ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Definition of an acid What causes the acidic properties of acids?

An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water The hydrogen ions (H+) cause the acidic properties and these are
produces hydrogen ions as the only positively charged formed in the presence of water.
ions

Another term to refer to an acid Why an acid is also called a proton donor?
An acid is called a proton donor It’s because an acid provides protons or hydrogen ions (H+) to other
substances during the reaction.

Substance to which an A base is then called Why the base is called a Equation for the reaction between
acid provides protons proton acceptor? acid and base
BASE PROTON ACCEPTOR Because the base accepts H (aq) + OH(aq)
+ H2O(l)
hydrogen ions from acids

Common laboratory acids These three common laboratory Why these acids are also called mineral
acids are also called acids?
Hydrochloric acid HCl They are derived from mineral salts ie chlorides for
Sulphuric acid H2SO4 MINERAL ACIDS HCl , sulphates for H2SO4 and nitrates for HNO3
Nitric acid HNO3

Other mineral acids Mineral salts from which the Organic acids Naturally occurring acids
known acid is derived known
Sulphurous acid H2SO3 Derived from sulphites Ethanoic acid CITRIC ACID from lemons
Carbonic acid H2CO3 Derived from carbonates (CH3COOH) TARTARIC ACID from grapes
Phosphoric acid H3PO4 Derived from phosphates ACETIC ACID from vinegar
Nitrous acid HNO3 Derived from nitrites Methanoic acid LACTIC ACID from sour milk
(HCOOH) Hydrochloric acid from digestive juices

Whenever an acid is dissolved in Term given to the number of hydrogen Definition of basicity of an acid
water, it produces ions produced by one molecule of an acid
HYDROGEN IONS BASICITY OF AN ACID BASICITY of an acid is the number of
hydrogen ions produced by one
molecule of an acid in aqueous
solution.
Basicity can also be defined as Categorization of acids depending on basicity
BASICITY of an acid is the number of hydrogen ions produced by Monobasic acids
one molecule of an acid when dissolved in water. Dibasic acids
Tribasic acids

Definition of Its basicity Examples of acids Ionization equations of acids

Monobasic acid is an acid whose one Nitric acid HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3(aq)
molecule produces one hydrogen ion Basicity of Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
when dissolved in water. monobasic Nitrous acid HNO2(aq) H+(aq) + NO2(aq)
OR acids is ONE Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO(aq)
Monobasic acid is an acid whose one Hypochlorous acid HOCl(aq) H+(aq) + OCl(aq)
molecule produces one hydrogen ion HCOOH(aq) H+(aq) + HCOO(aq)
Methanoic acid
when in aqueous solution.
Have general formula
of HX
Dibasic acid is an acid whose one Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
molecule produces two hydrogen ions Basicity of Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
when dissolved in water. Dibasic acids Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO32-(aq)
OR is TWO The double half arrows ( ) imply that the
Dibasic acid is an acid whose one Have general formula ionization of such an acid is reversible.
molecule produces two hydrogen ions of H2X Double half arrows ( ) mainly apply to weak
when in aqueous solution. acids
Tribasic acid is an acid whose one Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
molecule produces three hydrogen ions Basicity of Important note on basicity of an acid
when dissolved in water. Tribasic acids Basicity of an acid is not necessarily the number
OR is THREE of hydrogen atoms contained in one molecule of
Tribasic acid is an acid whose one the acid.
molecule produces three hydrogen ions Have general formula Basicity refers to the number of hydrogen atoms
when in aqueous solution. of H3X capable of ionization in an acid for example;
In CH3COOH, its only one hydrogen atom that
can ionize. The other three hydrogen atoms are
incapable of ionization, THUS CH3COOH has
basicity of 1

TYPE OF ACIDS DEFINITION 1 DEFINITION 2

Strong acids A strong acid is an acid which when dissolved in A strong acid is an acid which completely ionizes in dilute
water produces ALL the hydrogen ions it contains. solution.
Weak acids A weak acid is an acid which when dissolved in water A weak acid is an acid which only slightly ionizes in dilute
produces PART of the hydrogen ions it contains. solution.
Examples of strong acids Ionization equation for the acid when dissolved in water
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) H+(aq) + Cl(aq)
Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) H+(aq) + NO3(aq)

