Fluid Mechanics: Laboratory Manual
Fluid Mechanics: Laboratory Manual
Fluid Mechanics: Laboratory Manual
FLUID MECHANICS
(ME 406)
Vision:
To develop human resources for sustainable industrial and societal growth
through excellence in technical education and research.
Mission:
1. To impart quality technical education at UG, PG and PhD levels through good
academic support facilities.
Vision:
To emerge as a centre of excellence in mechanical engineering and maintain it
through continuous effective teaching-learning process and need-based research.
Mission:
M2: To nurture the students to adapt to the changing needs in academic and industrial
aspirations.
(ii)
Program Outcomes (POs)
Engineering graduates will be able to:
(iii)
Programme Educational Objectives (PEOs)
The Programme Educational Objectives of Department of Mechanical Engineering are given
below:
PEO1: Gain basic domain knowledge, expertise and self-confidence for employment,
advanced studies, R&D, entrepreneurial ventures activities, and facing
challenges in professional life.
PEO2: Develop, improve and maintain effective domain based systems, tools and
techniques that socioeconomically feasible and acceptable and transfer those
technologies/developments for improving quality of life.
PEO3: Demonstrate professionalism through effective communication skill, ethical
and societal commitment, team spirit, leadership quality and get involved in
life-long learning to realize career and organisational goal and participate in
nation building.
(iv)
STUDENT PROFILE
NAME :
ROLL NUMBER :
SECTION :
YEAR :
PERFORMANCE RECORD
EXP. REMARKS /
TITLE OF EXPERIMENT
NO. GRADE
2 Bernoulli’s Apparatus.
4 Reynolds Apparatus.
OFFICE USE
Checked By :
Signature of Teacher :
(v)
Experiment No. 1
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the dynamic and kinematic viscosity of mineral oil, liquid fuel and other
similar liquids using Redwood Viscometer.
APPARATUS:
THEORY:
Viscosity is the property of a liquid or fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to its
own flow. A liquid in a state of steady flow on a surface may be supposed to consist of
a series of parallel layers moving one above the other. Any two layers will move with
different velocities: top layer moves faster than the next lower layer due to viscous drag
𝒗 = 𝑪𝒕 − 𝑩 𝒕
Where 𝒕 is time in Redwood sec of flow and B & C are constant of viscometer.
PROCEDURE:
1. The level oil cup is cleaned and ball of valve rod is placed on the jet to close it.
2. Oil under test free from any suspension etc. is filled in the cup up to the pointer levels,
4. Water is filled in the bath and side tube is heated slowly with constant stirring of the
bath. When the oil is at the desired temperature the ball valve is lifted and suspended
from the thermometer bracket.
5. The time taken for 50 ml of oil to collect in the flask is noted and then valve is closed.
OBSERVATION:
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Date of Experiment:
Date of Submission:
OBJECTIVE:
INTRODUCTION:
Bernoulli's Apparatus demonstrates both of these principles and can also be used
to examine the onset of turbulence in an accelerating fluid stream.
Both Bernoulli's equation and the Continuity equation are essential analytical
tools required for the analysis of most problems in the subject of Mechanics of Fluids.
DESCRIPTION OF APPARATUS:
Figure 2.2
X in mm
Figure 2.3
Please note: Measure the distance between the centre section to the zero marking of the
Glass Tube and add the value to the relevant head reading (Example if 𝐻1
is 100 mm and 𝑥 is 50 mm, total 𝐻1 is 100+50 = 150 mm)
THEORY:
Bernoulli’s equation states that the “sum of the kinetic energy (velocity head), the
pressure energy (static head) and Potential energy (elevation head) per unit weight of
the fluid at any point remains constant” provided the flow is steady, irrotational, and
frictionless and the fluid used is incompressible. This is however, on the assumption
that energy is neither added to nor taken away by some external agency. The key
approximation in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation is that viscous effects are
negligibly small compared to inertial, gravitational, and pressure effects. We can write
the theorem as
Where,
𝑃1 𝑉1 2 𝑃2 𝑉2 2
+ + 𝑍1 = + + 𝑍2 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑤 2𝑔 𝑤 2𝑔
Where,
The Bernoulli’s equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow
problems such as jets issuing from an orifice, jet trajectory, flow under a gate and over
a weir, flow metering by obstruction meters, flow around submerged objects, flows
associated with pumps and turbines etc.
