Architecture and Organization
Architecture and Organization
Architecture and Organization
Jeruz E. Claudel
Khryss Leanne B. Omnes
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LAGUNA UNIVERSITY
Vision
Mission
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Course Code: CS2110
Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%
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Table of Contents
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Module 4: Parts of a Computer
Introduction 48
Learning Outcomes 48
Lesson 1. Application of Computer 48
Lesson 2. Parts of a Computer 53
Lesson 3. Input Devices 58
Lesson 4. Output Devices 62
Lesson 5. Storage Devices 65
Assessment Task 68
Summary 70
References 70
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MODULE 1
OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER ORGANIZATION
Introduction
Today, as a normal person, you must have read, seen or used a computer. This is because
computers have become a part of our everyday life. Whether it is in banks, schools, malls,
hospitals or your home, computers can be seen everywhere, making our work faster and easier
for us.
The literal meaning of a computer is that it is a device that can calculate. However, the
modern computers can do a lot more than to calculate. It is an electronic device that receives
input, stores the input or processes the input as per the user’s instructions and provides an output
in the use’s desired format.
Learning Outcomes
The computer’s evolution has been characterized by its increasing processor speed,
increasing memory size, decreasing component size, and increasing input and output capacity
and speed. A one factor responsible for this great increase in the processor speed is the shrinking
size of the microprocessor components; with this it reduces the distance between the components
and hence increases the speed (Johanns, 2018).
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A Brief History of Computers
The First Generation: Vacuum Tubes
ENIAC
The task of altering and entering the programs for the ENIAC was extremely
tedious. The process of programming could be facilitated if the program could be
represented in a form that is suitable for storing in the memory alongside the data. Then
the computer could get the instructions by reading them from the memory, and then a
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program could be altered or set by setting the values of a portion of the memory
(Campbell-Kelly & Aspray, 2014).
This idea is known as the stored-program concept. It is usually attributed to
ENIAC designers, most notably the mathematician named John von Neumann, who was
also a consultant on the ENIAC project. The first publication of this idea was in the year
of 1945 proposed by von Neumann for a new computer, the EDVAC (Electronic Discrete
Variable Computer) (Campbell-Kelly & Aspray, 2014).
Commercial Computers
In the year of 1950, they saw the birth of the computer industry with two companies,
the Sperry and the IBM, that is dominating the marketplace. In the year of 1947, Eckert
and Mauchly formed the Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation to manufacture the
computers commercially. The first successful machine they manufactured was the
Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC I), which was commissioned by the Bureau of
the Census for the 1950 calculations. The Eckert-Mauchly Computer Corporation
became part of the UNIVAC division of Sperry-Rand Corporation, that went on to build a
series of successor machines (Wikipedia, n.d.).
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Figure 1.1.3 UNIVAC
Follow the link below for more information
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_I
The transistor was the replacement of the vacuum tube and was the first major
change in the electronic computer. The transistor is cheaper, smaller and dissipates less
heat than the vacuum tube but it can be used in the same way as a vacuum tube to
construct computers. Unlike the vacuum tube, that requires wires, a glass capsule, metal
plates and a vacuum, the transistor is a solid-state device, which is made from a silicon
(Stallings, 2010).
The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in the year of 1947 and by the 1950s, it
had launched an electronic revolution. It was not until the late 1950s, however, that fully
transistorized computers were become commercially available (Stallings, 2010).
The IBM 7094 was first introduced in the year of January 1962, according to IBM.
IBM won a contract with the NASA for the space program’s Gemini-Apollo Real-Time
Computer Complex, and 7094 mainframes were used for software
development, according to the official history of the space program from the NASA. The
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IBM 7094 is regarded as one of the most powerful and most advanced mainframe
computers of the early 1960s. The NASA and the Air Force used the 7094 for critical
operations, and the mainframe played a large role in the Gemini and Apollo space
program, as well as early missile defense systems to guard against the intercontinental
ballistic missiles with nuclear warheads (Goldstein, 2016).
IBM System/360
By 1964, IBM had a firm grip on the computer market with its 7000 series of
machines. In that year, IBM announced the System/360, a new family of computer
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products. The System/360 was the industry’s first planned family of computers. The family
covered a wide range of performance and cost. The concept of a family of compatible
computers was both novel and extremely successful (Stallings, 2010).
DEC PDP – 8
In the same year that IBM shipped its first System/360, another momentous first
shipment occurred: DEC’s PDP-8. At a time when the average computer required an air-
conditioned room, the PDP-8 was small enough that it could be placed on top of a lab
bench or be built into other equipment (Stallings, 2010).
The low cost and small size of the PDP-8 enabled another manufacturer to
purchase a PDP-8 and integrate it into a total system for resale. The PDP-8 was an
immediate hit and made DEC’s fortune. This machine and other members of the PDP-8
family that followed it achieved a production status formerly reserved for IBM computers,
with about 50,000 machines sold over the next dozen years (Stallings, 2010).
