LARGEST Crop Producing States of India

Food Grains
Crop Rank of States
(1) West Bengal
Rice (2) U.P.
(3) Andhra Pradesh
(1) U.P.
Wheat (2) Punjab
(3) Haryana
(1) Rajasthan
Bajra (2) Gujarat
(3) Maharashtra
(1) Maharashtra
(2)Karnataka
Jowar
(3)Madhya Pradesh
(M.P.)
(1) Andhra Pradesh
Maize (2) Karnataka
(3) Rajasthan
(1) M.P.
Pulses (2) U.P.
(3) Andhra Pradesh
(1) U.P.
Overall total food
(2)Punjab
grains
(3) Madhya Pradesh
Cash Crops
Crop Rank of States
(1) U.P.
Sugarcane (2)Maharashtra
(3) Karnataka
(1) Gujarat
Cotton (2) Maharashtra
(3) Andhra Pradesh
(1) Karnataka
Coffee (2) Kerala
(3)Tamilnadu
 (1) Assam
Tea (2) West Bengal
(3) Himachal Pradesh
(1) Karnataka
Silk (2) Andhra Pradesh
(3) West Bengal
(1) Kerala
Rubber (2) Tamilnadu
(3) Karnataka
(1) Andhra Pradesh
Tobacco (2) Karnataka
(3)Gujarat
Oil Seed
Crop Rank of State
(1) Gujarat
Groundnut (2) Andhra Pradesh
(3) Tamilnadu
(1) Madhya Pradesh
Soya bean (2) Maharashtra
(3) Rajasthan
(1) Rajasthan
Mustard (2) U.P.
(3) Haryana
(1) Karnataka
Sunflower (2) Andhra Pradesh
(3) Maharashtra
(1) Madhya Pradesh
Overall total oil seeds (2) Maharashtra
(3) Rajasthan
Fruit Crops

Crops States
Banana Tamil Nadu
Gauva Madhya Pradesh
Grapes Maharashtra
Apple Jammu & Kashmir
 Areca Nut Karnataka
Orange Punjab
Litchi Bihar
Mango Uttar Pradesh
Mosambi Maharashtra
Papaya Andhra Pradesh
Pineapple Karnataka
Pomegranate Maharashtra
Sapota or Chikoo Andhra Pradesh

UNESCO Protected Biosphere Reserves – International

Status
Recently, Panna Biosphere Reserve was also given the International status of UNESCO
Protected Biosphere Reserve. The status was given in the year 2020, and prior to
that, the Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve from India was also included in this list in
2018.
With the addition of the two Biosphere Reserves, 12 of the 18 biosphere reserves in the
country have become part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves which is based
on the UNESCO Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
The UNESCO Protected Biosphere Reserves list in India are given below:

YEAR NAME STATES

2000 Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu

2001 Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Tamil Nadu

2001 Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve West Bengal

2004 Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve Uttarakhand

2009 Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh

 2009 Nokrek Biosphere Reserve Meghalaya

2009 Simlipal Biosphere Reserve Odisha

2012 Achanakmar-Amarkantak Biosphere Reserve Chhattisgarh

2013 Great Nicobar Biosphere Reserve Great Nicobar

2016 Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve Kerala and Tamil Nadu

2018 Kanchenjunga Biosphere Reserve Part of North and West Sikkim districts

2020 Panna Biosphere Reserve Madhya Pradesh

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR) covers globally chosen protected
areas. It consists of a vibrant and interactive network of sites of distinction. It promotes
the harmonious assimilation of people and nature for sustainable development in
different ways. If one country declares one area as a biosphere reserve, it can nominate
the same to under the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. If UNESCO
accepts the proposal of the government, the biosphere reserve will enter into the World
Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
Biosphere reserves in India is an important static GK topic. For information on
various static GK topics, check the article linked here.
Biosphere Conservation
UNESCO is promoting the peaceful integration of man and nature for sustainable
development through participatory dialogue, awareness on poverty reduction and human
well-being improvement, respect for cultural values, and society’s ability to cope with
change.

Frequently Asked Questions

What is the largest and the smallest Biosphere Reserve in India?

The largest Biosphere reserve in India is the Gulf of Kachchh, Gujarat and the smallest
Biosphere Reserve in India is Dibru-Saikhowa in Assam.

Which is the 1st Biosphere reserve in India?

The first Biosphere Reserve in India is the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve that is a part of
Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Kerala.

Who declares the Biosphere reserve in India?

The Biosphere Reserves in India are declared by the State or Central Government
through Nomination under the UNESCO’S Man & Biosphere (MAB) Programme.

What is the difference between a National Park and a Biosphere

Reserve?
A national park is a reserved area of land owned by the government which is protected
from industrialization, human exploitation, and pollution. Whereas, A biosphere reserve is
a term given to an area for the conservation of the resources of the biosphere and the
improvement of the relationship between man and the environment. For more details
regarding the Difference between National Park, Biosphere Reserve and Wildlife
Sanctuary aspirants can visit the linked article.

What is the Man and Biosphere Programme?

The Man and Biosphere Programme (MAB) was launched by UNESCO in 1971 to
establish a scientific basis for the improvement of relationships between people and their
environments.

What is the World Network of Biosphere Reserves?

The World Network of Biosphere Reserves of the MAB Programme consists of a dynamic
and interactive network of sites of excellence to contribute to the 2030 Agenda and the
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It promotes North-South and South-South
collaboration and represents a unique tool for international co-operation through sharing
knowledge, exchanging experiences, building capacity and promoting best practices.
Classification of Soil in India - Types of Soil in
India
Different Types of Soil in India
As mentioned before, there are eight types of soils categorized by ICAR but some Indian
Soil like – Karewa soil, Sub-Montane Soil, Snowfield, Grey/Brown Soil are all sub-types
of main Indian Soil. Let’s read about them one by one:

Types of Soil in India – Alluvial soil

The alluvial soil occurs mainly in the Satluj- Ganga- Brahmaputra Plains. They are also
found in the valleys of the Narmada, Tapi, and the Eastern and Western coastal plains.
These soils are mainly derived from the debris brown from the Himalayas. This soil is
well-drained and poorly drained with an immature profile in undulating areas. This soil
has a phosphorous deficiency. The color of soil varies from light grey to ash. This soil is
suited for Rice, maize, wheat, sugarcane, oilseeds, etc.
This soil is divided into

 Khadar Soil (New): the khadar soils are enriched with fresh silts. They are low
lying, frequently inundated by floods during the rainy season. It occupies the flood
plains of rivers. The khaddar tracts called as kankar are rich in concentration.
 Bhangar Soil (Old): This soil lies above the flood level. It is well-drained but
because of the calcium carbonate nodules, the texture of soil varies from the
loamy soil to clayey soil.

Types of Soil in India – Red Soil

This soil developed on Archean granite occupies the second largest area of the country.
They are mainly found in the Peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to Bundelkhand in
the north and Raj Mahal in the east to Kathiawad in the west. This soil is also known as
the omnibus group. The presence of ferric oxides makes the colour of soil red. The top
layer of the soil is red and the horizon below is yellowish. Generally, these soils are
deficient in phosphate, lime, magnesia, humus and nitrogen. This soil is good for the
cultivation of wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, millets, orchards, potato and oilseeds.

Types of Soil in India – Black or Regur Soil

Black soil is also known cotton soil and internationally it is known as ‘Tropical
Chernozems’. This is the third largest group in India. This soil is formed from rocks of
cretaceous lava. This stretch over the parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, Western parts of
Madhya Pradesh, North- Western Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Rajasthan,
Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand up to Raj Mahal hills. The soil is rich in iron, lime, calcium,
potash, magnesium, and aluminium. It has high water retaining capacity and good for
cotton cultivation, Tobacco, citrus fruits, castor, and linseed.

Types of Soil in India – Desert Soil

This soil is deposited by wind action and mainly found in the arid and semi-arid areas like
Rajasthan, West of the Aravallis, Northern Gujarat, Saurashtra, Kachchh, Western parts
of Haryana and southern part of Punjab. They are sandy with low organic matter. It has
low soluble salts and moisture with very low retaining capacity. If irrigated these soil give
a high agricultural return. These are suitable for less water-intensive crops like Bajra,
pulses, fodder, and guar.

Types of Soil in India – Laterite Soil

These soft, when they are wet and ‘hard and cloddy’ on drying. These are found mainly
in the hills of the Western Ghats, Raj Mahal hills, Eastern Ghats, Satpura, Vindhya,
Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, North Cachar Hills and the Garo hills.
These are poor in organic matter, nitrogen, potassium, lime and potash. These iron and
aluminium rich soils are suitable for the cultivation of rice, ragi, sugarcane, and cashew
nuts.

Types of Soil in India – Mountain Soil

These soils have less developed soil profile and are mainly found in the valleys and hill
slopes of Himalayas. These soils are immature and dark brown. This soil has very low
humus and it is acidic. The orchards, fodder, legumes are grown in this soil.

Types of Soil in India – Red and Black Soil

These are developed over the granite, gneiss, and quartzite of the Precambrian and
Archean era. This soil performs well if irrigated. Generally, this soil has very little
productivity.
Grey and Brown Soil
These soils are found in Rajasthan and Gujarat. It is formed by the weathering of granite,
quartzite and gneiss. These loose, friable soils contain iron- oxide (haematite and
limonite)
Submontane Soil
These are formed by the deposition of eroded material from Shiwaliks and the lesser
Himalayas. These are found in the Tarai region of the submontane stretching from
Jammu and Kashmir to Assam. The soil supports a luxuriant growth of forest and more
prone to soil erosion.
Snowfields
This soil was found under the snow and glaciers at the highest peak of greater
Himalayas, Karakoram, Ladakh, and Zaskar. This soil is immature and unsuitable for
crops.
Karewa Soil
Karewa soils are the lacustrine deposits in the Kashmir valleys and Bhadarwah valley.
The fine silt, clay, and boulder gravels are the composition of Karewa soil. They are
characterized with the fossils. These soils are mainly devoted to the cultivation of saffron,
almonds, apple, walnut, etc.

Types of Soil in India – Peaty and Marshy Soils

This soil originates from the areas where adequate drainage is not possible. It is rich in
organic matter and has high salinity. They are deficient in potash and phosphate. These
are mainly found in Sunderbans delta, Kottayam, and Alappuzha districts of Kerala, Rann
of Kachchh, deltas of Mahanadi, etc.

Types of Soil in India – Saline and Alkaline Soils

These are also called Reh, Usar, Kallar, Rakar, Thur, and Chopan. These are mainly
found in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. Sodium
chloride and sodium sulphate are present in this soil. It is suitable for leguminous crops.
NCERT Notes: Forces Affecting Velocity And
Direction Of Wind [Geography Notes For UPSC]

Forces Affecting Velocity and Direction of Wind (UPSC Notes):- Download

PDF Here
Forces Affecting the Velocity and Direction of Wind

 The air in motion is called wind.

