Samarkand, a city on the Silk Road

Samarkand (/ˈsæmərkænd/; Uzbek: Samarqand, pronounced [samarqand]; Tajik: Самарқанд;

Persian: ‫)سمرقند‬, also known as Samarqand, is a city in southeastern Uzbekistan and among the
oldest continuously inhabited cities in Central Asia. There is evidence of human activity in the
area of the city from the late Paleolithic Era, though there is no direct evidence of when
Samarkand was founded; several theories propose that it was founded between the 8th and 7th
centuries BCE. Prospering from its location on the Silk Road between China and the
Mediterranean Sea, at times Samarkand was one of the largest[2] cities of Central Asia.[3]

By the time of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia, it was the capital of the Sogdian satrapy. The
city was conquered by Alexander the Great in 329 BCE, when it was known as Markanda, which
was rendered in Greek as (Μαράκανδα).[4] The city was ruled by a succession of Iranian and
Turkic rulers until it was conquered by the Mongols under Genghis Khan in 1220. Today,
Samarkand is the capital of Samarqand Region and one of the largest cities of Uzbekistan.[5]

The city is noted as a centre of Islamic scholarly study and the birthplace of the Timurid
Renaissance. In the 14th century, Timur (Tamerlane) made it the capital of his empire and the
site of his mausoleum, the Gur-e Amir. The Bibi-Khanym Mosque, rebuilt during the Soviet era,
remains one of the city's most notable landmarks. Samarkand's Registan square was the city's
ancient centre and is bounded by three monumental religious buildings. The city has carefully
preserved the traditions of ancient crafts: embroidery, goldwork, silk weaving, copper engraving,
ceramics, wood carving, and wood painting.[6] In 2001, UNESCO added the city to its World
Heritage List as Samarkand – Crossroads of Cultures.

Modern Samarkand is divided into two parts: the old city, and the new city, which was
developed during the days of the Russian Empire and Soviet Union. The old city includes
historical monuments, shops, and old private houses; the new city includes administrative
buildings along with cultural centres and educational institutions.
Along with Bukhara,[9] Samarkand is one of the oldest inhabited cities in Central Asia,
prospering from its location on the trade route between China and the Mediterranean (Silk
Road). There is no direct evidence of when it was founded. Researchers at the Institute of
Archaeology of Samarkand date the city's founding to the 8th–7th centuries BCE.

Archaeological excavations conducted within the city limits (Syob and midtown) as well as
suburban areas (Hojamazgil, Sazag'on) unearthed 40,000-year-old evidence of human activity,
dating back to the Upper Paleolithic. A group of Mesolithic (12th–7th millennia BCE)
archaeological sites were discovered in the suburbs of Sazag'on-1, Zamichatosh, and Okhalik.
The Syob and Darg'om canals, supplying the city and its suburbs with water, appeared around
the 7th–5th centuries BCE (early Iron Age).

From its earliest days, Samarkand was one of the main centres of Sogdian civilization. By the
time of the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia, the city had become the capital of the Sogdian
satrapy.
Alexander the Great conquered Samarkand in 329 BCE. The city was known as Maracanda by
the Greeks.[10] Written sources offer small clues as to the subsequent system of government;
[11] they mention one Orepius who became ruler "not from ancestors, but as a gift of
Alexander."[12]

While Samarkand suffered significant damage during Alexander's initial conquest, the city
recovered rapidly and flourished under the new Hellenic influence. There were also major new
construction techniques; oblong bricks were replaced with square ones and superior methods of
masonry and plastering were introduced.[13]