The Bernoulli’s equation forms the basis for solving a wide variety of fluid flow
problems such as jets issuing from an orifice, jet trajectory, flow under a gate and over
a weir, flow metering by obstruction meters, flow around submerged objects, flows
associated with pumps and turbines etc.
1. Keep the bypass valve open and start the pump and slowly start closing valve.
2. The water shall start flowing through the flow channel. The level in the Piezometer
tubes shall start rising.
3. Open the valve on the delivery tank side and adjust the head in the Piezometer tubes
to steady position.
4. Measure the heads at all the points and also discharge with help of stop watch and
measuring tank.
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Note down the SI. No’s of Pitot tubes and their cross sectional areas.
FORMULAE:
(a) Discharge
𝐴𝑇 ∗ 𝐷𝑓
𝑄=
𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑏 = 2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 𝐻 − 𝐻𝑖
Sl.
Description Symbol Value Unit
No.
1 Density of Water 𝜌 0.001 kg/cm3
2 Width of Collecting Tank W 38 cm
3 Length of Collecting Tank LC 38 cm
4 Area of Collecting Tank AT 1444 cm2
5 Width of the test section we 1.4 cm
6 Area Flow Point (Al) Al 1.9474 cm2
7 Area Flow Point (A2) A2 1.6772 cm2
8 Area Flow Point (A3) A3 1.4182 cm2
9 Area Flow Point (A4) A4 1.1536 cm2
10 Area Flow Point (A5) AS 1.0556 cm2
11 Area Flow Point (A6) A6 1.1536 cm2
12 Area Flow Point (A7) A7 1.4182 cm2
13 Area Flow Point (A8) A8 1.6772 cm2
14 Area Flow Point (A9) A9 1.9474 cm2
Distance between the centre
15 section to the zero marking of x 0 cm
the Glass Tube
SAMPLE OBSERVATIONS:
Difference in
Initial Reading Final Reading Time Taken (t) Head Intake Tank
Sl. Reading
of Collection of Collection in in
No. (Df) in
Tank (cm) Tank (cm) sec cm
cm
1 11 21 10 100 24
Sl. H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9
No. in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm
Cross
Using Pressure Velocity Total Head
Section
Continuity Head Head Head (Pressure head + Discharge
Sl. Area of
equation at 𝐻𝑖 in 𝐻𝑖 + 𝑉 2 2𝑔 Velocity Head) (Q) in
No. Flow 𝐴𝑖 𝑄 cm 𝑥 in in in cm3/sec
in 𝑉𝑖𝑐 =
cm2 𝐴𝑖 cm cm/sec cm
Cross Using
Using
Sectional Continuity
Head Intake Head Bernoulli’s Discharge
Sl. Area of equation
Tank (H) in at 𝐻𝑖 in Equation (Q) in
No. Flow 𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝑐 = 𝑄 𝐴𝑖
cm cm 𝑉𝑖𝑏 in cm3/sec
in in
cm3
cm cm3
1 24 21.5 1.95 70.04 74.15 144.4
OBSERVATIONS:
Difference in
Initial Reading Final Reading Time Taken (t) Head Intake Tank
Sl. Reading
of Collection of Collection in in
No. (Df) in
Tank (cm) Tank (cm) sec cm
cm
1
Sl. H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7 H8 H9
No. in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in cm
Cross
Using Pressure Velocity Total Head
Section
Continuity Head Head Head (Pressure head + Discharge
Sl. Area of
equation at 𝐻𝑖 in 𝐻𝑖 + 𝑉 2 2𝑔 Velocity Head) (Q) in
No. Flow 𝐴𝑖 𝑄 cm 𝑥 in in in cm3/sec
in 𝑉𝑖𝑐 =
cm2 𝐴𝑖 cm cm/sec cm
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Cross Using
Using
Sectional Continuity
Head Intake Head Bernoulli’s Discharge
Sl. Area of equation
Tank (H) in at 𝐻𝑖 in Equation (Q) in
No. Flow 𝐴𝑖 𝑉𝑖𝑐 = 𝑄 𝐴𝑖
cm cm 𝑉𝑖𝑏 in cm3/sec
in in
cm3
cm cm3
1
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Date of Experiment:
Date of Submission:
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the loss of head in the pipe fitting at various water flow rates.