 The wind blows from high pressure to low pressure.
 The wind at the surface experiences friction.
 The rotation of the earth also affects the wind movement.
 The force exerted by the rotation of the earth is known as the Coriolis force.
 Therefore, the horizontal winds near the Earth’s surface respond to the combined
effect of three forces:

o The Pressure Gradient Force

o The Frictional Force
o The Coriolis Force
Pressure Gradient Force

 The differences in atmospheric pressure generate a force.

 The rate of change of pressure with regard to distance is known as the pressure
gradient.
 The pressure gradient is weak where the isobars are distant and strong where
the isobars are close by to each other.
Frictional Force

 It impacts the speed of the wind.

 The friction is maximum at the surface and minimal over the sea surface.
 The influence of frictional force usually stretches up to an elevation of 1 – 3 km.
Coriolis force

 The rotation of the earth about its axis affects the direction of the wind and this
force is called the Coriolis force.
 It is directly proportional to the angle of latitude.
 It deflects the wind to the left direction in the southern hemisphere and the right
direction in the northern hemisphere.
 The deflection is more when the wind velocity is high.
 It is maximum at the poles and is absent at the equator.
 The force acts perpendicular to the pressure gradient force.
 The pressure gradient force is perpendicular to an isobar.
 The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the speed of the wind and the
larger is the deflection in the direction of wind happens.
 As a result of these two forces functioning perpendicular to each other, in the low-
pressure areas the wind blows around it.
  The Coriolis force is zero at the equator and the wind blows perpendicular to the
isobars.
Forces Affecting Velocity and Direction of Wind (UPSC Notes):- Download
PDF Here
Check BYJU’S Free IAS Preparation for more strategy articles and news on UPSC Civil
Services IAS Exam

NCERT Notes: Types Of Clouds [Geography Notes

For UPSC]
Clouds are an important part of the earth’s weather and climate. Clouds form when
water condenses in the sky. Clouds are visible accumulations of tiny water droplets or
ice crystals in the Earth’s atmosphere.
This topic would be of importance in the IAS Exam for the Geography section.

How do Clouds form?

Clouds form from water in the sky. The water may evaporate from the ground or
move from other areas. Water vapour may be invisible but it is always in the sky in
some amount. Clouds form when an area of air becomes cooler until the water vapour
there condenses to liquid form. The water will condense around dust, ice, or sea salt.

Why are Clouds Important?

1. They are needed for rains or snow.

2. During the nights, clouds reflect heat to the earth and keep the temperature warm.
3. During the day, clouds help in keeping the temperature cooler by shielding the
sunlight.
4. Researching and studying clouds helps in understanding weather and climate.

What are the 2 main factors that will determine the type of clouds
formed?

1. Temperature
2. Wind

How are Clouds Classified?

Clouds are classified based on 2 major factors.

1. Physical Form
2. Height at which Clouds are formed

What are the 4 major classifications of clouds based on their

physical forms?
According to their altitude, stretch, density, and transparency or opaqueness clouds
are classified into four types which are given below.
 1. Cirrus
2. Cumulus
3. Stratus
4. Nimbus

What are Cirrus Clouds?

1. Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes of 8,000 – 12,000m.

2. They are detached thin clouds.
3. They have a feathery appearance.
4. They are always white.

What are Cumulus Clouds?

1. Cumulus clouds are generally formed at a height of 4,000 m – 7,000 m.

2. They look like cotton wool.
3. They exist in patches and can be seen dispersed here and there.
4. They have a flat base.

What are Stratus Clouds?

1. Stratus clouds are horizontal.

2. Stratus clouds are stratified or layered clouds covering big portions of the sky.
3. These clouds are usually formed due to the mixing of air masses with various
temperatures or due to loss of heat.
4. The presence of stratus clouds means chilly, overcast day.

What are the Nimbus Clouds?

1. Nimbus clouds are usually formed at lower altitudes.

2. The colour of Nimbus clouds is usually black or dark grey.
3. Nimbus clouds block the sunlight
4. These types of clouds usually cause heavy rainfall and thunderstorms.

Which is the type of clouds that bring rainfall or snowfall?

Clouds with the prefix “nimbo” or the suffix “nimbus” bring rainfall and snowfall.
Nimbostratus clouds bring continuous rainfall or snowfall that may continue for a
very long duration.
Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads. Thunderheads produce rain,
thunder, and lightning.

Classification based on the altitude of Clouds formation

Clouds are classified based on their formation at different heights. The altitude at
which certain categories of clouds form varies based on the polar region, tropical
region, etc.
Below table gives the classification of clouds and the associated types of clouds
 Classification of clouds Types of clouds

High clouds 1. Cirrus

2. Cirrostratus
3. Cirrocumulus

Middle clouds 1. Altostratus

2. Altocumulus

Low clouds 1. Stratocumulus

2. Nimbostratus

Clouds with extensive vertical development 1. Cumulus

2. Cumulonimbus

High-Level Clouds

1. Polar Regions – they form at altitudes of 3000 m (10,000 ft) to 7600 m (25,000 ft).
2. Temperate Regions – they form at altitudes of 5000 m (16,500 ft) to 12,200 m
(40,000 ft).
3. Tropical Regions – they form at altitudes of 6,100 m (20,000 ft) to 18,300 m (60,000
ft).

Mid-Level Clouds

1. Non-vertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by the alto.

2. At any latitude, these clouds are formed as low as 2000 m (6500 ft) above the
surface.
3. These clouds can be formed as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft) near the poles
4. These clouds are formed at an altitude of 7,600 m (25,000 ft) in the tropical region.

Low-level Clouds

1. These clouds are formed near the surface up to 2000 m (6500 ft).
2. These types of clouds have no prefix.

What is Nephology?
Nephology is the science of clouds, which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch
of meteorology.

How do meteorologists measure cloud cover?

 1. Oktas is the measurement unit that is used to measure the amount of visible sky
that is covered by clouds.
2. An okta estimates how many eighths of the sky is covered in clouds.
3. The clear sky is measured as 0 oktas.
4. An overcast or grey sky is measured as 8 oktas.

Frequently Asked Questions related to Types of

Clouds

What are the 3 main types of clouds?

Cumulus, Stratus, and Cirrus. There are three main cloud types. Cumulus clouds are the
puffy clouds that look like puffs of cotton. Cumulus clouds that do not get very tall are
indicators of fair weather..

What is the highest type of cloud?

Noctilucent clouds are the highest clouds in the sky, however, they are not associated
with weather like the rest of the clouds in this table.

Is fog a cloud?
Clouds can form at many different altitudes. They can be as high as 12 miles above sea
level or as low as the ground. Fog is a kind of cloud that touches the ground. Fog forms
when the air near the ground cools enough to turn its water vapor into liquid water or ice.

Why are clouds white?

In a cloud, sunlight is scattered by much larger water droplets. These scatter all colours
almost equally meaning that the sunlight continues to remain white and so making the
clouds appear white against the background of the blue sky.

How high can a cloud go?

At the upper reaches of the troposphere you’ll find high clouds, which, depending on
geographic location, occur between roughly 10,000 and 60,000 feet. Below that is the
home of mid-level clouds, which generally occur between 6,000 and 25,000 feet.

What kind of weather do cumulus clouds bring?

Mostly, cumulus indicates fair weather, often popping up on bright sunny days. Though if
conditions allow, cumulus can grow into towering cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus
clouds, which can produce showers.

Is fog a liquid or gas?

Fog is like a cloud, but it is near the ground, not high in the sky. Thick fog makes it
difficult to see the surrounding landscape. Fog forms from water vapor, which is water in
the form of a gas. Water vapor in the air condenses, or turns back into liquid, when the
air cools.
What are the 4 types of fog?
There are several different types of fog, including radiation fog, advection fog, valley fog,
and freezing fog. Radiation fog forms in the evening when heat absorbed by the Earth’s
surface during the day is radiated into the air. As heat is transferred from the ground to
the air, water droplets form.

What is fog over water called?

Fog that forms over water is commonly referred to as sea fog or lake fog. It forms when
warm, moist air flows over relatively colder waters. Sea or lake fog can occur over the
Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, the Gulf of Mexico, the Great Lakes and other bodies of
water.
Dams in India
The questions asked in the Bank Exams in the General Awareness section are based
on areas like the history of Politics, Geography, Sports and many more. One of the
most important topics that are asked in the G.A section is the knowledge about Dams.
General Awareness is a major section for all Government exams such as Bank exams,
SSC exams, RRB exams etc. In this section, questions based on topics related to the
current affairs or based on static topics. Therefore, first, we should have a clear
understanding of the Dams.
Candidates can download the list of Dams in India PDF given below for convenient
preparation.

What is the Dam?

A dam is a barrier that stops the flow of water and results in the creation of a reservoir.
Dams are mainly built in order to produce electricity by using water. This form of
electricity is known as hydroelectricity.
Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities
such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability.
The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC.

Types of Dams
There are many dams in India, and hence there is a need to know about them as there
are questions based on the dams of India. The Bank Exams like IBPS or SBI contains
questions from this section.
Based on the structure the types of dams are as mentioned below:

1. Arch Dam: An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in the plan. It
is designed so that the hydrostatic pressure (force of the water against it) presses
against the arch, causing the arch to straighten slightly and strengthening the
structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments. An arch dam is most
suitable for narrow canyons or gorges with steep walls of stable rock to support
the structure and stresses.
2. Gravity Dam: Dams constructed from concrete or stone masonry are Gravity
dams. They are designed to hold back water by using only the weight of the
material and its resistance against the foundation to oppose the horizontal
pressure of water pushing against it. These are designed in such a way that each
section of the dam is stable and independent of other section.
3. Arch-Gravity Dam: This dam has the characteristics of both an arch dam and a
gravity dam. It is a dam that curves upstream in a narrowing curve that directs
most of the water pressure against the canyon rock walls. The inward
compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force acting
on the dam.
4. Barrages: A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a
number of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of
water passing through. This allows the structure to regulate and stabilize river
water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
5. Embankment Dams: An embankment dam is a large artificial dam. It is typically
created by the placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic mound of
various compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock. It has a semi-pervious
waterproof natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious core.
6. Rock-Fills Dams: Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining
granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a high
percentage of large particles, hence the term “rock-fill”.
7. Concrete-face rock-fill dams: A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-fill
dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design provides the concrete
slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure without
concern for uplift pressure.
8. Earth-fill dams: Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams or
simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well-compacted
earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of one type of
material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water.
Fathers in Geography, Discipline wise Father in Geography