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Figure 1.1.6 DEC PDP – 8
Follow the link below for more information
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-8
Later Generations
Semiconductor Memory
Just as the density of elements on memory chips has continued to rise, so has the
density of elements on processor chips. A breakthrough was achieved in 1971, when
Intel developed its 4004. The 4004 was the first chip to contain all of the components of
the CPU on a single chip: The microprocessor was born (Stallings, 2010).
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Figure 1.1.8 Microprocessors
Computing Machines or known as the computers are the machines that can be instructed
to carry out sequences of logical or arithmetic operations automatically with the use of a computer
programming. Computing machines has different purposes according to their functionality (Types
of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these purposes are:
General Purpose
Special Purpose
Embedded
General Purpose
A general-purpose computing machine are used for different programs or different
applications for different functionalities and it can be used to do a lot of things (Types of
Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these general-purpose computing machines are:
Personal Computer
Desktop
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Figure 1.2.1 General Purpose Computers
Special Purpose
A special-purpose computing machine is designed for special functionalities only. The
special purpose computer is usually made to do one thing only. It can’t be used to play games or
surf the net (Types of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
And some of these special purpose computers are:
Cash Register
ATMs
Games
Telephone Switches
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Embedded
An embedded purpose computing machine can perform specific functions and are used
today in many different applications. Embedded computers may be a part of a large system and
it relies on its own processor (Types of Computers by Purpose - Byte-Notes, n.d.).
Some of these embedded computers are:
Cellphones
Cameras
Automotive Systems
Speed. A computer works with a much higher speed and accuracy compared to the
humans while performing mathematical calculations. A computer can process millions of
instructions per second. The time taken by the computers for the operations is in
microseconds and in nanoseconds (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
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Accuracy. The computers can perform calculations with an accuracy of 100%. Errors may
occur due to the data inconsistency or data inaccuracy (Characteristics of Computer
System, n.d.).
Diligence. A computer can perform millions of tasks or calculations with the same
consistency and accuracy. It doesn’t feel any fatigue or lack of concentration. Its memory
also makes it superior to that of human beings (Characteristics of Computer System,
n.d.).
Reliability. A computer is reliable as it gives consistent result for similar set of data i.e., if
we give same set of input any number of times, we will get the same result
(Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Automation. Computer performs all the tasks automatically i.e. it performs tasks without
manual intervention (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Memory. A computer has built-in memory called primary memory where it stores data.
Secondary storage are removable devices such as CDs, pen drives, etc., which are also
used to store data (Characteristics of Computer System, n.d.).
Functions of a Computer
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Step 2 – Computer stores the data/instructions in its memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 – The computer processes the data and converts it into useful information.
Advantages
High Speed
Accuracy
Besides being a very fast speed, computers are very accurate (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
The computers can perform all the jobs with 100% accuracy provided that the input
is correct (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
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Storage Capability
A computer has a much more storage capacity than the human beings (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
It can store any type of data such as images, videos, text, audio, etc (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Diligence
It can work continuously without any boredom and error (Computer - Overview -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
With the same speed and accuracy, the computer can perform repeated tasks
(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Versatility
This machine can be used to solve the problems related to many various fields
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At one instance, it may be solving a complex scientific problem and the very next
Reliability
The computers are designed to make the maintenance much easy (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Automation
Automation is the ability to perform a given task automatically. Once the computer
receives a program i.e., the program is stored in the computer memory, then the
program and instruction can control the program execution without human
interaction (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to the reduction
of paper work and results in speeding up the process of the data (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of
maintenance of large number of paper files gets reduced (Computer - Overview -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
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Even though the initial investment for installing a computer is quite high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of its transaction (Computer - Overview -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Disadvantages
No I.Q.
A computer cannot take or cannot make an any decision on its own (Computer -
Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Dependency
Environment
The environment of the computer should be suitable, clean and dust free
(Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
No Feeling
It cannot make any judgment based on feelings, experience, taste and knowledge
unlike the human being (Computer - Overview - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
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Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Multiple Choice. Answer the question below and encircle the letter of the correct answer.
Activity No. 2
Identification. Write GP if the given computing machine is General Purpose, SP if the given
computing machine is Special Purpose and EM if the computing machine is
Embedded.
_____6. Smartphones
_____8. Laptops
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_____9. Tablet
_____10. Servers
Activity No. 3:
Explain each.
4. Give an example of an embedded computing machine without from the given example
from the lecture and explain its functionality.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
This module has covered the overview of the Computer organization. The evolution of a
computer system from Vacuum Tubes, Transistors up to the later generations. Computers had
become a part of our daily life. We can see it almost everywhere, whether it is in general purpose
computing machines like laptop, desktop, personal computers, or special purpose computing
machines like, ATM Machines, Cash Registers and embedded computing machines like our
smartphones.
As the technology rises, we need to know the characteristics of a computer, when it comes
to speed; computer must be able to work faster than a human. When it comes accuracy and
diligence; a computer must be able to work millions of tasks and that task should be accurate.
When it comes to reliability; a computer must be able to perform task the way the user wants it to
be.
