressors. “Polytropic efficiency is defined as the
isentropic efficiency of an elemental stage in the compression or expansion process such that it remains
constant throughout the whole process.” Polytropic efficiency for compressor and turbine may be
denoted as ηpoly, c and ηpoly, t. In an elemental stage let the isentropic temperature rise be dT' while actual
temperature rise is dT.
dT ´
For compressor, ηpoly, c =
dT
T
Isentropic compression processes shall follow; γ −1/ γ = constant
p
γ −1
Taking log of both sides, log T = log p + log (constant)
γ
Differentiating partially,
dT ´ γ − 1 dp
=
T γ p
Substituting dT' from polytropic efficiency expression,
dT γ − 1 dp
ηpoly, c=
T γ p
Integrating between states 1 and 2;
γ −1
T2 p
γ
ηpoly, c ln T = ln 2
1 p1
γ −1
p γ
ln 2
ηpoly, c = p1
T
ln 2
T1
γ −1
T2 p2 γ ·ηpoly,c
or
T1 = p
1
( n −1)
γ −1 n −1 T2 p2 n
Let us write =
then, =
γ ·ηpoly, c n T1 p1
Hence ‘n’ is new index of non isentropic compression process and may be called polytropic index.
Thus, polytropic efficiency of compressor yields modified index of compression to account for non-
isentropic compression.
362 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
n −1 γ −1
=
n γ · ηpoly, c
Similarly for polytropic efficiency of expansion in turbine. In elemental stage of turbine the isentropic
temperature rise dT´ and actual temperature rise dT occurs.
dT
ηpoly, t = dT ´
T
Expansion in elemental stage is governed by γ −1 = Constant
γ
p
Taking log and differentiating partially,
dT ′ γ − 1 dp
=
T γ p
Substituting from polytropic efficiency of turbine,
dT γ − 1 dp
=
ηpoly,t ·T γ p
dT (γ − 1) · ηpoly, t dp
= ·
T γ p
Integrating between states 3 and 4
ηpoly,t ·(γ −1)
T3 p γ
= 3
T4
p4
Here also the polytropic index for non-isentropic expansion process may be given as,
( n −1)
T3 p n
= 3
T4 p4
n − 1 ηpoly,t ·(γ − 1)
=
n γ
Thus, the polytropic efficiency may be assumed constant over a range of pressure ratio as it takes
care of variation of isentropic efficiency with pressure ratio.
T T
Tmax 3 4 Tmax 3 4
p=c
p=c
p=c
p=c
Tmin 2 Tmin 2
1 1
S S
Regenerator
Energy reservoir (Heat exchanger) Energy reservoir
at Tmin at Tmax
2 3
Wc C T WT
1
4
V4 p3
Heat added, Qadd = RTmax · ln = RTmax ·
V3 p4
364 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
V2 p2
Heat rejected, Qrejected = – RTmin · ln = RTmin · ln
V1 p1
Here,
p3 p2
p2 = p3 & p1 = p4, so =
p4 p1
Also, Wnet = Qadd – Qrejected
Qadd − Qrejected
Ericsson cycle efficiency, ηEricsson = Qadd
Substitution yields,
Tmax − Tmin
ηEricsson =
Tmax
Tmin
ηEricsson = 1 – T = ηCarnot
max
T
3 Tmax 3 4
T=c
P
4 V=c V=c
Tmax
2
Tmin 1
2
T=c
1 Tmin
V s
V
Heat added, Qadd = RTmax · ln 4
V3
V
Heat rejected, Qrejected = RTmin · ln 1
V2
V4 V1
Here, V 4 = V1 and V3 = V2 so, =
V3 V2 = r
V
RTmin ·ln 1
V2
=1–
V
RTmax ·ln 4
V3
Tmin
ηstirling = 1 – = ηCarnot
Tmax
In case of regenerator operating with effectiveness less than 100% the heat added and rejected in
processes 2-3 and 4-1 will not be same and some heat would be lost. Let us consider regenerator
effectiveness as ‘∈’.
V4
Heat added, Qadd = RTmax · ln + (1 – ∈) · Cv (Tmax − Tmin )
V3
V1
Heat rejected, Qrejected = RTmin · ln + (1 – ∈) · Cv (Tmax − Tmin )
V2
EXAMPLES
1. A four stroke SI engine has the compression ratio of 6 and swept volume of 0.15 m3. Pressure and
temperature at the beginning of compression are 98 kPa and 60ºC. Determine the pressure, volume and
temperatures at all salient points if heat supplied to it is 150 kJ/kg. Also find out entropy change, work
done, efficiency and mean effective pressure of cycle assuming cp = 1 kJ/kg · K, cv = 0.71 kJ/kg · K.
Also plot the cycle on T-S diagram.
366 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3
3
p 2 4
T 2
4
1
1
Swept volume V
S
Fig. 9.30
Solution:
SI engines operate on Otto cycle. Consider working fluid to be perfect gas.
cp
Here γ= = 1.4
cv
cp – cv = R = 0.29 kJ/kg · K.
Given: P1 = 98 kPa
T1 = 60 + 273.15 = 333.15 K
Q2-3 = 150 kJ/kg
V1 0.15 + V2
Compression ratio, r = = =6
V2 V2
Therefore, V2 = 0.03 m3
Total cylinder volume = 0.18 m3 = V1
From perfect gas law, PV = mRT
PV
1 1
m = RT = 0.183 kg.
1
From state 1 to 2 by PVγ = constant
γ
γ
V1
PV
1 1 = P2V2γ or P2 = P1 × = 1204.03 kPa
V2
PV
1 1 P2V2
Also =
T1 T2 yields, T2 = 682.18 K
From heat addition process 2 – 3
Q2-3 = mcv (T3 – T2)
150 = 0.183 × 0.71 (T3 – 682.18)
T3 = 1836.65 K
Also from
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 367
P3V3 P2V2
= , P3 = 3241.64 kPa
T3 T2
P3V3 PV
and from = 4 4 ; T4 = 896.95 K
T3 T4
Entropy change from 2-3 and 4-1 are same, and can be given as,
T4 896.95
S3 – S2 = S4 – S1 = mcv ln T = 0.183 × 0.71 × ln
1 333.15
Entropy change ∆S3-2 = ∆S4-1 = 0.1287 kJ/K.
Heat rejected, Q4-1 = mcv × (T4 –T1)
= 0.183 × 0.71 (896.95 –333.15)
Q4–1 = 73.25 kJ
Net Work = (Q2-3) – (Q4-1) = 150 – 73.25
Net Work = 76.75 kJ
Net work
Efficiency =
Heat added
76.75
= = 0.5117 or η = 51.17%
150
Work 76.75
Mean effective pressure = Volume change = = 511.67 kPa
0.15
1
2. In a Diesel engine during the compression process, pressure is seen to be 138 kPa at th of stroke and
8
7 1
1.38 MPa at th of stroke. The cut-off occurs at th of stroke. Calculate air standard efficiency and
8 15
compression ratio assuming indicated thermal efficiency to be half of ideal efficiency, mechanical
efficiency as 0.8, calorific value of fuel = 41800 kJ/kg and γ = 1.4. Also find fuel consumption bhp/hr.
Solution:
As given
7
VA = V2 + (V – V2)
8 1
1
V B = V2 + (V – V2)
8 1
368 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2 3
p
1.38 MPa B
4
A
138 kPa
1
Fig. 9.31
V1 − V2
As given; Cut off occurs at volume
15
V1 − V2
or V3 = + V2
15
V3
Cut off ratio, ρ = V = 2.22
2
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 369
1 ρ γ − 1
Air standard efficiency for Diesel cycle = 1 – γ −1
r ·γ ρ − 1
= 0.6325
ηair standard = 63.25%
Overall efficiency = air standard efficiency × 0.5 × 0.8
= 0.6325 × 0.5 × 0.8
= 0.253 or 25.3%
75 × 60 × 60
Fuel consumption, bhp/hr =
0.253 × 41800 × 102
= 0.255 kg
Compression ratio = 19.37
Air standard efficiency = 63.25%
Fuel consumption, bhp/hr = 0.255 kg Ans.
3. In an IC engine using air as working fluid, total 1700 kJ/kg of heat is added during combustion and
maximum pressure in cylinder does not exceed 5 MPa. Compare the efficiency of following two cycles
used by engine:
(a) cycle in which combustion takes place isochorically.
(b) cycle in which half of heat is added at constant volume and half at constant pressure.
Temperature and pressure at the beginning of compression are 100ºC and 103 kPa. Compression and
expansion processes are adiabatic. Specific heat at constant pressure and volume are 1.003 kJ/kg · K and
0.71 kJ/kg · K.
Solution:
1-2-3-4 = cycle (a) 3' 4' 3
1-2´-3´-4´-5 = cycle (b)
cp
Here = γ = 1.4 p 2'
cv
and R = 0.293 kJ/kg · K 4
5
Let us consider 1 kg of air for perfect gas, 2
PV = mRT 1
mRT1 V
or V1 =
p1 Fig. 9.32
1 × 0.293 × 373.15
=
103
V 1 = 1.06 m3
5000 × V3
at state 3, p3V3 = mRT3 or T3 = = 17064.8 V2
1 × 0.293
for cycle (a) and also for cycle (b)
T ′3 =17064.8 V′2
370 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(a) For Otto cycle
Q23 = cv(T3 –T2); given Q23 = 1700 kJ/kg
1700 = 0.71(T3 –T2)
or T3 –T2 = 2328.77, or T2 = T3 – 2328.77
From gas law
p2V2 p3V3
T2 = T3
p2 · V2 5000 × V2
(T3 − 2328.77) = T3 , {as V2 = V3}
p2 5000
or (T3 − 2328.77) = T3
Substituting T3 as function of V2
p2 5000
(17064.8V2 − 2328.77) = (17064.8V2 )
5000(17064.8V2 − 2328.77)
or p2 = (17064.8V2 )
P2 ' 5000
or (T3' − 1197.2) =
T3 '
Also we had seen earlier that T3′ = 17064.8 V2′
P2′ 5000
(17064.8V2′ − 1197.2) = (17064.8 V2′ )
350.78
or 103 × (1.06)1.4 = (V2′)1.4 · 5000 −
V2′
0.4
0.172
or T5 = 2929.5 ×
1.06
T5 = 1415.4 K
Heat rejected in process 5 – 1, Q5–1 = cv (T5 –T1)
= 0.71 (1415.4 – 373.15)
Q5–1 = 739.99 kJ
1700 − 739.99
Efficiency of mixed cycle = = 0.5647 or 56.47%
1700
ηOtto cycle = 50.83%; ηmixed cycle = 56.47% Ans.
4. In an air standard Brayton cycle the minimum and maximum temperature are 300 K and 1200 K,
respectively. The pressure ratio is that which maximizes the net work developed by the cycle per unit mass
of air flow. Calculate the compressor and turbine work, each in kJ/kg air, and thermal efficiency of the
cycle. [U.P.S.C. 1994]
Solution:
Maximum temperature, T3 = 1200 K
Minimum temperature, T1 = 300 K
Optimum pressure ratio for maximum work output,
γ
T 2(γ −1)
rp = max
Tmin
γ
T 2(γ −1)
rp = 3
T1
rp = 11.3
γ
p2 T2 P γ −1
= rp = 11.3, For process 1–2, = 2
p1 T1
T1
1.4 −1
T2 = 300 · (11.3 ) 1.4
T2 = 600.21 K
For process 3–4,
γ −1 γ −1
T3 P γ P γ
= 3 = 2 , ⇒ T4 = 599.79 K
T4 P4 P1
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 373
Heat supplied, Q23 = cp (T3 – T2) = 602.79 kJ/kg
3 P2 = P3
T 2 P1 = P4
4
Fig. 9.33
Compressor work, WC = cp ·(T2 – T1) = 1.005 × (600.21 – 300) = 301.71 kJ/kg
Turbine work WT = cp · (T3 – T4) = 1.005 (1200 – 599.79) = 603.21 kJ/kg
Net work WT − Wc 603.21 – 301.71
Thermal efficiency = Heat supplied = = = 0.5002
Q23 602.79
5. A gas turbine unit receives air at 1 bar, 300 K and compresses it adiabatically to 6.2 bar. The
compressor efficiency is 88%. The fuel has a heating value of 44186 kJ/kg and the fuel-air ratio is
0.017 kg fuel/kg of air. The turbine internal efficiency is 90%. Calculate the work of turbine and
compressor per kg of air compressed and thermal efficiency. For products of combustion cp = 1.147 kJ/
kg K, γ = 1.33. [U.P.S.C. 1992]
Solution:
Gas turbine cycle is shown by 1–2–3–4 on T-S diagram,
Given: 6.2 bar
3
P1 = 1 bar, P2 = P3 = 6.2 bar, F/A ratio = 0.017
T1 = 300 K, ηcompr. = 88%, ηturb = 90% T 1 bar
2 2'
Heating value of fuel = 44186 kJ/kg 4'
For process 1–2 being isentropic, 4
300 K
1
γ −1
T2 P2 γ S
T1 = P
1 Fig. 9.34
T2 = 505.26 K
T2 − T1 (505.26 − 300)
Considering compressor efficiency, ηcompr = , 0.88 =
T2' − T1 (T2' − 300)
Actual temperature after compression, T '2 = 533.25 K
During process 2–3 due to combustion of unit mass of air compressed the energy balance shall be as
under,
Heat added = mf × Heating value
374 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= ((ma + mf) · cp, comb · T3) – (ma · cp, air · T2′)
mf mf
or × 44186 = 1 + ·c p , comb ·T3 – (cp, air × 533.25)
ma ma
mf
Here, = 0.017, cp, comb = 1.147 kJ/kg · K, cp, air = 1.005 kJ/kg · K
ma
Upon substitution
(0.017 × 44186) = ((1 + 0.017) × 1.147 × T3) – (1.005 × 533.25)
T3 = 1103.37 K
For expansion 3–4 being
n −1
T4 P4 n
T3 = P3
0.33
1 1.33
T4 = 1103.37 ×
6.2
T4 = 701.64 K
Actual temperature at turbine inlet considering internal efficiency of turbine,
T3 − T4' (1103.37 − T4' )
ηturb = ; 0.90 = (1103.37 701.64)
T3 − T4 −
T4′ = 741.81 K
Compressor work, per kg of air compressed = cp, air · (T2′ – T1)
WC = 1.005 × (533.25 – 300)
WC = 234.42 kJ/kg or air
6. In a Brayton cycle gas turbine power plant the minimum and maximum temperature of the cycle are
300 K and 1200 K. The compression is carried out in two stages of equal pressure ratio with intercooling
376 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Compressor work, WC = WC1 + WC2
= cp (T2′ – T1) + cp(T4′ – T3)
= cp (T2′ – T1) + cp(T4′ – T1)
Using Isentropic efficiency of compressor,
T2 − T1 T4 − T3 T4 − T1
ηisen, c = =
T4 ′ − T3
=
T2' − T1 T4' − T1
Thus,
(T2 − T1 ) (T4 − T1 )
WC = cp · η + cp η
isen, c isen, c
c p 2γ
(γ −1) (γ −1)
= r ·T − T + r 2γ
·T − T
1
ηisen, c
p 1 1 p 1
(γ −1)
2c p · T1 rp 2γ − 1
WC =
ηisen, c
Turbine work, WT = cp · (T5 – T6′)
T5 − T6′
Using isentropic efficiency of turbine, ηisen, T = T − T
5 6
1 1
WT = cp · (T5 – T6) ηisen, T = cp · T5 · ηisen, T − γ −1
rp γ
Net work Wnet = WT – TC
γ −1
1 − 1 2c p ·T1 rp 2γ − 1
= cp · T5 · ηisen, T · γ −1 –
rp γ η
isen, c
d Wnet
Putting, =0
d rp
c p ·T1 ( −1−γ )
1− 2γ
cp · T5 · ηisen, T rp γ = η ·rp 2γ
isen, c
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 377
2γ
3(1−γ ) T1 T1 3(1−γ )
= T ·η ⇒ rp =
isen, c ηisen, T
rp 2γ
5
T5 · ηisen, c. ηisen, T
2γ
T1 3(1−γ )
rp, opt =
5 isen, c ηisen, T
T · η
Substituting known values,
2×1.4
300 3(1−1.4)
rp, opt = = 13.6
1200 × 0.85 × 0.90
7. An air compressor has eight stages of equal pressure 1.35. The flow rate through the compressor and
its’ overall efficiency are 50 kg/s and 82% respectively. If the air enters the compressor at a pressure of
1 bar and temperature of 313 K, determine;
(i) State of air at the exit of compressor
(ii) Polytropic or small stage efficiency
(iii) Efficiency of each stage
(iv) Power required to drive the compressor assuming overall efficiency as 90%.
[U.P.S.C. 1992]
Solution:
(i) Theoretically state of air at exit can be determined by the given stage pressure ratio of 1.35. Let
pressure at inlet to first stage be P1 and subsequent intermediate pressure be P2, P3, P4, P5, P6, P7, P8,
and exit pressure being P9.
Therefore,
P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9
= = = = = =
P1 = P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 = 1.35
P9
or = (1.35)8 = 11.03
P1
Theoretically, the temperature at exit of compressor can be predicted considering isentropic compression
of air (γ = 1.4)
γ −1
T9 P9 γ 0.4
T1 = = (11.03)1.4
P1
T9 = 621.9 K
Considering overall efficiency of compression 82% the actual temperature at compressor exit can be
obtained
T9 − T1
= 0.82
T9, actual − T1
378 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
T9, actual = 689.71 K
Let the actual index of compression be ‘n’, then
n−1
T9, actual P n
= 9
T 1 P1
689.71 n −1
= (11.03 ) n
313
n = 1.49
State of air at exit of compressor, Pressure = 11.03 bar
Temperature = 689.71 K Ans.
(ii) Let polytropic efficiency be ηpolytropic for compressor, then;
n −1 γ −1 1
= γ ×η
n polytropic
(1.49 − 1) 1.4 − 1 1
= × η
1.49 1.4 polytropic
(341.05 − 313)
=
(345.47 − 313) = 0.8638 or 86.38%
Actual temperature at exit of second stage,
n −1
T3, actual P n
T2, actual = 3
P2
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 379
T3, actual = 381.30 K
Ideal temperature at exit of second stage
γ −1
T3 P γ
T2, actual = 3
P2
T3 = 376.43 K
T3 − T2, actual 376.43 − 345.47
Stage efficiency for second stage, ηs,2 = T − =
3, actual T2, actual 381.3 − 345.47
ηs,2 = 0.8641 or 86.41%
Actual temperature at exit of third stage,
n −1
T4, actual P4 n
T3, actual = P
3
T4, actual = 420.85 K
Ideal temperature at exit of third stage,
γ −1
T4 P γ
= 4 , T4 = 415.47 K
T3, actual
P3
= 0.86396 or 86.40%
Stage efficiency = 86.4% Ans.
(iv) From steady flow energy equation,
9 9
WC = ∫ dw = ∫ dh, and dh = du + pdv + vdp
1 1
dh = dq + vdp
for dq = 0 in adiabatic process
dh = vdp
9
WC = ∫ vdp
1
Here for polytropic compression
Pv 1.49 = constant i.e. n = 1.49
n −1
n P9 n 1
WC = mRT1 −
n − 1 1
T
380 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1.49 −1
1.49 11.03 1.49 − 1
= × 50 × 0.287 × 313
0.49 1.0
WC = 16419.87 kJ/s
Wc
Due to overall efficiency being 90% the actual compressor work =
0.90
WC, actual = 18244.30 kJ/s
Power required to drive compressor = 18244.30 kJ/s Ans.
e
RT1 ln
η=1 – r
cv (T3 − T2 )
R
As, cv =
(γ − 1) , substituting in expression for efficiency,
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 381
e
(γ − 1)·T1 ln
η =1 – r
(T3 − T2 )
e e
(γ − 1) ln (γ − 1) ln
r r
η =1 – =1–
T3 T2 T3 T2
− −
1
T T 1 T4 T4
γ −1
T3 V4
For process 3–4, = = eγ–1
T4 V3
γ −1 γ −1
T2 V T2 V1
= 1 ⇒ = rγ–1
T4 V2
For process 1–2, =
T1 V2
Substituting in expression of η
e
(γ − 1) ln
η = 1 − γ −1 γ−1
r
Ans.
(e − r )
9. In a gas turbine installation air is supplied at 1 bar, 27ºC into compressor having compression ratio
of 8. The air leaving combustion chamber is heated upto 1100 K and expanded upto 1 bar. A heat
exchanger having effectiveness of 0.8 is fitted at exit of turbine for heating the air before its inlet into
combustion chamber. Assuming polytropic efficiency of the compressor and turbine as 0.85 and 0.90
determine cycle efficiency, work ratio and specific work output of plant. Take cp = 1.0032 kJ/kg ·K for
air.
Solution:
γ = 1.4, ηpoly, c = 0.85, ηpoly, T = 0.90
Using polytropic efficiency the index of compression and expansion can be obtained as under,
Let compression index be nc
nc − 1 γ −1
= γ · η
3
8 bar
nc poly, c
1 bar
ηc = 1.506
5
Let expansion index be nT. 2 4
T 2' 4'
nT − 1 ηpoly,T · (γ − 1) 6
=
nT γ
1
⇒ nT = 1.346 S
Fig. 9.37 T-S representation
For process 1–2
382 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
nc −1
T2 P2 nc
=
T1 P1
T2 1.506 −1
= (8 ) 1.506
300
T2 = 603.32 K HE = Heat exchanger
T3 = 1100 K C= Compressor
CC = Combustion chamber
nT −1
T= Turbine
T4 P4 nT
T3 = P
3
1.346 −1
T4 1 1.346
=
1100 8 2
3
T4 = 644.53 K
CC 4
Using heat exchanger effectiveness,
5
T5 − T2
ε = 0.8 = T − T Fig. 9.38 Layout of regenerative cycle
4 2
T5 − 603.32
0.8 = (644.53 603.32)
−
T5 = 636.28 K
Heat added in combustion chambers, qadd = cp (T3 – T5)
qadd = 1.0032 (1100 – 636.28)
qadd = 465.204 kJ/kg
Compressor work WC = cp (T2 – T1) = 1.0032 (603.32 – 300) = 304.29 kJ/kg
Turbine work, WT = cp (T3 – T4) = 1.0032 (1100 – 644.53) = 456.93 kJ/kg
WT − WC 456.93 − 304.29
Cycle efficiency = = = 0.3281 or 32.81%
qadd 465.204
WT − WC
Work ratio, = 0.334
WT
Specific work output = WT – WC = 152.64 kJ/kg
Cycle efficiency = 32.81%, Work ratio = 0.334, Ans.
Specific work output = 152.64 kJ/kg
10. A gas turbine plant has air being supplied at 1 bar, 27ºC to compressor for getting compressed upto
5 bar with isentropic efficiency of 85%. Compressed air is heated upto 1000 K in combustion chamber
where also occurs a pressure drop of 0.2 bar. Subsequently expansion occurs to 1 bar in turbine.
Determine isentropic efficiency of turbine, if thermal efficiency of plant is 20%.
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 383
Neglect the air property variation throughout cycle. Take γ = 1.4
Solution:
T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 bar, P2 = 5 bar, ηc = 0.85, T3 = 1000 K
For process 1–2'
γ −1
T2′ P2′ γ (1.4 −1)
⇒ T2′ = 300 (5 )
T1 = P
1.4
1
T2′ = 475.15 K
4.8 bar
T2′ − T1 3
ηc = 0.85 = T − T 1 bar
2 1
r
ba
T2 = 506.06 K
5
4
For process 3–4' 4'
γ −1 1.4−1 2
2'
T4' P γ 1 1.4 T
= 4 =
T3 P3 4.8
1
1.4−1
1 1.4 S
T4′ = 1000 ×
4.8 Fig. 9.39 T-S representation
T4′ = 638.79 K
Compressor work per kg WC = cp (T2 – T1) = 1.0032 × (506.06 – 300) = 206.72 kJ/kg
Turbine work per kg, WT = cp(T3 – T4) = 1.0032 × (1000 – T4), kJ/kg
Net output, Wnet = WT – WC = {206.72 – (1.0032 (1000 – T4))}, kJ/kg
Heat added, qadd = cp (T3 – T2) = 1.0032 (1000 – 506.06) = 495.52 kJ/kg
Wnet 206.71 − (1.0032 × (1000 − T4 ))
Thermal efficiency, η= q ⇒ 0.20 =
add 495.52
T4 = 892.73 K
T3 − T4 (1000 − 892.73)
Therefore, isentropic efficiency of turbine, ηT = =
T3 − T4' (1000 − 638.79)
ηT = 0.2969 or 29.69%
Turbine isentropic efficiency = 29.69% Ans.
11. A gas turbine plant has air supplied at 1 bar, 27ºC for being compressed through pressure ratio of 10.
Compression of air is achieved in two stages with perfect intercooling in between at optimum pressure.
The maximum temperature in cycle is 1000 K and compressed air at this temperature is sent for expansion
in two stages of gas turbine. First stage expansion occurs upto 3 bar and is subsequently reheated upto
995 K before being sent to second stage. Fuel used for heating in combustion chamber has calorific
value of 42,000 kJ/kg. Considering cp = 1.0032 kJ/kg. K throughout cycle determine, net output,
thermal efficiency and air fuel ratio when air flows into compressor at 30 kg/s. Take isentropic efficiency
of compression and expansion to be 85% and 90% respectively.
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 385
⇒ T6 = 738.04 K
T7 = 995 K
For expansion in 7–8',
γ −1
T8' P γ
= 8
T7 P7
1.4−1
1 1.4
⇒ T8' = 995 = 726.95 K
3
T7 − T8
Considering expansion efficiency, 0.90 = ⇒ T8 = 753.75 K
T7 − T8′
Expansion work output per kg air = cp (T5 –T6) + cp (T7 – T8)
WT = 1.0032 {(1000 – 738.04) + (995 – 753.75)}
WT = 514.85 kJ/kg
Heat added per kg air = cp(T5 – T4) + cp(T7 – T6)
qadd = 1.0032 {(1000 – 437.36) + (995 – 738.04)}
qadd = 822.22 kJ/kg
822.22
Fuel required per kg of air, mf = = 0.01958
42000
1
Air-fuel ratio = = 51.07
0.01958
Net output = WT – WC = 239.26 kJ/kg
Output for air flowing at 30 kg/s, = 239.26 × 30 = 7177.8 kW
WT − WC 239.26
Thermal efficiency = = = 0.2909 or 29.09%
qadd 822.22
Thermal efficiency = 29.09%, Net output = 7177.8 kW, A/F ratio = 51.07 Ans.
12. A regenerative-reheat cycle has air entering at 1 bar, 300 K into compressor having intercooling in
between the two stages of compression. Air leaving first stage of compression is cooled upto 290 K at 4
bar pressure in intercooler and subsequently compressed upto 8 bar. Compressed air leaving second stage
compressor is passed through a regenerator having effectiveness of 0.80. Subsequent combustion chamber
yields 1300 K at inlet to turbine having expansion upto 4 bar and then reheated upto 1300 K before
being expanded upto 1 bar. Exhaust from turbine is passed through regenerator before discharged out of
cycle. For the fuel having heating value of 42000 kJ/kg determine fuel-air ratio in each combustion
chamber, total turbine work and thermal efficiency. Consider compression and expansion to be isentropic
and air as working fluid throughout the cycle.
Solution:
T1 = 300 K, P1 = 1 bar, P2 = P3 = 4 bar, T3 = 290 K, T6 = 1300 K,
P6 = P4 = 8 bar, T8 = 1300 K, P8 = 4 bar
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 387
WT = 660.85 kJ/kg
Heat added per kg air, qadd = cp (T6 – T5) + cp (T8 – T7)
qadd = 765.45 kJ/kg
765.45
Total fuel required per kg of air = = 0.0182
42000
Net work Wnet = WT – WC = 450.88 kJ/kg
Wnet 450.88
Cycle thermal efficiency, η= q = = 0.5890 or 58.9%
add 765.45
c p (T6 − T5 )
Fuel required per kg air in combustion chamber 1, = = 0.0126
42000
c p (T8 − T7 )
Fuel required per kg air in combustion chamber 2, = = 0.0056
42000
13. A Stirling engine operates between temperature limits of 700 K and 300 K with compression ratio of
3. During heat addition process total 30 kJ/s heat is added. The regenerator efficiency is 90% and the
pressure at beginning of compression is 1 bar. The number of cycles per minute is 100. Considering
specific heat at constant volume as 0.72 kJ/kg·K, determine the brake output. Take R = 29.27 kJ/kg · K.
Also determine stroke volume.
Solution:
Work done per kg of air
= R(T2 – T1). ln r
= 29.27 (700 – 300) In 3
W = 12862.55 kJ/kg
Heat added per kg of air
= RT2 ln r + (1 – ε) cv · (T2 – T1)
= (29.27 × 700 × ln 3) + {(1 – 0.9) × 0.72 × (700 – 300)}
q = 22538.27 kJ/kg
30
For 30 kJ/s heat supplied, the mass of air/s =
22538.27
= 1.33 × 10–3 kg/s
1.33 × 10−3
Mass of air per cycle = = 1.33 × 10–5 kg/cycle
100
Brake output = 12862.55 × 1.33 × 10–3 = 17.11 kW
388 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2 3
700 K
300 K 4
1
Stroke volume, V =
mRT
=
( )
1.33 × 10−5 × 29.27 × 300
= 0.00116 m3
P 1 × 102
14. A gas turbine installation operates with fixed maximum and minimum temperatures T3 and T1
respectively. Show that the optimum specific work output shall be obtained at same overall pressure
ratio for each of following arrangement. Also give expression for this pressure ratio for air as working
fluid throughout.
(i) there is single stage compression followed by two stages of expansion in turbine. The expansion
ratio in two stages is equal and reheating is done upto the maximum temperature at inlet of second
stage of expansion.
(ii) there occurs compression in two stages of equal compression ratio with intercooling upto the
minimum cycle temperature at inlet to second stage of compression followed by single stage
expansion in turbine.
Take isentropic efficiency of compressor and turbine stages as ηc and ηT respectively.
Solution:
Let the overall pressure ratio be r.
For arrangement (i)
C: Compressor
CC RH
CC : Combustion chamber
T: Turbine 3
T3 5
RH : Reheater
5 2 4 6
2' 4' 6'
3
T
T1 1
1 6
S
Fig. 9.43 Layout and T-S diagram for (i) arrangement
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 389
In compressor,
γ −1 γ −1
T2' P γ γ
= 2 = r
T1 P1
γ −1
γ
T2′ = T1 · r
γ −1
T2' − T1 r γ − 1
ηc = ⇒ T2 = T1 1 +
T2 − T1 ηc
1
⇒ T4 = T3 1 − ηT 1 − γ −1
rT γ
For second stage expansion, T5 = T3
γ −1 γ −1
T5 P γ 1 γ
= 5 , T6′ = T3 ·
T6' P6 rT
T5 − T6
Isentropic efficiency, η T =
T5 − T6'
T6 = T5 – ηT (T5 – T6′)
1 1
T6 = T5 1 − ηT 1 − γ −1 = T3 1 − ηT 1 − γ −1
rT γ rT γ
Net work per kg of air
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 391
γ −1
T2′ P2 γ γ −1
, T2′ = T1 · ( rc )
For first stage compressor,
T1 = P γ
1
γ −1
T2' − T1 rc γ − 1
Isentropic compression efficiency, ηc = , ⇒ T2 = T1 1 +
T2 − T1 ηc
For second stage compressor, Ta = T1
γ −1
Tb' P γ γ −1
= b , Tb′ = T1 ( rc ) γ
Ta Pa
γ −1
Tb' − Ta rc γ − 1
Isentropic efficiency of compression, ηc = ⇒ Tb = T1 1 +
Tb − Ta ηc
For expansion in turbine,
γ −1
T3 P γ T3
= 3 ⇒ T4' = γ −1
T4' P4 γ
(r )
T3 − T4
Isentropic expansion efficiency, ηT =
T3 − T4'
1
⇒ T4 = T3 1 − ηT 1 − γ −1
r γ
Net work per kg of air,
Wnet = {cp (T2 – T1) + cp(Tb – Ta)} –{cp(T3 – T4)}
γ −1 γ −1
γ
rc − 1
γ
rc − 1 1
= cp T1 1 + − T1 + T1 1 + − T1 – cp T3 − T3 1 − ηT 1 − γ −1
ηc ηc
r γ
2 γ
T · η · η 3 γ -1
⇒ r= 3 T c Ans.
T1
Hence it is proved that the optimum pressure ratio remains same for both arrangements as shown here.
392 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
15. In a gas/steam combined cycle power plant exhaust from gas turbine leaves finally through HRSG at
420 K and generates steam in heat recovery steam generator (HRSG) at 6 MPa and 400ºC. Ambient air
at 1 bar, 17ºC enters the compressor operating at pressure ratio of 10. Turbine inlet temperature of gas
turbine is 1400 K. The steam turbine operates with condenser pressure of 15 kPa. Consider air as
working fluid throughout gas turbine cycle and combined cycle output to be 37.3 MW. Determine the
overall efficiency, mass flow rate of steam per kg of air. Take cp, air = 1.0032 kJ/kg · K
Solution:
C: Compressor
CC : Combustion chamber
T: Turbine a
FP : Feed pump
ST : Steam turbine
CC
condenser
1 1 bar, 17°C
Gas turbine cycle
Gas turbine 3
cycle
2
4
1 a
c b
γ −1
1.4 −1
T2 P γ
In gas turbine cycle, = 2 ⇒ T2 = 290 × (10 ) 1.4 = 559.9 K
T1 P1
T3 = 1400 K,
γ −1 1.4−1
T4 P4 γ 1 1.4
⇒ T4 = 1400
T3 = P 10
= 725.13 K
3
Compressor work per kg, WC = cp(T2 – T1) = 1.0032 × (559.9 – 290) = 270.76 kJ/kg
Turbine work per kg, WT = cp(T3 – T4) = 677.03 kJ/kg
Heat added in combustion chamber per kg, qadd = cp(T3 – T2) = 842.79 kJ/kg
Net gas turbine output, Wnet, GT = WT – WC = 406.27 kJ/kg air
Heat recovered in HRSG for steam generation per kg of air
qHRSG = cp(T4 – T5) = 306.11 kJ/kg
At inlet to steam turbine,
ha = 3177.2 kJ/kg, sa = 6.5408 kJ/kg · K
For expansion in steam turbine, sa = sb
Let dryness fraction at state b be x.
sb = 6.5408 = sf at 15 kPa + x · sfg at 15 kPa
x = 0.7976
hb = hf at 15 kPa + x · hfg at 15 kPa = 2118.72 kJ/kg
At exit of condenser, hc = hf at 15 kPa = 225.94 kJ/kg, vc = 0.001014 m3/kg
At exit of feed pump, hd ⇒ hd – hc = vc · (6 × 103 – 15) × 102
hd = 606.88 kJ/kg
Heat added per kg of steam = ha – hd = 2570.32 kJ/kg
qHRSG
Mass of steam generated per kg of air = (
ha − hd )
= 0.119 kg steam per kg air.
Net steam turbine cycle output, Wnet, ST = (ha – hb) – (hd – hc)
Wnet, ST = 677.54 kJ/kg
Steam cycle output per kg of air = Wnet, ST × 0.119 = 80.63 kJ/kg air
Total combined cycle output = (Wnet, GT + Wnet, ST) = 486.9 kJ/kg air
(Wnet,GT + Wnet,ST )
Combined cycle efficiency, ηcc = = 0.5777 or 57.77%
qadd
Wnet,GT
In the absence of steam cycle, Gas turbine cycle efficiency, ηGT =
qadd
η GT = 0.4821 or 48.21%
394 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Thus, efficiency is seen to increase in combined cycle upto 57.77% as compared to gas turbine offering
48.21% efficiency.
Overall efficiency = 57.77%
Steam per kg of air = 0.119 kg steam/kg air Ans.
16. In an I.C. engine operating on the dual cycle (limited pressure cycle), the temperature of the working
fluid (air) at the beginning of compression is 27ºC. The ratio of the maximum and minimum pressures of
the cycle is 70 and the compression ratio is 15. The amount of heat added at constant volume and at
constant pressure are equal. Compute the air standard thermal efficiency of the cycle. State three main
reasons why the actual thermal efficiency is different from the theoretical value.
[U.P.S.C. 1993]
Solution:
T1 = 27ºC = 300 K
P4 P3
= = 70
P1 P1
V1 V1
Compression ratio, = 15 =
V2 V3
Heat added at constant volume = Heat added at constant pressure
Q23 = Q34
m · cv(T3 – T2) = m · cp·(T4 – T3) 3 4
(T3 – T2) = γ ·(T4 – T3)
For process 1–2; 2
P
γ −1
5
T2 P2 γ
T1 = P
1
1
γ −1 V
T2 V1
= Fig. 9.46
T1 V2
T2
= (15)0.4
300
T2 = 886.25
and
γ
P2 V1
= = (15)1.4
P1 V2
P2 = P1 · (15)1.4
P2 = 44.3 P1
For process 2–3
P2 T2
=
P3 T3
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 395
44.3P1 886.25
70P1 =
T3
or, T3 = 1400.39
Using equal heat additions for processes 2–3 and 3–4,
(T3 – T2) = γ (T4 – T3)
(1400.39 – 886.25) = 1.4(T4 – 1400.39)
T4 = 1767.63
For process 3–4,
V3 T3
V4 = T4
V3 V1 T3
V1 × V = T4
4
1 V1 1400.39
× =
15 4
V 1767.63
V1
V4 = 11.88
V5
V4 = 11.88
For process 4–5,
γ γ −1
P4 V5 T4 V5
= or, =
P5 V4 T5 V4
P4 T4
1.4 0.4
P5 = (11.88) or, T5 = (11.88)
1767.63
T5 = = 656.85
(11.88) 0.4
Heat rejected
Air standard thermal efficiency = 1 –
Heat added
m cv (T5 − T1 )
=1–
m c p (T4 − T3 ) + m cv (T3 − T2 )
(T5 − T1 )
=1–
γ ·(T4 − T3 ) + (T3 − T2 )
(656.85 − 300)
=1–
1.4 × (1767.63 − 1400.39) + (1400.39 − 886.25)
396 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Air standard thermal efficiency = 0.6529
Air standard thermal efficiency = 65.29% Ans.
Actual thermal efficiency may be different from theoretical efficiency due to following reasons;
(a) Air standard cycle analysis considers air as the working fluid while in actual cycle it is not air
throughout the cycle. Actual working fluid which are combustion products do not behave as
perfect gas.
(b) Heat addition does not occur isochorically in actual process. Also combustion is accompanied by
inefficiency such as incomplete combustion, dissociation of combustion products, etc.
(c) Specific heat variation occurs in actual processes where as in air standard cycle analysis specific
heat variation is neglected. Also during adiabatic process theoretically no heat loss occurs while
actually these processes are accompanied by heat losses.
-:-4+15-
9.1 What do you mean by air standard cycles? Discuss its’ significance.
9.2 Derive the expression for Carnot cycle efficiency.
9.3 Discuss limitations of Carnot cycle and explain Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Dual cycle in light of these
limitations.
9.4 Derive expression for efficiency of Otto cycle, Dual cycle and Diesel cycle.
9.5 What is meant by mean effective pressure? Discuss its’ relevance.
9.6 Obtain expressions for mean effective pressure of Otto cycle, Diesel cycle and Dual cycle.
9.7 Discuss gas turbine cycles. Obtain efficiency of Brayton cycle.
9.8 What are possible modifications in gas turbine cycle? Explain.
9.9 Explain different irreversibilities and losses in gas turbine cycle.
9.10 Define polytropic efficiency and its significance mathematically for compressors.
9.11 Obtain optimum pressure ratio condition for minimum compressor work requirement in two stage
perfect intercooled compression.
9.12 Compare the influence of reheating, regeneration and intercooling on performance of gas turbine
cycle.
9.13 Discuss Ericsson cycle and obtain its efficiency.
9.14 Obtain efficiency of Stirling cycle.
9.15 Write short notes on compressor and turbine efficiencies.
9.16 An Otto cycle operates between maximum and minimum pressures of 600 kPa and 100 kPa. The
minimum and maximum temperatures in the cycle are 27ºC and 1600 K. Determine thermal efficiency of
cycle and also show it on T-s and P-V diagram. [48%]
9.17 In an air standard Carnot cycle operating between temperatures of 57ºC and 1327ºC, determine the
heat added if cycle efficiency is 79.4% and the minimum pressure of cycle is 100 kPa. [300 kJ/kg]
9.18 Determine air standard efficiency for a diesel engine having L/D ratio of 1.6 and bore as 25 cm. Take the
clearance volume and pressure at end of suction as 1.2 litres and 1 atm. respectively. Also obtain mean
effective pressure. Volume after combustion is 1.8 times clearance volume. [63.5, 6 bar]
9.19 An engine operates on Dual cycle with a compression ratio of 15. At the end of suction the air is
available at 1 atm and 27ºC. Total heat added is 430 kJ/kg. Heat supply is in ratio of (0.536:1) for heat
supply at constant volume and constant pressure. Determine cycle efficiency and mean effective
pressure. [65%, 0.342 MPa]
9.20 A regenerative cycle has heat exchanger effectiveness of 75% and pressure ratio of 4 with compression
occurring in two stages of equal pressure ratio with intercooling back to initial temperature of 15ºC.
Maximum temperature in cycle is 650º C and expansion occurs with efficiency of 0.88. Compression
process has isentropic efficiency of 0.85 in each stage. Considering air as working fluid throughout
the cycle determine efficiency of cycle. [34.6%]
Gas Power Cycles ______________________________________________________________ 397
9.21 A gas turbine installation has intercooling, regeneration and reheating with air entering compressor at
100 kPa, 290 K and compressed to 0.41 MPa. Subsequently it is cooled until temperature drops to 13ºC
in intercooler and finally compressed to 0.75 MPa. Regenerator effectiveness is 0.70 and turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) is 1350 K and expands to 0.41 MPa where it is reheated upto 1350 K. The exhaust
pressure is 0.1 MPa. Determine overall efficiency considering expansion and compression processes
to be of isentropic type. Take air as working fluid throughout. [54.3%]
9.22 In an actual gas turbine the compressor requires 300 kJ/kg of work to quadruple the inlet pressure. For
inlet air temperature of 100ºC determine, the compressor exit air temperature and compressor efficiency.
[671.6 K, 60.6%]
9.23 In a gas turbine installation the exhaust from gas turbine is sent for process heating at 200 kPa.
Turbine produces power just sufficient to drive the compressor. Turbine inlet temperature is 815ºC
and air is supplied to compressor at 1 bar, 17ºC. Determine compressor pressure ratio for air as working
fluid throughout. [3]
9.24 A Brayton cycle producing 75 kW is designed for maximum work. The compressor inlet conditions are
100 kPa and 27ºC. Compression ratio is 5.5. For air standard Brayton cycle determine the turbine inlet
temperature, cycle efficiency and air flow rate. [794 K, 38.6%, 0.631 kg/s]
9.25 A gas turbine cycle has reheating and heat exchanger employed. The air is supplied at 1 bar, 15ºC into
compressor where it is compressed upto 4 bar with isentropic efficiency of 82%. Turbine inlet
temperature is 700ºC and expansion occurs in two stages with equal pressure ratio upto 1 bar. The
reheating between two stages occurs upto 700ºC. Isentropic efficiency of expansion is 85%. Exhaust
from low pressure turbine is passed into a heat exchanger having 0.75 effectiveness. Heat exchanger
heats the discharge from compressor before being supplied to combustion chamber. Considering air
as woking fluid throughout determine cycle efficiency. [32.1%]
9.26 In a gas turbine plant air is supplied at 1 bar, 290 K to compressor having isentropic efficiency of 0.84
and pressure ratio of 5. The air flow rate to compressor is 111600 kg/hr. Compressed air is passed
through a heat exchanger and it leaves exchanger at 360ºC, from where it is supplied to combustion
chamber. Fuel having calorific value of 41800 kJ/kg is supplied at the rate of 890 kg/hr in combustion
chamber. The combustion products expand from 4.7 bar to 1.95 bar, 410ºC in turbine. Take cp air = 1.0032
kJ/kg K, γair = 1.4, cp comb, products = 1.1286 kJ/kg K, γcomb, products = 1.34. Determine hp developed.
[3000 hp]
9.27 Show that the necessary condition for positive work output from an open cycle gas turbine can be
given by,
γ −1
γ
ηc × ηT × Tmax > Tmin . r
The simple gas turbine cycle has compressor with isentropic efficiency of ηc and pressure ratio of ‘r’.
Turbine has isentropic efficiency of ηT and expansion ratio similar to that of compressor. The maximum
and minimum temperature are Tmax and Tmin and air is working fluid throughout with γ as ratio of
specific heat.
9.28 In a gas turbine installation based on Brayton cycle the highest and lowest temperatures are
TH and TL respectively. The pressure ratio and heat input from high temperature reservoir
vary such that temperature TH and TL remain constant. Show that the expression for net
2
T
maximum work output is, Wmax = CP .TL H − 1 .
T
L
9.29 A gas turbine installation has double stage compressor and double stage turbine having
pressure ratio across each stage as 8:1 in both compressor and turbine. Pressure at inlet to
compressor is 1 bar and temperature entering each compressor is 293K and temperature
398 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
entering each turbine is 1373K. Considering ideal regenerator in cycle determine cycle
thermal efficiency and turbine work output.
[0.613, 1.235 MJ/kg]
9.30 An ideal Stirling cycle running on hydrogen works between temperature of 723°C and 23°C
while highest and lowest pressure are 30 bar and 5 bar respectively. Considering it to be
closed cycle determine the heat transfer to regenerator per cycle, net work per cycle and
cycle efficiency.
[3.67 MJ, 0.85 MJ, 70%]
9.31 An ideal Eriscsson cycle is running on helium. Helium is at 1.5 bar, 500°C at the start of
compression process and expansion process occurs at a pressure of 35 bar. Temperature
of low temperature reservoir is 298 K. Determine the thermal efficiency and net work of
cycle.
[61.5%, 31.075MJ]
9.32 Determine thermal efficiency of cycle, backwork ratio and net power produced from a gas
turbine installation having compressor admitting air at 1 bar, 300K & 5 m3/s volume
flow rate. Air is compressed in two stages up to 12 bar with intercooling to 300K between
stages at a pressure of 350 kPa. Turbine inlet temperature is 1127 °C and expanssion occurs
in two stages with reheat to 1340K between stages at a pressure of 3.5 bar. Compressor
and turbine stage efficiencies are 87% and 85% respectively. Also find the % gain in
efficiency if a regenerator with effectiveness of 80% is employed in plant. Show the process
on T-S diagram.
[29.8%, 0.441, 2.17 MW, 59.66%]
9.33 A gas turbine runs at pressure ratio of 7 and maximum temperature of 1000K. Air enters
compressor at temperature of 288 K. The isentropic efficiency of turbine and compressor
are 90% & 85% respectively. Find the percentage reduction in efficiency compared to ideal
Brayton cycle. Also find net work output and back work ratio of gas turbine. Show the
processes on T-S diagram. [32.85%, 132.5 kJ/kg, 0.656]
10
Fuels and Combustion
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Every real life system requires energy input for its’ performance. Energy input may be in the form of
heat. Now question arises from where shall we get heat? Traditionally heat for energy input can be had
from the heat released by fuel during combustion process. Fuels have been provided by nature and the
combustion process provides a fluid medium at elevated temperature. During combustion the energy is
released by oxidation of fuel elements such as carbon C, hydrogen H2 and sulphur S, i.e. high tempera-
ture chemical reaction of these elements with oxygen O2 (generally from air) releases energy to produce
high temperature gases. These high temperature gases act as heat source.
In this chapter the detailed study of fuels and their combustion is being made.
Air fuel ratio: It refers to the ratio of amount of air in combustion reaction with the amount of
fuel. Mathematically, it can be given by the ratio of mass of air and mass of fuel.
F
Molecular wt. of air ´ no. of moles of air I
H K
Mass of air
AF = =
Mass of fuel Molecular wt. of fuel ´ no. of moles of fuel
Fuel-air ratio is inverse of Air-fuel ratio. Theoretical air-fuel ratio can be estimated from stoichio-
metric combustion analysis for just complete combustion.
Equivalence ratio: It is the ratio of actual fuel-air ratio to the theoretical fuel-air ratio for complete
combustion. Fuel-air mixture will be called lean mixture when equivalence ratio is less than unity while
for equivalence ratio value being greater than unity the mixture will be rich mixture.
Theoretical air: Theoretical amount of air refers to the minimum amount of air that is required for
providing sufficient oxygen for complete combustion of fuel. Complete combustion means complete
reaction of oxygen present in air with C, H2, S etc. resulting into carbon dioxide, water, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen with air as combustion products. At the end of complete reaction there will be no free oxygen
in the products. This theoretical air is also called “stoichiometric air”.
Excess air: Any air supplied in excess of “theoretical air” is called excess air. Generally excess air
is 25 to 100% to ensure better and complete combustion.
Flash point and Fire point: Flash point refers to that temperature at which vapour is given off
from liquid fuel at a sufficient rate to form an inflammable mixture but not at a sufficient rate to support
continuous combustion.
Fire point refers to that temperature at which vaporization of liquid fuel is sufficient enough to
provide for continuous combustion.
These temperatures depend not only on the fuel characteristics but also on the rate of heating, air
movement over fuel surface and means of ignition. These temperatures are specified in reference to
certain standard conditions. Although flash point and fire point temperatures are defined in relation with
ignition but these temperatures are not measure of ignitability of fuel but of the initial volatility of fuel.
400 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Adiabatic flame temperature: Adiabatic flame temperature refers to the temperature that could be
attained by the products of combustion when the combustion reaction is carried out in limit of adiabatic
operation of combustion chamber. Limit of adiabatic operation of combustion chamber means that in
the absence of work, kinetic and potential energies the energy released during combustion shall be
carried by the combustion products with minimum or no heat transfer to surroundings. This is the
maximum temperature which can be attained in a combustion chamber and is very useful parameter for
designers. Actual temperature shall be less than adiabatic flame temperature due to heat transfer to
surroundings, incomplete combustion and dissociation etc.
Wet and dry analysis of combustion: Combustion analysis when carried out considering water
vapour into account is called “wet analysis” while the analysis made on the assumption that vapour is
removed after condensing it, is called “dry analysis”.
Volumetric and gravimetric analysis: Combustion analysis when carried out based upon percent-
age by volume of constituent reactants and products is called volumetric analysis.
Combustion analysis carried out based upon percentage by mass of reactants and products is
called gravimetric analysis.
Pour point: It refers to the lowest temperature at which liquid fuel flows under specified condi-
tions.
Cloud point: When some petroleum fuels are cooled, the oil assumes cloudy appearance. This is
due to paraffin wax or other solid substances separating from solution. The temperature at which
cloudy appearance is first evident is called cloud point.
Composition of air: Atmospheric air is considered to be comprising of nitrogen, oxygen and other
inert gases. For combustion calculations the air is considered to be comprising of nitrogen and oxygen
in following proportions. Molecular weight of air is taken as 29.
Composition of air by mass = Oxygen (23.3%) + Nitrogen (76.7%)
Composition of air by volume = Oxygen (21%) + Nitrogen (79%)
Enthalpy of combustion: Enthalpy of combustion of fuel is defined as the difference between the
enthalpy of the products and enthalpy of reactants when complete combustion occurs at given tempera-
ture and pressure. It may be given as higher heating value or lower heating value. Higher heating value
(HHV) of fuel is the enthalpy of combustion when all the water (H2O) formed during combustion is in
liquid phase. Lower heating value (LHV) of fuel refers to the enthalpy of combustion when all the water
(H2O) formed during combustion is in vapour form. The lower heating value will be less than higher
heating value by the amount of heat required for evaporation of water.
HHV = LHV + (Heat required for evaporation of water)
It is also called calorific value of fuel and is defined as the number of heat units liberated when unit
mass of fuel is burnt completely in a calorimeter under given conditions.
Enthalpy of formation: Enthalpy of formation of a compound is the energy released or absorbed
when compound is formed from its elements at standard reference state. Thus enthalpy of formation
shall equal heat transfer in a reaction during which compound is formed from its’ elements at standard
reference state. Enthalpy of formation will have positive (+ ve) value if formation is by an endothermic
reaction and negative (– ve) value if formation is by an exothermic reaction.
Standard reference state: It refers to thermodynamic state at which the enthalpy datum can be set
for study of reacting systems. At standard reference state, zero value is assigned arbitrarily to the
enthalpy of stable elements. Generally, standard reference state is taken as 25°C and 1 atm,
i.e. Tref = 25°C = 298.15 K, pref = 1 atm
Dissociation: It refers to the combustion products getting dissociated and thus absorbing some of
energy. Such as, the case of carbon dioxide getting formed during combustion and subsequently getting
dissociated can be explained as below,
Combustion: C + O2 ® CO2 + Heat
Fuels and Combustion __________________________________________________________ 401
Dissociation: Heat + CO2 ® C + O2
Thus generally, dissociation has inherent requirement of high temperature and heat.
Liquid fuels: Fuels in liquid form are called liquid fuels. Liquid fuels are generally obtained from
petroleum and its by-products. These liquid fuels are complex mixture of different hydrocarbons, and
obtained by refining the crude petroleum oil. Commonly used liquid fuels are petrol, kerosene diesel,
aviation fuel, light fuel oil, heavy fuel oil etc.
Various liquid fuels of hydrocarbon family lie in Paraffin (CnH2n + 2 – chain structure), Olefins
(CnH2n – chain structure), Napthalene (CnH2n – ring structure), Benzene (CnH2n – 6 – ring structure),
402 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Nepthalene (CnH2n – 12 – ring structure) category. Percentage by volume composition of some of liquid
fuels is given below.
Table 10.2 Composition of liquid fuels
Sl.No. Fuel % by volume
Carbon Hydrogen Sulphur
1. Petrol 85.5 14.4 0.1
2. Kerosene 86.3 13.6 0.1
3. Diesel 86.3 12.8 0.9
4. Benzole 91.7 8.0 0.3
5. Light fuel oil 86.2 12.4 1.4
6. Heavy fuel oil 86.1 11.8 2.1
(
w c )
m + m ⋅ R − m ⋅ CV
fw fw
CVfuel =
m
fuel
where mfuel and mfw are mass of fuel and mass of fuse wire, mw and mc are mass of water in calorimeter
and water equivalent of calorimeter, R is correct temperature rise, CVfuel is higher calorific value of fuel,
CVfw is calorific value of fuse wire. Calorific value of fuel estimated is higher calorific value as the water
formed during combustion is condensed.
e
shall be only H -
O
8
jwhere H refers to hydrogen mass and O refers to oxygen mass.
The higher calorific value of fuel can thus be given as under using the mass fractions of constitu-
ent elements known. If percentage mass fractions of fuel constituents are given by C, H, O and S then.
H.C.V. of fuel =
1
100
[8100·C + 34,400 H - e
O
8 j
+ 2220·S] kcal/kg
{
L.C.V. of fuel = ( H.C.V. of fuel ) - FH 9 ´ H ´ 588.76 IK } , kcal/kg
100
S ( C ) ´ 100
D=
23
C = 0.855 8/3 2.28
3. 264 ´ 100
H2 = 0.123 8 0.984 = = 14.19
23
Ash = 0.022 — —
S(C) = 3.264
Above calculations show that for the given fuel composition 14.19 kg of minimum air shall be
theoretically required for complete combustion of one kg of fuel. Combustion analysis can be carried
out either on mass basis or volume basis. Similar kind of analysis can be made on volume basis. Let us
take heptane (C7H16) as the fuel and consider its’ complete combustion.
73.335
C 12 ´ 7 = 84 7 46.67 1 46.67 = ´ 100
21
H2 2 ´ 8 = 16 8 53.33 0.5 26.665 = 349.21
SB = 15 SE = 73.335
F 44 × X I
H SX K
2
CO2 X2 44 44.X2
F 28 × X I
H SX K
3
N2 X3 28 28.X3
F 32 × X I
H SX K
4
O2 X4 32 32.X4
=
1 8
100 3
C+8 H- e
O
8
+S j
As air is taken to have 23% of oxygen by mass, therefore total air requirement per kg of fuel shall
be;
1 LM 8 C + 8 FH H - O IK + SOP ´ 100
=
100 N3 8 Q 23
Minimum air required per kg of fuel for complete combustion
=
1 8
23 3
C+8 H-
O
8 e
+S j
(b) Air requirement per kg of fuel can also be determined if the volumetric analysis of dry flue
gases and mass fraction of carbon per kg of fuel is known. Let us take the dry flue gases having mass
fractions as defined earlier as,
F 28 X I kg of CO and F 44 X I kg of CO .
1 kg of flue gas has
H SX K 1
H SX K 2
2
Now the total mass of carbon present in CO and CO2 present in 1 kg of flue gas can be estimated
and equated with mass of carbon present per kg of fuel.
Mass of carbon per kg of flue gas = Mass of carbon in CO per kg flue gas
+ Mass of carbon in CO2 per kg flue gas
F 28 X I ´ 12 = F 12 X I
Mass of carbon in CO per kg flue gas =
H S X K 28 H S X K
1 1
410 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
F 44 X I ´ 12 = F 12 X I
Mass of carbon in CO2 per kg flue gas =
H S X K 44 H S X K 2 2
12
= (X1 + X2 )kg per kg of flue gas.
SX
Now if we look at the fact that from where carbon is coming in flue gases then it is obvious that
carbon is available only in fuel. Let us assume that carbon present in fuel completely goes into flue
gases. Let us also assume that fuel does not contain nitrogen so what ever nitrogen is there in flue gas
it will be because of nitrogen present in air. Let the mass of flue gases formed per kg of fuel after
combustion be ‘mg’. The mass of carbon in per kg fuel say C can be equated to total mass of carbon
calculated above.
Mass fraction of carbon in fuel = Total mass of carbon in mg mass of flue gases.
RS12
a fUVW
C=
TSX
X1 + X2 ´ mg
RS C× S X UV
Mass of flue gases, mg =
T 12 a X + X f W
1 2
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel can be known from the nitrogen fraction present in flue gases
F 28 X3I
H
as only source of nitrogen is air. 0.77 kg of N2 is available in 1 kg of air. From flue gas analysis
SX K
is the mass of nitrogen available in per kg of flue gas so total mass of nitrogen present in flue gases (mg)
28X 3
due to combustion of unit mass of fuel shall be ⋅ mg .
Σ X
From air composition 0.77 kg N2 is present per kg of air so the mass of air supplied per kg of flue
gas formed,
F 28 X I ´ 1 , kg air per kg of flue gas
=
H S X K 0.77
3
FG 28 X IJ ´ m
H S X K 0.77
3 g
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel =
28X 3 1 C·Σ X
Substituting for mg, = × ×
Σ X 0.77 12 ( X1 + X 2 )
28 X3 × C
Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel =
a
9.24 X1 + X2 f
where X1, X2, X3 are volume fractions of CO, CO2 and N2 present in unit volume of flue gas and
C is mass fraction of carbon present in unit mass of fuel.
For complete combustion of fuel there shall be no CO and only CO2 shall contain carbon i.e.
X1 = 0.
(c) Generally for ensuring complete combustion of fuel, excess air is supplied. In case of com-
bustion if there is incomplete combustion of carbon resulting into formation of carbon monoxide, then
Fuels and Combustion __________________________________________________________ 411
additional oxygen shall be required for converting carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide (CO2).
F 28 X I
From earlier discussions let us consider unit mass of flue gas containing
H SX K 1
kg of CO and
F 32 X I kg of O . The oxygen present in fuel remains in association with hydrogen. For combustion of
H SX K4
2
4
CO into CO2 the mass of oxygen required is kg per kg of CO. Thus oxygen required for CO present
7
in 1 kg flue gas
F 28 X I ´ 4
=
H SX K 71
=F
16 X I
H S X K kg of oxygen
1
16
= (2X4 – X1)
SX
RS 16 a2 X - X fm UV
Excess oxygen supplied per kg of fuel burnt =
T SX 4
W 1 g
=
16
SX
a2 X - X f RST 12 a XCS+X X f UVW
4 1
4 a2 X - X f × C
1 2
3 aX + X f
4 1
=
1 2
Hence excess air supplied per kg of fuel
a
4C 2 X 4 - X1 1 f
=
a
3 X1 + X2
´
0.23f
a
4C × 2 X 4 - X1 f
Excess air supplied per kg of fuel burnt =
a
0.69 X1 + X2 f
10.9 FLUE GAS ANALYSIS
Flue gas analysis refers to the determination of composition of exhaust gases. Flue gas analysis can be
done theoretically and experimentally. Here experimental method of flue gas analysis is described. Vari-
ous devices available for measuring the composition of products of combustion (flue gas) are Orsat
Analyzer, Gas chromatograph. Infrared analyzer and Flame ionisation detector etc. Data from these
devices can be used to determine the mole fraction of flue gases. Generally this analysis is done on dry
basis which may also be termed as “dry product analysis” and it refers to describing mole fractions for
all gaseous products except water vapour.
412 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Orsat analyzer: It is also called as Orsat apparatus and is used for carrying out volumetric analysis
of dry products of combustion. Schematic of apparatus is shown in Fig.10.3 It has three flasks contain-
ing different chemicals for absorption of CO2, O2 and CO respectively and a graduated eudiometer tube
connected to an aspirator bottle filled with water.
Flask I is filled with NaOH or KOH solution (about one part of KOH and 2 parts of water by
mass). This 33% KOH solution shall be capable of absorbing about fifteen to twenty times its own
volume of CO2. Flask II is filled with alkaline solution of pyrogallic acid and above KOH solution. Here
5 gm of pyrogallic acid powder is dissolved in 100 cc of KOH solution as in Flask I. It is capable of
absorbing twice its own volume of O2. Flask III is filled with a solution of cuprous chloride which can
absorb CO equal to its’ volume. Cuprous chloride solution is obtained by mixing 5 mg of copper oxide
in 100 cc of commercial HCl till it becomes colourless. Each flask has a valve over it and C1, C2, C3
valves are put over flasks I, II and III. All the air or any other residual gas is removed from eudiometer
by lifting the aspirator bottle and opening main value. The flue gas for analysis is taken by opening the
main valve (three way valve) while valves C1, C2 and C3 are closed. 100 cc of flue gas may be taken into
eudiometer tube by lowering aspirator bottle until the level is zero and subsequently forced into flasks
for absorbing different constituents. Aspirator bottle is lifted so as to inject flue gas into flask I with only
valve C1 in open state where CO2 present shall be absorbed. Aspirator bottle is again lowered and reading
of eudiometer tube taken. Difference in readings of eudiometer tube initially and after CO2 absorption
shall give percentage of CO2 by volume. Similar steps may be repeated for getting O2 and CO percent-
age by volume for which respective flask valve shall be opened and gas passed into flask. Thus Orsat
analyzer directly gives percentage by volume of constituents. In case of other constituents to be esti-
mated the additional flasks with suitable chemical may be used. The remaining volume in eudiometer
after absorption of all constituents except N2 shall give percentage volume of N2 in flue gas.
As in combustion of hydrocarbon fuel the H2O is present in flue gases but in orsat analysis dry
flue gases are taken which means H2O will be condensed and separated out. Therefore the percentage
Fuels and Combustion __________________________________________________________ 413
by volume of constituents estimated shall be on higher side as in actual product H2O is there but in dry
flue gas it is absent. Orsat analyzer does not give exact analysis.
Free electrons liberated enter the circuit while water goes into electrolyte. Oxygen supplied com-
bines with water in electrolyte and electrons coming from electric circuit to produce OH– ions and H2O
as per chemical reaction given in figure. OH– ions are transported through the electrolyte. Overall fuel
cell has chemical reaction as
1
H2 + O ® H2 O
2 2
Thus in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell electricity and water are produced.
EXAMPLES
1. Coal having following composition by mass is burnt with theoretically correct amount of air.
86% C, 6% H, 5% O, 2% N, 1% S
Determine the air-fuel ratio.
414 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Combustion equation for the coal (100 kg of coal) can be given as under;
FH 86 × C + 6 × H + 5 × O + 2 × N + 1 × SIK + n(O 2 + 3.76 N2) ®
12 1 16 14 32
a × CO2 + b × SO2 + d × N2 + e × H2O
From above equation C, H, O, S, N can be equated on both the sides as under,
C; 7.16 = a
H; 6 = 2e
O; (0.3125 + 2n) = 2a + 2b + e
N; (0.1429 + 3.76 ´ 2n) = 2d
S; 0.03125 = b
Solving we get a = 7.16
b = 0.03125
d = 32.163
e= 3
n = 8.535
Amount of air required shall be [8.535 ´ (4.76)] kg mol per 100 kg of coal.
8.535 ´ 4.76 ´ 28.97
Air-fuel ratio =
100
= 11.77 kg air per kg of fuel
Air-fuel ratio = 11.77 Ans.
2. One kg C8H18 fuel is supplied to an engine with 13 kg of air. Determine the percentage by
volume of CO2 in dry exhaust gas considering exhaust gas to consist of CO2, CO and N2.
Solution:
Combustion equation in mol. basis for one kg of fuel supplied shall be as under.
1
(C8H18) + n(0.21 O2 + 0.79 N2) ® a × CO2 + b × CO + d × N2 + e × H2O
114
Equating the coefficients on both sides,
8
C; = 0.0702 = a + b
114
b e
O2; 0.21 n = a + +
2 2
18
H; = 0.1579 = 2e
114
N2; 0.79 n = d. Also it is given that 13 kg of air per kg of fuel is supplied, therefore
13
n= = 0.4487
28.97
Solving above following are available,
a = 0.0393
b = 0.0309
Fuels and Combustion __________________________________________________________ 415
d = 0.3545
e = 0.07895
n = 0.4487
Constituents of dry exhaust gas shall be CO2, CO and N2 as indicated,
Therefore dry exhaust gas = (a + b + d)
= (0.0393 + 0.0309 + 0.3545) = 0.4247
a
Percentage by volume of CO2 in dry exhaust gas = ´ 100
(a + b + d )
0 .0393 ´ 100
=
0 .4247
= 9.25%
Solution:
Theoretical mass of oxygen required per kg of fuel depending upon its’ constituents
C + O2 ® CO2
12 kg + 32 kg ® 44 kg
8 11
or, 1 kg +kg ® kg
3 3
or, 0.86 kg + 2.29 kg ® 3.15 kg
For hydrogen,
2H2 + O2 ® 2H2O
4 kg + 32 kg ® 36 kg
1 kg + 8 kg ® 9 kg
0.14 kg + 1.12 kg ® 1.26 kg
Carbon is given to be 0.82 kg in per unit mass of coal and the mass of carbon per unit mass of dry
flue gas is 0.04412 kg so the mass of dry flue gases per kg of coal shall be
Carbon mass per kg of dry flue gases
=
Carbon mass per kg of coal
0.82
=
0.04412
= 18.59 kg
Therefore, the mass of CO per kg of coal = 18.59 ´ 0.0094
= 0.1747 kg
The mass of excess O2 per kg of coal (i.e. unutilized O2) = 18.59 ´ 0.075
= 1.394 kg
The CO produced in combustion products per kg of coal shall further require O2 for its’ complete
burning to CO2.
2CO + O2 ® 2CO2
56 kg + 32 kg ® 88 kg
4 11
1 kg + kg ® kg
7 7
The mass of O2 required for complete burning of 0.1747 kg CO per kg of coal shall be = 0.1747
4
´ = 0.998 kg.
7
Out of excess O2 coming out with dry flue gases 0.0998 kg of O2 shall be utilized for complete
burning of CO. Thus, the net excess O2 per kg of coal = 1.394 – 0.0998 = 1.2942 kg O2
1.2942 ´ 100
Hence, excess air required for 1.2942 kg O2 = = 5.627 kg air
23
Fuels and Combustion __________________________________________________________ 419
5.627
% excess air = ´ 100 = 51.53%
10.92
% excess air = 51.53% Ans.
6. C2H6 burns completely with air when the air-fuel ratio is 18 on mass basis. Determine the
percent excess or percent deficiency of air as appropriate and the dew point temperature of combustion
products when cooled at 1 atm.
Solution:
Given air-fuel ratio on mass basis is first transformed into the air-fuel ratio on molar basis.
FG Massof air IJ
No.of moles of air H Mol.wt.of air K
A/F ratio on molar basis =
No.of moles of fuel
=
FG Massof fuel IJ
H Mol.wt .of fuel K
Mass of air Mol.wt.of fuel
= ×
Mass of fuel Mol.wt .of air
Mol.wt.of C 2 H 6
= (A/F ratio on mass basis) ´
Mol.wt.of air
30
= 18 ´
29
A/F ratio on molar basis = 18.62
Chemical reaction for complete combustion may be given as,
C2H6 + n(O2 + 3.76 N2) ® aCO2 + bN2 + dO2 + eH2O
Also, for complete combustion there will be FH
18.62 IK
moles of air for each mole of fuel,
4.76
So, n = 3.912
Equating coefficient
C: 2 = a Solving we get, a =2
H: 6 = 2e b = 14.71
O: 2n = 2a + 2d + e d = 0.412
N: (3.76 ´ 2n) = 2b e =3
Complete combustion reaction may be given as,
C2H6 + 3.912 (O2 + 3.76 N2) ® 2CO2 + 14.71N2 + 0.412O2 + 3H2O
or, C2H6 + 3.5(O2 + 3.76 N2) ® 2CO2 + 13.16 N2 + 3H2O
Hence air-fuel ratio (theoretical) on mol. basis
3.5 ´ 4.76
(A/F) = = 16.66
1
Since theoretical air-fuel ratio is less than actual so it means excess air is supplied.
( A F )actual - ( A F ) theoretical
Percentage of excess air = ´ 100
( A F ) theoretical
It shows that one mol of dry flue gases shall require burning of 1.02 kg of fuel and 29.89 kg of air.
29.89
So the air-fuel ratio = = 29.3
1.02
( 29.3 - 15) ´ 100
% Excess air = = 95.33%
15
Air fuel ratio = 29.3 Ans.
% excess air = 95.33%
Here the calculations above have been based on balancing the carbon present. These can also be
done based on oxygen-hydrogen balance as under;
Alternate approach (Not very accurate)
Mass of oxygen present in one mol of dry flue gas = Mass of oxygen in CO2
+ Mass of O2 appearing with dry flue gas
Dry flue gases contain 7.2% of CO2, 10.8% O2 and 82% N2 by volume. This volumetric compo-
sition is to be converted to gravimetric (mass basis) i.e. mol fractions may be estimated as mol is unit of
volume.
Mass of constituent in one mol of dry flue gases = Volume fraction ´ Mol. wt. of constituent
Mass of CO2 in one mol of dry flue gases = 0.072 ´ 44 = 3.168 kg
Mass of N2 in one mol of dry flue gases = 0.82 ´ 28 = 22.96 kg
Corresponding to N2 the mass of air per mol of dry flue gases can be obtained as,
22.96 ´ 100
= = 29.89 kg
76.8
FH
Carbon present in one mol of dry flue gases = 3.168 ´
12 IK
= 0.864 kg
44
Therefore, from the carbon present in one mol of dry flue gases the amount of fuel containing
this much of carbon can be calculated.
29.89
So, air fuel ratio = = 31.0
0.964
(31 - 15)
% excess air = ´ 100 = 106.67%
15
Air-fuel ratio and % excess air calculated differ from those estimated using balancing of carbon.
Generally, carbon balancing is used for getting accurate results.
9. Fuel having 88% C and 12% H2 is burnt using 98% of air compared to theoretical air require-
ment for combustion. Determine the following considering that H2 is completely burnt and carbon burns
to CO and CO2 leaving no free carbon.