Father of Geography: Hecataeus

Father of Physical Geography: Alexander Von Humboldt

Father of Geomorphology – W.M Davis

Father of Climatology – Trewartha

Father of Oceanography – Mattew Maury

Father of Human Geography – Carl Ritter

Father of Humanistic Geography – Yi-Fu Tuan

Father of Population Geography – Trewartha

Father of Cultural Geography – Carl O Saur

Father of Political Geography – Friedrich Ratzel

Father of Geo-Politics – Carl Houshofer

Father of Regional Geography- Richard Hartshorne

Father of Bio Geography – A.R Wallace

Father of Ecology – Alexander Von Humboldt

Father of Soil Geography – V.V. Dokuchaev

Father of Mathematical Geography – Anaximender and Thale

Father of Cartography – H.Berann

Father of Indian Geography – James Rennell

Father of Regional science- Walter isard

References
https://lotusarise.com/geography-upsc/
BYJUS
Dynamic study youtube channel

List of Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere reserves are areas of terrestrial and coastal or marine ecosystems or its
amalgamation. The biosphere reserve network was launched in 1971 by UNESCO, two
years after the initiation of MAB- Man and the biosphere program. The Government of
India established 18 biospheres in the country (categories generally relating to IUCN
Category V Protected areas).
The first biosphere reserve of the world was established in 1979. According to UNESCO,
as of July 2021, there are 714 Biosphere reserves across 129 countries in the world
which also include 21 transboundary sites.
The List of Biosphere Reserves in India and questions based on the same are important
for candidates preparing for the IAS Exam. Aspirants looking forward to applying for
UPSC CSE can visit the linked article.
This article will talk about the 11 biosphere reserves of India that are now considered as
UNESCO Protected Biosphere Reserve. Also, the list of 18 Biosphere Reserves in India
has been given further below in the article.
Distribution of the Biosphere Reserves across the World are as follows:

 85 sites in 31 countries in Africa

 33 sites in 12 countries in the Arab States
 157 sites in 24 countries in Asia and the Pacific
 302 sites in 38 countries in Europe and North America
 130 sites in 21 countries in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Functions of a Biosphere Reserve

Each biosphere reserve is supposed to fulfill three harmonizing functions:

1. Conservation function: to conserve genetic resources, species, ecosystems,

and landscapes
2. Development function: to promote sustainable human and economic
development.
3. Logistic support function: to provide support for research and analyzing the
issues of conservation and sustainable development.

Three zones of the Biosphere

Biosphere reserves have three unified zones that aim to fulfill three harmonizing and
mutually reinforcing functions:
 1. The core area:  It involves an entirely secured and protected ecosystem that
contributes to the preservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species and genetic
variation.
2. The buffer zone: It encompasses or adjoins the core areas. It is utilized for
activities compatible with sound ecological practices that can fortify scientific
research, monitoring, training, and education.
3. The transition area:  It is the part of the reserve where the greatest activity is
permitted to promote economic and human development that is sustainable.

List of Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere reserves are announced by the state or central governments by notification.
The Governments can nominate them under the UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB)
Programme after its establishment as a biosphere reserve. There are 18 biosphere
reserves in India.

Name of Biosphere Year of

No. Location (States)
Reserve Notification

Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Madumala

1 Nilgiri 1986 Nilambur, Silent Valley, and Siruvani hills (Tamil Nadu,
Kerala and Karnataka).

Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Bageshwar districts

2 Nanda Devi 1988
(Uttarakhand).

3 Nokrek 1988 Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya).

Southernmost islands of Andaman And Nicobar (A&N

4 Great Nicobar 1989
Islands).

The Indian part of the Gulf of Mannar between India

5 Gulf of Mannar 1989
and Sri Lanka (Tamil Nadu).

Part of Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari,

6 Manas 1989
Kamprup, and Darang districts (Assam).

Part of the delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river

7 Sunderbans 1989 system
(West Bengal).

8 Simlipal 1994 Part of the Mayurbhanj district (Orissa).

9 Dibru-Saikhowa 1997 Part of Dibrugarh and Tinsukia Districts (Assam).

10 Dehang-Dibang 1998 Part of Siang and Dibang Valley in Arunachal Pradesh.

 Parts of Betul, Hoshangabad, and Chindwara districts
11 Pachmarhi 1999
of Madhya Pradesh.

12 Khangchendzonga 2000 Parts of Khangchendzonga hills and Sikkim.

Neyyar, Peppara, and Shendurney Wildlife Sanctuaries

13 Agasthyamalai 2001
and their adjoining areas in Kerala.

Achanakamar – Covers parts of Anupur and Dindori districts of M.P.

14 2005
Amarkantak and parts of Bilaspur districts of Chhattishgarh State.

Part of Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendra Nagar, and Patan

15 Kachchh 2008
Civil Districts of Gujarat State.

Pin Valley National Park and surroundings; Chandratal

16 Cold Desert 2009 and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary in Himachal
Pradesh.

Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and

17 Seshachalam Hills 2010
Kadapa districts of Andhra Pradesh.

Part of Panna and Chhattarpur districts in Madhya

18 Panna 2011
Pradesh.
List of National Parks in India
Year of
Establishment
Name of National Park State
1936 Corbett National Park Uttarakhand
1955 Kanha National Park Madhya Pradesh
1955 Tadoba National Park Maharashtra
1959 Madhav National Park Madhya Pradesh
1968 Bandhavgarh National Park Madhya Pradesh
1974 Kaziranga National Park Assam
1974 Bandipur National Park Karnataka
1974 Bannerghatta National Park Karnataka
1975 Gir National Park Gujarat
1975 Indira Priyadarshini Pench National
Park
Madhya Pradesh
1975 Gugamal National Park Maharashtra
1975 Navegaon National Park Maharashtra
1975 Pench National Park Maharashtra
1976 Blackbuck National Park Gujarat
1976 Guindy National Park Tamil Nadu
1977 Keibul-Lamjao National Park Manipur
1977 Khangchendzonga National Park Sikkim
1977 Dudhwa National Park Uttar Pradesh
1978 Eravikulam National Park Kerala
1979 Vansda National Park Gujarat
1979 Van Vihar National Park Madhya Pradesh
1980 Simlipal National Park Odisha
1980 Ranthambore National Park Rajasthan
1980 Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park Tamil Nadu
1981 Guru Ghasidas (Sanjay) National Park Chhattisgarh
1981 Dachigam National Park Jammu & Kashmir
1981 Hemis National Park Jammu & Kashmir
1981 Kishtwar National Park Jammu & Kashmir
1981 Panna National Park Madhya Pradesh
1981 Sanjay National Park Madhya Pradesh
1981 Satpura National Park Madhya Pradesh
1981 Keoladeo Ghana National Park Rajasthan
1982 Indravati National Park Chhattisgarh
1982 Kanger Valley National Park Chhattisgarh
1982 Marine National Park Gujarat
1982 Periyar National Park Kerala
1982 Nanda Devi National Park Uttarakhand
1982 Valley of Flowers National Park Uttarakhand
1983 Mahatma Gandhi Marine National
Park
Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1983 Namdapha National Park Arunachal Pradesh
1983 Fossil National Park Madhya Pradesh
1983 Sanjay Gandhi National Park Maharashtra
1983 Rajaji National Park Uttarakhand
1984 Great Himalayan National Park Himachal Pradesh
1984 Silent Valley National Park Kerala
1984 Sunderban National Park West Bengal
1985 Balpakram National Park Meghalaya
1986 Mouling National Park Arunachal Pradesh
1986 Betla National Park Jharkhand
1986 Nokrek Ridge National Park Meghalaya
1986 Neora Valley National Park West Bengal
1986 Singalila National Park West Bengal
1987 Middle Button Island National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1987 Mount Harriet National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1987 North Button Island National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1987 Saddle Peak National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1987 South Button Island National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1987 Pin Valley National Park Himachal Pradesh
1987 Anshi National Park Karnataka
1987 Kudremukh National Park Karnataka
1988 Nagarahole (Rajiv Gandhi) National
Park
Karnataka
1988 Bhitarkanika National Park Odisha
1989 Sri Venkateswara National Park Andhra Pradesh
1989 Valmiki National Park Bihar
1989 Sultan National Park Haryana
1989 Indira Gandhi (Annamalai) National
Park
Tamil Nadu
1989 Gangotri National Park Uttarakhand
1990 Manas National Park Assam
1990 Mudumalai National Park Tamil Nadu
1990 Mukurthi National Park Tamil Nadu
1990 Govind National Park Uttarakhand
1991 Murlen National Park Mizoram
1992 Campbell Bay National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1992 Galathea Bay National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1992 Mollem National Park Goa
1992 City Forest (Salim Ali) National Park Jammu & Kashmir
1992 Phawngpui Blue Mountain National
Park
Mizoram
1992 Desert National Park Rajasthan
1992 Sariska National Park Rajasthan
1992 Buxa National Park West Bengal
1992 Gorumara National Park West Bengal
1993 Intanki National Park Nagaland
1994 Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National
Park
Telangana
1994 Mahaveer Harina Vanasthali National
Park
Telangana
1994 Mrugavani National Park Telangana
1996 Rani Jhansi Marine National Park Andaman & Nicobar
Islands
1998 Nameri National Park Assam
1999 Dibru-Saikhowa National Park Assam
1999 Rajiv Gandhi Orang National Park Assam
2003 Kalesar National Park Haryana
2003 Anamudi Shola National Park Kerala
2003 Mathikettan Shola National Park Kerala
2003 Pampadum Shola National Park Kerala
2004 Chandoli National Park Maharashtra
2005 Rajiv Gandhi (Rameswaram) National
Park
Andhra Pradesh
2006 Mukundra Hills National Park Rajasthan
2007 Clouded Leopard National Park Tripura
2007 Bison National Park Tripura
2008 Papikonda National Park Andhra Pradesh
2010 Inderkilla National Park Himachal Pradesh
2010 Khirganga National Park Himachal Pradesh
2010 Simbalbara National Park Himachal Pradesh
2014 Jaldapara National Park West Bengal
List of Mountains in India with States
Apart from the list of the ten highest peaks in India, there are other major mountain
peaks in India. The table below gives the list of mountain ranges in India along with
the state in which it is located and its height