REQUIREMENTS:
Pipe flow test rig, power supply (single phase, 240 volts, 50 Hz), water supply drain.
Fittings and valves also disturb the normal flow lines and cause friction. In short
lines with many fittings, the friction loss from the fittings may be greater than that
from the straight pipe.
As in straight pipe, velocity increases through valves and fittings at the expense
of head loss. This can be expressed by equation similar to Equation1:
𝑣2
𝑓𝑒 = 𝐾𝑒 … … … 𝐸𝑞. 1
2𝑔
Pipefrictionintheinletandoutletstraightportionsofthevalveorfitting
Sudden or gradual changes in the cross-section and shape of the flow path
Pipe friction in the inlet and outlet straight portions of the valve or fitting is very
small when compared to the other three. Since friction factor and Reynolds Number
are mainly related to pipe friction, 𝐾𝑒 can be considered to be independent of both
friction factor and Reynolds Number. Therefore, 𝐾𝑒 is treated as a constant for any
given valve or fitting under all flow conditions, including laminar flow. Indeed,
experiments showed1that for a given valve or fitting type, the tendency is for 𝐾𝑒 to
vary only with valve or fitting size.
The ratio 𝐿𝑒𝑞 /𝐷 is equivalent length in pipe diameters of straight pipe that will
cause the same pressure drop or head loss as the valve or fitting under the same flow.
Friction loss from different fittings in a pipeline must be accounted for when
calculating friction losses for each section of pipe. Add the equivalent length of pipe
for each fitting or valve that occurs in each section of the pipe line.
INTRODUCTION:
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝜌
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑣2 𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 , 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 2𝛼 𝜌 2𝛼
In our course we are concerned with the first two equations. The Bernoulli’s equation
is modified to include other terms:
𝑃1 𝑣1 2 𝑃2 𝑣2 2
+ + 𝑔𝑧1 + 𝑊𝑃 = + + 𝑔𝑧2 + 𝐹 , 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝜌 2𝛼 𝜌 2𝛼
𝐹is the total frictional losses in the mechanical energy balance equation.
It consists of
Those losses occur in pipelines due to bends, elbows, joints, valves, etc.
Note: In many situations Minor losses are more important than the losses due topipe friction,
but it is conventional name.
For sudden change additional losses are formed due to eddies in the expanding jet in
the enlarged section. Refer Fig. 3.1.
𝑣1 2 𝑣1 2
𝑒𝑥 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥 ,𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑥 = 𝐾𝑒𝑥 , 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
2𝛼𝑔 2𝛼
𝛼is a correction factor for kinetic energy term. 𝛼 = 1for turbulent flow, and 𝛼 = 1 2
for laminar flow.
2. Sudden Contraction
The process consists of two steps, sudden contraction from 𝐴1 to 𝐴0 then sudden
expansion from 𝐴0 to 𝐴2 . Refer Fig. 3.2.
The step of converting pressure head into velocity is very efficient, i.e., head loss
from section 1 to vena-contracta (the section of greatest contraction of the jet) is
small compared with the loss from section 0 to section 2 (sudden expansion) i.e.,
velocity head / pressure head.
𝐴2 𝑣2 2 𝑣2 2
𝑐 = 0.55 1 − = 𝐾𝑐 ,𝑚
𝐴1 2𝛼𝑔 2𝛼𝑔
𝐴2
𝐾𝑐 = 0.55 1 −
𝐴1
The value 0.55 differs according to 𝐷1 𝐷2 but as an average value it is taken 0.55.