(a) % analysis of dry flue gases by volume
(b) % heat loss due to incomplete combustion. Consider gross calorific values in kJ/kg as,
C to CO2 = 34694 kJ/kg, C to CO = 10324 kJ/kg, H2 = 143792 kJ/kg
424 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Mass of constituent Oxygen required Oxygen Minimum air required
per kg of fuel per kg required per kg per kg of
of constituent of fuel fuel for complete
combustion
100
(a) (b) c = (a ´ b) ´ S(c)
23.2
8 3.30 × 100
C = 0.88 2.35 = 14.27 kg
3 23.2
H2 = 0.12 8 0.95
Total 3.30
10. During production of gas the air and steam are passed through an incandescent coal bed. The
coal is seen to have 95% of carbon and remaining as incombustible. The gas produced has hydrogen,
nitrogen and carbon monoxide. Determine, the steam required per kg of coal and total air required per
kg of coal when the heat of formation for steam is 147972 kJ/kg of hydrogen and for carbon monoxide
it is 10324 kJ/kg of carbon. Also obtain volumetric analysis of gas. Take temperature of water as 20°C
at 1 atm pressure. Take air to have 23.2% O2 and 76.8% N2 by mass.
Solution:
Combustion equation can be written, separately for reaction with air and with steam as both are
passed through.
Reaction with air
2C + O2 ® 2CO
24 kg + 32 kg ® 56 kg
4 7
1 kg of C + kg of O2 ® kg of CO + 10324 kJ ...(i)
3 3
Reaction with steam
C + H2O ® CO + H2
12 kg + 18 kg ® 28 kg + 2 kg
3 7 1 1
1 kg C + kg H2O ® kg CO + kg H2 + {10324 –
2 3 6 6
3
´ 147972 – ((100 - 20 ) ´ 4.18 + 2253)}
2 """" " """"" !
Sensible heat + Latent heat
3 7 1
1 kg C + kg H2O ® kg CO + kg H2 – 182191 kJ ...(ii)
2 3 6
426 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Two equations for burning with air and reaction with steam can be balanced in terms of heat
released provided equation (ii) is multiplied by FH 10324 IK throughout, so equation (ii) gets modified into,
182191
0.057 kg C + 0.085 kg H2O (steam) ® 0.1322 kg CO + 0.0094 kg H2 – 10324 kJ ...(iii)
Thus, total carbon used from reaction (i) and (iii) with no heat release can be given as,
= (1 + 0.057) kg C = 1.057 kg carbon.
0 .085 ´ 0.95
Steam required per kg of coal = = 0.0764 kg
1.057
586 × 10 3
Lower heating value of coal = 8508.5 – 0.45 ×
10 3
= 8244.8 cal/gm
4.116 ´ 79
Nitrogen present in total air = = 3.252 m3
21
**Since 0.07 m3 N per m3 of fuel is already present in fuel so total nitrogen available in combus-
2
tion products = 3.252 + 0.07 = 3.322 m3 per m3 of fuel.
(0.20 + 0.16 + 0.03) ´ 100
% by volume of CO2 = = 10.12%
3.856
0.144 ´ 100
% by volume of O2 = = 3.73%
3.856
3.322 ´ 100
% by volume of N2 = = 86.15%
3.856
Volumetric composition of dry flue gases = 10.12% CO2,
3.73% O2, 86.15% N2 Ans.
Higher calorific value may be obtained from the values given for constituents H2, CH4 and CO.
= {(0.52 ´ 28424) + (0.20 ´ 27463) + (0.16 ´ 87780)}
= 34317.88 kJ/m3
Steam produced during combustion of 1 m3 of fuel.
0.92
msteam = = 0.0411 kg
22.4
Lower calorific value = Higher calorific value – (msteam ´ latent heat)
= {34317.88 – (0.0411 ´ 2445)}
= 34217.39 kJ/m3
0 .27 ´ 100
Minimum volume of air required = = 1.286 m3 air per m3 of fuel.
21
Minimum air required =1.286 m3/m3 of fuel Ans.
With excess air there shall be additional amount of O2 and N2 present in combustion products.
With 40% excess air the dry flue gas shall comprise of following:
(i) CO2 = 0.33 m3 per m3 of fuel.
(ii) N2 = 0.47 + nitrogen from total air (minimum air + excess air)
FH
= 0.47 + 1.286 ´ 1.4 ´
79 IK
100
= 1.89 m3 per m3 of fuel
(iii) O2 = oxygen from excess air
= FH 1.286 ´ 0.4 ´ 21 IK
100
= 0.108 m3 per m3 of fuel
Total volume of dry flue gas formed = (0.33 + 1.89 + 0.108) m3 per m3 of fuel
= 2.328 m3 per m3 of fuel.
Volume before combustion = Volume of fuel gas + Volume of air supplied
= (1 + 1.286 ´ 1.5)m3 = 2.929 m3
FH 32 ´ d + 79 ´ d ´ 28IK
Air-fuel ratio = 21 = 29.77
(12 ´ a + b)
Air-fuel ratio = 29.77 Ans.
12 a
Carbon fraction = = 0.9392
(12 a + b)
b
Hydrogen fraction = = 0.0608
(12 a + b)
% Carbon = 93.92% Ans.
432 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
% Hydrogen = 6.08%
FH 32 d + 79 ´ d ´ 28IK ´ 100
FH 32 d + 79 d ´ 28 + 12a + bIK
Percentage theoretical air supplied = 21
21
= 96.75
-:-4+15-
11
Boilers and Boiler Calculations
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Steam is extensively used for various applications such as power production, industrial processes, work
interaction, heating etc. With the increasing use of steam in different engineering systems the steam
generation technology has also undergone various developments starting from 100 B.C. when Hero of
Alexandria invented a combined reaction turbine and boiler.
Boiler, also called steam generator is the engineering device which generates steam at constant
pressure. It is a closed vessel, generally made of steel in which vaporization of water takes place. Heat
required for vaporization may be provided by the combustion of fuel in furnace, electricity, nuclear
reactor, hot exhaust gases, solar radiations etc.
Earlier boilers were closed vessels made from sheets of wrought iron which were lapped, riveted
and formed into shapes of simple sphere type or complex sections such as the one shown in Fig. 11.1.
It is the ‘Wagon boiler’ of Watt developed in 1788.
Bent water tube boilers are those in which bent tubes are employed for carrying water. Bent water
tubes are advantageous over straight water tubes in many respects. Bent tubes offer better access into
boiler and ease of inspection and maintenance. Also tube arrangement can be modified so as to maximize
heating surface and exposure of tubes to hot gases.
Circulation is better in case of bent tube boilers as compared to straight tube, since the orientation
of tubes in case of former is generally at inclination from vertical while for later it is horizontal. Stirling
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 441
boiler is one such boiler. In water tube boilers the heat distribution generally occurs amongst economiser
tubes, evaporator tubes, superheater tubes. Hottest gases are designed to come in contact with super-
heater tubes. The evaporator tubes are in between superheater and economizer tubes. Relative position
of three sections shall be as shown here.
A comparative study between fire tube and water tube boiler is presented below to understand
relative merits of one over the other.
Advantages of fire tube boilers
(a) Fire tube boilers are more flexible and can meet sudden steam demand without much
pressure fluctuations. It is because of the large volume of water contained by these boilers
and heat energy stored in hot water. It may be noted that energy stored in a definite volume
of water at given pressure and temperature shall be more than that stored in same volume
of steam at same thermodynamic states.
(b) Fire tube boilers are less sensitive to the failure of feed water supply as they have large
capacity of water stored. Such feed water supply failure is very damaging in water tube
boilers due to small storage capacity.
(c) Fire tube boilers are rigid and simple in construction, therefore have great reliability and less
initial cost. Number of parts in fire tube boilers is less than those in water tube boilers so
maintenance cost is also small. Since thickness of boiler shell is large enough so the
problems of pitting and erosion are less. Also the large drum of boiler provides ample water
space and desired conditions for dry steam generation.
Advantages of water tube boilers
(a) Steam generation rate is large in water tube boilers as compared to fire tube boilers due to
small quantity of water contained, large heating surface, better circulation of water etc.
Water tube boilers are made in bigger sizes with very high limit to maximum output due to
smaller drum, circulation etc.
(b) Maximum pressure of steam generation is quite high in water tube boilers (125 bar and
above) compared to fire tube boilers (up to 20 bar) due to fluid flowing through tubes of
small diameter and diameter of drum being relatively small.
(c) In case of explosion the steam generation may not stop in water tube boilers as the place
of explosion in tubes can be plugged easily. While in fire tube boilers the explosion is very
dangerous due to large quantity of water flashing into steam.
(d) Water tube boilers are easy to fabricate and transport due to the small size of drum. The
shell of fire tube boiler shall be nearly twice or thrice of the shell of water tube boiler for
same power.
(e) Water tube boilers are generally externally fired and various parts of boiler are more readily
accessible for cleaning, inspection and maintenance, compared to fire tube boilers.
Characteristics of fire tube and water tube boilers are tabulated as under
Table 11.1
Working pressure in these boilers are in the range of 0.7 MPa to 2 MPa and efficiency of the boiler
is about 65%–70%. Size of these boiler depends upon size of shell which may be 2 m to 3 m in diameter
and 6m to 10m in length.
446 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
11.8 CORNISH BOILER
This is a horizontal fire tube boiler having single flue gas tube. General arrangement is very similar to
Lancashire boiler. Water surrounds the flue gas tube in the shell. Hot flue gases after passing through the
tube are divided into two portions at the end of boiler and pass through side flue passages to reach upto
the front of boiler and then enter into bottom flue gas passage for escaping out through chimney after
traversing the entire length of bottom passage. Hot gases thus traverse complete length of passage from
end to end of boiler thrice i.e. through main flue gas tube, side flues and bottom flues. Heat transfer is
more from side flues than bottom flue due to sedimentation in bottom. These boilers are generally
capable of producing steam up to the rate of 1350 kg/hr and maximum steam pressure up to 12 bar.
Shell is generally of length 4 to 7 m and diameter 1.2 to 1.8 m.
Loeffler boiler is advantageous in many respects such as there is no possibility of soot deposition
in evaporator section. Also by the use of higher pressure steam the heat transfer rate gets improved.
This boiler is much compact as compared to other natural circulation boilers.
facilitate very high rate of heat interaction between two fluids, generally of the order of
2 ´ 107 kcal/m3 of combustion volume. Combustion space is lined with concentric vertical tubes having
hot flue gases passing through the inner tube and water surrounding it in outer tube. Hot flue gases pass
through superheater section and subsequently enter into gas turbine for its expansion. Gas turbine drives
the compressor used for producing compressed air. Expanded gases coming out of gas turbine at about
100–125 m/sec enter into economiser where feed water picks up heat from gas turbine exhaust. Hot
feed water coming out of economiser is sent into steam/water drum from where water is circulated
through vertical concentric tubes using a circulating pump. During the water flow in combustion vol-
ume space it partially gets transformed into steam and the mixture is injected tangentially into drum.
Tangential discharge of mixture forms a circulatory flow (vortex) causing steam release due to centrifu-
gal action, thus separation of water/steam. Steam is subsequently passed through superheater section
while water is again circulated using circulation pump. Steam passes through steam headers after
superheating. Surplus energy, if any in gas turbine is used by alternator attached to it which supplements
the electricity requirement in various auxiliary devices.
Velox boilers are very flexible and capable of quick starting. Overall efficiency of the boiler unit is
about 55–60%. Boiler is capable of handling maximum of 100 tons/hr water which is limited by the
limitation of maximum power requirement in compressor.
Feed water is fed from feed pump to pass through economiser tubes. Hot water from econo-
miser goes into drum from where hot feed water is picked up by a circulating pump. Centrifugal
pump may be steam driven or of electric driven type. Pump increases pressure and water circulates
through evaporation section so as to get converted into steam and enters back to drum. Steam
available in drum enters into superheater tubes and after getting superheated steam leaves through
steam main.
The supply of coal and air are governed by the demand on the boiler. Maximum bed temperature
generally reaches up to 950°C as this temperature control avoids clinker formation and emission of
undesirable salts. For maintaining temperature of bed the arrangement is made for cooling of bed by
water tubes and also by supplying excess air for cooling. Sometimes the low temperature flue gases
leaving boiler are recirculated for bed cooling. Fluidized bed combustion offers advantage of using any
kind of fuel i.e. solid, liquid or gaseous fuel. Also in this type of combustion the use of dolomite or lime
stone as bed material helps in retaining sulphur in fuel. The clinker formation and emission of undesired
substances is also avoided as the combustion can be controlled up to 950°C. Due to large quantity of
both combustible and incombustible material present on the bed there occurs the problems of erosion in
bed tubes and surroundings and also large burden on bed etc.
Fluidized bed combustion is used in both fire tube and water tube boilers but the water tube boiler
offers advantage of greater flexibility in design of furnace shape and allowing for greater freeboard in
which entrained particles can drop back into bed. Air velocity is generally limited to 2.5 m/s as beyond
this the possibility of incomplete combustion increases. Fluidized bed boilers may have different types
of fluidized beds such as,
(i) Shallow beds, which have bed depth up to about 30 cm. Due to such small depth the tubes
for cooling can’t be used in bed and excess air or recirculated flue gases are used for
cooling.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 457
01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13
Heat recovery steam generators may generate steam at single pressure or at multiple pressures.
The schematic for single pressure and multi pressure steam generation are shown in Figs. 11.21, 11.22.
Circulation system in such boilers may be natural circulation or forced circulation. Natural circulation
HRSG typically consist of vertical tubes and horizontal flow arrangement. Circulation is maintained by
the density difference between cold water in downcomer and hot steam-water mixture in evaporator
tubes. Forced circulation HRSG are characterized by horizontal tubes with vertical gas flow and use of
pumps to circulate steam-water mixture inside the tubes. Due to vertical arrangement of forced circu-
lation HRSG’s, the plan area required is less. Therefore, where available floor space is limited, vertical
waste heat boilers are suitable. Different aspects like performance, start up time and field erection
requirements are generally same for both forced and natural circulation boilers but the operation and
maintenance costs are higher for forced circulation HRSG due to presence of circulation pump. Gener-
ally horizontal natural circulation HRSG’s are preferred choice, not withstanding their disadvantage in
respect of space requirements. However, in applications where space constraints exist, vertical HRSG’s
with natural circulation have been recently developed.
HRSG’s generating steam at multipressure are attractive as they extract heat effectively and
efficiently. Each pressure level of steam generation requires an economiser, an evaporator and a super-
458 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
heater as shown. The positioning of these various heat exchangers in the gas stream is critical as general
design philosophy is to exchange heat from gas to fluid at the highest temperature difference available.
This is best accomplished by making gas and steam/water temperature gradient nearly parallel to each
other. In single pressure HRSG the superheater, evaporator and economiser are placed in descending
order along the gas path while in multi pressure HRSG this general order is maintained but various sections
may be interchanged so that a nearly parallel temperature gradient may be achieved. Figure. 11.23 details
temperature variation along the length of HRSG.
HRSG has three basic parameters of pinch point, approach temperature and allowable gas side
pressure drop through heat recovery system which effect the effectiveness of heat exchange. Pinch
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 459
point is the difference between the gas temperature leaving the evaporator section of system and the
saturation temperature corresponding to the steam pressure in that section. Approach temperature is the
difference between the saturation temperature of fluid and inlet temperature of fluid. In general it is seen
that lowering the pinch point shows an increase in total heat recovered in system. However, lowering
pinch point shall require more heat exchange surface and result in increase in cost and gas side draught
losses. Unit investment cost is higher at low pinch point. Thus optimum design is obtained based upon
it. Generally pinch point of 8–10°C is used in view of above aspects.
Lowering the approach temperature can result in more steam production at that pressure level but
high approach temperature offers high level of stability. Higher approach temperatures in economiser
section will eliminate the probability of steam formation in economiser at lower loads or during start up.
The allowable gas side pressure drop through HRSG influences the design and cost of unit. Very
low pressure drop results in large heat exchange surface and low gas velocities. Very small gas velocity
produces higher uncertainty of design with consequence of unstable performances. Generally allowable
pressure drop is 250 mm to 300 mm of H2O.
Stack gas temperature (temperature of exhaust gases leaving HRSG) selection depends upon the
need to effectively recover the heat and also prevent corrosion etc. in stack.
The HRSG may also be of supplementary fired type when heat input by exhaust gases is insuffi-
cient for steam generation of desired quantity and quality. In supplementary fired HRSG burners are also
put in HRSG for increasing its steam generation capacity.
It has a large vertical pipe on the top of which a valve seat is fixed. Valve rests upon this valve
seat. A weight carrier is hung on the top of valve upon which cast iron rings enclosed in cast iron cover
are placed in weight carrier as dead weight.
When the pressure of steam exceeds the total weight of valve, it is lifted and falls back as steam
pressure gets reduced.
High steam and low water safety valve: This is a combined form of safety valve and low water
level indicator. Figure. 11.26 shows the high steam and low water safety valve. It prevents from exces-
sive pressure as it has a simple lever safety valve loaded by two weights as shown. Low water safety
arrangement is activated through float put in boiler shell and prevents from overheating due to low
water. It has two distinct valves as shown in Fig. 11.26. When the pressure inside goes beyond limiting
value then high steam valve gets lifted up and excess pressure of steam is released. When the water level
goes below critical level then low water valve gets raised up as it is fulcrumed and is linked to float on
one end and balance weight on other end. With raising of low water valve the hemispherical valve shifts
up from valve seat and steam escapes out with hissing sound. This hissing sound is loud enough to warn
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 461
attendant about the low water level in boiler. When the water level is correct then high steam valve
simply acts as the dead weight safety valve. A drain pipe is also provided so that the steam getting
condensed can be drained out. Condensation of steam is possible due to throttle of steam during its
release from valves.
Fusible plug: It is a safety device used for preventing the level of water from going down below
a critical point and thus avoid overheating. Fusible plug is mounted at crown plate of combustion
chamber.
Fusible plug has gun metal body and a copper plug put with fusible metal at interface of copper
plug and gun metal body. As water level goes down the heat available from furnace could not be
completely utilized for steam formation and so the overheating may cause melting of fusible metal.
Fusible metal is a low melting point metal. Thus upon melting of lining the copper plug falls down and
462 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
water falls from this opening onto furnace and thus quenches fire.
Pressure gauge: It is mounted at front top. Generally Bourdon type pressure gauge are being
used for pressure measurement. Pressure is continuously monitored so as to avoid occurrence of over
shooting of boiler pressure. Although safety devices to protect boiler against pressure rising beyond a
limit are provided but pressure gauges are also used for monitoring pressure.
Stop valve: It regulates the flow of steam from the boiler as shown in Fig 11.28. This is generally
mounted on highest part of boiler shell and performs function of regulating the flow of steam from
boiler. Stop valve generally has main body of cast steel, valve, valve seat and nut etc. are of brass. Stop
valve can be easily operated by rotating the hand wheel which causes lifting or lowering of spindle, thus
causing opening or closing of valve.
Feed check valve: It is a non return valve at the end of delivery pipe from feed water pump and is placed
on boiler shell slightly below normal water level. Figure 11.29 shows the arrangement in a feed check
valve. It has a check valve whose opening and closing are regulated by the position of spindle. By
hand wheel rotation the position of spindle can be altered suitably. Feed check valve permits unidirec-
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 463
tional flow of water from feed pump to be boiler shell. Under normal running the pressure of feed water
coming from pump is more than pressure inside the boiler and so the feed water continues to enter the
shell. While during the non working of feed pump the pressure in boiler shell is more and so the check
valve gets closed.
Blow off cock: It is used for periodical cleaning by discharging the water and sediments from
bottom of boiler. Figure 11.29 shows the blow off cock. Blow off cock is fitted to the bottom of boiler
shell. Blow off cock has a plug of conical type put into the mating casing. Plug position is altered for
opening and closing the flow. Plug has rectangular opening which when comes in line with inlet and
outlet passage then blow off cock is open and when opening is not in line then cock is closed. Plug is
rotated by spindle.
Blow off cock also helps in regulating the salt concentration as frequent draining helps in throw-
ing out the salt deposited over period of time. Opening blow off cock removes deposited sediments in
boiler.
Manhole and mud box: Manhole provides opening for cleaning, inspection and maintenance
purpose. Mud box is a collection chamber (as shown in Babcock and Wilcox boiler) for collecting the
mud.
Superheater: Its purpose is to super heat steam and is a type of heat exchanger in which steam
flows inside tubes and hot gases surround it. Figure 11.31 shows the smooth tube hairpin type super-
heater (Sudgen’s superheater) and convective and radiant superheater.
464 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
In hair pin superheater the steam generated is passed through isolating valve to U-shaped steel
tubes. Superheated steam leaves superheater through tube connected to steam stop valve. Hot gases
from fire tube are diverted over superheater tubes by damper as shown. These hot gases upon passing
over steel tubes leave boiler through bottom flue. The convective and radiant superheater as shown has
two set of tubes picking up heat through convection and radiation.
Economizer: It is also a heat recovery device in which feed water is heated from heat available
with exhaust gases. Thus hot feed water available from economizer lowers the fuel requirement in
trap casing already has water in it and bucket keeps on floating. As the water level in steam trap
casing rises to the extent that water overflows from the bucket, due to excess weight of water in bucket
the bucket sinks down and discharge valve opens causing water to leave through outlet passage B. After
sufficient water is drained out the weight of water in bucket reduces and the bucket starts floating again.
This rise of bucket closes the discharge valve again.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 467
11.21 BOILER DRAUGHT
Draught refers to the pressure difference created for the flow of gases inside the boiler. Boiler unit has
a requirement of the expulsion of combustion products and supply of fresh air inside furnace for
continuous combustion. The obnoxious gases formed during combustion should be discharged at such
an height as will render the gases unobjectionable. A chimney or stack is generally used for carrying
these combustion products from inside of boiler to outside, i.e. draught is created by use of chimney.
Draught may be created naturally or artificially by using some external device. Draught can be classified
as below:
· In this the pressure difference is created naturally without using any positive displacement
device.
· Artificial draught is created using some external assistance causing forced displacement of
gases. It can be created either by using mechanical devices or steam. Artificial draught can
be of induced type, forced type or combination of two types.
Thus the draught in boiler may be said to be required for, ‘providing and maintaining the supply
of sufficient air for combustion’, ‘expulsion of combustion products from furnace region’ and ‘dis-
charge of burnt gases to atmosphere’. The amount of draught required shall depend upon, ‘type of
boiler’, ‘rate of fuel burning’, ‘rate at which combustion products are produced’ and ‘the air require-
ment rate’. As the pressure difference is very small so draught is measured in ‘mm’ of water. Math-
ematically, pressure due to 1 mm of water column is equivalent to 1 kgf/m2.
During boiler operation the chimney shall be filled with hot gases and the pressure at bottom of
chimney (pb) shall be summation of ‘pressure at chimney outlet’, (p0) and ‘pressure due to hot gas
column of height H’.
Pressure at bottom of chimney = Pressure at outlet + Pressure due to hot gas column
pb = p0 + rg × g × H
where rg is density of hot gases.
However, the pressure at grate level remains unchanged. Pressure difference between the grate
level pressure and bottom of chimney causes flow of gases. This pressure difference is also called static
draught.
Let us consider the combustion of fuel in furnace. Combustion products are released as a result
of this combustion process. Fuel may be considered to be comprising of hydrocarbons.
Fuel + Air ® Combustion products + Heating value
In the hydrocarbon fuel major constituents are carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen etc. As a result of
complete combustion carbon gets transformed into carbon dioxide and hydrogen yields steam. The
combustion products have major fraction of carbon dioxide and steam, but the volume of steam is
negligible compared to volume of combustion product. The volume of combustion products can be
taken equal to volume of air supplied, measured at same temperature and pressure.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 469
Let us assume various properties as,
Ta = Atmospheric temperature, K
Tg = Average temperature of hot gases inside chimney, K
T0 = Absolute zero temperature, 273.15 K
ra = Density of air at absolute temperature, 1.293 kg/m3
rg = Density of hot gases inside chimney, kg/m3
Dp = Pressure difference, draught in Pa
Dp¢ = Pressure difference, draught in kgf/m2
hg = Equivalent height of hot gas column to produce draught, Dp in ‘metres’.
hw = Equivalent height of water column in ‘mm’ to produce draught, Dp
m = Mass of air supplied per kg of fuel
C = Hot gas velocity in chimney, m/s
Mg = Discharge rate through chimney, kg/s
Total mass of combustion products (hot gases) for one kg of fuel = (m + 1), kg
Using the assumption regarding combustion products,
Volume of hot gases at temperature, Tg = Volume of air supplied at temperature, Tg
Massof air
=
Density of air at Tg
m
=
F r ×T I
GH T JK
a
g
0
m × Tg
=
r a × T0
Pressure of hot gases in chimney at grate level = Density of hot gases ´ height of chimney ´
gravitational acceleration
FG Mass of hot gases IJ ´ H ´ g
=
H Volume of hot gases at T K g
R| U|
= S
| (m + 1) |V ´ H ´ g
|| FG m × T IJ ||
T H r ×T K W
g
a 0
= SF
R m + 1 I r × T UV H × g
TH m K T W
a 0
F r ×T I ´ H ´ g
H T K
a 0
=
a
470 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
r a × T0 × H × g
=
Ta
Natural Draught produced = Difference of pressures due to cool air column and hot gas column
of height ‘H’.
Dp =
RS r UV RS
× T0 × H × g
-
UV
( m + 1) × r a × T0 × H × g
T W T
a
Ta m × Tg W
R 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV , Pa
×H×gS
TT H m K T W
Dp = ra × T0
a g
Or
RS 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV , kgf/m
TT H m K T W
Draught in kgf/m2, Dp¢ = ra×T0×H 2
a g
RS 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV , kgf/m
TT H m K T W
Dp¢ = 353 × H 2
a g
RS 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV
TT H m K T W
r a × T0 × H ×
RS r × T × F m + 1 I UV
a g
=
T T H m KW
a 0
g
R m I × T - 1UV, metres
= H × SF
TH m + 1 K T W
g
hg
a
As the 1 mm of water column exerts a pressure of 1 kgf/m2 so the draught in terms of water
column can be given by,
RS 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV , mm of water.
TT H m K T W
hw = ra × T0 × H
a g
Thus natural draught can be mathematically given by Dp, Dp¢, hg and hw.
Actually in boilers this draught requirement is different from that theoretically estimated due to
the draught losses. The magnitude of these losses varies from boiler to boiler due to different arrange-
ments within them. Some of generic losses shall be because of:
· frictional losses due to resistance offered by passage surface roughness, different
equipments as grate, superheater, air preheater, economiser etc. through which gas passes.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 471
· pressure losses in bends, baffles, supports etc.
· kinetic energy required with gases for moving at certain velocity throughout.
Therefore while designing the chimney due considerations should be made for overcoming above
losses. These losses constitute about 20% of the static draught produced.
Hot gas velocity in chimney: Assuming chimney to be frictionless the hot gas velocity in chimney
could be given using the equivalent hot gas column height;
C= 2g × hg , m/s
For the chimney having friction losses, the hot gas velocity shall be lesser. If the equivalent
pressure loss due to friction in hot gas column is given by hf then the velocity of hot gases,
C= c
2g × hg - h f , m/s h
FG hf IJ
=
H
2 g × hg 1 -
hg K
Substituting values for ‘g’
F I
GH JK
hf
C = 4.43 hg 1 -
hg
or C = K × hg
where K is a constant and its value is available for different types of chimneys as given below. It
depends upon the friction loss fraction.
K = 0.825 for brick chimney, and
K = 1.1 for steel chimney
Diameter of chimney: Diameter of chimney could be estimated from the mass flow rate of hot
gases through chimney and its velocity.
Discharge rate
Chimney cross-sectional area, A =
Velocity of hot gases ´ Density of hot gas
4 Mg
Diameter of chimney = ×
π C ⋅ ρg
Discharge through chimney: Mass flow rate of hot gases through chimney could be obtained as,
Mg = Cross-sectional area ´ Velocity of hot gas ´ Density
Mg = A ´ C ´ rg
Mg = A ´ rg ´ K × hg
For hot gas pressure pg , the density of gas rg can be given using perfect gas approximation,
pg
rg = . Here R is gas constant
R Tg
472 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A × pg × K × hg
so Mg =
R Tg
Discharge through chimney can be mathematically maximized for certain conditions. A look at
expression of discharge given earlier shows that for a particular chimney.
RSc h h ´ F 1 I UV
Mg µ
T g GH T JK Wg
= Constant × M
L H × RSFG m IJ × T - 1UVOP 12
N T TH m + 1 K T WQ
g
or Mg 2
g a
Differentiating discharge with respect to hot gas temperature and equating it to zero for optimum
condition,
d Mg
=0
d Tg
Tg 2( m + 1)
we get, =
Ta m
2( m + 1)
or Tg = × Ta
m
d 2 Mg
Upon substituting Tg value in = 0 we see that it is condition for maxima of Mg.
d Tg2
Thus discharge through chimney is maximum for the hot gas temperature given by
Tg = 2 FH m + 1 IK × T a
m
This hot gas temperature shall be slightly more than twice of ambient temperature for maximum
discharge rate through chimney.
For the condition of maximum discharge, draught can be obtained as,
r a × T0 × H × g
Dpfor max. discharge =
2 Ta
In terms of water column,
r a × T0 × H
hw, for max. discharge = mm of water column.
2 Ta
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 473
Maximum discharge could be obtained upon substituting optimum temperature, Tg
K × A × pg × m × H
Mg, max =
2 R × Ta ( m + 1)
For a smooth and frictionless chimney,
2 g × A × pg × m × H
Mg, max = , kg/s
2 R × Ta ( m + 1)
Above expression for maximum discharge rate can also be used for getting the height of chimney
for a given gas flow rate.
Efficiency of chimney: It has been explained in natural draught that the pressure difference is
created due to density difference caused by temperature difference. Hence it is obvious that the flue
gases should leave at quite high temperature for creating required density difference. Thus the flue gases
leave with sufficient heat energy, which could be used in boiler if some other mechanism is employed
for exhaust of flue gases such as artificial draught. Therefore, efficient chimney should have such a
design so that flue gases leave at lowest possible temperature. Efficiency of chimney is quantification of
the cost of natural draught in terms of energy, i.e. the large amount of usable energy going along waste
hot gases. Normally this efficiency of chimney is less than 1 percent.
Chimney efficiency is defined as the ratio of “energy with unit mass of gas in natural draught”
and “the extra heat carried by same mass of gas due to high temperature in natural draught as compared
to that in artificial draught”.
Energy with unit mass of gas in natural draught
Chimney efficiency =
Extra heat carried away in natural draught compared
to artifical draught by unit mass of gas
Let us assume that the temperature of flue gases in artificial draught is Tg,a which will be less than
Tg in natural draught. Let the specific heat of hot flue gases be Cp,g, J/kg × K.
So, energy with unit mass of hot flue gas in nature draught = 1 ´ hg ´ g, joule
RSFG m IJ × T - 1UV
TH m + 1 K T W
g
= 9.81 ´ H
a
Extra heat carried by unit mass of hot gas in natural draught compared to artificial draught
= Cp, g ´ 1 ´ (Tg – Tg, a)
= Cp, g ´ 1 ´ (Tg – Tg, a), joule
RSF m I × T UV
TH m + 1 K T W
g
9.81 ´ H -1
C bT - T g
hchimney = a
p ,g g g,a
Expression for efficiency of chimney shows that it is directly proportional to the height of chim-
ney, but the efficiency is found to be very small even for very tall chimney. It is seen that about more
than 20% of total heat released gets lost along with hot flue gases in case of natural draught. Therefore
the artificial draught becomes more economical in the situation where cost of harnessing the extra heat
carried with flue gases is less than the cost of energy lost in natural draught.
474 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
11.23 ARTIFICIAL DRAUGHT
Artificial draught refers to the externally created draught employing some equipments for it. Its require-
ment is felt, when the natural draught becomes insufficient for exhaust of flue gases. In general it is seen
that for draught requirements being more than 40 mm of water, the natural draught does not work and
becomes highly uneconomical. In the modern large power plants this draught produced by chimney
is insufficient and requires some artificial method. Also the size of boiler units in use today forbid
the use zof natural draught as the flue gas handling capacity is limited. In case of natural draught
the fuel rate upto (20 kg/hr per m2 of grate area could be handled while with artificial draught it
goes up to 300 kg/hr per m2 of grate area. Apart from these limitations the economy of using artificial
draught over natural draught beyond a limit also make it attractive. For same steam generation the fuel
consumption gets reduced by up to 15% with use of artificial draught in a boiler.
Artificial draught may be produced either by mechanical means such as fans, blowers etc. or by
using steam jet for producing draught. Thus artificial draught can be classified as,
(i) Mechanical draught
(ii) Steam jet draught.
Artificial draught systems do not require tall chimney/stack, but small stack is always required
for discharge of flue gases to certain height in atmosphere for minimizing pollution.
In case of forced draught the fan handles air at atmospheric temperature so,
total mass of air handled = mf × m, kg/s
mf × m
Volume of air at absolute zero temperature =
ra
m f × m × Ta
Volume of air at atmospheric temperature = m3/s
r a × T0
p × m f × m × Ta
Power required in forced draught fan =
r a × T0 × h mech
p × m f × m × Ta
Forced draught fan power requirement =
r a × T0 × h mech
(iii) Balanced draught: Sometimes it is seen that forced draught or induced draught alone is not
suitable for boiler unit due to their own inherent limitations. In these situations a combination
of forced draught and induced draught is being used. Such combined arrangement for
476 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
draught is called balanced draught. Here both forced draught fan/blower and induced draught
fan/blower are employed. Forced draught fan ensures complete supply of air for proper
combustion after overcoming all resistances while induced draught fan takes care of post
combustion resistances, thus ensuring complete removal of flue gases. Pressure variation in
balanced draught shows the pressure values through out boiler unit.
(iv) Comparison of forced and induced draught: A comparison of forced and induced draught
system shows that,
· Power requirement is more in case of induced draught fan blower as compared to forced
draught because of hot flue gases being handled by induced draught fan and atmospheric
air being handled by forced draught fan. Induced draught fan size may be upto twice of the
fan size in forced draught. Material of induced draught fan should be capable of handling
hot gases laden with solid particles (ash).
· As the induced draught fan/blower withstands high temperature, so the fan cooling
requirements are very stringent as compared to forced draught.
· Leakage of atmospheric air into furnace due to sub atmospheric pressure inside the induced
draught system causes dilution of flue gases.
In case of forced draught, the pressure inside is more than atmospheric pressure so
chances of leakage of furnace gases out to atmosphere are there. This may cause blow out
upon opening of furnace doors in case of forced draught.
· Combustion rate is better in case of forced draught system due to better air dispersion
across the grate, as compared to induced draught system.
· Maintenance is easy in forced draught fan as compared to induced draught due to their
locations.
(v) Advantages of mechanical draught: Mechanical draught has various advantages in
comparison with natural draught. Such as,
· Better fuel economy due to complete utilization of heat in boiler, i.e. flue gases could be
cooled to lowest possible temperature before exhaust.
· Better combustion rate as compared to natural draught system, because of better distribution
and mixing of air and fuel.
· Combustion and evaporation rates can be easily regulated in case of mechanical draught by
varying operating states of fan/blower.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 477
· Inferior quality fuel may also be used in mechanical draught.
· Height of chimney/stack used in mechanical draught is much smaller as compared to natural
draught.
· Boiler plant efficiency gets improved with mechanical draught.
· Efficiency of mechanical draught is much more than that of natural draught.
· Fuel burning per unit grate area per unit time is up to 300 kg/m2·hr in mechanical draught
as compared to upto 100 kg/m2·hr in natural draught.
· Mass of flue gases handled is more in mechanical draught as compared to natural draught.
· For operation of steam jet draught steam is required, which is available without much
investment.
· Low grade fuels can also be used in furnace with steam jet draught.
· Steam jet draught is simple, economical, requires least attention and minimum space.
· Use of steam and its mixing with ash/burnt residuals prevent formation of clinkers.
RS mah - h f UV
T 538.9 W
w
Equivalent evaporation, (kg/kg of fuel) =
Equivalent evaporation is thus a parameter which could be used for comparing the capacities of
different boilers.
m ( h − hw )
=
m f × C.V.
here mf is the mass of fuel burnt per hour, C.V. is calorific value of fuel used (kcal/kg), m is mass
of steam generated per hour and enthalpies h and hw are that of final steam and feed water, kcal/kg.
Generally high heating value of fuel is used as calorific value of fuel.
(c) Heat loss to dry flue gases: A large portion of heat getting lost goes along with flue gases.
Flue gases leaving boiler comprises of dry flue gases and steam. Heat loss with dry flue
gases can be given by,
Qdry flue = mdfg ´ Cpg ´ (Tg – Ta)
where mdfg is mass of dry flue gas per kg of fuel, Cpg is specific heat of dry flue gas and
Tg and Ta are temperature of flue gas and air entering combustion chamber.
(d) Heat loss to steam in flue gases: Steam is produced due to burning of hydrogen present in
fuel into water vapour. Heat lost with steam in flue gases shall be
Qsteam in flue = ms ´ (hs1 – hf1)
480 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
where ms is mass of steam produced per kg of fuel, hs1 and hf1 are “enthalpy values of steam
at gas temperature Tg and partial pressure of vapour in flue gas” and “enthalpy of water at
mean boiler temperature” respectively.
(e) Heat lost in unburnt fuel: Some portion of heat may get lost in unburnt fuel, which could
be given by the product of mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel and its calorific value, as
Qunburnt = mubf ´ CV
where mubf is mass of unburnt fuel per kg of fuel and CV is calorific value of fuel.
(f) Heat loss due to moisture in fuel: Moisture present in fuel shall also cause the loss of heat. This
moisture shall get evaporated and superheated as fuel is burnt. For evaporation and superheating
of moisture latent and sensible heat requirement shall be met from heat available in boiler due
to burning of fuel. Mathematically, for unit mass of fuel burnt, it can be given as,
Qmoisture = mmoist ´ (hs2 – hf2)
where mmoist is mass of moisture per kg of fuel burnt, hs2 is enthalpy of final steam produced
and hf2 is enthalpy of water at boiler furnace temperature.
(g) Heat loss due to convection, radiation and other unaccountable losses: In a boiler heat also
gets lost due to convection, radiation from the boiler’s surface exposed to atmosphere. The
heat loss may also be there due to unconsumed hydrogen and hydrocarbon etc. Exact
quantification of these losses is not possible, therefore these can be estimated by the
difference of total heat available and cumulative heat loss described from (a) to (f).
Heat loss due to convection, radiation and other unaccounted losses = Heat released by per
kg fuel burnt – S Heat loss components described from (a) to (f).
Qunaccounted = (mf ´ CV) – (Qsteam + Qincomplete + Qdry flue + Qsteam in flue + Qunburnt + Qmoisture)
Heat balance sheet can be drawn after the above different components are quantified. It gives
a quick account of heat released and its distribution for unit mass of fuel burnt or unit time.
Heat balanced sheet shall be as given below.
Table 11.2 Heat balance sheet on per minute basis (unit time basis)
EXAMPLES
12 = 353 ´ 30 S
R 1 - F 20 + 1 I × 1 UV
T 300 H 20 K T W g
Tg = 432.86 K
-F
18 + 1 I 1
20 = 353 H { }
300 H 18 K 573
1
×
H = 37.99 m
Height of chimney = 37.99 m Ans.
3. A boiler house has natural draught chimney of 20 m height. Flue gases are at temperature of
380°C and ambient temperature is 27°C. Determine the draught in mm of water column for maximum
discharge through chimney and also the air supplied per kg of fuel.
Solution:
Given: Height of chimney, H = 20 m, Tg = 653 K, Ta = 300 K
For maximum discharge condition,
Tg
=2 FH m + 1 IK
Ta m
FH
2 1+
1 IK = 653
m 300
m = 11.32 kg air per kg of fuel
LM 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 OP
NT H m K T Q
hw = 353 × H ×
a g
= 353 ´ 60 ´ L
MN 290 - FH 19 IK × 573 OPQ
1 19 + 1 1
= 34.13 mm
Draught = 34.13 mm of water column Ans.
RSFG m IJ × T - 1UV
TH m + 1 K T W
g
9.81 ´ H ´
c × bT - T g
a
Chimney efficiency =
pg g g,a
9.81 ´ 60 ´ RSF
19 I 573 U
=
HT 19 + 1 K × 290 - 1VW
1.0032 ´ ( 573 - 423) ´ 10 3
= 3.431 ´ 10–3 or 0.3431%
Tg = 300 ´ 2 ´ FH 20 + 1 IK = 630 K
20
Natural draught produced in mm of water column,
484 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
RS 1 - F m + 1 I × 1 UV
TT H m K T W
hw = 353 × H ×
a g
-F
20 + 1 I 1
= 353 ´ 80 ´ { }
300 H 20 K 630
1
×
hw = 47.07 mm of water
RSF m I ´ T - 1UV
TH m + 1 K T W
g
9.81 ´ H ´
c ´ cT - T h
a
Efficiency of chimney =
p, g g g,a
9.81 ´ 80 ´ {FH
20 I 630
- 1}
21 K 300
´
=
1.0032 ´ ( 630 - 383) ´ 10 3
= 3.167 ´ 10–3 or 0.3167%
-F
20 I
20 = 353 ´ H { }
H K
1 1
´
300 19 600
∴ H = 35.88 m
= 353 FH m + 1 IK
Tg m
353 F 19 + 1 I
rg =
600
´
H K = 0.619 kg/m
19
3
RSFG m IJ × T - 1UV
TH m + 1 K T W
g
Height of hot gases column, hg = H
a
= 35.88 ´ {FH FH
19 I 600 I
- 1}
20 K 300 K
´
hg = 32.29 m
2.5 ´ 10 3 ´ 20
Mass flow rate of hot gases, Mg = = 13.89 kg/s
3600
Velocity, C= 2 g hg = 2 ´ 9.81 ´ 32.29 = 25.17 m/s
p 2
Mg = D ´ C ´ rg
4
4´M
D=
p ´ c ´ rg
4 ´ 13.89
Diameter of chimney, D=
p ´ 25.17 ´ 0.619
D = 1.06 m
Diameter of chimney = 1.06 m Ans.
7. Determine the capacity of motor required for running induced draught fan and forced draught
fan required for maintaining draught of 50 mm of water column. Consider hot gases to leave boiler at
300°C, coal being burnt per hour at the rate of 2000 kg/hr, air supplied at the rate of 19 kg/kg of coal,
ambient air temperature of 27°C and mechanical efficiency as 90%.
Solution:
P × m × M × T1
Power required in FD fan =
r T0 × h mech
P×m× M ×T
Power required in 1D fan =
r T0 × h mech
Given, T1 = 300 K, T0 = 273 K, T = 573 K, m = 19 kg/kg coal,
M = 2000 kg/hr = 0.556 kg/s, r = 1.293 kg/m3,
hwater = 50 mm or 50 kgf/m2, hmech = 0.90
P = 50 kgf/m2
or
P = 490.5 N/m2
486 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Substituting in expression for power outputs,
490 × 5 ´ 19 ´ 0.556 ´ 300
For FD fan, power =
1.293 ´ 273 ´ 0.90
= 4893.11 W
= 4.89 kW
490 × 5 ´ 19 ´ 0.556 ´ 573
For 1D fan, power = = 9345.84 W
1.293 ´ 273 ´ 0.90
= 9.35 kW
Power for FD fan = 4.89 kW
Power for 1D fan = 9.35 kW Ans.
8. A boiler installation is seen to have operating parameters as given under when natural draught
system, forced draught system and induced draught systems are used. Considering specific heat of hot
gases as 1.0032 kJ/kg × K determine,
(i) the ratio of power required for induced and forced draught system.
(ii) the ratio of heat carried away with flue gases in artificial draught and natural draught.
Artificial draught
Natural draught
Forced Induced
Hot gas temperature, °C 327 27 177
Temperature of surroundings, °C 27 27 27
Mass of air required per
kg of fuel 25 20 20
Solution:
Brake power for induced draught Tg (177 + 273)
= = = 1.5
Brake power for forced draught Ta ( 27 + 273)
Heat carried by hot flue gases in artificial draught for unit mass of fuel burnt
Qg, a d = (20 + 1) ´ 1.0032 ´ (177 – 27)
= 3160.08 kJ per kg of fuel burnt
Heat carried by hot flue gases in natural draught for unit mass of fuel burnt
Qg, ad = (25 + 1) ´ 1.0032 ´ (327 – 27)
= 7824.96 kJ per kg of fuel burnt
Thus it shows that significantly large amount of heat is lost in natural draught as compared to
3160.08
artificial draught. Ratio of heat carried away in artificial and natural draught = = 0.404
7824.96
Ratio of power required = 1.5
Ratio of heat carried away = 0.404 Ans.
9. Determine the actual evaporation per kg of coal and the equivalent evaporation if during
boiler trial of one hour duration following observations are made:
Feed water supply temperature: 27°C
Mean steam generation pressure: 10 bar,
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 487
Dryness fraction of steam generated: 0.95
Feed water supplied: 2500 kg/hr
Coal burnt: 275 kg/hr
Mass of water in boiler after trial = 300 kg less than that at commencenent of trial.
Solution:
From steam table at 10 bar, hf = 762.81 kJ/kg, hg = 2778.1 kJ/kg
hfg = 2015.29 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of steam steam generated, h = hf + x × hfg
= 762.81 + 0.95 ´ 2015.29
h = 2677.34 kJ/kg
Mass of water evaporator per hour = 2500 + 300 = 2800 kg/hr
2800
Water evaporated per kg of coal = = 10.18 kg per kg of coal.
275
Actual evaporation = 10.18 kg per kg of coal Ans.
10.18 ´ 2677.34
Equivalent evaporation = = 12.08 kg per kg of coal
2257
Equivalent evaporation = 12.08 kg per kg of coal Ans.
10. A boiler is being tested for 24 hours and during this trial steam at average pressure of 10 bar,
dry saturated is produced from 15 ton of water consuming 1.5 ton of coal. Composition of coal has 3%
moisture and 4% ash. Feed water is added at 35°C. Determine,
(i) the boiler efficiency,
(ii) the equivalent evaporation per kg of dry coal, and
(iii) the equivalent evaporation per kg of combustible present in coal.
Solution:
Enthalpy of steam generated = hg at 10 bar = 2778.1 kJ/kg
Heat supplied per kg of water for steam generation = 2778.1 – 4.18 ´ 35
= 2631.8 kJ/kg
15 ´ 10 3
Steam generated per kg of coal = = 10 kg
1.5 ´ 10 3
10 ´ 2631.8
Boiler efficiency = = 0.8744 or 87.44%
30.1 ´ 10 3
Boiler efficiency = 87.44% Ans.
10 ´ 2631.8
Equivalent evaporation per kg of dry coal =
2257 ´ (1 - 0.03)
= 12.02 kg
Equivalent evaporation per kg of combustible present in coal
12.02 ´ 0.97
=
0.93
488 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 12.53 kg
Equivalent evaporation per kg of dry coal = 12.02 kg
Equivalent evaporation per kg of combustible = 12.53 kg Ans.
11. During the boiler trial for 24 hours following observations were made.
Steam generation: 16 bar, dry saturated.
Coal consumed: 10,000 kg
Rate of steam generation: 2500 kg/hr
Feed water temperature: 27°C
Total heating surface area: 3000 m2
Total grate area: 4m2
Calorific value of coal: 28000 kJ/kg
Determine:
(i) the mass of coal burnt per m2 of grate per hour
(ii) the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal
(iii) the equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per m2 of total heating surface per hour
(iv) the boiler efficiency
Solution:
10,000
Coal burnt per hour = = 416.67 kg/hr
24
416.67
Coal burnt per m2 of grate per hour =
4
= 104.17 kg/m2 grate surface per hr
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal can be obtained by the ratio of heat added
to steam per kg of coal burnt and latent heat from and at 100°C
Heat added to steam per kg of coal burnt
=
Latent heat from and at100° C
2500
Rate of steam generated per kg of coal = = 5.99 » 6 kg steam/kg coal
416.67
Heat added to steam per kg of coal = 6 [hg at 16 bar – 4.18 ´ 27}
= 6{2794 – 112.86}
= 16086.84 kJ
Latent, heat from and at 100°C = 2257 kJ/kg
16086.84
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal =
2257
= 7.13 kg
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per m2 of total surface per hour
7.13 ´ 416.67
=
3000
= 0.99 kg
7.13 × 2257
Boiler efficiency = = 0.5747 or 57.47%
28000
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 489
Mass of coal burnt per m2 of grate per hour = 104.17 kg
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per kg of coal = 7.13 kg
Equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C per m2 of total heating surface per hour = 0.99 kg
Boiler efficiency = 57.47% Ans.
12. Steam is generated in a boiler at 30 bar 300°C at the rate of 11 kg/s with feed water entering
economiser at 100°C. During one hour test 5000 kg fuel is used in boiler. Calorific value of fuel is
35000 kJ/kg. For the feed water being supplied to boiler to be at 27°C determine;
(i) the equivalent evaporation per kg of fuel
(ii) the boiler efficiency
(iii) the percentage of fuel energy utilised in economiser
Solution:
Constituents Mol. Wt. Volume per m3, (b) Proportional mass C per kg of flue gases,
(c = a ´ b) FG c IJ ´ 12
d =
H S c K 44
(a) At inlet At exit At inlet At exit At inlet At exit
CO2 44 0.084 0.08 3.696 3.52 0.03383 0.03228
O2 32 0.113 0.114 3.616 3.648 Dry flue gas per kg Dry flue gas per kg of
0.8 0.8
of coal = coal =
0.03383 0.03228
= 23.65 kg = 24.78 kg
N2 28 0.803 0.806 22.484 22.568
Total 1.00 1.00 29.796 29.736
492 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
It may be assumed that the specific heat of leakage and flue gases are same.
Heat entering economiser with flue gases and leakage
= (23.65 ´ 1.05 ´ 425) + (1.13 ´ 1.05 ´ 15)
= 10571.61 kJ
Heat leaving economiser with flue gases = (24.78 ´ 1.05 ´ 300)
= 7805.7 kJ
Thus, heat lost in economiser per kg of coal = 10571.61 – 7805.7
= 2765.91 kJ
Heat picked by feed water in economiser per kg of coal
= mw ´ Cp,w ´ DT
Fig. 11.40
Let us now determine the mass of dry flue gas per kg of dry coal for which the mass of carbon per
kg of dry flue gas can be obtained by the following analysis.
Composition by Molecular Mass of Mass per kg Mass of carbon
volume of dry weight constituents of dry flue gas, per kg of
a
flue gas (a) b = dry flue gas
Sa
CO2 = 0.125 44 0.125 ´ 44 = 5.5 0.1815
0.1815 ´ 12
O2 = 0.075 32 0.075 ´ 32 = 2.4 0.0792 = 0.0495
N2 = 0.80 28 0.80 ´ 28 = 22.4 0.7393 44
Sa = 30.3
The dry coal is given to have C as 0.84 kg per kg of coal.
carbon present per kg of coal
Therefore, the mass of dry flue gas per kg of coal =
carbon present per kg of dry flue gas
0.84
= = 16.97 kg dry flue gas per kg of coal
0.0495
For the given coal composition the H2O produced during combustion = 0.04 ´ 9 = 0.36
Given coal has 0.05 kg ash per kg of coal.
Amount of air supplied for combustion of one kg of dry coal
= 16.97 – (1 – ash content – H2O formed)
= 16.97 – (1 – 0.05 – 0.36)
= 16.38 kg
Moisture in coal burnt per kg of coal
Moisture per kg of dry coal =
Mass of dry coal per kg of coal fired
0.015
=
(1 - 0.015)
= 0.0152 kg
494 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Hence, the total moisture per kg of dry coal = 0.36 + 0.0152 = 0.3752 kg
8
Steam generated per kg of dry coal = = 8.12 kg steam
(1 - 0.015)
From steam tables
Enthalpy of steam generated = hat 40 bar, 400°C = 3213.6 kJ/kg
At partial pressure of vapour i.e. 0.075 bar, saturation temperature is 40.29°C
and hg at 0.075 bar = 1168.79 kJ/kg
For the given datum temperature of 15°C the heat available with steam, dry flue gas, moisture in
flue gas, feed water etc. can be estimated as under.
Heat available with steam = 8.12 (3213.6 – (4.18 ´ 15)) = 25585.31 kJ
Heat carried by dry flue gases = (16.97 ´ 1.0032 ´ (150 – 15)
= 2298.28 kJ
Heat carried by moisture in flue gas
= 0.3752 ´ {(168.79 – (4.18 ´ 15)) + 2.0064 ´ (150 – 40.29)}
= 122.39 kJ
Heat available with feed water = 8.12 ´ (27 – 15) ´ 4.18 = 407.29 kJ
Heat available with one kg of coal = 32600 kJ/kg
The heat balance sheet may be prepared for datum state of 15°C as under per kg of dry coal.
Heat Supplied/kg of coal Heat Utilized/kg of coal
Quantity, kJ% Quantity, kJ%
(a) Heat utilized by steam 25585.31 77.51%
Heat available 32600 98.77% (b) Heat carried by dry 2298.28 6.96%
with coal flue gas
Heat available 407.29 1.23% (c) Heat carried by moisture
with feed in flue gas 122.39 0.37
water
(d) Heat loss due to
radiation etc. 5001.31 15.16
Total 33007.29 100% 33007.29 100%
1725.4
Efficiency of heat exchange in air heater = = 59.54%
2897.67
Boiler efficiency = 86.75%
Efficiency of heat exchange in air heater = 59.54% Ans.
16. In a boiler the coal utilized has composition by mass as 85% C, 5% H2, 6% ash and remaining
oxygen. The combustion results in flue gases at 200°C temperature and composition by volume of dry
flue gas as 11% CO2, 1% CO, 8% O2 and 80% N2. The temperature of air is 20°C and the pressure of
flue gas is 1.5 bar. Consider the specific heat of dry flue gas as 1.0032 kJ/kg, specific heat of super-
heated steam 2.05 kJ/kg.K, air to have 23% O2 by mass and calorific value of 1 kg CO getting burnt to
CO2 as 10,000 kJ/kg.
Determine,
(a) total air supplied per kg of coal,
(b) heat carried away by moist flue gas per kg of coal, and
(c) the partial pressure of steam in hot flue gas.
Solution:
Here for getting the mass of air supplied per kg of coal the combustion analysis may be carried out
as under.
Composition Molecular Mass of Mass per kg Mass of
by weight constituents of dry flue carbon per kg of
volume of dry (a) gas dry flue gas
a
flue (b) =
Sa
12
CO2 = 0.11 44 0.11 ´ 44 = 4.84 0.1611 0.1611 ´ = 0.0439
44
12
CO = 0.01 28 0.01 ´ 28 = 0.28 0.0093 0.0093 ´ = 0.0039
28
O2 = 0.08 32 0.08 ´ 32 = 2.56 0.0085 ———————————
N2 = 0.80 28 0.80 ´ 28 = 22.4 0.7457 Total mass of
carbon = 0.0478
Total = 1.00 Sa = 30.04 Sb = 0.9246
0.85
= = 17.78 kg/kg of coal
0.0478
H2O generated during combustion = 0.05 ´ 9 = 0.45 kg/kg of coal
Mass of air supplied per kg of coal = 17.78 – (1 – ash – H2O)
= 17.78 – (1 – 0.06 – 0.45)
= 17.29 kg/kg of coal
Total air supplied per kg of coal = 17.29 kg Ans.
496 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
For the pressure of flue gas being 1.5 bar the partial pressure of steam can be given as
No.of H 2 O mol in flue gas
´ Total pressure
Total no.of mol in flue gas
FH 0.45 IK
18
=
FH 17.78 + 0.45 IK ´ 1.05 = 0.04 bar
30.04 18
The enthalpy of this steam from steam table,
hg at 0.04bar = 2554.4 kJ/kg, Tsat = 28.96°C
Therefore, heat in vapour = 0.45 {(2554.4 – 4.18 ´ 20) + 2.05 ´ (200 – 28.96)}
= 1269.64 kJ/kg of coal
Heat in dry flue gas = 1.0032 ´ (17.78 ´ (200 – 20)) = 3210.64 kJ/kg of coal
0.28
Heat in CO = ´ 17.78 ´ 10000 = 1657.26 kJ/kg of coal
30.04
Total heat carried by most flue gas = 1269.64 + 3210.64 + 1657.26
= 6137.54 kJ/kg of coal
Partial pressure of steam = 0.04 bar
Heat carried by moist flue gas per kg of coal = 6137.54 kJ Ans.
17. A boiler unit generates steam at 20 bar, 300°C from feed water supplied to boiler at 50°C.
Coal used in boiler has calorific value of 30,000 kJ/kg and is used at rate of 600 kg/hr for steam
generation rate of 5000 kg/hr. Determine the overall efficiency of boiler and the equivalent evaporation
of boiler unit at 100°C in kg/hr.
Determine the saving of coal in kg/hr if an economiser fitted to boiler to raise feed water
temperature up to 75°C increases the overall efficiency of boiler unit by 5% for all other things remaining
same.
Solution:
5000
Steam generation per unit coal burnt per hour =
600
msteam = 8.33kg steam/kg of coal
At 20 bar, 300°C, the enthalpy of final steam,
hfinal = 3023.5 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of feed water ,
hwater = 209.33 kJ/kg
8.33(3023.5 − 209.33)
Overall efficiency of boiler =
30000
= 0.7814 = 78.14%
Equivalent evaporation of boiler unit
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 497
msteam ( hfinal − hwater )
=
2257
8.33(3023.5 − 209.33)
=
2257
= 10.386 kg steam per kg of coal
Equivalent evaporation of boiler unit at 100°C in kg/hr
= (10.386 × 600) kg/hr = 6231.6 kg/hr
After fitting economiser the enthalpy of feed water,
hwater = 313.93 kJ/kg
Modified overall efficiency of boiler unit = 78.14 + 5 = 83.14%
Let the coal consumption be mcoal kg per hour.
5000
= = 8.33 kg steam per kg coal
600
Enthalpy of final steam produced at 20 bar, 0.98 dry
hfinal = hf at 20 bar + 0.98 × hfg at 20 bar
= 908.79 + (0.98 × 1890.7)
= 2761.67 kJ/kg
Enthalpy of feed water,
hwater = hf at 60° C = 251.13 kJ/kg
Heat utilized for steam generation = 8.33(2761.67 – 251.13)
= 20912.8 kJ per kg of coal
For the given coal, the heat lost per kg of coal
= 30,000 – 20912.8
= 9087.2 kJ per kg coal
498 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Heat lost with flue gases = 0.86 × 9087.2 = 7814.9 kJ per kg coal
Let the temperature of flue gases leaving boiler be Tgas.
Heat lost with flue gases = 7814.9 = (mflue + mair) × cp gas (Tgas – 293)
7814.19 = (16 + 1) × 1.005 × (Tgas – 293)
Tgas = 750.37 K = 477.37°C Ans.
19. In a boiler unit forced draught fan delivers ambient air at 20°C with velocity of 20 m/s.
The draught lost through grate is 30 mm of water column. Determine the power required to drive the fan
if fan's mechanical efficiency is 80% and coal is burnt at the rate of 1000 kg per hour and air is
supplied at the rate of 16 kg per kg of coal. Ambient pressure and density of air may be taken as 1.01325
bar and 1.29 kg/m3.
Solution:
Total draught loss = Pressure equivalent to velocity head + Draught loss through grate.
Pressure equivalent to velocity head
1 1
=ρV 2 = × 1.29 × (20) 2 = 258 N/m2
2 2
Since 1 mm of water column is equal to 9.81 N/m2;
258
so pressure equivalent to velocity head = = 26.29 mm of water
9.81
Hence total draught loss = 26.29 + 30 = 56.29 mm of water column
Pressure required, p = 56.29 × 9.81, N/m2 = 552.21 N/m2
p·m f ·ma ·Ta
Forced draught fan power requirement =
ρa ·To ·ηmech
1 m +1 1
Draught in mm of water column = hw = 353H − .
Ta m Tg
1 15 + 1 1
hw = 353 × 45 − .
300 15 630
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 499
hw = 26.06 mm of water column Ans.
m Tg
Draught in metres of hot gas column = hg = H . − 1
m + 1 Ta
15 630
hg = 45 . − 1
15 + 1 300
hg = 43.59 metres of hot gas column Ans.
Temperature of chimney gases for maximum discharge,
m +1
Tg,max = Ta ·2·
m
15 + 1
⇒ Tg,max = 300 × 2 × = 640K . Ans.
15
Draught produced for condition of maximum discharge.
1 m + 1 1
h w = 353H − .
Ta m Tg
1 15 + 1 1
= 353 × 45 − × = 26.05 mm
300 15 630
= 26.05 mm of water column Ans.
m Tg
9.81× H × − 1
Efficiency of chimney =
m + 1 Ta
c p, g (Tg − Tg ,a )
15 630
9.81× 45 × × − 1
15 + 1 300
=
1.005 × (630 − 423) × 103
= 2.0556 × 10–3
= 3328.56 kJ
500 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3328.56
% Heat spent in natural draught = × 100
30000
percentage extra heat carried in natural draught = 11.09% Ans.
21. In a boiler installation dry flue gases are formed at the mean temperature of 630 K when
outside air temperature is 300 K. Air is consumed at the rate of 15 kg air per kg of coal and coal is
required at the rate of 1600 kg per hour. Actual draught may be taken as 60% of theoretical draught.
Determine height of chimney, if the various draught losses are 14 mm of water column.
14
Solution: Theoretical draught = = 23.33 mm of water column
0.6
1 m + 1 1
We know hw = 353 × H −
Ta m Tg
1 15 + 1 1
⇒ 23.33 = 353H −
300 15 630
⇒ H = 40.29 m
Height of chimney = 40.29 m Ans.
22. A boiler unit has forced draught fan maintaining draught of 100 mm of water column while
discharging 30 m3/s through outlet section of 1.8m2 area. Ambient temperature is 300 K and assume
mass of 1 m3 of air at NTP as 1.293 kg to find out power of motor of forced draught fan if fan
efficiency is 85%. Determine the power consumption if FD fan is substituted by ID fan of similar
efficiency considering flue gas temperature of 150°C.
Solution: Considering the discharge rate, the velocity of air through outlet
30 m.m f
= = 16.67m/s =
1.8 ρa
Pressure created due to the gases flowing at 16.67 m/s
1 1
= ρV 2 = × 1.293 × (16.67)2
2 2
= 179.66 N/m2
or 18.31 mm of water
Total draught = Static draught + Draught due to discharge
= (100 + 18.31)mm of water
= 118.31 mm of water column
P ⋅ m ⋅ m f Ta
Power of motor of forced draught fan =
ρa To ⋅ ηmech
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 501
118.31 × 9.81 × 300 × 30
= = 45.01 kW
0.85 × 273 × 103
Tg , a
Power consumption of induced draught (ID) fan = PowerFD ×
Ta
423
= 45.01× = 63.46 kW Ans.
300
23. In a boiler installation feed water enters at 30°C and leaves economiser section at 110°C
for being fed into boiler. Steam generated in boiler at 20 bar, 0.98 dry and fed to super heater where
its' temperature is raised up to 300°C. For the coal with calorific value of 30,500 kJ/kg and steam
generation rate of 10kg/kg of coal burnt determine the energy received per kg of water and steam
in economiser, boiler and superheater section as fraction of energy supplied by coal. Take Cp,feed water =
4.18 kJ/kg·K, Cp,superheated steam = 2.093 kJ/kg·K.
Solution:
Fig. 11.41
From steam table, h4 = 3023.5 kJ/kg
hf at 20 bar = 908.79 kJ/kg
hfg at 20 bar = 1890.7 kJ/kg
h3 = 908.79 + (0.98 × 1890.7) = 2761.7 kJ/kg
For feed water, h1 = hf at 30°C = 125.79 kJ/kg
Total heat supplied = (h4 – h1) = (3023.5 – 125.79) = 2897.71 kJ/kg
Heat consumed in economiser = Cp, feed water × (110 – 30)
= 4.18 × (110 – 30) = 334.4 kJ/kg steam
= 334.4 × 8 = 2678.4 kJ/kg coal
Heat consumed in boiler = h3 – h2 = 2761.7 – (Cp feed water × 110)
= 2301.9 kJ/kg steam
= 2301.9 × 8 = 18415.2 kJ/kg coal
Heat consumed in super heater = h4 – h3 = 3023.5 – 2761.7
= 261.8 kJ/kg steam
= 261.8 × 8 = 2094.4 kJ/kg coal
Heat provided by burning of coal = 30,500 kJ/kg coal
Fraction of energy consumed in economiser
2678.4
= = 0.0878 or 8.78% Ans.
30,500
502 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
18415.2
Fraction of energy consumed in boiler = = 0.6038 or 60.38% Ans.
30500
2094.4
Fracton of energy consumed in superheater = = 0.0687 or 6.87%
30500
-:-4+15-
11.1 Define boiler.
11.2 Classify the boilers and briefly describe each type of them.
11.3 Enlist the requirements of a good boiler.
11.4 Differentiate between fire tube and water tube boilers.
11.5 Describe briefly a vertical boiler. Also give its’ neat sketch.
11.6 Sketch and completely label a Lancashire boiler. Also explain its’ working.
11.7 Sketch and describe working of Locomotive boilers.
11.8 What do you understand by high pressure boilers?
11.9 Explain working of Bacock and Wilcox boiler.
11.10 Sketch and describe a Stirling boiler.
11.11 Sketch and describe working of Loeffler boiler.
11.12 Differentiate between mountings and accessories.
11.13 Classify mountings into safety fittings and control fittings.
11.14 Describe superheater, economiser and air preheater with neat sketches. Also indicate suitable
location of these on a boiler with line diagram.
11.15 Write short notes on, water level indicator, safety valves, fusible plug, feed check valve, pressure
gauge, stop valve and blow off cock.
11.16 Define boiler draught and also classify it.
11.17 Describe functions of chimney in a boiler.
11.18 Obtain the expression for the natural draught in terms of height of water column. Also state the
assumption made.
11.19 Derive the condition for maximum discharge through a chimney in natural draught.
11.20 Compare natural draught with artificial draught.
11.21 Describe briefly different types of mechanical draught.
11.22 Compare the power requirements for forced draught and induced draught.
11.23 Define equivalent evaporation and also give its significance.
11.24 Describe balanced draught.
11.25 What is meant by boiler trial? Explain.
11.26 Determine the height of chimney required to produce draught equivalent to 16.7 mm of water
column for the flue gases at 300°C and ambient temperature of 20°C. Take the air requirement to
be 20 kg/kg of fuel. [30 m]
11.27 Calculate the draught produced in mm of water by chimney of 35 m height, flue gas temperature
of 643 K, boiler house temperature of 307 K and air supplied at 18.8 kg per kg of coal.
[20 mm]
11.28 Show that the height of chimney required for producing a draight equivalent to 15 mm of water
can not be less than 30 m, if the flue gas temperature is 250°C, ambient temperature is 20°C and
minimum 18 kg air per kg of fuel is required.
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 503
11.29 In a boiler installation the height of chimney is 38 m and the hot gas temperature is 570 K and
ambient air temperature is 300 K. Considering the diameter of chimney to be 2m, air/fuel ratio
being 19 determine the mass flow rate of flue gases flowing out. [3012 kg/min]
11.30 Determine the percentage of excess air supplied in a boiler where coal having 80% C, 6% moisture,
14% ash by mass is burnt inside. Hot gas temperature is 570 K and ambient air temperature is
300 K. The height of chimney is 30 m to produce draught equivalent to 1.5 cm of water column.
[20.1%]
11.31 For the maximum discharge condition through a chimney having height of 15 m determine the
draught in mm of water when ambient air temperature is 15°C. [9.2 mm]
11.32 Determine the efficiency of chimney which operates with hot gas temperature of 370°C in natural
draught and if it is operated with artificial draught the hot gas temperature drops down to 150°C.
The height of chimney is 45 m, air/fuel ratio is 24 and ambient temperature is 35°C, Take Cp for
hot gases as 1.004 kJ/kg × K. [0.2%]
11.33 In a boiler chimney the different pressure losses are measured to be as under,
Pressure loss on grate and boiler flues = 6 mm of water in each.
Pressure loss in bends and chimney duct = 2 mm of water in each.
Pressure head causing flow of hot gases = 1.2 mm of water.
Determine the height and diameter of chimney if air/coal ratio is 14, average coal consumption is
2000 kg/hr, hot gas temperature is 300°C, ambient air temperature is 310 K and actual draught is 0.8
times theoretical draught. [44.8 m, 1.6 m]
11.34 Determine the power required for a forced draught and induced draught fan in a boiler having coal
consumption of 25 kg/min and air/fuel ratio of 19 by mass. The ambient air temperature and hot
gas temperature at exit are 30°C and 140°C respectively. Draught required is equivalent to 32.2 mm
of water and mechanical efficiency of motor/fan is merely 70%. [4.16 hp, 5.97 hp]
11.35 Determine the capacity of motor required for running forced draught fan to maintain draught of
50 mm of water when the hot flue gas temperature and boiler house temperature are 175°C and
30°C respectively. The boiler has coal requirement of 25.4 kg/hr and the flue gases are produced
at the rate of 19 kg per kg of coal burnt. Considering mechanical efficiency of 78% compare the
power requirement of forced draught and induced draught arrangement.
[50.5 hp, FD requires 33% less power than 1D]
11.36 A boiler has equivalent evaporation of 1300 kg/hr from and at 100°C. The fuel consumption per
hour is 159.5 kg/hr and the boiler efficiency is 72%. Determine actual equivalent evaporation if
feed is supplied at 110°C to generate steam at 100 kg/m2 per hour and 15 bar, 200°C. Also find
calorific value of coal burnt and the grate area.
[1255 kg/hr, 25498 kJ/kg, 12.6 m2]
11.37 Determine equivalent evaporation per kg of coal and efficiency of boiler when it consumes coal
at the rate of 52 kg/hr and steam is generated at 7 bar, 0.907 dry, 541.7 kg/hr from feed water
supplied at 40°C.
[11.075 kg per kg of coal, 83.3%]
11.38 During a boiler trial for 24 hour the following is observed;
Steam generated = 160000 kg
Mean steam pressure = 12 bar
State of steam generated = 0.85
Feed water temperature = 30°C
Coal burnt = 16000 kg
504 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
C.V. of coal = 33400 kJ/kg
Determine equivalent evaporation from and at 100°C and efficiency of boiler.
[10.45 kg/kg of coal, 70.65%]
11.39 A boiler has air supplied at 20°C and flue gas temperature of 220°C. The coal burnt has composition
by mass of 85% C, 3.9% H, 1.4% O and remaining ash. Volumetric composition of dry flue gas is
12.7% CO2, 1.4% CO, 4.1.% O2, 81.8% N2. The dew point temperature of wet flue gases is 50°C.
Calorific value of coal may be taken as 10157.4 kJ/kg. Take Cp of dry flue gas as 1.0032 kJ/kg × K,
Cp of superheated steam as 1.5048 kJ/kg × K.
Determine the heat carried away by dry flue gas, heat carried by moisture from combustion and
heat loss due to incomplete combustion of carbon for per kg of coal burnt.