Examples of weak acids Ionization equation for the acid when dissolved in water
carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) + CO32-(aq)
phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) 3H+(aq) + PO43-(aq)
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) H+(aq) + CH3COO(aq)
Methanoic acid HCOOH(aq) H (aq) + HCOO(aq)
+

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Physical properties of acids are those properties of acids that Chemical properties of acids are those properties of acids when they
can be seen, felt and smelt. are involved in chemical reactions.
1. Have a sour and sharp taste 1. Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates.
Observation made Products of reaction
Effervescence of a
colourless gas that SALT WATER Carbon dioxide
turns lime- water
milky.
Examples illustrated by equations
Na2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
K2CO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) 2KCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
2. Acids change colour of indicators. 2. Reaction with oxides and hydroxides
Definition of an indicator
An indicator is a substance that has different colours Products of the reaction
in acidic and alkaline solutions. SALT WATER
Indicator Colour in acidic Colour in
solution alkaline solution
Examples illustrated by equations
Phenolphthalein Colourless Pink CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Methyl orange Pink Yellow NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Red litmus Red Blue
Blue litmus Red Blue
3. Dilute acids are colourless solutions. 3. Reaction with metals
4. Concentrated acids are oily liquids eg concentrated Observation made Products of reaction
Effervescence of a colourless gas that burns with a pop
sulphuric acid. sound. SALT Hydrogen
Examples illustrated by equations
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
 STATEMENT(S) REASON(S)
When a piece of aluminium foil is placed in a test tube A thin protective layer forms on aluminium as soon as the
containing cold dilute hydrochloric acid, no reaction BECAUSE metal is exposed to moist air, which prevents any
occurs. reaction.
When a piece of aluminium foil is placed in a test tube A thin protective layer forms on aluminium as soon as the
containing cold dilute sulphuric acid, no reaction BECAUSE metal is exposed to moist air, which prevents any
occurs. reaction.
If a piece of aluminium foil is placed in a test tube The oxide layer on aluminium dissolves in the warm acid
containing warm acid, a reaction occurs after a short BECAUSE exposing the metal which reacts with the acid.
while.
Copper does not liberate hydrogen with dilute acids. Copper is below hydrogen in the electrochemical series,
BECAUSE thus cannot displace it from dilute acids.
Nitric acid does not liberate hydrogen with nitric acid Nitric acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It oxidizes the
except magnesium. BECAUSE hydrogen formed immediately into water.

NOTE;
Magnesium only reacts with nitric acid when it is very dilute.
Mg(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)

BASES AND ALKALIS

Definition of a base In general terms, bases are; A reaction where an acid reacts with a base is called
A base is a substance which reacts Oxides of metals
with an acid to form a salt and Hydroxides of metals NEUTRALIZATION REACTION
water only. Ammonium hydroxide

Definition of neutralization;
Neutralization is a reaction in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt and water only.

Many bases exist but only a few are soluble in water

Examples of bases that are soluble in water These soluble bases are called Alkalis are also called
Sodium hydroxide NaOH
Potassium hydroxide KOH ALKALIS SOLUBLE BASES
Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2
Aqueous ammonia NH4OH Alkalis are categorized into STRONG and WEAK alkalis

Definition of alkalis;
Alkalis are substances which when dissolved in water produce hydroxide ions as the only negatively charged ions.
 TYPES OF ALKALIS
STRONG ALKALIS WEAK ALKALIS
These are electrovalent compounds that completely ionize in These are covalent compounds that partly ionize in aqueous
both aqueous solution and in solid state. solution and their ionization is reversible.
Examples of strong alkalis Example of weak alkalis
1. Sodium hydroxide solution 1. Aqueous ammonia
NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH(aq) It is also called ammonia solution
2. Potassium hydroxide solution Aqueous ammonia is also called ammonium hydroxide solution
KOH(aq) K+(aq) + OH(aq)
3. Calcium hydroxide solution NH3(g) + H2O(l) NH4+(aq) + OH(aq)
Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH(aq)