𝑣2 2
𝑐 = 0.55
2𝛼𝑔
Fittings and valves disturb the normal flow line, in a pipe and cause additional
friction losses. For a short pipe with many fittings the friction loss from these fittings
could be greater than in the straight pipe (friction losses) i.e., minor losses >major
losses.
𝑣1 2
𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐾𝑓 ; 𝑣1 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
2𝑔
Note-1:𝐾𝑓 values in Table 3.1 for turbulent flow and Table 3.2 for laminar flow
(Transport Processes & Unit Operations, Geankoplis)
Sudden expansion
PROCEDURE:
3. Open the Italian ball valves of the respective fitting, which needs to be tested
(All other ball valve to be kept in closed condition.
4. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer.
6. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted.
OBSERVATIONS:
Difference
Initial Time
Final Tank in Tank Manometer
Sl. Tank Taken in
Reading in Reading in reading ∆𝐻 Type of Pipe fitting
No Reading Sec
cm Meters in mm
in cm 𝑡
𝐷𝑓
1 Long Bend
2 Elbow
3 Sudden Enlargement
4 Sudden Contraction
13.6 ∗ ∆𝐻
𝑓 = 𝑚
1000
𝐴𝑇 ∗ 𝐷𝑓 3
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
𝑄𝑎
𝑣= 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴
𝑓
𝐾= 𝑣2
2∗𝑔
2. Sudden Enlargement
𝑄𝑎
𝑣1 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑆𝐴1
𝑄𝑎
𝑣2 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑆𝐴2
𝐴𝑇 ∗ 𝐷𝑓 3
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
2
𝑣1 − 𝑣2
𝑒𝑥 = 𝑚
2𝑔
3. Sudden Contraction
𝐴𝑇 ∗ 𝐷𝑓 3
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
𝑄𝑎
𝑣2 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐶𝐴2
𝑣2 2
𝑐 = 0.55 𝑚
2𝑔
Loss of
Actual Discharge
Sl. Head due Velocity Loss of
𝑄𝑎 in Type of Fittings
No. to Fitting Head 𝑣 coefficient 𝐾
𝑓 𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 Long Bend
2 Elbow
Actual
Loss of
Sl. Discharge 𝑄𝑎 Velocity at Velocity at
Head due to Type of Fitting
No. in Entry 𝑣1 Entry 𝑣2
Fitting 𝑒𝑥 3
𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
1 Sudden Enlargement
Loss of Head
Actual Discharge 𝑄𝑎 in Velocity at
Sl. No due to Fitting Type of Fitting
𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 Entry 𝑣2
𝑐
1 Sudden Contraction
VIVA VOCE:
3. What is 𝑪𝒅 ?
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Date of Experiment:
Date of Submission:
OBJECTIVE:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
INTRODUCTION
Figure 4.1: (a) Laminar flow (b) Transition flow (c) Turbulent flow
In laminar flow the fluid particles move along well-defined paths or streamlines,
such that the paths of the individual fluid particles do not cross those of neighboring
particles. Laminar flow is possible only at low velocities and when the fluid is highly
viscous. But when the velocity is increased or fluid is less viscous, the fluid particles
do not move in straight paths. The fluid particles move in a random manner resulting in
mixing of the particles. This type of flow is called as Turbulent flow. The most
Figure 4.2: Variation of horizontal components of velocity for laminar and turbulent
flows at a point P
At a Reynolds number less than the critical, the kinetic energy of flow is not
enough to sustain the random fluctuations against the viscous damping and in such
cases laminar flow continues to exist. At somewhat higher Reynolds number than the
critical Reynolds number, the kinetic energy of flow supports the growth of
fluctuations and transition to turbulence takes place. The mixing in turbulent flow is
more due to these fluctuations. As a result we can see more uniform velocity
distributions in turbulent pipe flows as compared to the laminar flow shows below
figure.