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References
Book
Online Sources
Campbell-Kelly, M., & Aspray, W. (2014). Historical Interlude: The Birth of the Computer Part
2,The Creation of the Electronic Digital Computer.
https://videogamehistorian.wordpress.com/tag/edvac/
Goldstein, P. (2016). How the IBM 7094 Gave NASA and the Air Force Computing Superiority in
the 1960s. FedTech Magazine. https://fedtechmagazine.com/article/2016/10/how-ibm-
7094-gave-nasa-and-air-force-computing-superiority-1960s
Syed Zain Nasir. (n.d.). What is Embedded Computer ? - The Engineering Projects. Retrieved
August 25, 2020, from https://www.theengineeringprojects.com/2016/10/embedded-
computer.html
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Types of computers by purpose - Byte-Notes. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://byte-notes.com/types-computers-purpose/
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MODULE 2
Introduction
At the heart of a computer, we can find the central processing unit which can perform
these operations, this is often called a microprocessor. It also requires a memory from which the
processor gets an instruction and the memory is also used for the data storage. The computer
must be able to communicate with the real world to serve a useful purpose, so an input/output
unit is also needed and all these are connected together by a series of wires called a bus.
Learning Outcomes
Have an understanding on what and how the Central Processing Unit works.
Differentiate the three components of the CPU and their functions
Know the use of the system bus and its importance.
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the core component of what defines a computing
device, but it isn’t the only component — again, it’s just the brains. It’s a chip that sits in a special
seat (socket) located on the main circuit board (motherboard or mainboard) inside the device. It’s
distinctly separates from the memory, which is where it temporarily stores information. It’s also
separates from the graphics card or graphics chip, which renders all video and 3D graphics
displayed on your screen (Martindale, n.d.)
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CPUs are built by placing billions of microscopic transistors onto a single computer chip.
Those transistors allow it to make the calculations it needs to run programs that are stored on
your system’s memory. They’re effectively minute gates that switch on or off, thereby conveying
the ones or zeros that translate into everything you do with the device, be it watching videos, or
writing an email (Martindale, n.d.)
In the context of modern devices, a desktop or laptop has a dedicated CPU that performs
many processing functions for the system. Mobile devices and some tablets instead utilize a
System on Chip (SoC) which is a chip that contains its CPU alongside other components. Intel
and AMD both offer CPUs with graphics chips and memory stored on them too, meaning they can
do more than just standard CPU functions (Martindale, n.d.)
At its core, a CPU takes instructions from a program or application and performs a
calculation. This process breaks down into three key stages: Fetch, decode, and execute. A CPU
fetches the instruction from RAM, decodes what the instruction actually is, and then executes the
instruction using relevant parts of the CPU. The executed instruction, or calculation, can involve
basic arithmetic, comparing certain numbers together, or moving them around in memory
(Martindale, n.d.)
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How important is the CPU?
Although the CPU isn’t as important for overall system performance as it once was, it still
plays a major role in running a device. Since it is solely responsible for executing commands
within programs, the faster your CPU, the faster many applications run. That said, a fast CPU isn’t
everything. A processor, no matter how powerful, can’t easily render the latest 3D games, nor can
it store information. That’s where other components, like graphics cards and memory, come into
play (Martindale, n.d.)
In short, the CPU isn’t everything, but it’s highly important. In general, a faster CPU will
mean that your system or device will run faster. At the very least it won’t be a bottleneck in its own
right. Multiple cores and threads can help you do more things at once (Martindale, n.d.)
Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not carry out any
actual data processing operations (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint,
n.d.).
It is responsible for controlling the transfer of data and instructions among other units of
a computer.
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It manages and coordinates all the units of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the memory, interprets them, and directs the operation of
the computer.
It communicates with Input / Output devices for transfer of data or results from storage.
This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when needed. It is also known as internal storage unit
or the main memory or the primary storage or Random-Access Memory (RAM) (Computer -
CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability. Primary memory and secondary memory are
two types of memories in the computer (Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
It stores all the data and the instructions required for processing.
It stores the final results of processing before these results are released to an output
device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted through the main memory.
Arithmetic Section
Logic Section
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Arithmetic Section
Logic Section
To understand the organization of the CPU, let us consider the requirements placed on the CPU,
the things that it must do:
Fetch Instruction. The CPU reads an instruction from the memory (CPU Structure
And Functions, n.d.).
Interpret Instruction. The instruction is decoded to determine what action is
required (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
Fetch Data. The execution of an instruction may require reading data from memory
or an I/O module (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
Process Data. The execution of an instruction may require performing some
arithmetic or logical operation on data (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
Write Data. The results of an execution may require writing data to memory or an
I/O module (CPU Structure And Functions, n.d.).
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Lesson 2. System Bus
A bus is a communication pathway connecting two or more devices. A key characteristic
of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium. Multiple devices connect to the bus, and a
signal transmitted by any one device is available for reception by all other devices attached to the
bus (System Bus, n.d.).