List of Mountain Peaks in India- Statewise

Peak Range/Region State Height

Arma Konda Eastern Ghats Andhra Pradesh 1680 m

Kangto Eastern Himalaya Arunachal Pradesh 7060 m

Someshwar Fort West Champaran District Bihar 880 m

Bailadila Range Dantewada District Chhattisgarh 1276 m

Sonsogor Western Ghats Goa 1166 m

Girnar Junagadh District Gujarat 1069 m

Karoh Peak Morni Hills Haryana 1467 m

Reo Purgyil Western Himalaya Himachal Pradesh 6816 m

Parasnath Parasnath Hills Jharkhand 1370 m

Mullayanagiri Western Ghats Karnataka 1930 m

Anamudi Western Ghats Kerala 2695 m

Dhupgarh Satpura Madhya Pradesh 1350 m

Kalsubai Western Ghats Maharashtra 1646 m

Mount Iso Senapati District Border of Manipur and Nagaland 2994 m

Shillong Peak Khasi Hills Meghalaya 1965 m

Phawngpui Saiha District Mizoram 2157 m

Mount Saramati Naga Hills Nagaland 3826 m

Deomali Eastern Ghats Odisha 1672 m

Guru Shikhar Aravalli Range Rajasthan 1722 m

Kanchenjunga Eastern Himalaya Sikkim 8586 m

Doddabetta Nilgiri Hills Tamil Nadu 2637 m

Doli Gutta Deccan Plateau Border of Telangana and Chhattisgarh 965 m

Betalongchhip Jampui Hills Tripura 930 m

Amsot Peak Shivalik Hills Uttar Pradesh 945 m

Nanda Devi Garhwal Himalaya Uttarakhand 7816 m

Sandakphu Eastern Himalaya West Bengal 3636 m

The Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas is an important segment in the IAS
Geography syllabus of the UPSC civil services exam.
The Himalayas, the abode to the highest peaks on the earth, are incredible mountain
system of Asia and a great wall between the Plateau of Tibet to the north and the
alluvial plains of the Indian subcontinent to the south. It is divided longitudinally into
5 divisions from west to east.
Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

1. The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas

2. The Kumaun Himalayas
3. The Central/ Nepal Himalayas
4. The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas

Division of the Himalayas from West to East

The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas
Kashmir Himalayas lies between the Indus River and Sutlej. A significant portion of
the Himalayas lies in Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. This is also known
as Punjab Himalayas.
In Jammu and Kashmir region:  It is characterized by high snow-covered peaks, deep
valleys, interlocked spurs, and High Mountain passes. The range stretches for 700km
in length and 500 km in width. It has a height of 3000 m with a large number of
glaciers. The Ladakh region of the Kashmir Himalayas is dominated by cold desert
conditions. The Kashmir valley which belongs to this division is surrounded by the
Greater Himalayas and the Lesser Himalayas. The Karewa soil is found here and this
area is famous for the saffron and other dry fruit cultivation.
Important passes of the Kashmir Himalayas: Pir panjal, Banihal, Zoji La, Burzil,
Khardungla, Pensi- La, Saser- La, Lanak- La, Jara- La, Tasaka-La, Umasi-La and Qara-
Tagh-La. The important snow-capped peaks are Nanda Devi, Trisul, Nunkun, Kamath
and Nanga-Parbat
In the Himachal Pradesh Region: All the three ranges- the greater, the lesser, and
the outer Himalayas are well represented in this region. The northern slopes of the
Himachal Himalayas are covered with thick forests, plains, and lakes. The southern
slopes are rugged with forest-clad. The Kangra valley, Kullu- Manali lies here. These
areas are highly productive and well known for orchards and scenic beauty.
Dalhousie, Shimla, Chamba, Kullu- Manali and Dharam sala is the important hill
station in this region. The important passes are Rohtang pass, Bara-Lacha, Shipki La.

The Kumaun Himalayas

This division lies between the Satluj and Kali River. The highest peak in this division is
Nanda Devi. Important peaks in this region are Nanda Devi, Trisul, Kedarnath,
Dunagiri, Kamet, Badrinath, Jaonli, Gangotri, and Bandarpunch. Pindari, Gangotri,
and Milam are important glaciers in this division. The major hill stations are
Mussorie, Nainital, Ranikhet, Almora, and Bageshwar. The important passes are
Thaga La, Muling La, Mana, Mangsha Dhura, and Lipu Lekh.

The Central / Nepal Himalayas

This division stretches from the Kali River to the Tista River. The major part of it lies
in Nepal except for the extreme eastern part- Sikkim Himalayas. The important peaks
are the Mt. Everest, Kanchenjunga, Makalu, Dhaula Giri, Annapurna, Manaslu, and
Gosainath. Nathu La and Jelep La are the important passes in this region.

The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas

This division lies between Tista and the Brahmaputra River (Dihang). It occupies the
state of Arunachal Pradesh in India and Bhutan. On the southern border of
Arunachal Pradesh, it takes a southerly turn, and ranges are arranged in North-South
direction passing through Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Tripura called
Purvanchal.  The Purvanchal is joined by Meghalaya Plateau in the west and its
extension of the Myanmar mountain chain continues to Andaman and Nicobar
Islands and the Archipelago of Indonesia.
The Himalayas rise very rapidly in the plains of Assam and narrow at the foothills of
Shiwaliks. It comprises of many hills called Aka hills, Dafla hills, Miri hills, Abor hills,
Mishmi hills, and Namcha Barwa. The important hills of eastern Himalayas are Pakai
bum, Manipur hills, Blue Mountain, Tripura range, and Brail range. The important
passes in this region are Bomdi La, Yonggyap, Diphu, Pangsau, Tse La, Dihang,
Debang, Tunga, and Bom La.
Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Longitudinal Division of Himalayas UPSC question

Previous Year Questions
Get UPSC Previous Year Questions
When you travel in the Himalayas, you will see the following: (UPSC Civil Services
Preliminary Examination 2012)

1. Deep gorges
2. U-turn river courses
3. Parallel mountain ranges
4. Steep gradients causing land-sliding

Which of the above can be said to be the evidence for the Himalayas being young
fold mountains?

A. 1 and 2 only
B. 1, 2 and 4 only
C. 3 and 4 only
D. 1, 2, 3 and 4

Answer: D

Frequently Asked Questions on Longitudinal Division of the Himalayas

Q 1. How are the Himalayas divided longitudinally?

Ans. The longitudinal division of the Himalayas include:

 The Kashmir /Punjab/ Himachal Himalayas

 The Kumaun Himalayas
 The Central/ Nepal Himalayas
 The Assam/ Eastern Himalayas
Q 2. What is the Kumaun Himalayas region?
Ans. The Kumaun Himalayas lies between the Satluj and Kali River. The highest peak
in this division is Nanda Devi.
NCERT Notes: Geography - Major Domains of the Earth
Major domains of the earth is a basic concept in Geography. Solid (Lithosphere),
gaseous (Atmosphere), liquid (Hydrosphere) and biosphere parts of the earth are not
isolated, but they overlap with each other. This article throws light on the 4 Major
Domains of Earth; namely Lithosphere, Atmosphere, Hydrosphere, and Biosphere.
Aspirants would find this article very helpful while preparing for the IAS Exam.

Aspirants should begin their preparation by solving UPSC Previous Year Question Papers now!!
To complement your preparation for the upcoming exam, check the following links:


o Daily Video Analysis – The Hindu Newspaper

o Daily Press Information Bureau (PIB) Analysis
o Download NCERT Notes PDF (Free) for UPSC Exam
o Download Geography NCERT Notes PDF (Free) for IAS Exam
o Download Environment and Ecology Notes PDF (Free) for Civil Service Exam

The Four Domains of the Earth

1. Lithosphere: The solid portion of the earth

2. Atmosphere: The gaseous layers that surround the earth
3. Hydrosphere: Water covers a very big area of the earth’s surface and this
area is called the Hydrosphere
4. Biosphere: It is the narrow zone where land, water and air together are
found.

Lithosphere

1. The outermost part of the Earth which consists of Upper Mantle and Crust of
the Earth is known as Lithosphere.
2. Tectonic plates are a subdivision of Lithosphere.
3. Lithosphere has rigid mechanical properties. Pedosphere is the uppermost
part of the lithosphere which reacts chemically with other 3 other major
domains of earth namely; hydrosphere, biosphere and atmosphere.
4. Thickness – about 100 km.

There are Two Main Divisions of the Earth’s Surface

Continents – the large landmasses.
The Highest Mountain Peak on this earth is the Mount Everest. The current official
elevation is 8,848 metres above sea level. The elevation was measured and
established by an Indian survey conducted in 1955. The border between Nepal and
China runs across its summit points.
Ocean basins – the huge water bodies.
Mariana Trench is the deepest Oceanic trench on Earth.  The deepest portion is at
11,034 metres. Mariana Trench is located in the Pacific Ocean. Mariana Trench is 69
km in width and 2550 km in length. Mariana Trench derives its name from the
nearby Mariana Islands which is located at around 200 km from the Mariana Trench
in the Pacific Ocean.
Continents
 There are seven major continents and these are separated by large water bodies.
1. Asia

1. The largest continent on Earth is Asia.

2. Asia is also the most populous continent on earth i.e. it is home to
approximately 60% of the world’s population as of 2019.
3. Asian continent occupies approximately 30% of the Earths total land area.
4. To the south of the Asian continent lies the Indian Ocean, to its North lies the
Arctic Ocean and to its East lies the Pacific Ocean.
5. Asia and Africa are separated by the Suez Canal.
6. Asia and Europe are separated by the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea.

2. Africa

1. The 2nd largest continent on Earth in Africa. Africa covers 20% of the Earths
total land area.
2. Africa is also the 2nd most populous country on Earth.
3. A large part of Africa lies in the Northern Hemisphere.
4. The Equator, Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn passes through Africa.
It holds the distinction of the only continent having all 3 latitudes passing
through it.
5. Worlds longest river Nile is in Africa. It has 2 main tributaries and passes
through 11 countries. It flows from Tanzania located in South of Africa and
flows till Egypt located in the North of Africa. This is a Northward flowing
river and is around 6650 km long.
6. The largest hot desert on Earth is the Sahara Desert which is located in Africa.
It extends from the Atlantic Ocean in the West, to the Red Sea located in the
East. The Sahara Desert covers a large part of the African Continent.  The
Mediterranean Sea lies to the North of Sahara Desert.

3. Europe

1. Europe is the 6th largest continent of Earth, occupying around 2% of the

surface of the Earth.
2. Russia is the largest country in the European continent.
3. Western Civilization was born in Europe.
4. Atlantic Currents has the biggest influence on the European Continent.
 5. To the South of Europe lies the Atlantic Ocean, to the North of Europe lies the
Arctic Ocean, to the West of Europe lies the Atlantic Ocean.

4. North America

1. North America is the third largest continent in the world.

2. The continent lies completely in the Northern and Western Hemisphere.
3. The Isthmus of Panama a narrow strip links North America and South
America.
4. This continent is surrounded by three oceans and they are the
Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean.

5. South America

1. There are 12 Sovereign States in South America.

2. This Continent is located in the Southern Hemisphere. In terms of total area,
South America is the 4th largest continent.
3. The Pacific Ocean is located to the West of South America.
4. To the East of South America lies the Atlantic Ocean.
5. Brazil is the most populous country in South America.
6. The Andes Mountain is the worlds longest above water Mountain range and
it is located in South America.
7. The worlds largest river is the Amazon river and it is located in South
America.

6. Australia

1. Australia is the smallest continent that lies entirely in the Southern

Hemisphere.
2. It is surrounded on all sides by the oceans and seas.
3. It is called an island continent.