[3080.7 kJ/kg, 969.8 kJ/kg, 2027.3 kJ/kg]
11.40 Draw heat balance sheet for a boiler whose 24 hour trial yields following;
Ambient temperature = 35°C
Coal burnt = 19200 kg, Ash collected = 1440 kg,
Combustion in ash = 54 kg, Steam generated = 198000 kg,
Moisture in coal = 2.16%,
Steam temperature = 198.9°C, Feed water temperature = 150°C, Flue gas temperature = 315°C, Coal
composition by mass = 83.39% C, 4.56% H2, 5.05% O2, 0.64% S, 1.03% N2, 5.33% ash
Flue gas analysis by volume
= 12.8% CO2, 6.4% O2, 0.2% CO, 80.6% N2
The partial pressure of steam = 0.07 bar,
Specific heat of steam = 2.0064 kJ/kg × K
[Heat supplied in steam generation = 66.62%
Heat carried by dry flue gas = 13.38%,
Heat carried by moisture = 3.76%,
Heat carried by ash = 0.28%,
Unaccounted heat = 15.96%]
11.41 Steam is generated at 100000 kg/hr from a boiler at 100 bar, 500°C with feed water supplied at
160°C. The fuel burnt in boiler has calorific value of 21000 kJ/kg and boiler efficiency is 88%.
Determine rate of fuel burnt per hour and percentage of total heat absorbed in economiser,
evaporator and superheater. [14592 kg/hr, 27.09%, 48.84%, 24.07%]
11.42 Compare the steam generation capacities of two boilers A and B for which operating parameters
are, Steam generation pressure = 14 bar, feed water temperature = 27°C, Specific heat of feed water
= 41.8 kJ/kg × K, Specific heat of steam = 2.1 kJ/kg × K,
For boiler A: State of steam = 0.9 dry
Boiler efficiency = 73%
Calorific value of coal = 34000 kJ/kg
For boiler B: State of steam = 240°C
Boiler efficiency = 79.5%
Calorific value of coal = 46000 kJ/kg
[For boiler A 10 kg/kg of coal burnt, for boiler B 14 kg/kg of coal burnt]
Boilers and Boiler Calculations ___________________________________________________ 505
11.43 A boiler generates steam at 15 bar, 0.95 dry from feed water entering at 65°C, 2040 kg/hr. Dry coal
burnt is 232 kg/hr and mean boiler house temperature is 25.3°C and flue gas temperature is 440°C.
Consider partial pressure of steam as 0.07 bar.
Composition of dry coal by mass: 83% C, 6% H2, 5% O2, 6% ash.
Composition of dry flue gas by volume: 10.50% CO2, 1.3% CO, 7.67% O2, 80.53% N2
Higher calorific value of dry coal = 34276 kJ/kg
Specific heat of dry flue gas = 0.9948 kJ/kg × K
Determine (a) total mass of flue gases per kg of coal, (b) percentage of excess air supplied, (c)
heat balance sheet per kg of dry coal
[17.58 kg/kg of coal, excess air = 49.51%, Heat taken by steam = 62.02%,Heat taken by dry flue
gas = 21.1%, Heat by moisture = 5.32%, Unaccounted = 11.56%]
506 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
12
Steam Engine
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Steam engine is a device which is especially designed to transform energy, originally dormant or poten-
tial, into active and usefully available kinetic energy. Origin of reciprocating steam engine dates back to
BC 200. Steam engine is an exceedingly ingenious, but unfortunately, still very imperfect device for
transforming heat obtained by chemical combination of combustible substance with air into mechanical
energy. In steam engine the mechanical effect is seen due to the expansion of steam which is generated
in boiler and supplied to steam engine. Steam engines have been successfully used in the mill, driving
locomotive or steam boat, pumps, fans, blowers, small electricity generators, road rollers etc.
A steam engine plant shall have boiler, condenser, feed pump along with steam engine. Steam
generated in boiler is sent to steam engine where it is expanded upto certain pressure. Steam leaving
engine are fed to condenser where steam gets converted into condensate (water) which is sent back to
boiler through feed pump. Figure 12.1 shows the schematic of simple steam engine plant.
Fig. 12.13 Modified Rankine cycle on P-V diagram for steam engines
Here expansion process is shown to be terminated at state 5 and exhaust port is opened at this
point, thereby causing sudden drop of pressure as shown in 5-6. Exhaust of dead steam occurs from 6
to 4. It is obvious from P-V diagram that the terminating expansion process before piston reaching dead
centre shortens the expansion stroke length although actual work output from engine does not get
affected. This modified form of cycle is called as ‘modified Rankine cycle’. In case of steam engine
with clearance volume the modified Rankine cycle is as shown by 1¢2564¢1¢ while for engine without
clearance volume it is given by 125641. Practically steam engine always has clearance volume but for
the ease of mathematical analysis it may be considered to be without clearance volume. Therefore such
cycle without clearance is also termed as hypothetical cycle. T-S representation of the modified Rankine
cycle is shown in Fig. 12.14.
V5
Here expansion ratio, r = and V1 = 0 as zero clearance is there.
V2
W = (p1 × V2) + (p1 × V2 ln r) – p3 × V5
Work output neglecting clearance volume;
Wwithout CV = p1 V2 (1 + ln r) – p3 V5
For steam engine cycle considering clearance volume cycle work shall be,
W = Area 1¢2564¢1¢ on p-V diagram
W = Area 1290 + Area 2589 – Area 4680 – Area 11¢4¢4
FG V IJ – (p
HV K × V6) – (p1 – p3) V1¢
5
W = (p1 V2) + p1 V2 ln 3
2
W = (p1 V2) + p1 V2 ln r – (p3 V6) – (p1 – p3) V1¢
As V 5 = V6
5
or,
mepwithout =
k p V (1 + ln r ) - a p
1 2 b × r × V2 fp
CV r × V2
p1 (1 + ln r )
mepwithout CV = – pb
r
In case of cycle with clearance volume,
W with CV
mepwith CV =
Stroke volume
a f a
p1V2 (1 + ln r ) - pb × r × V2 - p1 - pb × Vc f
=
aV5 - VC f
p V (1 + ln r ) - a p × r V f - aa p f f
- pb × Vc
arV - V f
1 2 b 2 1
mepwith CV =
2 c
518 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
12.5 INDICATOR DIAGRAM
Indicator diagrams for steam engine are shown in Fig. 12.15. Hypothetical indicator diagram shown by
cycle abcde and the actual indicator diagram for an engine are given here. Hypothetical indicator dia-
gram is obtained considering all processes in cycle to be ideal and assuming no heat loss and pressure
drop etc.
Radius =FH D + d IK , m
2
Hence, torque T = (W – S)g × F
H 2 IK , N × m.
D+d
(W − S ) D + d
Brake horse power = ⋅ ( 2 π N ) , H.P.
4500 2
(W − S ) ⋅ g ( D + d )
Brake power in kW, BP = ⋅ ( 2 π N ) , kW
1000 × 60 2
Heat equivalent of Brake power may be obtained by converting it from kW to kcal/min, i.e.
BP ´ 60
Qa = , kcal/min
4.18
(b) Heat lost in condensate, Qb = ms × hs3
(c) Heat lost in cooling water, Qc = mw cp,w (Tw, out – Tw, in), where mw is mass flow rate
of cooling water in kg/min.
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 523
(d) Unaccounted heat lost, Qd = Q1 – Qa – Qb – Qc
Other Performance Parameters: Other performance parameters of steam engine comprise of
different efficiencies, steam consumption etc. For getting different efficiencies of engine the estimation
of indicated power becomes necessary.
(i) Calculation of indicated power: Indicated power of steam engine refers to the power
developed inside the engine. It is called indicated power because it is obtained using a
mechanism called indicator diagram arrangement. Mechanism is explained along with internal
combustion engines.
Indicator diagram has the actual pressure and volume variation plotted on p-V diagram.
For a single acting steam engine, the indicated power can be given by,
FG p IJ
× L × A1 × N
H K
mep1
IP1 = , H.P.
4500
where
FG A IJ
HL K
´ C , here Ad and Ld are area and length of
d
pmep1 = Mean effective pressure, i.e.
d
diagram and C is indicator spring constant in N/cm2 ´ cm travel.
F p D I for bore diameter being D
= Piston surface area, i.e. G
2
H 4 JK
p
A1 p
L = Stroke length
N = Speed of rotation in r.p.m.
For a double acting engine, the indicated power shall be sum of the indicated power
developed on cylinder head side and crank end side both.
FG p × L × A1 × N IJ
H K
mep1
Power developed on cylinder head side, IP1 = , H.P.
4500
Similarly,
FG p IJ
× L × A2 × N
H K
mep2
Power developed on crank end side, IP2 = , H.P.
4500
s1 - hs 3
Nomenclature is similar to that used in heat balance.
Ratio of thermal efficiency to Rankine efficiency is given as the relative efficiency.
Thermal efficiency
Relative efficiency, hRelative = .
Rankine efficiency
(i) Throttle governing: Throttle governing employs throttling of steam at inlet to steam engine
thereby varying the output from engine. In throttle governing the cut-off point in engine is kept constant
and only pressure of steam entering steam engine is altered. Throttling of steam at inlet is shown on
p-V diagram in Fig. 12.19. In throttle governing the throttle action causes wastage of steam energy as
526 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
the available heat drop gets reduced due to it. Thermal efficiency of steam engine gets reduced due to
throttling of steam at inlet to steam engine.
p-V diagram shows that at full load cycle is abcde. At reduced loads the throttling causes reduction
in steam engine inlet pressure resulting in cycles given by a¢b ¢c ¢de, a¢¢b¢¢ c¢¢de, a¢¢¢b¢¢¢c¢¢¢de. Due to
throttle action the work output gets reduced as evident from modified cycles shown on p-V diagram.
Pressure ‘pa ’ at full load is throttled to pa ¢, pa ¢¢, pa¢¢¢ etc. depending upon load on engine. In throttle
governing of steam engines the steam consumption is directly proportional to indicated power. There-
fore, graphical pattern between steam consumption and indicated power is a straight line as shown in
Fig. 12.20. Straight line variation between steam consumption and indicated power is called ‘Willan’s
law’ and straight line is called Willan’s line. Willan’s law is given by, m = (S ´ ip) + C. Here ‘S’ is slope
of Willan’s line, ‘C’ is steam consumption at zero indicated power and ‘ip’ is indicated power at any
point.
UV
(i) Tandem compound engines
(ii) Woolf compound engines
(iii) Receiver compound engines W Cross type compounding.
Arrangement in each type of compounding is described ahead.
(i) Tandem compound engines: Tandem type compounding of steam engines has the in line
cylinders having pistons mounted on the same piston rod which is further having crosshead and con-
necting rod providing power output at crankshaft. Figure 12.22 shows schematic of tandem compound
528 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
steam engine having two in line cylinders. Steam at high pressure first enters the HP cylinder and after
getting partially expanded enters the LP cylinders. Two pistons of HP and LP cylinders are mounted
such that the two cylinders produce power output without any phase difference. Maximum output and
minimum output from both cylinders is available at same crank angle position and output is of additive
type i.e. maximum torque from compound engine.
(a) Thermal stresses and phenomenon of condensation and reevaporation is reduced due to
lesser temperature variation in different steam engine cylinders.
(b) Loss of work due to condensation of steam is reduced as the condensation and
reevaporation is utilised in cylinders subsequent to first cylinder. Loss due to condensation
is only there with last cylinder.
(c) Due to reduced pressure difference the chances of leakage are reduced.
(d) Due to expansion occurring in parts in different cylinders the reheating can be employed,
if desired to control condensation of steam.
530 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(e) In compound steam engine the HP cylinder is fed with high pressure steam so the sturdy
structure requirement is there only for HP cylinder. LP cylinders need not be of very sturdy
type due to low pressure steam entering it although volume of LP cylinder has to be large.
Due to lighter reciprocating parts the vibrations are also minimized.
(f) Compound steam engine is capable of getting started at any crank position due to phase
difference between different cylinders.
(g) Compound steam engines are better balanced and more uniform torque is available, thus
requiring light flywheel.
(h) Due to multi cylinder engine the reliability of compound steam engine is better as in the event
of failure of even one cylinder the reduced power will be available from other cylinder.
(i) Compound steam engines are cheaper than simple steam engine for same power output and
efficiency.
(j) Steam economy is increased by 10 to 25% at rated load for non-condensing engine and by
15 to 40% for condensing engine.
Disadvantages of compound steam engine: Disadvantages with compounding are as under:
(a) Compound steam engine requires more maintenance and attention due to complexity.
(b) Lubrication requirements are excessive because of increased wear and tear in engine parts.
(c) Heat losses are more due to large surface area of compound engines.
(d) Compound steam engines are bulky and require large space.
Vh
where rHP and dfHP are expansion ratio and diagram factor for HP cylinder. So, rHP =
Vb
Hypothetical indicator work from LP cylinder
= [p3 Vc (1 + ln rLP) – p5 × Vd ]
532 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Actual indicator work from LP cylinder
= [p3 Vc (1 + ln rLP) – p5 × Vd ] × dfLP
Vd
where rLP and dfLP are expansion ratio and diagram factor for LP cylinder. Here rLP = .
Vc
Total actual indicator work from compound steam engine
= [p1 Vb ( 1 + ln rHP) – p3 × Vh] × dfHP + [p3 Vc (1 + ln rLP) – p5 × Vd ] × dfLP
Expansion ratio and diagram factors for two cylinders may be same or different.
Loss of work due to unresisted expansion can be quantified by the difference between total
hypothetical output and actual output from compound engine
Loss of work = Area of total hypothetical diagram – (Area of hypothetical HP diagram + Area of
hypothetical LP diagram)
= Aabdef – (Aabhog + Agcdef )
Mean effective pressures of both cylinders may be given separately or with reference to common
cylinder.
Mean effective pressure of HP cylinder
Area of indicator diagram for HP cylinder
=
Stroke volume for HP cylinder i.e.
length of diagram for HP
WHP
mepHP =
D VHP
Similarly,
Mean effective pressure of LP cylinder
Area of indicator diagram for LP cylinder
=
Stroke volume for LP cylinder i.e.
length of diagram for LP
WLP
mepLP =
D VLP
Mean effective pressures can be mathematically given as below,
mepHP =
a
p1 1 + ln rHP f –p 3
rHP
mepLP =
a
p3 1 + ln rLP f –p 5
rLP
In case of multi cylinder engines as in case of compound steam engines mean effective pressures
when defined separately offer difficulty in comparing them. Therefore, mean effective pressure is
defined in reference to LP cylinder, which means it is assumed that the stroke volume of LP cylinder is
used for all cylinders and the mean effective pressure values can be directly used for comparing work
output from respective cylinders. In case of compound engine having HP and LP cylinders the mean
effective pressure of HP cylinder referred to LP cylinder can be given as below.
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 533
Mean effective pressure of HP referred to LP cylinder,
mepHP ´ Stroke volume of HP cylinder
mepHP ref LP =
Stroke volume of LP cylinder
mepHP ´ D VHP
or, mepHP ref LP =
D VLP
Mathematical conditions for different basis of compounding steam engine cylinders can be given
as below.
(a) For equal initial piston loads on all pistons the loads on both HP and LP cylinder pistons can
be equated. Mathematically,
Load on HP piston = Load on LP piston
(p1 – p3) × AHP = (p3 – p5 ) ALP
where AHP and ALP are cross section areas of HP and LP piston respectively
(b) For equal power developed in each cylinder the power developed in HP and LP cylinders
can be given as,
Power developed in HP cylinder = Power developed in LP cylinder
Work output in HP cylinder = Work output in LP cylinder
mepHP ´ DVHP = mepLP ´ DVLP
or
mepHP ´ D VHP
mepLP =
D VLP
=
c mep HP ref LP h a
´ dfHP + mepLP ´ dfLP f
dfcombined
where ‘df ’ refers to diagram factor.
EXAMPLES
1. A steam engine operates with steam being supplied at 0.2 MPa, 250°C and expanding upto 0.3
bar. Steam is finally released out at 0.05 bar. Determine the modified Rankine cycle efficiency and
compare it with the efficiency of Carnot cycle operating between given limits of pressure. Neglect pump
work.
Solution:
Here states 1, 2, and 3 refer to cut-off point, state at the end of expansion and after release from
engine.
Fig. 12.29 p-V and T-s representation for modified Rankine cycle
At inlet to engine, from steam tables,
h1 = 2971 kJ/kg
s1 = 7.7086 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at 2 be x2.
s1 = s2;
s2 = 7.7086 = sf at 0.3 bar + x2 × sfg at 0.3 bar
Þ x2 = 0.99
v2 = vf at 0.3 bar + x2 × vfg at 0.3 bar = 5.1767 m3/kg
h2 = 2601.97 kJ/kg
Work output from engine cycle per kg of steam = (h1 – h2) + v2(p2 – p3)
= (2971 – 2601.97) + 5.1767 (0.3 – 0.05) ´ 102
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 537
= 511.95 kJ/kg
Heat input per kg of steam = h1 – hf at 0.05 bar
= 2971 – 137.82 = 2833.18 kJ/kg
511.95
Efficiency of modified Rankine cycle = = 0.1807
2833.18
= 18.07 %
In order to find out Carnot cycle efficiency let us find out saturation temperature corresponding to
0.2 MPa and 0.05 bar.
Tmax = Tsat at 0.2 MPa = 120.23°C or 393.23 K
Tmin = Tsat at 0.05 bar = 32.88°C or 305.88 K
Tmin
Carnot cycle efficiency = 1 – = 0.2221 or 22.21%
Tmax
Fig. 12.30
538 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At state 2, s1 = s2
s2 = 7.3614 = sf at 0.75 bar + x2 × sfg at 0.75 bar
Þ x2 = 0.9848
v2 = vf at 0.75 bar + x2 × vfg at 0.75 bar
v2 = 2.1833 m3/kg
h2 = hf at 0.75 bar + x2 × hfg at 0.75 bar
h2 = 2628.35 kJ/kg
h4 = hf at 0.25 bar = 271.93 kJ/kg
Work output from steam engine per kg of steam,
wnet = (h1 – h2) + v2(0.75 – 0.25) ´ 102
= 157.015 kJ/kg
Heat added, qadd = (h1 – h4) = 2676.2 – 271.93 = 2404.27 kJ/kg
w net
Efficiency of modified Rankine cycle h = = 0.0653 or 6.53%
qadd
Let us now consider the expansion to occur up to condenser pressure i.e. state 6
s1 = s2 = s6 = 7.3614 kJ/kg × K
s6 = 7.3614 = sf at 0.25 bar + x6 × sfg at 0.25 bar
Þ x6 = 0.9323
h6 = hf at 0.25 bar + x6 × hfg at 0.25 bar = 2459.38 kJ/kg
v6 = vf at 0.25 bar + x6 × vfg at 0.25 bar = 5.784 m3/kg
p p
Given volume of cylinder, V = × d2 × L = ´ (0.3)2 ´ 0.6 = 0.0424
4 4
V
In a stroke the mass of steam at 2, m = = 0.0194 kg
v2
Let the modified stroke length be L¢ m.
Volume requirement at 6, V¢ = m × v6 = 0.0194 ´ 5.784
V¢ = 0.1122 m 3
p
or V¢ = d2 L¢ = 0.1122
4
Þ L¢ = 1.5873 m or 158.73 cm
Modified Rankine cycle efficiency = 6.53%
New stroke length = 158.73 cm Ans.
3. A double acting steam engine has bore of 30 cm and stroke to bore ratio of 2 with cut-off
occurring at 40% of stroke. Steam enters the engine cylinder at 7.5 bar and exhausts at 0.1 bar. Engine
runs at 180 rpm. Neglecting clearance volume and considering diagram factor of 0.6 determine the
indicated horse power.
Solution:
V1
Cut off occurs at 40% of stroke, so 0.4 =
V2
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 539
Fig. 12.32
Fig. 12.33
Theoretically,
mep ´ L ´ A ´ N
Indicated power output =
60
5.215 ´ 0.40 ´ p ´ ( 0.3) 2 ´ 240 ´ 10 2
=
60
= 235.92 kW or 316.37 hp.
Actual indicated power 100
Diagram factor = = = 0.4238
Theoretical indicated power 235.92
Indicated work
Indicated thermal efficiency =
Heat added
Here, steam supplied is 18 kg/min or 0.3 kg/s.
542 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
235.92 235.92
Indicated thermal efficiency = =
m ´ qadd 0.3 ´ 2490.91
= 0.3157 or 31.57%
Fig. 12.34
77.77
= = 0.3304 or 33.04%
235.36
235.36 235.36
Thermal efficiency of cycle = = = 0.1090 or 10.90%
qadd 2159.12
Fig. 12.35
Actual mean effective pressure mepactual = Hypothetical mean effective pressure ´ diagram factor
= 9.63 ´ 0.8 = 7.704 bar » 7.70 bar
Indicated power = mepactual ´ Effective area ´ Piston speed
60 ´ 0.7457
= 7.70 ´ 102 ´ A ´ 2
0.9
Þ A = 0.03228 m2
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 545
Let diameter of piston be D meter.
Since it is double acting engine so this area A calculated shall include area on both sides of piston.
A = 2 × Apiston + Apiston rod
A= 2× FH p D IK + eb4 ´ 10 g ´ p j
2 -2 2
4 4
0.03228 = e 2 ´ ´ D j + e ´ b 4 ´ 10 g j
p 2 p -2 2
4 4
Þ D = 0.1405 m or 14.05 m
Volume 2.49 ´ 10 -3
Dryness fraction at cut-off point, x1 = =
m ⋅ vg at15bar ( 0.052293 ´ 0.13177)
x1 = 0.4269
Volume at point of release, V2 = V6 + 0.9 (V3 – V6) = 0.010478 m3
Volume,V2
Dryness fraction at point of release, x2 =
m × vg at 3bar
0.010478
=
( 0.052293 ´ 0.6058)
x2 = 0.3307
Let us find out index of expansion n for process 1–2.
P1 V1n = P2 V2n
15 ´ (2.942 ´ 10–3)n = 3 ´ (0.010478)n
n = 1.267
FG P V - P V IJ
H n -1 K
1 1 2 2
Work done in a stroke =
= 10 ´ GH
F 15 ´ 2.942 ´ 10 - 3 ´ 0.010478 IJ
-3
2
1.267 - 1 K
= 4.755 kJ
4.755
Work done per kg of steam =
Steam available per stroke
4.755
= = 90.93 kJ/kg
0.052293
Change in internal energy during expansion = u1 – u2
u1 = uf at 15 bar + x1 × ufg at 15 bar = 1590.79 kJ/kg
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 547
u2 = uf at 3 bar + x2 × ufg at 3 bar
u2 = 1216.73 kJ/kg
Applying first law of thermodynamics,
Dq = Du + Dw = (u2 – u1) – Dw
= (1216.73 – 1590.79) – 90.93
= – 464.99 kJ/kg
Total mass of steam during expansion = 0.052293 kg Ans.
Dryness fraction at cut off and release = 0.4269, 0.3307
Heat leakage = 464.99 kJ/kg steam
9. Determine dryness fraction and missing quantity of steam in kg/hr at point of cut-off and point
of release for the following data available from steam engine;
Point of cut off: 30% of stroke
At any point on compression curve: pressure = 4 bar, indicated volume = 0.15m3
At any point on expansion curve immediately after cut off: pressure = 12 bar
Pressure at release: 5 bar
Indicated volume at release: 0.5 m3
Bore and stroke: 60 cm and 120 cm
Clearance volume: 10% of stroke volume
Mass of steam admitted = 1.5 kg/stroke.
Number of working strokes = 180 per minute.
Also determine the percentage re-evaporation during expansion.
Solution:
0.1356
= = 0.455
1.8243 ´ 0.16333
Missing quantity per hour = (1.8243 – 1.8243 ´ 0.455) ´ 180 ´ 60
= 10737.83 kg
At point of release
V2 0.5
Dryness fraction at point of release, x2 = =
m × vgat 5bar 1.8243 ´ 0.3749
x2 = 0.731
Missing quantity per hour = (1.8243 – 1.8243 ´ 0.731) ´ 180 ´ 60
= 5299.96 kg
Percentage re-evaporation during expansion
4 4
Solving, we get
P2 = 192 kPa
11. A double acting compound steam engine has two cylinders. Steam is admitted at 1.4 MPa
and is exhausted at 25 kPa. Engine runs at 240 rpm. Low pressure cylinder has bore of 60 cm and
stroke of 60 cm. Diagram factor referred to LP cylinder is 0.8 while expansion is hyperbolic
throughout. Expansion is complete in high pressure cylinder and the clearance volume may be
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 551
neglected. Total expansion ratio is 8 throughout the engine. Considering equal work to be pro-
duced by each cylinder determine,
(i) the indicated power output
(ii) the diameter of high pressure cylinder considering same stroke length for both cylinders.
(iii) the intermediate pressure.
Solution:
Overall expansion ratio, r = 8
Hypothetical mep referred to LP cylinder
P1
= (1 + ln r) – P4
r
1.4 ´ 10 3
= (1 + ln 8) – 25
8
= 513.9 kPa
F V I = 34.87 kJ
HV K
2
HP cylinder work = P1 V1 ln
1
p ( )2
´ 0 .6 ´ 0 .6
V3 V3
Also from expansion ratio, = 8 Þ V1 = = 4
V1 8 8
V1 = 0.0212 m3
Substituting P1 = 1.4 ´ 103 kPa and V1 = 0.0212 m 3, we get
Þ P2 = 432.65 kPa
p
Volume of low-pressure cylinder = ´ (0.4)2 ´ 0.6
4
= 0.0754 m3 = V3 = V4
0.0754
Cut-off volume in HP cylinder = = 6.28 ´ 10–3 m 3
12
Total volume in HP cylinder = 6.28 ´ 10–3 ´ 2.5 = 0.0157 m3
Let diameter of HP cylinder be ‘d’ meter, then
p
´ d2 ´ 0.60 = 0.0157
4
d = 0.1825 m or 18.25 cm
Diameter of HP cylinder = 18.25 cm Ans.
13. A triple expansion steam engine has HP, IP and LP cylinder diameters of 25 cm, 40 cm
and 85 cm with actual mean effective pressures of 0.5 MPa, 0.3 MPa and 0.1 MPa. Steam is
supplied at 1.5 MPa and the exhaust finally occurs at 25 kPa. The cut-off in HP cylinder occurs
at 60% of the stroke. Considering all the cylinders to have some stroke length determine,
(i) the actual and hypothetical mep referred to LP cylinder,
(ii) the overall diagram factor
(iii) the contribution of each cylinder in overall output. Neglect clearance volume.
Solution:
AHP
In HP cylinder, mep of HP referred to LP = 0.5 ´ 103 ´
ALP
p
´ ( 0.25) 2
= 0.5 ´ 103 ´ 4
p
´ ( 0.85) 2
4
= 43.25 kPa
554 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
AIP
In IP cylinder, mep of IP referred to LP = 0.3 ´ 103 ´
ALP
p (
´ 0.40 ) 2
= 0.3 ´ 103 ´ 4
p
´ ( 0.85) 2
4
= 66.44 kPa
For complete engine the overall mep referred to LP cylinder
= 43.25 + 66.44 + 0.1 ´ 103
= 209.69 kPa
p
Volume of LP cylinder = ´ (0.85)2 ´ L = 0.567 L
4
p
Volume of HP cylinder = ´ (0.25)2 ´ L = 0.049 L
4
Cut-off volume of HP cylinder = 0.6 ´ Volume of HP cylinder = 0.0294 L
For zero clearance volume,
Volume of LP cylinder 0.567 L
Overall expansion ratio = =
Cut off volume of HP cylinder 0.0294 L
r = 19.28
1.5 ´ 10 3
Hypothetical m.e.p overall = (1 + ln 19.28) – 25 = 283.02 kPa
19.28
Actual m.e. p.
Overall diagram factor =
Hypothetical m.e. p.
209.69
= = 0.741
283.02
Percentage of total indicated power developed in HP, IP and LP cylinder. Since stroke length
for each cylinder is same so the ratio of indicated power output of each cylinder to total output
shall be the ratio of m.e.p of specific cylinder referred to LP cylinder and overall mep referred to
LP cylinder
43.25
% of HP cylinder output = ´ 100 = 20.63%
209.69
66.44
% of IP cylinder output = ´ 100 = 31.68%
209.69
0.1 ´ 10 3
% of LP cylinder output = ´ 100 = 47.69%
209.69
Actual mep referred to LP = 209.69 kPa
Hypothetical mep referred to LP = 283.02 kPa
Overall diagram factor = 0.741
% of HP, IP and LP cylinder outputs = 20.63%, 31.68%, 47.69% Ans.
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 555
14. A double acting compound steam engine has steam supplied at 7 bar and exhausted at
0.25 bar.
HP cylinder: diameter = 25 cm
cut-off point = 30% stroke
clearance volume = 10% of swept volume
LP cylinder: diameter = 50 cm
cut-off point = 45% stroke
clearance volume = 5% of swept volume
Fig. 12.41
Diagram factors of HP and LP cylinder are 0.8 and 0.7 respectively. Considering hyperbolic
expansion and neglecting cushioning effect estimate mep in each cylinder and total hp developed
for engine running at 100 rpm. Take account of clearance volumes.
Solution:
Let the common stroke of cylinders be ‘L’ m. Assuming the expansion curve to be continu-
ous the P-V diagram is shown here.
p
Volume of HP cylinder = ´ (0.25)2 ´ L = 0.04908 L m3
4
Clearance volume = 0.1 ´ 0.04908 L = 0.004908 L m3 = V9
Total volume of HP = 0.04908 L + 0.004908 L = 0.053988 L m3 = V2
Volume at cut-off in HP cylinder
= (0.004908 × L) + (0.3 ´ 0.04908 × L)
= 0.019632 L m3 = V1
For LP cylinder
p
Volume of LP cylinder = ´ (0.5)2 × L
4
= 0.1963 L m3
Clearance volume of LP cylinder = 0.05 ´ 0.1963 L
= 9.815 ´ 10–3 L m3 = V7
556 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Total volume of LP cylinder
= (0.1963 L + 9.815 ´ 10–3 L)
= 0.206115 L m3 = V5
Volume at cut-off of LP cylinder
= 9.815 ´ 10–3 L + (0.45 ´ 0.1963 L)
= 0.09815 L m3 = V3
0.053988 L
Expansion ratio for HP cylinder, rHP = = 2.75
0.019632 L
0.206115 L
Expansion ratio for LP cylinder, rLP = = 2.1
0.09815 L
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = P3 V3 = P4 V4
Þ P1 V1 = P3 V3
or, (7 ´ 102 ´ 0.019632 L) = (P3 ´ 0.09815 L)
Þ p3 = 140.01 kPa
Actual m.e.p. for HP cylinder
= 0.8
a f a f c
P1 V1 1 + ln rHP - P3 × V2 - P1 - P3 ´ V9 h
Stroke volume of HP
LM7 ´ 10 ´ 0.019632(1 + ln 2.75) - (140.01 ´ 0.053988) - O
g PQ
2
= 0.8 N
bb g
7 ´ 10 2 - 140.01 ´ 0.004908L
0.04908 × L
= 282.59 kPa
Actual mep of LP cylinder
= 0.7 ´
a f a
P3 V3 1 + ln rLP - P3 - P5 ´ V7 f
Stroke volume of LP
LM(140.01 ´ 0.09815(1 +( ln 2.1)) - (25) ´ 0.206115 L ) - OP
= 0.7 N
140.01 - 25 ´ 9.815 ´ 10 L Q -3
0.1963 L
= 62.96 kPa
282.59 ´ 0.04908 L
Actual mep of HP referred to LP cylinder =
0.1963 L
= 70.65 kPa
Total mep = 62.96 + 70.65 = 133.61 kPa
Total output = Total mep ´ L ´ A ´ N
p ( )2
133.61 ´ L ´ ´ 0.5 ´ 100
= 4 = 43.72 L kW
60
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 557
15. During the trial of a single-cylinder double acting steam engine following is observed.
Duration of trial = 15 min, Bore = 25 cm, Stroke = 30 cm, Brake diameter = 1.5 m, Net
brake load = 300 N, Speed = 240 rpm, Steam pressure = 10 bar, Dryness fraction = 0.9, Cover end
mean effective pressure = 0.9 bar, Crank end mean effective pressure = 0.9 bar, Steam utilized =
15 kg. Condensate temperature = 45°C. Amount of water circulating = 450 kg/hr. Rise in cooling
water temperature = from 20°C to 30°C. Determine, (i) steam used per ihp. hr, (ii) mechanical
efficiency, (iii) brake thermal efficiency, (iv) heat balance sheet on one hour basis.
Solution:
From given data;
1
Average value of mean effective pressure = (mepcover end + mep crank end)
2
mep = 0.9 bar
15
Steam consumption per hour = ´ 60 = 60 kg/hr
15
mep ´ L ´ A ´ N ´ 2
Indicated horse power = ,{as 1 HP = 0.7457kW}
0.7457 ´ 60
p
0.9 ´ 10 2 ´ 0.30 ´( 0.25 ) 2 ´ 240 ´ 2
= 4
60 ´ 0.7457
= 14.22 hp or 10.604 kJ/s or 38174.4 kJ/hr
60
Therefore, steam used per ihp. hr = = 4.22 kg/ihp. hr
14.22
Steam used per ihp. hr = 4.22 kg/ihp. hr Ans.
Brake power can be obtained using the dynamometer data given i.e. brake load, brake drum
diameter etc.
2π N ⋅ T 2 ´ p ´ 240 ´ 300 ´ 0.75
Brake horse power = 3 =
60 × 0.7457 × 10 60 ´ 0.7457 ´ 10 3
Brake horse power = 7.58 hp or 5.65 kJ/s or 20340 kJ/hr
Brake horse power
Mechanical efficiency = = 0.5331 or 53.31%
Indicated horse power
Heat available with steam/hr = 60 [hat 10 bar, 0.9 dry – hat 45°C]
= 60 [(762.81 + 0.9 ´ 2015.3) – (4.18 ´ 45)]
= 143308.8 kJ/hr
558 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Heat equivalent of bhp
Brake thermal efficiency =
Heat available with steam / sec
7.58 ´ 0.7457 ´ 3600
=
143308.8
= 0.14199 or 14.19%
Heat carried away by circulating water in condenser
= 450 ´ 4.18 ´ [30 – 20]
= 18810 kJ/hr
Input kJ % Output kJ %
Heat available 143308.8 100% bhp 20340 14.19
with steam/hr fhp(= ihp - bhp) 17834.4 12.44
Heat carried away by
circulating water 18810 13.13
Unaccounted losses 86324.4 60.24
(by difference)
Total 143308.8 100% Total 143308.8 100%
16. During trial of steam engine following observation are made; Bore:38 cm, Stroke 50 cm,
Piston rod diameter: 5 cm, Speed:150 rpm, Steam consumption: 36 kg/min, Brake load = 7kN at 2 m
brake diameter.
Area of indicator diagram at cover end: 28 cm2
Area of indicator diagram at crank end: 26cm2
Length of indicated diagram: 7 cm
Spring scale: 15 kPa/mm
Determine brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake specific steam consumption
and indicated specific steam consumption.
Solution:
2600 × 15
M.E.P.crank = = 557.14 kPa
70
2800 × 15
M.E.P.cover = = 600 kPa
70
Indicated power at crank end, IPcrank = MEPcrank × L × Acrank × N
At crank end piston area will be reduced due to piston rod,
π 150
IPcrank = 557.14 × 50 × 10–2 × {(0.38) 2 − (0.05) 2 } ×
4 60
IPcrank = 77.62 kW
Indicated power at cover end, IPcover = MEPcover × L × Acover × N
π 150
IPcover = 600 × 50 × 10–2 × × (0.38) 2 ×
4 60
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 559
IPcover = 85.06 kW
Indicated power = IPcrank + IPcover = 162.68 kW Ans.
150
Brake power, BP = 2πNT = 2 × π × × 7 × 1 = 109.96 kW Ans.
60
BP 109.96
Mechanical efficiency, ηmech = = = 0.6759 = 67.59%
IP 162.68
Steam consumption
Indicated specific steam consumption, ISFC =
IP
36 × 60
=
162.68
Indicated specific steam consumption = 13.28 kg/kWh Ans.
Steam consumption
Brake specific steam consumption, BSFC =
BP
36 × 60
Brake specific steam consumption = = 19.64 kg/kwh
109.96
17. During trial of single cylinder, double acting steam engine of condensing type following
observations were made;
Bore: 24 cm, Stroke: 34 cm; Engine speed: 150 rpm, Piston rod diameter: 5cm, Brake load:
120kg. Spring balance reading: 100N.
Brake wheel drum diameter: 100cm;
Steam inlet state: 15 bar, 0.98 dry,
Mean effective pressure at cover end: 1.8 bar
Mean effective pressure at crank end: 1.6 bar
Cooling water flow through condenser: 42 kg/min
Rise in temperature of cooling water: 20°C
Condensate discharged from condensor: 4 kg/min
Temperature of condensate: 50°C
Determine brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency, indicated
steam consumption and energy balance sheet on minute basis.
Solution:
Brake power = 2πN(Brake load – Spring balance reading) × Drum radius
π 150
= 1.8 × 102 × 0.34 × × (0.24) 4 ×
4 60
560 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 6.92 kW
Indicated power, crank end = MEPcrank × L × Acrank × N
π 150
= 1.6 × 102 × 0.34 × × {(0.24)2 − (0.05)2 } ×
4 60
= 5.89 kW
Total indicated power = 6.92 + 5.89 = 12.81 kW
msteam 240
Indicated steam consumption = =
IP 12.81
= 18.74 kg/kWh Ans.
Energy balance sheet on per minute basis.
Energy supplied per minute, Qin = 4(hs,in – hcond)
= 4 × 2543.91 = 10175.64 kJ/min
Energy consumed by brake or available at shaft
Q1 = 8.46 × 60 = 507.6 kJ/min
Energy consumed by cooling water in condenser,
Q2 = mwater × Cp,water × ∆T
= 42 × 4.18 × 20 = 3511.2 kJ/min
Energy going alongwith condensate,
Q3 = msteam × Cp × ∆T
= 4 × 4.18 × 50 = 836 kJ/min
Steam Engine _________________________________________________________________ 561
Engery loss to surroundings, Q4 = Qin – (Q1 + Q2 + Q3)
= 10175.64 – (507.6 + 3511.2 + 836) = 5320.84 kJ/min
-:-4+15-
13
Nozzles
13.1 INTRODUCTION
A nozzle is a flow passage of varying cross sectional area in which the velocity of fluid increases and
pressure drops in the direction of flow. Thus in nozzle the fluid enters the variable cross section area
duct with small velocity and high pressure and leaves it with high velocity and small pressure. During
flow through nozzle the enthalpy drops and heat drop in expansion is spent in increasing the velocity of
fluid. Similar to nozzle a duct with variable cross-section area will be called diffuser if the fluid gets
decelerated, causing a rise in pressure along the direction of flow. Nozzles are generally used in turbines,
jet engines, rockets, injectors, ejectors etc.
Fig. 13.2
The one dimensional steady flow through a duct is shown above. For control volume shown the
principle of conservation of mass, energy and Newton’s law of motion may be applied.
By Newton’s law of motion, F = m × a where F is the resultant force acting on system of mass
‘m’ and acceleration ‘a’.
Pressure waves and Sound waves: Let us consider a cylindrical duct having piston on one end for
generating the pressure wave. Figure 13.3 shows the arrangement for producing a pressure wave
moving to right with velocity ‘a’. Sound wave is also a small pressure disturbance that propagates
through a gas, liquid or solid with velocity ‘a’ that depends on the properties of medium.
Figure 13.3 shows how the generation of pressure wave causes displacement of fluid thereby
causing rise in pressure, density and temperature by Dp, Dr and DT in respect to the region on the right
of wave (undisturbed region). In the undisturbed region say pressure, density, temperature and fluid
velocity be p, r, T and C = 0 respectively. Due to piston movement fluid velocity increases by DC and
other properties also change by elemental values as shown. For analysing there are two approaches
available as shown in Figs. 13.3 (a) and (b). One approach considers observer to be stationary and gas
moving and second approach considers observer to be moving along with wave i.e. relative velocity of
observer with respect to wave is zero.
566 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Respective values of fluid velocity, wave propagation velocity, pressure, density and temperature
are labelled on figure. For an observer at rest relative to wave (observer moving with wave) it seems as
if the fluid is moving towards the stationary wave from right with velocity a, pressure p, density r and
temperature T and moves away on left with velocity ‘a – DC’, pressure ‘p + Dp’, density ‘r + Dr’ and
temperature ‘T + DT’.
From conservation of mass, applying continuity equation upon control volume we get
m¢1 = m¢2 = m¢
r ×A×a = (r + Dr)×A(a – DC)
where A is constant cross section area of duct.
r×A×a = (r×A×a) – (r×A×DC) + (Dr×A×a) – (Dr×A×DC)
Upon neglecting higher order terms and rearranging we get,
(a×Dr) – (r×DC) = 0
a×Dr
or, DC =
r
Applying momentum equation to the control volume;
(p×A) – ((p + Dp)×A) = (m¢ (a – DC)) – (m¢×a)
– Dp × A = m¢×(– DC)
for mass flow rate m¢ we can write, m¢ = r×A×a
so, Dp×A = r×A×a×DC
Dp
or, DC =
r×a
Equating two values obtained for ‘DC’ we get
a×Dr Dp
=
r r×a
Dp
a=
Dr
Thus, velocity of wave propagation comes out as the square root of the ratio of change in
pressure and change in density.
In case of sound waves the magnitude of changes in pressure, density and temperature are
infinitesimal and so these may also be called as infinitesimal pressure wave. It is also seen that thermo-
dynamic process occurring across an infinitesimal pressure wave may be considered nearly isentropic.
Therefore the velocity of sound can be given as square root of derivative of pressure with respect to
density across the wave under isentropic conditions.
∂ p
a=
∂ ρ s =constt.
− dv
in terms of specific volume values; dr =
v2
∂ p
so, a= − v2
∂ v s =constt
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 567
Let us consider fluid to be a perfect gas following isentropic process given by pvk = constt. Taking
log of both sides and then partially differentiating we get,
FG ¶ p IJ -k× p
H ¶v K s
=
v
Substituting in expression for sound velocity
a= k pv
For ideal gas,
a= k R T . In case of air, a = g RT
Using the velocity of sound and fluid velocity a non dimensional parameter called Mach number
can be defined. Mach number is given by the ratio of velocity of fluid (object) to the velocity of sound.
It is generally denoted by M.
C
M=
a
Based upon Mach no. value flow can be classified as given below.
For
M < 1 flow is called subsonic flow.
M = 1 flow is called sonic flow.
M > 1 flow is called supersonic flow.
Nozzle flow analysis: Let us consider one dimensional steady flow in nozzles. Let us take a varying
cross-section area duct such that velocity increases and pressure decreases from inlet to exit.
Fig. 13.4
From conservation of mass, upon applying continuity equation, it can be given that,
r×A×C = constant
Taking log of both the sides,
ln r + ln A + ln C = ln constant
Differentiating partially we get,
dr d A dC
+ + =0
r A C
Let us now apply steady flow energy equation assuming no change in potential energy, no heat
interaction and no work interaction during the flow across control volume.
S.F.E.E. yields, dq = dh + dw + d(KE) + d(PE)
Applying assumptions,
568 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
dh + d(KE) = 0
C2 RS UV
It can be rewritten for section 1 and 2 as, KE = 2
T W
C12 C2
or h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
ho1 = ho2
Stagnation enthalpy at section 1 = Stagnation enthalpy at section 2.
C2F I
From differential form, dh + d
2H K =0
C dC
dh + 2 =0
2
or, dh = – CdC
From first and second law combined we know,
dh = Tds + vdp
Using the adiabatic flow considerations, ds = 0, so
dp
dh = vdp =
r
Above shows that with increase or decrease in pressure along the direction of flow the specific
enthalpy also change in same way.
From thermodynamic property relations pressure can be given as function of density and entropy
i.e. p = p(r, s).
FG ¶ p IJ × dr + FG ¶ p IJ
or, dp =
H ¶r K s
H ¶s K r
× ds
dp = a2×dr
Combining two expressions for dh we get
dp
– C × dC = . This shows that as pressure increases in direction of flow then velocity must
r
decrease. Substituting from dp as obtained above, it yields,
a2 × d r
– C × dC =
r
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 569
or,
FH dC IK = a FH d r IK
2
F dr I = - C e dC j
2
-
C C 2
r
Þ
H rK a C 2
Fig. 13.5
dC
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e., is − ve the velocity decreases along the direc-
C
dA
tion of flow as in case of diffuser, it yields as + ve. Positive area gradient means duct has diverging
A
cross section area along the direction of flow.
570 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Case 2 For supersonic flow i.e. M > 1
dC dA
Nozzle: For positive velocity gradient i.e. being + ve, it yields as + ve. It means that in
C A
supersonic flow the nozzle duct shall have diverging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.
Fig. 13.6
dC dA
Diffuser: For negative velocity gradient i.e. being – ve it yields as – ve. It means in
C A
supersonic flow the diffuser duct shall have converging cross-sectional area along the direction of flow.
From above discussion it can be concluded that
(i) Nozzle must be of convergent duct type in subsonic flow region and such nozzles are called
subsonic nozzles or convergent nozzles.
(ii) Nozzle must be of divergent duct type in supersonic flow region and such nozzles are called
supersonic nozzles or divergent nozzles.
(iii) For acceleration of fluid flow from subsonic to supersonic velocity the nozzle must be first
of converging type till flow becomes sonic and subsequently nozzle should be of diverging
type in supersonic flow. The portion of duct at which flow becomes sonic (M = 1) and dA
is zero i.e. duct is constant cross-section area duct, is called throat. Thus in this type of
flow from subsonic to supersonic the duct is of converging type followed by throat and a
diverging duct. Such nozzles are also called convergent-divergent nozzles. Throat gives the
minimum cross-section area in convergent-divergent nozzles.
Let us consider the expansion through a nozzle between sections 1 and 2. In nozzle the velocity
of fluid is so high that there is no time available for heat exchange with the surroundings and the
expansion may be considered adiabatic. Also the change in potential energy may be negligible if the
elevation does not change from inlet to exit. Work done during flow is absent.
Application of steady flow energy equation yields,
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Velocity at exit from nozzle:
C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , m/s
For negligible velocity of fluid at inlet to nozzle, C1 » 0
C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 , m/s, where h1 and h2 are enthalpy in J/kg at sections 1 and 2 respectively.
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 571
Expansion of fluid on p-v diagram is shown below.
Fig. 13.9 T-s and h-s representation for steam flow through nozzle
In above representations the isentropic heat drop shown by 1–2 and 3–4 is also called ‘Rankine
heat drop’.
Mass flow through a nozzle can be obtained from continuity equation between sections 1 and 2.
A1C1 AC
m¢ = = 2 2
v1 v2
m¢ C2
Mass flow per unit area; =
A2 v2
From different from of S.F.E.E.
dq = dh + dw + d(K.E.) + d(P.E.)
or, dh + d(K.E.) = 0
572 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
du + pdv + vdp + d(K.E.) = 0
also as dq = du + pdv = 0, so d(K.E.) = – vdp
z
p2
C22 - C12
or = - vdp
2
p1
For the expansion through a nozzle being governed by process pvn = constt.,
FG n IJ p v FG1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
C22 – C12 = 2 1 1
1 1
or,
FH n IK p v FG1 - p v IJ
H pv K
2 2
C2 = 2 1 1
n -1 1 1
If the working fluid is perfect gas then n = g and for air g = 1.4. However, if working fluid is steam
a good approximation for n can be obtained from some polytropic considerations. For steam being dry
saturated initially and process of expansion occurring in wet region the index n can be approximated as
1.135. For steam being initially superheated and expanded in superheated region the index n can be
approximated as 1.3.
Looking at mathematical expression for exit velocity it could be concluded that maximum exit
velocity is possible only when fluid is expanded upto zero pressure. The maximum velocity is,
FG n IJ p v
Cmax = 2
H n -1K 1 1
n p2 v 2
2 p1v1 1 −
m¢ n − 1 p1v1
=
A2 v2
FG p IJ 1/ n
Hp K × v1
1
or, v2 =
2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 573
or,
FG n IJ p v FG 1 - p v IJ
H n -1K H p v K
2 2
2 1 1
m¢
FG p IJ × v
1 1
= 1/ n
A2
Hp K
1
1
2
or,
m¢
LM F I R|SF p I
p1
2/n
F p2
F ( n + 1) I U O1/ 2
I H n K |P V|P
MN H K |TH p K H K
n
= 2 2
-
A2 n -1 v1 1 p1
WQ
This expression for mass flow rate through nozzle depends upon inlet and exit pressures, initial
specific volume and index of expansion. It has been seen earlier that the mass flow per unit area is
maximum at throat and nozzle should be designed for maximum discharge per unit area. Thus there will
be some value of throat pressure (p2) which offers maximum discharge per unit area. Mathematically
this pressure value can be obtained by differentiating expression for mass flow per unit area and equat-
ing it to zero. This pressure at throat for maximum discharge per unit area is also called ‘critical
pressure’ and pressure ratio with inlet pressure is called ‘critical pressure ratio’.
p
Let pressure ratio 2 = r, then mass flow per unit area can be re-written as;
p1
RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV 1/ 2
m¢
A2
= 2
n
TH
n -1 Kv H
1
1
2/n
-r n
JK W
F m¢ I
d
HA K RS F I p FG r ( n + 1)
I UV1/ 2
dr
2
=
d
dr
2
n
n -1 TH Kv H
1
1
2/n
-r n
JK W
Here p1, v1 are inlet conditions and remain constant. Also n being index of expansion remains
constant so differentiating and putting equal to zero.
2
×r
(2 - n)
n - FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
=0
n n
or,
2
×r
(2 - n)
n =FH n + 1 IK r 1/ n
n n
=F
H IK
1- n
n n +1
r
2
or, Critical pressure ratio,
n
2 (n − 1)
r=
n + 1
Let critical pressure at throat be given by pc or pt then,
n n
pc 2 (n − 1) pt 2 (n − 1)
= Þ =
p1 n + 1 p1 n + 1
574 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here subscript ‘c’ and ‘t’ refer to critical and throat respectively.
While designing a nozzle the critical pressure ratio at throat is equal to the one obtained above.
Critical pressure ratio value depends only upon expansion index and so shall have constant value. Value
of adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio are tabulated ahead;
Table 13.1: Adiabatic expansion index and critical pressure ratio for selected fluids
F 2 I
n
pc
H n + 1K
( n - 1)
=
p1
Wet steam 1.135 (n = 1.035 + 0.1x, where
x is dryness fraction of wet steam) 0.577
Superheated 1.3 0.545
steam
Air 1.4 0.528
The maximum discharge per unit area can be obtained by substituting critical pressure ratio in
expression for mass flow per unit area at throat section.
LM F n I p R|F 2 I U|OP
-F
2 I
2 ( n + 1)
- 1V P
m¢ ( n - 1) ( n - 1)
L 2n I p F 2 I OP
= MF
( n + 1) 1/ 2
MNH n - 1 K × v H n + 1 K
1 ( n - 1)
× {
n+1
-1 }P
1 2
Q
L p F 2 I OP ( n + 1) 1/ 2
= Mn ×
m¢ ( n - 1)
MN v H n + 1 K PQ
1
At 1
F 2 I
( n + 1)
p
H n +1K
( n - 1)
Maximum discharge per unit area = n× 1
v1
For this maximum discharge per unit area at throat the velocity at throat can be obtained for
critical pressure ratio. This velocity may also be termed as ‘critical velocity’.
n
C2 = 2 ( p1 v1 − p2 v2 )
n − 1
At throat
n p1v1
Ct = 2 pt vt − 1
n − 1 pt vt
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 575
F n I × p v R|SF p I - 1U|V
(1 - n )
H n - 1 K |TH p K
t n
|W
C = 2
t t t
1
FpI
Substituting critical pressure ratio G J
HpK
t
C = 2G
F n IJ × p v {F n + 1 I - 1}
t
H n -1K H 2 K t t
FG g IJ × a p v f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 1 - p2 v 2
or,
FG g IJ R aT - T f
C2 = 2
H g -1K 1 2
or,
C2 = a
2 c p T1 - T2 f as cp =
gR
g -1
or,
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Critical velocity at throat, Ct = g R Tt
Mass flow rate per unit area,
LM F g I p R|F p I 2/g
Fp I
( g + 1)
U|OP 1/ 2
m¢
=
MN2 H g - 1 K × v
1
S|H p K 2
-
HpK
2 g
V|P
A2 1
T 1 1
WQ
Maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions,
F 2 I
( g + 1)
m¢ p ( g - 1)
At
= g× 1
v1 H g + 1K
576 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Critical pressure ratio,
F 2 I
g
pc ( g - 1)
p1
=
H g +1K
13.3 CHOKED FLOW
Let us consider a converging nozzle as shown in Fig. 13.10 with arrangement for varying back pres-
sure. A valve is provided at exit of nozzle for regulating the back pressure at section 2-2. Let us denote
back pressure by pb. Expansion occurs in nozzle from pressure p1 to pb.
Initially when back pressure pb is equal to p1 there shall be no flow through the nozzle but as back
pressure pb is reduced the mass flow through nozzle increases. With the reduction in back pressure a
situation comes when pressure ratio equals to critical pressure ratio (back pressure attains critical
pressure value) then mass flow through nozzle is found maximum. Further reduction in back pressure
beyond critical pressure value does not affect the mass flow i.e. mass flow rate does not increase
beyond its’ limiting value at critical pressure ratio. Thus under these situations flow is said to be choked
flow or critical flow.
aT - T f
aT - T f
2¢
hNozzle = 1
1 2
In case of working fluid being steam the friction causes heating of steam flowing through nozzle
thereby increasing dryness fraction. The volume of steam at exit also increases due to increase in
dryness fraction. T–s and h-s representation of steam expanding through nozzle is given in Fig. 13.14.
Fig. 13.14 T-s and h-s representation for steam expanding through nozzle
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 581
Due to friction the velocity at exit from nozzle gets modified by nozzle efficiency as given below.
Velocity at exit, C2 = a f
2 h1 - h2 + C12 , for no friction
In case of nozzle with friction the enthalpy drop, (h1 – h2¢) gives velocity at exit as,
C2¢ = a f
2 h1 - h2 ¢ + C12
C22 - C12
or, (h1 – h2) =
2
C22¢ - C12
and (h1 – h2¢) =
2
bC2
2¢ - C12 g
Substituting in nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
bC2
2 - C12 g
For negligible inlet velocity i.e. C1 » 0
C22¢
Nozzle efficiency, hNozzle =
C22
Thus it could be seen that friction loss will be high with higher velocity of fluid. Generally frictional
losses are found to be more in the downstream after throat in convergent-divergent nozzle because of
simple fact that velocity in converging section upto throat is smaller as compared to after throat. Expansion
upto throat may be considered isentropic due to small frictional losses. Apart from velocity considerations
the significantly high frictional loss in diverging portion of nozzle compared to converging portion can
be attributed to the contact surface area. Length of converging section upto throat is quite small compared
to length of diverging portion after throat as it has subsonic acceleration which can be completed in
short length. Diverging section of nozzle is designed comparatively longer than converging section so as
to avoid flow separation due to adverse duct geometry (diverging type). Turbulence losses are also
significant in diverging portion compared to converging portion. Due to the different factors discussed
above the frictional losses are found to be more in diverging portion compared to converging portion.
Normally angle of divergence in divergent portion is kept between 10° and 25° so as to avoid flow
separation. But small divergence angle causes increase in length of diverging portion therefore increas-
ing frictional losses. Thus a compromise should be striked in selecting angle of divergence as very small
angle is desirable from flow separation point of view but undesirable due to long length and larger
frictional losses point of view. Length of diverging portion of nozzle can be empirically obtained as
below
L= 15 ⋅ At
where At is cross-sectional area at throat.
While designing the nozzle parameters due care should be taken for smoothness of nozzle profile,
surface finish for minimum friction and ease of manufacturing etc. Thus finally, it can be concluded that
nozzle efficiency depends upon nozzle material, size and shape of nozzle, angle of divergence, nature of
fluid flowing and its properties etc.
Coefficient of velocity: The ‘coefficient of velocity’ or the ‘velocity coefficient’ can be given by
the ratio of actual velocity at exit and the isentropic velocity at exit. Thus it measures the amount of
deviation from ideal flow conditions. Mathematically,
Cactual at exit
Coefficient of velocity =
Cisentropic at exit
582 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Coefficient of discharge: The ‘coefficient of discharge’ or ‘discharge coefficient’ is given by the
ratio of actual discharge and the discharge during isentropic flow through nozzle. Mathematically,
mactual
Cofficient of discharge =
misentropic
Here m refers to discharge rate.
Fig. 13.15 Expansion of steam on T-s and h-s diagram under equilibrium
Superheated steam undergoes continuous change in state and becomes dry saturated steam at
state 3 and subsequently wet steam leaving steam turbine at state 2. Some times expansion of steam
occurs in metastable equilibrium or in equilibrium in which change of steam state could not maintain its
pace with expanding steam. This phenomenon in which change of steam state could not occur simulta-
neously with expanding steam in nozzle is called phenomenon of supersaturation and flow is called
supersaturated flow or metastable flow.
EXAMPLES
1. Dry steam at 10 bar and 100 m/s enters a nozzle and leaves it with velocity of 300 m/s at 5 bar.
For 16 kg/s of steam mass flow rate determine heat drop in nozzle and final state of steam leaving nozzle
assuming heat loss to surroundings as 10 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Given,C1 = 100 m/s, C2 = 300 m/s
p1 = 10 bar = 1 MPa, p2 = 0.5 MPa
By steady flow energy equation between sections 1 and 2.
C12 C2
h1 + + q = h2 + 2 + w
2 2
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 585
H 2 K
1 2
(h2 – h1) = – 104 +
+ S
R (100) - (300) UV
2 2
= – 104
T 2 W
h2 – h1 = – 30,000
Heat drop in nozzle = 30 kJ/kg Total heat drop = 480 kJ/s Ans.
or, h2 = 2748.1 kJ/kg
At 5 bar, pressure,
hf = 640.23 kJ/kg, hfg = 2108.5 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction at exit be x2,
2748.1 = 640.23 + x2 × 2108.5
x2 = 0.99
h2 = h400°C, 6 bar +
ch 500 °C,6 bar - h400 °C , 6 bar h (418.45 – 400)
(500 - 400)
(3482.8 - 3270.3)
= 3270.3 + ´ 18.45
100
h2 = 3309.51 kJ/kg×K
Neglecting inlet velocity, C1 » 0, assuming no heat loss,
a
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 581.36 m/s
A2 ´ C2
Mass flow rate, =
v2
Specific volume at exit (2)
v2 = v400°C, 6 bar +
cv
500 °C , 6 bar - v 400 °C , 6 bar h ´ (418.45 – 400)
( 500 - 400 )
20 ´ 10 -4 ´ 581.36
Mass flow rate = = 2.2017
0.5281
Mass flow rate = 2.202 kg/s Ans.
3. In a nozzle steam expands from 12 bar and 300°C to 6 bar with flow rate of 5 kg/s. Determine
throat and exit area if exit velocity is 500 m/s and velocity at inlet to nozzle is negligible. Also find
coefficient of velocity at exit. Coefficient of velocity is the ratio of actual velocity of fluid at nozzle exit
to the velocity at exit considering isentropic flow through nozzle.
Solution:
FG p IJ = F 2 I n
( n - 1)
H p K H n + 1K
2
1
For superheated steam, n = 1.3
FH p IK = FG 2 IJ 1. 3 / 0 .3
H 1 + 1.3 K
2
= 0.545
12
Throat pressure, p2 = 6.54 bar
From steam table;
At 6.54 bar, h2 = 2900.05 kJ/kg
T 2 = 224.48°C, v2 = 0.3466 m3/kg
Velocity at throat C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
= 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2900.05)
C2 = 539.9 m/s
From continuity equation, m1 = m2 = 5 kg/s
A2 C2
m2 =
v2
588 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A2 ´ 539.9
5=
0.3466
A2 = 3.209 ´ 10–3 m2
a
Velocity at exit of nozzle, C3 = 2 h1 - h3 f
From steam tables, Temperature at exit of nozzle, T3 = 215.15°C
Enthalpy at exit of nozzle, h3 = 2882.55 kJ/kg
Specific volume at exit of nozzle, v3 = 0.3647 m3/kg
Ideal velocity at exit, C3 = 2 ´ 10 3 (3045.8 - 2882.55)
C3 = 571.40 m/s
Actual velocity at exit, C3, actual = 500 m/s
A3 ´ C3, actual
Area at exit, m1 = m2 = m3 = 5 kg/s =
v3
5 ´ 0.3647
A3 = = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2
500
Cross-sectional area at exit = 3.647 ´ 10–3 m2 Ans.
C3, actual 500
Coefficient of velocity = = = 0.875
C3 571.40
Enthalpy at throat and exit of nozzle can be looked from steam table as,
h2 = 2891.39 kJ/kg
h3 = 2777.0 kJ/kg
v2 = 0.2559 m3/kg
v3 = 0.3882 m3/kg
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 589
Fig. 13.22
Heat drop up to throat section = h1 – h2
Dq12 = 143.41 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, a f
C2 = 2 h1 - h2 = 535.56 m/s
Heat drop from throat to exit = h2 – h3
Dq23 = 114.39 kJ/kg
Velocity at exit, C3 = a
2 h2 - h3 + C22f
C3 = 718.06 m/s
m2 ´ v 2 1 ´ 0.2559
Throat area, A2 = = = 4.78 ´ 10–4 m2
C2 535.56
m3 ´ v3 1 ´ 0.3882
Exit area, A3 = = = 5.41 ´ 10–4 m2
C3 718.06
For frictionless expansion, Ans.
Throat area = 4.78 cm2
Exit area = 5.41 cm2
(ii) Considering expansion to have 10% friction loss:
Due to frictional heat loss actual heat drop shall get reduced.
Actual heat drop upto throat, Dq¢12 = 0.9 ´ q12
Dq¢12 = 129.07 kJ/kg
Thus, enthalpy at throat, h2, actual = 2905.73 kJ/kg
from steam table, v2, actual = 0.2598 m3/kg corresponding to the modified state as indicated by
enthalpy, h2, actual. This new state at throat shall have temperature of 231.35°C, which can be calculated
from known enthalpy h2, actual at respective pressure.
Actual velocity at throat, C2, actual = 2 ´ 129.07 ´ 10 3
C2, actual = 508.1 m/s
1 ´ 0.2598
Actual throat area, A2, actual =
508.1
Fig. 13.23
Considering negligible inlet velocity, the velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 142
C2 = 532.9 m/s
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 591
A2 × C2
Mass flow rate through nozzle =
v2
=
b g
p ´ 10 -2
2
´ 532.9
4 ´ 0.20
= 0.209 kg/s
The number of nozzles can be determined by using the capacity of turbine, steam consumption
and mass flow rate through a nozzle.
1 ´ 10 3 ´ 8
Number of nozzles = = 10.63 » 11 nozzles
3600 ´ 0.209
Fig. 13.24
Considering velocity at inlet to be negligible, velocity at throat,
C2 = 2 ´ 138 ´ 10 3
C2 = 525.35 m/s
p
b g
´ 0.5 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 525.35
2
Fig. 13.25
At inlet to nozzle, from steam table, h1 = hg at 16 bar = 2794 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 16 bar = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
At exit of nozzle,
s1 = s2 = 6.4218 kJ/kg×K
Since s2 < sg at 8 bar so the state at the end of expansion lies in wet region. Let dryness fraction at
state 2 be x2, then,
s2 = sf at 8 bar + x2 × sfg at 8 bar
6.4218 = 2.0462 + x2 × 4.6166
or, x2 = 0.9478
h2 = hf at 8 bar + x2 × hfg at 8 bar
= 721.11 + (0.9478 ´ 2048)
h2 = 2662.2 kJ/kg
Theoretically, change in enthalpy, Dh12 = 2794 – 2662.2
Dh12 = 131.8 kJ/kg
D h12 actual
= 0.90 or Dh12 actual = 0.9 ´ 131.8 = 118.62 kJ/kg
D h 12
h2 actual = 2794 – 118.62 = 2675.38 kJ/kg
h2, actual = 2675.38 = hf at 8 bar + x2 actual × hfg at 8 bar
594 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2675.38 = 721.11 + (x2 actual ´ 2048)
x2 actual = 0.9542
Specific volume, v2 actual = vf at 8 bar + x2 actual ´ vfg at 8 bar
v2 actual = 0.001115 + (0.9542 ´ (0.2404 – 0.001115))
v2 actual = 0.2294 m3/kg
Neglecting the velocity at inlet to nozzle,
C2 = 2 ´ D h12 actual
C2 = 487.1 m/s
By continuity equation,
A2 C2
m=
v2 actual
5000 ´ 6 A ´ 487.1
= 2
3600 0.2294
A2 = 3.925 ´ 10–3 m2
Area at exit of nozzle » 39.25 cm2
60 ´ p
Approximate length of nozzle arc, = = 62.83 cm
3
Length of nozzle arc
Number of nozzles =
Pitch
62.83
= » 13 nozzles.
5
Correct length of nozzle arc = 13 ´ 5 = 65 cm
Flow area at exit of each nozzle = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h
39.25 = (5 sin 12 – 0.3) ´ h ´ 13
or, h= 4.08 cm
Length of nozzle = 65 cm
Ans.
Radial height of nozzle = 4.08 cm
8. Air is expanded reversibly and adiabatically in a nozzle from 13 bar and 150°C to a pressure of
6 bar. The inlet velocity of the nozzle is very small and the process occurs under steady flow conditions.
Calculate the exit velocity of the nozzle. [U.P.S.C., 1992]
Solution:
Let inlet and exit states in nozzle be given as 1 and 2 respectively. Assuming no heat interaction and
work interaction, no change in potential energy during flow across the nozzle. Steady flow energy
equation gets modified as under;
C12 C2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
Neglecting velocity at inlet to nozzle C1.
C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 595
C2 = a
2 c p × T1 - T2 f
Assuming adiabatic expansion in nozzle, between states 1 and 2.
FPI
( g - 1)
T2 g
HPK
2
=
T1 1
FPI
( g - 1)
g
=T ×
HPK
2
or, T2 1
1
(1. 4 - 1)
= (273 + 150) e j
6
13
1. 4
T2 = 339.16 K
Substituting in expression for exit velocity, C2,
C2 = 2 ´ 1.005 ´ ( 423 - 339.16 )
C2 = 12.98 m/s
Exit Velocity = 12.98 m/s Ans.
9. During a test on steam nozzle steam impinges a stationary flat plate which is perpendicular to
the direction of flow and the force on the plate is measured. The force is found to be 350 N when dry
saturated steam at 8 bar is expanded to 1 bar. Throat cross-section area is 5 cm2 and exit area is such that
the complete expansion is achieved under these conditions.
Determine
(i) the discharge at throat.
(ii) the efficiency of nozzle assuming that all the losses occur after throat and that n = 1.13
for isentropic expansion.
Solution:
For isentropic expansion up to throat.
F 2 I
n
P2 ( n - 1)
P1
=
H n + 1K
8F
2 I
1.13
H 113
. +1K
0 .13
P2 =
P 2 = 4.62 bar
From steam table,
Enthalpy at 1, h1 = hg at 8 bar = 2769.1 kJ/kg
s1 = sg at 8 bar = 6.6628 kJ/kg.K
Fig. 13.26
596 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At throat section let the dryness fraction be x2, then
s1 = s2 = 6.6628 = sf at 4.62 bar + sfg at 4.62 bar × x2
6.6628 = 1.7872 + x2 × 5.0178
x2 = 0.9717 or 97.17%
h2 = hf at 4.62 bar + x2 × hfg at 4.62 bar
= 627.33 + (0.9717 ´ 2117.77)
h2 = 2685.17 kJ/kg
Specific volume at throat, v2 = vf at 4.62 bar + x2 × vfg at 4.62 bar
= 0.001089 + (0.9717 ´ 0.4035)
v2 = 0.3932 m3/kg
Enthalpy change up to throat Dh12 = h1 – h2
Dh12 = 83.93 kJ/kg
Velocity at throat, C2 = 2 ´ D h12 = 2 ´ 83.93 ´ 10 3 = 409.71 m/s
A2 × C2
Discharge at throat, m2 =
v2
5 ´ 10 -4 ´ 409.71
=
0.3932
m2 = 0.521 kg/s
Fig. 13.27
Enthalpy drop up to throat,
F n IJ P v
( n − 1)
– h¢ = G 1 − P2
n
h1 2 H n -1K 1 1 P1
FP I
( n - 1)
T2
HPK
n
2
=
T1 1
(1. 3 - 1)
T2 = 473 ( 0.545) 1.3 = 411.18 K = 138.18°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 411.18 K,
Psat, 138.18°C = 3.44 bar
P2
Degree of supersaturation =
Psat ,138.18°C
5.45
= = 1.58
3.44
Amount of undercooling = (Tsat at 5.45 bar – T2)
= (155.12 – 138.18)
= 16.94°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 599
Fig. 13.28
Using governing equation given,
P1 v11.3 = P2 v21.3
4 ´ 102 ´ (0.5088)1.3 = 1.5 ´ 102 ´ v21.3
v2 = 1.082 m3/kg
Enthalpy at 2,
P2 v2 ´ 102 = (h2 – 2614)
(1.5 ´ 1.082 ´ 102) = (h2 – 2614)
or, h2 = 2776.3 kJ/kg
Actual heat drop = hN ´ (h1 – h2)
= 0.95 ´ (2817.52 – 2776.3)
= 39.16 kJ/kg
F 2 I
n
P2 ¢ ( n - 1)
P1
=
H n + 1K
F IK
F 2 IH
1. 3
P ¢ = 14 ´ G
H 1.3 + 1 JK
0 .3
2
= 2 ´ 10 3 ´ 88.92
= 421.71 m/s
m × v2
Cross-sectional area at exit of nozzle A 2 =
C2 × N
5 ´ 0.2827
= ´ 104
421.71 ´ 16
= 2.13 cm2
= b 2 ´ 10
´ 88.92 + (100 ) 2
3
g
C2¢ = 433.41 m/s
A2 ´ C ¢2 ´ 16
Discharge with modified velocity =
v2
16 ´ 2.13 ´ 10 -4 ´ 433.41
=
0.2827
= 5.22 kg/s
602 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Fig. 13.29
But saturation temperature corresponding to throat pressure,
Tsat 11.6 bar = 186.43°C
Saturation pressure corresponding to 428.14K (155.14°C)
Psat at 155.14°C = 0.5452 MPa
Psat at 155.14°C = 5.452 bar
11.6
Degree of supersaturation =
5.452
= 2.13
Degree of undercooling = Tsat at 11.6 bar – T2
= 186.43 – 155.14 = 31.29°C
Nozzles _______________________________________________________________________ 603
Degree of supersaturation = 2.13
Ans.