Figure4.3: Comparison of velocity profiles in a pipe for (a) laminar and (b) turbulent flows
Reynolds number generally includes the fluid properties of density and viscosity,
plus velocity and a characteristic length or characteristic dimension. This dimension is
a matter of convention-for example a radius or diameter is equally valid for spheres or
circles. For aircraft or ships, the length or width can be used. For flow in a pipe or a
sphere moving in a fluid the internal diameter is generally used today.
Where,
𝑣is the mean velocity of the object relative to the fluid in (m/s),
If an airplane wing needs testing, one can make a scaled down model of the wing
and test it in a wind tunnel using the same Reynolds number that the actual airplane is
subjected to. If for example the scale model has linear dimensions one quarter of full
size, the flow velocity of the model would have to be multiplied by a factor of to obtain
similar flow behavior. Alternatively, tests could be conducted in a water tank instead
of in air (provided the compressibility effects of air are not significant) .As the
kinematic viscosity of water is around13 times less than thatofairat15°C, in this case
the scale model would need to be about one thirteenth the sizes in all dimensions to
maintain the same Reynolds number, assuming the full-scale flow velocity was used.
The results of the laboratory model will be similar to those of the actual plane wing
results. Thus there is no need to bring a full scale plane in to the lab and actually test it.
Where the viscosity is naturally high, such as polymer solutions and polymer
melts, flow is normally laminar. The Reynolds number is very small and Stokes' Law
can be used to measure the viscosity of the fluid. Spheres are allowed to fall through
the fluid and they reach the terminal velocity quickly, from which the viscosity can be
determined. The laminar flow of polymer solutions is exploited by animals such as fish
and dolphins, which exude viscous solutions from their skin to aid flow over their
bodies whiles winning. It has been used in yacht racing by owners who want to gain a
speed advantage by pumping a polymer solution such as low molecular weight poly
oxy ethylene in water, over the wetted surface ft he hull. It is however, a problem for
mixing of polymers, because turbulence is needed to distribute fine filler (for example)
through the material. Inventions such as the cavity transfer mixer "have been
developed to produce multiple folds into a moving melt so as to improve mixing
efficiency. The device can be fitted onto extruders to aid mixing.
PROCEDURE:
(a) Start the experiment and allow the water to flow in to the tank of the apparatus.
Water level inthe pyrometer is slightly rising along with rise in tank. Control valve of
the glass tube should be slightly opened for removing air bubbles.
(b) After the tank is filled outlet valve of the glass tube and inlet valve of the tank should
beclosed, so that water should be at rest.
Sl.
Description Symbol Value Unit
No.
1 Internal Diameter of the acrylic Pipe D 0.025 meter
2 Cross Section area of The Pipe A 0.000490874 m2
3 Dynamic viscosity of the fluid 𝜇 0.000891 Kg/(m.s)
4 Kinematic Viscosity of Water 𝜈 (nu) 8.93565E-07 𝜈 = 𝜇 𝜌 (m2/s)
5 Length of Acrylic Pipe L 0.8 meter
6 Density of Water 𝜌 997.13 Kg/m3