7. Antarctica

1. Antarctica is a huge continent and lies completely in the Southern

Hemisphere.
2. The South Pole lies in the South Polar Region almost at the centre of this
continent and is permanently covered with thick ice sheets.

Various countries have their research stations here. India also has its permanent
research base stations here, namely Maitri, Dakshin Gangotri, and Bharati.

Hydrosphere

1. The hydrosphere includes water on earth in Oceans, Seas, Rivers, Lakes and
even in frozen forms.
 2. Only 2.5% of Earths water is freshwater. And even in this 2.5%; approximately
69% is in the form of snow and ice.
3. 97.5% of Earths water is saltwater, which is unfit for human consumption.
4. Approximately 71% of the Earth surface is covered by oceans.

Oceans

1. The three chief movements of ocean waters are the waves, the tides and the
ocean currents.
2. Oceans are the major part of the hydrosphere and they are all
interconnected.
3. The Five Major Oceans in order of their size are
1. the Pacific Ocean:  It is almost circular in shape. Asia, Australia, North
and South Americas surround it.
2. the Atlantic Ocean: It is the second-largest ocean in the world. It is ‘S’
shaped. It is flanked by the North and South Americas on the western
side, and Europe and Africa on the eastern side.
3. the Indian Ocean: It is the only ocean named after a country, that is,
India. The shape of the ocean is almost triangular. In the north, it is
bound by Asia, in the west by Africa and in the east by Australia.
4. the Southern Ocean: It surrounds the continent of Antarctica
5. the Arctic Ocean:  It is located within the Arctic Circle and surrounds
the North Pole. The Bering strait a narrow stretch of shallow water
connects it with the Pacific Ocean.

Atmosphere
The earth is surrounded by a layer of gas called the atmosphere.

1. The atmosphere extends up to a height of about 1,600 kilometres.

2. The atmosphere is divided into five layers based on composition,
temperature and other properties and they are:
1. the troposphere
2. the stratosphere
3. the mesosphere
4. the thermosphere
5. the exosphere
3. About 99 per cent of clean and dry air in the atmosphere is composed mainly
of nitrogen and oxygen. Nitrogen 78 per cent, oxygen 21 per cent and other
gases like carbon dioxide, argon and others comprise 1 per cent by volume.

Biosphere – The Domain of Life

1. The biosphere is the narrow zone of contact between the land, water and air.
2. It is the zone where life exists that makes this planet unique.
3. The organisms in the biosphere are commonly divided into:
1. the plant kingdom
2. the animal kingdom
 4. The three domains of the earth interact with each other and affect each
other in some way or the other.

Major Landforms of the Earth: UPSC Notes –Download PDF Here

Consider the following statements

1. Russia is the largest continent located in Asia.

2. River Nile flows in Southwards direction.
3. Himalayan Mountain range is the longest above-water mountain range in the
world.
4. North America is the birthplace of Western Civilization

Which of the following statements are true?

1. All the statements are true

2. None of the statements is true
3. Only 1, 2 and 3 are true
4. Only 1, 2 and 4 are true.

Consider the following statements

1. Nitrogen comprises only 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere.

2. The lithosphere is also known as the ecosphere.
3. The Balkan peninsula is separated from Asia by the Black and Aegean Seas.
4. The Danube is the longest river in Europe.

Which of the following statements are true?

A) All the statements are true
B) None of the statements is true
C) Only 3 and 4 are true
D) Only Statement 1, 2 and 3 are true.

Frequently Asked Questions about the Domains of the Earth

What are the important domains of the Earth?

Continents are the most important domain as they inhibit the largest number of
lifeforms. Asia is the largest continent on Earth covering almost 1/3rd of the Earth’s
land.

What are the four major domains of the earth?

The four main domains of the earth are Lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.
NCERT Notes: Atmospheric Pressure [Geography Notes For UPSC]
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC Civil Services Exam. These notes will
also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services
exams and so on. This article talks about the Atmospheric pressure.

Kickstart your UPSC preparation now and complement it with the links given below:

 UPSC Previous Year Question Papers

 Daily Current Affairs
 UPSC Mains Geography Question Paper
 Previous Year UPSC Prelims Geography Questions With Solutions
 Topic-wise IAS Prelims Questions with Solutions

Atmospheric Pressure (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Atmospheric pressure

 The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area from the mean sea
level to the top of the atmosphere is called the atmospheric pressure.
 It is measured in force per unit area.
 It is expressed in ‘milibar’ or mb unit.
 In the application level, the atmospheric pressure is stated in kilo-pascals.
 It is measured by the aneroid barometer or mercury barometer.
 In the lower atmosphere, the pressure declines rapidly with height.
 The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger than that of the horizontal
pressure gradient and is commonly balanced by an almost equal but opposite
gravitational force.
 The low-pressure system is encircled by one or more isobars with the lowest
pressure at the centre.
 The high-pressure system is also encircled by one or more isobars with the
highest pressure in the centre.
 Isobars are lines connecting places having equal pressure.
Pressure Gradient

 The rate of change of pressure in regard to distance is the pressure gradient.

Pressure belts

 There is a pattern of alternate high and low-pressure belts over the earth.
 There are seven pressure belts.
 Except for the Equatorial low, there are two Sub-Tropical highs (in North and
South), the two Sub-polar lows (in North and South), and the two Polar highs
(in North and South).
 The above-given pressure belts oscillate with the movement of the sun.
 In the northern hemisphere, they move southwards in winter, and in
summers they move northwards.
 The Equatorial region gets abundant heat and warm air being light, the air at
the Equator rises, generating a low pressure.
 Equatorial low

o It is found near the equator.

o The sea level pressure is low.
 Subtropical high
o The region in 30 degrees North and 30 degrees South, which are high-
pressure areas.
 Sub-polar Lows
o The region in 60 degrees North and 60 degrees South, which are low-
pressure belts.
 Polar Highs
o These occur near poles which have high pressure.
NCERT Notes: Types Of Rocks [Geography Notes For UPSC]
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will
also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services
exams, and so on. This article talks about the different kinds of rocks.
Types Of Rocks (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Different kinds of rocks
Many different kinds of rocks are classified into three families based on their mode
of formation.

Classification of Rocks:

Igneous Rocks Solidified from magma and lava

The result of the deposition of fragments of rocks

Sedimentary Rocks
by exogenous processes

Formed out of existing rocks undergoing

Metamorphic Rocks
recrystallization

Igneous Rocks

 It is formed out of magma and lava from the interior of the earth.
 They are also known as primary rocks.
 When magma in its upward movement cools and turns into a solid form it is
called igneous rock.
 The process of cooling and solidification can happen in the crust of the earth
or on the surface of the earth.
 Igneous rocks are classified based on texture.
 If the molten material is

o Cooled slowly at great depths, mineral grains may be very large.

o Sudden cooling at the surface results in small and smooth grains.
o Intermediate conditions of cooling would result in intermediate sizes
of grains making up igneous rocks.
 Examples of igneous rocks
o Granite
o Gabbro
o Pegmatite
o Basalt
o Volcanic
o Breccia
 o Tuff
Sedimentary Rocks

 Rocks of the earth’s surface area exposed to denudation agents and are
broken up into various sizes of fragments.
 These fragments are carried by various exogenous agencies and deposited.
 These deposits through compaction turn into rocks. This process is called
lithification.
 In several sedimentary rocks, the layers of deposits maintain their
characteristics even after lithification.
 Sandstone, shale are some of the examples for Sedimentary Rocks.
 Depending upon the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks are categorized
into three groups:

o Mechanically formed

 Eg: Sandstone, conglomerate, limestone, shale, loess, etc.

 Chemically formed
 Eg: Chert, limestone, halite, potash, etc.
 Organically formed
 Eg: Geyserite, chalk, limestone, coal, etc.
Metamorphic Rocks

 These rocks form under the action of volume, pressure, and temperature
(PVT) changes.
 Metamorphism happens when rocks are forced down to lower levels by
tectonic processes or when molten magma rising through the crust comes in
contact with the crustal rocks or the underlying rocks are exposed to great
amounts of pressure by overlying rocks.
 The materials of rocks chemically modify and recrystallize due to thermal
metamorphism.
 There are two types of thermal metamorphism

o Contact metamorphism
o Regional metamorphism
 Contact metamorphism
o The rocks come in contact with hot intruding magma and lava and the
rock materials recrystallize under high temperatures.
 Regional metamorphism
o The rocks experience recrystallization due to deformation caused by
tectonic shearing together with high temperature or pressure or both.
NCERT Notes: Types Of Clouds [Geography Notes For UPSC]
Clouds are an important part of the earth’s weather and climate. Clouds form when
water condenses in the sky. Clouds are visible accumulations of tiny water droplets
or ice crystals in the Earth’s atmosphere.
This topic would be of importance in the IAS Exam for the Geography section.

How do Clouds form?

Clouds form from water in the sky. The water may evaporate from the ground or
move from other areas. Water vapour may be invisible but it is always in the sky in
some amount. Clouds form when an area of air becomes cooler until the water
vapour there condenses to liquid form. The water will condense around dust, ice, or
sea salt.

Why are Clouds Important?

1. They are needed for rains or snow.

2. During the nights, clouds reflect heat to the earth and keep the temperature
warm.
3. During the day, clouds help in keeping the temperature cooler by shielding
the sunlight.
4. Researching and studying clouds helps in understanding weather and climate.

What are the 2 main factors that will determine the type of clouds formed?

1. Temperature
2. Wind

How are Clouds Classified?

Clouds are classified based on 2 major factors.

1. Physical Form
2. Height at which Clouds are formed

What are the 4 major classifications of clouds based on their physical forms?
According to their altitude, stretch, density, and transparency or opaqueness clouds
are classified into four types which are given below.

1. Cirrus
2. Cumulus
3. Stratus
4. Nimbus

What are Cirrus Clouds?

1. Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes of 8,000 – 12,000m.

 2. They are detached thin clouds.
3. They have a feathery appearance.
4. They are always white.

What are Cumulus Clouds?

1. Cumulus clouds are generally formed at a height of 4,000 m – 7,000 m.

2. They look like cotton wool.
3. They exist in patches and can be seen dispersed here and there.
4. They have a flat base.

What are Stratus Clouds?

1. Stratus clouds are horizontal.

2. Stratus clouds are stratified or layered clouds covering big portions of the sky.
3. These clouds are usually formed due to the mixing of air masses with various
temperatures or due to loss of heat.
4. The presence of stratus clouds means chilly, overcast day.

What are the Nimbus Clouds?

1. Nimbus clouds are usually formed at lower altitudes.

2. The colour of Nimbus clouds is usually black or dark grey.
3. Nimbus clouds block the sunlight
4. These types of clouds usually cause heavy rainfall and thunderstorms.

Which is the type of clouds that bring rainfall or snowfall?