Degree of undercooling = 31.29°C
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar = 2799.5 kJ/kg
v 1 = vg at 20 bar = 0.009963 m3/kg
s1 = sg at 20 bar = 6.3409 kJ/kg×K
Isentropic enthalpy drop,
(n − 1)
n P n
h 1 – h2 = ⋅ Pv −
2
1 1 1
− 1
n 1 P
1.3 LM F IK FH
1.3 - 1 IK O
P
MN H
11.6
´ 20 ´ 10 ´ 0.009963 1 -
PQ
2 1. 3
h 1 – h2 =
1.3 − 1 20
88.55
= ´ 100
(2799.5 - 2544.21)
= 34.68%
Fig. 13.30
Pressure at inlet of nozzle, P1 = 20 bar,
Temperature T1 = Tsat at 20 bar = 212.42°C
Pressure at throat, P2 = 0.7 ´ 20 = 14 bar
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 20 bar + x1 × hfg at 20 bar
= (908.79) + (0.95 ´ 1890.7)
h1 = 2704.95 kJ/kg
s1 = sf at 20 bar + x1 × sfg at 20 bar
= 2.4474 + (0.95 ´ 3.8935)
s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
At throat s2= s1 = 6.1462 kJ/kg×K
Let dryness fraction at throat be x2
s2 = sf at 14 bar + x2 × sfg at 14 bar
6.1462 = 2.2842 + (x2 ´ 4.1850)
x2 = 0.923
h2 = hf at 14 bar + x2 × hfg at 14 bar
= 830.30 + (0.923 ´ 1959.7)
h2 = 2639.10 kJ/kg
Specific volume v2 = vf + x2 × vfg at 14 bar = 0.13 m3/kg
a f
at 14 bar
Velocity of steam at throat, C2 = 2 h1 - h2
= 2 ´ (2704.95 - 2639.10 ) ´ 10 3
606 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
C2 = 362.9 m/s
Applying Bernoulli’s equation between states 3 and 4,
P3 C32 P C2
gZ3 + + = gZ4 + 4 + 4
r 2 r 2
C32 1.013 ´ 10 5 20 ´ 10 5 ( 20 ) 2
+ 3
= 3
+ (0.8 ´ 9.81) +
2 10 10 2
C3 = 64.91 m/s
Let mass of water lifted by per kg of steam be m kg, i.e. m kg of water per kg of steam.
C2 – m 2 gh2 w = (m + 1) ´ C3
C2 – m ´ 2 ´ 9.81 ´ 5 = (m + 1) ´ C3
362.9 – 9.90 m = (m + 1) ´ 64.91
m = 3.98 kg of water per kg steam
150 1
Mass of steam required for given water flow rate = ´
60 3.98
msteam = 0.628 kg/s
Asteam × Csteam
msteam =
vsteam
A2 × C2
msteam =
v2
A2 ´ 362.9
0.628 =
0.13
A2 = 2.25 cm2
d2 = 1.69 cm
F 2 I
n
( n - 1)
Pressure at throat, P2 = P1
H n + 1K , here n = 1.13, P2 = 0.87 bar
Fig. 13.31
Temperature at state 1, T1 = Tsat at 1.5 bar = 111.37°C = 384.37 K
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at 1.5 bar + x1 × hfg at 1.5 bar
= 467.11 + (0.9 ´ 2226.5)
h1 = 2470.96 kJ/kg
s1 = 1.4336 + (0.9 ´ 5.7897)
s1 = 6.6443 kJ/kg×K
At state 2, s2 = s1 = 6.6443 = sf at 0.87 bar + x2 × sfg at 0.87 bar
6.6443 = 1.2560 + x2 × 6.1538
x2 = 0.88
h2 = hf at 0.87 bar + x2 ´ hfg at 0.87 bar
= 400.26 + (0.88 ´ 2268.71)
h2 = 2396.72 kJ/kg
Specific volume, v 2 = vf at 0.87 bar + x2 × vfg at 0.87 bar
608 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 0.001039 + (0.88 ´ 1.9649), v2 = 1.7302 m3/kg
Steam velocity, C2 = a
2 h1 - h2 f
C2 = 385.33 m/s
By Bernoulli’s equation,
C32 P
= 4
2 r
1.2 ´ 20 ´ 2 ´ 10 5
C3 =
1000
C3 = 69.28 m/s
Let mass of water entrained per kg of steam be m kg water per kg of steam.
Neglecting momentum of entering water the momentum balance can be given as under.
1 ´ C2 = (m + 1) ´ C3
385.33 = (m + 1) ´ 69.28
m = 4.56 kg water per kg of steam
5000
Mass of steam supplied per second = = 0.3046 kg/s
3600 ´ 4.56
m v2
Area of steam nozzle, A2 =
C2
0.3046 ´ 1.7302
=
385.33
A2 = 13.68 cm2
= 0.2444 cm2
-:-4+15-5
14
Steam Turbines
14.1 INTRODUCTION
Steam turbines date back to 120 B.C. when the first steam turbine was developed by Hero of Alexandria.
Subsequently number of steam turbines came up but the practically successful steam turbine appeared
at the end of nineteenth century when Gustaf De Laval designed a high speed turbine built on the
principle of reaction turbine in 1883. Before this in 1629 G. Branca developed the first impulse turbine.
Branca’s impulse turbine and Hero’s reaction turbine are shown in Fig. 14.1.
Exhaust hood: The portion of casing which collects and delivers the exhaust steam to exhaust
pipe or condenser is called exhaust hood.
Throttle valve: Throttle valve, also called stop valve is located in steam supply line of the steam
turbine. Throttle valve may be manually operated or hydraulically operated for regulating steam flow
during start and stop of turbine.
Governor: Governor is also provided in steam turbine for controlling the steam mass flow so as to
maintain constant speed with load fluctuations. An overspeed governor with trip mechanism is also
provided to shut off the supply of steam.
Bearings: Turbine has main bearings to support the shaft. Along with these thrust bearings are
also provided to support the axial thrust.
Turning gear: Turning gear is generally used with large turbines and consists of a gear integral
with turbine shaft driven by electric motor through necessary speed reduction. Turning gear is used so
as to keep the turbine shaft rotating at about 1–20 rpm in order to avoid springing of shaft occurring due
to unequal expansions and contractions during warming and cooling of turbine.
Trip mechanism: Steam turbine is provided with a trip mechanism operating through an overspeed
governor to shut off supply of steam to turbine. Trip mechanism is actually safety device which gets
activated upon number of other adverse operating conditions of turbine such as loss of lubricating oil
pressure or condenser vacuum or excessive axial thrust etc.
turbines the stages are accommodated in more than one cylinders, say two or three. Flow in these can
be single flow, double flow, cross flow or reversed flow.
(e) Based on the application of turbine: Depending upon application the steam turbine can be
classified as below:
(i) Condensing turbine
(ii) Non-condensing turbine
(iii) Back pressure turbine
(iv) Pass out turbine
Condensing steam turbines are those in which steam leaving turbine enters into condenser. Such
type of steam turbines permit for recirculation of condensate leaving condenser. Also the pressure at the
end of expansion can be lowered much below atmospheric pressure as the expanded steam is rejected
into condenser where vacuum can be maintained. Condensing turbines are frequently used in thermal
power plants.
Non-condensing steam turbines are those in which steam leaving turbine is rejected to atmos-
phere and not to condenser as in case of condensing turbine.
Back pressure turbines reject steam at a pressure much above the atmospheric pressure and
steam leaving turbine with substantially high pressure can be used for some other purposes such as
heating or running small condensing turbines.
In pressure compounding as the pressure drop occurs in parts so the steam velocities are not
very large and hence the turbine velocity gets reduced to low value. Turbine velocity may be further
lowered if number of stages is increased. Therefore, pressure compounded impulse turbine has large
number of stages which make it most expensive. This type of compounding is of most efficient type as
in this ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity remains constant. Pressure compounding is more prone
to leakage of steam from one section to other section at the shaft and outer casing as all pressure drop
occurs in the nozzles.
(ii) Velocity compounded impulse turbine: Velocity compounded impulse turbine is called ‘Curtis’
turbine. Here velocity staging is employed in order to utilize the high velocity steam jet with acceptable
rotational speed. In velocity compounded impulse turbine instead of absorbing all kinetic energy in a
single moving blade ring it is divided into two or more moving blade rings with guide blades in between
the rows. Schematic of velocity compounded impulse turbine stage with pressure and velocity distribu-
tion is shown in Fig. 14.12.
Steam leaves moving blade ring and enters the fixed blades which act as guide blades. Steam is smoothly
guided by fixed blade ring and passes on to ring of moving blades in which remaining part of velocity
drop takes place. Thus in a stage of velocity compounded impulse turbine there is stationary nozzle ring
followed by moving blade ring and subsequently a fixed blade ring and moving blade ring. Here pressure
drop occurs only in nozzle and the velocity drop occurs in two parts in two moving blade rings respec-
tively. For the smooth and symmetrical impulse turbine blades used as fixed guide blades there is no
drop in velocity of steam passing through fixed blade ring.
Velocity compounded impulse turbine offers advantages such as less number of stages compared
to pressure compounding and so less cost. It also requires less space and is relatively more reliable and
easy to start. In multi stage velocity compounded impulse turbine the first stage has large pressure drop
and remaining turbine stages are subjected to lower pressure range, thus lesser number of stages. In
velocity compounded impulse turbine since pressure drop occurs in nozzle itself so the rest of turbine
and its’ casing need not be manufactured very strong. But the efficiency is low due to large frictional
losses due to large initial velocity and ‘non optimum value of ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity for
all blade rings’. Efficiency of velocity compounded impulse turbine goes on decreasing with increase in
number of stages.
(iii) Pressure-velocity compounded impulse turbine: Pressure-velocity compounded impulse
turbine is a combination of the two types of compoundings described earlier. In this, steam coming
from boiler enters the stationary nozzle ring followed by moving blade ring and subsequently fixed blade
ring followed by moving blade ring. Steam leaving moving blade ring enters the stationary nozzle ring
followed by moving blade, fixed blade and moving blade ring respectively. Schematic of pressure-
velocity compounded impulse turbine stage is shown in Fig. 14.13 along with pressure and velocity
variation across the different sections.
Here both pressure drop and velocity drop are divided into different sections as shown in Fig. 14.13.
Thus here one or more ‘Curtis stage’ (velocity compound) followed by ‘Rateau stage’ (pressure com-
pound) are provided. Curtis stages reduce pressure to a moderate level with high proportion of work per
stage and then the highly efficient ‘Rateau stages’ absorb the remaining energy available. Here it is
possible to reduce over all-length of turbine and thus there is saving in initial cost which more than
offsets the lower efficiency.
Fig. 14.15
C1w = Whirl velocity at inlet to moving blade or tangential component of absolute velocity at inlet
to moving blade.
C2w = Whirl velocity at exit of moving blade or tangential component of absolute velocity at exit
of moving blade.
C1a = Flow velocity at inlet to moving blade or axial component of absolute velocity at inlet to
moving blade.
C2a = Flow velocity at exit of moving blade or axial component of absolute velocity at exit of
moving blade.
V1 = Relative velocity of steam at inlet of moving blade (Blade velocity at inlet) (Relative veloc-
ity is the absolute velocity of one moving object compared with absolute velocity of other
object.)
V2 = Relative velocity of steam at exit of moving blade (Blade velocity at exit).
m = Mass of steam flowing over blade
U
r = Ratio of linear velocity of blade and absolute velocity at inlet of moving blade =
C1
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 625
V2
k = Blade velocity coefficient (Ratio of relative velocity at exit and inlet) =
V1
a = Angle of absolute velocity with respect to the direction of blade motion.
a1 = Angle of absolute velocity at inlet to moving blade or nozzle angle.
a2 = Angle of absolute velocity at exit of moving blade or inlet angle of fixed blade in next
stage.
b = Angle of relative velocity with respect to the direction of blade motion.
b1 = Angle of relative velocity at inlet or inlet angle of moving blade.
b2 = Angle of relative velocity at exit or exit angle of moving blade.
Here steam enters the nozzle and leaves so as to smoothly glide into the ring of moving blades.
Steam leaves nozzle with absolute velocity C1 and at an angle of a1. This steam stream will be delivered
to moving blade with velocity C1 and angle a1 but due to linear velocity of moving blade the steam
stream actually glides over the moving blade with velocity V1 and blade angle at inlet b1. This velocity V1
is actually the result of two velocity vectors C1 and U. V1 is called the relative velocity of steam at inlet
of moving blade. Steam stream leaves the moving blade with velocity V2 which is relative velocity of
steam at exit of moving blade. Thus relative velocity is the actual velocity with which steam flows over
the moving blade. For a perfectly smooth and frictionless blade this relative velocity should not change
from inlet to exit as there is no expansion of steam in moving blade (blades are symmetrical and passage
between two consecutive moving blades is of constant area type from inlet to exit). Actually there
always exist some friction over the blade so the relative velocity at outlet will be smaller than the relative
velocity at inlet, i.e. V2 < V1. This reduction in relative velocity is quantified by parameter called blade
V
velocity coefficient (K). Blade velocity coefficient (K) is defined as, K = 2 .
V1
If we look at inlet section 1, then it is obvious that for the maximum change in momentum steam
should be delivered to the moving blade horizontally i.e. a1 = 0 and also leave horizontally i.e. a2 = 0 with
the semi-circular shaped moving blade. This semi-circular moving blade is not possible practically as the
moving blade wheel (ring) has series of blades and each blade has to receive steam from series of
nozzles one after the other. This is the reason due to which nozzles are placed at some angle to the blade,
say angle a1 in this case.
Due to injection of steam at angle a1 with velocity C1 over the blade, steam shall have two
components of velocity i.e. one tangential component and other axial component. Tangential component
of velocity is parallel to the direction of rotation of blades and is also called as whirl velocity. Axial
component of velocity is perpendicular to the direction of rotation of blade and is also called flow
velocity. Axial component or flow velocity is responsible for maintaining flow of steam across the
moving blade row. Volume flow rate of steam across the moving blade ring can be given by the product
of flow velocity and effective passage area available for flow. The magnitude of flow velocity influences
the size of wheel for given steam volume flow rate.
The whirl component of velocity is responsible for generation of thrust force due to change in
momentum. Both whirl velocity and flow velocity being the two perpendicular components of absolute
velocity depend largely upon the angle of absolute velocity i.e, a. At inlet the angle a1 should be selected
depending upon the thrust requirement and maintenance of flow across the blade row. With increase in
angle a1 the whirl velocity, C1 cos a1, decreases while the flow velocity, C1 sin a1, increases. Thus the
626 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
maximization of one leads to minimization of the other and so the compromise should be had for
selecting the angle of absolute velocity. Similarly at exit of blade again there shall be whirl velocity and
flow velocity components. For absolute velocity at exit being C2 and angle of absolute velocity at exit
being a2 (this shall be the inlet angle for subsequent nozzle if more than one similar stages are there), the
whirl velocity shall be C2 cos a2 and flow velocity as C2 sin a2. In the simple impulse turbine stage this
whirl velocity component at exit is a kind of loss at exit. Therefore in order to minimize loss at exit this
component should be minimum. For minimizing the whirl velocity at exit i.e. C2 cos a2, the angle a2
should be made minimum. Minimum loss could be reduced to zero if angle a2 is equal to 90°. This
becomes a typical case in which the turbine discharges axially (at 90°) and such turbines are also called
axial discharge turbine.
Thus it is obvious that in case of impulse turbine stage the moving blade merely deflects the
steam and the change in direction of steam from inlet to exit causes change of momentum and thus
thrust is generated. Moving blades being of symmetrical type offer a constant cross-section area be-
tween two consecutive blades from inlet to exit and so no expansion occurs in the moving blade. The
steam expansion only occurs in the nozzle. Also in the absence of expansion across moving blade the
pressure of steam remains constant from inlet to exit under ideal conditions. For symmetrical blades the
inlet and exit angles of blade are same i.e. b1 = b2.
Velocity diagrams are separately drawn at inlet of moving blade and at exit of moving blade as
shown in Fig. 14.15. Combined velocity diagram for the stage is also given here. Using the velocity
diagram various parameters can be estimated as discussed ahead.
The driving thrust on the rotor is produced as reaction of the force estimated by the rate of
change of momentum. Tangential force will be the force component producing driving thrust while axial
force will be the force component producing axial thrust. Driving thrust causes rotation of rotor while
axial thrust is to be absorbed by the thrust bearings provided for this purpose.
Let the mass flow rate be m, kg/s.
Tangential force FT = m ´ (change of tangential component of velocity or whirl velocity)
= m ´ (– C2 cos a2 – C1 cos a1)
FT = – m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1) = – m × D Cw
Driving thrust on rotor will be reaction of this force and will be equal and opposite.
Driving thrust, FD = – FT
FD = m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
FD = m×DCw
From velocity triangles,
(C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2) = (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
or, DCw = DV w
Hence FD = m (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
= m× (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
This driving thrust can be used for getting the rate of work done on the rotor.
Rate of work done = W = FD ´ U
W = m×DCw.U
Work done per unit of steam mass flow, w = U×DCw
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 627
Rate of work done will be the power produced by the turbine stage.
W = m×U× (C2 cos a2 + C1 cos a1)
W = m×U× (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
FG IJ
V2 cos b 2
H
= m×U× V1 cos b1 1 +
K
V1 cos b 1
R F V I F cos b IJ UV
– U) S1 + G J × G
= m×U× (C1 cos a1
T H V K H cos b K W
2 2
1 1
W = m × U × (C1 cos a1 – U ) × {1 + K × C}
V2
where K = Blade velocity coefficient =
V1
cos b 2
C = Ratio of cosines of blade angles =
cos b 1
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade both K and C shall have unity value.
i.e. K = 1, C = 1
Therefore for simple impulse turbine stage having perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, rate of
work done,
W = 2 mU (C1 cos a1 – U)
From velocity diagram also the rate of work done per unit of steam mass flow ‘w’, can be
estimated as below,
w = U × DCw
Combined velocity diagram if drawn to the scale gives, U = AB, DCw = EF. Thus length EF and
AB shall give D Cw and U respectively.
Hence, w = AB ´ EF, rate of work done per unit of steam mass flow
Rate of work done W = m ´ AB ´ EF . The suitable scale factors are to be used while using
lengths.
The velocity diagram at inlet, outlet or combined velocity diagram can be suitably drawn to the
scale and various parameters be obtained by measuring respective geometrical entity i.e. length and
angle.
The work available at rotor can also be obtained using steady flow energy equation between
section 1 and 2. Assuming no change in potential energy from inlet to exit across the moving blade and
no heat interaction across the stage, the S.F.E.E. can be given as;
FG C12 IJ = m FG h + C IJ + W
2
H
m h1 +
K H 2K
2
2
2
R F C - C IJ UV
W = m Sa h - h f + G
2 2
T H 2 KW
1 2
1 2
In case of impulse stage the change in enthalpy from section 1 to 2 can be given by the change in
kinetic energy associated with relative velocity from 1 to 2.
628 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
FG V - V IJ
2 2
H2 2K
2 1
(h1 – h2) =
– h ) = bV - V g
1 2 2
or, (h1 2 2 1
2
Substituting in W,
Rate of work done in a stage:
W=
m
2
lbV 2
2
g b
- V12 + C12 - C22 gq
For perfectly smooth moving blade, V1 = V2 and (h1 – h2) = 0.
Hence W =
m
2
lbC 2
1 - C22 gq for stage with smooth blade
From velocity triangle at inlet
C12 = V12 + U 2 + 2UV1 cos b1
and from velocity triangle at outlet, C22 = V22 + U 2 – 2UV2 cos b2
Combining above two we get,
C12 – C22 = (V12 – V22) + 2U(V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2)
It is already seen, (V1 cos b1 + V2 cos b2) = (C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2)
or, DVw = DCw
or, (C1 – C22) = (V12 – V22) + 2U×DCw
2
2 × U × DCw
Diagram or blading efficiency =
C12
Stage efficiency or Gross efficiency: Stage efficiency refers to the ratio of rate of work done and
energy supplied to the stage. Energy supplied to the stage can be accounted by the change in enthalpy
between section 0 and 1 i.e. inlet of nozzle to exit of nozzle. Stage efficiency is thus the output of stage
divided by the available energy for the stage.
Energy supplied to stage = m × (h0 – h1)
Rate of work done
Stage efficiency, hs =
Energysupplied tostage
m × U × DCw
=
a
m × h0 - h1 f
U × DCw
Stage efficiency =
a
h0 - h1 f
Nozzle efficiency: Nozzle efficiency refers to the ratio of kinetic energy available and the enthalpy
change occurring across the nozzle i.e. between inlet and outlet (sections 0 and 1).
C12
m
a f
Nozzle efficiency, hN = 2
m h0 - h1
C12
Nozzle efficiency =
a
2 h0 - h1 f
Combining the stage efficiency, diagram efficiency and nozzle efficiency, it can be given that;
Stage efficiency = Diagram efficiency ´ Nozzle efficiency
Overall efficiency: The overall efficiency of stage can be given by the ratio of work delivered at
turbine shaft to the energy supplied to the stage.
Work delivered at shaft
Overall efficiency, ho =
Energysupplied to thestage
Optimization of turbine stage: Turbine being work producing machine is designed with the aim
of providing maximum work output. The diagram efficiency of turbine should be maximized as it
indicates the rate of work done per unit of energy supplied to the rotor. Work output per unit time in a
simple impulse turbine stage is given by, W = m×U× (C1 cos a1 – U) (1 + KC).
In this expression for work the output is seen to depend upon m, C1, U, a1, K and C. For all other
conditions fixed work output is seen to vary inversely with the angle a1 i.e. the work output increases
with decrease in nozzle exit angle, a1. Work output shall be maximum when angle a1 is reduced to zero
but nozzle exit angle a1 can not be reduced to zero as it shall not allow steam injection to successive
blades. Angle a1 also decides the axial or flow velocity at inlet, Ca, i.e. smaller the value of a1 smaller will
be axial velocity or flow velocity. As described earlier that the flow velocity maintains the flow across
the stage so smaller flow velocity requires larger steam flow passage area for the same mass flow of
steam. Small value of angle a1 will thus yield larger blade surface area resulting into larger surface
friction loss. Therefore the angle a1 is chosen as compromise between above considerations. Generally
a1 lies between 15 and 30°.
Thus the work can not be maximized by only selecting the minimum value of angle a1 and so
requires optimization of turbine stage performance with respect to some other parameter.
The diagram efficiency should be maximized with respect to suitable parameter.
2U × DCw
Diagram efficiency, hD =
C12
hD =
a
2U × C1 cos a 1 - U (1 + KC ) f
C12
FG U IJ FG cos a U IJ (1 + KC)
hD = 2
HC KH
1
1 -
C1 K
U
Here , is non-dimensional form of velocity. Let us denote by r
C1
U
i.e. r = , so, hD = 2r (cos a1 – r) (1 + KC)
C1
Diagram efficiency can be optimized with respect to non-dimensional velocity denoted by r. This
non-dimensional velocity r is also called as ‘blade-steam velocity ratio’ or ‘blade speed-steam velocity
ratio’ or ‘blade-steam speed ratio’.
Differentiating hD with respect to r, we get,
dh D
= 2 (cos a1 – 2r) (1 + KC)
dr
For a perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, K = 1, C = 1
dh D
= 4 (cos a1 – 2r)
dr
Equating first differential to zero;
cos a1 – 2r = 0
cos a 1
r=
2
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 631
Second order differential of hD with respect to r indicates that the diagram efficiency is maximum
cos a 1
corresponding to the blade speed-steam velocity ratio given as .
2
cos 2 a 1 × (1 + KC )
Hence, maximum diagram efficiency, h D,max =
2
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, maximum diagram efficiency,
h D, max = cos2 a
1
cos a 1
Corresponding to r = , the rate of work done can be given as the maximum rate of work
2
done. Mathematically,
Maximum rate of work done can be obtained by substituting
U cos a 1 2U
r= = or C1 =
C1 2 cos a 1
Rate of work, W = mU × (C1 cos a1 – U) (1 + KC)
Wmax = m×U× U (1 + KC)
Wmax = mU 2 (1 + KC)
For perfectly smooth and symmetrical blade, K = 1, C = 1,
Wmax = 2 mU 2
The variation of diagram efficiency can be plotted with varying blade-steam velocity ratio as given
below.
An = pd × hn × k sin a
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 633
Figure 14.17(b) shows the two stage Curtis stage having blade heights as hb1, hb2, hb3. Theoreti-
cally blade height at entrance is equal to nozzle height at exit but in order to avoid spilling of the fluid
issuing from nozzle passage the blade height is slightly increased at entrance. In case of impulse turbine
blade the pressure on both sides of blade remains constant and by continuity equation the volume flow
rate shall also remain same from inlet to exit.
From continuity equation for nozzle to moving blade, the volume flow rate shall be,
C1 p d×hn× k sin a = V1 × p d × hb × kb × sin b
where hb is blade height, kb is blade edge thickness factor and b is blade angle.
Generally it is assumed, k = kb, hence
hb C sin a C
= 1 = 1a = 1
hn V1 sin b V1 a
From velocity diagram at blade inlet it can be seen that, C1 sin a = C1a = V1 sin b = V1a.
Hence hb = hn, ideally but as described earlier the height at blade entrance is slightly increased,
which is also called ‘blade step-up’ or ‘overlap’. Similarly for two row Curtis stage considered here the
blade height can be related as,
hn × C1a
hb1 =
V2 a
hn × C1a
hb2 =
V3 a
hn × C1a
hb3 =
V4 a
Step up or overlap is arbitrarily taken and varies from 0.2 cm in high pressure stages to 2 cm in
low pressure stages of large turbines. Here in this calculation no consideration is made for increase in
specific volume of fluid in blade passage due to reheat although it shall be there but may be neglected on
account of being small.
Maximum height of blade is restricted by the stresses getting generated due to bending and
centrifugal forces.
Alternatively, the blade height can be estimated by the volume flow rate considerations. Moving
blade height at exit can be given as below;
FG l IJ (p
mv =
Hp K
b
b sin b2 – tb) lhb1× V2
where, l is the length of arc covered by nozzle and pb is the distance between two consecutive blades,
FG l IJ gives the number of exit passages in
tb is edge thickness of blade as shown in Fig 14.18. Here
Hp K
b
nozzles through which steam arrives over the moving blade.
634 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Fig. 14.19 Stage of velocity compounded impulse turbine and velocity diagram for the stage.
Here high pressure steam first enters the nozzle and steam leaving nozzle enters the row of
moving blades. Steam leaving moving blades enters the fixed blade row. Fixed blades just act as guide
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 635
blades and are fixed to casing. Steam is guided by fixed blade to smoothly enter into next row of moving
blades. Thus nozzle, moving blade row, fixed blade row and moving blade row together constitute stage
of velocity compounded impulse turbine. Let us consider section at exit of nozzle as 1 – 1, at exit of
first moving blade row as 2 – 2, at exit of fixed blade row as 3 – 3 and at exit of second row of moving
blades as 4 – 4.
Absolute velocity, relative velocity and different angles are shown in velocity diagrams at sections
1 – 1, 2 – 2, 3 – 3, and 4 – 4.
Steam enters first row of moving blades at section 1 – 1 with absolute velocity C1 and leaves
moving blade with velocity C2 at angle a2. Steam passes through fixed blades and leaves it with absolute
velocity C3 at angle a3. Steam finally leaves second row of moving blades with absolute velocity C4 at
angle a4. Let us assume that the moving blades and fixed blades are symmetrical and the blades are
perfectly smooth i.e. no friction loss occurs on moving blades and fixed blades.
Mathematically the velocity and angles can be related as follows for the above assumptions.
Constant relative velocity across moving blades due to smooth blades surface;
V1 = V 2
and
V3 = V 4
Across the fixed blade also there shall be no friction loss resulting in;
C2 = C3
Due to symmetry of moving blades;
b1 = b2 & b3 = b4
Due to symmetry of fixed blades; a2 = a3
Let us also assume that the stream finally leaving the stage goes out with minimum energy for
yielding maximum efficiency. Stream should leave the stage axially for above assumption, i.e. a4 = 90°.
In this case when discharge from last blade row is axial then the velocity of whirl at exit is zero. Such
turbines are also called axial discharge turbine.
The total work available from turbine stage shall be algebraic summation of work available from
first row of moving blades and second row of moving blades. Diagram efficiency shall be the ratio of
total work and energy supplied to the stage.
Thus, Total work from stage = Work from first row of moving blades
+ Work from second row of moving blades
Work from first row of moving blades can be written as already described for simple impulse
stage.
WI = 2 × m × U × (C1 cos a1 – U)
Similarly, work from second row of moving blades,
WII = 2 × m × U (C3 × cos a3 – U)
Total work
Diagram efficiency, hd =
Energy supplied
k2 m × U × a2C × cosa - 4U fp
FG m × C IJ
1 1
= 2
H 2 K
1
4U
hd = (2C1 × cos a1 – 4U)
C12
U
Non dimensional form of velocity , = r, i.e. blade speed to steam velocity ratio
C1
or, hd = 4 × r × (2cos a1 – 4r)
Differentiating diagram efficiency with respect to r and applying conditions to get the optimum
value of r for maximum diagram efficiency;
dh d d
= (8r cos a1 – 16r2)
dr dr
Substituting
dh d
= 0
dr
cos a 1
or, r opt = or 4U = C1 cos a1
4
Maximum efficiency, hd,max = cos 2a 1
For the optimum value of ropt the work may be estimated as;
Work from Ist row, WI = 6m × U 2
Work from IInd row, WII = 2m × U 2
Total work from velocity compounded turbine stage, WT = WI + WII
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 637
WT = 8mU 2
1
Here it is obvious that for optimum value of r i.e. ropt the work available from second row is
th
4
of the total work from stage. It can be extrapolated from here that if there are more than two rows of
moving blades in a velocity compounded turbine stage i.e. three, four or more number of rows, then the
optimum blade speed to steam velocity ratio r can be generalised for ‘n’ number of moving blade rows.
cos a 1 cos a 1
ropt = i.e. for three rows, ropt =
2n 6
Similarly, work from the last row of moving blades shall be,
1
Wlast row = of total work.
2n
1
Thus from a three row stage, work from last row shall be th of the total work and from a four
8
1
row stage, work from last row shall be th of the total work. Here it is obvious that as the number
16
of rows increases the work from last row goes on giving diminishing work. Therefore, with increase
in number of rows the work obtained from last row decreases, so the number of rows is generally
limited to two. If we look at diagram efficiency then it shows that the efficiency also diminishes with
increase in number of stages. Graphical pattern between the diagram efficiency versus blade speed to
steam velocity ratio r is shown in Fig. 14.20.
Fig. 14.20 Diagram efficiency vs. blade speed to steam velocity ratio for velocity
compounded impulse turbine
between two consecutive blades is of converging type as compared to impulse turbine blading which
has constant cross-sectional area passage between two consecutive blades.
Figure 14.21 shows the schematic of a reaction turbine stage having fixed blades followed by
moving blades row. Due to the varying cross section area for steam flow the pressure drop occurs in
both stationary (fixed) blades row and moving blades row. The velocity increases in stationary blades
which act as nozzles. Thus the passage formed in the stationary blades in reaction turbine are of nozzle
type although they do not have conventional nozzle shape. Steam stream leaving stationary blades
impinges upon the moving blades. This impinging stream exerts a force to the right as evident from the
velocity diagrams of reaction blading. Velocity diagram of reaction turbine is similar in principle to the
velocity diagram in impulse turbine.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 639
Steam entering moving blades is subjected to pass through converging area passage along with
change in direction. Thus there is increase in velocity (V2 > V1) from inlet to exit in moving blade which
results in a reaction force. Change in direction of velocity is accompanied by change in momentum thus
an impulse force. It shows that the rotation of shaft is caused by the combination of impulse and
reaction forces. The magnitude of impulse force depends upon the pressure drop in fixed blades. It may
be noted that due to shaft rotation being caused by combination of impulse and reaction forces these
reaction turbines are also termed as impulse-reaction turbine. These are also called full admission tur-
bines as the steam enters through fixed blade row over complete annulus. The enthalpy drop over the
reaction turbine stage shows that heat drop occurs in both fixed blades and moving blades rows. If the
total enthalpy drop in stage is equally divided between the stationary and moving blades then the stage is
called 50% reaction stage. A mathematical parameter called ‘degree of reaction’ is used to quantify the
proportion of enthalpy drops occurring in stationary and moving blades. The ‘degree of reaction’ is
defined as the ratio of enthalpy drop in moving blades row (rotor blades) to the total enthalpy drop in the
stage. Mathematically it can be given as,
Enthalpy drop in moving blades ( rotor blades )
Degree of reaction =
Total enthalpy drop in thestage
h1 - h2
Degree of reaction, e=
h0 - h2
1
In case of 50% degree of reaction, e = 0.5 and h1 – h2 = (h – h2)
2 0
1
or, (h0 – h1) = (h1 – h2) = (h – h2)
2 0
Such turbines having 50% degree of reaction are called ‘Parson’s turbine’. Parson’s turbine has
symmetrical blades for moving and stationary blades i.e. inlet angles of stationary and moving blades are
equal and also the exit angles of stationary and moving blades are equal. Term symmetrical blading in
reaction turbine refers to the 50 per cent reaction stage.
640 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
A typical degree of reaction value of zero refers to the condition when there is no enthalpy drop
in moving blades. This refers to the impulse turbine stage where no heat drop occurs in moving blades.
In reaction turbines also the compounding is done similar to that in impulse turbine for reducing
the speed of rotation. The compounding in reaction turbine is shown in Fig. 14.23. where pressure drop
gradually occurs in the stationary and moving blade rows. In reaction turbine blading there is possibility
of steam leakage across the tip of blade and casing as there is large clearance here. This leakage of
pressure from the tip clearance is more vulnerable in high pressure region as there occurs large pressure
drop in high pressure region for given enthalpy drop. Due to this fact the initial stages in high pressure
region are taken to be of impulse type and subsequent stages are reaction stages. Above fact is generally
interpreted as “the inefficient reaction blading in high pressure stage”. Generally, the modern turbines
have first stage as velocity compounded (Curtis stage) followed by stages of pressure compounded
type (Rateau stages) or reaction stages.
Fig. 14.24 Combined velocity diagram for a moving blade of 50% reaction turbine.
From earlier discussions it is clear that 50% degree of reaction turbine has equal enthalpy drops
occuring in stationary blade row and moving blade rows. Steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E.) when
applied over turbine stage yields the following assuming no heat interaction, no change in potential
energy.
Let us assume that turbine has more than one symmetrical stage such that absolute velocity of
steam leaving moving blade row equals to the velocity of steam entering fixed blade. Thus, from given
velocity diagram steam enters fixed blade with velocity C2 while leaves it with velocity C1. In case of
moving blades the relative velocities are to be considered i.e. velocity increasing from V1 to V2 from inlet
to exit.
For stationary blade row the S.F.E.E. gives,
C22 - C12
h0 – h1 =
2
V22 - V12
For moving blade row the S.F.E.E. gives, h1 – h2 =
2
Total enthalpy drop in stage, h0 – h2 = (h0 – h1) + (h1 – h2)
and for 50% degree of reaction as C1 = V2 and V1 = C2
so,
h0 – h1 = h1 – h2
h0 = 2h1 – h2
or, (h0 – h2) = 2 (h1 – h2)
h1 - h2 1
i.e. =
h0 - h2 2
Hence it proves that symmetrical blading results in 50% degree of reaction turbine.
Rate of work done from reaction stage can be estimated similar to that of impulse stage. Work
done = m × U × DCw
where DCw= Cw2 + Cw1 = (C1 cos a1 + C2 cos a2)
For symmetrical blading, C2 = V1, a2 = b1, so, DCw = C1 cos a1 + V1 cos b1
or, DCw = C1 cos a1 + (C1 cos a1 – U)
DCw = 2C1, cos a1 – U
Therefore, work done, W = m × U × (2C1 cos a1 – U)
642 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Axial thrust in turbine can be quantified by the sum of thrust due to change in axial velocity and
due to pressure difference across the moving blade row. Mathematically the axial thrust can be given as,
Fa = m × (C1a – C2a) + (p1A1 – p2A2), where A1 and A2 are cross-sectional areas available as flow
passage at inlet and exit of moving blade row and p1 & p2 are pressures of steam at inlet and exit sections
of moving blade rows.
In case of 50% reaction turbine C1a = C2a, therefore axial thrust is only due to pressure difference
across moving blade row.
Diagram efficiency of reaction stage can be estimated by knowing the energy input to the moving
blades and taking ratio of work done to energy input.
C12 FG V 2
- V12 IJ
Energy input to moving blades, Ein = m × +m×
H K
2
2 2
m
Ein = × (C12 + V22 – V12)
2
m
= (C12 + C12 – V12), as C1 = V2
2
V2
Ein = m (C12 – 1 )
2
From velocity diagram, V12 = C12 + U 2 – 2C1U cos a1
Substituting value of V1 in energy input expression,
R cC + U - 2C U cosa h UV
= m × SC - 2
2
1
2
1 1
T W
Ein 1 2
R C + 2UC cosa - U U
= m× S VW
2 2
T
1 1 1
Ein
2
W
Thus, diagram efficiency, hd =
Ein
a
m × U × 2 C1 cos a 1 - U f
=
m×
lC12 + 2 U C1 cos a 1 - U 2 q
2
a
2U × 2 C1 cos a 1 - U f
hd =
bC12 + 2UC1 cos a 1 - U 2 g
U 2 r × a 2 cosa
1 -r f
Substituting r =
C1
, hd =
b
1 + 2 r cos a 1 - r 2 g
The maximum value of diagram efficiency and the optimum value of blade speed to steam velocity
ratio, r can be estimated by differentiating with respect to r and equating to zero.
d hd
= 0
dr
or, 2 cos a1 – 2r = 0
or, r = cos a1
Substituting 'r' for getting maximum value of diagram efficiency, hd,max
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 643
a
2 cos a 1 × 2 cosa 1 - cos a 1 f
hd,max =
b 1 + 2 cos 2 a 1 - cos 2 a 1 g
2 cos 2 a 1
or, hd,max =
1 + cos 2 a 1
Work output for the condition of maximum diagram efficiency can be obtained by substituting
r = cos a1
U
or, = cos a1
C1
Substituting in expression for work, or, U = C1 × cos a1
For hd,max work; W = m × C1 cos a1 (2C1 cos a1 – C1 cos a1)
W = m × C12 cos2a1
Fig. 14.25 Velocity diagram for optimum reaction turbine stage having ρ = cos α1
Height of blade in reaction turbine can be estimated from the volume flow rate as given below.
Reaction turbine stage is full admission stage.
Taking number of blades as ‘N’, thickness of blade as ‘t’, the mass flow rate as ‘m’, average
specific volume as ‘v’ it can be written that,
m × v = (pd – Nt) × l × V2 sin b2
m⋅v
Height of blade, l =
(π ⋅ d − N ⋅ t ) ⋅ V2 ⋅ sin β2
It is observed that the minimum height for reaction turbine blade should not be less than 5 per cent
of mean blade ring diameter and the maximum height should not exceed beyond 20 per cent of mean
blade ring diameter. If the blade is of tapered type then the maximum height may go up to 30 per cent of
mean blade ring diameter. The lower and upper limits of blade height are to be maintained while deciding
blade height as shorter blades have increased energy losses while longer blades may have excessive
stresses in them. Generally in reaction stages of turbine the blade height is allowed to increase gradually
so as to give increasing annular area for expanding fluid.
644 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
3. Disc friction loss: This is a kind of loss of energy visible whenever any object say disc is
rotated in air or other medium. The disc would cut the atmosphere and impart motion to surrounding air.
There shall always exist relative motion between solid wall of object and the air or surrounding fluid.
Due to this relative motion surrounding medium always exerts a resistance to motion of moving object.
This may result in loss of energy due to friction which may be felt by the increase in enthalpy of
surrounding fluid. In case of steam turbines too the rotor is completely surrounded by the steam which
offers resistance to the rotor motion. The loss of energy of rotor may go into the steam enveloping it.
This loss of energy is termed as ‘disc friction loss’. The disc friction loss may cause heating of steam
surrounding the rotor i.e. a portion of kinetic energy is transferred from the rotor disc to steam by
heating of steam. Disc friction loss is substantial in case of impulse stages as compared to reaction
stages where it is very small and can be neglected.
4. Windage loss: Windage loss occurs when the rotor blades come in contact with near station-
ary fluid (steam). In case of partial admission turbines i.e. generally impulse turbines there is churning of
steam in the region having no active steam in steam turbine. When moving rotor blades come in contact
with inactive steam then there is transfer of energy from blade to steam. This loss of energy from rotor
to fluid is termed as ‘windage loss’.
In case of full admission turbine the region inside turbine having inactive steam is negligible and so
the windage loss is nearly negligible. To minimize windage loss the turbine should be filled with moving
steam (active steam). Windage losses are very small in case of low pressure stages. Reaction turbines
have negligible windage losses as they are full admission turbines.
5. Loss due to leakage: Steam leakage may occur across the turbine shaft and between stages.
Leakage of steam may result in availability of less work from stage as steam is not fully utilized for
producing work. Leakage occurs during flow from one stage to other or from one row to other through
the clearance space between diaphragm and shaft. Leakage also occurs across the blade tip. Leakage
across diaphragm occurs in both impulse turbine and reaction turbine stages. Leakage across tip is not
prominent in case of impulse turbine as the pressure difference is very small. Tip leakage is prominent
in reaction turbine stages.
Due to this diaphragm and tip leakage effective mass flow rate for doing work gets reduced and is
consequently a loss of energy. Leakage is accompanied by the increase in entropy and so the decrease
in availability of work due to throttling of steam which is an irreversible process. Leakage loss can be
minimized by reducing the clearances as much as possible after providing for expansion of turbine parts
so that the metal-to-metal rubbing is avoided. Different seals such as labyrinths, carbon rings, water,
steam or air seals are used to prevent this leakage through clearance. Also in order to reduce leakage loss
the drum type construction is preferred to diaphragm and wheel type construction in reaction turbines.
Another type of leakage may be of balance-piston leakage which refers to leakage between balance
piston and casing. Here fluid leaks out in high pressure region of turbine and atmospheric air bleeds into
casing in low pressure sub atmospheric region (condensor side). Generally this is not a total loss as the
leakage out and leakage in are not varying too much. This kind of loss can also be prevented by
employing labyrinth packing. At low pressure/subsonic region (condenser side) of turbine the labyrinth
packing is fed with low pressure steam so that steam leaks in instead of air in case of unavoidable
leakage.
6. Losses in bearings: Turbine bearings are critical parts to support high speed rotation of shaft.
Generally, a loss to the tune of 1% of turbine output occurs in bearings. Although this loss depends upon
bearing load, oil viscosity, speed of shaft, bearing surface area and film thickness etc.
7. Losses at inlet and exit: Loss at inlet of steam turbine occurs at regulating valves at entry. At
these valves which may be stop valve or governor valves the throttling loss generally occurs causing
lowering of entering steam pressure.
646 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
At the exit of steam turbine the steam becomes wet and the fluid now is mixture of water droplet
and steam. Due to wetness of steam at exit end the water particles being heavier cause loss of kinetic
energy. These water particles, if in excessive amount may also endanger the turbine blade. The kinetic
energy of fluid at exit of steam turbine is a total loss and theoretically the fluid leaving turbine must have
the lowest possible energy in it. This loss of energy may be of the order of 10 – 13 per cent.
8. Losses due to radiations: Radiation losses also occur in steam turbines, although they are very
small compared to other losses and may be neglected. In case of steam turbines the high temperature
steam is limited to small part of casing so losses are small. But the radiation losses are quite significant
in gas turbines. In order to prevent radiation losses the pipings, turbine casing etc. carrying hot fluid
should be well insulated.
Fig. 14.26 Ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine showing reheat effect on h–s diagram
While actually steam enters at state 1 and leaves at state 2¢ i.e. enthalpy at state 2¢ is higher than
at 2. Comparison of expansion process 1–2 and 1–2¢ shows that due to various losses the total available
energy (h1 – h2) is not completely converted into shaft work. Portion of available energy given by
{(h1 – h2) – (h1 – h2¢)} remains with expanding fluid i.e. steam itself. On h–s diagram the shift in state
after expansion from 2 to 2¢ due to non-ideal operation is understood as reheating of steam at constant
pressure. For the sake of simplicity this reheating from 2 to 2¢ is considered to be of constant pressure
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 647
type, whereas actually it may not be so. If the state of steam after expansion lies in wet region then
it can be seen that non-isentropic expansion causes increase in dryness of steam at exit i.e. dryness
fraction at 2, (x2) will be less than that at 2¢(x2 ¢ ), x2 < x2 ¢ .
Reheating of steam is accompanied by increase in entropy i.e. s2¢ > s2. Figure 14.27 shows the
ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine on T–s diagram. For single stage expansion the T– s diagram
shows the amount of heat lost/dissipated due to the friction etc. and subsequently recovered by steam
expanding in steam turbine in the form of reheating by the area 22¢ BA.
Fig. 14.27 Ideal and actual expansion in steam turbine on T-S diagram
In case of multi stage expansion the h – s diagram shown in Fig. 14.26 indicates the four stage
expansion starting from state 1. In the first stage theoretically the ideal expansion is given by the line
1–2 while actually it is 1–2¢. Second stage expansion shall begin from state 2¢ and isentropic and non-
isentropic expansion processes are shown by 2¢–3 and 2¢–3¢ respectively. Actual state after expansion in
second stage is 3¢ and the subsequent stage expansion begins from this point. Expansion in third stage
results in theoretical and actual states as 4 and 4¢ respectively. In the last stage starting from 4¢ the ideal
and actual states after expansion are at 5 and 5¢ respectively.
Thus for multi stage expansion the actual states at the end of each stage are 2¢, 3¢, 4¢ and 5¢. For
any stage, say first stage the isentropic and non-isentropic enthalpy drop may be related to stage effi-
ciency as below,
ah - h f
ah - h f
2¢
Stage efficiency, hs for Ist stage = 1
1 2
Here the locus of actual state points 1–2¢ – 3¢ – 4¢ – 5¢ is also called the ‘condition’ line as it
approximates actual state of steam during its exit through turbine stages. If we look at the enthalpy
drops occurring in ideal and actual conditions then it is seen that the sum of isentropic enthalpy drops in
stages i.e. (Dh12 + Dh2¢ 3 + Dh3¢4 + Dh4¢–5) shall be different from the actual enthalpy drop (Dh12¢ + Dh2¢3¢
+ Dh3¢4¢ + Dh4¢5¢).
This sum of isentropic enthalpy drop (heat drop) is generally termed as cumulative heat drop
(Dhc). Total enthalpy drop for isentropic expansion can be given by Dh1-5¢ and this is also termed as
‘Rankine heat drop’ (DhRankine).
Let us look actual and ideal expansion in a stage, say second stage where expansion begins at 2¢
and should go up to 3 while it actually ends at 3¢. The shift in state from 3 to 3¢ indicates reheating of
steam during expansion. This phenomenon is called reheating of steam during expansion in steam
turbine and is quantified by ‘Reheat Factor’. ‘Reheat factor’ is defined by the ratio of ‘cumulative heat
648 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
drop’ to ‘Rankine heat drop’ i.e. cumulative heat drop (Dhc) to direct isentropic heat drop (DhRankine).
Cumulative heat drop ∆ h12 + ∆ h2′3 + ∆ h3′4 + ∆ h4′5 + …
Reheat factor = =
Rankine heat drop ∆ h 1 − 5″
D h12 + D h2 ¢ 3 + D h3 ¢ 4 + D h4 ¢ 5 D hc
RF = =
D h1 - 5 ² D hRankine
Reheat factor value is always greater than unity because cumulative heat drop shall always be
more than Rankine heat drop. This may be seen from h–s diagram which has diverging constant pres-
sure lines because of which the cumulative heat drop becomes more than Rankine heat drop. Reheat
factor value increases with increase in number of stages for a given pressure range. If the stage effi-
ciency is reduced then also the value of reheat factor increases for given pressure range and number of
stages. From designer’s point of view the reheat factor must have value of unity under ideal conditions.
But, since unity reheat factor value can not be attained so efforts must be made to reduce the reheat
factor value to make it close to unity. Unity reheat factor indicates that actual expansion is similar to ideal
expansion and ‘cumulative heat drop’ equals to ‘Rankine heat drop.’
Reheat factor may be related to internal efficiency of turbine as detailed below. Internal efficiency
is given by the ratio of ‘sum of actual outputs of stages’ and ‘the available energy in turbine’. Internal
efficiency may also be given by the ratio of internal work done of turbine to the Rankine heat drop.
D hactual
Mathematically, internal efficiency, hint =
D hRankine
D h12 ¢ + D h2 ¢ 3 ¢ + D h3 ¢ 4 ¢ + D h3 ¢ 5 ¢
hint =
D h15 ²
D h15 ¢
or, hint =
D h15 ²
If the stage efficiency for turbine stages is given by hS and stage efficiency remains same for all
stages, then stage efficiency can be given as,
D h12 ¢ D h2 ¢ 3 ¢ D h3 ¢ 4 ¢ D h4 ¢ 5 ¢
hS = = = =
D h12 D h2 ¢ 3 D h3 ¢ 4 D h4 ¢ 5
Also, Dh15¢ = Dh12¢ + Dh2¢3¢ + Dh3¢4¢ + Dh4¢5¢
Let us assume the available energy in each stage to be equal as, Dhstage
Dh12 = Dh2¢3 = Dh3¢4 = Dh4¢5 = Dhstage
or,
Dh12¢ = hS×Dhstage = Dh2¢3¢ = Dh3¢4¢ = Dh4¢5¢
Substituting in internal turbine efficiency, for ‘n’ number of stages
Dh15¢ = hS × Dhstage ´ n
h S × D hstage ´ n h S × D hstage ´ n
hint = =
D h15 ² D hRankine
From definition of reheat factor,
D hc
RF =
D hRankine
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 649
∆ hc
DhRankine =
RF
Substituting DhRankine in hint,
h S × D hstage ´ n ´ RF
hint =
D hc
hint =
c h
h S × n × D hstage × RF
D hc
For single stage turbine,
D h12 ¢ × RF
hint =
D h12
For the four stage turbine as considered here,
a D h f × RF
aD h f
15¢
hint =
15²
Thus it is obvious that the internal efficiency of a turbine having multiple stages is always more
than stage efficiency as Reheat factor is more than unity.
the state of steam entering turbine stage gets modified and the modified expansion line for each load is
obtained. It may be noted that even when the governor valve is full open the pressure drop does occur
and thus it can be said that throttling is evident at all loads on turbine. Representation of throttle govern-
ing on h-s diagram shows that the steam is available at state ‘0’ at p0 pressure in the main steam line. At
the inlet from main steam line when the governor valve is full open the throttling results in modified state
1 from where expansion occurs following path 1–3 under insentropic expansion and non-isentropic
expansion occurs following path 1–3¢. When mass flow rate is reduced for reduced load on turbine then
this partial closing of valve causes throttling as shown by 1–2. Now as a result of this throttling from 1
to 2 the modified expansion paths are 2–4 and 2–4¢ for isentropic and non-isentropic expansion in
turbine. Thus it shows that as a result of throttling the available energy gets reduced from Dh1-3 to
Dh2-4 and Dh2-4 < Dh1-3. Hence this lowering of available energy causes reduced output from turbine.
In nozzle governing the nozzles of turbines are grouped in two, three or more groups upto six or
eight groups. When nozzle governing is employed then the pressure and temperature of steam entering
first stage nozzles are independent of load. Figure 14.31 shows the schematic of nozzle control governing.
Diagram shows that steam from main line enters the main valve which is controlled by speed
governor. Steam from main valve enters the nozzle box or steam chest. By pass valve is
also provided on the nozzle box. By pass valve is connected to a passage which delivers
steam being by passed to later end of turbine. By pass valve is actuated when load varies,
thus allowing only part of steam entering main valve to contribute in power output. By pass
valve is controlled by speed governor for all loads within its’ range. In this kind of governing
depending upon turbine and its’ application there may be more than one by pass valves.
(iv) Combined governing: Some times when the governing requirements are not met by any one
kind of arrangements of governing i.e. throttle, nozzle control and by pass governing, then
the combination of two governing mechanisms may be employed. These popular
combinations are ‘throttle and nozzle control combined governing’ and ‘throttle and by pass
combined governing’.
EXAMPLES
1. Single stage impulse turbine has equal blade angles and nozzle angle of 15°. Determine the
maximum possible blade efficiency if the blade velocity coefficient is 0.85. Determine the blade speed
to steam velocity ratio if the actual blade efficiency is 90% of maximum blade efficiency.
Solution:
Given, a1 = 15°, b1 = b2, K = 0.85
F
cos 2 a 1 cos b 1 I
Maximum blade efficiency, hb,max =
2 H 1+ K×
cos b 2 K
cos 2 15°
= (1 + 0.85)
2
= 0.863 or 86.3%
Maximum blade efficiency = 86.3% Ans.
Actual blade efficiency = 0.90 ´ 0.863
= 0.7767
Blade efficiency for single stage impulse turbine can be given as,
h b = 2(1 + K) (r cos a1 – r2)
0.7767 = 2(1 + 0.85) (r cos 15 – r2)
0.2099 = (r ´ 0.966 – r2)
or,
r2 – 0.966r + 0.21 = 0
r = 0.653 or 0.347
Blade speed to steam velocity ratio = 0.653
or 0.347 Ans.
2. A single stage of simple impulse turbine produces 120 kW at blade speed of 150 m/s when steam
mass flow rate is 3 kg/s. Steam enters moving blade at 350 m/s and leaves the stage axially. Considering
velocity coefficient of 0.9 and smooth steam entry without shock into blades, determine the nozzle angle
and blade angles. Solve using velocity diagram.
656 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
V2
Given: U = 150 m/s, C1 = 350 m/s, = 0.9, a2 = 90°
V1
For impulse turbine single stage,
Output = 120 ´ 103 = 150 ´ DCw ´ 3
DCw = 266.67 m/s.
Let scale be 1 cm = 50 m/s for drawing velocity diagram using given information.
V1 = 255 m/s Þ BD = 5.1 cm
C1 = 350 m Þ AD = 7 cm
V2 = 229.5 m/s Þ BE = 4.59 » 4.6 cm
Fig. 14.33
Steps:
Solution:
U V
Given: r = = 0.4, 2 = 0.9, a1 = 18°, b2 = b1 – 3
C1 V1
2 ´ p ´ 3000 ´ 1.2
U = = 188.5 m/s Þ C1 = 471.25 m/s
60 ´ 2
Using these parameters the velocity diagram is drawn.
Scale 1 cm = 50 m/s.
Fig. 14.34
From velocity diagram, b1 = 29°, b2 = 26°, DCw = 495 m/s (= length FG)
Power developed = m × U × DCw
= 5 ´ 188.5 ´ 495 = 466537.5 J/s
= 466.54 kW
Fig. 14.36
660 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 6.76%
m ×U × D Cw
Horse power developed =
745.7
3 ´ 200 ´ 485
=
745.7
= 390.23 hp
HP developed = 390.23 hp Ans.
7. In a simple impulse steam turbine stage steam enters the nozzle at 15 bar, dry saturated with
velocity of 150 m/s. Nozzle angle is 20° and steam leaves nozzle at 8 bar and enters into smooth blades.
Considering nozzle velocity coefficient of 0.90 and blades to be equiangular determine the following
for maximum diagram efficiency.
(a) the blade angles,
(b) the blading efficiency,
(c) the stage efficiency.
Solution:
From steam tables, enthalpy at inlet to nozzle, h0 = hg at 15 bar, = 2792.2 kJ/kg
entropy, s0 = sg at 15 bar = 6.4448 kJ/kg.K
Let dryness fraction at exit of nozzle be x1 at 8 bar.
For isentropic expansion, s1 = s0 = 6.4448 kJ/kg·K
s1 = 6.4448 = sf at 8 bar + x1 ´ sfg at 8 bar
6.4448 = 2.0462 + (x1 ´ 4.6166)
x1 = 0.9528
h1 = hf at 8 bar + x1 ´ hfg at 8 bar
= 721.11 + (0.9528 ´ 2048)
h1 = 2672.44 kJ/kg
Isentropic heat drop in nozzle = (h0 – h1) = 119.76 kJ/kg
= 2b119.76 ´ 10 3
g
´ 0.9 + (150 ) 2
C1 = 487.92 m/s
For maximum diagram efficiency the blade velocity can be obtained by,
cos a 1 U cosa 1
r= Þ =
2 C1 2
cos15
U = 487.92 ´ Þ U = 229.25 m/s
2
Velocity diagram is drawn considering C1 = 487.92 m/s, U = 229.25 m/s a1 = 20°, b1 = b2.
Scale 1 cm = 50 m/s.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 663
Fig. 14.38
From velocity diagram, length BD = 5.7 cm i.e. V1 = 285 m/s
Since blades are smooth so V1 = V2
C2 = 150 m/s (= length AE)
DCw = 455 m/s (= length AF)
V2 = 285 m/s
b1 = 36° = b2
Blade angle at inlet = 36°
Blade angle at exit = 36° Ans.
Work done per kg of steam = U × DCw = (229.25 ´ 455) = 104.31 ´ 103 J/kg
C12 ( 487.92 ) 2
Kinetic energy supplied per kg of steam = =
2 2
= 119.03 ´ 103 J/kg
104.31 ´ 10 3
Blading efficiency = = 0.8763
119.03 ´ 10 3
Work done per kgof steam
Stage efficiency =
Energysupplied per kgof steam tostage
104.31 ´ 10 3
=
RS (150 ) 2 UV = 0.7962
T
119.76 ´ 10 3 +
2 W
Blading efficiency = 87.63%
Stage efficiency = 79.62% Ans.
8. Single row impulse turbine operates between 10 bar and 5 bar with expansion efficiency of
95%. 10 kg of dry saturated steam per second enters into nozzle and leaves nozzle at angle of 20° to the
axis of rotation of blades. The blade velocity coefficient is 0.90, blade speed is 200 m/s and internal
losses due to disc friction and windage losses is 0.5 kJ/kg of steam. Consider that there is no axial thrust
on the blades.
Determine,
(a) Blade angles,
(b) Stage efficiency,
(c) Stage output in hp and prepare heat balance sheet. Also reason out the error if any by
solving using velocity diagram.
664 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
From steam tables:
Enthalpy of steam entering, h0 = hg at 10 bar = 2778.1 kJ/kg
Entropy. s0 = sg at 10 bar = 6.5865 kJ/kg·K
For isentropic expansion s1 = s0 = 6.5865 kJ/kg·K
Let dryness fraction at exit of nozzle be x1 at pressure of 5 bar.
s1 = sf at 5 bar + x1 ´ sfg at 5 bar
6.5865 = 1.8607 + (x1 ´ 4.9606)
x1 = 0.9527
Enthalpy at exit of nozzle, h1 = hf at 5 bar + x1, hfg at 5 bar
= 640.23 + (x1 ´ 2108.5)
h1 = 2648.99 kJ/kg
Isentropic heat drop = (h0 – h1) = 129.11 kJ/kg
Actual heat drop = 0.95 ´ (h0 – h1) = 122.65 kJ/kg
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle considering negligible inlet velocity,
C1 = a f
2 h0 - h1 ´ 0.95
= 2 ´ 122.65 ´ 10 3
C1 = 495.28 m/s
V2
Given: U = 200 m/s, a1 = 20°, = 0.90
V1
C1a = C2a (As there is no axial thrust)
Fig. 14.39
From velocity diagram V1 = 320 m/s, V2 = 0.90 ´ V1 = 288 m/s,
C2 = 180 m/s, DCw = 485 m/s
angle ÐFBD = b1 = 32°
angle ÐABE = b2 = 39°
Work done per kg of steam = U × DCw
= (200 ´ 485)
= 97000 J/kg, Actual work = (97 – 0.5) = 96.5 kJ/kg
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 665
=
b97000 ´ 10 -3
- 0.5 g
= 0.7474 or 74.74%
129.11
( 97 - 0.5) ´ 10
Output in hp = = 1294.09 hp
0.7457
Energy lost in nozzle = (h0 – h1) ´ 0.05 = 6.46 kJ/kg
FG V
- V22
2
IJ FG ( 320) 2
- ( 288 ) 2 IJ
H K H K
1
Energy lost in blade friction = =
2 2
= 9.73 kJ/kg
C22 (180 ) 2
Exit energy loss = = = 16.2 kJ/kg
2 2
Heat balance sheet in kJ/kg of steam
Input, kJ/kg % Expenditure, kJ/kg %
Heat supplied = 129.11 (i) Useful work = 96.5 74.63
100% (ii) Nozzle friction loss = 6.4 4.95
(iii) Blade friction loss = 9.7 7.50
(iv) Windage & disc friction loss = 0.5 0.38
(v) Exit energy loss = 16.2 12.55
129.11 129.3 kJ/kg, Error = 0.19 kJ/kg
Error of 0.19 kJ/kg is due to cumulative error creeping in from construction and rounding off
measurements from velocity diagram.
9. Following data refer to the velocity compounded impulse turbine with two rows of moving
blades:
Steam supply: 60 bar, 500°C
Speed of rotation: 3600 rpm
Mean radius of blades: 60 cm
Steam supply: 6 kg/s
Blade speed to steam velocity ratio: 0.2
Nozzle efficiency: 90%
Nozzle angle: 20°
Exit angles: 25°, 25° and 40° for first moving, fixed and second moving
blades respectively
Blade velocity coefficient: 0.85 for all blades
Disc friction and Windage loss: 20 hp.
Determine,
(a) the stage pressure
(b) the blading efficiency
(c) the power output
(d) the state of steam leaving stage.
666 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
60 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 2 ´ p ´ 3600
Blade speed, U = rw = = 226.2 m/s
60
U
r = 0.2 = so C1 = 1131 m/s
C1
C12 (1131) 2
Actual heat drop in stage, Dh¢01 = = = 639.58 kJ/kg
2 2
F D h¢ 01I
Theoretical heat drop Dh01 =
H 0.9 K = 710.64 kJ/kg
Fig. 14.40
hence, h1 = 2711.56 kJ/kg, s1 = s0 = 6.8803 kJ/kg·K
From mollies diagram, P1 = 3.8 bar corresponding to h1 vertically below 60 bar and 500°C state.
Stage pressure = 3.8 bar Ans.
Velocity diagram is drawn using scale of 1 cm = 100 m/s and following,
U = 226.2 m/s, C1 = 1131 m/s, a1 = 20°, b2 = 25°, a3 = 25°, b4 = 40°
V2 V
= 4 = 0.85
V1 V3
Fig. 14.41
From diagram, V 1 = 935 m/s, V2 = 794.75 m/s, C2 = 610 m/s
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 667
C3
= 0.85, Þ C3 = 0.85 ´ C2 = 518.5 m/s
C2
V 3 = 335 m/s Þ V4 = 284.75 m/s
Velocity diagram is drawn in following steps:
(i) Draw AB corresponding to U (= 226.2 m/s)
(ii) Draw AD at angle 20° corresponding to C1 (= 1131 m/s)
(iii) Join D with B and measure BD (= 9.35 cm) or V1 = 935 m/s, Estimate V2 = 0.85 ´ V1
(iv) Draw BE corresponding to V2 = (794.75 m/s) at angle b2 (= 25°)
(v) Join E with A and measure AE (= 6.1 cm) or C2 = 610 m/s. For fixed blade C3 = 0.85
´ C2, Estimate C3.
(vi) Draw AG at angle a3 (= 25°) corresponding to C3 (= 518.5 m/s)
(vii) Join G with B and measure BG (= 3.35 cm) or V3 = 335 m/s. Estimate V4 = 0.85 ´ V3
for IInd moving blade.
(viii) Draw BF at angle 40° corresponding to V4 (= 284.75 m/s)
(ix) Join F with A and measure AF (= 2.8 cm) or C4 = 280 m/s.
Length KH (= 15.6 cm) or DCw Ist moving = 1560 m/s
Length JI (= 5.45 cm) or DCw II moving = 545 m/s
FG C IJ = (280)
2 2
H2K 2
4
Energy loss at exit per kg = = 39.2 kJ/kg
. ´ 0.7457
381116
Heat equivalent of net work = = 473.66 kJ/kg
6
Hence Dh = 473.66 + 39.2 = 512.86 kJ/kg
Corresponding to enthalpy drop of 512.86 kJ/kg from h0 the final condition of steam can be seen
from mollier diagram. The state is at 225° (superheated steam at 3.8 bar (approximately)
Blading efficiency = 74.44%
Net output = 3811.16 hp
State of steam leaving stage = 225°C Ans.
10. Determine blade speed, blade and nozzle angles and work done per kg of steam, ratio of
height required for moving blades rows and fixed blade row with respect to nozzle height. Increase in
668 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
volume of steam during expansion in velocity compounded impulse turbine having two moving blade
rows may be neglected. Further data required for analysis is given as under,
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle = 500 m/s
Angle at exit of second moving blade = 30° from plane of rotation of blades
Velocity coefficient = 0.90 for each blade.
There is no axial thrust on any of moving blade row and the discharge from stage is axial. The
axial velocity in first moving blade is twice that of second moving blade. Solve using velocity diagram.
Solution:
Let us draw the velocity diagram for the stages in backward manner starting from exit of second
moving blade and coming gradually to inlet of Ist moving Blade.
V2 V C
Given, C1 = 500 m/s, b4 = 30°, = 4 = 3 = 0.90
V1 V3 C2
a4 = 90°, C2a = C1a and C2a = 2 × C3a
C3a = C4a
Steps:
(i) Start with any length AB designating U, say AB = 2 cm
(ii) Draw line BG at angle b4 (= 30°) such that G lies vertically below A, there is axial discharge
V
from stage. Measure BG = 2.7 cm which gives V4. Estimate V3, as V3 = 4 = 3 cm
0.9
(iii) Draw a line GF parallel to AB as C3a = C4a. Using compass for 3 cm width mark state F
with compass needle at B. Join B and F. Measure AF (= 4.8 cm) which gives C3.
C3
Estimate C2 = = 5.33 cm
0.9
(iv) Draw a line ED parallel to AB as C2a = 2 × C3a i.e. 3.5 cm below AB and using compass
for 5.33 cm width mark state E with compass needle at A. Join E and A to show C2. Join
V
E and B which shows V2. Measure BE (= 7 cm) which gives V2. Estimate V1 = 2 =
0.9
7.78 cm.
(v) Using compass open for 7.78 cm mark point D with compass needle at B. Join line BD and AD
which show V1 and C1 respectively. Measure length AD = 9.6 cm. Thus C1 of 500 m/s velocity
is shown on length of 9.6 cm. Scale comes out, 9.6 cm = 500 m/s, 1cm = 52.08 m/s
Fig. 14.42
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 669
11. In a Parson’s reaction turbine the rotor of 1m diameter runs at 3000 rpm. Determine
the isentropic enthalpy drop in the stage considering stage efficiency of 0.80 , r = 0.7, blade outlet
angle = 20°.
Solution:
U
Given, r = = 0.7, hstage = 0.80, b2 = 20°
C1
2 ´ p ´ 3000 ´ 1
U = rw = = 157.08 m/s
60 ´ 2
or, C1 = 224.4 m/s
Drawing velocity diagram considering given information.
As it is Parson’s reaction turbine so a1 = b2 and b1 = a2
Scale 1 cm = 50m/s
Fig. 14.43
Steps:
(i) Draw AB corresponding to U = 157.08 m/s.
(ii) Draw AD at angle a1 = b2 = 20° corresponding to C1 (= 224.4 m/s).
(iii) Join point D with B which gives V1 (= 95 m/s). Measure angle ÐFBD = b1 = 56°
(iv) Draw C2 along AE at angle a2 = b1 = 56°. Also draw EB at angle 20°.
It intersects at E. Lines AE and BE give C2 and V2 respectively.
(v) Length FG gives DCw (= 260 m/s) of 5.2 cm.
Work output = U × DCw
(per kg of steam) = 157.8 ´ 260
= 40840.8 J/kg
40840.8
State efficiency hstage = 0.80 =
D hisentropic
Dhisentropic = 51051 J/kg or 51.05 kJ/kg
Solution:
Given: 50% reaction turbine with b1 = 80° & b2 = 20°
N = 1500 rpm, d = 1.6 m Þ a2 = 80° and a1 = 20°
1.6 ´ 2 ´ p ´ 1500
U = rw = = 125.66 m/s
2 ´ 60
Velocity diagram for turbine stage is drawn as below using above data.
Fig. 14.44
ratio of 0.8. There occurs tip leakage of steam at all rows amounting to 10% of total and efficiency of
working steam is 85%. Considering blade outlet angles for both fixed and moving blades to be 20°,
determine the following analytically.
(i) the output from turbine in hp.
(ii) the pressure of steam leaving turbine,
(iii) the mean blade height.
Solution:
Let the degree of reaction be 50% for the reaction turbine.
p ´ 50 ´ 10 - 2 ´ 2 ´ 3000
Mean blade speed U= = 78.54 m/s
2 ´ 60
U 78.54
Steam velocity, C1= = = 98.18 m/s
r 0.8
Angles, a1 = 20°, b2 = 20°
DCw = 2C1 cos a1 – U
= {(2 ´ 98.18 ´ cos 20) – 78.54)}
DCw = 105.98 m/s
Actual mass of steam flowing through rows, mactual = 6 ´ 0.90 = 5.4 kg/s
Power output = U × DCw ´ mactual ´ no. of pairs
78.54 ´ 105.98 ´ 5.4 ´ 8 ´ 10 -3
=
0.7454
= 482.4 hp
C1a C 2a
=
vat exit of fixed blades vat exit of moving blades
76.95 C
= 2a
0.5 0.6
C2a = 92.34 m/s
From geometry of velocity diagrams,
C2a = V2 sin b2
C2 a 92.34
V2 = =
sin b 2 sin 30
V2 = 184.68 m/s
V12 = C12 + U 2 – 2C1U cos a1
= (225)2 + (180)2 – (2 ´ 225 ´ 180 ´ cos 20)
= 6309.9
RS C - K C 2 2 2
UV
T 2´h W
1 2
Heat drop in fixed blades =
N
N
Here nozzle efficiency is given as 0.9 for both fixed and moving blades.
C22 = V22 + U 2 – 2UV 2 cos b2
= (184.68)2 + (180)2 – (2 ´ 180 ´ 184.68 ´ cos 30)
C22 = 8929.18
C2 = 94.49 m/s
RS (225)
- ( 0.88 ´ 8929.18)
2
UV
Heat drop in fixed blades =
T 2 ´ 0.9 W
= 23.76 kJ/kg
RS (184.68) 2
- ( 0.88 ´ 6309.9) UV
Heat drop in moving blades =
T 2 ´ 0.9 W
= 15.86 kJ/kg
Heat drop in moving blades
Therefore, degree of reaction =
Total heat drop
15.86
=
( 23.76 + 15.86)
= 0.4003 or 40.03%
Fig. 14.45
676 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
H
Cumulative heat drop
3 4¢ 4 5¢ 5 6¢
5 ´ 210.05
=
( 3023.5 - 2062.96)
RF = 1.09
Reheat factor = 1.09 Ans.
Plotting the actual heat drop shown by 1-6 on Mollier diagram state of steam leaving each stage
can be given as under.
No. of stage 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure at exit of stage, bar 6.9 2.6 0.8 0.2 0.05
Condition of steam 235°C 160°C dry sat. 0.975 0.95
dryness dryness
factor factor
Ans.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 677
16. In a five stage turbine the steam is supplied at 35 bar, 450°C and leaves at 0.07 bar, 0.89 dry.
Determine the following for equal work between the stages:
(i) the state of steam at inlet to each stage,
(ii) the stage efficiency or efficiency ratio for all stages,
(iii) the reheat factor,
(iv) the overall turbine efficiency.
Solve using Mollier diagram.
Fig. 14.46
Solution:
From mollier diagram,
h1 – h6 = 1028 kJ/kg
h1 - h6
Considering equal work the enthalpy drop in each stage =
5
= 205.6 kJ/kg
Plotting the condition line as straight line between 1 and 6, the following states are obtained at inlet
of each stage
No. of stage 1 2 3 4 5
Pressure, at inlet bar 35 14.5 5.5 1.7 0.35
State of steam 450°C 342°C 235°C 125°C 0.95
The enthalpy drops as evident from mollier diagrams,
h1 – h2¢ = 264 kJ/kg, h2 – h3¢ = 246 kJ/kg, h3 – h4¢ = 240 kJ/kg,
678 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Fig. 14.47
From geometry, C1 sin a1 = 600 sin 20 = 205.2 m/s
C1 sin a 1
tan b1 =
C1 cos a 1 - U
FG 205.2 IJ
b1 = tan–1
H (600.cos 20 - 200) K
b1 = 29.42°
For symmetrical blade, b1 = b2 = 29.42°
a m × U × DC f
FG m × C IJ
w
Diagram efficiency = 2
H 2K
1
2U × C1 cosa 1
=
C12
2U × cosa 1
=
C1
2 ´ 200 ´ cos 20
=
600
= 0.6265
EXERCISE
14.15 Sketch the velocity diagram for a single stage reaction turbine having 50% degree of reaction.
14.16 Obtain the condition for maximum diagram efficiency of a reaction turbine in terms of absolute
angle at inlet to moving blade.