PROPERTIES OF ALKALIS
Physical properties Chemical properties
Have a bitter taste React with acids to form a salt and water only
NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
Have a soapy feeling to touch Alkalis precipitate insoluble metallic hydroxides from solutions of
Change colours of indicators their salts.
Form colourless solutions 2NaOH(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) Pb(OH)2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

COLOUR OF METAL HYDROXIDES

Metal hydroxide Colour
Potassium hydroxide White
Sodium hydroxide White
Calcium hydroxide White
Magnesium hydroxide White
Zinc hydroxide White
Aluminium hydroxide White
Lead (ii) hydroxide White
Copper (ii) hydroxide Blue
Iron (ii) hydroxide Green
Iron (iii) hydroxide Brown

pH SCALE OF ACIDITY AND ALKALINITY

pH scale pH is related to pH number
Is a scale of numbers from 1 to 14, to HYDROGEN ION concentration in Is a measure of the hydrogen ion
express acidity and alkalinity solution concentration
 APPROXIMATE pH VALUES OF COMMON SOLUTIONS
pH 1 pH 2 – pH 6 pH 7 pH 8 – pH 13 pH 14
Strong acid Weak acid Neutral Weak alkali Strong alkali
Dilute sulphuric acid Lemon juice (pH 2) Sodium chloride Baking powder (pH 9) Sodium hydroxide
Dilute nitric acid Sour milk (pH 5) Pure water Wood ash (pH 10) Potassium hydroxide

NOTE Acidic solutions have pH values less than seven. The smaller the pH value, the more acidic the solution is ie the larger
1 the concentration of hydrogen ions.
NOTE When distilled water is added to an acid, the pH value of the acid increases towards seven. The solution becomes less
2 acidic.
NOTE Water and other solutions have a pH of seven.
3
NOTE Any solution of pH greater than seven is alkaline. The higher the pH value, the more alkaline the solution is ie the
4 larger the concentration of hydroxyl or hydroxide ions.
NOTE When distilled water is added to an alkaline solution, the pH value of the alkali decreases towards seven. The solution
5 becomes less alkaline.

UNIVERSAL INDICATOR
Definition Forms in which universal indicator occurs Uses of universal indicator
Universal indicator is a mixture of  In solution form Determines whether the solution is acidic or
indicators.  In paper form alkaline.
Used to determine the degree of acidity and
alkalinity.

pH scale 1 -2 3 4 5 6-8 9 - 10 11 - 12 13 - 14
Colour Red Pink Brown Yellow Green Blue Indigo Violet

SIGNIFICANCE OF pH MEASUREMENTS
1. It helps to know that the final product in soap industry is neutral.
2. Too acidic soils are harmful in agriculture, and this can be determined by measuring the pH of the soil.
3. Various drugs are prepared at pHs which must be determined

SALTS
DEFINITION OF SALT TYPES OF SALTS
A salt is a substance formed when all or part of the replaceable Acid salts Normal salts
hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic radical.
Definition of normal salt Definition of acid salt
A normal salt is a salt formed when all the replaceable hydrogen An acid salt is a salt formed when part of the replaceable
of an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic radical. hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or metallic radical.
Examples of normal salts Examples of acid salts
 Sodium sulphate  Calcium hydrogencarbonate
 Sodium carbonate  sodium hydrogencarbonate
 Potassium nitrate  Calcium hydrogensulphate
 Potassium sulphate  Potassium hydrogencarbonate
 Calcium nitrate  Calcium hydrogenphosphate
 Aluminium sulphate  Magnesium hydrogencarbonate
Formation of a normal salt Formation of an acid salt
Zinc granules reacting with dilute sulphuric acid. Sodium chloride reacting with concentrated sulphuric acid.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) H2SO4(l) + NaCl(s) NaHSO4(aq) + HCl(g)

STATEMENT(S) REASON(S)
Monobasic acids do not form acid salts BECAUSE Monobasic acids contain only one atom of replaceable
hydrogen per acid molecule.
Sodium ethanoate, CH3COONa is a normal salt. BECAUSE The hydrogen it contains does not form ions and cannot be
replaced by a metal