Computer systems contain a number of different buses that provide pathways between
components at various levels of the computer system hierarchy. A bus that connects major
computer components (Processor, Memory, I/O) is called a system bus. The most common
computer interconnection structures are based on the use of one or more system buses (System
Bus, n.d.).
Bus Structure
A system bus consists, typically, of from 50 to 100 separate lines. Each line is assigned a
particular meaning or function. Although there are many different bus designs, on any bus the
lines can be classified into three functional groups (System Bus, n.d.).
Data Line
Address Line
Control Lines
The data lines provide a path for moving data between system modules. These lines
collectively, are called the data bus. The data bus typically consists of 8, 16, or 32 separate lines,
the number of lines being referred to as the width of the data bus. Because each line can carry
only 1 bit at a time, the number of lines determines how many it can be transferred at a time. The
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width of the data bus is a key factor in determining overall system performance. For example, if
the data bus is 8 bits wide and each instruction is 16 bits long, then the processor must access
the memory module twice during each instruction cycle. (System Bus, n.d.)
Address Lines
The address lines are used to designate the source or destination of the data on the data
bus. For example, if the processor wishes to read a word (8,16, or 32 bits) of data from memory,
it puts the address of the desired word on the address lines. Clearly, the width of the address bus
determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the system.
Furthermore, the address lines are generally also used to address I/O ports. Typically, the
higher-order bits are used to select a particular module on the bus, and the lower-order bits select
a memory location or I/O port within the module. (System Bus, n.d.)
Control Lines
The control lines are used to control the access to and the use of the data and address
lines. Because the data and address lines are shared by all components, there must be a means
of controlling their use. Control signals transmit both command and timing information between
system modules. Timing signals indicate the validity of data and address information. Command
signals specify operations to be performed. (System Bus, n.d.)
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Bus Grant. Indicates that a requesting module has been granted control of the bus
(Stallings, 2010).
Interrupt Request. Indicates that an interrupt is pending (Stallings, 2010).
Interrupt ACK. Acknowledges that the pending interrupt has been recognized (Stallings,
2010).
Clock. Used to synchronize operations (Stallings, 2010).
Reset. Initialized all modules (Stallings, 2010).
Lesson 3. Registers
The registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer
data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU. The registers used by the
CPU are often termed as Processor registers (Agarwal, 2019).
A processor register may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any data (such as bit
sequence or individual characters) (Javatpoint, 2019).
The computer needs processor registers for manipulating data and a register for holding
a memory address. The register holding the memory location is used to calculate the address of
the next instruction after the execution of the current instruction is completed (Javatpoint, 2019).
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Registers are classified as given below:
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Write True if the statement is correct and False if the statement is incorrect.
_____3. Data lines are used to designate the source or the destination of the data in the data
bus.
_____4. Storage units can store instructions, data, and intermediate results
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_____5. A key characteristic of a bus is that it is a shared transmission medium.
_____6. The computer doesn’t need a processor registers for manipulating data and a register for
holding a memory address.
_____7. Bus grants indicates that a module needs to gain control of the bus.
_____8. Function of arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division
_____10. Logic operations perform operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and
merging of data.
Activity No. 2:
Explain each.
1. What is the relationship of the three major components of the CPU and its importance?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
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____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. In your own words and understanding, explain the flow of the machine cycle.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
The Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the following features −
Memory or Storage Unit. This unit can store instructions, data, and intermediate results.
This unit supplies information to other units of the computer when needed.
Control Unit. This unit controls the operations of all parts of the computer but does not
carry out any actual data processing operations.
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ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit). This unit consists of two subsections namely, Arithmetic
Section and Logic Section, where arithmetic section is to perform arithmetic operations
like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division while logic section is to perform logic
operations such as comparing, selecting, matching, and merging of data.
The system bus is the computer bus that connects the three major components of a computer
system, combining the function of the data bus to carry information, an address bus, to determine
where it should be sent, and a control bus to determine its operation.
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data
and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU.
References
Book
Online Sources
32
CPU Structure And Functions. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://cnx.org/contents/Y9Ps2snV@1/CPU-Structure-And-Functions
Computer - CPU(Central Processing Unit) - Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020,
from https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_cpu.htm
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MODULE 3
Introduction
A computer system’s usefulness ultimately depends on its input and output facilities.
Without the input and output there is no possibility of keyboard input, screen output, printout or
even disk storage and retrieval.
Learning Outcomes
Differentiate the three types of memory, their uses and functions; and
Identify the three principal input and output techniques.
Lesson 1. Memory
A memory is the same as the human brain. We use the memory to store data and
instructions. Computer memory is the storage space inside the computer, where the data is to be
processed and where the instructions for processing are stored (Computer Memory, n.d.).