14.17 What is meant by reheat factor? Also discuss its’ relevance with the help of T–s and h–s diagrams
14.18 Describe the governing in steam turbines. Give different methods for governing in steam turbines.
14.19 Differentiate amongst different methods of governing of steam turbine.
14.20 Give the reason for following statement;
“Velocity compounded impulse stages are generally placed at the high pressure inlet end of steam
turbine”.
14.21 Show that the reheat factor in steam turbine having steam entering dry and saturated at absolute
temperature T1, and expanding up to the absolute temperature T2 with stage efficiency h s, shall
be
T1 + T2
given as, RF =
a
2 T2 + h s T1 - T2 f
The number of stages may be considered infinite and the condition line is straight line.
14.22 A steam turbine stage is supplied with steam at 50 bar, 350°C and leaves turbine at pressure of
5 bar. Determine steam supply rate if the isentropic efficiency is 82% and power output is 15224
kW [37.8 kg/s]
14.23 A De Laval steam turbine has steam leaving nozzle with velocity of 1200 m/s at angle of 20° and
mean blade speed of 400 m/s. Considering blades to be symmetrical, blade velocity coefficient of
0.8 and steam flowing at rate of 1000 kg/hr, determine the following using velocity diagram,
(a) the blade angle
(b) the power developed
(c) the relative velocity of steam entering blades
(d) the blade efficiency.
[30°, 30°, 145.5 kW, 830 m/s, 72.8%]
14.24 Determine the turbine output from a single stage impulse turbine having smooth blades, steam
flow rate of 20 kg/s, steam velocity of 600 m/s, blade speed of 250 m/s, nozzle angle of 20° and
blade outlet angle of 25°. Also calculate axial thrust. [3275 kW, 800N]
14.25 Determine nozzle angle, blade angles at inlet and exit for a single stage impulse steam turbine
developing 132 kW, speed of 3340 rpm, mean rotor diameter of 1 m, steam flow rate of 2 kg/s, blade
velocity coefficient of 0.9, steam leaving nozzle at 400 m/s and steam discharges axially from
turbine. Solve using velocity diagram. [21°, 36°, 32°]
14.26 De-Laval turbine has nozzle angle of 20°, symmetrical blades and blade velocity coefficient of 0.85.
Determine maximum blade efficiency. Also find out the blade speed to steam velocity ratio if the
actual blade efficiency is 92% of maximum blade efficiency. [81.6%, 0.6 or 0.34]
14.27 What shall be the nozzle angle for a De-Laval turbine offering maximum possible efficiency of
90%? [18.44°]
14.28 A stage of simple impulse turbine has 10 kg/s steam entering the rotor having mean diameter of
105 cm, running at 50 r.p.s.. Nozzle angle is 18°, blade speed to steam velocity ratio is 0.42, blade
velocity coefficient is 0.84 and the exit angle of blade 3° less than inlet angle. Draw the velocity
diagram and obtain (a) the axial thrust on blades, (b) the tangential thrust on blades, (c) the
resultant thrust on blades (d) the power developed. [250 N, 3900 N, 3908 N, 641.5 kW]
14.29 A singe stage impulse steam turbine has mean diameter of rotor as 1 m and runs at 3000 rpm. Steam
leaves nozzle at 20° with velocity of 300 m/s. Determine the power developed if the axial thrust on
682 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
blades is 98 N, blades are symmetrical and there occurs 19% frictional loss of kinetic energy of
relative velocity at inlet to blades. [181.2 kW]
14.30 Single row impulse turbine has blade speed of 175 m/s and steam leaves nozzle at 400 m/s. Steam
flows at the rate of 163.2 kg/min and leaves turbine axially. Considering blade velocity coefficient
of 0.9 determine nozzle angle, blade angles at inlet and exit, axial thrust, energy loss at exit, energy
loss in blades and diagram efficiency if turbine produces 180 kW output.
[19°, 32.6°, 36.3°, 4.35 N, 8.27 kJ/kg, 5.53 kJ/kg. 41.36%]
14.31 Following data refer to a stage of velocity compounded impulse steam turbine;
Nozzle angle: 16°
Angle at exit of first moving blade: 20°
Angle at exit of fixed blade: 25°
Angle at exit of second moving blade: 30°.
Velocity of steam leaving nozzle: 800 m/s
Blade speed: 150 m/s
Blade velocity coefficient for first moving, fixed and second moving blades: 0.8, 0.85 and 0.85.
Steam flow rate: 5 kg/s
Determine, (a) diagram efficiency, (b) the energy carried at exit, (c) the axial thrust on each moving
blade ring, (d) the power developed. [66.2%, 3.79 kJ/kg, 20.9 N, 27 N, 1059 kW]
14.32 A two stage velocity compound impulse steam turbine has mean blade speed of 150 m/s, steam
leaves nozzle with 675 m/s velocity at angle of 20°. The exit angles of first row moving blade, fixed
blade and second row moving blade are 25°, 25° and 30° respectively. For the blade velocity
coefficient of 0.9 for all blades and flow rate of4.5 kg/s determine,
(a) the power output, (b) the diagram efficiency.
[80.7 kW, 78.5%]
14.33 A simple impulse turbine has nozzles at angle of 20° to the direction of motion of moving blades
and steam leaves nozzle at 375 m/s, blade velocity coefficient is 0.85, steam flow rate is 10 kg/
s and blade speed is 165 m/s. Determine,
(a) Inlet and outlet angles for blades such that there is no axial thrust.
(b) The power output.
[34.4°, 41.6°, 532 kW]
14.34 A Parson’s reaction turbine has blade speed of 78.5 m/s, stage efficiency of 80%, blade speed
to steam velocity ratio of 0.7 and blade outlet angle of 20°. Estimate the isentropic enthalpy drop
in the stage. [12.32 kJ/kg]
14.35 In a 50% reaction turbine the inlet and exit angles are 80° and 20° respectively. Blade speed is
113 m/s and steam is admitted in turbine at 12 bar, 200°C and leaves after adiabatic enthalpy drop
of 17.5 kJ/kg with only 95% of heat drop being utilized for producing work of 620 hp. Calculate
the stage efficiency and blade speed. [78.5%, 2.29 cm]
14.36 A reaction turbine has mean blade speed of 220 m/s and blade speed to steam velocity ratio
of 0.7. Determine the angle at inlet of blade and work done per kg of steam flow if angle at exit
is 20°.
Also determine the percentage increase in diagram efficiency if turbine is run for optimum blade
speed to steam velocity ratio.
[55°, 81.5 kJ/kg, 93.8%]
14.37 A reaction turbine has eight pairs with mean blade speed of 68 m/s and average blade speed to
steam velocity ratio of 0.8. Steam at 15 bar, dry saturated is supplied at the rate of 300 kg/min.
Steam Turbines ________________________________________________________________ 683
Angle at exit of fixed and moving blade is 20°. Determine (a) the horse power, (b) the average blade
height. [312.6 hp, 1.35 cm]
14.38 In a four stage velocity compounded impulse turbine, steam is supplied at 35 bar, 420°C and leaves
at 0.07 bar. Obtain the initial pressure, quality at inlet of each stage and internal efficiency of
turbine if the average efficiency is 70%. Also find reheat factor.
[11.3 bar, 304°C, 2.9 bar, 189°C, 0.55 bar, 0.99, 74.6% 1.07]
14.39 A reaction turbine stage has steam leaving fixed blade at 3 bar, 0.94 dry and velocity of 143
m/s. Ratio of axial velocity of flow to blade velocity is 0.7 at entry and 0.75 at exit from moving
blades. Angles at exit of fixed and moving blades are same. The height of blade is 1.8 cm and
steam flow is 150 kg/min. For blade velocity of 70 m/s determine the degree of reaction.
[58.2%]
14.40 A three stage turbine has steam entering at 30 bar, 350°C and leaves first, second and third stages
at 7 bar, 1 bar and 0.1 bar respectively. For equal stage efficiency of 70% determine (a) the final
condition of steam, (b) the reheat factor, (c) the overall thermal efficiency.
[0.94, 1.05, 24.5%]
14.41 A four stage turbine has steam supplied at 20 bar, 350°C and leaves at 0.05 bar. Considering
overall efficiency to be 80% and equal work from the stages and straight condition line determine,
(a) the steam pressure at exit of each stage, (b) the each stage efficiency, (c) the reheat factor.
[9 bar, 2.4 bar, 0.5 bar, 0.05 bar, 72.5%, 76%, 78.4%, 82.5%, 1.04]
684 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
15
Steam Condenser
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Condenser is one of the essential components of steam power plants as it facilitates condensation of
steam at given conditions with minimum expenditure of energy and minimum loss of heat and finally
gives condensate which can be recirculated by feed pump to boiler for steam generation. Condenser
generally operates at pressure less than atmospheric pressure. In the steam power plant the use of
condenser permits expansion in steam turbine even upto less than atmospheric pressure and subse-
quently condensing steam to yield condensate for recirculation thus improving plant efficiency and
output. Expansion in steam turbine/engine can not be extended to pressures less than atmospheric in the
absence of condenser.
“Condenser can be defined as device used for condensation of steam at constant pressure;
generally pressure is less than atmospheric pressure”. Condenser is thus a closed vessel which is
generally maintained at vacuum and cold fluid is circulated for picking heat from steam to cause its
condensation. Use of Condenser offers advantages such as hotter feed water for being sent to boiler’,
‘removal of air and non condensable dissolved gases from feed water’, ‘recovery of condensate reduces
treated water requirement’, ‘expansion upto subatmospheric conditions and capital cost is reduced by
recycling of feed water’ etc. Increase in expansion work due to use of condenser is shown in Fig. 15.1
on p-V diagram.
Fig. 15.1 p-V diagram showing how condenser increases work output in steam engine
Steam power plant employing condenser and the condensing plant are shown in Fig. 15.2.
Steam Condenser _______________________________________________________________ 685
Fig. 15.2 Schematic for steam power plant having condensing plant
Discharge from steam turbine passes into condenser where it is condensed using cooling water
being circulated employing coolant pump. Condensate being at pressure less than atmospheric pressure
is to be sucked out using condensate extraction pump. Condensate is extracted and sent to hot well from
where it is pumped to boiler using feed pump. Dissolved gases and air etc. if any are extracted out from
condenser using air extraction pump. This air or vapour may be present because of air leaking into
vacuum system and air coming with steam. Cooling water for supply to condenser is taken either from
some river or from cooling tower. Cooling water requirement may be up to 100 kg water per kg of
steam or even more depending upon the type of condenser and its capacity. Cooling tower cools the hot
cooling water leaving condenser to get cooled by evaporation of water and heat exchange with air.
Water evaporated or lost in cooling tower is compensated by the make up treated water available
from feed water treatment plant.
(a) Low level jet condenser: Low level jet condenser is the one which is placed at low level such
that vacuum inside condenser draws cooling water into condenser from river/pond/cooling tower.
Difference between atmospheric pressure (at which cooling water is available) and condenser pressure
causes flow of cooling water from cooling water reservoir to condenser i.e. (patm – pcond). Flow of
steam and cooling water could be parallel flow or counter flow type. Counter flow type and parallel flow
type low level jet condensers are shown in Fig. 15.3. There is provision for extraction of air and
dissolved gases from top of condenser by using air extraction pump. Condensate extraction pump is
used for taking out condensate from condenser and sending it to hot well.
Cooling water supplied to jet condenser has generally a large percentage of dissolved air which
gets liberated due to atomization of water, vacuum and heating of water and is extracted out. Low level
jet condenser suffers from inherent drawback that in the event of failure of condensate extraction pump
condenser shall be flooded with cooling water.
(b) High level jet condenser: High level jet condenser is the one which is placed at a height more
than that of water and water is to be injected into condenser using a pump and the condensate will flow
out of condenser because of gravity. Here no condensate extraction pump is required, instead pump is
required for pumping water upto condenser inlet. High level jet condenser is also called as ‘barometric
condenser’. High level jet condenser is placed at suitable height depending upon efficient drainage and
capacity of sump (hot well) into which tail pipe of condenser discharges out. Mathematically, it could be
said that jet condenser placed above hotwell by 10.36 m shall be high level jet condenser or barometric
condenser. High level jet condenser may also be of counterflow type or parallel flow type depending
upon the direction of flow of steam and cooling water. Figure 15.4 shows counterflow high level jet
condenser.
a
pb - pa + ps f
Vacuum efficiency =
a f
pb - ps
Here, partial pressure of air (pa ) shall be zero in the absence of air leakage and vacuum efficiency
shall be 100%. If we look at mathematical expression of efficiency, it is obvious that vacuum efficiency
increases with reduction in partial pressure of air.
Also the vacuum efficiency shall increase with decrease in barometric pressure for constant exit
steam pressure and condenser actual pressure. In case of less cooling water the condenser pressure
increases and reduces the vacuum efficiency of condenser for other pressures remaining same. De-
signer always wishes to have condenser with highest vacuum efficiency i.e. close to 100%.
‘Condenser efficiency’ is another condenser performance parameter. It is given by the ratio of
actual rise in cooling water temperature to the maximum possible temperature rise. Condenser facilitates
heat exchange between two fluids and under ideal conditions the steam should only reject latent heat to
cooling water so as to yield condensate at saturated liquid condition. Thus, there should be no undercooling
of condensate in ideal condenser. Therefore, ideal condenser may be defined as condenser in which
steam rejects only latent heat to cooling fluid and condensate is available without any undercooling. Ideal
condenser requires minimum quantity of cooling water and shows maximum gain in cooling water
temperature so as to condense the steam. Mathematically,
Actual rise in cooling water temperature
Condenser efficiency =
Maximum possible temperature rise
Here, the maximum possible temperature rise = {(Saturated temperature corresponding to condenser
pressure) – (Cooling water inlet temperature)}
EXAMPLES
1. In a condenser the vacuum of 71 cm of Hg is maintained with barometer reading of 76 cm in
Hg. Temperature in condenser is 35°C while hot well is at temperature of 30°C. The cooling water is
circulated at the rate of 800 kg/min and condensate is available at 25 kg/min. The temperature of
cooling water at inlet and outlet are 15°C and 25°C. Determine the mass of air in kg/m3 of condenser
volume, dryness fraction of steam entering condenser and vacuum efficiency. Take mercury density as
0.0135951 kg/cm3, g = 9.81 m/s2.
Solution:
Absolute pressure in the condenser
pt = (76 – 71) ´ 10–2 ´ 0.0135951 ´ 106 ´ 9.81 = 6668.396 N/m2
= 6.67 kPa
Partial pressure of steam in condenser = Saturation pressure of steam corresponding to 35°C
(from steam table)
ps = 5.62 kPa
Partial pressure of air, pa = pt – ps = 6.67 – 5.63 = 1.04 kPa
Mass of air per m3 of condenser volume can be obtained from gas equation,
pa × V 1.04 ´ 1
ma = = = 0.012 kg/m3
RT ( 273 + 35) ´ 0.287
Let the enthalpy of steam entering condenser be hs so by heat balance,
mw ´ Cp ´ (Tw – Tw ) = ms×(hs – Cp × Tc )
w o i w
mw= 800 kg/min, ms = 25 kg/min, Tw = 25°C, Tw = 15°C, Tc = 30°C
o i
800 ´ 4.18 (25 – 15) = 25 (hs – 4.18 ´ 30)
hs= 1463 kJ/kg
Let dryness fraction of steam entering be x.
hs = 1463 = hf at 35°C + x × hfg at 35°C
1463 = 146.68 + x × 2418.6
Þ x = 0.5442
( 76 - 5) ´ 0.0135951 ´ 10 4 ´ 9.81
Vacuum efficiency =
cc h
76 ´ 0.0135951 ´ 10 4 ´ 9.81 - 5.63 ´ 103 h
= 0.9891 or 98.91%
Mass of air in kg/m3 of condenser volume = 0.012 kg/m3, dryness fraction of Ans.
steam entering = 0.5442, Vacuum efficiency = 98.91%
2. A condenser has vacuum of 70 cm of Hg when barometer reading is 76 cm. Condenser has
temperature of 30°C. Air leaks into condenser at the rate of 1 kg air per 2500 kg steam. Calculate (i) the
capacity of air pump per kg of steam for removal of air from steam entering condenser, and (ii) the mass
of water vapour accompanying this air.
696 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Absolute pressure in condenser = (76 – 70) cm of Hg
= 6 ´ 0.0135951 ´ 104 ´ 9.81 = 8002.67 Pa
pt = 8.003 kPa
Partial pressure of steam, ps = Saturation pressure corresponding to 30°C from steam table
ps = 4.246 kPa
Partial pressure of air, pa = Total pressure in condenser – Partial pressure of steam
pa = pt – ps = 3.757 kPa
1
Mass of air accompanying per kg steam due to leakage = = 0.0004 kg
2500
Using gas equation, pa × V = mRT
mRT 0.0004 ´ 0.287 ´ ( 273 + 30 )
Volume of air per kg of steam = =
pa 3.757
= 9.26 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
Volume of water vapour accompanying air shall be equal to the volume of air.
So volume of water vapour accompanying air = 9.26 ´ 10–3 m3/kg
Specific volume of dry steam at condenser temperature of 30°C = vg at 30°C = 32.89 m3/kg
9.26 ´ 10 - 3
Mass of water vapour accompanying air =
32.89
= 2.82 ´ 10–4 kg/kg of steam
Mass of water vapour accompanying air = 2.82 ´ 10–4 kg/kg of steam Ans.
3 ´ 0.287 ´ ( 273 + 34 )
Volume of air = Volume of mixture handled by pump =
0.276
= 957.71 m3/hr
Volume of air handled = 467.43 m3/hr Ans.
Volume of mixture handled = 957.71 m3/hr
10. In a surface condenser the vacuum at inlet is seen to be 72 cm Hg and at outlet it is 73 cm Hg.
The barometer reading is 76 cm and the dryness fraction of steam at inlet is 0.92. Cooling water entering
the condenser is at 20°C. Considering no air in the condenser and the temperature rise in cooling water
to be maximum determine.
(i) the minimum amount of undercooling.
(ii) the amount of cooling water required per kg of steam.
Solution:
Inlet pressure in condenser = (76 – 72) cm Hg = 4 cm Hg.
= 4 ´ 104 ´ 0.0135951 ´ 9.81 ´ 10–3
= 5.335 kPa
Outlet pressure in condenser = (76 – 73) cm Hg = 3 cm Hg
= 3 ´ 104 ´ 0.0135951 ´ 9.81 ´ 10–3
= 4.001 kPa
Since there is no air in condenser so the 5.335 kPa and 4.001 kPa will be the pressure of steam.
Saturation temperature corresponding to above pressures give temperature at inlet and outlet respec-
tively.
Saturation temperature at inlet =33.87°C, (from steam table at 5.335 kPa)
Saturation temperature at outlet =28.96°C, (from steam table at 4.001 kPa)
Thus, steam will leave at maximum temperature of 28.96°C
The minimum amount of undercooling = 33.87 – 28.96 = 4.91°C
For maximum temperature rise of cooling water the temperature of cooling water outlet will be
equal to the temperature of steam at inlet of 33.87°C.
Therefore, the maximum rise in cooling water temperature
= 33.87 – 20 = 13.87°C
Enthalpy of steam entering, h = hf at 33.87°C + 0.92 ´ hfg at 33.87°C
h = 141.97 + (0.92 ´ 2421.33) = 2369.59 kJ/kg
Let mass of cooling water required be m kg per kg steam.
Heat balance on condenser yields,
m ´ 4.18 ´ 13.87 = 1 ´ (2369.59 – 4.18 ´ 28.96)
Þ m = 38.78 kg water per kg of steam
Undercooling = 4.91°C Ans.
Cooling water requirement = 38.78 kg/kg steam
704 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
EXERCISE
15.1 What do you understand by condenser? Discuss its significance.
15.2 How does condenser improve performance of steam power plant?
15.3 Discuss different types of condenser briefly.
15.4 Differentiate between surface condenser and jet condenser.
15.5 Give a sketch of barometric jet condenser and explain its working.
15.6 Discuss the effect of air leakage upon the performance of condenser.
15.7 How the air leaking into condenser is extracted out? Explain.
15.8 Describe the factors affecting the efficiency of condensing plant.
15.9 Discuss the relevance of Dalton’s law of partial pressures in condenser calculations.
15.10 What do you understand by cooling towers? Explain their utility.
15.11 Determine the vacuum efficiency of a surface condenser having vacuum of 715 mm of Hg and
temperature of 32°C. The barometer reading is 765 mm of Hg. [98%]
15.12 A surface condenser having vacuum of 715 mm Hg and temperature of 32°C has cooling water
circulated at 800 kg/min. The cooling water entering condenser becomes warmer by 14°C. The
condensate is available from condenser at 25 kg/min. The hot well temperature is 30°C. Barometer
reading is 765 mm of Hg. Determine the mass of air in kg/m3 of condenser volume and dryness
fraction of steam entering. [0.022 kg/m3, 0.84]
15.13 A surface condenser has vacuum of 71 cm Hg and mean temperature of 35°C. The barometer
reading is 76.5 cm Hg. The hot well temperature is 28°C. Steam enters condenser at 2000 kg/hr
and requires cooling water at 8°C at the rate of 1000 kg/min. Cooling water leaves condenser at
24°C. Determine
(i) the vacuum efficiency of condenser,
(ii) the undercooling in condenser
(iii) corrected vacuum in reference to standard barometer reading, (iv) the condenser efficiency.
[0.982, 7°C, 70.5 cm Hg, 0.505]
15.14 In a surface condenser steam enters at 40°C and dryness fraction of 0.85. Air leaks into it at 0.25
kg/min. An air pump is provided upon the condenser for extracting out air. Temperature at suction
of air pump is 32°C while condensate temperature is 35°C. Determine.
(i) the reading of vacuum gauge
(ii) the volume handling capacity of air pump in m3/hr
(iii) the loss of condensate in kg/hr.
[705 mm Hg, 500 m3/hr, 16.9 kg/hr]
15.15 A steam turbine discharges steam into a surface condenser having vacuum of 700 mm Hg. The
barometer reading is 760 mm Hg. Leakage into condenser is seen to be 1.4 kg/min. The air pump
is employed for extracting out air leaking in. Temperature at the inlet of air pump is 20°C. The air
pump is of reciprocating type running at 300 rpm and has L : D ratio of 2 : 1. Determine,
(i) the capacity of air pump is m3/hr
(ii) the dimensions of air pump
(iii) the mass of vapour going out with air in air pump, kg/hr.
[1250 m3/hr, bore: 35.36 cm, stroke: 70.72 cm, 21.5 kg/hr]
15.16 A surface condenser handles condensate at 70.15 cm Hg when barometer reads 76 cm Hg. Steam
entering at 2360 kg/hr requires cooling water at 6.81 ´ 102 kg/hr, 10°C. Cooling water leaves
condenser at 27.8°C while condenser has mean temperature of 37°C. Air leaks into condenser at
0.3 kg/min. Determine,
(i) the mass of vapour going out with air per hour
(ii) the state of steam entering.
[119 kg/hr, 0.89]
Steam Condenser _______________________________________________________________ 705
15.17 A steam condenses working at 71.5 cm Hg vacuum and temperature of 32.28°C. Condenser has
steam entering at 13750 kg/hr. The leakage of air into condenser is 0.4 ´10–3 kg/kg steam entering.
Considering volumetric capacity of air pump as 80% determine the capacity of air pump, handling
mixture of air and water vapour. [10.3 m3/min]
15.18 A jet condenser has pressure at inlet as 0.07 bar. It is supplied steam at 4000 kg/hr. Water is
supplied for condensation at 16 ´ 104 kg/hr. The volume of air dissolved in water at 1 bar, 15°C
is 0.05 of that water.
Air leaks in with steam at 0.05 kg/min. Temperature at suction of air pump is 30°C and volumetric
efficiency is 80%. Determine the capacity of air pump in m3/min for extracting out air.
[519 kg/hr]
15.19 A surface condenser has steam entering at 0.09 bar, 0.88 dry at the rate of 16000 kg/hr. The air
leakage into condenser is 8 kg/hr. Temperature at condensate and air extraction pipe is 36°C. For
the average heat transfer rate of 133760 kJ/m2×hr, determine the surface required. [254 m2]
15.20 A surface condenser has vacuum of 581 mm of Hg and steam enters into it at 57.4°C, 3100 kg/
hr. The barometer reads 726 mm of Hg. The temperature at suction of air pump is 50°C. The cooling
water is supplied at 5.6 ´ 104 kg/hr, 15°C and leaves at 43.6°C. Determine,
(i) the mass of air entering condenser per kg of steam
(ii) the vacuum efficiency.
[0.136 kg/kg steam, 0.981]
706 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
16
Reciprocating and Rotary
Compressor
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Compressors are work absorbing devices which are used for increasing pressure of fluid at the expense
of work done on fluid.
The compressors used for compressing air are called air compressors. Compressors are invariably
used for all applications requiring high pressure air. Some of popular applications of compressor are, for
driving pneumatic tools and air operated equipments, spray painting, compressed air engine, supercharging
in internal combustion engines, material handling (for transfer of material), surface cleaning, refrigeration
and air conditioning, chemical industry etc. Compressors are supplied with low pressure air (or any
fluid) at inlet which comes out as high pressure air (or any fluid) at outlet, Fig. 16.1. Work required for
increasing pressure of air is available from the prime mover driving the compressor. Generally, electric
motor, internal combustion engine or steam engine, turbine etc. are used as prime movers. Compressors
are similar to fans and blowers but differ in terms of pressure ratios. Fan is said to have pressure ratio
up to 1.1 and blowers have pressure ratio between 1.1 and 4 while compressors have pressure ratios
more than 4.
Isothermal work
Isothermal efficiency =
Actual indicated work
Practically, compression process is attempted to be closed to isothermal process by air/water
cooling, spraying cold water during compression process. In case of multi-stage compression process
the compression in different stages is accompanied by intercooling in between the stages.
Mathematically, for the compression work following polytropic process, pV n = C. Assuming
negligible clearance volume the cycle work done,
Wc = Area on p-V diagram
LM FG p V - p V IJ OP – p V
N H n -1 KQ
= p2 V2 + 2 2 1 1
1 1
=G
F n IJ [p V – p V ]
H n -1K 2 2 1 1
=G
F n IJ (p V ) LM p V - 1OP
H n -1K N pV Q
2 2
1 1
1 1
F n IJ (p V ) LMF p I - 1OP
( n - 1)
W =G
H n -1K MNH p K
n
PQ
2
c 1 1
1
n -1K MNH p K
n
PQ
2
c 1
1
W =G
F n IJ mR (T – T )
or, c H n -1K 2 1
FG g IJ mR (T
Wc, adiabatic =
H g -1K 2 – T1)
or,
Wc, adiabatic = mCp (T2 – T1)
p1V1 ln r
F n I a p V f LMF p I OP
Hence, isothermal efficiency, hiso = ( n - 1)
H n - 1 K MNH p K
n
-1
PQ
2
1 1
1
The isothermal efficiency of a compressor should be close to 100% which means that actual
compression should occur following a process close to isothermal process. For this the mechanism be
derived to maintain constant temperature during compression process. Different arrangements which
can be used are:
(i) Faster heat dissipation from inside of compressor to outside by use of fins over cylinder.
Fins facilitate quick heat transfer from air being compressed to atmosphere so that
temperature rise during compression can be minimized.
(ii) Water jacket may be provided around compressor cylinder so that heat can be picked by
cooling water circulating through water jacket. Cooling water circulation around compressor
regulates rise in temperature to great extent.
(iii) The water may also be injected at the end of compression process in order to cool the air
being compressed. This water injection near the end of compression process requires special
arrangement in compressor and also the air gets mixed with water and needs to be separated
out before being used. Water injection also contaminates the lubricant film on inner surface
of cylinder and may initiate corrosion etc. The water injection is not popularly used.
(iv) In case of multistage compression in different compressors operating serially, the air leaving
one compressor may be cooled up to ambient state or somewhat high temperature before
being injected into subsequent compressor. This cooling of fluid being compressed between
two consecutive compressors is called intercooling and is frequently used in case of
multistage compressors.
Considering clearance volume: With clearance volume the cycle is represented on Fig. 16.3 (b).
The work done for compression of air polytropically can be given by the area enclosed in cycle 1–2–3–
4. Clearance volume in compressors varies from 1.5% to 35% depending upon type of compressor.
Wc, with CV = Area1234
F n IJ (p V ) LMF p I O F n I LMF p I OP
( n - 1) ( n - 1)
=G - 1P – G
H n -1K MNH p K PQ H n - 1 JK (p V )
n
MNH p K
n
PQ
2
1 1 4 4
3
-1
1 4
Here p1 = p4, p2 = p3
712 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
F n IJ (p V ) LMF p I O F n I LMF p I OP
( n - 1) ( n - 1)
=G - 1P – G
H n -1K MNH p K PQ H n - 1 JK MNH p K
n n
-1
PQ
2 2
Wc, with CV 1 1 (p V )× 1 4
1 1
F n IJ p × LMF p I O
( n - 1)
=G - 1P × (V – V )
H n - 1 K MNH p K
n
PQ
2
Wc, with CV 1 1 4
1
In the cylinder of reciprocating compressor (V1 – V4) shall be the actual volume of air delivered
per cycle. Vd = V1 – V4. This (V1 – V4) is actually the volume of air inhaled in the cycle and delivered
subsequently.
FG n IJ p V LMF p I n-1
OP
H n -1K MNH p K
n
PQ
Wc, with CV = 1 d
2
-1
1
If air is considered to behave as perfect gas then pressure, temperature, volume and mass can be
inter related using perfect gas equation. The mass at state 1 may be given as m1, mass at state 2 shall be
m1, but at state 3 after delivery mass reduces to m2 and at state 4 it shall be m2.
So, at state 1, p1V1 = m1RT1
at state 2, p2V2 = m1RT2
at state 3, p3V3 = m2RT3 or, p2V3 = m2RT3
at state 4, p4V4 = m2RT4, or p1V4 = m2RT4
Ideally there shall be no change in temperature during suction and delivery i.e., T4 = T1 and
T2 = T3. From earlier equation,
F n IJ p LF p I ( n - 1)
OP
= G –V) M
H n -1K MNH p K
n
-1
PQ
2
Wc, with CV 1 (V1 4
1
Fp I
( n - 1)
T2
HpK
n
2
=
1 T1
FG p IJ FpI
( n - 1) ( n - 1)
T T4
Hp K Hp K
n n
and 4
= 4 Þ 1
=
3 T3 2 T3
Substituting,
LM T - 1OP
FG n IJ (m RT
H n -1K NT Q
2
Wc, with CV = 1 1 – m2RT4)
1
Substituting for constancy of temperature during suction and delivery.
F n IJ (m RT – m RT ) LM T - T OP
= G
H n -1K N T Q
2 1
W c, with CV 1 1 2 1
1
or,
FG n IJ (m
Wc, with CV =
H n -1K 1 – m2) R(T2 – T1)
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 713
Thus, (m1 – m2) denotes the mass of air sucked or delivered. For unit mass of air delivered the
work done per kg of air can be given as,
FG n IJ R(T
Wc, with CV =
H n -1K 2 – T1), per kg of air
Thus from above expressions it is obvious that the clearance volume reduces the effective swept
volume i.e. the mass of air handled but the work done per kg of air delivered remains unaffected.
From the cycle work estimated as above the theoretical power required for running compressor
shall be as given ahead.
For single acting compressor running with N rpm, power input required, assuming clearance
volume.
LMF n I R|F p I U|OP
( n - 1)
Power required =
MNH n - 1 K p a V - V f S|H p K 2
- 1 V|P ´ N
n
T WQ
1 1 4
1
LMF n I R|F p I ( n - 1)
U|OP
for double acting compressor, power =
MNH n - 1 K p a V - V f S|H p K 2 n
-1V|P ´ 2N
T WQ
1 1 4
1
Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency of compressor is the measure of the deviation from
volume handling capacity of compressor. Mathematically, the volumetric efficiency is given by the ratio
of actual volume of air sucked and swept volume of cylinder. Ideally the volume of air sucked should be
equal to the swept volume of cylinder, but it is not so in actual case. Practically the volumetric efficiency
lies between 60 and 90%.
Volumetric efficiency can be overall volumetric efficiency and absolute volumetric efficiency
as given below:
Volume of free air sucked into cylinder
Overall volumetric efficiency =
Swept volume of LP cylinder
or
(Volumetric efficiency
(Mass of air delivered per unit time )
referred to free air conditions) =
F Mass of air corresponding toswept I
GH volume of LP cylinder per unit time
for free air conditions
JK
Here free air condition refers to the standard conditions. Free air condition may be taken as 1 atm
or 1.01325 bar and 15°C or 288 K. Consideration for free air is necessary as otherwise the different
compressors can not be compared using volumetric efficiency because specific volume or density of air
varies with altitude. It may be seen that a compressor at datum level (sea level) shall deliver large mass
than the same compressor at high altitude.
This concept is used for giving the capacity of compressor in terms of ‘free air delivery’ (FAD).
“Free air delivery is the volume of air delivered being reduced to free air conditions.” In case of air the
free air delivery can be obtained using perfect gas equation as,
714 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
pa × Va a
p V - V4
= 1 1
f =
a
p2 V2 - V3 f
Ta T1 T2
where subscript a or pa, Va, Ta denote properties at free air conditions
or,
p1 × Ta × V1 - V4
Va =
a
= FAD per cycle.
f
pa × T1
This volume Va gives ‘free air delivered’ per cycle by the compressor.
Absolute volumetric efficiency can be defined, using NTP conditions in place of free air condi-
tions.
Volume of air sucked into cylinder at NTP
Absolute volumetric efficiency =
Swept volume of LP cylinder
( Mass of air delivered per unit time )
=
e
Massof air corresponding to swept volume
of LP cylinder per unit time estimated at NTP j
Thus, volumetric efficiency referred to free air conditions.
Volume of air sucked referred to freeair conditions ( FAD )
hvol. =
Swept volume
Va
=
a V1 - V3 f
p1Ta V1 - V4a f
=
a
pa T1 V1 - V3 f
F p T I × RS aV + V f - V UV .
hvol. =
HpTK T V W
1 a s c 4
a 1 s
a 1 3
F p T IJ × RS1 + C - C × FG p IJ UV
=G
1/ n
hvol.
H p T K |T H p K |W
1 a 2
or,
a 1 1
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 715
Volumetric efficiency depends on ambient pressure and temperature, suction pressure and tem-
perature, ratio of clearance to swept volume, and pressure limits. Volumetric efficiency increases with
decrease in pressure ratio in compressor.
FG n IJ p V R|F p I
( n - 1)
U|
Work requirement in LP cylinder, WLP =
H n -1K S|H p 2
K
n
-1 V|
T W
1 1
1
F n IJ p V R|F p I
( n - 1)
U|
= G S|H p - 1V
H n -1K K
n
2¢
|W
Work requirement in HP cylinder, WHP
T
2 2
2
F n IJ p V R|F p I ( n - 1)
U|
=G S|H p K V|
H n -1K
n
2¢
WHP -1
T W
2 2¢
2
W =G - 1V + p V SG
H n - 1 K MN |TH p K |TH p JK V|P
n n
2¢
2
-1
c 1 1
1 |W 2 2¢
2
WQ
F n IJ LM p V R|SFG p IJ U| R|F p I U|O
n -1 n -1
=G - 1V + p V SG - 1VP
H n - 1 K MN |TH p K |W |TH p JK |WPQ
n n
2 2¢
1 1 1 1
1 2
F n IJ p V LMFG p IJ F p IJ - 2OP
n-1 n -1
W =G +G
H n - 1 K MNH p K
n n
Hp K PQ
2 2¢
c 1 1
1 2
Hp K
2¢
= 2
-2
WQ
1 1
d p2 d p2 1 2
F n IJ p V × d R|SFG p IJ F p IJ - 2 U|V
n -1 n-1
=G +G
d Wc
H n - 1 K d p |TH p K
n n
Hp K
2 2¢
d p2
1 1
2 1 2 |W
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 719
FG n IJ p V RSF n - 1 I × p 1- n -1
FH n - 1 IK × p n -1 1 - 2n
UV
H n - 1 K TH n K
d Wc n
× p2 n - n n
W
= 1 1 1 2¢ p2
d p2 n
d Wc
Equating, = 0 yields.
d p2
1- n -1 n -1 1 - 2n
p1n × p2 n = p2 ¢ n × p2 n
- 2 + 2n n -1 n -1
or p2 n = p2 ¢ n × p1 n
FH n - 1 IK
or
2
p2 n
a
= p1 × p2 ¢ fFH n -1
n
IK
or, p22 = p1 × p2¢, p2 = p1 × p2 ¢
p2 p p2 FG p IJ 1/ 2
HpK
2¢
or = 2 ¢ or =
p1 p2 p1 1
F p IJ
Optimum stage pressure ratio = G
1/ i
H p K
i +1
for pressures at stages being p1, p2, p3, p4, p5, ¼,
1
pi – 1, pi, pi + 1
Minimum work required in two stage compressor can be given by
F n IJ p V LF p I n-1
OP
= G × 2 MG
H n -1K MNH p JK
n
-1
PQ
2
Wc, min 1 1
1
Wc, min =
H n -1K 1 1
1 p2 p3 pi
F n IJ p V LMFG p IJ OP
n -1
= i ×G
H n - 1 K MNH p K
n
-1
PQ
2
Wc, min 1 1
1
or,
F n IJ p V LMF p I n -1
OP
= i×G
MNGH p JK
n ×i
H n -1K PQ
i +1
Wc, min 1 1 -1
i
It also shows that for optimum pressure ratio the work required in different stages remains same
for the assumptions made for present analysis. Due to pressure ratio being equal in all stages the
temperature ratios and maximum temperature in each stage remains same for perfect intercooling.
720 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Cylinder dimensions: In case of multistage compressor the dimension of cylinders can be esti-
mated basing upon the fact that the mass flow rate of air across the stages remains same. For perfect
intercooling the temperature of air at suction of each stage shall be same.
If the actual volume sucked during suction stroke is V1, V2, V3 ¼, for different stages then by
perfect gas law, p1V1 = RT1, p2V2 = RT2, p3V3 = RT3
For perfect intercooling (T1 = T2 = T3 = ¼) so
p1V1 = RT1, p2V2 = RT1, p3V3 = RT1,
or p1V1 = p2V2 = p3V3 = ¼
V1
Then theoretical volume of cylinder 1, V1, th = ; V1 = h V1 ×V1, th
h V1
V2
cylinder 2, V2, th = ; V2 = hV2 × V2, th
h V2
V3
cylinder 3, V3, th= ; V3 = hV3 × V3, th
h V3
Substituting,
p1×hV1×V1, th = p2×hV2×V2, th = p3×hV3×V3, th = ¼
Theoretical volumes of cylinder can be given using geometrical dimensions of cylinder as diam-
eters D1, D2, D3, ¼ and stroke lengths L1, L2, L3, ¼.
p
or V1, th = D 2×L
4 1 1
p 2
V2, th = D ×L
4 2 2
p
V3, th = D 2×L
4 3 3
or,
p p p
p1×hVi× D 2 L = p2×hV2× D22 L2 = p3×hV3× D32×L3 = ¼
4 1 1 4 4
p1 hV1×D12 L1 = p2×hV2×D22×L2 = p3×hV3×D32×L3 = ¼
If the volumetric efficiency is same for all cylinders, i.e. hV1 = hV2 = hV3 = ¼ and stroke for all
cylinder is same i.e. L1 = L2 = L3 = ¼
Then, D12 p1 = D22 p2 = D32 p3 = ¼
These generic relations may be used for getting the ratio of diameters of cylinders of multistage
compression.
Energy balance: Energy balance may be applied on the different components constituting
multistage compression.
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 721
For LP stage the steady flow energy equation can be written as below:
m×h1 + WLP = mh2 + QLP
QLP = WLP – m (h2 – h1)
QLP = WLP – mCp (T2 – T1)
Fig. 16.9
For intercooling (Fig. 16.10) between LP and HP stage steady flow energy equation shall be;
mh2 = mh2 ¢ + QInt
or,
QInt = m (h2 – h2¢)
QInt = mCp (T2 – T2¢)
Fig. 16.10
For HP stage (Fig. 16.11) the steady flow energy equation yields.
mh2¢ + WHP = mh3¢ + QHP
QHP = WHP + m (h2¢ – h3¢)
QHP = WHP + mCp (T2¢ – T3¢) = WHP – mCp (T3¢ – T2¢)
Fig. 16.11
In case of perfect intercooling and optimum pressure ratio, T2¢ = T1 and T2 = T3¢
Hence for these conditions,
QLP = WLP – mCp (T2 – T1)
722 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
QInt = mCp (T2 – T1)
QHP = WHP – mCp (T2 – T1)
Total heat rejected during compression shall be the sum of heat rejected during compression and
heat extracted in intercooler for perfect intercooling.
F g - n I ´ Work
Heat rejected during compression for polytropic process =
H g -1 K
16.6 CONTROL OF RECIPROCATING COMPRESSORS
Output from the compressors can be controlled by different measures which regulate the compressor
output. In practical applications the compressors are fitted with air receiver to store the high pressure air
and supply as and when required. Therefore, the compressors are run only for the duration required to
maintain the limiting pressure inside receiver. When the pressure inside receiver starts dropping down
then the compressor again starts supplying compressed air till the level is restored. Different ways for
this control are based on throttle, clearance, blow off control and speed control.
(i) Throttle control has the regulation of opening/closing of inlet valve so that the quantity of
air entering can be varied. With partial opening of inlet valve throttling occurs at valve and
quantity of air entering is reduced while the pressure ratio gets increased.
(ii) Clearance control is the arrangement in which the clearance volume is increased when
pressure ratio exceeds the limit. For this cylinder has clearance openings which are closed
by spring loaded valves. Whenever pressure exceeds, then the clearance openings get opened
and the increased clearance volume reduces maximum pressure.
(iii) Blow-off control has spring loaded safety valve or by pass valve for blowing out excess air
in receiver. After release of excess air automatically the valve gets closed on its own.
(iv) Speed of compressor can also be controlled by regulating the prime mover, thereby
regulating compressor output. Thus, compressor is run on variable speed for its’ control.
The efficiency of compression can be defined by taking the ratio of work required in compressing
the air isentropically and actual work done. This efficiency is also called roots efficiency.
Work required in reversible adiabatic (isentropic ) compression
Roots efficiency =
Actual work required in compression
For compressing volume Vc from pressure p1 to p2 the work required in reversible adiabatic
(isentropic) compression shall be;
F g Ip R|F p I U| g -1
V S - 1V
g
H g - 1K |TH p K
2
|W
Wisen = 1 c
1
F g I p V R|SF p I - 1U|V
g -1
g
H g - 1 K |TH p K
1 c
2
1|W
hroots =
W a= W f
F g I p V R|SF p I - 1U|V
actual revolution
g -1
g
H g - 1 K |TH p K
2
1 c
1 |W
hroots =
F p - 1I V
Hp K
2
p
1 c
1
p2
Let pressure ratio be given by, r =
p1
so,
|RSr - 1|UV
g -1
g
F g I |T |W
hroots =
H g - 1 K {r - 1}
The expression for roots blower efficiency shows that the efficiency depends upon pressure
ratio and the increase in pressure ratio yields decrease in roots efficiency. At low pressure ratios the
roots efficiency is quite high. Reduced efficiency with high pressure ratios is attributed to the mecha-
nism involved in pressure rise. With high pressure ratio there occurs the reversal of flow during positive
displacement of air from casing to receiver. This reversal causes the loss of energy thereby lowering
efficiency due to increased actual work requirement.
726 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Roots blower are available in the capacity ranging from 0.15 m3/min to 1500 m3/min and the
pressure ratios are of the order of 1 to 3.5. These are generally used for scavenging, supercharging of
IC engines etc. Generally the roots efficiency is around 50–60% but high efficiency values up to 80%
can also be achieved with low pressure ratios.
(ii) Screw type or Helical type compressor: Screw type compressor is very much similar to
roots blower.
These may have two spiral lobed rotors, out of which one may be called male rotor having
3–4 lobes and other female rotor having 4–6 lobes which intermesh with small clearance. Meshing is
such that lobes jutting out of male rotor get placed in matching hollow portion in female rotors. Initially,
before this intermeshing the hollows remain filled with gaseous fluid at inlet port. As rotation begins the
surface in contact move parallel to the axis of rotors toward the outlet end gradually compressing the
fluid till the trapped volume reaches up to outlet port for getting discharged out at designed pressure.
Since the number of lobes are different so the rotors operate at different speed.
The material of casing may be cast iron or cast steel while rotors may be of steel and generally
internally cooled by circulation of lubrication oil. Surface of lobes are smooth and the shaft is sealed by
carbon rings at oil pressure. Two rotors are brought into synchronization by the screw gears. Thrust
upon rotors is taken care of by oil lubricated thrust bearings.
These compressors are capable of handling gas flows ranging from 200 to 20000 m3/h under
discharge pressures of 3 bar gauge in single stage and up to 13 bar gauge in two stages. Even with
increase in number of stages pressures up to 100 bar absolute have been obtained with stage pressure
ratio of 2.
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 727
Mechanical efficiency of these compressors is quite high and their isothermal efficiencies are
even more than vane blowers and may be compared with centrifugal and axial compressors. But these
are very noisy, sensitive to dust and fragile due to small clearances.
(iii) Vane type compressor: Schematic of vane type compressor is shown in Fig. 16.15. It has
cylindrical casing having an eccentrically mounted rotor inside it. The rotor has number of slots in it
with rectangular vanes of spring loaded type mounted in slots. These vanes are generally non metallic
and made of fibre or carbon composites or any other wear resistant material. These vanes remain in
continuous contact with casing such that leakage across the vane-casing interface is minimum or
absent. It has one end as inlet end and other as the delivery end connected to receiver. Upon rotation the
eccentric rotor has the vanes having differential projection out of rotor depending upon their position.
Air is trapped between each set of two consecutive blades in front of inlet passage and is positively
displaced to the delivery end after compressing the volume V1 initially to V2, V3 and V4. When com-
pressed volume comes in front of delivery passage and further rotation results in the situation when
partly compressed air is forced to enter the receiver as their is no other way out. This cumulative
transfer of partly compressed air in receiver causes irreversible compression resulting in gradual pres-
sure rise. The p-V representation shown in Fig. 16.15 (b) indicates that the total pressure rise is due to
the combined effect of reversible pressure rise inside casing and irreversible pressure rise inside re-
ceiver. Generally, the contribution of reversible pressure rise and irreversible pressure rise is in propor-
tion of 50 : 50.
Vane compressors are available for capacity up to 150 m3/min and pressure ratios up to 8 and
efficiency up to 75%. For higher pressure ratios the efficiency of vane compressors is more than that of
roots blower but the vane compressors have maximum speed up to 2500 rpm as compared to 7500 rpm
in case of roots blower. Vane compressors have large power requirement as compared to roots blower
728 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
due to large number of vanes on rotor. However, with small number of vanes the power required by
vaned compressor may be comparable to roots blower. Vane compressors require large maintenance
due to wear of vanes and other moving parts.
Work required per revolution for vane compressor with n number of vanes shall be partly in
reversible and partly in irreversible process.
Let the inlet air be at pressure p1 and volume trapped is V1. This volume is partly compressed
up to volume V4 and pressure rises from to p1 to p2, p3 and p4. Thus, the irreversible compression
occurs for volume V4 and pressure rising from p4 to pf.
F g I ×p V R|SF p I U|
g -1
and, W = mU22
This work required can also be estimated in terms of thermodynamic properties. By steady flow
energy equation between sections 1 and 2 for no heat interaction in case of adiabatic compression
process for no change in potential energy.
C12 C2
h1 + + W = h2 + 2
2 2
FG IJ – m FG h + C IJ
C22 2
H
W = m h2 +
K H 2K
1
1
2
F T + C I – mC F T + C I
GH 2 C JK GH 2 C JK
2 2
2 1
W = mCp 2 p 1
p p
LM F p I g -1
g
OP
MM T H p K PP
02
2
2
W = mCp To1
MM T F p I P
g -1
-1P
g
N HpK Q
o1
1
1
LMF p I g -1
O
- 1P
g
MNH p K PQ
o2
W = m Cp To1
o1
FG p IJ is ratio of stagnation pressure across impeller. For radial flow blades, substituting
Hp K
02
Here,
01
for W,
LMF p I g -1
g
OP
MNH p K -1
PQ
02
mU22 = mCpT01
01
FG p IJ = LM U O
g
+ 1P
2 g -1
H p K NC T Q
02 2
or,
01 p 01
Thus, it shows that stagnation pressure ratio depends on the square of blade tip speed. Here it has
been assumed that in case of radial blades blade tip speed is equal to the whirl velocity component,
which is not valid condition in reference to actual operation.
Actually, due to turbulence and secondary flow effects the Cw2 ¹ U2 and the Cw2 < U2. Difference
between U2 and Cw2 i.e. (U2 – Cw2) is called the slip. This slip is quantified by the parameter called slip
factor. Slip factor is the ratio of actual whirl velocity component to the ideal whirl velocity component.
Cw2 Actual whirl velocity Cw2 a f
Slip factor =
U2
=
Ideal whirl velocity U2 a f
Losses in centrifugal compressor: Centrifugal compressor has losses at inlet. Every compressor
offers its optimum performance at design operation. Any deviation from design condition increases the
different losses occuring in it. Due to friction, turbulence, eddy formation etc. there are flow losses
inside the compressor. These losses are proportional to the square of flow velocity. Compressibility of
fluid at high Mach nos. also offers losses. Losses in diffuser, volute casing are also there due to friction.
Friction and secondary flow losses also cause slip and actual whirl component is less than theoretical
value.
16.12 STALLING
Stalling refers to the instability in the flow occurring due to flow separation from blade surfaces. Stalling
may occur due to the non-uniform flow passing through the channels/passage between consecutive
blades/vanes. In case of centrifugal compressor the flow output from impeller passes into the diffuser
vanes and subsequently to exit end. In case of breakdown of flow in any one channel in diffuser, which
may be due to reduced angle of incidence/increased angle of incidence, the flow pattern gets disturbed.
For example the Fig. 16.23 shows the reduced angle of incidence in channel B of diffuser section in
centrifugal compressor. Since the diffuser vanes are supposed to handle the similar amount of total flow
therefore, inspite of reduced flow through the channel B (due to reduced angle of incidence) the mass
flow rate does not change. Due to reduced flow through B the remaining channels have to carry
additional flow in order to compensate for flow reduction in one of channels. These different angles of
incidence into different channels result into non-uniform mass of air being handled by these channels.
Such as in present case channel A has higher angle of incidence and channel C has reduced angle of
incidence due to reduced flow through channel B. It results into flow separation due to increase and
decrease in angle of incidence. Flow separation disturbs the flow pattern and results into excessive
736 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
vibrations. This stall phenomenon passes from one channel to the other gradually. Stall may rotate in
direction opposite to that of impeller rotation and is termed as rotating stall.
This phenomenon of flow separation from blade surface, called as stalling also occurs in axial
flow compressors, in the manner similar to that of centrifugal compressor. Stalling results in reduction
of delivery pressure at compressor exit which may eventually lead to reversal of flow or surging.
Stalling also leads to reduction in stage efficiency along with vibrations in compressor which may even
rise upto the level causing failure of compressor parts when frequency matches with natural frequency.
m T01
= Dimensionless mass flow
p01
N
= Dimensionless rotational speed
T01
Characteristic curves for centrifugal compressor are obtained by plotting;
FG IJ
p02 m T01 FG IJ
(i) “dimensionless pressure”
H K
p01
with “dimensionless mass flow
p01 H K
relative to design value”
(ii) Comparison between the centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressor is given as under.
Centrifugal Compressor Axial flow compressor
(i) Centrifugal compressors generally (i) Axial flow compressors generally
have stage pressure ratio of aro- have stage pressure around 1.5
und 5 and have radial flow inside and have axial inlet and
with axial entry of fluid. Maxi- axial exit with flow inside
mum pressure up to 400 bar can compressor being parallel to the
be achieved by multistaging, compressor axis. Maximum pressure
although multistaging is slightly up to 10 bar is possible to be achieved
difficult. through multistaging which is very
convenient in axial compressors.
(ii) Centrifugal compressors have (ii) Axial flow compressors have
good part load efficiency and poor part load efficiency and narrow
wide operating range between operating range between surging and
surging and choking limits. choking limits.
(iii) Centrifugal compressors have (iii) Axial flow compressors have large
small starting torque requirement. starting torque requirement.
(iv) Due to large frontal area (iv) Due to small frontal area
these are well suited for land axial flow compressors are well
applications. suited for aviation applications.
(v) These have simple construction (v) These have complex construction
and are comparatively cheap. and are costly.
(vi) These have poor isentropic (vi) These have better isentropic
efficiency (» 70%). Power required efficiency (» 85 to 90%). Power
per kg of air flow rate is more. required per kg of air flow rate is less
in axial flow compressors.
(vii) Efficiency vs. speed characteristics (vii) Efficiency vs. speed characteristics is
for centrifugal compressor is flat. slightly bell shaped. It means higher
It has higher efficiency in large efficiency in narrow range of speed.
speed range.
(viii) Centrifugal compressor’s (viii) Axial compressor’s performance
performance does not alter with deteriorates with any kind of
any kind of deposition on blade deposition on blade surface.
surface.
742 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
EXAMPLES
1. A reciprocating air compressor has cylinder with 24 cm bore and 36 cm stroke. Compressor
admits air at 1 bar, 17°C and compresses it up to 6 bar. Compressor runs at 120 rpm. Considering
compressor to be single acting and single stage determine mean effective pressure and the horse power
required to run compressor when it compresses following the isothermal process and polytropic process
with index of 1.3. Also find isothermal efficiency when compression is of polytropic and adiabatic type.
Solution:
P2
Compression ratio = =6=r
P1
From cylinder dimensions the stroke volume
p
= ´ (0.24)2 ´ (0.36)
4
= 0.01628 m3
Volume of air compressed per minute = 0.01628 ´ 120
= 1.954 m3/min
Let us neglect clearance volume.
Work done in isothermal process
Wiso = P1 V1 ln r
Mean effective pressure in isothermal process
p1V1 ln r
mepiso = = P1 ln r
V1
= 1 ´ 102 ´ ln 6 = 179.18 kPa
Work done in polytropic process with index n = 1.3, i.e. PV 1.3 = C
LMF P I n-1
OP
MNGH P JK
n n
-1
PQ
2
Wpoly = P V
n-1 1 1 1
MNH P K
n
PQ
2
meppoly =
V1 1
F n I P LMF P I - 1OP
n -1
H n - 1 K MNH P K
n
PQ
2
meppoly = 1
1
F 1.3 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10 L(6) - 1O
= G
1. 3 - 1
H 1.3 - 1 K NM QP
2
1.3
g LMF P I g -1
g
OP
MNH P K -1
PQ
2
Work done in adiabatic process, Wadibatic = P V
g -1 1 1 1
Wadiabatic
Mean effective pressure in adiabatic process, mepadiabatic =
V1
g LMF P I g -1
g
OP
MNH P K PQ
mepadiabatic = P 2
-1
g -1 1
1
FG 1.4 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10 L(6) 1. 4 - 1
OP
=
H 1.4 - 1 K NM 2
1. 4 -1
Q
mepadiabatic = 233.98 kPa
Horse power required for isothermal process,
mepiso ´ Volume per minute
HPiso =
0.7457 ´ 60
(As 1 hp = 0.7457 kW)
179.18 ´ 1.954
=
0.7457 ´ 60
HPiso = 7.825 hp
Horse power required for polytropic process,
meppoly ´ Volume per minute
HPpoly =
0.7457 ´ 60
221.89 ´ 1.954
=
0.7457 ´ 60
HPpoly = 9.69 hp
744 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Horse power required for adiabatic process,
mepadiabatic ´ Volume per minute
HPadiabatic =
0.7457 ´ 60
233.98 ´ 1.954
=
0.7457 ´ 60
= 10.22 hp
Isothermal process power required
Isothermal efficiency =
Actual power required
HPiso 7.825
Isothermal efficiencypoly = = = 0.8075 or 80.75%
HPpoly 9.69
HPadiabatic 7.825
Isothermal efficiencyadiabatic = = = 0.7657 or 76.57%
HPpoly 10.22
mep: 179.18 kPa for isothermal, 221.89 kPa for polytropic process
HP required: 7.825 HP for isothermal, 9.69 HP for polytropic
Isothermal efficiency: 80.75% for polytropic process, 76.57% for adiabatic process Ans.
2. A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor has air entering at 1 bar, 20°C and
compression occurs following polytropic process with index 1.2 upto the delivery pressure of 12 bar. The
compressor runs at the speed of 240 rpm and has L/D ratio of 1.8. The compressor has mechanical
efficiency of 0.88. Determine the isothermal efficiency and cylinder dimensions. Also find out the rating
of drive required to run the compressor which admits 1 m3 of air perminute.
Solution:
Using perfect gas equation the mass of air delivered per minute can be obtained as,
P1V1
m=
RT1
=
b1 ´ 10 ´ 1g2
( 0.287 ´ 293)
= 1.189 kg/min
Compression process follows PV1.2 = constt.
Temperature at the end of compression;
FPI
n -1
HPK
2 n
T2 = T 1
1
= 293 FH IK
1. 2 - 1
12 1. 2
T2
1
T2 = 443.33 K
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 745
FG n IJ ´ mR (T – T )
Work required during compression process, W =
H n -1K 2 1
FP I
1. 25 - 1
HPK
1. 25
T2 = T1 ´ 2
1
= 308 ´ (7)0.2
T2 = 454.54 K
For expansion process, 3–4, PV 1.25 = Constant
FPI
1
HP K
1. 25
V4 = V3 ´ 3
4
V4 = 0.05 Vs (7)1/1.25
V4 = 0.273 Vs
V1 – V4 = 1.05 Vs – 0.237 Vs = 0.813 Vs
Volume of air corresponding to the suction conditions can be obtained using the volume of free air
delivered
0.97 ´ 300 0.97 ´ 300
= ´ (V1 – V4) = ´ 0.813 Vs
1 ´ 308 1 ´ 308
= 0.768 Vs
0.768 Vs
Volumetric efficiency = = 0.768 or 76.8%
Vs
Bore = 28.05 cm
Stroke = 33.66 cm Ans.
Work required in reciprocating compressor
n
W= mR (T2 – T1)
n -1
FG 1.25 IJ ´ 23.23 ´ 0.287 (454.54 – 308)
W=
H 1.25 - 1 K
= 4884.92 kJ/min
4884.92
= , {as 1 hp = 0.7457 kW]
60 ´ 0.7457
W = 109.18 hp
FP I
HPK
2
Work required when compression is isothermal, Wiso = m RT1 ln
1
P1Ta LM P F I OP
1
H K PQ
n
Volumetric efficiency, hvol =
Pa T1 MN
1+ C - C 2
P1
F 1.2 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10
= G
L8 O
´ 4 M FH IK
- 1P
1. 2 - 1
H 1.2 - 1 K MN 1
PQ
2 1.2
F 994.113 IJ = 22.22 hp
W = 994.113 kJ/min or G
I H 60 ´ 0.7457 K
Optimum intercooling pressure = 8 ´ 1 = 2.83 bar
For two stage compression with perfect intercooling;
LMF P I n -1
OP
MNH P K
n 2n
= 2´ -1
PQ
3
Work input, WII, I/C PV
n -1 1 1 1
750 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
F 1.2 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10
= 2´G
L8
´ 4 ´ M FH IK
1. 2 - 1
OP
H 1.2 - 1 K MN 1 PQ
2.4
2 -1
= M - 1V P + M - 1VP
MN n - 1 P V S|TH P K P V¢ S
|WPQ MN n - 1 |TH P K
n n
|WPQ
2 3
1 1 2 2
1 2
= LM F
1.2 I
´ 4 {( 2.83) - 1}OP
(1. 2 - 1)
HN 1.2 - 1 K ´ 1 ´ 10 Q
2
W¢II,I/C 1. 2
T WQ
= [454.3] + [459.2] = 913.5 kJ/min or 20.42 hp
% saving in work when compression occur with perfect intercooling as compared to single stage
compression
FG W - W IJ
H W K
I II , I / C
= 100 ´
I
= 8.69% Ans.
% excess work to be done when two stage compression occurs with imperfect intercooling as
compared to two stage compression with perfect intercooling:
F W¢ - WII , I / C I
= 100 ´ GH II , I / C
W ¢ II , I / C JK
= 0.636% Ans.
6. A reciprocating air compressor has four stage compression with 2 m3/min of air being delivered
at 150 bar when initial pressure and temperature are 1 bar, 27°C. Compression occur polytropically
following polytropic index of 1.25 in four stages with perfect intercooling between stages. For the
optimum intercooling conditions determine the intermediate pressures and the work required for driving
compressor.
Solution:
Here there is four stage compression with perfect intercooling at optimum intercooling conditions.
So optimum stage pressure ratio = (150 )1/ 4 = 3.499 » 3.5
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 751
Intermediate pressure shall be as follows:
Between Ist and IInd stage = 3.5 bar
Between IInd and IIIrd stage = 12.25 bar
Between IIIrd and IVth stage = 42.87 bar
FPI
n -1
HPK
n
So temperature at the end of fourth stage, T = T1 ´ 2
1
= 300 ´ ( 3.5) H
F 1. 25 - 1 IK
1. 25
T = 385.42 K
PV 150 ´ 10 2 ´ 2
Mass of air, kg/min, m = = = 271.21 kg/min
RT 0.287 ´ 385.42
Work required for driving compressor,
F n IJ m RT LMF P I - 1OP ´ 4
W= G
n-1
H n -1K MNH P K
n
PQ
2
1
1
=G
F 1.25 IJ ´ 271.21 ´ 0.287 ´ 300 L(3.5) - 1O ´ 4
(1.25 - 1)
H 1.25 - 1 K NM QP 1. 25
HP K -2
PQ
2 3
W= RT1
n -1 1 2
LM 1. 3 - 1
OP
1.3 ´ 1
e j
(1.3 - 1) 16
´ 0.287 ´ (273 + 17) ( 4 ) 1. 3 + 1.3
-2
=
1.3 - 1 MN4 PQ
752 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 271.94 kJ/kg
Volume at inlet to LP
= 4
Volume at inlet to HP
From given cylinder dimensions, for given bore diameters and common stroke length,
Effective volume of LP cylinder
Ratio of effective cylinder volumes =
Effective volume of HP cylinder
p 2
0.90 ´ D ×L
= 4 LP
p 2
D ×L
4 HP
0 .9 ´ ( 0.12 ) 2
= = 3.6
( 0.06 ) 2
Theoretically, the volume ratio is 4 while considering volumetric efficiency the ratio of effective
cylinder volumes comes out to be 3.6 which is less than the theoretical volume ratio. Therefore, it can
be concluded that less amount of air is given into HP cylinder than its’ capacity. Thus, the HP cylinder
would inhale volume equal to its’ capacity and since it has larger capacity than volume available so the
pressure of intercooler shall drop.
8. In a two stage reciprocating air compressor running at 200 rpm the air is admitted at 1 bar, 17°C
and discharged at 25 bar. At low pressure stage suction conditions the rate of air flow is 4 kg/minute.
The low pressure cylinder and high pressure cylinders have clearance volumes of 4% and 5% of respec-
tive cylinder stroke volumes. The index for compression and expansion processes in two stages are same
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 753
as 1.25. Considering an optimum and perfect intercooling in between two stages determine the power
required, isothermal efficiency, free air delivered, heat transferred in each cylinder and the cylinder
volumes.
Solution:
25
For the optimum intercooling the pressure ratio in each stage = =5
1
P2 P
= 6 =5
P1 P5
Perfect intercooling indicates, T1 = T5 = 273 + 17 = 290 K
FG P IJ
n -1
n
HPK
2
T2 = T1 = 400.12 K
1
FG P IJ
n -1
n
HPK
6
T6 = T5 = 400.12 K
5
Actual compression work requirement,
W = WHP + WLP
F n IJ m RT LMFG P IJ - 1OP
n-1
= 2G
H n -1K
n
MNH P K PQ
2
1
1
= 2´G
F 1.25 IJ ´ 4 ´ 0.287 ´ 290 L(5) (1.25 - 1)
OP
H 1.25 - 1 K MN 1. 25 -1
Q
W = 1264.19 kJ/min or 28.25 hp
Work requirement if the process is isothermal compression,
FG P IJ = 4 ´ 0.287 ´ 290 ln (25)
HPK
6
Wiso = m RT1 ln
1
Wiso = 1071.63 kJ/min
754 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Wiso
Isothermal efficiency = = 0.8477 or 84.77%
W
mRT1 4 ´ 0.287 ´ 290
Free air delivered = = = 3.33 m3/min
P1 1 ´ 10 2
Heat transferred in HP cylinder = Heat transferred in LP cylinder = Q
(Due to optimum and perfect intercooling)
Q= FH W IK – m C (T – T )
p 2 1
2
= FH
1264.19 I
2 K – 4 ´ 1.0032 ´ (400.12 – 290)
Q = 190.21 kJ/min
PT LM P F I OP
1
H K PQ
n
Pa × T1 MN
Volumetric efficiency, hvol = 1 a 1 + C - C 2
P1
Here the ambient conditions and suction conditions are same so expression gets modified as,
FP I
1
= 1+C–CG J
n
hvol
HPK
2
1
Volumetric efficiency of HP,
FG P IJ
1
n
hvol,
HP K
6
HP = 1 + CHP – CHP
5
CHP = 0.04
= 1 + 0.04 – 0.04 (5)1/1.25
hvol, HP = 0.895 or 89.5%
Volumetric efficiency of LP,
FG P IJ
1
n
hvol,
HPK
2
LP = 1 + CLP – CLP
1
CLP = 0.05
= 1 + 0.05 – 0.05 (5)1/1.25 = 0.8688 or 86.88%
Free air delivery
Stroke volume of HP cylinder =
Pressure ratio ´ speed ´ h vol, HP
3.33
Vs, = = 3.721 ´ 10–3 m3
HP
5 ´ 200 ´ 0.895
Clearance volume, Vc, HP = 0.05 ´ 3.721 ´ 10–3 = 1.861 ´ 10–4 m3
Total HP cylinder volume, VHP = Vs, HP + Vc, HP = 3.907 ´ 10–3 m3 ;
Vc, HP = Clearance volume of HP
Free air delivery 3.33
Stroke volume of LP cylinder = =
Speed ´ h vol, LP 200 ´ 0.8688
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 755
Vs, LP = 0.01916 m3
Clearance volume, Vc, LP = 0.04 ´ Vs, LP = 7.664 ´ 10–4 m3
Total LP cylinder volume, VLP = Vs, LP + Vc, LP = 0.019926 m3
Power required = 28.25 hp, Ans.
Isothermal efficiency = 84.77%
Free air delivered = 3.33 m3/min,
Heat transfer in HP cylinder = 190.21 kJ/min
Heat transferred in LP cylinder = 190.21 kJ/min,
HP cylinder volume = 3.907 ´ 10–3 m3
LP cylinder volume = 0.019926 m3
9. A two stage double acting reciprocating air compressor running at 200 rpm has air entering at
1 bar, 25°C. The low pressure stage discharges air at optimum intercooling pressure into intercooler after
which it enters at 2.9 bar, 25°C into high pressure stage. Compressed air leaves HP stage at 9 bar. The
LP cylinder and HP cylinder have same stroke lengths and equal clearance volumes of 5% of respective
cylinder swept volumes. Bore of LP cylinder is 30 cm and stroke is 40 cm. Index of compression for both
stages may be taken as 1.2. Determine,
(i) the heat rejected in intercooler,
(ii) the bore of HP cylinder,
(iii) the hp required to drive the HP cylinder.
Solution:
Optimum intercooling pressure = 9 = 3 bar
LP stage pressure ratio = HP stage pressure ratio = 3
From the given dimensions of LP cylinder, the volume of LP cylinder, in m3/min
p
VLP = ´ (0.30)2 ´ (0.40) ´ 200 ´ 2
4
VLP = 11.31 m3/min
Volumetric efficiency of LP compressor, here ambient and suction conditions are same,
FPI
= 1+C–CG J
1
n F 3 I
= 1 + 0.05 – G 0.05 FH IK J
1
hvol, LP
HPK
1. 2
H 1 K
2
1
hvol, LP = 0.9251 or 92.51%
FPI
n -1
= T ´G J
n
HPK
2
T2 1
1
= 298 ´ FH IK
1. 2 - 1
3 1. 2
1
T2 = 357.88 K
Volume of air going into HP cylinder
mRT5
V5 =
P5
After intercooling, T5 = 298 K, P5 = 2.9 bar,
12.23 ´ 0.287 ´ 298
V5 =
2.9 ´ 10 2
V5 = 3.61 m3/min
Since the clearance volume fraction and pressure ratio for both HP and LP stages are same so the
volumetric efficiency of HP stage referred to LP stage suction condition shall be same
hvol, HP = hvol, LP = 0.9251
V5 3.61
Hence, the volume of HP cylinder/min = = = 3.902 m3/min
h vol,HP 0.9251
Let bore of HP cylinder be DHP,
p
3.902 = ´ (DHP)2 ´ 0.40 ´ 2 ´ 200
4
DHP = 0.1762 m or 17.62 cm
Heat rejected in intercooler, Q = mCp (T2 – T5)
= 12.23 ´ 1.0032 ´ (357.88 – 298)
= 734.68 kJ/min
FG IJ
n -1
FH 9 IK
1. 2 - 1
T6 P6 n
H K
1.2
In HP stage, = Þ T6 = 298 ´
T5 P5 2.9
T6 = 359.91 K
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 757
FG n IJ mR (T
Work input required for HP stage, WHP =
H n -1K 6 – T5)
2p NT
Shaft output =
60
2 ´ p ´ 500 ´ 10 ´ 9.81 ´ 0.30 ´ 10 - 3
Shaft output =
60
= 15.41 kJ/s or 20.66 hp
20.66
Shaft output per m3 of free air per minute =
0.25
= 82.64 hp per m3 of free air per minute. Ans.
12. Determine the minimum number of stages required in an air compressor which admits air at 1
bar, 27°C and delivers at 180 bar. The maximum discharge temperature at any stage is limited to 150°C.
Consider the index for polytropic compression as 1.25 and perfect and optimum intercooling in between
the stages. Neglect the effect of clearance.
Solution:
Let there be ‘i’ number of stages. So the overall pressure ratio considering inlet state as Pa and Ta
and delivery state pressure as Pi.
Pi P P P P
= 1 × 2 × 3 × ⋅⋅⋅× i
Pa Pa P1 P2 Pi − 1
When perfect and optimum intercooling is considered then pressure ratio in each stage will be
same.
P1 P P P
= 2 = 3 =¼= i =r
Pa P1 P2 Pi - 1
Pi
= (r)i, for any stage, say second stage,
Pa
T1 = 273 + 27 = 300 K
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 759
and T2 = 273 + 150 = 423 K
FG T IJ FG T IJ
n in
P2 n -1 P n -1
HT K , i = (r)i =
HT K
2 2
and =
P1 1 Pa 1
FH 180 IK = FH 423 IK
i ´ 1. 25
1. 25 - 1
, Taking log for solving,
1 300
3 stages Ans.