TYPES OF SALTS AND ACIDS FROM WHICH THEY ARE FORMED

ACID TYPE OF SALT EXAMPLE OF THE SALT
Sulphuric acid Sulphates Iron (ii) sulphate
Hydrochloric acid Chlorides Sodium chloride
Carbonic acid Carbonates Potassium carbonate
Nitric acid Nitrates Calcium nitrate
Sulphuric acid hydrogencarbonates Sodium hydrogencarbonate
 CATEGORIZING SALTS DEPENDING ON THEIR SOLUBILITY IN WATER
SOLUBLE SALTS INSOLUBLE SALTS
Soluble salts are salts which completely dissolve in water to Insoluble salts are salts which do not dissolve completely in
form a solution. water and they form a residue when filtered.
Soluble salts are usually prepared by methods which involve Insoluble salts are usually prepared by methods which involve
crystallization. precipitation (double decomposition)
Crystallization is a process by which a solution is saturated by Precipitation is a process where an insoluble solid is formed
evaporating some of the solvent, when two aqueous solutions are mixed together.
On cooling, the excess salt dissolved in the hot solution is The insoluble salt is formed as a precipitate in an aqueous
deposited as crystals. solution which is filtered off, washed and dried.
A crystal is a solid that has solidified in a definite regular shape A precipitate is an insoluble solid that separates from the
solution.
EXAMPLES OF SOLUBLE SALTS COLOUR EXAMPLES OF INSOLUBLE SALTS COLOUR
Lead (ii) nitrate White Lead (ii) carbonate White
Copper (ii) sulphate Blue Copper (ii) carbonate Green
Copper (ii) nitrate Blue Lead (ii) sulphate White
Iron (ii) sulphate Green Iron (ii) carbonate Green
Iron (ii) chloride Green Barium sulphate White
Iron (ii) nitrate Green Calcium sulphate (slightly soluble in water) White
Iron (iii) sulphate Brown/ yellow Silver chloride White
Iron (iii) chloride Brown/ yellow Magnesium carbonate White
Iron (iii) nitrate Brown/ yellow Zinc carbonate White
Formation of zinc sulphate Formation of zinc carbonate by precipitation
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + ZnCl2(aq) NaCl(aq) + ZnCO3(s)
Formation of zinc sulphate Formation of copper (ii) carbonate by precipitation
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) Na2CO3(aq) + CuSO4(aq) CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