Computer memory has three types:
Cache Memory
Secondary Memory
Cache Memory
Cache memory is the fastest memory outside the CPU. Cache memory is a small fast
memory that is used to hold current data and instructions. The CPU will always attempt to access
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current instructions and data in cache memory before it looks at conventional memory. It accesses
the data or instructions in conventional memory if not present in the cache. It acts as a buffer
between the CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold parts of data and program which are
frequently used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from disk to the
cache memory by the operating system, from where CPU can access them (Borah, Sharma,
Pandey, & Vaibhav, 2020).
Cache memory is used to reduce the average time to access data from the Main Memory.
The cache is a smaller and faster memory which stores copies of the data from frequently used
main memory locations (Borah et al., 2020).
Types of Cache
Primary Cache. This cache is always located on the processor chip. Primary cache is
small and its access time is comparable to that of processor (Borah et al., 2020).
Secondary Cache. This cache is placed between the primary cache and the rest of the
memory. It is referred to as level 2 (L2) cache (Borah et al., 2020).
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Figure 3.1.2: Cache Memory Levels
Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost when the power is switched off. It is generally
made up of semiconductor device. The data and instruction required to be processed resides in
the main memory. It is divided into RAM and ROM (Computer Memory, n.d.).
A form of computer memory that can be read and changed in any order. A RAM must be
provided with a constant power supply. If the power on interrupted, then the data are lost. Thus,
RAM can be used only as temporary storage. (Computer Memory, n.d.)
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Figure 3.1.4 Random Access Memory
Dynamic RAM (DRAM). A Dynamic RAM requires periodic charge refreshing to maintain
data storage (Random Access Memory, n.d.).
In sharp contrast to the RAM is the Read-Only Memory, a type of non-volatile memory is used in
computers. ROM is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life of the system.
A ROM contains a permanent pattern of data that cannot be changed. While it is possible to read
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a ROM, it is not possible to write new data into it. An important application of ROMs is
microprogramming (Read Only Memory, n.d.).
ROM technology has divided into three parts.
These are the following (Read Only Memory, n.d.):
Programmable ROM (PROM). When only a small number of ROMs with a particular
memory content is needed, a less expensive alternative is Programmable ROM (PROM).
PROM may be written into only once (Read Only Memory, n.d.).
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM). The EPROM is read and written electrically, as
with PROM. However, before the write operation, all the storage cells must be erased to
the same initial state by exposure of the packaged chip to ultraviolet radiation. This erasure
process can be performed repeatedly; each erasure can take as much as 20 minutes to
perform. Thus, the EPROM can be altered multiple times and, like the ROM and PROM,
holds its data virtually indefinitely. For comparable amounts of storage, the EPROM is
more expensive than PROM, but it has the advantage of the multiple update capability
(Read Only Memory, n.d.).
Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external memory on non-volatile. It is slower than
the main memory. These are used for storing data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are accessed by the via input-output routines. The
contents of secondary memories are first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can
access it. (Computer Memory, n.d.)
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For Example:
Disk
CD-ROM
DVD
Hard Drives
Module Function
The major requirements for an I/O module fall into the following categories.
Processor Communication
Device Communication
Data Buffering
Error Detection
During any period of time, the processor may communicate with one or more external devices in
unpredictable patterns, depending on the program’s need for I/O. The internal resources, such as
main memory and the system bus must be shared among a number of activities, including data
I/O. Thus, the I/O function includes a control and timing requirement, to coordinate the flow of
traffic between internal resources and external devices. The processor must communicate with
the processor and with the external device. Processor communication involves the following
(Stallings, 2010).
Command Decoding. The I/O module accepts commands from the processor, typically
sent as signals on the control bus (Stallings, 2010).
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Data. Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module over the data bus
(Stallings, 2010).
Status Reporting. Because peripherals are so slow, it is important to know the status of
the I/O module. For example, if an I/O module is asked to send data to the processor, it
may not be ready to do so because it is still working on the previous I/O command. This
fact can be reported with a status signal. Common status signals are BUSY and READY.
There may also be a signal to report various error conditions (Stallings, 2010).
Address Recognition. Just as each word of memory has an address, so does each I/O
device. Thus, an I/P module must recognize one unique address for each peripheral it
controls (Stallings, 2010).
On the other side, the I/O module must be able to perform device communication. This
communication involves commands, status information and data. An essential task of an I/O
module is data buffering. Data coming from main memory are sent to an I/O module in a rapid
burst. The data are buffered in I/O module and then sent to the peripheral device at its data rate.
In the opposite direction, data are buffered so as not to tie up the memory in a slow transfer
operation. Thus, the I/O module must be able to operate at both device and memory speeds
(Stallings, 2010).
Finally, an I/O module is often responsible for error detection and for subsequently reporting
errors to the processor. One class of errors includes mechanical and electrical malfunctions
reported by the device (e.g., paper jam, bad disk track) (Stallings, 2010).
Programmed I/O
Interrupt-Driven I/O
Programmed I/O
In programmed I/O occurs under the direct and continuous control of the program
requesting the I/O operation. The programmed I/O was the simplest type of I/O technique for the
40
exchange of data or any types of communication between the processor and the external devices
(Stallings, 2010).
With the programmed I/O, data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module.
The processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O operation, including
sensing device status, sending a read or write command, and transferring the data. When the
processor issues a command to the I/O module, it must wait until the I/O operation is complete. If
the processor is faster than the I/O module, this is wasteful of processor time (Programmed I/O -
I/O Techniques, n.d.).
The overall operation of the program I/O can be summaries as follows:
1. The processor I executing a program and encounters an instruction relating to I/O
operation (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The processor then executes that instruction by using a command to the appropriate I/O
module (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
3. The I/O module will perform the requested action based on the I/O command issued by
the processor (READ/WRITE) and set the appropriate bits in the I/O status register
(Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
4. The processor will periodically check the status of the I/O module until it finds that the
operation is complete (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
1. Each input is read after first testing whether the device is ready with the input (a state
reflected by a bit in a status register) (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The program waits for the ready status by repeatedly testing the status bit and till all
targeted bytes are read from the input device (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
41
3. The program is in busy (non-waiting) state only after the device gets ready else in wait
state (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
1. Each output written after first testing whether the device is ready to accept the byte at its
output register or output buffer is empty (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
2. The program waits for the ready status by repeatedly testing the status bit(s) and till all
the targeted bytes are written to the device (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
3. The program in busy (non-waiting) state only after the device gets ready else wait state
(Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Interrupt-Driven I/O
In interrupt-driven I/O occurs in which a program issues an I/O command and then
continues to execute, until it is interrupted by the I/O hardware to signal the end of the I/O
operation. The processor then executes the data transfer, as before, and then resumes its former
processing (Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques, n.d.).
Let us consider how this works, first from the I/O module’s point of view. For input, the I/O
module receives a READ command from the processor. The I/O module then proceeds to read
42
data in from an associated peripheral. Once the data are in the module’s data register, the module
signals an interrupt to the processor over a control line. The module then waits until its data are
requested by the processor. When the request is made, the module places its data on the data
bus and is then ready for another I/O operation (Stallings, 2010).
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
In direct memory access occurs in which a specialized I/O processor takes over control of
an I/O operation to move a large block of data. Differ from the Programmed I/O and the Interrupt-
Driven I/O, the Direct Memory Access is a technique for transferring the data within the main
memory and the external device without passing it through the CPU. DMA is a way to improve
processor activity and I/O transfer rate by taking-over the job of transferring data from the
processor and letting the processor to do the other tasks (Stallings, 2010).
It is more efficient to use the DMA method when large volume of data has to be transferred.
For the DMA to be implemented, the processor has to share its system bus with the DMA module.
Therefore, the DMA module must use the bus only when the processor does not need it, or it
must force the processor to the suspend operation temporarily. The latter technique is more
common to be used and it is referred to as a cycle stealing (Stallings, 2010).
When the processor wishes read or send a block of data, it issues a command to the DMA module
by sending some information to DMA module (Direct Memory Access, n.d.).
43
read or write command, sending through
read and write control lines.
number of words to be read or written,
communicated on the data lines and
stored in the data count register.
starting location in memory to read from
or write to, communicated on data lines
and stored in the address register.
address of the I/O device involved,
communicated on the data lines.
After the information are sent, the processor continues with other work. The DMA module
then transfers the entire block of data directly to or from memory without going through the
processor. When the transfer is complete, the DMA module sends an interrupt signal to the
processor to inform that it has finish using the system bus (Direct Memory Access, n.d.).
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Explain each.
44
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. Explain briefly the categories of major requirements for Input and Output module.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Summary
The memory is the generic term for the different kinds of data storage. Memory includes
Random Access Memory (RAM), Read-Only Memory (ROM), cache. Some memory is designed
to be very fast or normal, depends on the needs of the user. The faster the memory, the faster
the central processing unit can access the data stored.
Random Access Memory is a form of computer memory that can be changed in any
order
RAM has two types: Static RAM and Dynamic RAM.
45
Static RAM is a type of RAM that is no need to be refreshed
Dynamic RAM is a type of RAM that is needed to be refreshed periodically.
Read-Only Memory is useful for storing software that is rarely changed during the life
of the system.
ROM has three types: PROM, EPROM and EEPROM
Programmable ROM is a type of ROM that can only be written once.
Erasable PROM uses ultra violet lights to erase data.
Electronically EPROM uses electronic impulses to erase data.
Input and Output Module is designed for the computer to interact with the outside world
and with the user. I/O module has three principals:
Programmed I/O where the CPU waits for the I/O device.
Interrupt-Driven I/O the device interrupts the CPU when it is ready
Direct Memory Access (DMA) the CPU is idle for only a short period of time.
References
Books
Online Sources
Borah, G., Sharma, S., Pandey, S., & Vaibhav Kumar Rai. (2020). Cache Memory in CPU
Organization. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/cache-memory-in-computer-organization/
Troppens, U., Mller-Friedt, W., Wolafka, R., Erkens, R., & Haustein, N. (2009). I/O Techniques.