Clouds with the prefix “nimbo” or the suffix “nimbus” bring rainfall and snowfall.
Nimbostratus clouds bring continuous rainfall or snowfall that may continue for a
very long duration.
Cumulonimbus clouds are also called thunderheads. Thunderheads produce rain,
thunder, and lightning.

Classification based on the altitude of Clouds formation

Clouds are classified based on their formation at different heights. The altitude at
which certain categories of clouds form varies based on the polar region, tropical
region, etc.
Below table gives the classification of clouds and the associated types of clouds

Classification of clouds Types of clouds

High clouds 1. Cirrus

2. Cirrostratus
 3. Cirrocumulus

Middle clouds 1. Altostratus

2. Altocumulus

Low clouds 1. Stratocumulus

2. Nimbostratus

Clouds with extensive vertical development 1. Cumulus

2. Cumulonimbus

High-Level Clouds

1. Polar Regions – they form at altitudes of 3000 m (10,000 ft) to 7600 m

(25,000 ft).
2. Temperate Regions – they form at altitudes of 5000 m (16,500 ft) to 12,200 m
(40,000 ft).
3. Tropical Regions – they form at altitudes of 6,100 m (20,000 ft) to 18,300 m
(60,000 ft).

Mid-Level Clouds

1. Non-vertical clouds in the middle level are prefixed by the alto.

2. At any latitude, these clouds are formed as low as 2000 m (6500 ft) above the
surface.
3. These clouds can be formed as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft) near the poles
4. These clouds are formed at an altitude of 7,600 m (25,000 ft) in the tropical
region.

Low-level Clouds

1. These clouds are formed near the surface up to 2000 m (6500 ft).
2. These types of clouds have no prefix.

What is Nephology?
Nephology is the science of clouds, which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch
of meteorology.

How do meteorologists measure cloud cover?

1. Oktas is the measurement unit that is used to measure the amount of visible
sky that is covered by clouds.
2. An okta estimates how many eighths of the sky is covered in clouds.
3. The clear sky is measured as 0 oktas.
4. An overcast or grey sky is measured as 8 oktas.
Environment [Geography Notes For UPSC]
The place, people, things and nature that surround any living organism is called the
environment. It is a combination of natural and human-made phenomena.
The natural environment refers to both biotic and abiotic conditions existing on the
earth.

 Biotic- The world of living organisms. E.g. plants and animals.

 Abiotic- The world of non-living elements. E.g. land.
The basic facts about the environment are important considering the IAS Exam.

Aspirants can cover the topics mentioned in the UPSC Syllabus by following the below-mentioned
links:

 UPSC Previous Year Question Papers

 UPSC Notes PDF
 IAS Mock Tests
 100+ Difference Between Articles for Revision
 List of Environment Conventions and Protocols
 NCERT Environment and Ecology Notes for UPSC
 Environment and Ecology Questions from UPSC Mains GS 3

Environment (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Natural Environment
Lithosphere

 It is the solid crust or the hard top layer of the earth. It is made up of rocks
and minerals and covered by a thin layer of soil.
 Lithosphere is the domain that provides us with forests, grasslands for
grazing, land for agriculture and human settlements. It is also a source of
mineral wealth.
Hydrosphere

 The domain of water is referred to as hydrosphere

 It comprises various sources of water and different types of water bodies like
rivers, lakes, seas, oceans, etc.
Atmosphere

 It is the thin layer of air that surrounds the earth.

 The gravitational force of the earth holds the atmosphere around it.
 It protects us from the harmful rays and scorching heat of the sun.
  It consists of several gases, dust and water vapour. The changes in the
atmosphere produce changes in the weather and climate.
Know more about the atmosphere from the links mentioned below:

Structure of Earth’s Atmosphere Important Points about Atmosphere

Atmospheric Pressure Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

Biosphere

 Plant and animal kingdom together make biosphere.

 It is a narrow zone of the earth where land, water and air interact with each
other to support life.
Read about Biosphere-related topics from the links below:

Biosphere Reserves in India Difference between Wildlife Sanctuary, Biosphere Reserves and National
Parks

List of National Parks in Biodiversity Hotspots

India

What is an ecosystem?

 All plants, animals and human beings depend on their immediate

surroundings. This relation between the living organisms, as well as the
relation between the organisms and their surroundings, forms an ecosystem.
NCERT Notes: Geography- Some major minerals and their characteristics
Subject: Geography 
Category: The Fundamentals of Physical Geography 
Topic: Some major minerals and their characteristics

NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will
also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services
exams and so on. This article talks about some major minerals and their
characteristics.
Major minerals and their characteristics (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Minerals

 The earth is composed of various kinds of elements.

 A mineral is a naturally occurring organic and inorganic substance.
 It has an orderly atomic structure and a definite chemical composition as well
as physical properties.
 It is composed of two or more elements.
 Minerals like sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite, etc. are single element
minerals.
Feldspar

 Oxygen and Silicon are common elements in all types of feldspar.

 Sodium, potassium, calcium, aluminium, etc. are found in specific feldspar
variety.
 It is the single most abundant mineral group on Earth and half of the crust of
the earth is composed of feldspar.
 It has light cream to salmon pink colour.
 It is used for making ceramics and glass.
 
Quartz

 It is one of the most important components of granite and sand.

 This hard mineral consists of silica and is virtually insoluble in water.
 It is used in radio and radar.
 This white or colourless mineral is the most important component of granite.
Pyroxene

 Pyroxene comprises of aluminium, calcium, iron, magnesium, and silica.

 It forms 10 per cent of the crust of the earth.
 It is usually found in meteorites and occur in green or black colour.
Amphibole

 Calcium, iron, aluminium, silica, magnesium are the main elements of

amphiboles.
 They form 7 % of the crust of the earth.
 It is found in green or black colour.
 It is mainly used in the asbestos industry.
 The other form of amphiboles is Hornblende.
Mica

 Mica comprises of potassium, aluminium, magnesium, iron, silica, etc.

 It forms 4 % of the crust of the earth. It is generally found in metamorphic
and igneous rocks.
 Mica is used in electrical instruments.
Olivine

 Magnesium, iron and silica are the main elements of olivine.

 It is used in jewellery.
 It usually occurs in a greenish crystal form and is found in basaltic rocks.
NCERT Notes: The Hydrologic Cycle [Geography Notes For UPSC]
The hydrological cycle is also known as the “water cycle”; it is the normal water
recycling system on Earth.  It is the sum total of all processes in which water moves
from the land and ocean surface to the atmosphere and back in form of
precipitation.
Every year March 22 is observed as World Water Day and UPSC aspirants can know
more about the same at the linked article.
Get NCERT notes on important topics for the IAS aspirants. These notes will also be
useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services exams
and so on. This article talks about the Hydrological cycle.
Aspirants preparing for the upcoming UPSC examination can go through the relevant
links provided below for preparation even better –

Rock Cycle Oxygen Cycle Composition of the Atmosphere

Nitrogen Cycle Biogeochemical Cycles Structure of the Atmosphere

Evaporation and Condensation Carbon Cycle Climatic Change in India

Water Cycle Explanation

What is Water?

 Water is a cyclic resource as it is used and re-used.

 About 71% of the planetary water is found in the oceans.
 The remaining is held as freshwater in glaciers and ice caps, groundwater
sources, lakes, soil moisture, atmosphere, streams and within life.
 About 59% of the water on the land surface evaporates and returns back to
the atmosphere.
 The remaining run-off on the surface penetrates into the ground or a part of
it becomes glaciers.
Water Cycle (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Candidates can enhance their UPSC exam preparation by attempting UPSC Previous Years Question
Papers now!!
To complement your preparation for the upcoming exam, check the following links:

 NCERT Notes for Geography

 Geography Syllabus and Strategy
 Daily Current Affairs
 Topic-wise IAS Prelims Questions with Solutions [2013-2020]
  UPSC Mains Geography Question Paper
 Previous Year UPSC Prelims Geography Questions With Solutions

Distribution of water on the surface of the earth

Reservoir Percentage of the total Volume in Million Cubic km

Oceans 97.25 1,370

Ice caps and glaciers 2.05 29

Groundwater 0.68 9.5

Lakes 0.01 0.125

Soil moisture 0.005 0.065

Atmosphere 0.001 0.013

Streams and Rivers 0.0001 0.0017

Biosphere 0.00004 0.0006

Hydrological Cycle Diagram

Hydrological cycle / Water Cycle
  The hydrological cycle is the circulation of water within the hydrosphere of
Earth in different forms such as liquid, solid and gaseous states.
 It also denotes the uninterrupted exchange of water between the land
surface, oceans and subsurface and the organisms.
 The hydrologic cycle begins with the evaporation of water from the surface of
the ocean.

Hydrological Cycle Processes – Components and Processes of the Water Cycle

Components Processes

Water storage in oceans Evaporation

Transpiration
Sublimation

Water in the atmosphere Condensation

Precipitation

Water storage in ice and snow Snowmelt runoff to streams

 Surface runoff Streamflow freshwater storage infiltration

Groundwater storage Groundwater discharge springs

What is Evaporation?

 The conversion of water from liquid to gas stage as it moves from the ground
or bodies of water into the atmosphere.
 The source of energy for evaporation is mainly solar radiation.
Get NCERT Notes on Evaporation And Condensation at the linked article for UPSC
preparation.

What is Transpiration?

 Water vapour is also discharged from plant leaves by a process called

transpiration.

What is Sublimation?

 The process in which solid water such as snow or ice directly changes into
water vapour.

What is Condensation?

 The transformation of water vapour to liquid water droplets in the air,

forming fog and clouds.

What is Precipitation?
  The condensed water vapour falling to the surface of the Earth is known as
Precipitation.
 It occurs in the form of rain, snow, and hail.

What is Runoff?

 Runoff is a visible flow of water in rivers, creeks, and lakes as the water
stored in the basin drain out.

What is Snowmelt?

 The runoff created by melting snow.

What is Percolation?

 Water flows vertically through the soil and rocks under the effect of gravity.
NCERT Notes: Heating And Cooling Of The Atmosphere [Geography Notes For
UPSC]
Heating and cooling of the Earths atmosphere happen mainly due to 3 different
processes. This article briefly covers information on the 3 important processes –
Conduction, Convection and Advection. The information shared in this article will not
only help in Civil Service Exam but also help in other competitive exams like banking
PO, SSC, state civil services exams etc.
Aspirants would find this article very helpful while preparing for the IAS Exam.
Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Heating and Cooling of Atmosphere

1. There are various ways of heating and cooling of the atmosphere.

2. The earth after being warmed by insolation transfers the heat to the
atmospheric layers in the long waveform.

Conduction

1. The air in interaction with the land gets heated gradually and the upper
layers in touch with the lower layers also get heated. This process is called
conduction.
2. This process takes place when two bodies of uneven temperature are in
contact with one another, there is a flow of energy from the warmer to the
cooler body.
3. The heat transfer continues until both the bodies reach the same
temperature or the contact is interrupted.
4. This process is significant in heating the lower layers of the atmosphere.