0
7 Ambient Temperature T 25 C
8 Width of Collecting Tank W 0.38 meter
9 Length of Collecting Tank LC 0.38 meter
10 Area of Collecting Tank AT 0.1444 m2
FORMULAE USED:
𝐴𝑇 × 𝐷𝑓
𝑄=
𝑡
𝑄
𝑣=
𝐴
𝑣×𝐷
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜈
OBSERVATIONS:
1
2
3
Mean Velocity
Sl. Discharge (Q) in Reynolds Type of Flow
(v) in
No. m3/sec Number Theoretical
m/sec
1
2
3
VIVA VOCE:
2. give the range of Reynolds number in the flow is laminar and turbulent
℃ 𝑃𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑘𝑔 𝑘𝐽 𝑚3 𝑘𝑔 𝑚. 𝑠
0.00 101325 611 999.82 0.06 0.01 4.217 1.007 4216.10 0.001792
1.00 101325 657 999.89 4.28 1.02 4.213 1.006 4213.03 0.007731
2.00 101325 705 999.94 8.49 2.03 4.210 1.006 4210.12 0.001674
3.00 101325 757 999.98 12.70 3.03 4.207 1.005 4207.36 0.001620
4.00 101325 813 1000.00 18.90 4.04 4.205 1.004 4204.74 0.001569
5.00 101325 872 1000.00 21.11 5.04 4.202 1.004 4202.26 0.001520
6.00 101325 935 999.99 25.31 6.04 4.200 1.003 4199.89 0.001473
7.00 101325 1001 999.96 29.51 7.05 4.198 1.003 4197.63 0.001429
8.00 101325 1072 999.91 33.70 8.05 4.196 1.002 4795.47 0.001386
9.00 101325 1147 999.85 37.90 9.05 4.194 1.002 4793.40 0.001346
10.00 101325 1227 999.77 42.09 10.05 4.192 1.001 4791.42 0.001308
11.00 101325 1312 999.68 46.28 11.05 4.191 1.001 4189.61 0.001271
12.00 101325 1402 999.58 50.47 12.06 4.189 1.001 4187.67 0.001236
13.00 101325 1497 999.46 54.66 13.06 4.188 1.000 4185.89 0.001202
14.00 101325 1597 999.33 58.85 14.06 4.187 1.000 4184.16 0.001170
15.00 101325 1704 999.19 63.04 15.06 4.186 1.000 4182.49 0.001139
16.00 101325 1817 999.03 67.22 16.06 4.185 1.000 4180.86 0.001109
17.00 101325 1936 998.86 71.41 17.06 4.184 0.999 4779.27 0.001081
18.00 101325 2063 998.68 75.59 18.05 4.183 0.999 4177.72 0.001054
19.00 101325 2196 998.49 79.77 19.05 4.182 0.999 4176.20 0.001028
20.00 101325 2337 998.29 83.95 20.05 4.182 0.999 4174.70 0.001003
21.00 101325 2486 998.08 88.14 21.05 4.181 0.999 4173.23 0.000979
22.00 101325 2642 997.86 92.32 22.05 4.181 0.999 4171.78 0.000955
23.00 101325 2808 997.62 96.50 23.05 4.180 0.998 4170.34 0.000933
24.00 101325 2982 997.38 100.68 24.05 4.180 0.998 4166.92 0.000911
24.00 101325 2982 997.38 100.68 24.05 4.180 0.998 4168.92 0.000911
25.00 101325 3166 997.13 104.86 25.04 4.180 0.998 4167.51 0.000891
26.00 101325 3360 996.86 109.04 26.04 4.179 0.998 4166.11 0.000871
27.00 101325 3564 996.59 113.22 27.04 4.179 0.996 4164.71 0.000852
28.00 101325 3779 996.31 117.39 28.04 4.179 0.998 4163.31 0.000833
29.00 101325 4004 996.02 121.57 29.04 4.179 0.998 4161.92 0.000815
30.00 101325 4242 995.71 125.75 30.04 4.178 0.998 4160.53 0.000798
31.00 101325 4491 995.41 129.93 31.03 4.178 0.998 4159.13 0.000781
32.00 101325 4754 995.09 134.11 32.03 4.178 0.998 4157.73 0.000765
33.00 101325 5029 994.76 138.29 33.03 4.178 0.998 4156.33 0.000749
34.00 101325 5318 994.43 142.47 34.03 4.178 0.998 4154.92 0.000734
35.00 101325 5622 994.08 146.64 35.03 4.178 0.998 4153.51 0.000720
36.00 101325 5940 993.73 150.82 38.02 4.178 0.998 4152.08 0.000705
37.00 101325 6274 993.37 155.00 37.02 4.176 0.998 4150.65 0.000692
38.00 101325 6624 993.00 159.18 38.02 4.178 0.998 4149.20 0.000678
39.00 101325 6991 992.63 163.36 39.02 4.179 0.998 4147.74 0.000666
40.00 101325 7375 992.25 167.54 40.02 4.179 0.998 4146.28 0.000653