SOLUBLE SALTS INSOLUBLE SALTS

ALL Sodium salts
ALL potassium salts
ALL ammonium salts
ALL NITRATES form soluble salts NO Nitrate salt is insoluble
ALL sulphates Lead (ii) sulphate
Except Barium sulphate
Calcium sulphate
ALL chlorides Lead (ii) chloride (soluble in hot water)
Except Sliver chloride
Mercury (i) chloride
Sodium carbonate
Potassium carbonate Except ALL CARBONATES are insoluble
Ammonium carbonate
 PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY
1. ACTION OF AN ACID ON A METAL
General equation Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen
This method is not suitable for The metals of potassium, sodium and calcium react
preparation of salts of highly explosively with dilute acids
reactive metals for example;
 Potassium BECAUSE
 Sodium
 Calcium
This method is only used to prepare salts of less reactive metals such as
 Aluminium
 Zinc
 Magnesium
 Iron
Magnesium sulphate can be prepared by using magnesium and dilute sulphuric acid
Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Iron (ii) sulphate can be prepared by using iron filings and dilute sulphuric acid
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g)
EXPERIMENT: Preparation of zinc sulphate crystals
 Dilute sulphuric acid is poured in a beaker and granulated zinc is added.
 Effervescence occurs
 If the reaction is slow, a little copper (ii) sulphate solution is added as a catalyst and the reactants are warmed
gently.
Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
 When the reaction stops, more zinc is added to make sure that the acid is not left in considerable amounts.
 Excess zinc granules are filtered off.
 The filtrate is gently heated in an evaporating dish to boil off some water until crystals begin to form, when the
filtrate cools, on a glass rod, which is dipped into the filtrate at regular intervals.
 The crystals are filtered off and then pressed gently between filter papers to dry.
 PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY
2. ACTION OF AN ACID ON SOLUBLE HYDROXIDE OR CARBONATE
This method is used to prepare salts of potassium, sodium and ammonium
PREPARATION OF; (i) Potassium chloride
KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
K2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) KCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(ii) Sodium nitrate
NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(iii) Ammonium chloride
NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq) NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l)
(NH4)2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NH4Cl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
(iv) Ammonium sulphate
2NH4OH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(NH4)2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
EXPERIMENT: Preparation of sodium sulphate crystals
 A known volume of sodium hydroxide solution is pipetted into a conical flask and 2 drops of phenolphthalein added.
 Dilute sulphuric acid is added from the burette to conical flask at intervals until the colour of the indicator changes
to pink.
2NaOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
 Having noted the volume of the acid used, the solution is poured away as the indicator would colour the salt
obtained from it.
 The whole process is repeated using the same volume of the solution of sulphuric acid and sodium hydroxide
solution without adding the indicator.
 The solution is evaporated until it forms crystals when it cools, on a clean glass rod, which is dipped into the solution
at regular intervals.
 The crystals are filtered off and then pressed gently between filter papers to dry.
 PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY
3. ACTION OF AN ACID ON INSOLUBLE OXIDES OR HYDROXIDES
This method is used to prepare Magnesium sulphate, zinc sulphate and lead (ii) nitrate
PREPARATION OF; (i) Magnesium sulphate
MgO(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(ii) Zinc sulphate
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) Lead (ii) nitrate
PbO(s) + HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
EXPERIMENT: Preparation of copper (ii) sulphate crystals
 Copper (ii) oxide is added to a beaker of warm dilute sulphuric acid and the mixture stirred gently.
 More of the oxide is added, little at a time until no more reacts, showing that all the acid has been neutralized.
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
 Excess copper (ii) oxide is filtered off and the filtrate evaporated until crystals begin to form when it cools, on a clean
glass rod, which is dipped into the filtrate at regular intervals
 The crystals are filtered off and then pressed gently between filter papers to dry.
 PREPARATION OF SOLUBLE SALTS BY
4. ACTION OF AN ACID ON SOLUBLE INSOLUBLE CARBONATES
The salts of copper (ii) sulphate, copper (ii) nitrate, magnesium sulphate, zinc sulphate, calcium chloride and calcium
nitrate are prepared by this method.
Calcium chloride and calcium nitrate are deliquescent and do not form crystals. Their solutions must be evaporated to
dryness
PREPARATION OF; (i) Copper (ii) sulphate
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(ii) Copper (ii) nitrate

CuCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(iii) Magnesium sulphate

MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(iv) Zinc sulphate

ZnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(v) Calcium (ii) nitrate

CaCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

(vi) Calcium chloride

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

EXPERIMENT: Preparation of lead (ii) nitrate crystals

 Lead (ii) carbonate is added little at a time to dilute nitric acid in a beaker.
 Effervescence occurs as carbon dioxide is evolved.
 More carbonate is added until no more reacts, showing that all the acid has reacted.
PbCO3(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
 The excess carbonate is filtered off and the filtrate evaporated until crystals begin to form when it cools, on a clean
glass rod, which is dipped into the filtrate at regular intervals.
 The crystals are filtered off and then pressed gently between filter papers to dry.
 5. PREPARATION OF SALTS BY DIRECT SYNTHESIS
Salts to which this method applies APPLIES to both soluble and insoluble salts
Another name for this method Direct synthesis
Salts prepared by direct synthesis Used to prepare binary salts, for example;
 Chlorides eg anhydrous iron (iii) chloride
 Bromides eg aluminium bromide
 Sulphides eg iron (ii) sulphide
Definition of direct synthesis Direct synthesis is the method of preparing soluble and insoluble salts
directly from their elements.

PREPARATION OF ANHYDROUS IRON (III) CHLORIDE

Conditions for the reaction  Dry chlorine gas
 Heating is required
Equation for the reaction 2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)
Colour of iron (iii) chloride BROWN

PREPARATION OF ALUMINIUM CHLORIDE

Conditions for the reaction  Dry chlorine gas
 Heating is required
Equation for the reaction 2Al(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2AlCl3(s)
Colour of aluminium chloride WHITE

PREPARATION OF IRON (II) SULPHIDE

Conditions for the reaction  Heating is required
Observation made The mixture glows when heated forming a black solid.
Equation for the reaction Fe(s) + S(g) FeS(s)
Colour of iron (ii) sulphide BLACK
 6. PREPARATION OF INSOLUBLE SALTS BY PRECIPITATION
Method also called Double decomposition reaction
What is involved in this method? In this method, two soluble salts are mixed together to give a mixture of a
soluble salt and an insoluble salt (precipitate)
PREPARATION OF (i) Barium sulphate
BaCl2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(ii) Lead (ii) chloride (It is soluble in hot water)

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + NaCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

(iii) Calcium carbonate

CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(iv) Lead (ii) bromide

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaBr(aq) PbBr2(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

(v) Calcium sulphate

Ca(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

EXPERIMENT: Preparation of lead (ii) sulphate crystals

 Dilute sulphuric acid is added to warm lead (ii) nitrate solution in a beaker and the mixture is stirred.
 The white precipitate formed is heated to enable rapid filtration.
 After filtration, the precipitate is washed several times with hot distilled water to remove soluble impurities.
 The precipitate is allowed to dry on a filter paper.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2HNO3(aq)

NOTE; SODIUM SULPHATE solution may be used instead of SULPHURIC ACID

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) PbSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
HYDROLYSIS OF SALTS
Why does a solution of potassium carbonate This is because when in aqueous solution, potassium carbonate
show basic characteristics? hydrolyses in water to form a mixture of a strong alkali (KOH) and a weak
acid (H2CO3). The resultant solution is alkaline because the concentration
of hydroxyl ions from the strong alkali is greater than the concentration
of hydrogen ions from the weak acid.
The strong alkali completely ionizes in solution and the weak acid under
goes incomplete ionization.
Equation for the reaction K2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2KOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

Why does a solution of ammonium chloride This is because when in aqueous solution, ammonium chloride
show acidic characteristics? hydrolyses in water to form a mixture of a strong acid (HCl ) and a weak
alkali (NH4OH). The resultant solution is acidic because the concentration
of hydrogen ions from the strong acid is greater than the concentration of
hydroxyl ions from the weak alkali.
The strong acid completely ionizes in solution and the weak alkali under
goes incomplete ionization.
Equation for the reaction NH4Cl(s) + 2H2O(l) NH4OH(aq) + HCl(aq)

REACTIONS FOR IONIC SALTS

When an ionic salt dissolves in water, its ions separate into free ions. For example; when zinc sulphate is dissolved in
water, zinc ions (Zn2+) and sulphate ions (SO42+)

IONIC EQUATIONS
Ionic equations describe chemical changes by showing only the reacting ions.
Three steps are followed when writing ionic equations;
STEP 1 Write the formal equation.
STEP 2 Write down all the ions in the equation.
STEP 3 The ionic equation is written by omitting the identical ions which appear on both sides of the equation.
Important notes to take;
NOTE 1 Gases do not ionize.
NOTE 2 Solids do not ionize. (Precipitates do not ionize)
NOTE 3 Water does not ionize.
NOTE 4 Only aqueous solutions ionize.
EXERCISE
Write ionic equations for the following reactions
i) Copper (ii) sulphate solution is added to sodium carbonate solution
ii) Sodium hydroxide solution is added to lead (ii) nitrate solution
iii) Zinc powder is added to copper (ii) sulphate solution
iv) Chlorine gas is passed through a solution of iron (ii) chloride
v) Dilute hydrochloric acid is added to solid calcium carbonate

SOURCE SPIRE HIGH SCHOOL – GAYAZA

DEPARTMENT DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
TOPIC ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS (O’ LEVEL)
WRITER MULONDO SULAIMAN 0756 315 622