13. In a triple stage reciprocating compressor of single acting type the air enters at 1 bar, 27°C.
The compressor has low pressure cylinder with bore of 30 cm and stroke of 20 cm. Clearance volume of
LP cylinder is 4% of the swept volume. The final discharge from compressor takes place at 20 bar. The
expansion and compression index may be taken uniformly as 1.25 for all the stages. The intercooling
between the stages may be considered to be at optimum intercooling pressure and perfect intercooling.
Determine, the interstage pressures, effective swept volume of low pressure cylinder, temperature and
volume of air delivered in each stroke and the work done per kg of air.
Solution:
Here P1 = 1 bar, T1 = 300 K, C = 0.04, P10 = 20 bar, n = 1.25, See Fig. 16.35
For optimum and perfect intercooling,
FH 20 IK
1
P2 P P
= 6 = 10 = 3
= 2.714
P1 P2 P6 1
P2 = 2.714 bar, T5 = T1 = 300 K
P6 = 7.366 bar T9 = T1 = 300 K
Volumetric efficiency of LP stage,
FP I
1
= 1+C–CG J
1. 25
hvol, LP
HPK
2
1
= 1 + 0.04 – 0.04 (2.714)1/1.25
= 0.9511 or 95.11%
p 2 p
LP swept volume, V1 – V3 = D L= ´ (0.30)2 ´ 0.20 = 0.01414 m3
4 4
Effective swept volume of LP cylinder, V1 – V4 = hvol, LP ´ (V1 – V3)
V1 – V4 = 0.9511 ´ 0.01414 = 0.01345 m3
F P IJ
1. 25 - 1
´G
1. 25 (1.25 - 1)
V10 – V11 =
aV - V f ´ T
1 4 10 ´ P1
T1 ´ P10
0.01345 ´ 366.31 ´ 1 ´ 10 2
=
300 ´ 20 ´ 10 2
Volume of air delivered = V10 – V11 = 8.2115 ´ 10–4 m3
Total Work done per kg air,
R| n F F P I I U|
1. 25 - 1
W= 3 ´ S RT G G J - 1J V
1.25
|T n - 1 GH H P K JK |W
2
1
1
= 3 ´ RSF IK UV
1.25 I
HT 1.25 - 1 K ´ 0.287 ´ 300 ´ FH (2.714)
(1. 25 - 1)
1.25 -1
W
= 285.44 kJ/kg of air
FG T IJ
n
P6 n -1
HT K
6
=
P5 5
FH 30 IK = FH 423 IK
n
n -1
Þ
6 308
Taking log of both sides,
n
Þ ln (5) = ln (1.3734)
n -1
Upon solving we get,
n = 1.245
Volumetric efficiency of LP cylinder,
FP I
1
= 1+C –C G J
1. 245
hvol, LP
HPK
2
LP LP
1
= 1 + 0.05 – 0.05 FH IK
1
6 1. 245
1
= 0.8391 or 83.91%
Volumetric efficiency of HP cylinder,
FPI
1
= 1+C –C G J
1. 245
hvol, HP
HPK
6
HP HP
5
= 1 + 0.07 – 0.07 F
H IK
1
30 1. 245
6
hvol, HP = 0.815 or 81.50%
762 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
For suction of LP cylinder
P1 × (V1 – V4) = mRT1
2 ´ 0.287 ´ 300
(V1 – V4) = = 1.722 m3/s or 103.32 m3/min
1 ´ 10 2
V1 - V4
hvol, LP = = 0.8391 Þ (V1 – V3)
V1 - V3
103.32
= = 123.13 m3/min
0.8391
= 300 ´ FH IK
1. 245 - 1
6 1. 245
1
T2 = 426.83 K
Cooling required in intercooler, QI/C = m ´ Cp ´ (T2 – T5)
= 2 ´ 1.0032 ´ (426.83 – 308)
QI/C = 238.42 kJ/s
PQ n - 1 m RT -1
PQ
2 6
= m RT1
n -1 1
5
5
L R|F P I n-1
U| R|F P I n -1
U|O
mR M T S - 1V + T SG J - 1V P
MN T|H P K W| |TH P K
n n n
|WPQ
2 6
=
n -1
1 5
1 5
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 763
|W |T 6 K
1. 245
-1V|P
WQ
= 704.71 kJ/s
= 2´G
F 1.4 - 1.245 IJ ´ 0.72 ´ (426.83 – 300)
H 1.245 - 1 K
= 115.55 kJ/s
F g - n I ´ C ´ (T – T )
QHP = m
H n -1 K v 6 5
= 2´G
F 1.4 - 1.245 IJ ´ 0.72 ´ (423 – 308)
H 1.245 - 1 K
= 104.77 kJ/s
Wisentropic =
g
´ P1 V1 S|H P K
2 g
V| -1
g -1
T 1
W
FG 1.4 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10 R| 2
´ 0.5 SFH IK
1. 4 - 1
U|
=
H 1.4 - 1 K
2
|T 1
1. 4
-1V|
W
= 38.33 kW or 51.4 hp
Fig. 16.37
764 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Wisentropic 38.33
Isentropic efficiency of roots blower = = = 0.7666 or 76.66%
Wroots 50
H V K H 0.7 V K
1 1
=
P1 2 1
= 1 ´ FH
1 I 1. 4
0. 7 K
Þ P2 = 1.65 bar
F g I P V R|SF P I - 1U|V + (P
g -1
g
H g - 1K |TH P K
– P2) ´ V2
2
|W
Wvane = 1 1 2¢
1
=G
F 1.4 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10 ´ 0.6 {(1.65) (1. 4 - 1)
}
H 1.4 - 1 K - 1 + (2.3 – 1.65) ´ 102 ´ (0.7 ´ 0.6)
2
1. 4
F 1.4 IJ ´ 1 ´ 10
=G
R| 2.3 I
´ 0.6 SFH
1. 4 - 1
U|
H 1.4 - 1 K
2
|T 1 K
1. 4
-1V|
W
= 56.42 kJ/s or 75.66 hp
Wisentropic 75.66
Isentropic efficiency of Vane compressor = =
Wvane 79.925
= 0.9466 or 94.66%
( 50 ) 2
T01 = 300 + = 301.25 K
2 ´ 1.0032 ´ 10 3
Isentropic efficiency of compressor,
T02 ¢ - T01
hisen =
T02 - T01
For process 1–2,
FG P IJ
g -1
T02 ¢ g
HP K
02
=
T01 01
(1. 4 - 1 )
Þ T02¢ = T01 ´ ( 4 ) 1. 4
Fig. 16.39
Substituting temperature values in expression of isentropic efficiency,
766 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
T02 =
aT
02 ¢ - T01 f +T
h isen 01
( 447.66 - 301.25)
= + 301.25
0.75
T02 = 496.46 K
Total head temperature at exit = 496.46 K Ans.
FP I
1
=1+C–CG J
n
Volumetric efficiency, hvol
HPK
2
= 1 + 0.05 – 0.05 FH IK
1
6 1.3
1
= 0.8516 or 85.16%
LMF P I n-1
OP
MNGH P JK
n n
-1
PQ
2
Power required = P1V1
n-1 1
(1.3) L6
´ 12.75 M F I
1.3 - 1
OP
´1´
MNH 1 K PQ
1.3
Power required = 102 -1
(1.3 - 1)
= 2829.21 kJ/min
FG P IJ
n -1
T2 n
HPK
2
=
T1 1
FH 6 IK
1.3 - 1
T2 = 298 ´ 1. 3
1
T2 = 450.59 K
Substituting in heat transferred Q,
FG 1.4 - 1.3 IJ (450.59 – 293)
Q = 15.16 ´ 0.718 ´
H 1.3 - 1 K
Q = 571.78 kJ/min
-:-4+15-
16.1 Classify the compressors.
16.2 Discuss the applications of compressed air to highlight the significance of compressors.
16.3 Describe the working of single stage reciprocating compressor.
16.4 Discuss the indicator diagram for reciprocating compressor. Also describe the factors responsible
for deviation of hypothetical indicator diagram to actual indicator diagram.
16.5 Obtain the volumetric efficiency of single stage reciprocating compressor with clearance volume
and without clearance volume.
16.6 Discuss the effects of clearance upon the performance of reciprocating compressor.
16.7 Define isothermal efficiency. Also discuss its significance.
16.8 What do you understand by multistage compression? What are its’ merits over single stage
compression?
16.9 Show that the volumetric efficiency with respect to free air delivery is given by,
1
P1T a P n
hvol. = 1+ C − C 2
Pa ⋅ T1 P1
where all the terms of expression have their usual meanings.
768 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
16.10 Discuss the significance of intercooling upon the performance of multi-stage compression.
16.11 What is the optimum pressure ratio for perfect intercooling in between two stages of compression?
The inlet and outlet pressures may be taken as P1 and P3.
16.12 Discuss the control of reciprocating air compressor.
16.13 Discuss the working of positive displacement rotary compressors.
16.14 Describe the working of centrifugal compressors.
16.15 What do you understand by surging and choking phenomenon?
16.16 Explain the stalling and its effect on the compressor performance.
16.17 Describe the characteristics of centrifugal compressor.
16.18 Compare the axial flow compressor with centrifugal compressors.
16.19 Show that the heat rejected in each stage of a reciprocating compressor with perfect intercooling
is given by,
γ − n
Q = C p + Cv (T2 – T1)
n − 1
16.20 Write short notes on the following:
(i) Free air delivery
(ii) Volumetric efficiency
(iii) Axial flow compressors
(iv) Air flow rate measurement in reciprocating compressors.
16.21 A single stage single cylinder reciprocating compressor has 60 m3/hr air entering at 1.013 bar, 15°C
and air leaves at 7 bar. Compression follows polytropic process with index of 1.35. Considering
negligible clearance determine mass of air delivered per minute, delivery temperature, indicated
power and isothermal efficiency. [1.225 kg/min, 202.37°C, 4.23 kW, 77.1%]
16.22 A reciprocating compressor of single stage and double acting type has free air delivered at 14
m3/min measured at 1.013 bar, 288 K. Pressure and temperature at suction are 0.95 bar and 305
K. The cylinder has clearance volume of 5% of swept volume. The air is delivered at pressure of
7 bar and expansion and compression follow the common index of 1.3. Determine the indicated
power required and volumetric efficiency with respect to free air delivery. [63.55 kW, 72.4%]
3
16.23 A single stage double acting reciprocating compressor delivers 14 m /min measured at suction
states of 1 bar and 20°C. Compressor runs at 300 rpm and air is delivered after compression with
compression ratio of 7. Compressor has clearance volume of 5% of swept volume and compression
follows polytropic process with index 1.3. Determine the swept volume of cylinder and indicated
power in hp. [0.028 m3, 76.86 hp]
3
16.24 A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor handles 0.5 m /min of free air measured
at 1 bar. Compressor delivers air at 6.5 bar while running at 450 rpm. The volumetric efficiency
is 0.75, isothermal efficiency is 0.76 and mechanical efficiency is 0.80. Determine indicated mean
effective pressure and power required to drive the compressor. [0.185 MPa, 3.44 hp]
16.25 A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor compresses air by a ratio of 7. The
polytropic index of both compression and expansion is 1.35. The clearance volume is 6.2% of
cylinder volume. For volumetric efficiency of 0.8 and stroke to bore ratio of 1.3 determine the
dimensions of cylinder. [14.67 cm and 19.08 cm]
16.26 A single stage single acting reciprocating air compressor runs with air entering at 1 bar and
leaving at 7 bar following PV1.3 = constant. Free air delivery is 5.6 m3/minute and mean piston
1
speed is 150 m/min. Take stroke to bore ratio of 1.3 and clearance volume to be th of swept
15
Reciprocating and Rotary Compressor ______________________________________________ 769
volume per stroke. The suction pressure and temperature are equal to atmospheric air pressure
and temperature. Determine volumetric efficiency, speed of rotation, stroke and bore. Take mean
piston speed = 2 ´ stroke ´ rpm. [76.88%, 164 rpm, 45.7 cm, 35.1 cm]
16.27 A reciprocating compressor of single acting type has air entering at 1.013 bar, 15°C and leaving
at 8 bar. Compressor is driven by electric motor of 30.84 hp and the mechanical efficiency is 0.87.
The clearance volume is 7% of swept volume and the bore is equal to stroke. The compression
and expansion follow PV1.3 = constant. Determine (i) free air delivered in m3/min, (ii) volumetric
efficiency, and (iii) cylinder dimensions. [4.47 m3/min, 72.68%, L = D = 29.7 cm]
16.28 A reciprocating compressor has two stages with inlet air going into LP stage at 1 bar, 16°C and
at the rate of 12 m3/min. Air is finally delivered at 7 bar and there is perfect intercooling at optimum
pressure between the stages. The index for compression is 1.25 and compressor runs at 600 rpm.
Neglecting clearance volume determine intermediate pressure, total volume of each cylinder and
total work required. [2.645 bar, 0.02 m3, 0.0075 m3, 57.6 hp]
16.29 A two stage reciprocating air compressor delivers 4.2 kg of free air per min at 1.01325 bar and 15°C.
The suction conditions are 0.95 bar, 22°C. Compressor delivers air at 13 bar. Compression
throughout occurs following PV1.25 = C. There is optimum and perfect intercooling between the
two stages. Mechanical efficiency is 0.75. Neglecting clearance volume determine
(i) the heat transfer in intercooler per second.
(ii) the capacity of electric motor.
(iii) the % saving in work if two stage intercooling is compared with single stage compressor
between same limits. [7.6 kJ/s, 44.65 hp, 13%]
16.30 A single acting reciprocating air compressor has two stages with the optimum and perfect
intercooling in between. Compressor has air sucked at 1 bar and at the rate of 2.4 m3/min when
measured at 1.013 bar, 288 K. Compressor delivers air at 70 bar. Temperature at the end of suction
stroke is 32°C. The compression and expansion follows polytropic process PV1.25 = C uniformly.
The clearance volume is 3% of swept volume in each HP and LP cylinder. Compressor runs at
750 rpm. If the mechanical efficiency is 0.85 then determine the power of drive required, swept
volumes of each cylinder, % saving in power as compared to single stage compression within
limits. [35.8 hp, 3963 cm3, 473 cm3, 20.89%]
770 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
17
Introduction to Internal
Combustion Engines
17.1 INTRODUCTION
History of internal combustion engines dates back to year 1680 when Christian Huygens developed an
engine using gun powder for explosion inside a cylindrical tube. Subsequently, in year 1860 a non
compression engine utilising coal gas was developed by ‘Lenoir’ in France. Engine was called Lenoir
engine and it was operationally similar to steam engine. In 1866 ‘Otto-Langen free piston engine’ was
developed in Germany and it had thermal efficiency more than ‘Lenoir engine.’ In 1876 four stroke
engine based on Otto cycle was developed by Nikolous Otto in Germany which revolutionised the
developments of internal combustion engines and are even used till date. The compression ignition
engine technology and engines based on it evolved in year 1892. Such engines are credited to Rudolf
Diesel another German engineer and are so named as Diesel engine. Two stroke engines came up in
1881 in Scotland and were first developed by Dugald Clerke. ‘Brayton engine’ based on Brayton cycle
and ‘Atkinson engine’ based on Atkinson cycle were developed in year 1873 and 1885 respectively.
Apart from conventional two stroke and four stroke engines described earlier the ‘Wankel engine’ which
was rotary engine and the ‘Stirling engine’ which was external combustion engine came up in years
1957 and 1938 respectively. In 1923 an engine called as free piston engine was developed by Pateras
Pescara in France. Free piston engine is actually a combination of reciprocating piston-cylinder engine
and turbine. “Engine refers to a device which transforms one form of energy into the other form”. “Heat
engine is a modified form of engine used for transforming chemical energy of fuel into thermal energy
and subsequently for producing work”. Based on the mechanism used for adding thermal energy they
can be classified into the following:
(a) External combustion engine
(b) Internal combustion engine.
External combustion engine have combustion occuring outside engine and adding heat to the working
fluid used in the engine. Thus, in external combustion engines heat released during combustion is
indirectly utilized by the working fluid in external combustion engine. Internal combustion engines have
combustion occuring in engine itself and heat released during combustion is directly utilized for getting
shaft work. Internal combustion engines have numerous advantages over external combustion engines
such as lower weight to power output ratio, simplicity, smaller initial cost, and higher efficiency etc.
Due to indirect heat transfer the external combustion engines permit for the use of any cheaper fuel such
as coal, wood, oil etc. for combustion.
Internal combustion engines are exhaustively used in automobiles, gas turbine etc. and external
combustion engines are used in steam turbine, steam engine, nuclear power plant etc. Internal combustion
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 771
engines are efficient than external combustion engines and also are smaller than external combustion
engine of similar capacity.
working of 4-stroke SI engine. Figure 17.3 shows the different strokes and processes associated with
them.
Valve position
State Action Work Heat
Inlet Exhaust
1 Just Just
opened closed
1–2 Open Closed Air-fuel Air to None
intake piston
2 Just Closed
closed
2–3 Closed Closed Compression Piston None
to air
3 Closed Closed Ignition
3–4 Closed Closed Combustion Input to gas
4 Closed Closed Max. T, P
4–5 Closed Closed Expansion Gas to None
piston
5 Closed Just
opened
5–6 Closed Open Exhaust None Gas to
blowdown atmosphere
6 Closed Open Pressure drop None Gas to
to atmosphere atmosphere
6–1 Closed Open Exhaust Piston Gas to
to gas atmosphere
Fig. 17.2 P-V and T-s diagram for SI engine cycle (Otto cycle)
Let us start with piston at TDC, state 1. As piston moves for TDC to BDC, the inlet vlave gets
opened and fresh air-fuel mixture prepared in carburettor enters the cylinder. This supply of air-fuel
mixture into cylinder is called suction process or suction stroke during which inlet valve is open while
exhaust valve remains closed. After the piston reaches BDC, it reverses its motion and moves towards
TDC. During this piston travel both inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. Thus, the air-fuel mixture
inside cylinder gets compressed till piston reaches TDC. This is the second stroke and called compression
stroke or compression process (2–3).
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 775
IVC : Inlet valve closed, IVO: Inlet valve open, EVC: Exhaust valve closed, EVO: Exhaust valve open.
Fig. 17.3 Working of 4-stroke S.I. engine
Now highly compressed air-fuel mixture is available inside the cylinder and ready for combustion.
With piston at TDC, the spark plug is activated and it releases spark for igniting air-fuel mixture. Spark
plug used in the SI engines gets activated by suitable mechanism in the engine and provides suitable
amount of energy in the form of spark for initiating combustion process. This burning of mixture is
accompanied by sudden increase in pressure and temperature while piston passes the TDC position.
Here constant volume heat addition takes place and state 4 is attained. Due to this release of fuel energy,
the combustion products try to expand and piston moves from 4–5 i.e. TDC to BDC. During this travel
the inlet and exhaust valves remain closed. This stroke is called expansion stroke or power stroke or
expansion process. This is the stroke accompanied by positive work available at shaft. Now while
piston is at BDC the exhaust valve gets opened and combustion products are exhausted out during 5–6.
Cylinder is further emptied and made ready for being recharged while piston travels from BDC to TDC,
6–1 pushing out burnt gases. This is called exhaust stroke.
Here we have seen that out of suction, compression, expansion and exhaust strokes only expansion
stroke is accompanied by the production of positive work, rest three strokes are work absorbing strokes.
Work requirement for the three strokes is met from the work available during expansion stroke. For
776 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
storing the excess energy and releasing it when required, a flywheel is mounted over the crankshsaft.
Cycle gets completed in two revolutions of crankshaft. Examples of four stroke engines are petrol
engines used in cars etc.
Fig. 17.6 Comparison of Otto Diesel and Dual cycles on P-V and T-s diagram for same compression
ratio and heat input. Comparison can be made by looking at these cycle representations.
Heat rejected can be given as;
For Otto = Area a d e f
For Diesel = Area a d"e" f
For Dual = Area a d' e' f
A look at areas on T-s diagram shows
Area a d e f < Area a d'e'f < Area a d" e" f.
Since heat input is same therefore based on the heat rejected one can say that as heat rejected for
Otto cycle is smallest so this has highest efficiency. It is followed by Dual cycle and smallest efficiency
is for Diesel cycle.
(b) Comparison of Otto, Diesel and Dual cycles for same maximum pressure and same heat input:
For carrying out comparison the P-V and T-s representations for three cycles are shown in
Fig. 17.7.
Fig. 17.7 Comparison of Otto, diesel and Dual cycles on P-V and T-s diagram for
same maximum pressure and same heat input.
780 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Here heat input is same so,
Area bcfg = Area b' c' f' g = Area b" c" d" f" g.
(Otto) (Diesel) (Dual)
Heat rejected shall be given by;
Area adfg for Otto cycle
Area ad' f' g for Diesel cycle
Area ae" f" g for Dual cycle
Area adfg > Area ae" f" g > Area ad' f' g ⇒ WDiesel > WDual > WOtto
Here W refers to net work in respective cycle.
Hence, it can be seen that heat rejected is highest in Otto cycle followed by Dual cycle and Diesel
cycle. Thus, efficiency shall be maximum for Diesel cycle due to largest work available followed by
Dual cycle and minimum for Otto cycle at same maximum pressure and same heat input.
I = Preparation phase
II = Flame propagation phase
III = After burning phase
Non-firing : Piston is made
to reciprocate
due to cranking
in the absence
of combustion.
Firing : Engine runs
with combustion
occurring.
I = Ignition delay
II = Uncontrolled combustion
III = Controlled combustion
IV = After burning
EXAMPLES
1. A four cylinder diesel engine of 4-stroke type has stroke to bore ratio as 1.2 and the cylinder diameter
is 12 cm. Estimate indicated power of the engine using the indicator diagram arrangement. Indicator
card shows the diagram having area of 30 cm2 and length as half of stroke. Indicator spring constant
is 20 × 103 kN/m2 and engine is running at 2000 rpm. Also find out mechanical efficiency of engine if
10% of power is lost in friction and other losses.
Solution:
L
From stroke to bore ratio i.e. = 1.2 and cylinder diameter = bore, i.e. D = 12 cm, so L = 14.4 cm
D
Area of indicator diagram = 30 cm2 = 30 × 10–4 m2
1
Length of indicator diagram = × stroke
2
= 7.2 cm or 7.2 × 10–2 m
2. Determine the power required to drive a double acting reciprocating pump having indicator diagram
with area 40 cm2 and length 8 cm. Bore and stroke of the pump are 15 cm and 20 cm. The pump motor
runs at 100 rpm. Indicator spring constant is 1.5 × 108 Pa per m.
Solution:
Reciprocating Pump is work absorbing machine having its mechanism similar to the piston-cylinder
arrangement in IC engine.
40 × 10 −4 × 1.5 × 108
Mean effective pressure =
8 × 10 −2
m.e.p. = 7.5 × 106 Pa
Indicated power = (Piston area × Stroke × mep × Speed × No. of cylinder)
(It is double acting so let us assume total power to be double of that in single acting)
π 6 100
= × (0.15) × 0.20 × 7.5 × 10 × ×1× 2
2
4 60
= 88357.29 W
Power required to drive = 88.36 kW Ans.
3. An engine with 90% mechanical efficiency has rating of 38 kW brake power. Estimate its indicated
power and frictional power loss. Also determine the mechanical efficiency at quarter load assuming
frictional power to remain same.
Solution:
Brake power 38
Indicated power = =
Mechanical efficiency 0.9
792 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 42.22 kW
Frictional power loss = Indicated power – Brake power
= 42.22 – 38
= 4.22 kW
Brake power at quarter load = 0.25 × 38
= 9.5 kW
Brake power 9.5
Mechanical efficiency = =
Indicated power 9.5 + 4.22
= 0.6924 or 69.24%
Indicated power = 42.22 kW
Frictional power loss = 4.22 kW
Mechanical efficiency = 69.24% Ans.
4. An eight cylinder diesel engine of two stroke type has specific fuel consumption of 0.25 kg/kWh. The
brake mean effective pressure of each cylinder is 1.5 MPa and engine run at 100 rpm. The bore and
stroke of cylinder are 85 cm and 220 cm respectively. Considering the calorific value of diesel as 43 MJ/
kg determine the brake power of engine, fuel consumption in kg/hr and brake thermal efficiency of
engine.
Solution:
Brake power of engine = Pb mep × L × A × N
π
1.5 ×103 × (2.2) × × (0.85) 2 × 100
= 4
60
= 3120.97 kW or 31.21 MW
Brake power = 31.21 MW Ans.
The fuel consumption in kg/hr = 0.25 × 3120.97 = 780.24 kg/hr
In order to find out brake thermal efficiency the heat input from fuel per second is required.
780.24 × 43 × 103
Heat from fuel, kJ/s = = 9319.53 kJ/s
3600
Energy to brake power = 3120.97 kW
3120.97
Brake thermal efficiency = = 0.33488 or 33.49%
9319.53
Fuel consumption = 780.24 kg/hr, Brake thermal efficiency = 33.49% Ans.
5. A four cylinder, four stroke diesel engine has brake mean effective pressure of 6 bar at full load speed
of 600 rpm and specific fuel consumption of 0.25 kg/kWh. The cylinder has bore of 20 cm and stroke
length of 30 cm. The air fuel ratio is measured as 26 from the exhaust gas analysis. The ambient
conditions are 1 bar, 27ºC. Assuming the calorific value of fuel as 43 MJ/kg determine the brake
thermal efficiency and the volumetric efficiency. Also find out brake power.
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 793
Solution:
3600
Brake thermal efficiency =
(brake specific fuel consumption × Calorific value)
3600
= = 0.3349 or 33.49%
(0.25 × 43 × 103 )
π
4 × 6 × 102 × 0.30 × × (0.20) 2 × 600
4
Brake power = = 226.19 kW
60
mf
Brake specific fuel consumption =
brake power
mf
0.25 = ⇒ mf = 56.55 kg/hr
226.19
Air consumption from given air fuel ratio = 26 × 56.55 = 1470.3 kg/hr
or
ma = 24.505 kg/min
Using perfect gas equation,
P · Va = ma RT
2
1 × 10 × Va = 24.505 × 0.287 × 300
Va = 21.098 m3/min
π 2 π
Swept volume, Vs = D L= × (0.30)2 × 0.4 = 0.02827 m3
4 4
Va
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol. =
N
Vs × × number or cylinders
2
21.09 × 2
=
0.02827 × 600 × 4
= 0.6217 or 62.17%
Volumetric efficiency = 62.17% Ans.
6. A two stroke two cylinder engine runs with speed of 3000 rpm and fuel consumption of 5 litres/hr.
The fuel has specific gravity of 0.7 and air-fuel ratio is 19. The piston speed is 500 m/min and
indicated mean effective pressure is 6 bar. The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar, 15ºC. The volumetric
efficiency is 0.7 and mechanical efficiency is 0.8. Determine brake power output considering R for
gas = 0.287 kJ/kg · K
(Take piston speed, m/min = 2 LN where L is stroke (m) and N is rpm)
794 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Let the bore of cylinder be ‘D’ meter.
Using piston speed, 500 = 2 × L × 3000
⇒ L = 0.0833 m
Air sucked (m3 /min)
Volumetric efficiency, ηvol. =
Swept volume × N × number of cylinders
Air sucked
0.7 =
π 2
D ·L × 3000 × 2
4
⇒ Air sucked = 274.78 D2 m3/min
Air requirement, kg/min = A/F ratio × Fuel consumption per minute
5 × 0.7 × 103 × 10−3
= 19 ×
60
ma = 1.11 kg/min
Using perfect gas equation, PVa = ma RT
1.11 × 0.287 × 288
Va =
1.013 × 102
Va = 0.906 m3/min
Ideally, Air sucked = Va
274.78 D2 = 0.906
⇒ D = 0.0574 m or 57.4 mm
Indicated power = Pimep × L × A × N × no. of cylinders
π (0.0574)2 × 3000 × 2
= 6 × 102 × 0.0833 × ×
4 60
= 12.93 kW
Brake power = Indicated power × Mechanical efficiency
= 12.93 × 0.8 = 10.34 kW
Brake power = 10.34 kW Ans.
7. During trial of four stroke single cylinder engine the load on dynamometer is found 20 kg at radius
of 50 cm. The speed of rotation is 3000 rpm. The bore and stroke are 20 cm and 30 respectively. Fuel is
supplied at the rate of 0.15 kg/min. The calorific value of fuel may be taken as 43 MJ/kg. After some
time the fuel supply is cut and the engine is rotated with motor which required 5 kW to maintain the same
speed of rotation of engine. Determine the brake power, indicated power, mechanical efficiency, brake
thermal efficiency, indicated thermal efficiency, brake mean effective pressure, indicated mean effective
pressure.
Solution:
After switching off fuel supply the capacity of motor required to run engine will be the friction power
required at this speed of engine.
Friction power = 5 kW
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 795
0.15 × 60
= = 0.292 kg/kW hr
30.82
3600
Brake thermal efficiency =
Brake specific fuel consumption × calorific value
3600
= = 0.2867 or 28.67%
0.292 × 43×103
Brake thermal efficiency
Also, Mechanical efficiency =
Indicated thermal efficiency
0.2867
⇒ Indicated thermal efficiency = = 0.3332 or 33.32%
0.8604
Indicated power = Pimep × L × A × N
π 3000
35.82 = Pimep × 0.30 × × (0.20)2 ×
4 60
⇒ Pimep = 76.01 kPa
Pbmep
Also, Mechanical efficiency =
Pimep
Brake mean effective pressure = Pimep × Mechanical efficiency
Pimep = 76.01 × 0.8604 = 65.39 kPa
Brake power = 30.82 kW, Indicated power = 35.82 kW
Mechanical efficiency = 86.04%. Brake thermal efficiency = 28.67%
Indicated thermal efficiency = 33.32%, Brake mean effective pressure = 65.39 kPa,
Indicated mean effective pressure = 76.01 kPa Ans.
8. A four stroke four cylinder diesel engine running at 300 rpm produces 250 kW of brake power. The
cylinder dimensions are 30 cm bore and 25 cm stroke. Fuel consumption rate is 1 kg/min while air fuel
ratio is 10. The average indicated mean effective pressure is 0.8 MPa. Determine indicated power,
mechanical efficiency, brake thermal efficiency and volumetric efficiency of engine. The calorific
value of fuel is 43 MJ/kg. The ambient conditions are 1.013 bar, 27ºC.
796 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Solution:
Given, D = 0.3 m, L = 0.25 m, N = 300 rpm, mf = 1 kg/min, F/A = 20,
Pimep = 0.8 MPa, Brake power = 250 kW
N ×4 π 300
Indicated power kW = Pimep × L × A × = 0.8 × 0.25 × × (0.3)2 × × 4 × 103
60 4 60
= 282.74 kW
Brake power 250
Mechanical efficiency = = = 0.8842 or 88.42%
Indicated power 282.74
1× 60
Brake specific fuel consumption = = 0.24 kg/kW hr
250
3600 3600
Brake thermal efficiency = = = 0.3488 or 34.88%
bsfc× CV 0.24× 43000
π 2 π
Swept volume, Vs = D L = × (0.30)2 × 0.25 = 0.01767 m3
4 4
Mass of air corresponding to above swept volume, using Perfect gas equation
PV s = ma RT
1.013 × 10 2 × 0.017
ma =
0.287 × 300
= 0.02 kg
Mass of air taken/minute
Volumetric efficiency , ηvol =
Mass corresponding to swept volume per minute
Mass of air taken per minute = 1 × 10 = kg/min
300
Mass corresponding to swept volume per minute = 0.02 × 4 × = 12 kg/min
2
10
Volumetric efficiency = = 0.8333 or 83.33%
12
Indicated power = 282.74 kW, Mechanical efficiency = 88.42%
Brake thermal efficiency = 34.88%, Volumetric efficiency = 83.33% Ans.
9. During an experiment on four stroke single cylinder engine the indicator diagram obtained has
average height of 1 cm while indicator constant is 25 kN/m2 per mm. The engine run at 300 rpm and the
swept volume is 1.5 × 104 cm3. The effective brake load upon dynamometer is 60 kg while the effective
brake drum radius is 50 cm. The fuel consumption is 0.12 kg/min and the calorific value of fuel oil is
42 MJ/kg. The engine is cooled by circulating water around it at the rate of 6 kg/min.
The cooling water enters at 35º C and leaves at 70ºC. Exhaust gases leaving have energy of
30 kJ/s with them. Take specific heat of water as 4.18 kJ/kg K. Determine indicated power output, brake
power output and mechanical efficiency. Also draw the overall energy balance in kJ/s.
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 797
Solution:
Indicated mean effective pressure = 10 × 25 = 250 kPa
N N
Indicated power = Pimep × L × A × here N = as it is four stroke
2 2
300
= 250 × 1.5 × 104 × × 10–6 = 9.375 kW
2 × 60
300
Brake power = 2πNT = 2 × π × × (60 × 9.81 × 0.50) × 10–3 = 4.62 kW
2 × 60
Brake power 4.62
Mechanical efficiency = =
Indicated power 9.375
= 0.4928 or 49.28%
Indicated power = 9.375 kW,
Brake power = 4.62 kW,
Mechanical efficiency = 49.28% Ans.
42 ×103 × 0.12
Energy liberated from fuel = = 84 kJ/s
60
Energy available as brake power = 4.62 kW
6
Energy to coolant = × 4.18 × (70 – 35) = 14.63 kW
60
Energy carried by exhaust gases = 30 kJ/s
Unaccounted energy loss = 84 – 4.62 – 14.63 – 30 = 34.75 kW
Energy Balance on per second basis
Energy input, kJ/s Energy consumed, kJ/s in %
Heat from fuel = 84 kJ/s, 100% Energy consumed as brake
power = 4.62 kW 5.5%
Energy carried by coolant = 14.63 kW 17.42%
Energy carried by exhaust gases = 30 kW 35.71%
Unaccounted losses = 34.75 kW 41.37%
10. During 15 minutes trial of an internal combustion engine of 2-stroke single cylinder type the total 4
kg fuel is consumed while the engine is run at 1500 rpm. Engine is cooled employing water being
circulated at 15 kg/min with its inlet and exit temperatures as 27ºC and 50ºC. The total air consumed is
150 kg and the exhaust temperature is 400ºC. The atmospheric temperature is 27ºC. The mean specific
heat of exhaust gases may be taken as 1.25 kJ/kg K. The mechanical efficiency is 0.9. Determine, the
brake power, brake specific fuel consumption and indicated thermal efficiency. Also draw energy balance
on per minute basis. Brake torque is 300 Nm and the fuel calorific value is 42 MJ/kg.
Solution:
2 × π × 1500 × 300
Brake power = 2πNT = = 47.124 kW
60
798 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
4 × 60
Brake specific fuel consumption = = 0.339 kg/kW hr.
15 × 47.124
Brake specific fuel consumption = 0.339 kg/kW hr Ans.
Brake power 47.124
Indicated power = = = 52.36 kW
Mechanical efficiency 0.9
52.36
Indicated thermal efficiency = = 0.2805 or 28.05%
4× 42×103
15 × 60
4
Heat available from fuel, kJ/min = × 42 × 103 = 11200 kJ/min
15
Energy consumed as brake power = 47.124 × 60 = 2827.44 kJ/min
Energy carried by cooling water = 15 × 4.18 × (50 – 27) = 1442.1 kJ/min
150 + 4
Energy carried by exhaust gases = ×1.25× (400 – 27)
15
= 4786.83 kJ/min
Unaccounted energy loss = 11200 – (2827.44 + 1442.1 + 4786.83)
= 2143.63 kJ/min. Heat balance on per minute basis
Heat input, kJ/min % Heat consumed, kJ/min %
Heat from fuel = 11200 100% 1. Brake power = 2827.44 25.24%
2. Cooling water = 1442.1 12.88%
3. Exhaust gases = 4786.83 42.74%
4. Unaccounted loss = 2143.63 19.14%
(by difference)
Total = 11200 kJ/min 100% Total = 11200 kJ/min 100%
11. During Morse Test experiment on a six cylinder petrol engine the brake power output was found
50 kW when all cylinders run at full load. When one by one each cylinder is cut and load is reduced to
bring engine back to original speed, the measured brake power outputs are as under. Determine the
indicated power of engine and mechanical efficiency of engine.
No. of cylinders cut Brake power, kW
1 40.1
2 39.5
3 39.1
4 39.6
5 39.8
6 40
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 799
Solution:
Indicated power of Ist cylinder = 50 – 40.1 = 9.9 kW
Indicated power of IInd cylinder = 50 – 39.5 = 10.5 kW
Indicated power of IIIrd cylinder = 50 – 39.1 = 10.9 kW
Indicated power of IVth cylinder = 50 – 39.6 = 10.4 kW
Indicated power of Vth cylinder = 50 – 39.8 = 10.2 kW
Indicated power of VIth cylinder = 50 – 40 = 10 kW
Total indicated power = 61.9 kW
Brake power 50
Mechanical efficiency =
Indicated power = 61.9 = 0.8077 or 80.77%
13. During the trial of a single acting oil engine, cylinder diameter is 20 cm, stroke 28 cm, working on
two stroke cycle and firing every cycle, the following observations were made:
Duration of trial :1 hour
Total fuel used :4.22 kg
Calorific value :44670 kJ/kg
Proportion of hydrogen in fuel : 15%
Total number of revolutions : 21000
Mean effective pressure : 2.74 bar
Net brake load applied to a drum of 100 cm diameter : 600 N
Total mass of cooling water circulated : 495 kg
Total mass of cooling water : inlet 13ºC, outlet 38ºC
Air used : 135 kg
Temperature of air in test room : 20ºC
Temperature of exhaust gases : 370ºC
Assume Cp, gases = 1.005 kJ/kg K,
Cp, steam at atmospheric pressure = 2.093 kJ/kg K
Calculate thermal efficiency and draw up the heat balance. [U.P.S.C. 1997]
Solution:
Brake power = 2π NT
21, 000
N = rpm = 350 rpm
60
T = 600 × 0.5 = 300 N . m
Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines ________________________________________ 801
2π × 350× 300
Brake power = = 10.996 kW
60 ×1000
mep × L ⋅ A ⋅ N
Indicated power = kW
60 × 1000
2.74 × 105 × 0.28 × π × (0.2) 2 × 300
= = 14.06 kW
60 × 1000 × 4
4.22
(A) Heat added = × 44670 = 52.36 kJ/s or 3141.79 kJ/min
3600
Indicated power
Thermal efficiency, η =
Heat added
14.06
= 4.22
× 44670
3600
= 0.2685 or 26.85%
(B) Heat equivalent of brake power = 10.996 × 60 = 659.76 kJ/min
(C) Heat lost to cooling water = mw × Cpw × ∆T
495
= × 4.18 × (38 – 13)
60
= 862.13 kJ/min
Heat carried by exhaust gases = Heat carried by steam in exhaust gases + Heat carried
by fuel gases (dry gases) in exhaust gases
Mass of exhaust gases = mass of air + mass of fuel
(135 + 4.22)
= kg/min
60
= 2.32 kg/min
4.22
Mass of steam in exhaust gases = 9 × 0.15 ×
60
= 0.095 kg/min
Mass of dry exhaust gases = 2.32 – 0.095
= 2.225 kg/min
(D) Heat carried by steam in exhaust = 0.095 × {4.18 (100 –20) + 2256.9 + 2.093 × (370 – 100)}
= 299.86 kJ/min
(E) Heat carried by fuel gases (dry gases) in exhaust gases
= 2.225 × 1.005 (370 – 20)
= 782.64 kJ/min
(F) Unaccounted loss = A – B – C – D – E
= (3141.79) – (659.76) – (862.13) – (299.86) – (782.64)
= 537.4 kJ/min
802 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Heat balance sheet (on per minute basis)
Input Expenditure
Heat, kJ/min %, Percentage Heat, kJ/min %, Percentage
(A) Heat added by 100 (B) Heat equivalent 21%
fuel = 3141.79 to brake power = 659.76
(C) Heat lost to cooling water = 862.13 27.44%
(D) Heat carried by steam in exhaust 9.54%
gases = 299.86
(E) Heat carried by dry fuel gases in 24.92%
exhaust gases = 782.64
(F) Unaccounted losses = 537.4 17.10%
Ans.
-:-4+15-
18
Introduction to Refrigeration and
Airconditioning
18.1 INTRODUCTION
Refrigeration refers to the use of mechanical devices or heat activated devices for producing and maintaining
the temperature in a region less than that of surroundings. American Society of Refrigerating Engineers
defines refrigeration as “the science of providing and maintaining temperature below that of the surrounding
atmosphere”. Refrigerating a region in reference to the human comfort is called air conditioning. Thus, air
conditioning refers to maintaining a space for the human comfort i.e. temperature, humidity and ventilation
are the parameters to be controlled. When refrigeration provides temperature below – 150ºC then this is
known as cryogenics. Equipment used for removing the heat continuously for maintaining low temperature
in a space is called ‘refrigerator’ and cycles on which it operates are called ‘refrigeration cycles’. The
working fluids used for carrying away heat are called ‘refrigerants’ which are used in both refrigeration
and air conditioning equipments. Equipment used for air conditioning are called airconditioners. The air
conditioning of space may also be the requirement of various goods, equipments and processes etc. When
air conditioning is done for human comfort then it is called comfort air conditioning while when it is done
for industrial purposes then it is called ‘industrial air conditioning’. Comfort air conditioning can be further
categorized as summer air conditioning and winter air conditioning. Summer air conditioning is used in
summer season and generally requires cooling and dehumidification. Winter air conditioning used in winter
generally requires heating and humidification.
Comfort air conditioning is extensively used in residential buildings, hospitals, offices, working
spaces, vehicles, trains, aeroplanes etc.
Industrial air conditioning is used for spot cooling/heating, environmental laboratories, printing
industry, textile industry, precision parts manufacturing, photographic product handling, computer rooms,
control rooms of power plants etc.
Refrigeration is extensively used for increasing the storage life of perishable items specially food
products, vegetables, fruits, milk, beverages, chilling of water, ice formation etc. along with industrial
applications in chemical manufacturing, petroleum refinery, petrochemical plants, paper and plup industry
etc.
History of refrigeration system dates back to 1834 when Jacob Perkins had got first patent on
mechanical type refrigeration system using ‘ether’ as refrigerant. First successful commercial refrigeration
system was produced in 1857 by James Harrison and D.E. Siebe using ethyl ether as refrigerant.
Refrigeration can be achieved by using refrigeration cycle which may be open cycle type or closed
cycle type. In open cycle the refrigerant passes through the system once for refrigerating the space and
is thrown away as it gets contaminated. In closed cycle the refrigerant flows inside tubes while
806 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
refrigerating the space and does not get contaminated. Thus, in closed cycle a definite mass of refrigerant
can be used for quite long time while it is not so in case of open cycle where for every run fresh
refrigerant is to be picked up.
Different methods for refrigeration are described below:
(i) Refrigeration by evaporation: Refrigeration effect can be realized by evaporation of liquid.
Evaporation of liquid requires latent heat of evaporation which is provided by the surroundings of
region where liquid is being evaporated. This causes the cooling of the region supplying latent
heat for evaporation. Examples of this type of refrigeration are:
– Cooling of water kept in earthen pot. Earthen pot has porosity thereby allowing evaporation
of water and cooling down the inside remaining water.
– Cooling of water kept in desert bag (made of thick canvas i.e. tight woven fabric). Here
some quantity of water always keeps on leaking out across the cloth surface. This water
which appears on the surface of bag gets evaporated after absorbing heat from atmospheric
air and water inside the bag, thus cooling the water kept in bag.
– Sweating from the human skin is also example of such refrigeration which keeps the human
being cool.
– Evaporative condensers also use this concept for cooling.
(ii) Refrigeration by ice: Ice is being popularly used for refrigeration. In this kind of refrigeration ice
is kept in between the walls of an insulated cabinet. Apart from above there can be some other
arrangements too such as ice may be kept in a tray upon the insulated box having flow of air
across ice blocks to the refrigerated space.
Temperature inside refrigerated space is controlled by flow rate of air and the temperature upto
5ºC can be attained like this.
(iii) Refrigeration by expansion of air: Generally, the expansion of air is accompanied by the cooling
air due to reduction in its temperature. Subsequently cool air is passed into the region where
refrigeration is to be done. Generally the adiabatic expansion of air is used in air refrigeration
system described ahead.
(iv) Refrigeration by throttling process: Throttling of certain gases show the reduction in temperature
of gas after throttling. Effect of throttling is evident by Joule-Thomson coefficient which shows
whether the throttling is accompanied by cooling or heating of gases. Throttling is constant
enthalpy process for which Joule-Thomson coefficient (µ) is given as:
∂p
µ= ; for µ > 0 the cooling is seen.
∂T h
(v) Refrigeration by dry ice: Dry ice is oftenly used in packaging of frozen foods for maintaining
them at low temperature. Carbon dioxide in solid phase is termed as dry ice. It has typical property
of getting transformed directly from solid phase to vapour phase at its sublimation temperature of
–78ºC at atmospheric pressure. Dry ice blocks in suitable sizes are stacked around the frozen
food for keeping them in frozen state.
(vi) Refrigeration using liquid gases: Liquid gases such as liquid nitrogen, liquid carbon dioxide are
used for refrigeration in refrigerated cargo vehicles. Liquid gases are expanded thereby causing
its transformation from liquid to gas accompanied by lowering of temperature of refrigerated
space.
Liquid gases are sprayed inside the cooling area and it gets transformed into vapour which is
exhausted out from vehicle. Nitrogen and carbon dioxide being cheaply available are generally
used as liquid refrigerant. It facilitates attainable temperature up to –30ºC.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 807
(vii) Vapour Refrigeration system: Vapour refrigeration system based on vapour compression
refrigeration system and vapour absorption refrigeration system are discussed ahead.
Q1
T2<T1 R W
Q2
Body,T2
Fig. 18.1 Refrigerator
Heat pump is the device which runs exactly similar to the refrigerator but its purpose is to maintain
the body at temperature higher than that of surroundings. Therefore, heat pump supplies heat at constant
rate to the body to be maintained at higher temperature. Performance of heat pump is also given by the
parameter defined exactly like COP but instead of calling it COP, it is called as energy performance ratio.
Different name of EPR is assigned to differentiate it from COP of refrigerator.
Thus, COP of heat pump = Energy performance ratio (EPR)
Q1
=
W
Q1
EPR =
Q1 − Q2
or, EPR = COP + 1
EPR shall always have its magnitude greater than unity.
Body,T1
Q1
T2<T1 HP W
Q2
Surroundings
at low temp, T2
Fig. 18.2 Heat pump
808 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
18.3 UNIT OF REFRIGERATION
Refrigeration effect is the amount of heat extracted by refrigerator from the refrigerated space. The
higher capacity of refrigerator means higher shall be the refrigeration effect. This refrigeration effect is
defined by the unit of refrigeration called ‘Ton’ of refrigeration. ‘Ton’ as unit of refrigeration has been
defined based on formation of ice as described ahead.
“One ‘Ton’ of refrigeration can be defined by the amount of heat being removed from one ton of
water at 0ºC to form one ton of ice at 0ºC within 24 hours.” Thus, a Ton of refrigeration shall quantify
the latent heat required to be removed for solidification of water at 0ºC.
Latent heat of solidification from water to ice at 0ºC = 334.5 kJ/kg
1 Ton of refrigeration = mass of water × latent heat at 0ºC from water to ice (in SI units)
(1000 × 334.5)
= kJ/hr
24
334.5 × 103
= = 3.87 kJ/sec
24 × 3600
Generally, 1 Ton is taken as 3.5 kJ/sec. This deviation from 3.87 to 3.5 kJ/sec is there because Ton
was originally defined in fps units and the approximations during conversion yielded numerical value of
3.5 kJ/sec which is now universally accepted.
1000 × 80
1 Ton of refrigeration (in MKS units) = = 55.4 kcal/min
24 × 60
= 50 kcal/min
In MKS units this is commonly taken as 50 kcal/min.
Therefore,
1 Ton = 3.5 kJ/sec
and 1 Ton = 50 kcal/min
Surroundings
Th Rev. lsothermal process
3 Qh ,heat rejected
P T
Qh Th 3 2
2
Th>TI R
W
4
QI TI 4 1
1 Ql , heat absorbed
Body,TI Rev. adiabatic process s4 s1
V s
(a) Refrigerator (b) p-V- representation (c) T-s representation
Ql Tl ( S1 − S4 ) Tl
COP = = ( − )( − ) = −
W Th Tl S1 S4 Th Tl
The coefficient of performance of refrigerator depends upon the two temperature values i.e. low
temperature Tl and high temperature Th. For COP value to be high the low temperature Tl should be high
while higher temperature Th should be small. With increasing low temperature value the COP goes on
increasing, while with decreasing high temperature Th value the COP goes on increasing. Practically, the
lower temperature requirement is decided by the user while higher temperature is generally fixed by the
atmospheric temperature value. Thus, it could be said that for certain low temperature to be maintained,
COP of refrigerator shall be more during cold days as compared to hot days.
COPcold days > COPhot days because Th, cold days < Th, hot days
Similar to the carnot power cycles, reversed carnot cycle for refrigeration is not feasible in practice.
Therefore, number of modified cycles are practically used for refrigeration as discussed ahead. But the
reversed carnot cycle provides the basis for comparison and provides the benchmark for achieving
maximum COP.
3
Low pressure air 2 High pressure air
with low temperature Exit, hot water
Low 1
pressure
Refrigeration air
4 unit
Expander Compressor
Piston
Piston
(a) Schematic Bell Coleman cycle based refrigeration system
p2 3 2 p2
2
p1
T
Adiabatic
3
process
1
p1 1
4 4 Isobaric process
S
V
1
Theoretical COP for ideal cycle, COP = = COPideal
T2 − T3
−1
T1 − T4
Above expression for COP is correct till the different processes are of isobaric or isentropic type. In
actual practice the expansion and compression processes are of polytropic type and given by pV n =
constant i.e. both expansion and compression are assumed to follow same index. Actual cycle shall have
heat absorption and heat rejection occurring with some pressure loss thereby deviating from ideal
isobaric process.
n
Work required in compressor, Wc = [ p V – p1V1] × m
n −1 2 2
n
Wc = R[T2 – T1] × m
n −1
n
Work available from expander, We = [ p2 V3 – p1 V4] × m
n −1
n
Wc = R[T3 – T4] × m
n −1
Net work, Wactual = Wc – We
n
Wactual = · m · R [(T2 – T1) – (T3 – T4)]
n −1
γ R
as Cp = (γ − 1) , so
n γ −1
Wactual = · m · Cp · γ [(T2 – T1) – (T3 – T4)]
n −1
mC p (T1 − T4 )
Therefore, COPactual =
n γ −1
mC p [(T2 − T1 ) − (T3 − T4 )]
n −1 γ
812 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
1
COPactual =
n γ − 1 T2 − T3
− 1
n − 1 γ T1 − T4
For isentropic process, γ = n and COPideal = COPactual
1
Using isentropic considerations, COPideal =
T2 − T3
− 1
T1 − T4
1
COPideal =
T3
T 1 − T
2 2 − 1
T1 1 − T4
T1
For isentropic process between states 1 and 2, 3 and 4.
γ −1 γ −1
p2 γ T2 p2 γ T3
=
p1
=
T1 and p1 T4
Upon equating we get,
T2 T3
=
T1 T4
T4 T T −T T1
or, = 3 or 1 4 =
T1 T2 T2 − T3 T2
Therefore, upon substitution,
1
COPideal =
T2
− 1
T1
T
COPideal = 1
T2 − T1
T1
COPactual =
n γ −1
(T2 − T1 )
n −1 γ
Comparing the COP of ideal Bell Coleman cycle with reversed Carnot cycle COP we find that COP of
Bell Coleman cycle will be less than that of COP of reversed Carnot cycle.
COPBell Coleman < COPCarnot
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 813
Carnot cycle operating between the temperature limits of Bell Coleman cycle shall have COP given
T1
by, COPcarnot =
T3 − T1
Since T2 > T3 so, COPBell Coleman < COPCarnot.
Constant pressure heat transfer results in operating range which is greater than minimum range
given by temperature of those parts of the surroundings with which heat is exchanged.
Air refrigeration systems offer advantages as these run on air as refrigerant which is cheap, non-
inflammable and non toxic. Also, air refrigeration systems are light weight per ton of refrigeration
compared to other refrigeration systems and is used in aircraft applications. Leakage of air refrigerant
may not be dangerous problem.
Air refrigeration systems are disadvantageous due to lower COP compared to other refrigeration
systems. There is significant possibility of freezing of moisture accompanied by atmospheric air due to
low temperature in refrigeration space. Air may also pick up moisture while passing through refrigeration
space. Quantity of air refrigerant required is more compared to other refrigerants for similar refrigeration
capacity. This is because of fact that air only carries heat in the form of sensible heat and so its large
quantity is required compared to other refrigerants.
Qabsorbed Compressor
(a) Schematic for vapour compression cycle
814 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2
3 2
T p
3
4 1
4 1
s h
(b) T-s and p-h diagram for dry compression
3' 2'
T p
3' 2'
s h
Fig. 18.6
816 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Compressor work, W = Area 1 – 2 – 3 – 5 – 1
= (Area 2 – 3 – 5 – 7 – 10 – 2) – (Area 1 – 5 – 7 – 10 – 1)
= (Enthalpy at 2) – (Enthalpy at 1)
W = h2 – h 1
Here, h2 = hg at T2
Refrigeration effect = Area 1 – 4 – 9 – 10 – 1 = (Area 1 – 5 – 7 – 10 – 1) – (Area 4 – 5 – 7 – 9 – 4)
= (Enthalpy at 1) – (Enthalpy at 4)
Refrigeration effect = h1 – h4
Enthalpy at 3 = Enthalpy at 4
For throttling process 3 – 4, h3 = h4
(Area 3 – 7 – 8 – 3) = (Area 4 – 5 – 7 – 9 – 4)
or,
(Area 3 – 5 – 6 – 3) = (Area 6 – 5 – 7 – 8 – 6)
= (Area 6 – 5 – 7 – 8 – 6) – (Area 4 – 6 – 8 – 9 – 4)
or,
(Area 3 – 5 – 6 – 3) = (Area 4 – 6 – 8 – 9 – 4)
(Area 3 – 5 – 7 – 8 – 3) – (Area 5 – 7 – 0 – 5) – (Area 6 – 5 – 0 – 8 – 6) = (Area 4 – 6 – 8 – 9 – 4)
(Enthalpy at 3) – (Enthalpy at 5) – (T1 × ∆s56) = (T1 × ∆s46)
⇒ (Area 3 – 5 – 6 – 3) = {( h f at T2 − hf at T1 ) – T1 × ( s f at T2 − sf at T1 )}
Here enthalpy at 3 and enthalpy at 5 are enthalpies for saturated liquid states at temperature T2 and
T1 respectively.
Enthalpy at 3 = h f at T2 = h3
Enthalpy at 5 = h f at T1 = h5
State 6 lies vertically below 3 so, s3 = s6 and,
Entropy at 5 = s f at T1 = s5
Entropy at 3 = s f at T2 = s3 = s6
W = {( h f at T2 − hf at T1 ) – T1 × ( s f at T2 − sf at T1 )} + {(T2 – T1) × ( sg at T2 − s f at T2 )}
The refrigeration effect = (Area 1 – 4 – 9 – 10 – 1)
= T1 × ∆s14 = T1 × (∆s16 – ∆s46)
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 817
here, ∆s16 = s1 – s6 = sg at T2 − s f at T2
Substituting ∆s16 and ∆s46 values in expression for refrigeration effect.
1
Refrigeration effect = T1 {( sg at T2 − s f at T2 )–( ( hf at T2 − hf at T1 ) – ∆s56)}
T1
1
= T1 {( sg at T2 − s f at T2 )– ( hf at T2 − sf at T1 ) + ( sf at T2 − sf at T1 )}
T1
1
= T1 {( s g at T2 − s f at T1 ) – ( hf at T2 − hf at T1 )}
T1
Refrigeration effect
Here, COP of cycle =
Work done
{
T1 ( sg at T2 − s f at T1 ) − (h f at T2 − hf at T1 )(1/ T1 ) }
{(h f at T2 − h f at T1 ) − T1 (s f at T2 − s f at T1 ) + (T2 − T1 )·(sg at T2 − s f at T2 )}
COP =
3 2
T2
5 6 4 1
T1
7 0 8 9 10 s
Fig. 18.7
Work = {Area 3 – 5 – 6 – 3} + {Area 2 – 3 – 6 – 1 – 2}
x2 ·h fg at T2
Work = {( h f at T2 − hf at T1 ) – T1 ( s f at T2 − sf at T1 )} + (T2 − T1 ) ×
T2
Refrigeration effect = Area 1 – 4 – 9 – 10 – 1
818 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= {Area 1 – 6 – 8 – 10 – 1}– {Area 4 – 6 – 8 – 9 – 4}
= {Area 1 – 6 – 8 – 10 – 1} – {Area 3 – 5 – 6 – 3}
= {T1 · (x2 · s fg at T2 )} – {( h f at T2 − hf at T1 ) – T1 ( s f at T2 − sf at T1 )}
T5 2
3
T2 2'
5 6 4 11
T1
1
7 0 8 9 12 10 s
Fig. 18.8
In this cycle additional work shown by area 2 – 2' – 11 – 1 – 2 is done and also the additional
refrigeration effect shown by area 1 – 11 – 12 – 10 – 1 is available.
Additional work W' = Area 2 – 2' – 11 – 1 – 2
= (Area 2 – 2' – 12 – 10 – 2) – (Area 1 – 11 – 12 – 10 – 1)
T
W' = Cp (T5 – T2) – T1C p · ln 5
T2
Additional refrigeration effect = (Area 1 – 11 – 12 – 10 – 1)
T5
= T1 Cp ln
T1
Therefore, COP of system could be obtained by ratio of total refrigeration effect and total work
done.
Refrigeration effect (= Area 1 – 4 – 9 – 10 – 1)
COP =
Work done (= Area 2 – 2' – 3 – 5 – 1 – 2)
m9
This ratio of mass fraction of gas (vapour) to liquid i.e. can be estimated by energy balance
m7
on flash chamber. State 3 can be determined by the energy balance on mixing box.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 819
Thermodynamic analysis
Thermodynamic analysis of multistage vapour compression cycle can also be carried out for the dry
compression considered here based on the assumptions as under
(i) All processes of refrigeration cycle are internally reversible except the processes in expansion
valve, flash chamber and mixing box.
(ii) The processes in expansion valve, flash chamber, mixing box and compressors operate
adiabatically.
(iii) Refrigerant leaving condenser is saturated liquid and the refrigerant entering low pressure
compressor is saturated vapour.
(iv) There are no changes in kinetic and potential energies in different processes.
For mass flow rate of m kg/s and dryness fraction of refrigerant at inlet of flash chamber being x,
the refrigeration effect, net work and COP can be given as under.
Refrigeration capacity or refrigeration effect,
Qabsorbed = (m – x · m) · (h1 – h8) kJ/s
Net work or Work input, Wcompressor = {(m – x · m) (h2 – h1) + m (h4 – h3)}kJ/s
( m − xm)( h1 − h8 )
COP = {(m − xm )(h − h ) + m (h − h )}
2 1 4 3
(1 − x)(h1 − h 8 )
= {(1 )(
− x h2 − h1 ) + (h4 − h3 )}
Qrejected
m, kg/s
5
Condenser
4 m, kg/s
Expansion valve 1
m, kg/s
6
High pressure
3 compressor
9
Flash
Mixing box
chamber x.m, kg/s
7 (m-xm), kg/s 2
(m-xm), kg/s
Expansion valve 2
Evaporator Low pressure
1
8 compressor
Qabsorbed
(a) Two stage intercooled vapour compression cycle with flash chamber
820 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
8 1
b, strong liquid
solution of
c, Weak liquid
(H2O + NH3)
solution of
Expansion valve
(H2O + NH3)
Valve
Low pr. NH3
d
Absorber
4
Evaporator Wpump
1 a
NH3 Pump
Qabsorbed vapour
A
0 x 1.0
Fig. 18.11 Ammonia-water mixture equilibrium diagram
Phase equilibrium diagram has temperature on y axis and mass fraction of ammonia, x on x-axis.
The saturated liquid states and saturated vapour states are shown on saturated liquid line and saturated
vapour lines given by firm lines and dotted lines respectively. Saturation curves are shown for two
pressures p1 and p2 between which vapour absorption cycle operates. Here when x = 0 then mixture
shall be complete water and the temperature shall be saturation temperature of water at respective
pressure. When x = 1 then mixture shall be complete ammonia and temperature is saturation temperature
of ammonia at respective pressure. Phase equilibrium diagram shows that the saturated liquid and
saturated vapour can exist together in equilibrium as evident from states a and a1 respectively at any
temperature. It also shows that at any temperature the concentration of ammonia is more in vapour than
liquid i.e. ( ( xa1 > xa ) ). For the absorption cycle shown in Fig. 18.11 the saturated liquid at state a
leaving absorber at pressure p1 enters the pump for being pumped upto pressure p2. For causing evaporation
of NH3 the mixture is heated in generator upto state b. Further heat addition in generator causes evaporation
of liquid to vapour yielding state b2. Transformation from b1 to b2 results in formation of ammonia rich
vapour thereby reducing concentration of ammonia in liquid. If the pressure and temperature are not
changed then evaporation gets stopped as lower concentration liquid is not at its boiling point. With
further heat addition the evaporation of mixture continues and the mixture’s temperature is raised showing
new liquid and vapour states as C and 2. Liquid at C is weak aqua-ammonia mixture and is passed
through valve back to absorber. NH3 vapour (gas) leaves at state 2 from generator to the condenser for
being condensed.
Condenser
2
Expansion valve
Wcompressor
1
Evaporator Compressor
Qabsorbed
Heat is absorbed from surroundings
Fig. 18.13 Heat pump system based on vapour compression cycle
Here compressor compresses the refrigerant from low pressure state 1 to high pressure state 2.
High pressure gaseous refrigerant is sent to condenser where the condensation of refrigerant occurs
rejecting heat equal to the latent heat of condensation to the space being heated up. Subsequently
refrigerant in saturated liquid form passes into expansion valve from state 3 to 4. Low pressure liquid
refrigerant leaving expansion valve subsequently enters the evaporator where its evaporation occurs up
to state 1. Evaporation of refrigerant occurs due to heat being provided by surroundings, water in rivers/
ponds, wells or solar collectors etc. Hence the performance of heat pump can be given by:
Desired effect (heating of space)
COP of heat pump =
Net work
m(h2 − h3 )
= m( h − h )
2 1
( h2 − h3 )
COP of heat pump = (h − h )
2 1
Here, heat pump works between the low temperature surroundings or other heat sources giving
heat of Qabsorbed and the region/body acting as high temperature body where heat Qrejected is rejected to
region/body. These heat pumps are not very attractive options when used for only direct heating but
they become very attractive when used with some other application.
18.11 REFRIGERANTS
Refrigerant is the working fluid used in refrigeration/air conditioning equipments having capability of
carrying heat/rejecting heat in the form of sensible heat or latent heat. Refrigerants carrying heat/rejecting
heat in the form of latent heat are more effective and for this refrigerant should possess suitable properties
to get transformed from liquid to gas and vice-versa. During selection of refrigerant its chemical,
physical and other general properties are being looked into along with refrigeration cycle requirements
and application. Refrigerants can be classified into two main categories as ‘Primary refrigerants’ and
‘Secondary refrigerants’. The primary refrigerants are those refrigerants which are directly involved in
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 825
refrigeration system while secondary refrigerants are first cooled by primary refrigerants and then used
for imparting refrigeration. The primary refrigerants are used in vapour compression systems while
secondary refrigerants are liquids used for transporting low-temperature heat energy from one place to
another as done by ‘brine’, antifreeze agents etc. Commonly used refrigerants are air, ammonia, carbon-
dioxide, sulphur-dioxide, fluorinated hydrocarbons and Freons etc. All refrigerants are assigned with
internationally acceptable number such as R–12, R–717 etc.
(i) Primary refrigerants: Primary refrigerants can be further classified into following categories
depending upon their characteristics.
(a) Halocarbon compounds: Halocarbon group includes refrigerants containing one or more of
three halogens such as chlorine, fluorine and bromine. These refrigerants are traded in market
under the brand names of Freon, Genetron, Isotron and Arctron. Halocarbons, specially
chlorine containing halocarbons (chloro fluoro carbons, CFCs) were commonly used from
about 1940 to 1990s in most of vapour compression systems. But due to disastrous effect of
chlorine in refrigerant upon the earth’s protective ozone layer the efforts are being made to
replace the use of CFCs by the class of refrigerants having hydrogen in place of chlorine.
Such new ecofriendly refrigerants are called hydrofluoro carbons (HFCs) for example
R–134a (CF3 CH2F) can replace R-12 (CCl2F2).
Table 18.1 Halocarbon refrigerants
18.13 PSYCHROMETRY
Psychrometry or Psychrometrics refers to the study of system involving dry air and water. Properties
of mixture of air and water are called psychrometric properties. Psychrometry becomes very important
from air conditioning point of view as in air conditioning the human comfort conditions defined in terms
of temperature, humidity and air circulation/ventilation are being considered. Different psychrometric
properties, charts and processes generally used are defined ahead.
(i) Dry air: Atmospheric air having 79% nitrogen and 21% oxygen by volume is considered dry air.
Its, molecular weight is taken as 29.
(ii) Moist air: Moist air is the mixture of dry air and water vapour in which dry air is treated as if it
were pure component. Quantity of water vapour present in the mixture depends upon the
temperature of air and it may vary from zero in dry air to the maximum quantity when mixture is
828 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
saturated of water vapour (called saturation capacity of air). Moist air is assumed to behave as
ideal gas for the purpose of analysis. Mixture pressure is the sum of partial pressures of dry air
and water vapour. When the partial pressure of water vapour corresponds to the saturation
pressure of water at mixture temperature then mixture is said to be saturated. Saturated air is the
mixture of dry air and saturated water vapour. When the temperature of mixture of air and vapour
is above the saturation temperature of water vapour then the vapour is called superheated vapour.
(iii) Humidity ratio or specific humidity: This is given by the ratio of the mass of water vapour to the
mass of dry air. It can also be defined as mass of water vapour present in per kg of dry air.
It is given in terms of grams per kg of dry air. Mathematically, humidity ratio or specific humidity,
mv
ω=
ma
where mv and ma are mass of water vapour and dry air respectively.
Humidity ratio can also be given in terms of partial pressures and molecular weights.
M v · pv ·V
mv =
RT
M a · pa ·V
ma =
RT
where pv and pa are partial pressures of water vapour and dry air respectively, Mv and Ma are molecular
weights of water vapour and dry air respectively. For total pressure of mixture being p, the Dalton’s law
of partial pressure says,
p = pa + pv
or, pa = p – pv
Hence, upon substitution,
M v · pv M v · pv
ω= =
M a · pa M a ·( p − pv )
pv
or, ω = 0.622
p − pv
Humidity ratio is measured using an instrument called ‘hygrometer’ in which moist air sample is
processed till the moisture present in it gets absorbed and moisture absorbed can be quantified.
(iv) Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity refers to the weight of water vapour present in unit volume
of air.
(v) Relative humidity: Relative humidity gives an account of moisture content in an actual mixture as
compared to the mixture in saturated state at same temperature and pressure. It can be given by
the ratio of actual mass of water vapour in given volume to the mass of water vapour if the air is
saturated at the same temperature and pressure.
Mathematically, relative humidity (φ ) can be given as:
(Actual mass of water vapour in given volume of mixture)
φ=
(Maximum mass of water vapour in same volume of mixture being staurated at
same temperature and pressure )
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 829
mv
φ= , where mv and mv, sat are the actual and maximum mass of water vapour in same
mv, sat
volume of mixture as defined earlier.
M v · pv ·V
RT
φ=
v v, sat
M · p ·V
RT
or,
pv
φ= , where pv and pv, sat are the partial pressures of ‘actual mass of water vapour’
pv, sat
and ‘maximum mass of water vapour in same volume of mixture as defined
earlier’.
(vi) Enthalpy of moist air or Mixture enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air can be estimated by
addition of the enthalpy contribution of each constituent component i.e water vapour and dry air
at the state of mixture. Thus, enthalpy of mixture (moist air) of dry air and water can be given as,
H mv
H = Ha + Hv = ma ha + mv hv, or, = ha + h
ma ma v
(Enthalpy of moist air per unit mass of dry air) = (Enthalpy of unit mass of dry air)
+ (Enthalpy of water vapour associated with unit mass of dry air)
Here H and h refer to total enthalpy and specific enthalpy values respectively. Subscripts a and v
refer to dry air and water vapour respectively.
(vii) Dry bulb temperature: Dry bulb temperature refers to the temperature of air measured with
ordinary thermometer having its bulb open.
(viii) Wet bulb temperature: Wet bulb temperature refers to the temperature measurement with the
thermometer having its bulb covered with wet cloth and exposed to air stream whose temperature
is being measured. For getting wet bulb temperature thermometer bulb is covered with water wet
cloth/wick moistened with water and then temperature is measured. Difference between dry bulb
temperature and wet bulb temperature is called wet bulb depression. Wet bulb depression is zero
in case of saturated air as the dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperatures are equal.
(ix) Dew point temperature: It is the temperature at which condensation of water vapour present in
moist air just begins. It could be understood from different examples that if the moist air temperature
is reduced then water vapour gets condensed. Examples for such condensation is formation of
dew on grass, condensation of water vapour on exterior surface of steel tumbler having cold
water inside, condensation of water vapour on glass window-panes during winter season etc.
Dew point temperature shall be equal to the saturation temperature corresponding to partial pressure
of water vapour in moist air. Difference between dew point temperature and dry bulb temperature
is called dew point depression.
(x) Humid specific volume: It refers to the volume of mixture per kg of dry air in mixture and is
given by m3/kg of dry air.
830 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(xi) Psychrometric charts: Psychrometric chart gives the graphical representation of different important
properties of moist air. These charts are readily available for different mixture pressure. Fig. 18.14
shows psychrometric chart. Abscissa (x-axis) of chart gives the dry bulb temperature (ºC) and
the ordinate (y-axis) has humidity ratio (ω) in kg or gram of water vapour per kg of dry air.
1 2 1 2
(a) Sensible heating (without by-pass) (b) Sensible cooling (without by-pass)
1 3 2 2 3 1
TDBT TDBT
(c) Sensible heating on psychrometric chart (d) Sensible cooling on psychrometric chart
By pass By pass
B (1–B) B kg
3 1 kg
Air in Air out
1kg 1
Air in Air out 1 3
(a) Schematic
T6 > T1
ω4 < ω3
in
ge
ω2 > ω3
an
ω6 = ω4
Ch
4 6
2 3
T D BT
(b) Representation on psychrometric chart
Fig. 18.21 Winter air conditioning
Let us assume air from atmosphere to be available at 10ºC and 80% relative humidity while comfort
conditions are 25ºC DBT and 60% relative humidity.
Here atmospheric air is blown into air filter and it comes out at (2). Air is passed across heating coil
for being heated. Hot air at (3) passes through humidifier section where its humidity increases as shown
on psychrometric chart by state (4). It is further passed through water eliminator to retain large sized
water particles. Air may again be passed through heating coil section so as to compensate for temperature
reduction in humidifier section and attain desired temperature.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 837
18.15 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS REFRIGERATION METHODS
Merits and demerits of Vapour compression system over Air-refrigeration system.
Vapour compression system when compared with air refrigeration system possess following merits
and demerits.
