Faraday's Law of Induction - Wikipedia
Faraday's Law of Induction - Wikipedia
Faraday's Law of Induction - Wikipedia
induction
Faraday's law of induction (briefly, Faraday's law) is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting
how a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce an electromotive force (EMF)
—a phenomenon known as electromagnetic induction. It is the fundamental operating principle
of transformers, inductors, and many types of electrical motors, generators and solenoids.[2][3]
Faraday's experiment showing induction between coils of wire: The liquid battery (right) provides a current which flows
through the small coil (A), creating a magnetic field. When the coils are stationary, no current is induced. But when the
small coil is moved in or out of the large coil (B), the magnetic flux through the large coil changes, inducing a current
which is detected by the galvanometer (G).[1]
The Maxwell–Faraday equation (listed as one of Maxwell's equations) describes the fact that a
spatially varying (and also possibly time-varying, depending on how a magnetic field varies in
time) electric field always accompanies a time-varying magnetic field, while Faraday's law states
that there is EMF (electromotive force, defined as electromagnetic work done on a unit charge
when it has traveled one round of a conductive loop) on the conductive loop when the magnetic
flux through the surface enclosed by the loop varies in time.
Faraday's law had been discovered and one aspect of it (transformer EMF) was formulated as
the Maxwell–Faraday equation later. The equation of Faraday's law can be derived by the
Maxwell–Faraday equation (describing transformer EMF) and the Lorentz force (describing
motional EMF). The integral form of the Maxwell–Faraday equation describes only the
transformer EMF, while the equation of Faraday's law describes both the transformer EMF and
the motional EMF.
History
A diagram of Faraday's iron ring apparatus. The changing magnetic flux of the left coil induces a current in the right coil.[4]
Michael Faraday explained electromagnetic induction using a concept he called lines of force.
However, scientists at the time widely rejected his theoretical ideas, mainly because they were
not formulated mathematically.[9]:510 An exception was James Clerk Maxwell, who in 1861–62
used Faraday's ideas as the basis of his quantitative electromagnetic theory.[9]:510[10][11] In
Maxwell's papers, the time-varying aspect of electromagnetic induction is expressed as a
differential equation which Oliver Heaviside referred to as Faraday's law even though it is
different from the original version of Faraday's law, and does not describe motional EMF.
Heaviside's version (see Maxwell–Faraday equation below) is the form recognized today in the
group of equations known as Maxwell's equations.
Lenz's law, formulated by Emil Lenz in 1834,[12] describes "flux through the circuit", and gives the
direction of the induced EMF and current resulting from electromagnetic induction (elaborated
upon in the examples below).
Faraday's law …
Alternating electric current flows through the solenoid on the left, producing a changing magnetic field. This field causes,
by electromagnetic induction, an electric current to flow in the wire loop on the right.
Mathematical statement
…
The definition of surface integral relies on splitting the surface Σ into small surface elements. Each element is associated
g p g
with a vector dA of magnitude equal to the area of the element and with direction normal to the element and pointing
"outward" (with respect to the orientation of the surface).
For a loop of wire in a magnetic field, the magnetic flux ΦB is defined for any surface Σ whose
boundary is the given loop. Since the wire loop may be moving, we write Σ(t) for the surface. The
magnetic flux is the surface integral:
where dA is an element of surface area of the moving surface Σ(t), B is the magnetic field, and
B·dA is a vector dot product representing the element of flux through dA. In more visual terms,
the magnetic flux through the wire loop is proportional to the number of magnetic field lines that
pass through the loop.
When the flux changes—because B changes, or because the wire loop is moved or deformed, or
both—Faraday's law of induction says that the wire loop acquires an EMF, defined as the energy
available from a unit charge that has traveled once around the wire loop.[15]:ch17[16][17] (Some
sources state the definition differently. This expression was chosen for compatibility with the
equations of Special Relativity.) Equivalently, it is the voltage that would be measured by cutting
the wire to create an open circuit, and attaching a voltmeter to the leads.