Convection

1. The air in contact with the earth upsurges vertically on heating in the form of
currents and transfers the heat of the atmosphere.
2. This vertical heating of the atmosphere is known as convection.
3. The convective transfer of energy is limited only to the troposphere.

Advection

1. The transfer of heat through the horizontal movement of air is called

advection.
2. The horizontal movement of the air is comparatively more significant than
the vertical movement.
3. Most of the diurnal variation in weather is caused by advection only in the
middle latitudes.
4. During summer in tropical regions predominantly in Northern India, local
winds called ‘loo’ is the result of the advection process.
NCERT Notes: Koppen Climate Classification [Geography Notes For UPSC]
NCERT notes on important topics for the UPSC civil services exam. These notes will
also be useful for other competitive exams like banking PO, SSC, state civil services
exams and so on. This article is about Koppen’s Climate Classification- Group A
Climates. Climatology is an important topic for the civil services exam.
Koppen Climate Classification (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Koppen Climate Classification

 Koppen’s Group-A climates are found in the unbroken belt around the Earth
at low latitudes, typically within 15° North and South.
 Group A climates are regulated largely by the seasonal variations of the trade
winds, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the Asian monsoon.

Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of

Capricorn.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.
 The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas the
annual rainfall is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:

o Af – Tropical wet climate

o Am – Tropical monsoon climate
o Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate
Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

 Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.

 The chief areas that lie in this climate are:

o Amazon Basin in South America

o Western Equatorial Africa
o The islands of East Indies
 A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.
 These regions receive thundershowers in the afternoon.
 The temperature is uniformly high.
 The annual range of temperature is negligible.
 The maximum temperature during the daytime is about 30°C whereas
the minimum temperature is about 20°C.
  The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large
biodiversity.
Candidates must go through the relevant links provided below to prepare for topics
important for the UPSC examination-

Koeppen’s Group-C Climates Koeppen’s Group-B Climates

Koeppen’s Group-D Climates Rainfall Distribution in India

Tropical Rain Forest – Characteristics Tropical Deciduous Forests of India

Natural Vegetation in India – Types & Characteristics Monsoons in India

Types of Soil in India Climate, Vegetation and Wildlife

India Meteorological Department (IMD) Major cropping Seasons in India

Retreating Monsoon – Season, Temperature Factors Controlling Temperature Distribution 

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

 Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:

o The Indian sub-continent

o North-Eastern part of South America
o Northern Australia
 These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer.
 Winter in this area seems to be dry.
Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

 The tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of Tropical Wet
Climate (Af) type climate regions.
 It borders with Cf or Cw on the eastern part and dry climate on the western
part of the continent.
 Extensive Aw climate is found in

o Sudan
o South of Central Africa
o North and South of the Amazon forest in Brazil
o Connecting parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America
  The annual rainfall in Tropical Wet and Dry Climate is significantly less
than that in Af and Am climate types.
 The wet season is shorter in this region.
 The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
 The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.
 Temperature is high throughout the year.
 Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands main flora found in
this region.
Koppen Climate Classification (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Check BYJU’S Free IAS Preparation for more NCERT Geography notes and news on
UPSC Civil Services IAS Exam.
UPSC Books List PDF:-Download PDF Here

Frequently Asked Questions on Koppen Climate Classification

Q 1. What are Koppen Climate classifications?

Ans. The Koppen climate classification scheme divides climates into five main climate
groups: A (tropical), B (dry), C (temperate), D (continental), and E (polar). It is used to
denote different climate regions on Earth based on local vegetation.

Q 2. What is classification A of Koppens climate?

Ans. Koppen’s Group-A climates are found in the unbroken belt around the Earth at
low latitudes, typically within 15° North and South. The tropical group is divided into
three types. They are:

 Af – Tropical wet climate

 Am – Tropical monsoon climate
 Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate
Dams in India
The questions asked in the Bank Exams in the General Awareness section are based
on areas like the history of Politics, Geography, Sports and many more. One of the
most important topics that are asked in the G.A section is the knowledge about
Dams.
General Awareness is a major section for all Government exams such as Bank exams,
SSC exams, RRB exams etc. In this section, questions based on topics related to the
current affairs or based on static topics. Therefore, first, we should have a clear
understanding of the Dams.
Candidates can download the list of Dams in India PDF given below for convenient
preparation.
Dams in India (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here
Dam Projects in the news:

 Mekedatu Dam Project

 Project Sardar Sarovar Dam
 Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project

What is the Dam?

A dam is a barrier that stops the flow of water and results in the creation of a
reservoir. Dams are mainly built in order to produce electricity by using water. This
form of electricity is known as hydroelectricity.
Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for
activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and
navigability.
The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan, dating to 3,000 BC.

Types of Dams
There are many dams in India, and hence there is a need to know about them as
there are questions based on the dams of India. The Bank Exams
like IBPS or SBI contains questions from this section.
Based on the structure the types of dams are as mentioned below:

1. Arch Dam: An arch dam is a concrete dam that is curved upstream in the
plan. It is designed so that the hydrostatic pressure (force of the water
against it) presses against the arch, causing the arch to straighten slightly and
strengthening the structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments. An
arch dam is most suitable for narrow canyons or gorges with steep walls of
stable rock to support the structure and stresses.
2. Gravity Dam: Dams constructed from concrete or stone masonry are Gravity
dams. They are designed to hold back water by using only the weight of the
material and its resistance against the foundation to oppose the horizontal
 pressure of water pushing against it. These are designed in such a way
that each section of the dam is stable and independent of other section.
3. Arch-Gravity Dam: This dam has the characteristics of both an arch dam and
a gravity dam. It is a dam that curves upstream in a narrowing curve that
directs most of the water pressure against the canyon rock walls. The inward
compression of the dam by the water reduces the lateral (horizontal) force
acting on the dam.
4. Barrages: A barrage is a type of low-head, diversion dam which consists of a
number of large gates that can be opened or closed to control the amount of
water passing through. This allows the structure to regulate and stabilize
river water elevation upstream for use in irrigation and other systems.
5. Embankment Dams: An embankment dam is a large artificial dam. It is
typically created by the placement and compaction of a complex semi-plastic
mound of various compositions of soil, sand, clay, or rock. It has a semi-
pervious waterproof natural covering for its surface and a dense, impervious
core.
6. Rock-Fills Dams: Rock-fill dams are embankments of compacted free-draining
granular earth with an impervious zone. The earth utilized often contains a
high percentage of large particles, hence the term “rock-fill”.
7. Concrete-face rock-fill dams: A concrete-face rock-fill dam (CFRD) is a rock-
fill dam with concrete slabs on its upstream face. This design provides the
concrete slab as an impervious wall to prevent leakage and also a structure
without concern for uplift pressure.
8. Earth-fill dams: Earth-fill dams, also called earthen dams, rolled-earth dams
or simply earth dams, are constructed as a simple embankment of well-
compacted earth. A homogeneous rolled-earth dam is entirely constructed of
one type of material but may contain a drain layer to collect seep water.

Major Dams in India

The major dams in India have helped the inhabitants in a number of ways like:

1. Providing adequate water for domestic, industry and irrigation purposes.

2. Hydroelectric power production and river navigation.
3. These major dams in India and their reservoirs provide recreation areas for
fishing and boating.
4. They have helped in the reduction of floods.

Highlights on some important Dams in India:

Dams in India

Highest Dam in India Tehri Dam(Uttarakhand) Height: 260.5 meters

Length: 575 meters
River: Bhagirathi River
 Location: Uttarakhand
Year of completion:2006 (1st phase)

Longest Dam in India Hirakud Dam (Odisha) Total Length: 25.79 km (16.03 mi)
Length of Main Dam:4.8 km (3.0 mi)
River: Mahanadi
Location: Odisha
Year of completion:1953

Oldest Dam in India Kallanai Dam(Tamil Nadu) River: Kaveri

Location: Tamil Nadu
Year of completion: 100 BC –100 AD
List of Dams Of India is an important static GK topic in terms of UPSC syllabus. For
information on various static GK topics check the article linked here.
The list of some major dams in India have been given below:

List Of Major Dams in India State  River 

Bhavani Sagar dam Tamil Nadu Bhavani

Tungabhadra Dam Karnataka Tungabhadra

Rihand Dam Uttar Pradesh Rihand

Maithon Dam Jharkhand Barakar

Koyna Dam Maharashtra Koyna

Bisalpur Dam Rajasthan Banas

Mettur Dam Tamil Nadu Kaveri

Krishnarajasagar Dam Karnataka Kaveri

Indira Sagar Dam Madhya Pradesh Narmada

Cheruthoni Dam Kerala Cheruthoni

 Sardar Sarovar Dam Gujarat Narmada

Nagarjuna Sagar Dam Telangana Krishna

Hirakud dam Odisha Mahanadi

Bhakra Nangal Dam Punjab-Himachal Pradesh Border Sutlej

Tehri Dam Uttarakhand Bhagirathi

The details on a few of the Largest Dams in India have been given below:
Tehri Dam

The Tehri Dam is located in the state of Uttarakhand. It is the highest Dam in India
with a height of 260.5 metres. It is also listed in the top ten highest dams in the
world. This Dam is situated on the river Bhagirathi.

 Height of the Dam- 260.5 m

 Length of the Dam- 575 m
 Type of Dam- Rock fill
 The reservoir capacity- 21,00,000 acre feet
 Capacity that is installed- 1000 Megawatt
Bhakra Nangal Dam
The Bhakra Nangal Dam is located in the state of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. It is
the largest dam in India having a height of 225 metres and also in the second
position in the largest dams in all over Asia. It is situated on the river Sutlej.

 Height of the Dam- 226 m

 Length of the Dam- 520m
 Type of Dam- Concrete Gravity
 The reservoir capacity- 75,01,775 acre feet
 Capacity that is installed- 1325 Megawatt
Hirakud Dam
The Hirakud Dam is located in the state of Orissa. It is the longest dam in India with a
total length of 25.79 km. It is also in the list of the longest dams in the world. The
Hirakud Dam is situated on the river Mahanadi.

 Height of the Dam- 61 m

 Length of the Dam- 4.8 km (Main Dam)
 Type of Dam- Composite Dam
 The reservoir capacity- 47,79,965 acre feet
 Capacity that is installed- 347.5 Megawatt
Nagarjuna Sagar Dam
The Nagarjuna Sagar Dam is located in the state of Telangana. It is India’s largest
Masonry Dams built till date. It is the largest manmade lake in the world. It has 26
gates and is 1.55 km in length. It is situated on the river Krishna.