Storage Networks Explained. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470746776.ch3
Programmed I/O - I/O Techniques. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
http://inputoutput5822.weebly.com/programmed-io.html
46
Read Only Memory. (n.d.).
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_rom.htm
47
MODULE 4
PARTS OF A COMPUTER
Introduction
A computer has become part of our daily lives. We can see it almost everywhere, whether
in schools, offices, supermarket and even in medical and military facilities. It became one of the
important tools of a modern person, either it is a personal computer, desktop or embedded
computers. In this module, we will tackle the different parts of a computer; internal, external,
storage devices and input and output devices.
Learning Outcomes
These are:
48
Home Shopping. Home shopping has been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide access to product information and permit direct
entry of orders to be filled out by the costumers.
Health Care. Computers have become an important part in hospitals, labs, and
dispensaries. They are being used in hospitals to keep record of patients and medicines.
Military. Computers are largely used in defense. Modern tanks, missiles, weapons etc.
Military employs computerized control systems.
Communication. Communication is a way to convey a message, an idea, a picture, or
speech that is received and understood clearly and correctly by the person for whom it is
meant.
Hardware
The computer hardware represents the tangible and the physical components of a
computer. The hardware components that can be seen and touched (Computer - Hardware -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
Software
49
Application Software
System Software
It is a collection of programs designed to control, operate and extend the processing capabilities
of the computer. This software is generally prepared by the manufacturers of a computer. System
software serves as the interface of the hardware between the end users (Computer - Software -
Tutorialspoint, n.d.).
50
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language.
Application Software
51
Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language
Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage space.
Hardware and software are mutually dependent on each other. Both of them must work
together to make a computer produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without supporting hardware.
Hardware without a set of programs to operate upon cannot be utilized and is useless.
To get a particular job done on the computer, relevant software should be loaded into
the hardware.
Hardware is a one-time expense
Software development is very expensive and is a continuing expense.
If the hardware is the ‘heart’ of a computer system, then the software is its ‘soul’. Both are
complementary to each other.
Hardware Software
52
Lesson 2. Parts of a Computer
What are the devices of a computer? The physical, the touchable, electronic and the
mechanical parts of a computer are called the hardware which is composed of different devices
attached to the computer (Carballo, n.d.).
The following are the list that represents a basic set of devices found in most personal
computers (Carballo, n.d.).
1. System Unit
The main part of a microcomputer, sometimes called the chassis. It includes the following
parts: Motherboard, Microprocessor, Memory Chips, Buses, Ports, Expansion Slots and
Cards (Carballo, n.d.).
53
Figure 4.2.2. The Motherboard
54
4. Primary Storage
The internal storage, main memory, or the memory is the computer’s working storage space
that holds the data, the instructions for processing and processed the information waiting to
be sent to the second storage (Carballo, n.d.).
Two Types of Memory
a. Read-Only Memory
b. Random Access Memory
55
6. Adapters
The adapters are the printed circuit boards are also called as interface cards that enables a
computer to use the peripheral devices for which it doesn’t have the necessary connections
or circuit boards (Carballo, n.d.).
56
8. Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
In a computer with windows operating system, the hard drive is commonly known as the C:
drive that contains the operating system and applications (Carballo, n.d.).
9. Optical Drive
The optical drive is the storage device that use a laser to read data on the optical media
(Carballo, n.d.).
There are three types of optical drives:
a. Compact Disc (CD)
b. Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
c. Blu ray Disc (BD)
57
10. Digital Versatile Disc
The Digital Versatile Disc are designed to optically access the data stored on the DVD. A laser
moves back and forth near the disk surface and accesses the data at very fast rate (Carballo,
n.d.).
a. Keyboard Entry – the data is inputted to the computer with the use of a keyboard (Carballo,
n.d.).
1. Keyboard - The keyboard is the first input device that is developed for the computer.
The data is transferred to the computer over a short cable that plugs into the back of
the motherboard (Carballo, n.d.).
58
Figure 4.3.1. Keyboard
b. Direct Entry – Direct entry is a form of input that does not require a data to be keyed by
someone sitting at a keyboard. This entry creates a machine-readable data on paper,
magnetic paper, or feed it directly into the computer system’s CPU (Carballo, n.d.).
1. Pointing Devices – an input device that is used to move the cursor (pointer) on screen
(Carballo, n.d.).
a. Mouse – The mouse is the most common pointing device that is used in computers.
Every mouse has most one or two scroll wheels and has two buttons (Carballo,
n.d.).
b. Touch screen – Touch screen is a display screen that is sensitive to the touch of a
stylus or a finger. Touch screen are commonly used in ATM machines, point-of-
59
sale terminals, car navigation and industrial controls. The touch screen has
become very popular with the smartphones and tablets (Carballo, n.d.).
c. Light Pen - A light-sensitive stylus wired to a video terminal used to select menu
options or draw a picture. The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen
and presses the pen button to make contact (Carballo, n.d.).
d. Digitizer Tablet – The digitizer tablet is a graphic drawing tablet that is used for
tracing old images or sketching a new one. This is also called as the “graphics
tablet”. The user contacts the surface of the device with a wired pen or wireless
pen (Carballo, n.d.).