Faraday's law states that the EMF is also given by the rate of change of the magnetic flux:
Faraday's law contains the information about the relationships between both the magnitudes
and the directions of its variables. However, the relationships between the directions are not
explicit; they are hidden in the mathematical formula.
A Left Hand Rule for Faraday's Law. The sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux, is found based on the relationship between the
magnetic field B, the area of the loop A, and the normal n to that area, as represented by the fingers of the left hand. If ΔΦB
is positive, the direction of the EMF is the same as that of the curved fingers (yellow arrowheads). If ΔΦB is negative, the
direction of the EMF is against the arrowheads.[19]
It is possible to find out the direction of the electromotive force (EMF) directly from Faraday’s
law, without invoking Lenz's law. A left hand rule helps doing that, as follows:[19][20]
Align the curved fingers of the left hand with the loop (yellow line).
Stretch your thumb. The stretched thumb indicates the direction of n (brown), the normal to
the area enclosed by the loop.
Find the sign of ΔΦB, the change in flux. Determine the initial and final fluxes (whose
difference is ΔΦB) with respect to the normal n, as indicated by the stretched thumb.
If the change in flux, ΔΦB, is positive, the curved fingers show the direction of the
electromotive force (yellow arrowheads).
If ΔΦB is negative, the direction of the electromotive force is opposite to the direction of the
curved fingers (opposite to the yellow arrowheads).
For a tightly wound coil of wire, composed of N identical turns, each with the same ΦB, Faraday's
law of induction states that[21][22]
where N is the number of turns of wire and ΦB is the magnetic flux through a single loop.
Maxwell–Faraday equation
…
An illustration of the Kelvin–Stokes theorem with surface Σ, its boundary ∂Σ, and orientation n set by the right-hand rule.
The Maxwell–Faraday equation states that a time-varying magnetic field always accompanies a
spatially varying (also possibly time-varying), non-conservative electric field, and vice versa. The
Maxwell–Faraday equation is
(in SI units) where ∇ × is the curl operator and again E(r, t) is the electric field and B(r, t) is the
magnetic field. These fields can generally be functions of position r and time t.
The Maxwell–Faraday equation is one of the four Maxwell's equations, and therefore plays a
fundamental role in the theory of classical electromagnetism. It can also be written in an
integral form by the Kelvin–Stokes theorem,[23] thereby reproducing Faraday's law:
where, as indicated in the figure, Σ is a surface bounded by the closed contour ∂Σ, dl is an
infinitesimal vector element of the contour ∂Σ, and dA is an infinitesimal vector element of
surface Σ. Its direction is orthogonal to that surface patch, the magnitude is the area of an
infinitesimal patch of surface.
Both dl and dA have a sign ambiguity; to get the correct sign, the right-hand rule is used, as
explained in the article Kelvin–Stokes theorem. For a planar surface Σ, a positive path element
dl of curve ∂Σ is defined by the right-hand rule as one that points with the fingers of the right
hand when the thumb points in the direction of the normal n to the surface Σ.
The line integral around ∂Σ is called circulation.[15]:ch3 A nonzero circulation of E is different from
the behavior of the electric field generated by static charges. A charge-generated E-field can be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar field that is a solution to Poisson's equation, and has a zero
path integral. See gradient theorem.
The integral equation is true for any path ∂Σ through space, and any surface Σ for which that
path is a boundary.
The surface integral at the right-hand side is the explicit expression for the magnetic flux ΦB
through Σ.