41.00 101325 7777 991.86 171.71 41.01 4.179 0.998 4144.80 0.000641
42.00 101325 8198 991.46 175.89 42.01 4.779 0.998 4143.30 0.000629
43.00 101325 8639 991.05 180.07 43.01 4.179 0.998 4141.80 0.000618
44.00 101325 9100 990.64 184.25 44.01 4.179 0.998 4140.28 0.000607
45.00 101325 9582 990.22 188.43 45.01 4.180 0.998 4138.7$ 0.000596
46.00 101325 10085 989.80 192.61 46.00 4.180 0.998 4137.20 0.000586
47.00 101325 10612 989.36 196.79 47.00 4.180 0.998 4135.64 0.000576
0.00 101325 611 999.82 0.06 0.01 4.217 1.007 4216.10 0.001792
1.00 101325 657 999.89 4.28 1.02 4.213 1.006 4213.03 0.007731
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Date of Experiment:
Date of Submission:
OBJECTIVE:
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. Venturimeter
2. Stop watch
3. Collecting-tank
4. Differential U- tube
5. Manometer
DESCRIPTION:
Venturimeter has two sections. One divergent area and the other throat area. The former
is represented as a 1 and the later is a 2 water or any other liquid flows through the
Venturimeter and it passes to the throat area the value of discharge is same at a 1 and a
2.
PROCEDURE:
1. The pipe is selected for doing experiments
3. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer
5. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted
Sl.
Description Symbols Value Units
No.
1 Inlet Diameter of the venturimeter D 0.025 meter
2 Outlet Diameter of the venturimeter d 0.012 meter
3 Cross section Area of Inlet A 0.000490874 m2
4 Cross section Area of outlet a 0.000113097 m2
5 Width of Collecting Tank W 0.375 meter
6 Length of Collecting Tank LC 0.375 meter
7 Area of Collecting Tank AT 0.140625 m2
8 Acceleration due to gravity g 9.81 m/see2
FORMULAE:
𝐴 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 13.6 ∗ ∆𝐻
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴2 − 𝑎2
𝐴𝑇 ∗ 𝐷𝑓 3 𝑄𝑎
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝐶𝑑 =
𝑡 𝑄𝑡
THEORY:
Flow meters are used in the industry to measure the volumetric flow rate of
fluids. Differential pressure type flow meters (Head flow meters) measure flow rate by
introducing a constriction in the flow. The pressure difference caused by the
constriction is correlated to the flow rate using Bernoulli's theorem.
ORIFICE METER:
An orificemeter is a differential pressure flow meter which reduces the flow area
using an orifice plate.
An orifice is a flat plate with a centrally drilled hole machined to a sharp edge.
The orifice plate is inserted between two flanges perpendicularly to the flow, so that
the flow passes through the hole with the sharp edge of the orifice pointing to the
upstream. The relationship between flow rate and pressure drop can be determined
using Bernoulli’s equation as:
2 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴0 … … … 𝐸𝑞. 5.1
𝜌 1 − 𝛽4
Where, 𝑄 is the volumetric flow rate, 𝐴0 is the orifice cross sectional area, 𝑝1 and
𝑝2 are the pressure measured at the upstream and downstream and Cd is the discharge
coefficient for the orifice.
𝑑0
𝛽is the ratio of orifice diameter to the pipe diameter = where 𝑑0 is the
𝑑𝑝
diameter of the orifice and 𝑑𝑝 is the pipe diameter.
The fluid contracts and then expands as it moves through the orifice and this
result in a pressure drop across the orifice, which can be measured. The magnitude of
the pressure drop can be related to the volumetric flow rate.