60
Figure 4.3.5. Example of a Digitizer Tablet
2. Scanning Device – A scanning device is a device that can read text or illustrations that
are printed on a paper and translates the information into a form that the computer can
use (Carballo, n.d.).
61
3. Voice Input Devices – Audio input devices are also known as the speech or voice
recognition systems that allow the user to send an audio signals to a computer for
recording, processing or carry out commands. Audio input devices such as the
microphones allows the users to speak to the computer in order to record their voice
or navigate a software (Carballo, n.d.).
Figure 4.3.8. Example of Voice Input Devices (Microphone on the left; headphone on the
right)
1. Computer Display Monitor – The monitor displays the information in a visual form that
uses text and graphics. The portion of the monitor that displays the information is called
the screen or the video display terminal (Carballo, n.d.).
62
Figure 4.4.1 Example of Cathode Ray Tube Monitor
b. Liquid Crystal Display Monitors (LCD) – LCD technology has been used in laptops
for some time. It has been recently made commercially available as monitors for
desktop computers (Carballo, n.d.).
c. Light Emitting Diode Monitor (LED) – LED monitor is a display and lighting
technology that is used almost in every electronic and electrical product on the
market, from a tiny on and off light to digital readouts, flashlights, traffic lights and
parameter lighting (Carballo, n.d.).
63
2. LCD Projectors – LCD projectors utilizes two sheets of polarizing material with liquid
crystal solution between them. An electric current passed through the liquid that
causes the crystals to align so that the light cannot pass through them. Each crystal,
therefore, is like a shutter, either blocking the light or allowing the light to pass through
(Carballo, n.d.).
3. Smart Board – Smart board is a type of display screen that has a touch sensitive
transparent panel that is covering the screen, which is similar to a touch screen
(Carballo, n.d.).
4. Printer – A printer is a device that prints a text or illustrations on a paper (Carballo, n.d.).
64
Types of Printers
a. Ink-Jet or Bubble-Jet Printer – spays ink at a sheet of paper. Ink-jet printers
produce a high-quality text and graphics (Carballo, n.d.).
b. Laser Printer – Uses the same technology as the copy machines. The laser
printers produce a very high-quality text and graphics (Carballo, n.d.).
c. LCD and LED Printer – This printer is very similar to a laser printer, but
uses liquid crystals or light-emitting diodes rather than a laser to produce
an image on the drum (Carballo, n.d.).
d. Line Printer – The line printer contains a chain of characters or pins that
print an entire line at one time. Line printers are very fast, but produce low-
quality print (Carballo, n.d.).
e. Thermal Printer – The thermal printer is an inexpensive printer that works
by pushing heated pins against heat-sensitive paper. The thermal printers
are widely used in calculators and fax machines (Carballo, n.d.).
5. Speakers – The speakers are used to play sound. They may be built into the computer
system or can be connected by cables. The speakers allow the user to listen to music
and hear sound effects from the computer system (Carballo, n.d.).
65
Types of Storage Devices.
a. Floppy Diskette – is a random-access removable data medium that can be used with
personal computers. It can store up to 1.44 megabytes (MB) of data (Carballo, n.d.).
b. Compact Disc (CD) – CD’s are also called as optical disc is a non-magnetic, polished
metal disk that is used to store digital information (Carballo, n.d.).
c. Jump drive and a USB Flash drive - is a plug-and-play portable storage device that uses
flash memory and is lightweight enough to attach to a key chain. A USB drive can be used
in place of a floppy disk, Zip drive disk, or CD (Carballo, n.d.).
66
d. Hard Drive - is the main, and usually largest, data storage device in a computer. The
operating system, software titles and most other files are stored in the hard disk drive
(Carballo, n.d.).
e. LS-120 -is a drive which supports a special floppy diskette which can store up to 120MB
of information as well as being backwards compatible and still supporting the standard
1.44MB floppy diskettes (Carballo, n.d.).
f. Zip Drive - is a small, portable disk drive used primarily for backing up and archiving
personal computer files (Carballo, n.d.).
67
Assessment Task
Activity No. 1:
Identify the parts of the computer and write your answer on the numbers provided below.
1. 2. 3.
8
4.
5. 7
6.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
68
Activity No. 2:
Identify the image below. Write INPUT if the image is an input device and OUTPUT if the image
is an output device.
__________________ _________________
69
Summary
• Hardware is a physical device that is capable of performing tasks and execution based
on software.
• Input devices are used to bring data into the computer system, like keyboard, scanners
and microphones
• Output devices are used to bring data out of the system, like printers, speakers, and
monitor.
• Storage devices are used to store data and information in the computer system, like hard
drive, external hard drives, and CD’s
References
Books
Online Sources
70
Computer - Hardware - Tutorialspoint. (n.d.). Retrieved August 25, 2020, from
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/computer_fundamentals/computer_hardware.htm
71