The electric vector field induced by a changing magnetic flux, the solenoidal component of the
overall electric field, can be approximated in the non-relativistic limit by the volume integral
equation[24]:321
Proof
The four Maxwell's equations (including the Maxwell–Faraday equation), along with Lorentz
force law, are a sufficient foundation to derive everything in classical electromagnetism.[15][16]
Therefore, it is possible to "prove" Faraday's law starting with these equations.[25][26]
The starting point is the time-derivative of flux through an arbitrary surface Σ (that can be moved
or deformed) in space:
(by definition). This total time derivative can be evaluated and simplified with the help of the
Maxwell–Faraday equation and some vector identities; the details are in the box below:
Consider the time-derivative of magnetic flux through a closed boundary (loop) that can move
or be deformed. The area bounded by the loop is denoted as Σ(t)), then the time-derivative can
be expressed as
The integral can change over time for two reasons: The integrand can change, or the
integration region can change. These add linearly, therefore:
where t0 is any given fixed time. We will show that the first term on the right-hand side
corresponds to transformer EMF, the second to motional EMF (from the magnetic Lorentz force
on charge carriers due to the motion or deformation of the conducting loop in the magnetic
field). The first term on the right-hand side can be rewritten using the integral form of the
Maxwell–Faraday equation:
The proof of this is a little more difficult than the first term; more details and alternate
approaches for the proof can be found in the references.[25][26][27] As the loop moves and/or
deforms, it sweeps out a surface (see the right figure). As a small part of the loop dl moves
with velocity vl over a short time dt, it sweeps out an area which vector is dAsweep = vl dt × dl
(note that this vector is toward out from the display in the right figure). Therefore, the change of
the magnetic flux through the loop due to the deformation or movement of the loop over the
time dt is
In the case of a conductive loop, EMF (Electromotive Force) is the electromagnetic work done on
a unit charge when it has traveled around the loop once, and this work is done by the Lorentz
force. Therefore, EMF is expressed as
In a macroscopic view, for charges on a segment of the loop, v consists of two components in
average; one is the velocity of the charge along the segment vt, and the other is the velocity of
the segment vl (the loop is deformed or moved). vt does not contribute to the work done on the
charge since the direction of vt is same to the direction of . Mathematically,
since is perpendicular to as and are along the same direction. Now we can
see that, for the conductive loop, EMF is same to the time-derivative of the magnetic flux through
the loop except for the sign on it. Therefore, we now reach the equation of Faraday's law (for the
conductive loop) as
motional EMF (due to the magnetic Lorentz force on charges by the motion or deformation of
the loop in the magnetic field).
EMF for non-thin-wire circuits
It is tempting to generalize Faraday's law to state: If ∂Σ is any arbitrary closed loop in space
whatsoever, then the total time derivative of magnetic flux through Σ equals the EMF around ∂Σ.
This statement, however, is not always true and the reason is not just from the obvious reason
that EMF is undefined in empty space when no conductor is present. As noted in the previous
section, Faraday's law is not guaranteed to work unless the velocity of the abstract curve ∂Σ
matches the actual velocity of the material conducting the electricity.[28] The two examples
illustrated below show that one often obtains incorrect results when the motion of ∂Σ is divorced
from the motion of the material.[15]
Faraday's homopolar generator. The disc rotates with angular rate ω, sweeping the conducting
radius circularly in the static magnetic field B (which direction is along the disk surface normal).
The magnetic Lorentz force v × B drives a current along the conducting radius to the conducting
rim, and from there the circuit completes through the lower brush and the axle supporting the disc.
This device generates an EMF and a current, although the shape of the "circuit" is constant and thus
the flux through the circuit does not change with time.
A wire (solid red lines) connects to two touching metal plates (silver) to form a circuit. The whole
system sits in a uniform magnetic field, normal to the page. If the abstract path ∂Σ follows the
primary path of current flow (marked in red), then the magnetic flux through this path changes
dramatically as the plates are rotated, yet the EMF is almost zero. After Feynman Lectures on
Physics[15]:ch17
One can analyze examples like these by taking care that the path ∂Σ moves with the same
velocity as the material.[28] Alternatively, one can always correctly calculate the EMF by
combining Lorentz force law with the Maxwell–Faraday equation:[15]:ch17[29]
where "it is very important to notice that (1) [vm] is the velocity of the conductor ... not the
velocity of the path element dl and (2) in general, the partial derivative with respect to time
cannot be moved outside the integral since the area is a function of time."[29]
Two phenomena
…
Faraday's law is a single equation describing two different phenomena: the motional EMF
generated by a magnetic force on a moving wire (see the Lorentz force), and the transformer
EMF generated by an electric force due to a changing magnetic field (described by the Maxwell–
Faraday equation).
James Clerk Maxwell drew attention to this fact in his 1861 paper On Physical Lines of Force.[30]
In the latter half of Part II of that paper, Maxwell gives a separate physical explanation for each
of the two phenomena.
Yet in our explanation of the rule we have used two completely distinct
laws for the two cases – v × B for "circuit moves" and ∇ × E = −∂tB for
"field changes".
about the induced electric field strength , that occurs in the circuit when the
magnetic flux changes. In this case, the contribution to from the change in the magnetic field
is made through the term , where is the vector potential. If the circuit area is changing
in case of the constant magnetic field, then some part of the circuit is inevitably moving, and the
electric field emerges in this part of the circuit in the comoving reference frame K’ as a result
of the Lorentz transformation of the magnetic field , present in the stationary reference frame
K, which passes through the circuit. The presence of the field in K’ is considered as a result of
the induction effect in the moving circuit, regardless of whether the charges are present in the
circuit or not. In the conducting circuit, the field causes motion of the charges. In the
reference frame K, it looks like appearance of EMF of the induction , the gradient of which in
the form of , taken along the circuit, seems to generate the field .
Einstein's view
…
Reflection on this apparent dichotomy was one of the principal paths that led Albert Einstein to
develop special relativity:
See also
Eddy current
Inductance
Maxwell's equations
Crosstalk
Faraday paradox
References
1. Poyser, Arthur William (1892). Magnetism and Electricity: A manual for students in advanced classes (htt
ps://archive.org/details/bub_gb_JzBAAAAAYAAJ) . London and New York: Longmans, Green, & Co. Fig.
248, p. 245. Retrieved 2009-08-06.
8. Faraday, Michael; Day, P. (1999-02-01). The philosopher's tree: a selection of Michael Faraday's writings (h
ttps://books.google.com/books?id=ur6iKVmzYhcC&pg=PA71) . CRC Press. p. 71. ISBN 978-0-7503-
0570-9. Retrieved 28 August 2011.
10. Clerk Maxwell, James (1904). A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism. 2 (3rd ed.). Oxford University
Press. pp. 178–179, 189.
13. Jordan, Edward; Balmain, Keith G. (1968). Electromagnetic Waves and Radiating Systems (2nd ed.).
Prentice-Hall. p. 100. "Faraday's Law, which states that the electromotive force around a closed path is
equal to the negative of the time rate of change of magnetic flux enclosed by the path."
15. Feynman, Richard P. "The Feynman Lectures on Physics Vol. II" (https://www.feynmanlectures.caltech.ed
u/II_toc.html) . www.feynmanlectures.caltech.edu. Retrieved 2020-11-07.
17. Tipler; Mosca (2004). Physics for Scientists and Engineers (https://books.google.com/books?id=R2Nuh3
Ux1AwC&pg=PA795) . p. 795. ISBN 9780716708100.
18. Neumann, Franz Ernst (1846). "Allgemeine Gesetze der inducirten elektrischen Ströme" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20200312012028/https://isidore.co/misc/Physics%20papers%20and%20books/Zotero/stor
age/3UM3CRQ2/18461430103_ftp.pdf) (PDF). Annalen der Physik. 143 (1): 31–44.
Bibcode:1846AnP...143...31N (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1846AnP...143...31N) .
doi:10.1002/andp.18461430103 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18461430103) . Archived from the
original (https://isidore.co/misc/Physics%20papers%20and%20books/Zotero/storage/3UM3CRQ2/1846
1430103_ftp.pdf) (PDF) on 12 March 2020.