As the fluid flows through the orifice plate the velocity increases, at the expense
of pressure head. The pressure drops suddenly as the orifice is passed. It continues to
drop until the “vena contracta” is reached and then gradually increases until at
approximately 5 to 8 diameters downstream a maximum pressure point is reached that
will be lower than the pressure upstream of the orifice. The decrease in pressure as the
fluid passes through orifice is a result of the increased velocity of the fluid passing
through the reduced area of the orifice. When the velocity decreases as the fluid leaves
the orifice the pressure increases and tends to return to its original level. All of the
pressure loss is not recovered because of friction and turbulence losses in the stream.
The pressure drop across the orifice increases when the rate of flow increases. When
there is no flow there is no differential. The differential pressure is proportional to the
square of the velocity, it therefore follows that I fall other factors remain constant, then
the differential pressure is proportional to the square of the rate of flow.
Figure 5.2
Jorhat Engineering College (35) Fluid Mechanics Lab
The analysis of the flow through a restriction (Figure2) begins with assuming straight,
parallel streamlines at cross sections 1 and 2, and the absence of energy losses along
the streamline from point 1 to point 2.
Figure 5.3
Bernoulli's equation may now be applied to a streamline down the centre of the pipe
from a point 1 well upstream of the restriction to point 2 in the vena contracta of the jet
immediately downstream of the restriction where the streamlines are parallel and the
pressure across the duct may therefore be taken to be uniform:
𝑉1 2 𝑃1 𝑉2 2 𝑃2
+ = + … … … 𝐸𝑞. 5.3
2𝑔 𝜌𝑔 2𝑔 𝜌𝑔
Assuming that the duct is horizontal. Combining Eq. (5.3) with (5.2) gives,
𝐴2
𝑚= 2𝜌 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
𝐴2 2
1−
𝐴1 2
For a real flow through a restriction, the assumptions above do not hold completely.
Further, we cannot easily measure the cross-sectional area of the jet at the vena
contracta at cross-section 2 where the streamlines arc parallel. These errors in the
idealized analysis arc accounted for by introducing a single, cover all correction factor,
the discharge coefficient, 𝐶𝑑 , such that,
𝐶𝑑 𝐴2
𝑚= 2𝜌 𝑝1 − 𝑝2
1 − 𝛽4
Figure 5.4
𝑉2 𝐷2 𝜌
𝑅=
𝜇
Coefficient of discharge for square edged circular orifices with corner taps [Tuve and
Sprenle Instruments (1933)]
ORIFICE METER:
Orifice meter has two sections. First one is of area 𝑎1 , and second one of area 𝑎2 , it
does not have throat like venturimeter but a small holes on a plate fixed along the
diameter of pipe. The mercury level should not fluctuate because it would come out of
manometer.
PROCEDURE:
3. According to the flow, the mercury level fluctuates in the U-tube manometer
5. The time taken for 10 cm rise of water in the collecting tank is noted
Sl.
Description Symbols Value Units
No.
1 Inlet diameter of the Orifice D 0.027 meter
2 Outlet diameter of the Orifice D 0.013 meter
3 Cross-section Area of Inlet A 0.000572555 m2
4 Cross-section Area of Outlet A 0.000132732 m2
5 Width of Collecting Tank W 0.375 meter
6 Length of Collecting Tank LC 0.375 meter
7 Area of Collecting Tank AT 0.140625 m2
8 Acceleration sue to Gravity g 9.81 m/sec2
9 Difference in Tank Reading Df meter
𝐴 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ 13.6 ∗ ∆𝐻
𝑄𝑡 = 𝑚3 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐴2 − 𝑎2
𝐴𝑡 ∗ 𝐷𝑓 3
𝑄𝑎 = 𝑚 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑡
𝑄𝑎
𝐶𝑑 =
𝑄𝑡
OBSERVATIONS:
Manometer
Initial Tank Final Tank Difference in Tank Time taken
Sl. reading ∆𝐻
Reading in Reading in Reading 𝐷𝑓 in 𝑡 in
No. in
cm cm Meters Sec
mm
1
2
3
RESULT:
Name of Student:
Roll No.:
Date of Experiment:
Date of Submission: