The Mechanics of Breathing: Mashmum Shababa Shahid

PHA206 Human Anatomy & Physiology III
The mechanics of
breathing
Mashmum Shababa Shahid

Department of Pharmacy
IUB
Respiration
• The biochemical process by which the cells of an organism obtain energy by combining oxygen and
glucose, resulting in the release of carbon dioxide, water, and ATP (the currency of energy in cells).
Respiration includes two processes:

• External respiration: the absorption of O2 and removal of CO2 from the body as a whole
• Internal respiration: the utilization of O2 and production of CO2 by cells and the gaseous
exchange between the cells and their fluid medium
Pulmonary ventilation is the act of breathing, which can be described as the movement of air into
and out of the lungs.
The factors responsible for driving pulmonary ventilation are,
➢ atmospheric pressure (Patm): pressure exerted by all of the gases in air (760mmHg at sea
level)
➢ alveolar pressure (Palv): air pressure within the alveoli
➢ intrapleural pressure (Ppl): pressure within the pleural cavity
➢ transpulmonary pressure (Ptp): pressure difference inside and outside the lungs
Physical properties of the lungs
Compliance
- Compliance, also called distensibility, refers to the ease with which the
lungs can expand under pressure.
- Lung compliance can be defined as the change in lung volume per change
in transpulmonary pressure, expressed by ΔV/ΔP.
- A given transpulmonary pressure will cause greater/lesser expansion,

depending on the compliance of the lungs.
- The lung compliance is reduced by factors that produce a resistance to

distension. For example, in pulmonary fibrosis, lungs fill up with
connective tissue proteins and lose compliance.
Elasticity
- Elasticity refers to the tendency of a structure to return to its initial
size after being distended.
- The lungs are very elastic and resist distension due to their high
content of elastin proteins.
- They are always in a state of elastic tension which increases during
inspiration as the lungs are stretched and reduces by elastic recoil
during expiration.
Surface tension
- The forces that act to resist distension include elastic resistance and
the surface tension that is exerted by fluid in the alveoli.
- The surface tension is produced because water molecules at the surface
are pulled tightly together by attractive forces from water molecules
underneath.
- The surface tension acts to collapse the alveolus and increases the
pressure of air within it.
- According to the law of Laplace, the pressure created is directly
proportional to the surface tension and inversely proportional to the
radius of the alveolus.
- Hence the pressure in smaller alveolus is greater than in a larger alveolus
if the surface tension were the same in both.
- As an alveolus decreases in size, the surfactant molecules become
concentrated reducing the surface tension within the alveolus.
- Hence, even after a forceful expiration, the alveoli remain open and
residual volume of air remains in the lungs.
• Pulmonary ventilation comprises of two major steps:
➢ Inspiration: the process that causes air to enter the lungs
➢ Expiration: the process that causes air to leave the lungs
• Respiratory cycle is a sequence of inspiration and expiration.
Mechanism of inspiration
• The 2 groups of muscles used during normal inspiration are, the diaphragm and the external
intercostal muscles
• Additional muscles can be used in bigger breaths if required
• When the diaphragm contracts, it moves downwards towards the abdominal cavity
• This creates a larger thoracic cavity and more space for the lungs to expand
• Contraction of the external intercostal muscles moves the rib upward and outward
• This cause the rib cage to expand and increase
the volume of the thoracic cavity
• Due to the adhesive force of the pleural fluid,
expansion of the thoracic cavity causes the
lungs to expand and stretch as well
• Increase in lung volume leads to a decrease in
alveolar pressure (Palv) which is less than the
atmospheric pressure (Patm)
• Hence a pressure gradient is created which drives
air into the lungs
Inspiration
Mechanism of expiration
• Normal expiration is passive (does not require energy)
• The elasticity of the lung tissue causes the lung to recoil, as the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles to relax following inspiration
• The thoracic cavity and lungs decrease in volume causing an increase in alveolar pressure
(Palv)
• Since the alveolar pressure (Palv) rises above the atmospheric pressure (Patm), it creates
a pressure gradient that causes air to leave the lungs
Exhalation
• Quiet breathing (eupnea) is a mode of breathing that occurs at rest and is involuntary
• A deep breath (diaphragmatic breathing) requires the diaphragm to contract. As the
diaphragm relaxes, air passively leaves the lungs
• A shallow breath (costal breathing) requires contraction of the intercostal muscles. As the
intercostal muscles relax, air passively leaves the lungs
• Forced breathing (hyperpnea) is a mode of breathing that can occur during exercise or actions
that require the active manipulation of breathing.
• During forced breathing,
inspiration and expiration
both occur due to
contraction of the
diaphragm and intercostal
muscles as well as the
other accessory muscles
• During forced expiration,
the internal intercostal
muscles help to compress
the rib cage and reduce
the volume of the thoracic
cavity.
Respiratory volumes and capacities
• Respiratory volume is the term used for various volumes of air associated with the lungs at a given
point in the respiratory cycle.
• The four major types of respiratory
volumes:
➢ Tidal volume (TV) is the amount of air
that normally enters the lungs during
quiet breathing (≈ 500mL).
➢ Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
is the amount of air which is exhaled
forcefully, past a normal tidal expiration
(upto1200mL for men).
TV
➢ Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
is produced by deep inhalation, past a tidal
inspiration. It is the extra volume that can
be brought into the lungs during
forced inspiration.
➢ Residual volume (RV) is the air left in
the lungs even after forced exhalation.
This volume of air prevents the alveoli from collapsing. It varies from person to person and is an
indicator of an individual’s respiratory health.
• Respiratory capacity is the combination of two or more selected volumes, which further describes the
amount of air in the lungs during a given time.
• Total lung capacity (TLC) is the sum of all the lung volumes (TV, ERV, IRV and RV) representing the
total amount of air a person can hold in the lungs after a forceful inhalation. About 6000mL for men and
4200mL for women.
• Vital capacity (VC) is the amount of air a person can move into or out of his/her lungs, and is the sum of
all of the volumes excepting residual volume. (TV, ERV and IRV). It is between 4000 and 5000mL.
• Inspiratory capacity (IC)
is the maximum amount of air
that can be inhaled past a
normal tidal expiration
(TV + IRV)
• Functional residual
capacity (FRC) is the
amount of air that remains in
the lung after a normal tidal
expiration (ERV + RV)
• Anatomical dead space is

the air that is present in the
airway that never reaches the
alveoli and does not participate
in gas exchange.
• Alveolar dead space

involves air found within the
alveoli that are unable to
function due to being affected
by disease or abnormal blood
flow.
• Total dead space is the

anatomical dead space and
alveolar dead space together.
Spirometry
Respiratory rate and Control of ventilation
• Respiratory rate is the total number of breaths, or respiratory cycles, that occur each minute.
• It is an important indicator of disease, as the rate may increase or decrease during an illness or in a
diseased condition.
• The respiratory rate is controlled by the respiratory center located within the medulla oblongata in the
brain, which responds to changes in carbon dioxide, oxygen, and pH levels in blood.
• The normal respiratory rate of a child decreases from birth to adolescence.
Normal respiratory rates
➢ Child under 1 year of age: 30 – 60 breaths/minute
➢ Child about 10 years old: 18 – 30 breaths/minute
➢ Adolescents & adults: 12 – 18 breaths/minute
Ventilation control centers
• The control of ventilation is a complex interplay of multiple regions in the brain that signal the muscles
used in pulmonary ventilation to contract.
• It results in a rhythmic, consistent ventilation rate that provides the body with sufficient amounts of
oxygen while removing carbon dioxide.
Neural Regulation of Respiration
• Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted
to the brain by the phrenic and intercostal
nerves
• Neural centers that control rate and depth are
located in the medulla oblongata
• The pons appears to smooth out respiratory
rate
• Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
• Hypernia is increased respiratory rate often
due to extra oxygen needs
• The major brain centers involved in pulmonary
ventilation are the medulla oblongata and the
pontine respiratory group.
• The medulla oblongata contains the dorsal

respiratory group (DRG) and the ventral
respiratory group (VRG).
• DRG maintains a constant breathing rhythm

by stimulating the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles to contract causing inspiration.
• When activity in DRG stops, there is no

stimulation to the diaphragm and intercostal
muscles. Hence, these muscles relax and this
results in expiration.
• The ventral respiratory group (VRG) is involved in forced breathing, as the neurons in the
VRG stimulate the accessory muscles which contract causing forced inspiration.
• VRG also stimulates the accessory muscles involved in forced expiration to contract.
• The pontine respiratory group is the secondary respiratory center located within pons in
the brain and contains the apneustic and pneumotaxic centers.
• The apneustic center is a double cluster of neuronal cell bodies that stimulate neurons in the
DRG, controlling the depth of inspiration (esp. deep breathing).
• The pneumotaxic center is a network of neurons that inhibit the activity of the neurons in the
DRG, allowing relaxation after inspiration. It controls the overall rate of breathing.
Factors affecting the rate & depth of respiration
• The respiratory rate and the depth of inspiration are regulated by the medulla oblongata and
pons in response to systemic stimuli.
• It is a dose-response, positive-feedback relationship in which greater the stimulus, greater
the response. Increasing stimuli results in forced breathing.
• Multiple systemic factors are involved in stimulating the brain to produce pulmonary
ventilation.
Chemical factors
• The major chemical factor that stimulates the medulla oblongata and pons to produce
respiration is the concentration of carbon dioxide in blood.
• Concentration changes in carbon dioxide or hydrogen ions in blood stimulate
chemoreceptors which in turn signal respiration centers in the brain.
• The two types of chemoreceptors responsible are,
➢ central chemoreceptor: specialized receptor located in the brain and brainstem
➢ peripheral chemoreceptor: specialized receptor located in the carotid arteries and
aortic arch
• As the concentration of CO2 in blood increases, it diffuses
across the blood-brain barrier into the extracellular fluid.
• The major factor that stimulates the medulla oblongata

and pons to cause respiration is the concentration of
carbon dioxide in blood.
• Increased CO2 levels lead to increased levels of H+ ions

which decreases the pH.
• Increased H+ levels in the brain triggers the central

chemoreceptors to stimulate the respiratory centers in the
contraction of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.
• The rate and depth of respiration increase, allowing more

CO2 to be expelled bringing more air into and out of the
lungs.
• This results in decrease in the level of CO2 in blood and a fall in the concentration of H+ reaching the
brain.
• As a result, the rate and depth of pulmonary ventilation decrease, producing shallow, slow breathing.
• Blood oxygen level is also important in influencing respiratory rate.

• Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are detected by peripheral chemoreceptors in the
aorta and carotid artery
• If blood oxygen level becomes very low (about 60mmHg or less), information is sent to the
medulla oblongata by the chemoreceptors to increase respiratory activity
• The chemoreceptors can only sense dissolved oxygen, not the oxygen bound to hemoglobin
Physical factors
• Increased body temperature
• Exercise
• Talking
• Coughing
• Volition (conscious control)
• Emotional factors
• Lactic acid accumulation after strenuous exercise gives rise to increased H+ levels which can be sensed by
peripheral chemoreceptors of the aortic arch and carotid arteries.
• The hypothalamus and other brain regions associated with the limbic system play a role in regulating respiration
in response to emotions, pain and temperature.
• For example, a rise in body temperature, excitement or fight-or-flight response all increase the respiratory rate.

The Mechanics of Breathing: Mashmum Shababa Shahid

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Mechanics of Breathing: Mashmum Shababa Shahid

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

The Mechanics of Breathing: Mashmum Shababa Shahid

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PHA206 Human Anatomy & Physiology III

Mashmum Shababa Shahid

Respiration includes two processes:

- A given transpulmonary pressure will cause greater/lesser expansion,

- The lung compliance is reduced by factors that produce a resistance to

• Anatomical dead space is

• Alveolar dead space

• Total dead space is the

• The medulla oblongata contains the dorsal

• DRG maintains a constant breathing rhythm

• When activity in DRG stops, there is no

• The major factor that stimulates the medulla oblongata

• Increased CO2 levels lead to increased levels of H+ ions

• Increased H+ levels in the brain triggers the central

• The rate and depth of respiration increase, allowing more

• Blood oxygen level is also important in influencing respiratory rate.

You might also like