19. Yehuda Salu (2014). "A Left Hand Rule for Faraday's Law" (https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262
986189) . The Physics Teacher. 52 (1): 48. Bibcode:2014PhTea..52...48S (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.ed
u/abs/2014PhTea..52...48S) . doi:10.1119/1.4849156 (https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.4849156) . Video
Explanation (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ipUD9VcAd9o)
20. Salu, Yehuda. "Bypassing Lenz's Rule - A Left Hand Rule for Faraday's Law" (https://web.archive.org/web/
20200507170609/http://physicsforarchitects.com/bypassing-lenzs-rule) .
www.PhysicsForArchitects.com. Archived from the original (http://Physicsforarchitects.com/bypassing-l
enzs-rule) on 7 May 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2017.
21. Whelan, P. M.; Hodgeson, M. J. (1978). Essential Principles of Physics (2nd ed.). John Murray. ISBN 0-
7195-3382-1.
25. Davison, M. E. (1973). "A Simple Proof that the Lorentz Force, Law Implied Faraday's Law of Induction,
when B is Time Independent". American Journal of Physics. 41 (5): 713. Bibcode:1973AmJPh..41..713D
(https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1973AmJPh..41..713D) . doi:10.1119/1.1987339 (https://doi.org/1
0.1119%2F1.1987339) .
26. Krey; Owen (14 August 2007). Basic Theoretical Physics: A Concise Overview (https://books.google.com/
books?id=xZ_QelBmkxYC&pg=PA155) . p. 155. ISBN 9783540368052.
27. Simonyi, K. (1973). Theoretische Elektrotechnik (5th ed.). Berlin: VEB Deutscher Verlag der
Wissenschaften. eq. 20, p. 47.
28. Stewart, Joseph V. Intermediate Electromagnetic Theory. p. 396. "This example of Faraday's Law [the
homopolar generator] makes it very clear that in the case of extended bodies care must be taken that the
boundary used to determine the flux must not be stationary but must be moving with respect to the
body."
29. Hughes, W. F.; Young, F. J. (1965). The Electromagnetodynamics of Fluid. John Wiley. Eq. (2.6–13) p. 53.
30. Clerk Maxwell, James (1861). "On physical lines of force". Philosophical Magazine. Taylor & Francis. 90:
11–23. doi:10.1080/14786431003659180 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786431003659180) .
S2CID 135524562 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:135524562) .
32. Fedosin, Sergey G. (2019). "On the Covariant Representation of Integral Equations of the Electromagnetic
Field" (https://rdcu.be/ccV9o) . Progress In Electromagnetics Research C. 96: 109–122.
arXiv:1911.11138 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1911.11138) . Bibcode:2019arXiv191111138F (https://ui.adsab
s.harvard.edu/abs/2019arXiv191111138F) . doi:10.2528/PIERC19062902 (https://doi.org/10.2528%2F
PIERC19062902) .
Further reading
Clerk Maxwell, James (1881). A treatise on electricity and magnetism, Vol. II (https://archive.or
g/details/atreatiseonelec04maxwgoog) . Oxford: Clarendon Press. ch. III, sec. 530, p. 178.
ISBN 0-486-60637-6. "a treatise on electricity and magnetism."
External links
Media related to Faraday's law of induction at Wikimedia Commons
Roberto Vega. Induction: Faraday's law and Lenz's law – Highly animated lecture, with sound
effects (https://web.archive.org/web/20080530092914/http://www.physics.smu.edu/~vega/
em1304/lectures/lect13/lect13_f03.ppt) , Electricity and Magnetism course page (https://we
b.archive.org/web/20081228092644/http://www.physics.smu.edu/vega/em1304/p1304.ht
ml)
Notes from Physics and Astronomy HyperPhysics at Georgia State University (http://hyperphy
sics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/emcon.html)
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