Alexander's conquests introduced classical Greek culture into Central Asia; for a time, Greek
aesthetics heavily influenced local artisans. This Hellenistic legacy continued as the city became
part of various successor states in the centuries following Alexander's death, i.e. the Seleucid
Empire, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Kushan Empire (even though the Kushana themselves
originated in Central Asia). After the Kushan state lost control of Sogdia during the 3rd century
CE, Samarkand went into decline as a centre of economic, cultural, and political power. It did
not significantly revive until the 5th century.
Hephtalites and Turkic Khaganate era
In 350–375 Samarkand was conquered by the nomadic tribes of Xionites, the origin of which
remains controversial.[15] The resettlement of nomadic groups to Samarkand confirms
archaeological material from the 4th century. The culture of nomads from the Middle Syrdarya
basin is spreading in the region.[16]

In 457-509 Samarkand was part of the Kidarite state.[17]

After the Hephtalites ("White Huns") conquered Samarkand, they controlled it until the
Göktürks, in an alliance with the Sassanid Persians, won it at the Battle of Bukhara, c. 560 CE.

In the middle of the 6th century, a Turkic state was formed in Altai, founded by the Ashina
dynasty. The new state formation was named the Turkic Khaganate after the people of the Turks,
which were headed by the ruler - the Khagan. In 557-561, the Hephthalites empire was defeated
by joint actions of the Turks and Sassanids, which led to the establishment of a common border
between the two empires.[18]

In the early Middle Ages, Samarkand was surrounded by four rows of defensive walls and had
four gates.[19]
An ancient Turkic burial with a horse was investigated on the territory of Samarkand. It dates
back to the 6th century.[22]

During the period of the ruler of the Western Turkic Kaganate, Tong Yabghu Qaghan (618-630),
family relations were established with the ruler of Samarkand - Tong Yabghu Qaghan gave him
his daughter.[23]

Some part of Samarkands have been Christians since the 4th century. In the 5th century, a
Nestorian chair was established in Samarkand. At the beginning of the 8th century, it was
transformed into a Nestorian metropolitanate.[24] Discussions and polemics arose between the
Sogdian followers of Christianity and Manichaeism, reflected in the documents.[25]

Early Islamic era

The armies of the Umayyad Caliphate under Qutayba ibn Muslim captured the city from the
Turks c. 710 CE.[14]

During this period, Samarkand was a diverse religious community and was home to a number of
religions, including Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Manichaeism, Judaism, and Nestorian
Christianity, with most of the population following Zoroastrianism.[26] Qutayba generally did
not settle Arabs in Central Asia; he forced the local rulers to pay him tribute but largely left them
to their own devices. Samarkand was the major exception to this policy: Qutayba established an
Arab garrison and Arab governmental administration in the city, its Zoroastrian fire temples were
razed, and a mosque was built.[27] Much of the city's population converted to Islam.[28] As a
long-term result, Samarkand developed into a center of Islamic and Arabic learning.[27]

At the end of the 740s, a movement of those dissatisfied with the power of the Umayyads
emerged in the Arab Caliphate, led by the commander Abu Muslim, who, after the victory of the
uprising, became the governor of Khorasan and Maverannahr (750-755). He chose Samarkand as
his residence. His name is associated with the construction of a multi-kilometer defensive wall
around the city and the palace.[29]

Legend has it that during Abbasid rule,[30] the secret of papermaking was obtained from two
Chinese prisoners from the Battle of Talas in 751, which led to the foundation of the first paper
mill in the Islamic world at Samarkand. The invention then spread to the rest of the Islamic
world and thence to Europe.

Abbasid control of Samarkand soon dissipated and was replaced with that of the Samanids (875–
999), though the Samanids were still nominal vassals of the Caliph during their control of
Samarkand. Under Samanid rule the city became a capital of the Samanid dynasty and an even
more important node of numerous trade routes. The Samanids were overthrown by the
Karakhanids around 999. Over the next 200 years, Samarkand would be ruled by a succession of
Turkic tribes, including the Seljuqs and the Khwarazmshahs.[31]
The 10th-century Iranian author Istakhri, who travelled in Transoxiana, provides a vivid
description of the natural riches of the region he calls "Smarkandian Sogd":