Merits
l Thermodynamic cycle involved in vapour compression system is very close to Carnot cycle
hence its COP is quite high of the order of 3–4 while for air refrigeration COP is generally less
than unity.
l Refrigerant required is smaller in vapour compression system because the heat is carried away by
latent heat of vapour and so the amount of liquid refrigerant circulated per ton is less. Also size of
evaporator is small.
l Operating cost of vapour compression system is very less as compared to air refrigeration system
on ground.
l Refrigerated space temperature can be easily regulated by controlling the throttle valve.
Demerits
l Initial investment is too large as compared to air refrigeration system.
l There are chances of leakage of refrigerant as large pressure differential exists throughout the
cycle.
l Air leakage into refrigerant offers reduced performance of vapour compression system and so it
should be prevented.
Merits and demerits of Vapour absorption system over Vapour compression system.
The merits and demerits of vapour absorption system over vapour compression system are listed as
under:
Merits
l Vapour absorption system has no moving component throughout cycle, so it works quietly and
has reduced maintenance requirement.
l Lesser work input is required for pump as compared to compression in vapour compression
system.
l Vapour absorption system may be run with some installation rejecting waste heat, which may be
used to run generator, thus energy conservation.
l Vapour absorption system is well suited for large refrigeration capacity applications such as even
above 1000 tons, which is difficult in vapour compression systems.
l Vapour absorption systems offer smaller variation with load whereas COP of vapour compression
system varies largely with load. At smaller loads the COP of absorption system is more than that
of vapour absorption system.
Demerits
l Size of absorption system is large and is bulky to handle.
l If heating source (such as electric heating) is costly then the vapour absorption system becomes
costly than vapour compression system.
l At very high loads the COP of vapour compression system is more than that of vapour absorption
system.
838 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
EXAMPLES
1. A refrigerator operating on reversed Carnot cycle extracts 500 kJ/min heat from a refrigerated space
being maintained at –16ºC and rejects heat to the atmosphere at 27ºC. Determine the work input required
to run the refrigerator.
Solution:
For refrigerator working on reversed Carnot cycle. –16°C
Refrigerated
Q1 Q2 space
=
( −16 + 273) (27 + 273)
Q1
Q1 257
= W R
Q2 300
Q2
Also it is given that Q1 = 500 kJ/min
Q2 = 583.66 kJ/min 27°C
Atmosphere
Work input required, W = Q2 – Q1
= 83.66 kJ/min Fig. 18.22
Work input = 83.66 kJ/min Ans.
2. A refrigerator operating between –5ºC and 27°C has the capacity of 800 tons. Determine the mass
rate of ice formation considering water being supplied at atmospheric temperature of 27ºC. Also find
the minimum hp required. Consider the refrigerator to work upon reversed Carnot cycle. Latent heat for
ice formation from water may be taken as 335 kJ/kg.
Solution:
Refrigeration capacity = 800 × 3.5 = 2800 kJ/s = Heat extraction rate
Let the ice formation rate be ‘m’ kg/s.
Heat to be removed from per kg of water for its transformation into ice.
= 4.18 × (27 – 0) + 335 kJ/kg
= 447.86 kJ/kg
Refrigeration capacity
Ice formation rate =
Heat removed for getting per kg of ice
2800
= = 6.25 kg/s
447.86
T1 Refrigeration capacity
COP of refrigerator, = =
T2 − T1 Work done
Here T1 = 273 – 5 = 268 K, T2 = 27 + 273 = 300 K
268 2800
COP = =
300 – 268 W
W = 334.33 kJ/s
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 839
334.33
= hp {as 1 hp = 0.7457 kW}
0.7457
= 448.34 hp
HP required = 448.34 hp Ans.
Refrigeration effect
Also, COP =
Work input
1× 3.5
=
3× 0.7457
COP = 1.56
Fig. 18.23
COP = 1.56 Ans.
Equating COP,
246
1.56 =
T2 × 246
T2 = 403.69 K
Temperature of surroundings = 403.69 K Ans.
4. An air refrigeration cycle has pressure ratio of 8, temperature of air at beginning of compression is
–30ºC and air is cooled up to 27ºC after compression. Compression and expansion processes have
isentropic efficiency of 85% and 90% respectively. Determine the refrigeration capacity and coefficient
of performance. Consider Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg ·K, γ = 1.4 and air flow rate of 1 kg/s.
Solution:
Given:
T1 = –30ºC, T3 = 27ºC or 300 K
During process 1–2′,
γ
p2 T2 ' γ −1
=
p1 T1
T1 = –30 + 273 = 240 K
γ −1
T2 ' P2 γ
=
T1 P1
840 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(1.4 −1)
T2' = 240 × (8 ) 1.4
(434.75 − 240)
(T2 – 240) =
0.85
T2 = 469.12 K
γ −1
T4 ' P γ
For expansion process, 3–4', = 1
T3 P2
1.4−1
1 1.4
T4' = 300 ×
8
T4' = 165.61 K
T3 − T4 300 − T4
ηisen, expansion = 0.90 = T − T =
3 4' 300 − 165.61
or, T4 = 179.05 K
Work during compression, Wc = 1 × Cp × (T2 – T1)
= 1 × 1.005 (469.12 – 240)
= 230.27 kJ/s
Work during expansion WT = 1 × Cp × (T3 – T4)
WT = 1 × 1.005 × (300 – 179.05) Fig. 18.24
= 121.55 kJ/s
Refrigeration effect is realized during process, 4–1. So refrigeration effect shall be,
Qref = 1 × Cp × (T1 – T4)
= 1 × 1.005 (240 – 179.05)
Qref = 61.25 kJ/s or 17.5 ton
Net work required = WC – WT = 230.27 – 121.55 = 108.72 kJ/s
Qref 61.25
COP = = = 0.56
−
WC WT 108.72
5. A refrigeration system has air leaving refrigerated space at 7ºC and 1 bar and subsequently air is
compressed isentropically to 5 bar. After being compressed air is cooled up to 27ºC at this pressure and
then expanded isentropically up to 1 bar and discharged into refrigerated space. Determine COP of
system.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 841
Solution:
Given
T1 = 7ºC or 280 K
T3 = 27ºC or 300 K
P 1 = 1 bar, P2 = 5 bar
For isentropic compression process:
γ −1
P2 γ T2
=
P1 T1
(1.4 −1)
T2 = 280 × (5 ) 1.4
T2 = 443.47 K
For isentropic expansion process:
γ −1 γ −1
P3 γ T3 P γ
= = 2
P4 T4 P1
Fig. 18.25
T3 (1.4 −1)
= (5 ) 1.4
T4
T4 = 189.42 K
Heat rejected during process 2–3, Q23 = m × Cp × (T2 – T3)
= m × 1.005 × (443.47 – 300)
Q23 = 144.19 m
Refrigeration process, heat picked during process 4–1, Q41 = m × Cp × (T1 – T4)
= m × 1.005 × (280 – 189.42)
Q41 = 91.03 m
Net work = Q23 – Q41
= (144.19 – 91.03) m
W = 53.16 m kJ
Refrigeration effect 91.03m
COP = = = 1.71
Net work 53.16m
COP = 1.71 Ans.
6. In a refrigerator working on Bell Coleman cycle the air enters compressor at 1 bar and –10ºC and gets
compressed up to 5.5 bar. Compressed air is cooled to 27ºC at same pressure before being sent to
expander for expansion up to 1 bar and then passes through refrigerated space. Determine refrigeration
capacity, hp required to run compressor and COP of system if air flow rate is 0.8 kg/s.
Solution:
Given:
T1 = –10ºC or 263 K, P1 = 1 bar, T3 = 27ºC or 300 K, P2 = 5.5 bar, m = 0.8 kg/s.
842 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
For process 1–2,
γ −1
P2 γ T2
= T
P1 1
(1.4 −1)
T2 = 263 × (5.5 ) 1.4
T2 = 428.04 K
For process 3–4,
γ −1 Fig. 18.26
P3 γ T3
=
T4
P4
γ −1 γ −1
P γ P γ
T4 = T3 × 4 = T3 × 1
P3 P2
T4 = 184.33 K
Refrigeration capacity = mCp (T1 – T4)
= 0.8 × 1.005 (263 – 184.33)
= 63.25 kJ/s or 18.07 ton
Refrigeration capacity = 18.07 ton Ans.
m× n
Work required to run the compressor = (p v – p1v1)
n −1 2 2
m× n
= R(T2 – T1)
n −1
0.8 × 1.4
= × 0.287 (428.04 – 263)
(0.4)
= 132.63 kJ/s
or
132.63
HP required to run compressor = = 177.86 hp
0.7457
HP required to run compressor = 177.86 hp Ans.
Net work input = mCp {(T2 –T3) – (T1 – T4)}
= 0.8 × 1.005 {(428.04 – 300) – (263 – 184.33)}
W = 39.69 kJ/s
Refrigeration capacity 63.25
COP = = = 1.59
Work 39.69
COP = 1.59 Ans.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 843
7. Air refrigeration system for an aircraft has two cooling turbines, one intercooler and a fan. First
cooling turbine is supplied with ram air at 1.2 bar, 15ºC and delivers it after expansion to intercooler at
0.9 bar for cooling the air coming from compressor at 4 bar. The cooling air from intercooler is sucked
by fan and discharged to atmosphere and the cooled air from intercooler is expanded upto 1 bar in
second turbine and discharged into passenger cabin. The air is exhausted from cabin at 25ºC and 10 ton
of refrigeration is required in cabin. Index of compression and expansion are 1.45 and 1.30 respectively.
Determine the air mass flow rate in cabin, ram air mass flow rate, and COP of system if compressed air
is cooled to 50ºC in intercooler and temperature rise in intercooler for ram air is limited to 30ºC.
Solution:
C : Compressor
T : Turbine
CT1 = Cooling turbine 1
CT2 = Cooling turbine 2
I/C = Intercooler
1.3−1
1 1.3
T 4 = 323
4
T 4 = 234.57 K
Refrigeration effect in passenger cabin with m kg/s mass flow rate of air.
10 × 3.5 = m × CP (T5 – T4)
10 × 3.5 = m × 1.005 (298 – 234.57)
m = 0.55 kg/s
Air mass flow rate in cabin = 0.55 kg/s Ans.
Let the mass flow rate of air through intercooler be m1 kg/s then the energy balance upon intercooler
yields,
m1 × CP × (T8 – T7) = m × CP (T2 – T3)
1.3−1
T7 P 1.3
During process 6 – 7, = 7
T6 P6
1.3−1
0.9 1.3
T 7 = 288 = 269.5 K
1.2
Substituting T2, T3, T7, T8 and m in energy balance on intercooler,
m1 = 1.005 × (303 – 269.5) = 0.55 × 1.005 × (418.47 – 323)
m1 = 1.57 kg/s
Total ram air mass flow rate = m + m1 = 0.55 + 1.57
= 2.12 kg/s
Ram air mass flow rate = 2.12 kg/s Ans.
Work input to compressor = m × CP (T2 – T1)
= 0.55 × 1.005 (418.47 – 288)
= 72.12 kJ/s
Refrigeration effect
COP =
Work input
10 × 3.5
=
72.12
COP = 0.485
COP = 0.485 Ans.
8. An air cooling system for aeroplane has refrigeration capacity of 15 tons. Atmospheric air is avail-
able at 0.9 bar, 3ºC and due to ramming action pressure rises up to 1 bar. The ram air leaves main
compressor at 4 bar and subsequently 66% of heat of compressed air is removed in air cooled heat
exchanger and then passed through an evaporator for further cooling. Temperature of air gets lowered
by 10ºC in evaporator and this cool air is then expanded in cooling turbine before being supplied to
passenger cabin maintained at 1.03 bar. Air leaves cabin at 25ºC. Considering isentropic efficiency of
compressor and turbine as 0.9 and 0.8 determine, (a) HP required to run the system, (b) COP of system.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 845
Solution:
Given:
P0 = 0.9 bar, T0 = 3ºC or 276 K, P2 = P3 = P4 = 4 bar, P5 = 1.03 bar.
T3 – T4 = 10, T6 = 25ºC or 298 K
T2 ' − T1
ηisen, c = 0.9 = T − T or, T2 = 438.02 K
2 1
In heat exchanger 66% of heat loss shall result in temperature at exit from heat exchanger to be,
T3 = 0.34 × 438.02 = 148.93 K. Subsequently for 10ºC temperature drop in evaporator,
T4 = 148.93 – 10
T4 = 138.93 K
Expansion in cooling turbine during process 4–5',
γ −1
T5 ' P5 γ
T4 = P
4
1.4−1
1.03 1.4
T5' = 138.93
4
T5' = 94.29 K
T4 − T5
ηisen, T = T − T
4 5'
138.93 − T5
0.8 =
138.93 − 94.29
T5 = 103.22 K
Let the mass flow rate of air through cabin be m kg/s. Using refrigeration capacity heat balance
yields.
15 × 3.5 = m × CP (T6 – T5)
15 × 3.5
m=
1.005 × (298 − 103.22)
m = 0.268 kg/s
Work input to compressor = 0.268 × 1.005 (T2 – T1)
= 41.37 kJ/s or 55.48 hp
Refrigeration effect
COP = Work input
15 × 3.5
=
41.37
COP = 1.27
COP = 1.27
HP required = 55.48 hp Ans.
9. A refrigerator working on simple vapour compression cycle operates between the temperature of 25ºC
and – 15ºC with NH3, refrigerant. Ammonia is found to be dry after compression and no under cooling
of liquid refrigerant occurs in cycle. Using following data obtain COP of system.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 847
Properties of NH3
Temperature Enthalpy, kJ/kg Entropy, kJ/kg · K
hf hg sf sg
– 15ºC – 54.51 1303.74 – 0.2132 5.0536
25ºC 99.94 1317.95 0.3386 4.4809
Solution:
T1 = –15ºC or 258 K, T2 = 25ºC or 298 K
h2 = hg at 25ºC = 1317.95 kJ/kg
s2 = sg at 25ºC = 4.4809 kJ/kg·K
h3 = hf at 25ºC = 99.94 kJ/kg
s3 = sf at 25ºC = 0.3386 kJ/kg·K
10. A vapour compression cycle works on Freon-12 refrigerant with condensation temperature of 40ºC
and evaporator temperature of – 20ºC. Refrigeration effect of 2.86 ton is desired from the cycle. The
compressor runs with 1200 rpm and has clearance volume of 2%. Considering compression index of
1.13 and following data determine.
(a) the COP
(b) the piston displacement in the reciprocating compressor used for compression.
Properties of Freon - 12
Temperature Saturation Specific Enthalpy, Entropy, specific heat
ºC pressure, volume, kJ/kg kJ/kg·K kJ/kg·K
bar vgm 3/kg hf hg sf sg Cpf Cpg
Solution:
Given T1 = – 20ºC = 253 K. During expansion (throttling) between 3 and 4,
h3 = h4, h3 = hf at 40ºC = 74.53 kJ/kg = h4
Process 1–2 is adiabatic compression so
s1 = s2
and s1 = sg at – 20ºC = 0.7082 kJ/kg · K
T2
0.7082 = sg at 40ºC + Cpg at 40ºC · ln
313
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 849
T2
0.7082 = 0.682 + 0.747 ln 313
Temperature after compression T2 = 324.17 K
Enthalpy after compression, h2 = hg at 40ºC + Cpg at 40ºC · (324.17 – 313)
= 203.05 + (0.747 × (324.17 – 313))
h2 = 211.39 kJ/kg
Fig. 18.30
Compression work required, per kg = h2 – h1
= 211.39 – hg at – 20ºC
= 211.39 – 178.61
Wc = 32.78 kJ/kg
Refrigeration effect during cycle, per kg = h1 – h4
= 178.61 – 74.53
= 104.08 kJ/kg
2.86 × 3.5
Mass flow rate of refrigerant, m =
104.08
m = 0.096 kg/s
104.08
COP = = 3.175
32.78
Volumetric efficiency of reciprocating compressor, given C = 0.02
1
P n
ηvol =1+ C–C 2
P1
1
9.61 1.13
= 1 + 0.02 – 0.02
1.51
ηvol = 0.9171
Let piston displacement by V, m3.
850 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
V × 0.9171× 1200
Mass flow rate, 0.096 =
60 × vg at–20ºC
V × 0.9171 × 1200
0.096 =
60 × 0.1088
V = 569.45 cm3
COP = 3.175
Piston displacement = 569.45 cm3 Ans.
11. A vapour compression refrigeration cycle operates between the condensation temperature of 20ºC
and evaporator temperature of –10ºC with carbon dioxide as refrigerant. Temperature after isentropic
compression is 40ºC and condensate leaves at 10ºC before being passed through expansion valve. Deter-
mine COP of system and mass flow rate of CO2 required to get refrigeration effect of 2 kW. Properties
of CO2 are given as under:
Properties of CO2
Temperature Saturation Specific Enthalpy, Entropy, Specific heat
ºC Pressure, Volume,vg kJ/kg kJ/kg·K kJ/kg·K
bar m3/kg hf hg sf sg Cpf Cpg
Solution:
Processes of vapour compression cycle are shown on T-s diagram
1 – 2 : Isentropic compression process
2 – 3 – 4: Condensation process
4 – 5: Isenthalpic expansion process
5 – 1: Refrigeration process in evaporator
h1 = hg at – 10ºC = 322.28 kJ/kg
h2 = hg at 20ºC + Cpg at 20ºC × (40 – 20)
= 299.62 + (2.135 × 20)
h2 = 342.32 kJ/kg
273 + 40
Entropy at state 2, s2 = sg at + 20ºC + Cpg at 20ºC × ln
273 + 20
313
= 1.0527 + 2.135 × ln
293
s2 = 1.1937 kJ/kg·K
Entropy during isentropic process, s1 = s2
1.1937 = sf at – 10ºC + x1 × sfg at – 10ºC
1.1937 = 0.2381 + x1 × (1.2324 – 0.2381) Fig. 18.31 T-s representation
x1 = 0.961
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 851
Enthalpy at state 1, h1 = hf at – 10ºC + x1 × hfg at – 10ºC
= 60.78 + (0.961 × (322.28 – 60.78))
h1 = 312.08 kJ/kg
h3 = hf at 20ºC = 144.11 kJ/kg
Since undercooling occurs up to 10ºC, so, h4 = h3 – Cpf · ∆T
= 144.11 – (2.889 × (20 – 10))
h4 = 115.22 kJ/kg
Also, h4 = h5 = 115.22 kJ/kg
Refrigeration effect per kg of refrigerant = (h1 – h5) = (312.08 – 115.22)
= 196.86 kJ/kg
Let refrigerant flow rate be m kg/s.
Refrigeration effect ⇒ 2 = m × 196.86
m = 0.1016 kg/s
Compressor work, wc= h2 – h1 = 342.32 – 312.08
wc = 30.24 kJ/kg
Refrigeration effect per kg 196.86
COP = Compressor work per kg = = 6.51
30.24
12. Determine partial pressure of vapour and relative humidity in the atmospheric air having specific
humidity of 16 gm/kg of air and 25ºC DBT.
Solution:
Here pressure of atmospheric air may be taken as 1.013 bar
pv
Specific humidity, ω = 0.622
p − pv
pv
0.016 = 0.622
1.013 − pv
14. Determine the mass of water added and heat transferred for conditioning atmospheric air at 15ºC
and 80% relative humidity to temperature of 25ºC and relative humidity of 50%. Final volume of
conditioned air is 0.8 m3/s.
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 853
Solution:
Initial state at 15ºC and 80% relative humidity is shown by point 1 and final state at 25ºC and 50%
relative humidity is shown by point 2 on psychrometric chart.
ω1 = 0.0086 kg/kg of air and h1 = 37 kJ/kg
ω2 = 0.01 kg/kg of air and h2 = 50 kJ/kg
v 2 = 0.854 m3/kg
Mass of water added between states 1 and 2 = ω2 – ω1
= 0.01 – 0.0086
= 0.0014 kg/kg of air
0.8 0.8
Mass flow rate of air = = = 0.9368 kg/s
v2 0.854
Total mass of water added = 0.9368 × (ω2 – ω1) = 0.9368 × 0.0014
= 0.001312 kg/s
Heat transferred = ma (h2 – h1)
= 0.9368 × (50 – 37) = 12.18 kJ/s
15. Two streams of moist air, one having flow rate of 3 kg/s at 30ºC and 30% relative humidity, other
having flow rate of 2 kg/s at 35ºC and 85% relative humidity get mixed adiabatically. Determine
specific humidity and partial pressure of water vapour after mixing. Take Cp, stream = 1.86 kJ/kg · K
Solution:
Let temperature after mixing be TºC. For getting final enthalpy after adiabatic mixing the enthalpy of two
streams are required.
For moist air stream at 30ºC and 30% relative humidity.
854 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
pv1
φ1 = p
vsat at 30ºC
pν sat at 30ºC = 0.04246 bar, so, pv1 = 0.3 × 0.04246 = 0.01274 bar
Corresponding to vapour pressure of 0.01274 bar the dew point temperature shall be 10.5ºC.
0.622 × pv1 0.622 × 0.01274
Specific humidity, ω1 = ( =
p − pv1 ) (1.013 − 0.01274)
ω1 = 0.007922 kg/kg of air
At dew point temperature of 10.5ºC, enthalpy, hg at 10.5ºC = 2520.7 kJ/kg.
h1 = Cp, air × T1 + ω1{hg at 10.5ºC – Cp, stream × (T1 – Tdp1)}
= (1.005 × 30) + 0.007922 {2520.7 – 1.86 × (30 – 10.5)}
h1 = 49.83 kJ/kg of dry air
For second moist air stream at 35ºC and 85% relative humidity.
pv2 pv2
φ 2 = 0.85 = =
pvsat at 35ºC 0.005628
or, pv2 = 0.004784 bar
0.622 × pv2 0.622 × 0.004784
Specific humidity ω2 = ( p − p ) = (1.013 − 0.004784)
v2
1 49.83 × 3 42.75 × 2
= × 1.007922 + 1.002951
5
= 46.71 kJ/kg of moist air
1 ω1 × m1 ω2 × m2
Mass of vapour per kg of moist air = × (1 +
5 + ω1 ) (1 + ω 2 )
1 0.007922 × 3 0.002951 × 2
= × +
5 1.007922 1.002951
= 0.005893 kg per kg of moist air
0.005893
Specific humidity of mixture =
1 − 0.005893
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 855
= 0.00593 kg/kg of dry air
0.622 × pv
ω= p − pv
0.622 × pv
0.00593 =
1.013 − pv
Partial pressure of water vapour = 0.00957 bar
Specific humidity of mixture = 0.00593 kg/kg dry air
Partial pressure of water vapour in mixture = 0.00957 bar Ans.
16. Calculate the amount of heat added to moist air entering heating coil at 15ºC dbt and 80% relative
humidity at a rate of 3m3/s. Air leaves the heating coil at 30ºC and atmospheric pressure is 1.013 bar.
Solution:
The type of heating involved is sensible heating. Locating state 1 on psychrometric chart corresponding
to 15ºC dbt and 80% relative humidity the other property values shall be,
h1 = 36.4 kJ/kg, ω1 = 0.0086 kg/kg of air, v1 = 0.825 m3/kg
Final state 2 has, h2 = 52 kJ/kg
3
Mass of air = = 3.64 kg/s
0.825
Amount of heat added = 3.64 × (52 – 36.4)
= 56.78 kJ/s.
Heat added = 56.78 kJ/s Ans.
-:-4+15-
18.1 Define refrigeration and compare it with air conditioning.
18.2 Explain reversed Carnot cycle and its limitations.
18.3 Define unit of refrigeration.
18.4 Explain working of a Carnot refrigerator and state why it cannot be used in practice.
18.5 Describe air-refrigeration cycles.
18.6 Explain simple air refrigeration cycle being used in aeroplanes.
18.7 What do you understand by vapour compression cycle? Explain the processes on T-s and p-h diagrams.
18.8 Compare Carnot refrigeration cycle with vapour compression cycle.
18.9 What is meant by wet compression and dry compression in vapour compression cycles? Explain.
18.10 What is there in multistage vapour compression cycle? List its advantages over simple vapour
compression cycle.
18.11 Describe the vapour absorption cycle for ammonia-water system and its working.
18.12 Explain the modified absorption-refrigeration cycle and its working.
18.13 Describe heat pump system based on vapour compression cycle.
18.14 Classify refrigerants and list desired properties of refrigerants.
18.15 Explain sensible heating and sensible cooling on psychrometric chart.
18.16 Write short notes on relative humidity, specific humidity, dry bulb temperature, dew point temperature,
wet bulb temperature.
18.17 Discuss the working of summer air-conditioning system.
18.18 Describe working of winter air-conditioning system.
856 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
18.19 Show that the moisture content ‘ω’ of the atmospheric air is given as,
0.622 × pv
ω= pa
where pv and pa are partial pressure of vapour and air respectively.
18.20 Determine power required to run the compressor and heat rejected by compressor per second from a
refrigerator working on reversed Carnot cycle between temperatures of 266 K and 300 K. Refrigerator
produces 0.139 kg/s ice at –5ºC from water at 287 K. Also determine COP of refrigerator.
[9.76 hp, 63.19 kJ/s, 7.82]
18.21 A refrigerator working between –5ºC and 20ºC has capacity of 600 tons. Determine the minimum hp
required for machine. [266 hp]
18.22 An air refrigeration cycle has pressure ratio of 4 and the air enters compressor at 15ºC and expander at
30ºC. Consider compression and expansion index to be 1.25 and 1.35 respectively. Determine COP of
refrigeration cycle. [1.7]
18.23 Show that the ratio of maximum COP of Bell-Coleman cycle and COP of Carnot cycle is given by:
2
COPBell–Colemen T1 − T2
=
COPcarnot T2
where T1 and T2 are the temperature of surroundings and refrigerated space. Assume that the rise in
temperature of air passing through heat exchanger (cooler) is same in both cases and is constant.
18.24 A Bell-coleman refrigeration cycle of 75.8 kJ/s refrigeration capacity runs between pressures of 1 bar
and 5 bar. Refrigerated space is maintained at 0ºC and ambient temperature is 300 K. For isentropic
efficiency of compression and expansion being 0.85 and 0.90 respectively. Determine COP of system.
[0.815]
18.25 An air refrigeration system working on reversed Brayton cycle has refrigeration capacity of 10 ton and
pressure ratio of 3. Pressure in refrigerated space is 1.4 bar, temperature of air at inlet to compressor is
253 K and air is cooled to a temperature of 323 K in cooler. Considering Cp = 1.07 kJ/kg·K determine
COP of system, air circulation per minute, theoretical piston displacement and power required.
[2.43, 114 kg/min, 59.13 m3/min, 13 kW]
18.26 An air refrigeration cycle works between 1 bar and 12 bar to produce refrigeration capacity of 25 tons
when air leaves cooler at 25ºC and air leaves refrigerated space at 0ºC. Considering compression and
expansion processes to have index of 1.35 determine.
(i) the COP of system
(ii) the HP required
(iii) the mass of air circulated per minute
(iv) the piston displacements of compressor and expanders.
[1.94, 116 hp, 133 kg/min, 35.5 m3/min, 20.35 m3/min]
18.27 Air cooled aeroplane system has pressure of air getting increased from atmospheric pressure of 0.9
bar to 1 bar due to ram action. Compressed air leaves compressor at 3.5 bar and temperature of
compressed air leaving heat exchanger is 355 K and subsequently leaving the evaporator is 348 K.
High pressure cool air leaving evaporator enters the cooling turbine and subsequently to passenger
cabin at 1.03 bar. Considering isentropic efficiencies of compression and expansion to be 0.8 and 0.75
determine hp required for desired cooling and COP of system when stale air leaves passenger cabin at
298 K. Ambient air temperature is 296 K. [596 hp, 0.16]
18.28 The passenger cabin of an aircraft is maintained at 298 K when ambient air is at 0.35 bar and –15ºC.
Compressor in aircraft has pressure ratio of 3 and aircraft is moving at 1000 kmph. Compressed air
leaving compressor is passed through a heat exchanger and cooled there upto ambient air temperature.
Subsequently this cool air passes through cooling turbine so as to leave it at 1.06 bar. Considering
cooling load to be 200 ton determine.
(i) the stagnation temperature and pressure
Introduction to Refrigeration and Airconditioning ____________________________________ 857
(ii) the COP of system
(iii) the mass flow rate of air
Take Cpair = 1 kJ/kg·K, γ = 1.4 [296.5 K, 0.57 bar, 0.31, 2 kg/s]
18.29 Calculate COP of vapour compression system running on ammonia (NH3) as refrigerant between 25ºC
and – 10ºC such that the refrigerant is dry saturated at the end of compression and there is no
undercooling. Properties of NH3 are;
Temperature, Enthalpy, kJ/kg Entropy, kJ/kg·K
ºC hf h fg sf
19
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines
19.1 INTRODUCTION
World War-II witnessed the use of a new gas turbine engine type aircraft being developed independ-
ently in Germany and in England. These engines were called as jet engines. In these aircraft thrust
generated by propulsion system caused movement of aircraft in air. Underlying principle for the
creation of thrust was Newton’s third law of motion. In jet propulsion system working fluid is
accelerated by the system and reaction to this acceleration produces force on the system. Amount of
thrust created is directly proportional to the mass flow rate through engine and exit velocity of gas.
Jet engines have atmospheric air being inducted into compressor for being compressed and subse-
quently used for burning fuel in combustor. High temperature, high pressure burnt gases are then
expanded in gas turbine and hot exhaust gases are finally passed through a nozzle for creation of
thrust. Rocket engines also work on similar principle but unlike jet engine these rocket engines carry
oxygen with them for combustion.
History of jet propulsion dates back to 100 B.C. when Hero of Alexandria first developed engine
called ‘aeolipile’ which was basically reaction turbine working on steam. In 1500 A.D. Leonardo Vinci
used hot air coming out from chimney to drive rotor called chimney jack. Steam jet propelled wagon
was developed in 1687 A.D. in Dutch. Major breakthrough was achieved when the gas turbine was
patented in the name of John Barbar in 1791 A.D. This evolution of gas turbine paved way for develop-
ment of gas based engines for use in gas turbine power plants and aircraft etc. By the year 1903 A.D.
number of gas turbine based plants came up and gas turbine was found to be successful.
1 mf 2 2
⇒ PP = 1 + ⋅ Ce − Ca ; W/kg of air
2 ma
Neglecting fuel mass addition, propulsive power can be given by,
Ce2 − Ca2
PP = ; W/kg of air
2
ηProp): Propulsive efficiency is measure of effectiveness by which
(iii) Propulsive efficiency (η
propulsive power is transformed into thrust power i.e., how efficiently propelling duct can propel the
engine.
Mathematically, it can be given by ratio of thrust power (TP) to propulsive power (PP). Propulsive
efficiency is also called Froude efficiency.
mf
1 + Ce − Ca Ca
TP ma
ηprop = =
PP 1 mf 2 2
1 + ⋅ Ce − Ca
2 ma
Neglecting fuel mass addition, propulsive efficiency can be given as,
2 (Ce − Ca ) ⋅ Ca
ηprop =
(Ce2 − Ca2 )
2 Ca 2
=
( Ce + Ca )
=
RS1 + F C I UV
T| GH C JK W|
e
The above expression indicates that propulsive efficiency would be unity when exit jet velocity
equals to approach velocity, but this is not desired as it decreases thrust available.
(iv) Thermal efficiency (η ηth): Thermal efficiency can be given by the ratio of kinetic energy
available and total heat supplied.
Kinetic energy available
ηth =
Heat supplied
RS 1 d(m iUVW
=
T2 a + m f ) Ce2 − ma Ca2
F F1 + m I C − C I
GH GH m JK f 2
eJK 2
a
(1 + FA ) Ce2 − Ca2
=
2 × FA × Calorific value of fuel
where FA is fuel-air ratio.
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 863
ηoverall): Overall efficiency can be given by the ratio of useful workdone
(v) Overall efficiency (η
to the energy supplied.
LMF 1 + m I . C − C OP C
MNGH m JK PQ
f
e a a
Hm K
f
= ηth × ηprop
ηjet): Jet efficiency is given by the ratio of final kinetic energy in jet to the total
(vi) Jet efficiency (η
of isentropic heat drop in jet pipe and carry over from turbine.
Comparative performance of turbojet and other propulsion engines in respect to the propulsive
efficiency and jet velocity is shown in Fig. 19.3. Figure 19.4 shows comparison of specific fuel
consumption with jet plane speed for these different devices.
Fig. 19.3 Comparison of propulsive efficiency Fig. 19.4 Comparison of specific fuel consumption
γ
p1 Ca2 (γ − 1)
= ηdiffuser + 1 ;
2C p ⋅ Ta
pa
γR
here substituting, Cp = and
( γ − 1)
velocity of sound = γ ·RT ,
LM1 + η FG γ − 1IJ M OP
γ
p1 ( γ − 1)
N H 2 K Q
2
or, = a ; Here Ma is Mach no. at ‘a’.
pa diffuser
Similar to diffuser section the energy equation when applied to compressor section between states
1 and 2 yields, (neglecting change in potential energy)
C12 C2
h1 + + q1 − 2 = h2 + 2 + ( − wcomp )
2 2
Fh I F I
or, wcomp = GH2 +
C22
2 JK GHC2
− h1 + 1
2 JK
substituting stagnation property,
C22 C2
h02 = h2 + , h01 = h1 + 1
2 2
866 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
wcomp = h02 – h01
Neglecting change in kinetic energy and potential energy the work required by compressor shall
be,
wcomp = h2 – h1 = Cp (T2 – T1)
wcomp = h2 – h1 = Cp (T2 – T1)
Actual state at the end of compressor lies at state 2′ instead of 2. This shift from 2 to 2′ can be
quantified by compressor efficiency (ηcomp) as given below:
( h2 − h1 ) Ideal compressor work
ηcomp = =
( h2 ′ − h1 ) Actual compressor work
Heat addition in combustion chamber occurs between states 2 and 3. Neglecting mass of fuel
added, the heat supplied can be estimated as;
q2–3 = h3 – h2 = Cp (T3 – T2)
Actual heat supplied can be given as:
Q2–3 = {(ma + m f ) ⋅ h3 − (ma ⋅ h2′ )}
After combustion the hot gases enter turbine for expansion between 3 and 4. Energy equation can
be written for turbine, as
C2 C2
h3 + 3 + q3 − 4 = h4 + 4 + wturbine
2 2
Considering expansion in turbine to be occurring adiabatically; q3–4 = 0
Fh + C I − Fh I
GH 2 JK GH JK
2
C42
or, wturbine = 3
3
4 −
2
In terms of stagnation properties;
wturbine = h03 – h04
Neglecting change in kinetic energy across turbine,
wturbine = h3 − h4
wturbine = CpT3 – CpT4
Actual turbine work, w′turbine = (h3 – h4′)
w ′ turbine ( h3 − h4 ′ ) ( T3 − T4 ′ )
Turbine efficiency, ηturbine = = =
wturbine ( h3 − h4 ) ( T3 − T4 )
At the exit of turbine gases pass through exit nozzle from 4 to 5. Energy equation can be given as,
C42 C2
h4 + = h5 + 5
2 2
for actual expansion in exit nozzle;
C2 C2
h4 ′ + 4 ′ = h5′ + 5′
2 2
h4 ′ − h5′ T4 ′ − T5′
Nozzle efficiency, ηnozzle = =
h4 ′ − h5 T4 ′ − T5
Considering above T-s diagram thermal efficiency can be mathematically given as
( h3 − h5′ ) − ( h2 ′ − ha )
ηth =
( h3 − h2 ′ )
( T3 − T5′ ) − ( T2 ′ − Ta )
ηth =
( T3 − T2 ′ )
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 867
19.6 TURBOFAN ENGINE
Turbofan engine is the modified turbojet engine in which additional thrust is realised by putting fan at the
entry of the engine casing. Fan blades propel by pass air around engine core between inner and outer
engine casing. This air does not participate in combustion but provides additional thrust while leaving
through exit nozzle. Figure. 19.6 shows the schematic of turbofan engine. The propeller fan put at inlet
to engine sucks air and it passes through by pass passage as shown up to the exit nozzle end. Thus there
are two streams of air flowing, one air stream gets rammed, compressed, burnt, expanded in turbine
and finally passes through exit nozzle and other air stream passes through passage between outer and
inner casings from inlet to nozzle exit. Total thrust created will be due to two jet streams one due to cold
air or fan air and other due to burnt gases leaving turbine.
Fig. 19.7 Specific fuel consumption vs. specific thrust for turbofan engine
m′ p ⋅ Cej ⋅ Ca
=
( m′ p Cej ⋅ Ca ) + ( m′ p (Cej − Ca ) 2 /2)
2 ( Ca /Cej )
ηprop =
1 + ( Ca /Cej ) 2
EXAMPLES
1. A jet propulsion engine moves with speed of 200 m/s at an altitude where total pressure and total
temperature at inlet to compressor are 0.5 bar and 272 K. Isentropic efficiency of compressor and
turbine are 0.84 and 0.82 respectively.
Total pressure and temperature of gases at inlet to turbine are 3 bar and
1000 K and static back pressure of propulsion nozzle is 0.4 bar and nozzle efficiency based on total
874 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
pressure drop is 92%. Determine (i) power required to run compressor per kg of air, (ii) the air-fuel ratio,
(iii) the total pressure of gas leaving turbine, (iv) thrust per unit air flow rate, (v) Plot the processes on
h–s diagram.
Take C pgas = 1.13 kJ/kg.K, γgas = 1.33, C pair = 1.005 kJ/kg.K , γair = 1.4 and Calorific value =
41.84 MJ/kg of fuel.
Solution:
F 1.4 − 1I
FG IJ
γ −1
T02 p02 γ FG IJ
G J
3 H 1.4 K
We know,
T01
=
p01 H K ⇒ T02 = 272
0.5 H K
T02 = 453.83 K
Considering compressor efficiency,
( T − T01 )
ηcompr = 0.84 = 02 ⇒ T02′ = 488.46 K
( T02 ′ − T01 )
Wcompr = C pair ( T02 ′ − T01 )
= 1.005 (488.46 – 272) = 217.54 kW/kg
Power required for compressor = 217.54 kW/kg Ans.
Fig. 19.16
In combustion chamber,
( m′ a + m′ f ) C pgas ⋅ T03 − m′ a C pair ⋅ T02′ = m′ f × C.V
m′ a CV − C p ⋅ T03
gas
or, m′ f =
⋅ −
pgas 03 C pair T02′
C T
FG m′ f IJ
C pair ( T02 ′ − T01 ) = Cpgas ( T03 − T04 ′ ) 1 +
H m′ a K
FG 1 IJ
⇒ 1.005 (488.46 – 272) = 1.13 (1000 − T04 ′ ) 1 + H 63. 69 K
⇒ T04′ = 810.46 K
( T03 − T04 ′ )
From turbine isentropic efficiency, ηturb =
( T03 − T04 )
FG T − 810. 46 IJ
H T −T K
03
or 0.82 =
03 04
⇒ T04 = 768.85 K
For isentropic expansion,
( γ gas / γ gas − 1)
p04 T04
p03 = T03
Pressure of gas leaving turbine,
FG IJ
F 768.85 I H K
1.33
3G
H 1000 JK
0.33
⇒ p04 = = 1.04 bar Ans.
FG p IJ
( γ − 1)
F 0.4 IJ
0.33
= 810. 46 G
γ
H 1.04 K
1.33
Hp K = 639. 4 K
5
Ts = T4 ′
4
( T4 ′ − T5′ )
For exit nozzle, ηnozzle =
( T4 ′ − T5 )
( 810. 46 − T5′ )
0.92 =
( 810. 46 − 639. 4 )
⇒ T5′ = 653.08 K
Exit jet velocity, C5′ = 2 ( h4 ′ − h5′ )
= 2 Cpgas ( T4 ′ − T5′ )
1
= 1 + × 596.4 − 200
63.69
Thrust = 405.73 N/kg/s Ans.
876 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
2. A jet propulsion engine has compressor with pressure ratio 4 and compressed air enters into combus-
tion chamber where combustion occurs so as to yield temperature of 500°C at turbine inlet. Actual
temperature at inlet to combustion chamber is 10% more than that of isentropic compressor temperature
rise. Exhaust from turbine is expanded up to atmospheric pressure of 1 bar. The ambient temperature is
285 K. Determine, (i) power required to drive compressor, (ii) air fuel ratio if calorific value of fuel is
43100 kJ/kg, (iii) static thrust developed per kg of air per second.
Solution:
T1 = 285 K, p1 = 1 bar, T3 = 773 K
p2
p1 = 4 ⇒ p2 = 4 bar,
Fp I
γ −1
T G J
γ
HpK
2
T2 = 1
1
= 285 × (4)0.286
T2 = 423.7 K
Fig. 19.17
Actual temperature rise, ( T2 ′ − T1 ) = 1.1 ( T2 − T1 )
⇒ T2′ = T1 + 1.1 ( T2 − T1 )
= 285 + 1.1 (423.7 – 285)
T2′ = 437.57 K
Work required in compressor, Wcompr = C pair ( T2 ′ − T1 )
= 1.005 (437.57 – 285)
= 153.3 kJ/kg of air.
Power required to drive compressor = 153.3 kW/kg of air Ans.
Heat added in combustion chamber,
qadd = C pair (T3 – T2′)
= 1.005 (773 – 437.57)
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 877
qadd = 337.11 kJ/kg of air
m′ a
for air-fuel mass ratio being m′ ;
f
m′ a
× qadd = C.V.
m′ f
F m′ I
GH m′ JK
a
f
=
43100
337.11
= 127.85 kg of air / kg of fuel
Hp K
1
For isentropic expansion, =
T3
2
FpI FG 1 IJ
γ −1
0.286
= T G J
γ
⇒ T5 3
Hp K
1
2
= 773
H 4K
T 5 = 519.9 K
Enthalpy drop in nozzle = ( h3 − h5 ) − ( h2 ′ − h1 )
= C p ( T3 − T5 ) − C p ( T2 ′ − T1 )
l
= 1. 005 ( 773 − 519. 9) − ( 437.57 − 285) q
= 101.03 kJ/kg of air
Velocity of exit gas from nozzle, Ce = 2 × 101. 03 × 1000
Ce = 449.5 m/s Ans.
FG 1 + m′ IJ C
H m′ K − Ca
f
Thrust, T = e
a
for negligible velocity at inlet, i.e., Ca = 0
FG 1 + 1 IJ 449.5 − 0
T = H 127.85K
Thrust = 453.02 N/kg of air/s Ans.
3. Following data refer to double spool turbofan engine in which low pressure turbine drives fan and
high pressure turbine drives compressor.
Ambient state : 1 bar, 15°C
Fan pressure ratio : 1.5
Overall pressure ratio : 28
FG IJ
m′ p
By pass ratio,
H K
m′ c
: 5.5
Mass flow rate of air : 200 kg/s.
Stagnation temperature at turbine inlet : 1300°C
Mechanical efficiency ηmech. = 96%
878 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Polytropic efficiency of fan and compressor = ηpoly, fan = ηpoly, compr. = 90%
Polytropic efficiency of turbine, ηpoly, turb = 95%
Pressure loss in combustion chamber = 1.5 bar
Nozzle efficiency, ηnozzle = 95%
Lower calorific value of fuel : 43100 kJ/kg
C pair = 1.005 kJ/kg·K
Cpgas = 1.14 kJ/kg·K
γgas = 1.33
Determine air-fuel ratio, specific fuel consumption and specific thrust.
Solution:
Using the polytropic efficiency for compression and expansion the index of compression and
expansion can be obtained.
FG n − 1IJ = 1 FG γ − 1IJ
H n K η H γ K
e
For compression:
e poly , compr
1 F 1. 4 − 1I
= G
0.87 H 1. 4 K
J = 0.328
FG n − 1IJ γ gas − 1
= η poly, turb
0.33
= 0.90
H n K
T
For expansion:
T γ gas 1.33
= 0.223
F n − 1IJ
T02 ′ FG p IJ GH n K
c
Hp K
c
02
In fan,
T01 = ; Take, p01 = pa and T01 = Ta
01
F 1.5I
288 G J
0.328
T02′ =
H 1K
T02′ = 328.96 K
Fn IJ
FG p IJ GH
−1
K
T
T03′ nT
Hp K
03
In compressor =
T02 ′
02
FG 28 IJ 0.223
T03′ = 328.96
H 1.5 K = 631.82 K
For flow of bypass atmospheric air through nozzle the nozzle may be checked for whether it is in
choked state or not.
γ /(γ − 1)
p 2
Critical pressure ratio for by pass air nozzle, c =
p02 γ + 1
FG 2 IJ
1.4
pc (1.4 − 1) pc
= 0.528
p02 = H 1.4 + 1K ⇒
p02
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 879
p02
⇒
pc = 1.89
p02 1.5
Actual pressure ratio for this nozzle, = = 1.5
pa 1
Since critical pressure ratio (1.89) is more than actual expansion pressure ratio (1.5) so it means
that by pass air nozzle is not choked and p8 may be taken equal to pa.
MN PQ
T02′ – T8′ = 34.22 K
Velocity at exit of nozzle,
C8 = 2 × 1. 005 × 103 × 34. 22 = 26.2 m/s
m′ a B 200 × 5.5
Mass flow rate of bypass air, M ′b = = = 169.23 kg/s
( B + 1) ( 6.5)
Mass flow rate of hot gases, mc′ = 200 – 169.23 = 30.77 kg/s
Thrust available due to by pass air,
T b = m′b × C8
= 169.23 × 262.26
T b = 44.382 kN
Applying energy balance on combustion chamber we get,
FG 1 + m′ IJ C T = C ⋅ T + m′ × LCV
H m′ K
f f
pgas 04 03′
m′
pair
c c
c c
880 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
m′ f
= 0.028
m′ c
For HP turbine driving the HP compressor the work output from HP turbine may be equated to
work required in HP compressor.
FG
m′ f IJ
Cpair ( T03′ − T02 ′ ) = ηmech 1 +
H
m′ c K
× C pgas ( T04 − T05′ )
1.005 (631.82 – 328.96) = 0.96 (1 + 0.028) × 1.14 × (1573 – T05′)
T05′ = 1302.45 K
LP turbine is used for driving fan so, output of LP turbine goes for driving fan.
C pgas ⋅η mech (T05′ − T06′ ) = (1 + B ) C pair ( T02 ′ − T01 )
⇒ 1.14 × 0.96 (1302.45 – T06′) = (1 + 55) × 1.005 (328.96 – 288)
T06¢ = 1057.96 K
Pressure at inlet to HP turbine, p04 = p03 – ∆ploss = 28 – 1.5 = 26.5 bar
Pressure at exit of LP turbine, (p06) may be estimated as under,
F IJ
FG T IJ GH FG 1302. 45IJ
nT
nT − 1 K 1/ 0.223
HT K H 1573 K
05′
p05 = p04 = 26.5 = 11. 37 bar
04
F IJ
FG T IJ GH F 1057.96 IJ
nT
K
= 11. 37 G
nT − 1 1/ 0.223
HT K H 1302.45 K
06′
and p06 = p05 = 4. 476 bar
05′
Critical expansion pressure ratio of nozzle handling hot gases,
γ gas
FG IJ
1.33
γ gas + 1 (γ gas − 1) 2. 33 0.33
=
2
=
2 H K
Critical pressure ratio = 1.85
Since critical pressure ratio is less than expansion ratio in nozzle for hot gas so nozzle will be in
choked state.
p06
> Critical pressure ratio
pa
p06
so,
p7 = 1.85
For exit nozzle ⇒ p7 = 2.42 bar
γ gas − 1
p7 γ gas
( T06′ − T7 ′ ) = η nozzle T06′ 1 −
p06
0.33
1 1.33
= 0.95 × 1057.96 1 −
1.85
( T06′ − T7 ′ ) = 142.28 K
Velocity of hot gases at exit of nozzle,
C7 = 2 C pgas × ( T06 ′ − T7 ′ )
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 881
14423.19
Specific thrust = = 288.46 N/kg/s Ans.
50
Thrust power = 14.42 × 277.78 = 4005.58 kW Ans.
2
Propulsive efficiency ηprop =
F 1 I = 0.6666 ≈ 66.66% Ans.
1+
H 0.5K
(1 + FA) Ce2 − Ca2
Thermal efficiency, ηth =
2 × FA × Calorific value
882 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
F1 + 1 I (555.56)
H 52 K − ( 277. 78) 2
2
= 1
2×× 43100 × 103
52
= 0.1432 ≈ 14.32% Ans.
Overall efficiency ηoverall = ηprop × ηth
= 0.1432 × 0.6666
= 0.0954 = 9.54% Ans.
m′ f × 3600
Specific fuel consumption =
Thrust
F 50 I × 3600
=
H 52 K = 0.2399 kg/h N Ans.
14423.19
5. A turboject engine has air entering at 2.2 bar, – 53°C and 260 m/s. Turbojet has compressor
pressure ratio of 12, turbine inlet temperature of 1000°C, pressure at exit of nozzle as 2.2 bar, isentropic
processes in diffuser & nozzle and isentropic efficiecies of compressor and turbine as 85% and 88%
respectively. Neglecting pressure drop in combustion chamber determine the pressure and temperature at
all salient points and the velocity at exit of nozzle. Also consider air as working fluid throughout.
Solution:
p1 = 2.2 bar
T 1 = 220 K or – 53°C
C1 = 260 m/s
1 2 5 5' 6
3 3' 4
D C CC T N
Fig. 19.19
Stagnation properties at inlet state can be estimated for knowing the states at point 2 which is inlet
of compressor. In diffuser section kinetic energy will be getting transformed to modify pressure and
temperature at inlet to diffuser leading to negligible kinetic energy at inlet to compressor.
C12 (260) 2
T 2 = T1 + = 220 + = 253.63K
2C p (2 × 1.005 × 103 )
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 883
γ /( γ−1)
T 253.63
3.5
p2 = p1 2 = 2.2 = 3.62 bar
T1 220
p3 = p2 × 12 = 3.62 × 12 = 43.44 bar = p4
( γ−1)
(1.4 −1)
p γ
T 3 = T2 3 = 253.63(12) 1 = 516.23K
p2
T3 − T2
Compressor isentropic efficiency, 0.85 =
T3′ − T2
516.23 − 253.63
0.85 = ⇒ T3′ = 562.57K
T3′ − 253.63
In case of turbojet engine, under ideal condition the work requirement of compressor should be
equal, Wcomp = Wtrubine
Cp(T3′ – T2) = Cp(T4 – T5′)
Given turbine inlet temperature, T4 = 1273K
(562.57 – 253.63) = (1273 – T5′)
⇒ T5′ = 964.06 K
(T4 − T5′ )
Turbine iseutropic efficiency, 0.88 =
(T4 − T5 )
(1273 − 964.06)
0.88 = ⇒ T5 = 921.93 K
(1273 − T5 )
(200) 2
T2 = 260 +
2 × 1005
T2 = 279.9 K
Considering diffuser efficiency,
T2 − T1
0.9 =
T2′ − T1
⇒ T2′ = 282.11 K
Fig. 19.20
884 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
( γ−1)
T γ
p2 = p1 2 = 282.11(8)0.286
T1
T3 − T2′
Considering compressor efficiency, 0.8 =
T3′ − T2′
511.33 − 282.11
0.8 =
(T3′ − 282.11)
T3′ = 568.635 K
Turbine inlet temperature, T4 = 1000K
Considering energy balance on combustion chamber;
mf × CV + m3 × Cp × T3′ = (m3 + mf) × Cp × T4
m m3
CV + 3 C pT3′ = 1 + C p ⋅ T4
mf
m f
m3
(C pT3′ − C pT4 ) = CpT4 – CV
mf
m3 (C pT4 − CV)
Air–Fuel ratio, =
mf (C p T3′ − C pT4 )
Temperature at exit of nozzle for given exit pressure of 2.2 bars
( γ−1)
p γ
p6 = 2.2 bar; T6 = T5 6
p5
(1.4 −1)
2.2 1.4
T6 = 921.93
14.042
T6 = 542.83 K
Velocity at exit of nozzle,
C62
+ T6 = T
2C p 5
C6 = 2(T5 − T6 )C p
C6 = 872.92 m/s
Velocity of exit of nozzle = 872.92 m/s. Ans.
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 885
6. A jet engine plane is moving at 200 m/s and admits air at 0.7 bar, 260 K in diffuser section
having inlet cross section area of 1000 cm2 from where it enters compressor with negligible velocity.
Compressor pressure ratio is 8 and turbine inlet temperature is 1000°C. Combustion gases expand in
turbine and subsequently leave nozzle at 0.7 bar. Efficiencies of nozzle section, diffuser section, com-
pressor and turbine are 0.9, 0.9, 0.8 and 0.8 respectively. Fuel used in combustion chamber has calorific
value of 45000 kJ/kg of fuel and pressure drop in combustion chamber is 0.15 bar. Determine the fuel
air ratio, specific thrust and total thrust available. Neglect change in specific heat of air when trans-
formed into combustion products and treat it as air. Take Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg·K.
Solution: Temperature at inlet to compressor
C12
T 2 = T1 +
2C p
⇒ T 5 = 641.84K
Considering adiabatic expansion
γ
T ( γ−1)
3.5
641.84
p5 = p4 5 = 7.098 = 1.5036 bar
T4 1000
In nozzle exit pressure is given, so, p6 = 0.7 bar
( γ−1)
p γ 0.7
0.286
T 6 = T5′ 6 = 713.475 = 573.35K
p5 1.5036
T6′ = 587.36 K
886 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
= 2 × 1005(713.475 − 587.36)
C6 = 503.48 m/s
Volume flow rate of air = 200 × 1000 × 10–4 = 20 m3/s
p ⋅ v 0.7 × 102 × 20
Mass flow rate = = = 18.76 kg/s
RT 0.287 × 260
mf
Specific thrust = 1 + × C6
m3
Specific thrust = 508.44 N/kg of air/s Ans.
Total thurst = 18.76 × 508.44 = 9538.33N Ans.
7. An aeroplane flying at speed of 250 m/s, running on jet engine inducts air at 0.3 bar and –20°C
from atmosphere, compressor pressure ratio is 6 and the turbine inlet temperature is 700 °C. Velocity at
exit of turbine is 180 m/s, turbine and compressor efficiencies are 0.85 each and jet engine efficiency is
90%. Thurst power produced is 800kW, and calorific value of fuel is 43000 kJ/kg. Considering following
properties for air and gas determine overall efficiency, rate of air consumption, power developed by
turbine, and exit area of jet.
For air, Cp,air = 1.005 kJ/kg·K, γair = 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ/kg·K
For gas, Cp,gas = 1.087 kJ/kg·K, γgas = 1.33
Solution: Let mass flow rate of air and fuel be mair & mfuel kg/s
Writing down energy balance on combustion chamber;
(mfuel × CV) + (mair·Cpair·T2′) = (mfuel + mair)·Cpgas.T3
In diffuser
C02 (250) 2
T1 = T0 + = 253 + = 284.09K
2C pair 2 × 1005
γ /( γ−1)
T1
p1 = p0 = 0.31 bar
T0
mfuel
Let, = FA
mair
Thus energy balance on combustion chamber;
FA × CV = (1 + FA)Cp,gas·T3 – Cp,air T2′
In compressor, T2 = T1(6)0.286 = 474.25K
Fig. 19.21
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 887
(T2 − T1 )
T2′ = T1 +
ηcompr.
T3 − T4′
ηturb =
T3 − T4
(973 − 768.23)
⇒ 0.85 = ⇒ T4 = 732.09 K
(973 − T4 )
γ gas
T (γ gas −1)
p4 = p3 × 4
T3
1.33
732.09 (1.33−1)
p4 = 1.86 p4 = 0.5909 bar
973
γ gas −1
p5 γ gas
In exit nozzle jet, T 5 = T4′
p4
(1.33−1)
T 5 = 768.23
0.3 1.33
0.5909
T 5 = 649.3K
(C52 / 2)
Jet engine efficiency = 0.9 =
C p gas (T4′ − T5 ) + (C42′ / 2)
888 _________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(C52 / 2)
Given C4′ = 180 m/s ⇒ 0.9 =
{1087(786.23 − 649.3) + (1802 / 2)}
Nozzle exit velocity. C5 = 511.72 m/s.
{(1 + FA)C5 − C0 } ⋅ C0
Overall efficiency =
{FA × CV }
C52 − C42′
Cp,gas(T4′ – T5′) =
2
(511.72) 2 − (180) 2
1.087 × 103(768.23 – T5′) =
2
T5′ = 662.68K
11.99(1 + 0.01013)
Aj = = 0.15m2
511.72 × 0.1577
Jet exit area = 0.15m2 Ans.
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 889
8. A jet aeroplane flies at speed of 900 km/h. The density of air at this altitude is 0.15 kg/m3 and
drag on plane is 6800kW. Considering jet plane to have 2 jets and engine working on turbo-prop system
with propulsive efficiency of 56% determine the absolute velocity of jet and diameter of jet.
Solution:
900 × 1000
Velocity of aeroplane = = 250 m/s
3600
2Ca
Propulsive efficiency =
(Ce + Ca )
Here Ca = 250 m/s, Ce = Relative velocity of jet leaving
2 × 250
0.56 =
(Ce + 250)
Ce = 642.86 m/s
Absolute velocity of jet = Ce – Ca = 642.86 – 250 = 392.86 m/s
Drag on plane or thrust = m′(Ce – Ca)
.6800 = m′(642.86 – 250)
m′ = 17.31 kg/s
17.31
Volume flow rate = = 115.4 m3/s
0.15
Let jet diameter of jet be dj;
π 2
Volume flow rate = 115.4 = 2 × d j × Ce
4
⇒ dj = 0.338 m
Jet diameter = 33.8 cm Ans.
9. An aeroplane is flying at speed of 900 km/hr. It is run by turbojet engine. The plane has wing area
of 2 × 105 cm2, drag coefficient is 0.018 and jet velocity is 550 m/s. Considering Cp = 1.005 kJ/kg. K
for air and density ratio between STP and flight altitude being 0.4 determine specific thrust.
Solution:
1.01325 × 102
Density at STP = = 1.226 kg/m3
0.287 × 288
Density of air at altitude = 0.4 × 1.226 = 0.488 kg/m3
Ca2
Thrust on Aeroplane = cd × A × ρ ×
2
5490
Specific thrust = = 300 N/kg of air Ans.
18.3
10. An air craft running with speed of 900 km/hr uses turbo– jet engine taking air at rate of
55 kg/s. The air-fuel ratio is 85 and combustion efficiency is 0.96. Fuel has lower calorific value
of 43000 kJ/kg. The turbo jet engine nozzle has isentropic enthalpy change of 220 kJ/kg and
velocity coefficient is 0.95. Calculate propulsive power, thrust power, propulsive efficiency, overall
efficiency, fuel flow rate and thrust neglecting fuel mass addition.
900 × 1000
Solution: Given Ca = 900 km/hr = = 250 m/s
3600
Jet velocity = Velocity coeff × 2 × Enthalpy change in nozzle
=
{
m′(Ce2 − Ca2 ) 55 × (615.67) − (250)
2 2
}
Propulsive power =
2 2
= 8705112.59 W or 8705.11 kW Ans.
Thrust power 5027.96
Propulsive efficiency = = = 0.5776 or 57.76% Ans.
Propulsive power 8705.11
Thrust power 5027.96
Overall efficiency = =
Heat supplied
1
55 × × 43000 × 0.96
85
= 0.1882 or 18.82% Ans.
Jet Propulsion and Rocket Engines ________________________________________________ 891
-:-4+15-
20
Multiple Answer Type Questions
1. Thermodynamic system refers to a portion of
(a) Universe (b) Surroundings
(c) Control surface (d) None of these
2. Units of temperature, mass, time, length and energy in SI system of units are given by
(a) Celsius, kilogram, second, metre and watt
(b) Kelvin, kilogram, second, metre and joule
(c) Kelvin, gram, hour, metre and joule
(d) Kelvin, kilogram, second, centimetre, joule
3. Which of the following set has all intensive properties?
(a) Pressure, volume, energy, heat, specific volume
(b) Pressure, volume, energy, heat density
(c) Pressure, volume, temperature, density, specific volume
(d) Pressure, volume, heat, density, specific volume
4. Which of the following sets has all open systems?
(a) Window air conditioner, scooter engine, thermometer
(b) Boiler, gas turbine, compressor
(c) Pump, thermosflask, refrigerator
(d) None of these
5. Locii of the series of state change during heat addition to a gas shall be,
(a) Process (b) Path
(c) State change (d) All of the above
6. In engineering thermodynamics the macroscopic approach is followed and it may also be
called as:
(a) Statistical thermodynamics (b) Classical thermodynamics
(c) Microscopic study (d) None of these
7. Time, length, mass and temperature are:
(a) Primary dimensions (b) Secondary dimensions
(c) Both of above (d) None of these
8. Difference between the pressure of a fluid and the pressure of atmosphere is called as:
(a) Absolute pressure (b) Barometric pressure
(c) Gauge pressure (d) None of these
9. Which of the following sets has all properties as point functions?
(a) Pressure, temperature, heat
(b) Entropy, enthalpy, work
(c) Temperature, enthalpy, internal energy
(d) Heat, work, enthalpy
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 893
10. Which of the following is not property of thermodynamic system?
(a) Temperature (b) Work
(c) Pressure (d) Internal energy
11. At a given temperature and pressure all molecules of gas occupy the same volume. This is
called
(a) Charle’s law (b) Boyle’s law
(c) Avagadro’s law (d) Regnault’s law
12. At constant pressure the volume of gas is directly proportional to its temperature. This refers
to
(a) Charle’s law (b) Boyle’s law
(c) Dalton’s law (d) None of these
13. If temperature in degree Celsius is 37° then the equivalent temperature in Fahrenheit will be:
(a) 98.6 (b) 99
(c) 98.3 (d) 98
14. The characteristic gas constant R and universal gas constant R can be related through
molecular weight M as under,
(a) R = R ´ M (b) R = R ´ M
(c) R = R + M (d) R = R + M
15. ‘Work’ done upon the system and ‘heat’ added to the system shall have sign convention
as shown respectively.
(a) (–) and (–) (b) (–) and (+)
(c) (+) and (+) (d) (+) and (–)
16. In a constant volume gas thermometer the thermometric property used is
(a) length (b) volume (c) mass (d) resistance
17. A car’s tyre become hotter due to their exposure to sunlight. Considering air in tyre as
system determine sign of heat and work interactions.
(a) (+) and (+) (b) (–) and (+)
(c) (–) and (–) (d) (+) and (–)
18. Specific heats at constant pressure (Cp) and at constant volume (Cv) can be related by
(a) Cp = Cv (b) Cp < Cv
(c) Cp > Cv (d) Cp + Cv = 0
19. In reference to thermodynamic equilibrium it is required to have,
(a) Mechanical equilibrium
(b) Chemical equilibrium
(c) Thermal equilibrium
(d) Mechanical, chemical and thermal equilibrium
20. The real gas follows the modified form of gas equation involving compressibility factor Z
and may be given by:
RT
(a) P = ZR T (b) P =
Z
(c) P = RT (d) None of these
21. If ideal gas equation p = R T is used to model a real gas then modeling will becoming more
accurate when
894 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
(a) Pressure decreases, temperature decreases and molar mass decreases
(b) Pressure decreases, temperature increases and molar mass decreases
(c) Pressure increases, temperature increases and molar mass increases
(d) Pressure increases, temperature decreases and molar mass increases.
22. Compressibility factor (correction factor for real gas) is function of following properties of
real gas
(a) V and r (b) U and s
(c) P and T (d) T and U
23. In the van der Waals equation for real gas the constant b refers to
(a) Co-volume
(b) Mutual attraction amongst molecules
(c) Both
(d) None of these
24. Which of the following represent the real gas law?
(a) nRT = (P + a/v2) (v – b) (b) nRT = (P – a/v2) (v + b)
2
(c) nRT = (P – a/v ) (v + nb) (d) nRT = (P + n2×a/v2) (v – nb)
25. Gas constants for hydrogen and carbon dioxide shall be:
(a) 4.124 and 0.189 (b) 0.287 and 2.077
(c) 0.260 and 0.287 (d) 0.461 and 0.260
26. Steam point and ice point temperatures in Fahrenheit scale can be given as:
(a) 491.67 and 671.67 (b) 212 and 32
(c) 373.15 and 273.15 (d) 100 and 0
27. Triple point of water temperature in Rankine scale can be given by:
(a) 491.69 (b) 0.01 (c) 273.16 (d) 32.02
28. Solid, liquids and gases have how many values for specific heat of respective phases.
(a) 1, 1 and 1 (b) 2, 2 and 2
(c) 1, 1 and 2 (d) 0, 1 and 2
29. A polytropic process pVn = C having the value of index ‘n’ as infinity refers to
(a) Isobaric process (b) Isochoric process
(c) Isothermal process (d) None of these
30. For an ideal gas the hyperbolic process will be similar to:
(a) Isobaric process (b) Isochoric process
(c) Isothermal process (d) Isentropic process
31. As per the Zeroth law of thermodynamics if the two bodies A and B are in thermal
equilibrium with a third body C separately then the two bodies A and B shall also be in
thermal equilibrium with each other. Using this law as basis of temperature measurement of
the body A the thermometer shall be refering to
(a) Body A (b) Body B
(c) Body C (d) None of these
32. Which of the following temperature and volume relation is correct for an adiabatic process
between state 1 and 2?
T1 FV I g -1
FT I = FV I g -1
HV K HT K HV K
1
1 2
(a) = (b)
T2 2 1 2
FT I g -1
FV I FT I = FV I
g -1
HT K HV K HT K HV K
1 1 2 1
(c) = (d)
2 2 1 2
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 895
33. For a hyperbolic process between the states 1 and 2, the heat interaction can be given as,
FG g - n IJ
(a) q = Cv
H 1- n K ´ (T2 – T1) (b) q = 0
FG V IJ
HV K
2
(c) q = Cp (T2 – T1) (d) q = Cv (T2 – T1) + RT1 ln
1
34. The specific heat for polytropic process can be given as,
FG g - n IJ FG n - g IJ
(a) Cn = Cv
H 1- n K (b) Cn = Cv
H 1- n K
FG 1 - n IJ FG n - 1 IJ
(c) Cn = Cv
H g -nK (d) Cn = Cv
H g -nK
35. In case of free expansion between the states 1 and 2 following is correct, considering no
heat interaction.
(a) U1 = U2 (b) W1–2 = 0
z
(c) Q1–2 = 0 (d) All of these 2
36. The work interaction between two states 1 and 2, if given by W1–2 = P×dV refers to,
(a) Flow work (b) Non-flow work 1
(c) Steady flow work (d) None of these
37. Enthalpy remains constant during which of the following process?
(a) Throttling process (b) Free expansion
(c) Isothermal process (d) None of these
38. Amongst the following which cannot be reversible process
(a) Isothermal (b) Throttling
(c) Adiabatic process (d) None of these
39. For a perfect gas the internal energy is the function of,
(a) Pressure only (b) Temperature only
(c) Volume only (d) None of these
40. Specific heat at constant pressure can be related to R and g as under,
gR R
(a) (b)
g -1 g -1
(c) g × R (d) None of these
41. The work done by 2m3 of air at 5N/m2 while getting expanded freely to 10 m3 shall be,
(a) 40 J (b) Zero
(c) 10 J (d) 50 J
42. For the expansion of air occurring between volume state V1 and V2 the adiabatic process
and isothermal process lines shall be as under,
(a) A : adiabatic, B : isothermal
(b) A : isothermal, B : adiabatic
(c) Any one may refer to any of process
(d) None of these
896 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
43. Change in internal energy in a reversible process occurring in closed system will be equal
to heat transferred if process occurs at constant
(a) Pressure (b) Volume (c) Temperature (d) Enthalpy
44. Flow work between the state 1 and 2 is given by
z z
2 2
(a) v dp (b) pdv
1 1
z z
2 2
(c) vdp + p×dv (d) None of these
1 1
45. Steady flow energy equation when applied to boiler shall yield,
(a) Dq = h2 – h1 (b) Dq = Dw
(c) Dq = 0 (d) None of these
46. Law of energy conservation is also stated by,
(a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics (b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Second law of thermodynamics (d) Third law of thermodynamics
47. Which of the following is/are correct?
(a) h = u + pv (b) dq = du + dw
z
2
(c) Dh = Cp dT (d) All of these
1
48. Heat interaction in polytropic process can be given by,
FG g - n IJ × Dw FG g - n IJ × Dw
(a)
H g -1K (b)
H n -1K
FG g - n IJ × Dw FG g IJ × Dw
(c)
H n+g K (d)
H g -nK
49. If a Carnot engine rejects heat at temperature of 400 K and accepts at 750 K. What shall
be heat absorbed, if heat rejected is 1000 kJ,
(a) 946 kJ (b) 800 kJ (c) 1875 kJ (d) 750 kJ
50. A perpetual motion machine of second kind refers to a heat engine having 100% efficiency.
This heat engine will not be possible as it violates
(a) Zeroth law of thermodynamics
(b) First law of thermodynamics
(c) Second law of thermodynamics
(d) Third law of thermodynamics
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 897
51. Efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon the highest and lowest
(a) Temperatures (b) Pressures
(c) Volumes (d) None of these
52. Efficiency of Carnot engine having the limiting temperatures Tmax and Tmin, shall be minimum
when,
(a) Tmax > Tmin (b) Tmax = Tmin
(c) Tmin = 0 (d) None of these
53. Which of the following is correct in reference to first law of thermodynamics?
(a) No difference between heat and work
(b) No indication of direction of process
(c) Law of energy conservation
(d) All of these
54. Which amongst the following is not necessary requirement for a device to be heat engine?
(a) Cyclic processes
(b) Operation between high temperature source and low temperature sink
(c) Reversible processes
(d) Converting heat into work
55. A heat engine has efficiency of 60% and operates between temperatures of T1 and 300 K.
What shall be the temperature T1?
(a) 120 K (b) 750 K
(c) 120 K or 750 K (d) None of these
56. Joule’s law states that the internal energy of an ideal gas is function of only
(a) Temperature (b) Volume (c) Pressure (d) None of these
57. Coefficient of performance for heat pump may have value:
(a) Slightly more than 0 (b) Equal to 1
(c) Greater than 1 (d) All of these
58. Difference between the COP of heat pump and COP of refrigerator is
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) > 1 (d) < 1
59. For reversible heat engine operating between source and sink having temperatures T1 and
T2 and heat interactions being Q1 and Q2 respectively thermodynamic temperature scale
states
Q1 T Q1 T
(a) = 1 (b) = 2
Q2 T2 Q2 T1
Q1 Q2
(c) + = 1 (d) None of these
T1 T2
60. In case of adiabatic process which of the following may not be true.
(a) Ds = 0 (b) DQ = 0
P1 V1 - P2 V2
(c) DW = (d) None of these
g -1
61. For a reversible adiabatic process the following is/are true.
(a) Ds = 0 (b) DQ = 0
P1 V1 - P2 V2
(c) DW = (d) All of these
g -1
898 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
62. Carnot cycle has following processes:
(a) Two adiabatics and two isothermal processes
(b) Two reversible adiabatics and two reversible isothermal processes
(c) Two isentropic processes and two isothermal processes
(d) None of these
63. C.O.P. of a reversible heat pump is 1.2. If it is reversed to run as reversible heat engine
then its efficiency shall be:
(a) 0.833 (b) 0.2 (c) 1.2 (d) None of these
z z
64. For a reversible engine cycle the Clausius inequality says,
dQ dQ
(a) > 0 (b) < 0
z
T T
dQ
(c) = 0 (d) None of these
T
65. For an irreversible process in isolated system the entropy change can be given as,
(a) dSisolated > 0 (b) dSisolated < 0
(c) dSisolated = 0 (d) None of these
66. For a reversible process in isolated system the entropy change can be given as,
(a) dSisolated > 0 (b) dSisolated < 0
(c) dSisolated = 0 (d) None of these
67. The entropy generated and the total entropy change for a process to be impossible shall be,
(a) Sgen or DStotal = 0 (b) Sgen or DStotal > 0
(c) Sgen or DStotal < 0 (d) None of these
68. The entropy change in polytropic process can be given by,
F T I ×F n - g I F T I ×F n - 1 I
H T K H n -1K H T K H n-g K
2 2
(a) Cv ln (b) Cv ln
1 1
T
(c) Cv ln 2 (d) None of these
T1
69. Entropy change for an adiabatic process can be given by,
2
C p (T ) dT FG P IJ FG T IJ Fn I
∫ HPK HT K Hn K
2 2 2
(a) – R ln (b) Cv ln – R ln
1
T 1 1 1
T2 T
(c) Cp ln (d) Cv ln 2
T1 T1
70. Which of the following relation(s) is/are correct?
(a) Tds = du + p×dv (b) dh = T×ds + v×dp
(c) Tds = Cp×dT – v dp (d) All of these
71. On T-s diagram the slope of constant pressure line (mp) and the slope of constant volume
line (mv) can be related as,
(a) mp = mv (b) mv > mp
(c) mp > mv (d) mp × mv = 1
72. Exergy can not be less than zero as the maximum work interaction can not be
(a) Less than zero (b) Greater than zero
(c) Zero (d) None of these
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 899
73. Law of degradation of energy says that the unavailable energy is gradually increasing due to
(a) Increase in reversible processes
(b) Increase in irreversible processes
(c) Increase in unavailable energy
(d) None of these
74. Which of the following is/are correct? I: Irreversibility, A: Availability Wc, max: Maximum
work, T0: Dead state temperature, DSc: Combined system entropy change.