I know no place in it or in Samarkand itself where if one ascends some elevated ground one does
not see greenery and a pleasant place, and nowhere near it are mountains lacking in trees or a
dusty steppe... Samakandian Sogd... [extends] eight days travel through unbroken greenery and
gardens... . The greenery of the trees and sown land extends along both sides of the river
[Sogd]... and beyond these fields is pasture for flocks. Every town and settlement has a fortress...
It is the most fruitful of all the countries of Allah; in it are the best trees and fruits, in every home
are gardens, cisterns and flowing water.
The Mongols conquered Samarkand in 1220. Although Genghis Khan "did not disturb the
inhabitants [of the city] in any way," Juvaini writes that Genghis killed all who took refuge in the
citadel and the mosque, pillaged the city completely, and conscripted 30,000 young men along
with 30,000 craftsmen. Samarkand suffered at least one other Mongol sack by Khan Baraq to get
treasure he needed to pay an army. It remained part of the Chagatai Khanate (one of four Mongol
successor realms) until 1370.

The Travels of Marco Polo, where Polo records his journey along the Silk Road in the late 13th
century, describes Samarkand as "a very large and splendid city..."[35]

The Yenisei area had a community of weavers of Chinese origin, and Samarkand and Outer
Mongolia both had artisans of Chinese origin, as reported by Changchun.[36] After Genghis
Khan conquered Central Asia, foreigners were chosen as governmental administrators; Chinese
and Qara-Khitays (Khitans) were appointed as co-managers of gardens and fields in Samarkand,
which Muslims were not permitted to manage on their own.[37][38] The khanate allowed the
establishment of Christian bishoprics (see below).
Ibn Battuta, who visited in 1333, called Samarkand "one of the greatest and finest of cities, and
most perfect of them in beauty." He also noted that the orchards were supplied water via norias.
[39]

In 1365, a revolt against Chagatai Mongol control occurred in Samarkand.[40]

In 1370 the conqueror Timur (Tamerlane), the founder and ruler of the Timurid Empire, made
Samarkand his capital. Over the next 35 years, he rebuilt most of the city and populated it with
great artisans and craftsmen from across the empire. Timur gained a reputation as a patron of the
arts, and Samarkand grew to become the centre of the region of Transoxiana. Timur's
commitment to the arts is evident in how, in contrast with the ruthlessness he showed his
enemies, he demonstrated mercy toward towards those with special artistic abilities. The lives of
artists, craftsmen, and architects were spared so that they could improve and beautify Timur's
capital.

Timur was also directly involved in construction projects, and his visions often exceeded the
technical abilities of his workers. The city was in a state of constant construction, and Timur
would often order buildings to be done and redone quickly if he was unsatisfied with the results.
[41] By his orders, Samarkand could be reached only by roads; deep ditches were dug, and walls
8 kilometres (5 miles) in circumference separated the city from its surrounding neighbors.[42] At
this time, the city had a population of about 150,000.[43] Henry III's ambassador Ruy Gonzalez
de Clavijo, who was stationed at Samarkand between 1403 and 1406, attested to the never-
ending construction that went on in the city. "The Mosque which Timur had built seemed to us
the noblest of all those we visited in the city of Samarkand. "[44]
In 1417-1420, Timur's grandson Ulugbek built a madrasah in Samarkand, which became the first
building in the architectural ensemble of Registan. Ulugbek invited a large number of
astronomers and mathematicians of the Islamic world to this madrasah. Under Ulugbek
Samarkand became one of the world centers of medieval science. Here, in the first half of the
15th century, a whole scientific school arose around Ulugbek, uniting prominent astronomers
and mathematicians - Giyasiddin Jamshid Kashi, Kazizade Rumi, al-Kushchi. Ulugbek's main
interest in science was astronomy. In 1428, the construction of the Ulugbek observatory was
completed. Her main instrument was the wall quadrant, which had no equal in the world.[45]