(a) I = T0 × DSc (b) Wc = A – I
(c) A = Wc, max (d) All of these
75. The efficiency of reversible and irreversible heat engine cycles can be related as,
(a) hrev = hirrev (b) hrev < hirrev
(c) hrev > hirrev (d) None of these
76. Which of the following is/are correct?
(a) Entropy is used as a convenient coordinate in thermodynamics.
(b) Entropy is used to decide whether a process is reversible, irreversible or impossible.
(c) Entropy is used to determine the heat transfer in reversible process
(d) All of these.
77. Equation DG = DH – T×DS tells us that an exothermic reaction will be associated with which
of the following:
(i) – ve DH (ii) + ve DH
(iii) More disordered, +ve Ds (iv) Spontaneous reaction
(v) More ordered – ve Ds
Possible answers
(a) (i) and (v) (b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (ii) and (iii) (d) (i), (iii) and (iv)
78. Availability of a closed system at state 1 and dead states referred with subscript 0 is given
by
(a) (E1 – E0) + p0(V1 – V0) – T0(S1 – S0)
(b) (E1 – E2) + p0(V1 – V2) – T0(S1 – S2)
V2
(c) (h1 – h0) + g(Z1 – Z0) – T0(S1 – S0) + 1
2
(d) None of these
79. The availability of steadily flowing fluid, also called stream availability is given by; (the
current state is 1 and dead state is given by 0).
(a) (E1 – E0) + p0(V1 – V0) – T0(S1 – S0)
FGV12 - V22IJ
(b) (h1 – h2) + g(Z1 – Z2) – T0(S1 – S2) +
H 2 K
V12
(c) (h1 – h0) + g(Z1 – Z0) – T0(S1 – S0) +
2
(d) None of these
80. A characteristic function is one from which all properties of a substance can be obtained
by differentiation alone, so that no arbitrary functions requiring supplementary data for their
evaluation are required. Characteristic function is/are out of the following:
(a) f (u, v, s) = 0 (b) f (h, p, s) = 0
(c) f (g, p, t) = 0 (d) All of these
900 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
81. Which of the following is/are incorrect Maxwell equations?
¶TFG IJ ¶p FG IJ ¶T FG IJ ¶vFG IJ
(a)
H K
¶v s
= –
¶s v H K (b)
¶p s H K
=
¶s H K p
FG ¶ p IJ F ¶ s IJ
= G
(c)
H ¶T K v
H ¶v KT
(d) None of these
82. The equation relating the following three measurable properties is called:
(i) The slope of saturation pressure-temperature line
(ii) The latent heat
(iii) The change in volume during phase transformation
(a) Joule’s equation
(b) Clapeyron equation
(c) Maxwell relation
(d) None of these
83. Joule Thomoson coefficient has its value changing on two sides of inversion line as under,
(a) + ve to the right and – ve on the left of inversion line
(b) – ve to the right and + ve on the left of inversion line
(c) Zero on the right and zero on the left of inversion line
(d) None of these
84. Critical point pressure and temperature for water are,
(a) 22.12 MPa and 374.15°C (b) 0.23 MPa and –268°C
(c) 18.2 MPa and 899°C (d) None of these
85. On T-s diagram the state change during transformation of 0°C water to 0°C steam at
atmospheric pressure due to heat addition can be shown by
(a) Slant line (b) Vertical line
(c) Horizontal line (d) None of these
86. On T-s diagram the state change during transformation of 0°C water to 100°C water at
atmospheric pressure due to heat addition can be shown by
(a) Line with positive slope (b) Vertical line
(c) Horizontal line (d) None of these
87. Slope of constant pressure line on enthalpy-entropy diagram of steam with increasing
pressure.
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains unaltered (d) None of these
88. The value of dryness fraction at critical point for water-steam phase transformation may be,
(a) 0 (b) 1 (c) Either 0 or 1 (d) All of these
89. During the dryness fraction measurement using throttling calorimeter the wet state of steam
is throttled so as to lie in
(a) Superheated state (b) Wet state
(c) Subcooled state (d) None of these
90. The expression for air standard efficiency of Diesel cycle is
1 1 RS
rg -1 UV
(a) h = 1 – g - 1
r
(b) h = 1 –
T a
g r g -1 r - 1 fW
1 RS g
a×r -1 UV
Ta f a fW
(c) h = 1 – g - 1 (d) None of these
r a - 1 + a ×g r - 1
Here r, r, a are compression ratio, cut-off ratio and pressure ratio.
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 901
91. The mean effective pressure for Diesel cycle is,
c
r rg -1
h a f
- 1 × p1 × a - 1 a f c h
p1 × r g g × r - 1 - r 1 - g × r g - 1
(a) mep =
ar - 1f ag - 1f (b) mep =
ag - 1far - 1f
(c) Both of these (d) None of these
Here r, r, p1 and a are compression ratio, cut-off ratio pressure at beginning of compression
and pressure ratio.
92. Thermodynamic processes constituting a Rankine cycle are isobaric heat addition, adiabatic
expansion, isobaric heat release and ...,
(a) Adiabatic pumping (b) Isothermal pumping
(c) Polytropic pumping (d) None of these
93. Rankine cycle efficiency can be improved by
(a) Reduced heat addition in boiler (b) Increasing expansion work
(c) Reduced feed pump work (d) All of these
94. For the same compression ratio and same heat input the Otto, Diesel and Dual cycle
efficiencies can be given as,
(a) hOtto > hDual > hDiesel (b) hOtto > hDiesel > hDual
(c) hDiesel > hDual > hOtto (d) None of these
95. Carnot vapour power cycle comprises of following processes.
(a) Two reversible isothermals and two reversible adiabatic processes
(b) Two isothermals and two adiabatic processes
(c) Two isothermals and two isentropic processes
(d) Two isobarics and two adiabatic processes
96. The steam is superheated in boiler at
(a) Isothermal process (b) Isobaric process
(c) Isochoric process (d) None of these
97. Throttling process can be shown on Mollier diagram by,
(a) Vertical line (b) Horizontal line
(c) Inclined line (d) None of these
98. The heat required for vaporization of water to steam decreases with
(a) Increasing steam generation pressure
(b) Decreasing steam generation pressure
(c) Decreasing steam generation temperature
(d) None of these
99. Adding heat to wet steam causes increase in its dryness fraction while the temperature and
pressure remain constant in
(a) Subcooled region (b) Superheated region
(c) Wet region (d) None of these
100. Latent heat of vaporization of water at critical point is
(a) Zero (b) 539 kcal/kg
(c) 1 kcal/kg (d) None of these
101. The combustion analysis in which the fuel is separated into arbitrary constituents such as
moisture, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash etc. is called as
(a) Ultimate analysis (b) Proximate analysis
(c) Stoichiometric analysis (d) None of these
902 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
102. A combustion has all the oxygen supplied with air to the reactants being used and no free
oxygen appears in products. Such air supplied is called as
(a) Stoichiometric air (b) Excess air
(c) Dry air (d) None of these
103. Composition of dry air on mass basis is
(a) 0.232 kg O2 and 0.768 kg N2 (b) 0.21 kg O2 and 0.79 kg N2
(c) 1 kg O2 and 3.31 kg N2 (d) None of these
104. Enthalpy of combustion of any fuel containing hydrogen in it and the H2O present in liquid
form in products is termed as,
(a) Higher heating valve (b) Lower heating valve
(c) Enthalpy of hydration (d) None of these
105. When the temperature of a pure substance approaches zero on Kelvin scale then the entropy
of substance approaches zero. This is stated by
(a) First law of thermodynamics (b) Second law of thermodynamics
(c) Third law of thermodynamics (d) None of these
106. The efficiency of Carnot cycle may be equal to which of the following cycle running
between same temperature limits,
(a) Rankine cycle (b) Stirling cycle
(c) Brayton cycle (d) Otto cycle
107. Which of the following is not vapour power cycle?
(a) Rankine cycle (b) Carnot vapour power cycle
(c) Otto cycle (d) None of these
108. The amount of energy added by heat transfer to the cycle to produce unit of net work output
is called
(a) Heat rate (b) Work ratio
(c) Back work ratio (d) Thermal efficiency
109. Difference between temperature of feed water outlet and saturation temperature of steam
entering the heater is called
(a) Pinch point (b) Terminal temperature difference
(c) LMTD (d) None of these
110. Deaerator is feed water heater of which type
(a) Closed type feed water heater (b) Surface type feed water heater
(c) Open type feed water heater (d) None of these
111. Effectiveness by second law of thermodynamics can be given by
Availability output h thermal
(a) (b)
Availability in h thermal, rev
Availability used
(c) (d) All of these
Availability supplied
112. Which of the following is incorrect?
(a) Availability follows the law of conservation
(b) Availability is function of states of matter under consideration and environment
(c) Availability always depends upon pressure
(d) Availability increases with temperature drop at low temperatures
113. For a reversible isothermal and isochoric process the Helmholtz free energy,
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains constant (d) Nothing can be said
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 903
F dpI FG d T IJ
114. Clausius-Clapeyron equation given by
H pK sat
= hfg ×
H RT K 2
sat
is valid for
(a)
1 8
23 3
C+8 H- e O
8
+S j (b)
1 8
21 3
C+8 H-
O
8
+S e j
(c)
1
23 e
8C + 8 H -
O
8
+Sj (d) None of these
121. Equipment used for carrying out volumetric analysis of dry products of combustion is
called,
(a) Bomb calorimeter (b) Orsat analyzer
(c) Gas calorimeter (d) None of these
122. Lancashire boiler has how many number of fire tubes in it?
(a) Three (b) Four (c) Two (d) One
123. Cornish boiler has how many flue tubes in it?
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) None
124. Which of the following is/are super critical boiler?
(a) Cochran boiler (b) Locomotive boiler
(c) Benson boiler (d) Lancashire boiler
125. Which of the following is/are fire tube boiler(s)?
(a) Velox boiler (b) Nestler boiler
(c) Locomotive boilers (d) All of these
904 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
126. Water level indicator has how many vertical tubes?
(a) One (b) Two (c) Three (d) Four
127. Fusible plug has plug made of copper and the body is made of
(a) Gun metal (b) Aluminium (c) Iron (d) Bronze
128. Feed pump in boilers may be of
(a) reciprocating pump type (b) centrifugal pump type
(c) injector type (d) All of these
129. The maximum discharge through a natural draught chimney can be given as function of m
(mass of air supplied per kg of fuel), Ta (atmospheric temperature) and Tg (hot gas
temperature).
T × 2 ( m + 1) T ×2m
(a) Tg = a (b) Tg = a
m ( m + 1)
T × ( m + 1)
(c) Tg = a (d) None of these
2m
130. The power requirement in forced draught and induced draught shall be related as,
(a) Pinduced = Pforced (b) Pinduced < Pforced
(c) Pinduced > Pforced (d) None of these
131. State which of the following is/are incorrect?
(a) Combustion is better in forced draught
(b) Fan size of induced draught is larger than forced draught fan
(c) Maintenance in F.D. fan is easy as compared to ID fan
(d) None of these
132. Steam jet draught is not of following type
(a) Natural draught (b) Induced draught
(c) Forced draught (d) Artificial draught
133. Boiler efficiency is given by the the ratio of heat used in steam generation and
(a) Heat recovered using artificial draught
(b) Heat lost due to use of natural draught
(c) Heat available due to fuel burning
(d) None of these
134. Mean temperature of heat addition gets increased and shows increase in cycle thermal
efficiency. This cycle is called,
(a) Regenerative cycle (b) Reheat cycle
(c) Carnot cycle (d) None of these
135. At a given compression ratio the Otto cycle efficiency for the working fluids having g = 1.2,
1.4 and 1.67 can be related as,
(a) hg = 1.2 > hg = 1.4 > hg = 1.67 (b) hg = 1.2 < hg = 1.4 < hg = 1.67
(c) hg = 1.2 = hg = 1.4 = hg = 1.67 (d) None of these
136. Intercooling in between the compression process of gas turbine cycle causes
(a) Reduction in expansion work (b) Increase in compression work
(c) Increase in expansion work (d) Reduction in compression work
137. Stagnation temperature can be related to the static temperature and dynamic temperature as
under
(a) Stagnation temperature = Static temperature – Dynamic temperature
(b) Stagnation temperature = Static temperature + Dynamic temperature
(c) Stagnation temperature = Dynamic temperature – Static temperature
(d) None of these
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 905
138. In case of multistage compressor inspite of constant stage efficiency the isentropic
compression efficiency goes on reducing with increasing pressure ratio due to
(a) Preheating effect
(b) Increase in temperature due to friction
(c) Friction in a stage results in more work requirement in next stage
(d) All of above
139. Modified index of compression (n) accounting for non-isentropic compression can be given
as function of compressor’s polytropic efficiency, hpoly,c as
n -1 FG g - 1 IJ n -1 FG g - 1 IJ
(a)
n
=
H g ×hpoly,c K (b)
n
=
H g K hpoly,c
n -1
= G
F g ×h IJ
H g -1 K
poly,c
(c) (d) None of these
n
140. Modified index of expansion (n), accounting for non-isentropic expansion can be given as
function of turbine’s polytropic efficiency, hpoly,T.
n -1 FG g -1 IJ n -1 FG
h poly,T × (g - 1) IJ
(a)
n
=
H K
g × h poly,T
(b)
n
=
H g K
n -1
= G
F h × g IJ
H (g - 1) K
poy,T
(c) (d) None of these
n
141. Which of the following cycles may have highest efficiency under ideal conditions?
(a) Ericsson cycle (b) Stirling cycle
(c) Carnot cycle (d) All of these
142. In a steam engine eccentric the ratio of ‘throw of eccentric’ and ‘radius of eccentric’ is
equal to
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 0.5 (d) None of these
143. Distance by which valve uncovers the steam port when piston is at dead centre is called
(a) Lead (b) Stroke
(c) Clearance (d) None of these
144. Expansion in steam engine cylinder is following type of thermodynamic process
(a) Adiabatic process (b) Isobaric process
(c) Isochoric process (d) Hyperbolic process
145. Mean effective pressure for steam engine without clearance volume can be given as function
of inlet pressure p1, back pressure pb, expansion ratio ‘r’ as under:
p (1 - ln r ) p (1 + ln r )
(a) 1 – pb (b) 1 + pb
r r
p1 (1 + ln r )
(c) – pb (d) None of these
r
146. Actual indicator diagram differs from the hypothetical indicator diagram in steam engine due to
(a) Pressure drop because of friction
(b) Non instantaneous operation of inlet and exit valves
(c) Expansion not occurring hyperbolically in actual engine
(d) All of these
906 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
147. Diagram factor in steam engines has its value
(a) Less than unity (b) Greater than unity
(c) Equal to unity (d) None of these
148. Condensation can be prevented in steam engines by
(a) Supplying superheated steam
(b) Providing steam jacket around cylinder wall
(c) Increasing speed of engine for certain output
(d) All of these
149. If all the steam states during expansion are found to be dry and saturated then the expansion
curve is called
(a) Saturation curve (b) Willan’s line
(c) Missing curve (d) None of these
150. A special kind of valve employed for cut-off governing of steam engine is called
(a) D-slide valve (b) Piston valve
(c) Meyer’s expansion valve (d) None of these
151. Compounding of steam engine offers the advantages of
(a) Possibility of increased pressure and temperature of steam at inlet
(b) Reduced thermal stresses
(c) Reduced condensation losses
(d) All of these
152. Two pistons of HP and LP cylinders are mounted in a compound steam engine with zero
phase difference. This type of engine is called
(a) Tandem compound engine (b) Woolf compound engine
(c) Receiver compound engine (d) None of these
153. The mean effective pressure of HP referred to LP cylinder can be given by
mep HP ´ D VLP mepHP ´ D VHP
(a) (b)
D VHP D VLP
mep LP ´ D VHP
(c) (d) None of these
D VLP
154. For equal power developed in each cylinder of compound steam engine having LP and HP
cylinders it can be said that
(a) mepLP = mepHP referred to LP (b) mepLP ´ mepHP = 1
(c) mepLP ´ DVHP = mepHP ´ DVLP (d) None of these
155. The variation of cross-sectional area (A), velocity of gas flowing (C), and Mach number (M)
during flow through a variable cross section area duct can be related as,
(a)
dA
A
=
dC
C
b
1 - M2 g (b)
dA
A
=
dC
C
bM2 - 1 g
dC dA
(c) = (M2 – 1) (d) None of these
C A
156. For a subsonic flow the increase in velocity from inlet to exit may be obtained from a duct
of,
(a) Diverging cross-sectional area type
(b) Diverging-converging cross-sectional area type
(c) Converging cross sectional area type
(d) None of these
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 907
157. For supersonic flow the increase in velocity from inlet to exit may be obtained from a duct
of,
(a) Diverging cross-sectional area type
(b) Converging-diverging cross-sectional area type
(c) Converging cross-sectional area type
(d) None of these
158. The critical pressure ratio for maximum discharge through nozzle can be given as,
FG 1 IJ F n + 1I
n n
n -1
H 2 K
n -1
(a)
H n + 1K (b)
FG 2 IJ FG 2 IJ
n -1 n
n n -1
(c)
H n + 1K (d)
H n + 1K
159. The critical pressure ratio for air flowing through nozzle shall be,
(a) 0.528 (b) 0.545 (c) 0.577 (d) none of these
160. The maximum discharge per unit area at throat for critical conditions for perfect gas flowing
through nozzle can be given by,
FG 2 IJ FG 2 IJ
g -1 g +1
p g +1 g × p1 g -1
(a) g× 1
v1 H g + 1K (b)
v1 H g + 1K
FG 2 IJ
g +1
g -1
(c) g × p1 v1
H g + 1K (d) None of these
161. When the back pressure of nozzle is below the designed value of pressure at exit of nozzle
then the nozzle is called,
(a) Inder-expanding nozzle (b) Over-expanding nozzle
(c) Designed operation nozzle (d) None of these
162. When the back pressure of a nozzle is equal to critical pressure then such operating state
of nozzle is called,
(a) Under-expanding nozzle (b) Over-expanding nozzle
(c) Choked operation of nozzle (d) None of these
163. If the velocity at inlet to nozzle is C1 and the velocity at exit of nozzle during isentropic
expansion and non isentropic expansion are C2 and C 2¢ respectively, then the nozzle
efficiency shall be;
C22 - C12 C22' C12 - C22' C22¢ - C12
(a) (b) (c) (d)
C22' - C12 C22 C22 - C12 C22 - C12
164. Phenomenon of supersaturation, when occurring in nozzle causes,
(a) Increase in discharge (b) Reduced velocity at exit
(c) Increase in dryness fraction and entropy (d) All of these
165. The ratio of saturation pressure corresponding to the temperatures of steam states in stable
equilibrium and metastable equilibrium during steam flow through nozzle is called
(a) Degree of supersaturation (b) Degree of undercooling
(c) Critical pressure ratio (d) None of these
908 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
166. The difference between the saturation temperature corresponding to the steam states in
stable equilibrium and metastable equilibrium during steam flow through nozzle is called
(a) Degree of supersaturation (b) Degree of undercooling
(c) Critical temperature difference (d) None of these
167. In a steam turbine the substantial static pressure drop occurs in stationary nozzle and rotor
blade passage, the type of turbine may be
(a) Impulse turbine (b) Reaction turbine
(c) Branca’s turbine (d) None of these
168. In a steam turbine if the leakage along the mating surface of shaft and casing is reduced
by using the principle of steam throttling then the type of sealing arrangement may be
(a) Carbon rings (b) Packings
(c) Labyrinth glands (d) None of these
169. Radial flow turbines are also called as
(a) Rateau turbine (b) Ljungstrom turbine
(c) Curtis turbine (d) None of these
170. A steam turbine rejects steam at a pressure much above the atmospheric pressure and this
steam is being used for some purposes such as heating etc. This could be:
(a) Back pressure turbine (b) Passout turbine
(c) Mixed pressure turbine (d) None of these
171. Which of the following is not a part of impulse steam turbine?
(a) Nozzle (b) Symmetrical moving blades ring
(c) Aerofoil type blades (d) None of these
172. A steam turbine stage has nozzle followed by moving blade ring followed by fixed blade ring
and lastly moving blade ring. This could be
(a) Rateau turbine
(b) Curtis turbine
(c) Pressure compounded impulse turbine
(d) None of these
173. The ratio of blade velocity to steam velocity remains constant in which type of compounding
of impulse steam turbines
(a) Pressure compounding (b) Velocity compounding
(c) Pressure-Velocity compounding (d) None of these
174. The efficiency of a compound impulse turbine goes on decreasing with increase in the
number of stages. This could be,
(a) Pressure compounding (b) Velocity compounding
(c) Pressure-Velocity compounding (d) None of these
175. In case of an impulse turbine the blade velocity coefficient shall have its value for actual case
as,
(a) < 1 (b) > 1 (c) = 1 (d) None of these
176. The component of velocity which is responsible for maintaining the flow of steam across
the moving blade row is called,
(a) Relative velocity (b) Absolute velocity
(c) Tangential component of velocity (d) Axial component of velocity
177. In an impulse turbine the absolute angle at inlet should be selected depending upon
(a) Thrust requirement (b) Maintaining flow across the blade row
(c) Both (a) and (b) (d) None of these
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 909
178. The ratio of work done to the energy supplied to rotor in a turbine stage is called,
(a) Blading efficiency (b) Stage efficiency
(c) Nozzle efficiency (d) None of these
179. The ratio of rate of work done and energy supplied to the stage in a turbine is called
(a) Blading efficiency (b) Stage efficiency
(c) Nozzle efficiency (d) None of these
180. Stage efficiency, nozzle efficiency and diagram efficiency can be related as,
h diagram
(a) hstage = (b) hstage = hdiagram ´ hnozzle
h nozzle
(c) hnozzle = hstage ´ hdiagram (d) None of these
181. The diagram efficiency is highest for a simple impulse turbine stage having smooth and
symmetrical blade when blade—steam speed ratio can be given as,
cosa 1 cosa 1
(a) cos a1 (b) (c) (d) none of these
4 2
182. Steam turbines having the complete nozzle coverage of blades are called,
(a) Full admission turbine (b) Partial admission turbine
(c) Reaction turbines (d) None of these
183. The optimum value of blade to steam speed ratio can be generalised for ‘n’ number of
moving blade rows in impulse turbine as,
cosa 1 cosa 1
(a) (b) (c) cos a1 (d) None of these
2 n
2×n
184. If the degree of reaction is 0.75 then the enthalpy changes occurring in rotor and stator
blades in a stage can be related as,
1
(a) Dhstator = × Dhrotor (b) 3 × Dhstator = 4×Dhrotor
3
1
(c) Dhrotor = × Dhstator (d) None of these
3
185. Which of the following may be reaction turbine?
(a) Curtis turbine (b) Rateau turbine
(c) Parson’s turbine (d) None of these
186. Reheat factor for steam turbine stages has its value,
(a) > 1 (b) < 1 (c) = 1 (d) None of these
187. The ratio of sum of actual output of stages and the available energy in turbine is called
(a) Reheat factor (b) Stage efficiency
(c) Internal efficiency (d) None of these
188. Use of condenser in a steam power plant offers advantages such as
(a) It permits the recirculation of condensate
(b) It allows for lower back pressure
(c) It increases the turbine output
(d) All of these
189. Condenser generally operates at
(a) Sub-atmospheric pressure (b) Atmospheric pressure
(c) Above atmospheric pressure (d) None of these
910 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
190. Which of the following can not be achieved by using condenser?
(a) Removal of air and other non-condensable dissolved gases
(b) Reduced load on water treatment plant
(c) Availability of hotter feed water
(d) None of these
191. The condenser in which there is direct contact between the steam and cooling fluid could
be
(a) Surface condenser (b) Jet condenser
(c) Evaporative condenser (d) None of these
192. A condenser is placed at low level such that the vacuum inside condenser draws cooling
water into condenser from river. Such condenser may be
(a) Low level jet condenser (b) High level jet condenser
(c) Surface condenser (d) None of these
193. A condenser is placed at a height more than that of water and water is to be injected into
condenser using a pump and condensate flows out of condenser due to gravity. This
condenser may be,
(a) Low level jet condenser (b) High level condenser
(c) Surface condenser (d) None of these
194. Ejector condenser does not require air pump because of
(a) No air present
(b) Air entraining effect of water jet itself
(c) Air being separated and released separately
(d) None of these
195. In ejector condenser in the event of failure of cooling water supply water may be sucked
from hot well to go into steam pipe. But this is prevented due to
(a) Non return valve in steam line (b) High pressure
(c) Low pressure (d) None of these
196. While designing the condenser it is desired to have,
(a) Maximum heat transfer between two fluids
(b) Effective air extraction
(c) No air leakage
(d) All of these
197. A surface condenser should preferably have,
(a) Uniform distribution of steam over cooling water tubes
(b) Minimum pressure loss of steam
(c) Minimum number of tubes
(d) All of these
198. Leakage of air into condenser causes,
(a) Reduction in work done per kg of steam due to increase in back pressure
(b) Increased heat exchange between water and steam
(c) Increased efficiency of auxiliary devices
(d) None of these
199. Air leakage into condenser could be identified by
(a) Drop in thermometer reading, after isolation of condenser from plant
(b) Soap bubble test
(c) Peppermint oil test (d) All of above
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 911
200. Vacuum efficiency of condenser can be given by,
Theoretical vacuum Actual vacuum
(a) (b) Theoretical vacuum
Actual vacuum
Condenser pressure
(c) (d) None of these
Ideal condenser pressure
201. Condenser efficiency is given by,
Actual cooling water temperature rise
(a)
Maximum possible temperature rise
Actual vacuum
(b)
Theoretical vacuum
Actual cooling water required
(c)
Minimum cooling water requirement
(d) none of these
202. Effectiveness of cooling tower diminishes due to,
(a) Humid weather conditions (b) Drift losses
(c) Poor atomization of hot water (d) All of these
203. The performance of cooling tower depends upon,
(a) Duration of contact between water and air
(b) Area of contact between water and air
(c) Relative velocity of air and water flow
(d) All of these
204. For delivery pressure more than 85 bar the number of stages desired in compressor may
be
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
205. The compression work requirement is minimum in case of the compression following
process of,
(a) Adiabatic type (b) Isochoric type
(c) Isothermal type (d) Hyperbolic type
206. The ratio of volume of free air sucked into cylinder and the swept volume of LP cylinder
is called,
(a) Volumetric efficiency (b) Diagram factor
(c) Compression efficiency (d) None of these
207. Volumetric efficiency referred to free air conditions in case of reciprocating air compressor
can be given by,
FG P × T IJ |RS1 + C - C FG P IJ 1/ n
|UV F P × T I RS1 + C - C F P I UV
1/ n
H P ×T K |T HPK |W H P ×T K T HPK W
1 a 2 a 1 2
(a) (b)
a 1 1 1 a 1
FG P × T IJ R|S1 - C + C FG P IJ 1/ n
U|
V|
H P × T K |T HPK
1 a 2
(c)
a 1 1 W (d) None of these
208. What will happen to the volumetric efficiency with increasing pressure ratio in case of single
stage compression in compressors?
(a) Decrease (b) Increase
(c) Remains unaffected (d) None of these
912 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
209. In order to get the same free air delivery from a compressor how should the size of cylinder
be changed with increasing pressure ratio?
(a) Increased (b) Reduced (c) No change (d) None of these
210. For the multistage compression with perfect intercooling the work requirement shall be
minimum when,
(a) Pressure ratio in each stage are equal
(b) Pressure ratio in first stage is greater than second stage
(c) Pressure ratio in second stage is double of pressure ratio in first stage
(d) None of these
211. Which of the following is not a positive displacement type compressor?
(a) Roots blower (b) Screw type compressor
(c) Vane type compressor (d) None of these
212. In vane type compressor the contribution of reversible pressure rise and irrversible pressure
rise is generally in the proportion of
(a) 3 : 1 (b) 1 : 3 (c) 1 : 1 (d) None of these
213. Slip factor for a centrifugal compressor may be given by the ratio of
(a) Actual whirl velocity and ideal whirl velocity
(b) Actual tangential velocity and ideal absolute velocity
(c) Relative velocity and absolute velocity
(d) None of these
214. For the centrifugal compressor having radial flow blades the stagnation pressure may be
given by
LM1 + C T OP LM1 + C T OP
g g -1
p 01 ( g - 1) p 01 g
(a)
N U 2
2 Q (b)
N U Q 2
2
LM1 + U OP
g
2 ( g - 1)
N CT Q
2
(c) (d) None of these
p 01
215. The index of compression value in case of air compression process of cooled type in
centrifugal compressor may
(a) Be equal to adiabatic index (b) Be even less than adiabatic index
(c) Be more than from adiabatic index (d) None of these
216. What shall happen to surging if the number of diffuser vanes is increased in a centrifugal
compressor?
(a) Increases (b) Decreases
(c) Remains unchanged (d) None of these
217. In order to prevent surging due to flow reversal the number of diffuser vanes (nd) and the
number of impeller blades (ni) shall be as under in case of centrifugal compressor,
(a) nd = ni (b) ni < nd (c) ni > nd (d) None of these
218. Which of the following occurs due to stalling?
(a) Reduced stage efficiency (b) Increased vibrations
(c) Reduced delivery pressure (d) All of these
219. Which of the following refers to centrifugal compressor characteristics?
(a) For a given pressure ratio the increase in speed shows increase in flow rate and
simultaneous reduction in efficiency.
(b) For a particular speed of compressor the decrease in mass flow rate is accompanied
by increase in pressure ratio.
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 913
(c) At all speeds the compressor operation is limited by surging and choking at the two
ends.
(d) All of these
220. Which of the following refers to axial flow compressor characteristics?
(a) Flow rate changes too much with increase in pressure ratio at design conditions
(b) Efficiency decreases with decreasing flow rate
(c) Efficiency increases with decreasing pressure ratio
(d) All of these
221. Isentropic efficiencies for the centrifugal compressor and the axial flow compressor can be
related as,
(a) hisen, cent = hisen, axial (b) hisen, cent > hisen, axial
(c) hisen, cent < hisen, axial (d) None of these
222. Starting torque requirements of centrifugal compressor and axial flow compressor can be
related as,
(a) Tcentrifugal > Taxial (b) Tcentrifugal < Taxial
(c) Tcentrifugal = Taxial (d) None of these
223. Morse test is used for measurement of,
(a) Torque (b) Specific fuel consumption
(c) Brake power (d) Friction power
224. Which of the following are phases of combustion in CI engine?
(a) Ignition delay (b) Uncontrolled combustion
(c) Controlled combustion (d) All of these
225. One ton of refrigeration is equivalent to
(a) 3.87 kJ/s (b) 3 kJ/s
(c) 56 kcal/min (d) None of these
226. For a definite low temperature to be maintained, the COP of refrigerator can be related for
cold and hot days as,
(a) COPhot days > COPcold days (b) COPhot days < COPcold days
(c) COPhot days = COPcold days (d) None of these
227. Bell-Coleman cycle based refrigeration system has
(a) Isobaric heat addition (b) Isothermal heat release
(c) Isochoric heat addition (d) Isothermal heat addition
228. COP of Bell-Coleman cycle and reversed Carnot cycle can be related as
(a) COPBell-Coleman > COPCarnot (b) COPBell-Coleman < COPCarnot
(c) COPBell-Coleman = COPCarnot (d) None of these
229. For the compression of refrigerant beginning with wet state of refrigerant in compressor,
the compression process is called,
(a) Dry compression (b) Wet compression
(c) Adiabatic compression (d) None of these
230. Throttling of certain gases may be used for getting the refrigeration. The value of Joule-
Thomson coefficient for such throttling processes shall be,
(a) m = 1 (b) m < 0 (c) m > 0 (d) m = 0
231. Energy performance ratio (EPR) and Coefficient of performance (COP) can be related by,
(a) EPR = COP + 1 (b) EPR + COP = 1
(c) EPR = COP (d) None of these
914 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
232. The absorption refrigeration cycle employs following devices for raising pressure of
refrigerant,
(a) Compressor (b) Pump (c) Generator (d) Absorber
233. The coolant used in ammonia-LiBr, water absorption refrigeration system is
(a) Ammonia only (b) Water only
(c) Ammonia-LiBr (d) Ammonia-water
234. In ammonia-water absorption system the separation of ammonia from strong aqua-ammonia
solution requires,
(a) Heat addition to it (b) Heat extraction from it
(c) No energy interaction (d) None of these
235. Absorber used in ammonia-water absorption system should be kept at low temperature
because it,
(a) Helps in generating high pressure ammonia
(b) Facilitates better mixing of ammonia into water
(c) Drives out ammonia quickly
(d) None of these
236. The low pressure ammonia leaving expansion valve in ammonia-water absorption system is
(a) Pure vapour (b) Pure liquid
(c) Liquid-vapour mixture (d) Pure liquid or liquid-vapour mixture
237. Device used in absorption system for preventing the moisture accompanying refrigerant
from entering into the circuit of absorption cycle is called,
(a) Rectifier (b) Evaporator (c) Generator (d) Absorber
238. Which of the following are secondary refrigerants?
(a) Brine (b) Water
(c) Anti-freeze agents (d) All of these
239. For increasing the refrigerating capacity the refrigerant should have small value of specific
heat in liquid form and its specific heat value in vapour form should be,
(a) Small (b) Large
(c) Nothing can be said (d) None of these
240. Which of the following is/are desired properties of refrigerants?
(a) High viscosity (b) Low thermal conductivity
(c) Large specific volume (d) None of these
241. Humidity ratio can be given in terms of partial pressures of dry air (pa) and water vapour
(pv) as,
FG p IJ FG p IJ
Hp K Hp K
a v
(a) 0.622 (b) 0.622
F p IJ
v a
(c) 0.622 G
Hp -p K
v
(d) None of these
v a
242. Wet bulb depression in case of saturated air shall be,
w bt
(a) 0 (b) (c) wbt (d) dbt
d bt
243. The saturation temperature corresponding to the partial pressure of water vapour present in
moist air can be given as,
(a) Dry bulb temperature (b) Wet bulb temperature
(c) Dew point temperature (d) None of these
Multiple Answer Type Questions __________________________________________________ 915
244. If air is passed over the cooling coils then this process is termed as
(a) Sensible cooling (b) Cooling with humidification
(c) Cooling with dehumidification (d) None of these
245. If in a process the humidity ratio and dry bulb temperature increase then the process may
be,
(a) Sensible heating (b) Dehumidification
(c) Humidification (d) None of these
246. What processes could be there in summer air conditioning?
(a) Cooling (b) Humidification
(c) Dehumidification (d) All of these
247. The generally used comfort conditions required in air conditioned space in India are
(a) 30°C DBT and 60% relative humidity
(b) 15°C DBT and 50% relative humidity
(c) 25°C DBT and 60% relative humidity
(d) 25°C DBT and 50% relative humidity
248. Which of the following is demerit with vapour compression system over air refrigeration
system
(a) Large initial investment (b) Small refrigerant requirement
(c) Smaller operating cost (d) All of these
249. Which of the following is advantage with vapour absorption system over the vapour
compression system?
(a) No moving component (b) Less work input requirement
(c) Utilization of waste energy (d) All of these
250. Which of the following gives demerit with vapour absorption system over vapour
compression system?
(a) Large size (b) Requirement of heating source
(c) Poor COP at high loads (d) All of these
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (b) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (b)
7. (a) 8. (c) 9. (c) 10. (b) 11. (c) 12. (a)
13. (a) 14. (b) 15. (b) 16. (a) 17. (a) 18. (c)
19. (d) 20. (a) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (a) 24. (d)
25. (a) 26. (b) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (b) 30. (c)
31. (c) 32. (b) 33. (d) 34. (a) 35. (d) 36. (b)
37. (a) 38. (b) 39. (b) 40. (a) 41. (b) 42. (b)
43. (b) 44. (a) 45. (a) 46. (b) 47. (d) 48. (a)
49. (c) 50. (c) 51. (a) 52. (b) 53. (d) 54. (c)
55. (c) 56. (a) 57. (d) 58. (b) 59. (a) 60. (a)
61. (d) 62. (b) 63. (a) 64. (c) 65. (a) 66. (c)
67. (c) 68. (a) 69. (a) 70. (d) 71. (b) 72. (a)
73. (b) 74. (d) 75. (c) 76. (d) 77. (d) 78. (a)
79. (c) 80. (d) 81. (d) 82. (b) 83. (a) 84. (a)
85. (c) 86. (a) 87. (a) 88. (d) 89. (a) 90. (b)
91. (b) 92. (a) 93. (d) 94. (a) 95. (a) 96. (b)
97. (b) 98. (a) 99. (c) 100. (a) 101. (b) 102. (a)
916 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
103. (a) 104. (b) 105. (c) 106. (b) 107. (c) 108. (a)
109. (b) 110. (c) 111. (d) 112. (a) 113. (c) 114. (a)
115. (b) 116. (a) 117. (a) 118. (d) 119. (a) 120. (a)
121. (b) 122. (c) 123. (a) 124. (c) 125. (d) 126. (b)
127. (a) 128. (d) 129. (a) 130. (c) 131. (d) 132. (a)
133. (c) 134. (a) 135. (b) 136. (d) 137. (b) 138. (d)
139. (a) 140. (b) 141. (d) 142. (b) 143. (a) 144. (d)
145. (c) 146. (d) 147. (a) 148. (d) 149. (a) 150. (c)
151. (d) 152. (a) 153. (b) 154. (a) 155. (b) 156. (c)
157. (a) 158. (d) 159. (a) 160. (b) 161. (a) 162. (c)
163. (d) 164. (d) 165. (a) 166. (b) 167. (b) 168. (c)
169. (b) 170. (a) 171. (c) 172. (b) 173. (a) 174. (b)
175. (a) 176. (d) 177. (c) 178. (a) 179. (b) 180. (b)
181. (c) 182. (a) 183. (b) 184. (a) 185. (c) 186. (a)
187. (c) 188. (d) 189. (a) 190. (d) 191. (b) 192. (a)
193. (b) 194. (b) 195. (a) 196. (d) 197. (d) 198. (a)
199. (d) 200. (b) 201. (a) 202. (d) 203. (d) 204. (d)
205. (c) 206. (a) 207. (a) 208. (a) 209. (a) 210. (a)
211. (d) 212. (c) 213. (a) 214. (c) 215. (b) 216. (a)
217. (c) 218. (d) 219. (d) 220. (b) 221. (c) 222. (b)
223. (d) 224. (d) 225. (a) 226. (b) 227. (a) 228. (b)
229. (b) 230. (c) 231. (a) 232. (b) 233. (b) 234. (a)
235. (b) 236. (d) 237. (a) 238. (d) 239. (b) 240. (d)
241. (b) 242. (a) 243. (c) 244. (a) 245. (c) 246. (d)
247. (c) 248. (a) 249. (d) 250. (d)
APPENDIX
Table 1 Ideal-gas specific heats of various common gases at 300 K
0.01 0.6113 0.001000 206.14 0.0 2375.3 2375.3 0.01 2501.4 2501.4 0.000 9.1562 9.1562
5 0.8721 0.001000 147.12 20.97 2361.3 2382.3 20.98 2489.6 2510.6 0.0761 8.9496 9.0257
10 1.2276 0.001000 106.38 42.00 2347.2 2389.2 42.01 2477.7 2519.8 0.1510 8.7498 8.9008
15 1.7051 0.001001 77.93 62.99 2333.1 2396.1 62.99 2465.9 2528.9 0.2245 8.5569 8.7814
20 2.339 0.001002 57.79 83.95 2319.0 2402.9 83.96 2454.1 2538.1 0.2966 8.3706 8.6672
25 3.169 0.001003 43.36 104.88 2409.8 2309.8 104.89 2442.3 2547.2 0.3674 8.1905 8.5580
30 4.246 0.001004 32.89 125.78 2290.8 2416.6 125.79 2430.5 2556.3 0.4369 8.0164 8.4533
35 5.628 0.001006 25.22 146.67 2276.7 2423.4 146.68 2418.6 2565.3 0.5053 7.8478 8.3531
40 7.384 0.001008 19.52 167.56 2262.6 2430.1 167.57 2406.7 2574.3 0.5725 7.6845 8.2570
45 9.593 0.001010 15.26 188.44 2248.4 2436.8 188.45 2394.8 2583.2 0.6387 7.5261 8.1648
50 12.349 0.001012 12.03 209.32 2234.2 2443.5 209.33 2382.7 2592.1 0.7038 7.3725 8.0763
55 15.758 0.001015 9.568 230.21 2219.9 2450.1 230.23 2370.7 2600.9 0.7679 7.2234 7.9913
60 19.940 0.001017 7.671 251.11 2205.5 2456.6 251.13 2358.5 2609.6 0.8312 7.0784 7.9096
65 25.03 0.001020 6.197 272.02 2191.1 2463.1 272.06 2346.2 2618.3 0.8935 6.9375 7.8310
70 31.19 0.001023 5.042 292.95 2176.6 2469.6 292.98 2333.8 2626.8 0.9549 6.8004 7.7553
75 38.58 0.001026 4.131 313.90 2162.0 2475.9 313.93 2321.4 2635.3 1.0155 6.6669 7.6824
80 47.39 0.001029 3.407 334.86 2147.4 2482.2 334.91 2308.8 2643.7 1.0753 6.5369 7.6122
85 57.83 0.001033 2.828 355.84 2132.6 2488.4 355.90 2296.0 2651.9 1.1343 6.4102 7.5445
90 70.14 0.001036 2.361 376.85 2117.7 2494.5 376.92 2283.2 2660.1 1.1925 6.2866 7.4791
95 84.55 0.001040 1.982 397.88 2102.7 2500.6 397.96 2270.2 2668.1 1.2500 6.1659 7.4159
918 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Table 2 Saturated Steam (temperature) table
P = 0.01 MPa (45.81 ºC) P = 0.05 MPa (81.33 ºC) P = 0.10 MPa (99.63 ºC)
Sat. 14.674 2437.9 2584.7 8.1502 3.240 2483.9 2645.9 7.5939 1.6940 2506.1 2675.5 7.3594
50 14.869 2483.9 2592.6 8.1749
100 17.196 2515.5 2687.5 8.4479 3.418 2511.6 2682.5 7.6947 1.6958 2506.7 2676.2 7.3614
150 19.512 2587.9 2783.0 8.6882 3.889 2585.6 2780.1 7.9401 1.9364 2582.8 2776.4 7.6134
200 21.825 2661.3 2879.5 8.9038 4.356 2659.9 2877.7 8.1580 2.172 2658.1 2875.3 7.8343
250 24.136 2736.0 2977.3 9.1002 4.820 2735.0 2976.0 8.3556 2.406 2733.7 2974.3 8.0333
300 26.445 2812.1 3075.5 9.2813 5.284 2811.3 3075.5 8.5373 2.639 2810.4 3074.3 8.2158
400 31.063 2968.9 3279.6 9.6077 6.209 2968.5 3278.9 8.8642 3.103 2967.9 3278.2 8.5435
500 35.679 3132.3 3489.1 9.8978 7.134 3132.0 3488.7 9.1546 3.565 3131.6 3488.1 8.8342
600 40.295 3302.5 3705.4 10.1608 8.057 3302.2 3705.1 9.4178 4.028 3301.9 3704.4 9.0976
700 44.911 3479.6 3928.7 10.4028 8.981 3479.4 3928.5 9.6599 4.490 3479.2 3928.2 9.3398
800 49.526 3663.8 4159.0 10.6281 9.904 3663.6 4158.0 9.8852 4.952 3663.5 4158.6 9.5652
900 54.141 3855.0 4396.4 10.8396 10.828 3854.9 4396.3 10.0967 5.414 3854.8 4396.1 9.7767
1000 58.757 4053.0 4640.6 11.0393 11.751 4052.9 4640.5 10.2964 5.875 4052.8 4640.3 9.9764
1100 63.372 4257.5 4891.2 11.2287 12.674 4257.4 4891.1 10.4859 6.337 4257.3 4891.0 10.1659
1200 67.987 4467.9 5147.8 11.4091 13.597 4467.8 5147.7 10.6662 6.799 4467.7 5147.6 10.3463
1300 72.602 4683.7 5409.7 11.5811 14.521 4683.6 5409.6 10.8382 7.260 4683.5 5409.5 10.5183
922 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Table 4 Superheated steam table
T v u h s v u h s v u h s
ºC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K)
P = 0.20 MPa (120.23 ºC) P = 0.30 MPa (133.55 ºC) P = 0.40 MPa (143.63 ºC)
Sat. 0.8857 2529.5 2706.7 7.1272 0.6058 2543.6 2725.3 6.9919 0.4625 2553.6 2738.6 6.8959
150 0.9596 2576.9 2768.8 7.2795 0.6339 2570.8 2761.0 7.0778 0.4708 2564.5 2752.8 6.9299
200 1.0803 2654.4 2870.5 7.5066 0.7163 2650.7 2865.6 7.3115 0.5342 2646.8 2860.5 7.1706
250 1.1988 2731.2 2971.0 7.7086 0.7964 2728.7 2967.6 7.5166 0.5951 2726.1 2964.2 7.3789
300 1.3162 2808.6 3071.8 7.8926 0.8753 2806.7 3069.3 7.7022 0.6548 2804.8 3066.8 7.5662
400 1.5493 2966.7 3276.6 8.2218 1.0315 2965.6 3275.0 8.0330 0.7726 2964.4 3273.4 7.8985
500 1.7814 3130.8 3487.1 8.5133 1.1867 3130.0 3486.0 8.3251 0.8893 3129.2 3484.9 8.1913
600 2.013 3301.4 3704.0 8.7770 1.3414 3300.8 3703.2 8.5892 1.0055 3300.2 3702.4 8.4558
700 2.244 3478.8 3927.6 9.0194 1.4957 3478.4 3927.1 8.8319 1.1215 3477.9 3926.5 8.6987
800 2.475 3663.1 4158.2 9.2449 1.6499 3662.9 4157.8 9.0576 1.2312 3662.4 4157.3 8.9244
900 2.705 3854.5 4395.8 9.4566 1.8041 3854.2 4395.4 9.2692 1.3529 3853.9 4395.1 9.1362
1000 2.937 4052.5 4640.0 9.5663 1.9581 4052.3 4639.7 9.4690 1.4685 4052.0 4639.4 9.3360
1100 3.168 4257.0 4890.7 9.8458 2.1121 4256.8 4890.4 9.6585 1.5840 4256.5 4890.2 9.5256
1200 3.399 4467.5 5147.5 10.0262 2.2661 4467.2 5147.1 9.8389 1.6996 4467.0 5146.8 9.7060
1300 3.630 4683.2 5409.3 10.1982 2.4201 4683.0 5409.0 10.0110 1.8151 4682.8 5408.8 9.8780
P = 0.50 MPa (151.86 ºC) P = 0.60 MPa (158.85 ºC) P = 0.80 MPa (170.43 ºC)
Sat. 0.3749 2561.2 2748.7 6.8213 0.3157 2567.4 2756.8 6.7600 0.2404 2576.8 2769.1 6.6628
200 0.4249 2642.9 2855.4 7.0592 0.3520 2638.9 2850.1 6.9665 0.2608 2630.6 2839.3 6.8158
250 0.4744 2723.5 2960.7 7.2709 0.3938 2720.9 2957.2 7.1816 0.2931 2715.5 2950.0 7.0384
300 0.5226 2802.9 3064.2 7.4599 0.4344 2801.0 3061.6 7.3724 0.3241 2797.2 3056.5 7.2328
350 0.5701 2882.6 3167.7 7.6329 0.4742 2881.2 3165.7 7.5464 0.3544 2878.2 3161.7 7.4089
400 0.6173 2963.2 327l.9 7.7938 0.5137 2962.1 3270.3 7.7079 0.3843 2959.7 3267.1 7.5716
500 0.7109 3128.4 3483.9 8.0873 0.5920 3127.6 3482.8 8.0021 0.4433 3126.0 3480.6 7.8673
600 0.8041 3299.6 3701.7 7.3522 0.6697 3299.1 3700.9 8.2674 0.5018 3297.9 3699.4 8.1333
700 0.8969 3477.5 3925.9 8.5952 0.7472 3477.0 3925.3 8.5107 0.5601 3476.2 3924.2 8.3770
800 0.9896 3662.1 4156.9 8.8211 0.8215 3661.8 4156.5 8.7367 0.6181 3661.1 4155.6 8.6033
900 1.0822 3853.6 4394.7 9.0329 0.9017 3853.4 4394.4 8.9486 0.6761 3852.8 4393.7 8.8153
1000 1.1747 4051.8 4639.1 9.2328 0.9788 4051.5 4638.8 9.1485 0.7340 4051.0 4638.2 9.0153
1100 1.2672 4256.3 4889.9 9.4224 1.0559 4256.1 4889.6 9.3381 0.7919 4255.6 4889.1 9.2050
1200 1.3596 4466.8 5146.6 9.6029 1.1330 4466.5 5146.3 9.5185 0.8497 4466.1 5145.9 9.3855
1300 1.4521 4682.5 5408.6 9.7749 1.2101 4682.3 5408.3 9.6906 0.9076 4681.8 5407.9 9.5575
Appendix _____________________________________________________________________ 923
Table 4 Superheated steam table
T v u h s v u h s v u h s
ºC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K)
P= 1.00 MPa (179.91 ºC) P= 1.20 MPa (187.99 ºC) P = 1.40 MPa (195.70 ºC)
Sat. 0.19444 2583.6 2778.1 6.5865 0.16333 2588.8 2784.8 6.5233 0.14084 2592.8 2790.0 6.4693
200 0.2060 2621.9 2827.9 6.6940 0.16930 2612.8 2815.9 6.5898 0.14302 2603.1 2803.3 6.4975
250 0.2327 2709.9 2942.6 6.9247 0.19234 2704.2 2935.0 6.8294 0.16350 2698.3 2927.2 6.7467
300 0.2579 2793.2 3051.2 7.1229 0.2138 2789.2 3045.8 7.0317 0.18228 2785.2 3040.4 6.9534
350 0.2825 2875.2 3157.7 7.3011 0.2345 2872.2 3153.6 7.2121 0.2003 2869.2 3149.5 7.1360
400 0.3066 2957.3 3263.9 7.4651 0.2548 2954.9 3260.7 7.3774 0.2178 2952.5 3257.5 7.3026
500 0.3541 3124.4 3478.5 7.7622 0.2946 3122.8 3476.3 7.6759 0.2521 3121.1 3474.1 7.6027
600 0.4011 3296.8 3697.9 8.0290 0.3339 3295.6 3696.3 7.9435 0.2860 3294.4 3694.8 7.8710
700 0.4478 3475.3 3923.1 8.2731 0.3729 3474.4 3922.0 8.1881 0.3195 3473.6 3920.8 8.1160
800 0.4943 3660.4 4154.7 8.4996 0.4118 3659.7 4153.8 8.4148 0.3528 3659.0 4153.0 8.3431
900 0.5407 3852.2 4392.9 8.7118 0.4505 3851.6 4392.2 8.6272 0.3861 3851.1 4391.5 8.5556
1000 0.5871 4050.5 4637.6 8.9119 0.4892 4050.0 4637.0 8.8274 0.4192 4049.5 4636.4 8.7559
1100 0.6335 4255.1 4888.6 9.1017 0.5278 4254.6 4888.0 9.0172 0.4524 4254.1 4887.5 8.9457
1200 0.6798 4465.6 5145.4 9.2822 0.5665 4465.1 5144.9 9.1977 0.4855 4464.7 5144.4 9.1262
1300 0.7261 4681.3 5407.4 9.4543 0.6051 4680.9 5407.0 9.3698 0.5186 4680.4 5406.5 9.2984
P= 1.60 MPa (201.41 ºC) P= 1.80 MPa (207.15 ºC) p= 2.00 MPa (212.42 ºC)
Sat 0.12380 2596.0 2794.0 6.4218 0.11042 2598.4 2797.1 6.3794 0.09963 2600.3 2799.5 6.3409
225 0.13287 2644.7 2857.3 6.5518 0.11673 2636.6 2846.7 6.4808 0.10377 2628.3 2835.8 6.4147
250 0.14184 2692.3 2919.2 6.6732 0.12497 2686.0 2911.0 6.6066 0.11144 2679.6 2902.5 6.5453
300 0.15862 2781.1 3034.8 6.8844 0.14021 2776.9 3029.2 6.8226 0.12547 2772.6 3023.5 6.7664
350 0.17456 2866.1 3145.4 7.0694 0.15457 2863.0 3141.2 7.0100 0.13857 2859.8 3137.0 6.9563
400 0.19005 2950.1 3254.2 7.2374 0.16847 2947.7 3250.9 7.1794 0.15120 2945.2 3247.6 7.1271
500 0.2203 3119.5 3472.0 7.5390 0.19550 3117.9 3469.8 7.4825 0.17568 3116.2 3467.6 7.4317
600 0.2500 3293.3 3693.2 7.8080 0.2220 3292.1 3691.7 7.7523 0.19960 3290.9 3690.1 7.7024
700 0.2794 3472.7 3919.7 8.0535 0.2482 3471.8 3971.8 7.9983 0.2232 3470.9 3917.4 7.9487
800 0.3086 3658.3 4152.1 8.2808 0.2742 3657.6 4151.2 8.2258 0.2467 3657.0 4150.3 8.1765
900 0.3377 3850.5 4390.8 8.4935 0.3001 3849.9 4390.1 8.4386 0.2700 3849.3 4389.4 8.3895
1000 0.3668 4049.0 4635.8 8.6938 0.3260 4048.5 4635.2 8.6391 0.2933 4048.0 4634.6 8.5901
1100 0.3958 4253.7 4887.0 8.8837 0.3518 4253.2 4886.4 8.8290 0.3166 4252.7 4885.9 8.7800
1200 0.4248 4464.2 5143.9 9.0643 0.3776 4463.7 5143.4 9.0096 0.3398 4463.3 5142.9 8.9607
1300 0.4538 4679.9 5406.0 9.2364 0.4034 4679.5 5405.6 9.1818 0.3631 4679.0 5405.1 9.1329
924 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Table 4 Superheated steam table
T v u h s v u h s v u h s
ºC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K)
P= 2.50 MPa (223.99 ºC) P = 3.00 MPa (233.90 ºC) P = 3.50 MPa (242.60 ºC)
Sat. 0.07998 2603.1 2803.1 6.2575 0.06668 2604.1 2804.2 6.1869 0.05707 2603.7 2803.4 6.1253
225 0.08027 2605.6 2806.3 6.2639
250 0.08700 2662.6 2880.1 6.4085 0.07058 2644.0 2855.8 6.2872 0.05872 2623.7 2829.2 6.1749
300 0.09890 2761.6 3008.8 6.6438 0.08114 2750.1 2993.5 6.5390 0.06842 2738.0 2977.5 6.4461
350 0.10976 2851.9 3126.3 6.8403 0.09053 2843.7 3115.3 6.7428 0.07678 2835.3 3104.0 6.6579
400 0.12010 2939.1 3239.3 7.0148 0.09936 2932.8 3230.9 6.9212 0.08453 2926.4 3222.3 6.8405
450 0.13014 3025.5 3350.8 7.1746 0.10787 3020.4 3344.0 7.0834 0.09196 3015.3 3337.2 7.0052
500 0.13993 3112.1 3462.1 7.3234 0.11619 3108.0 3456.5 7.2338 0.09918 3103.0 3450.9 7.1572
600 0.15930 3288.0 3686.3 7.5960 0.13243 3285.0 3682.3 7.5085 0.11324 3282.1 3678.4 7.4339
700 0.17832 3468.7 3914.5 7.8435 0.14838 3466.5 3911.7 7.7571 0.12699 3464.3 3908.8 7.6837
800 0.19716 3655.3 4148.2 8.0720 0.16414 3653.5 4145.9 7.9862 0.14056 3651.8 4143.7 7.9134
900 0.21590 3847.9 4387.6 8.2853 0.17980 3846.5 4385.9 8.1999 0.15402 3845.0 4384.1 8.1276
1000 0.2346 4046.7 4633.1 8.4861 0.19541 4045.4 4631.6 8.4009 0.16743 4044.1 4630.1 8.3288
1100 0.2532 4251.5 4884.6 8.6762 0.21098 4250.3 4883.3 8.5912 0.18080 4249.2 4881.9 8.5192
1200 0.2718 4462.1 5141.7 8.8569 0.22652 4460.9 5140.5 8.7720 0.19415 4459.8 5139.3 8.7000
1300 0.2905 4677.8 5404.0 9.0291 0.24206 4676.6 5402.8 8.9442 0.20749 4675.5 5401.7 8.8723
P= 4.0 MPa (250.40 ºC) P = 4.5 MPa (257.49 ºC) P = 5.0 MPa (263.99 ºC)
Sat. 0.04978 2602.3 2801.4 6.0701 0.04406 2600.1 2798.3 6.0198 0.03944 2597.1 2794.3 5.9734
275 0.05457 2667.9 2886.2 6.2285 0.04730 2650.3 2863.2 6.1401 0.04141 2631.3 2838.3 6.0544
300 0.05884 2725.3 2960.7 6.3615 0.05135 2712.0 2943.1 6.2828 0.04532 2698.0 2924.5 6.2084
350 0.06645 2826.7 3092.5 6.5821 0.05840 2817.8 3080.6 6.5131 0.05194 2808.7 3068.4 6.4493
400 0.07341 2919.9 3213.6 6.7690 0.06475 2913.3 3204.7 6.7047 0.05781 2906.6 3195.7 6.6459
450 0.08002 3010.2 3330.3 6.9363 0.07074 3005.0 3323.3 6.8746 0.06330 2999.7 3316.2 6.8186
500 0.08643 3099.5 3445.3 7.0901 0.07651 3095.3 3439.6 7.0301 0.06857 3091.0 3433.8 6.9759
600 0.09885 3279.1 3674.4 7.3688 0.08765 3276.0 3670.5 7.3110 0.07869 3273.0 3666.5 7.2589
700 0.11095 3462.1 3905.9 7.6198 0.09847 3459.9 3903.0 7.5631 0.08849 3457.6 3900.1 7.5122
800 0.12287 3650.0 4141.5 7.8502 0.10911 3648.3 4139.3 7.7942 0.09811 3646.6 4137.1 7.7440
900 0.13469 3843.6 4382.3 8.0647 0.11965 3842.2 4380.6 8.0091 0.10762 3840.7 4378.8 7.9593
1000 0.14645 4042.9 4628.7 8.2662 0.13013 4041.6 4627.2 8.2108 0.11707 4040.4 4625.7 8.1612
1100 0.15817 4248.0 4880.6 8.4567 0.14056 4246.8 4879.3 8.4015 0.12648 4245.6 4878.0 8.3520
1200 0.16987 4458.6 5138.1 8.6376 0.15098 4457.5 5136.9 8.5825 0.13587 4456.3 5135.7 8.5331
1300 0.18156 4674.3 5400.5 8.8100 0.16139 4673.1 5399.4 8.7549 0.14526 4672.0 5398.2 8.7055
Appendix _____________________________________________________________________ 925
Table 4 Superheated steam table
T v u h s v u h s v u h s
ºC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K)
P= 6.0 MPa (275.64 ºC) P = 7.0 MPa (285.88 ºC) P= 8.0 MPa (295.06 ºC)
Sat. 0.03244 2589.7 2784.3 5.8892 0.02737 2580.5 2772.1 5.8133 0.02352 2569.0 2758.0 5.7432
300 0.03616 2667.2 2884.2 6.0674 0.02947 2632.2 2838.4 5.9305 0.02426 2590.9 2785.0 5.7906
350 0.04223 2789.6 3043.0 6.3335 0.03524 2769.4 3016.0 6.2283 0.02995 2747.7 2987.3 6.1301
400 0.04739 2892.9 3177.2 6.5408 0.03993 2878.6 3158.1 6.4478 0.03432 2863.8 3138.3 6.3634
450 0.05214 2988.9 3301.8 6.7193 0.04416 2978.0 3287.1 6.6327 0.03817 2966.7 3272.0 6.5551
500 0.05665 3082.2 3422.2 6.8803 0.04814 3073.4 3410.3 6.7975 0.04175 3064.3 3398.3 6.7240
550 0.06101 3174.6 3540.6 7.0288 0.05195 3167.2 3530.9 6.9486 0.04516 3159.8 3521.0 6.8778
600 0.06525 3266.9 3658.4 7.1677 0.05565 3260.7 3650.3 7.0894 0.04845 3254.4 3642.0 7.0206
700 0.07352 3453.1 3894.2 7.4234 0.06283 3448.5 3888.3 7.3476 0.05481 3443.9 3882.4 7.2812
800 0.08160 3643.1 4132.7 7.6566 0.06981 3639.5 4128.2 7.5822 0.06097 3636.0 4123.8 7.5173
900 0.08958 3837.8 4375.3 7.8727 0.07669 3835.0 4371.8 7.7991 0.06702 3832.1 4368.3 7.7351
1000 0.09749 4037.8 4622.7 8.0751 0.08350 4035.3 4619.8 8.0020 0.07301 4032.8 4616.9 7.9384
1100 0.10536 4243.3 4875.4 8.2661 0.09027 4240.9 4872.8 8.1933 0.07896 4238.6 4870.3 8.1300
1200 0.11321 4454.0 5133.3 8.4474 0.09703 4451.7 5130.9 8.3747 0.08489 4449.5 5128.5 8.3115
1300 0.12106 4669.6 5396.0 8.6199 0.10377 4667.3 5393.7 8.5475 0.09080 4665.0 5391.5 8.4842
P= 9.0 MPa (303.40 ºC) P = 10.0 MPa (311.06 ºC) P = 12.5 MPa (327.89 ºC)
Sat. 0.02048 2557.8 2742.1 5.6772 0.018026 2544.4 2724.7 5.6141 0.013495 2505.1 2673.8 5.4624
325 0.02327 2646.6 2856.0 5.8712 0.019861 2610.4 2809.1 5.7568
350 0.02580 2724.4 2956.6 6.0361 0.02242 2699.2 2923.4 5.9443 0.016126 2624.6 2826.2 5.7118
400 0.02993 2848.4 3117.8 6.2854 0.02641 2832.4 3096.5 6.2120 0.02000 2789.3 3039.3 6.0417
450 0.03350 2955.2 3256.6 6.4844 0.02975 2943.4 3240.9 6.4190 0.02299 2912.5 3199.8 6.2719
500 0.03677 3055.2 3386.1 6.6576 0.03279 3045.8 3373.7 6.5966 0.02560 3021.7 3341.8 6.4618
550 0.03987 3152.2 3511.0 6.8142 0.03564 3144.1 3500.9 6.7561 0.02801 3125.0 3475.2 6.6290
600 0.04285 3248.1 3633.7 6.9589 0.03837 3241.7 3625.3 6.9029 0.03029 3225.4 3604.0 6.7810
650 0.04574 3343.6 3755.3 7.0943 0.04101 3338.2 3748.2 7.0398 0.03248 3324.4 3730.4 6.9218
700 0.04857 3439.3 3876.5 7.2221 0.04358 3434.7 3870.5 7.1687 0.03460 3422.9 3855.3 7.0536
800 0.05409 3632.5 4119.3 7.4596 0.04859 3628.9 4114.8 7.4077 0.03869 3620.0 4103.6 7.2965
900 0.05950 3829.2 4364.8 7.6783 0.05349 3826.3 4361.2 7.6272 0.04267 3819.1 4352.5 7.5182
1000 0.06485 4030.3 4614.0 7.8821 0.05832 4027.8 4611.0 7.8315 0.04658 4021.6 4603.8 7.7237
1100 0.07016 4236.3 4867.7 8.0740 0.06312 4234.0 4865.1 8.0237 0.05045 4228.2 4858.8 7.9165
1200 0.07544 4447.2 5126.2 8.2556 0.06789 4444.9 5123.8 8.2055 0.05430 4439.3 5118.0 8.0937
1300 0.08072 4662.7 5389.2 8.4284 0.07265 4460.5 5387.0 8.3783 0.05813 4654.8 5381.4 8.2717
926 ________________________________________________________ Applied Thermodynamics
Table 4 Superheated steam table
T v u h s v u h s v u h s
ºC m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K) m3/kg kJ/kg kJ/kg kJ/(kg·K)
P = 15.0 MPa (342.24 ºC) P = 17.5 MPa (354.75 ºC) P = 20.0 MPa (365.81 ºC)
Sat. 0.010337 2455.5 2610.5 5.3098 0.007920 2390.2 2528.8 5.1419 0.005834 2293.0 2409.7 4.9269
350 0.011470 2520.4 2692.4 5.4421
400 0.015649 2740.7 2975.5 5.8811 0.012447 2685.0 2902.9 5.7213 0.009942 2619.3 2818.1 5.5540
450 0.018445 2879.5 3156.2 6.1404 0.015174 2844.2 3109.7 6.0184 0.012695 2806.2 3060.1 5.9017
500 0.02080 2996.6 3308.6 6.3443 0.017358 2970.3 3274.1 6.2383 0.014768 2942.9 3238.2 6.1401
550 0.02293 3104.7 3448.6 6.5199 0.019288 3083.9 3421.4 6.4230 0.016555 3062.4 3393.5 6.3348
600 0.02491 3208.6 3582.3 6.6776 0.02106 3191.5 3560.1 6.5866 0.018178 3174.0 3537.6 6.5048
650 0.02680 3310.3 3712.3 6.8224 0.02274 3296.0 3693.9 6.7357 0.019693 3281.4 3675.3 6.6582
700 0.02861 3410.9 3840.1 6.9572 0.02434 3324.6 398.7 6.8736 0.02113 3386.4 3809.0 6.7993
800 0.03210 3610.9 4092.4 7.2040 0.02738 3601.8 4081.1 7.1244 0.02385 3592.7 4069.7 7.0544
900 0.03546 3811.9 4343.8 7.4279 0.03031 3804.7 4335.1 7.3507 0.02645 3797.5 4326.4 7.2830
1000 0.03875 4015.4 4596.6 7.6348 0.03316 4009.3 4589.5 7.5589 0.02897 4003.1 4582.5 7.4925
1100 0.04200 4222.6 4852.6 7.8283 0.03597 4216.9 4846.4 7.7531 0.03145 4211.3 4840.2 7.6874
1200 0.04523 4433.8 5112.3 8.0108 0.03876 4428.3 5106.6 7.9360 0.03391 4422.8 5101.0 7.8707
1300 0.04845 4649.1 5376.0 8.1840 0.04154 4643.5 5370.5 8.1093 0.03636 4638.0 5365.1 8.0442
0.0 0.088 608 189.669 0.7320 0.069 752 188.644 0.7139 0.057 150 187.583 0.6984
10.0 0.092 550 195.878 0.7543 0.073 024 194.969 0.7366 0.059 984 194.034 0.7216
20.0 0.096 418 202.135 0.7760 0.076 218 201.322 0.7587 0.062 734 200.490 0.7440
30.0 0.100 228 208.446 0.7972 0.079 350 207.715 0.7801 0.065 418 206.969 0.7658
40.0 0.103 989 214.814 0.8178 0.082 431 214.153 0.8010 0.068 049 213.480 0.7869
50.0 0.107 710 221.243 0.8381 0.085 470 220.642 0.8214 0.070 635 220.030 0.8075
60.0 0.111 397 227.735 0.8578 0.088 474 227.185 0.8413 0.073 185 226.627 0.8276
70.0 0.115 055 234.291 0.8772 0.091 449 233.785 0.8608 0.075 705 233.273 0.8473
80.0 0.118 690 240.910 0.8962 0.094 398 240.443 0.8800 0.078 200 239.971 0.8665
90.0 0.122 304 247.593 0.9149 0.097 327 247.160 0.8987 0.080 673 246.723 0.8853
100.0 0.125 901 254.339 0.9332 0.100 238 253.936 0.9171 0.083 127 253.530 0.9038
110.0 0.129 483 261.147 0.9512 0.103 114 260.770 0.9352 0.085 566 260.391 0.9220
40.0 0.026 761 207.580 0.7148 0.022 830 205.924 0.7016 0.019 744 204.170 0.6982
50.0 0.028 100 214.745 0.7373 0.024 068 213.290 0.7248 0.020 912 211.765 0.7131
60.0 0.029 387 221.854 0.7590 0.025 247 220.558 0.7469 0.022 012 219.212 0.7358
70.0 0.030 632 228.931 0.7799 0.026 380 277.766 0.7682 0.023 062 226.564 0.7575
80.0 0.031 843 235.997 0.8002 0.027 477 234.941 0.7888 0.024 072 233.856 0.7785
90.0 0.033 027 243.066 0.8199 0.028 545 242.101 0.8088 0.025 051 241.113 0.7987
100.0 0.034 189 250.146 0.8392 0.029 588 249.260 0.8283 0.026 005 248.355 0.8184
110.0 0.035 332 257.247 0.8579 0.030 612 256.428 0.8472 0.026 937 255.593 0.8376
120.0 0.036 458 264.374 0.8763 0.031 619 263.613 0.8657 0.027 851 262.839 0.862
130.0 0.037 572 271.531 0.8943 0.032 612 270.820 0.8838 0.028 751 270.100 0.8745
140.0 0.038 673 278.720 0.9119 0.033 592 278.055 0.9016 0.029 639 277.381 0.8923
150.0 0.039 764 285.946 0.9292 0.034 563 285.320 0.9189 0.030 515 284.687 0.9098
4.00 MPa
120.0 0.003 736 224.863 0.6771
130.0 0.004 325 238.443 0.7111
140.0 0.004 781 249.703 0.7386
150.0 0.005 172 259.904 0.7630
160.0 0.005 522 269.492 0.7854
170.0 0.005 845 278.684 0.8063
180.0 0.006 147 287.602 0.8262
190.0 0.006 434 296.326 0.8453
200.0 0.006 708 304.906 0.8636
210.0 0.006 972 313.380 0.8813
220.0 0.007 228 321.774 0.8985
230.0 0.007 477 330.108 0.9152
Appendix _____________________________________________________________________ 937
E nthalpy h, kJ/kg
Enthalpy h, kJ/kg