 Height of the Dam- 124m

 Length of the Dam- 4863 m (Total Lenght)
 Type of Dam- Masonry Dam
 The reservoir capacity- 93,71,845 acre feet
 Capacity that is installed- 816 Megawatt
Sardar Sarovar Dam
The Sardar Sarovar Dam is located in the state of Gujarat. It is the largest dam in the
Narmada Valley Project. This Dam is to benefit the other neighbouring states of
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Maharashtra. It is situated on the river Narmada
River.

 Height of the Dam- 163m

 Length of the Dam- 1210m
 Type of Dam- Gravity Dam
 The reservoir capacity- 77,00,000 acre-feet
 Capacity that is installed- 1450 Megawatt
These are some largest dams in India. There are more dams in India but questions
that are asked in the Bank Exams’ General Awareness section is based on these dams
only.
Dams in India (UPSC Notes):-Download PDF Here

Dams In India – Sample Questions

Given below are a few sample questions on Dams in India to help you understand
the relevance of the topic for various competitive exams and to know the scope and
variety asked in the examination.
Q1. Hirakud dam, one of the longest dams (length – 25.8 km) in the world is located
on the river –

1. Godavari
2. Tungabhadra
3. Mahanadi
4. Brahmaputra
Answer (3) Mahanadi
Q2. Tehri Dam of Uttarakhand has been constructed on the river –

1. Bhagirathi
2. Teesta
3. Alaknanda
4. Ghaggar

Answer (1) Bhagirathi

Q3. ______ is located on Sutlej river.

1. Koyna Dam
2. Nagarjuna Sagar
3. Bhakra Nangal Dam located
4. Gandhisagar Dam

Answer (3) Bhakra Nangal Dam

Q4. Which of the following dams is not on the River Krishna?

1. Nagarjunasagar
2. Srisailam
3. Alamat
4. Krishnaraja Sagar

Answer (4) Krishna Sagar Dam

Q5. Which of the following dams is also known as Maharana Pratap Sagar?

1. Pong Dam
2. Ukai Dam
3. Thein Dam
4. Koyna Dam

Answer (1) Pong Dam

Candidates preparing for the upcoming bank exams can also refer to the links given
below to prepare for the Static GK part of banking sector exams:
Important Lakes of India [UPSC Notes]
India is known for its diverse natural resources. There are many resources out of
which water bodies have a significant hold on the scenic beauty of our country.
Lakes are one of the major sources of natural beauty in India and there are many
lakes in almost every state.
This topic holds great significance for UPSC and various government exams in India.
Important Lakes of India falls under static GK in the UPSC exam, you can check more
articles on other static GK topics on the linked page.
Lakes can be classified into various categories:

S.No Category of Lake in India

1. Freshwater Lakes

2. Saltwater Lakes

3. Natural Lakes

4. Oxbow Lakes

5. Artificial Lakes

6. Crater Lakes

List of Important Lakes of India:-Download PDF Here

To complement your preparation for the upcoming exam, check the following links:

 UPSC Previous Year Question Papers

 Current Affairs
 UPSC Notes PDF
 IAS Mock Tests
 NCERT Notes PDF

Top 10 largest Lakes in India

The list of largest lakes is mentioned in the table below:

List of largest Lakes(Decreasing order of area covered) State/UT

Vembanad Lake Kerala

 Chilika Lake Odisha

Shivaji Sagar Lake Maharashtra

Indira Sagar lake Madhya Pradesh

Pangong Lake Ladakh

Pulicat Lake Andhra Pradesh

Sardar Sarovar Lake Gujarat

Nagarjuna Sagar Lake Telangana

Loktak Lake Manipur

Wular lake Jammu and Kashmir

List of Important Lakes in India

The list of important lakes in India is given below:

Lakes in India State/UT

Pulicat lake Andhra Pradesh

Kolleru Lake Andhra Pradesh

Haflong Lake Assam

Deepor Beel Assam

Chandubi Lake Assam

Kanwar lake Bihar

Hamirsar Lake Gujarat

Kankaria Lake Gujarat

Badkhal Lake Haryana

Brahma Sarovar Haryana

Chandra Taal Himachal Pradesh

MaharanaPratap Sagar Himachal Pradesh

Dal Lake Jammu Kashmir

Wular Lake Jammu Kashmir

Agara Lake Karnataka

Ulsoor Lake Karnataka

Kuttanad Lake Kerala

Sasthamkotta Kerala

Bhojtal Madhya Pradesh

Shivsagar Maharashtra

Loktak lake Manipur

Umiam Lake Meghalaya

Tam Dil Mizoram

Chilika Lake Odisha

Harike Punjab

Kanjli Punjab
 Sambhar Lake Rajasthan

Tsomgo Lake Sikkim

Chembarambakkam Tamil Nadu

Hussain Sagar Telangana

Govind Bhallabh Pant Sagar Uttar Pradesh

Belasagar Uttar Pradesh

Bhimtal Uttarakhand

Kaliveli Tamil Nadu

Lakes in India – Application

Apart from being a symbol of natural beauty, lakes can be of many uses for the
inhabitants.
Lakes in India are a great source of :

 Irrigation
 Drinking-Water
 Navigation
 Livelihood

Important Facts about Lakes for UPSC Prelims

1. Wular lake is one of the biggest freshwater lakes in Asia and it was formed as
a result of tectonic activity.
2. Chilika Lake in Odisha is the largest saline water lake in India.
3. Vembanad Lake in Kerala is the longest lake in India.
4. Cholamu Lake in Sikkim is the highest lake in India.
5. Lonar Lake is a notified National Geo-heritage Monument, saline, soda lake,
located at Lonar in Buldhana district, Maharashtra.

List of Important Lakes of India:-Download PDF Here

Practice question for UPSC IAS Prelims
1. Consider the following statement with respect Wular Lake
a. It is located in Kashmir
b. It was created by Tectonic activity
c. It is fed by river Jhelum
Select the correct option

1. a only
2. b and c only
3. a and c only
4. a b and c

Also read:

GI Tags in India List of National Parks in India Major Ports in India

Natural Vegetation in India Major River Systems in India UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India

Frequently Asked Questions on Lakes in India

Q 1. Which is the largest saltwater lake in India?

Ans. The Chilika Lake located in Orissa is the largest saltwater lake in India.

Q 2. Which Indian city is known as the City of Lakes in India?

Ans. Udaipur is known as the City of Lakes in India.
List of Neighbouring Countries of India

India’s Neighbouring Countries – Capital & State Borders

The table given below gives the list of neighbouring countries of India and their
capitals along with the Indian states that they share the border with:

Neighbouring Countries of India – Capital & State-UTs Borders

Neighbouring Capital The Indian State/UTs which share Border

Country

Afghanistan Kabul Ladakh (PoK)

Bangladesh Dhaka West Bengal, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura

and Assam

Bhutan Thimphu West Bengal, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh &

Assam

China Beijing Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand,

Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh

Myanmar Yangon Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and

Manipur

Nepal Kathmandu Bihar, Uttarakhand, UP, Sikkim and West

Bengal

Pakistan Islamabad Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh, Punjab,

Rajasthan and Gujarat

Sri Lanka Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte It is separated from India by the Gulf of
(Legislative Capital) Mannar

Columbo (Executive Capital)

Maldives Male It lies in the south-west part of India Ocean

below the Lakshadweep Island. 
 Indian River Systems

River System Total length Length in  India

Indus River System 3180  km 1114 km

Brahmaputra River System 2900 km 916 km

Ganga River System 2510 km 2510 km

Yamuna river System 1376 km 1376 km

Narmada River System 1312 km 1312 km

Tapi River System 724 km 724 km

Godavari River System 1465 km 1465 km

Krishna River System 1400 km 1400 km

Cauvery River System 805 km 805 km

Mahanadi River System 851 km 851 km

Major River System – The Indus River System

The Indus arises from the northern slopes of the Kailash range in Tibet near Lake
Mansarovar.

 It has a large number of tributaries in both India and Pakistan and has a total
length of about 2897 km from the source to the point near Karachi where it
falls into the Arabian Sea out of which approx 700km lies in India.
 It enters the Indian Territory in Jammu and Kashmir by forming a picturesque
gorge.
 In the Kashmir region, it joins with many tributaries – the Zaskar, the Shyok,
the Nubra and the Hunza.
 It flows between the Ladakh Range and the Zaskar Range at Leh.
 It crosses the Himalayas through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, which is
lying north of Nanga Parbat.
The major tributaries of the Indus River in India are Jhelum, Ravi, Chenab, Beas, and
Sutlej.

Major River System – The Brahmaputra River System

The Brahmaputra originates from Mansarovar Lake, which is also a source of the
Indus and Sutlej.

 It is 3848kms long, a little longer than the Indus River.

 Most of its course lies outside India.
 It flows parallel to the Himalayas in the eastward direction. When it reaches
Namcha Barwa, it takes a U-turn around it and enters India in the state of
Arunachal Pradesh.
 Here it is known as the Dihang River. In India, it flows through the states of
Arunachal Pradesh and Assam and is connected by several tributaries.
 The Brahmaputra has a braided channel throughout most of its length in
Assam.
The river is known as the Tsangpo in Tibet. It receives less volume of water and has
less silt in the Tibet region. But in India, the river passes through a region of heavy
precipitation, and as such, the river carries large amounts of water during rainfall
and a significant amount of silt. It is considered one of the largest rivers in India in
terms of volume. It is known for creating calamities in Assam and Bangladesh.
Similar to major river systems in India, you can check more static GK topics for UPSC
exams on the linked page.

Major River System – Ganga River System

 The Ganga originates as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier.

 Before it reaches Devprayag in the Garhwal Division, the Mandakini, Pindar,
the Dhauliganga and the Bishenganga rivers merge into the Alaknanda and
the Bheling drain into the Bhagirathi.
 The Pindar River rises from East Trishul and Nanda Devi unite with the
Alaknanda at Karan Prayag. The Mandakini meets at Rudraprayag.
 The water from both Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda flows in the name of the
Ganga at Devprayag.
The concept of Panch Prayag

1. Vishnuprayag: where the river Alaknanda meets river Dhauli Ganga

2. Nandprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Nandakini
3. Karnaprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Pinder
4. Rudraprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Mandakini
5. Devprayag: where river Alaknanda meets river Bhagirathi -GANGA
The principal tributaries of the Ganga are Yamuna, Damodar, Sapta Kosi, Ram Ganga,
Gomati, Ghaghara, and Son. The river after travelling a distance of 2525 km from its
source meets the Bay of Bengal.

Yamuna River System

 The Yamuna River is the largest tributary of the Ganga River.

 It originates from the Yamunotri glacier, at the Bandarpoonch peak in
Uttarakhand.
 The main tributaries joining the river include the Sin, Hindon, Betwa Ken, and
Chambal.
 The Tons is the largest tributary of the Yamuna.
 The catchment of the river extends to the states of Delhi, Himachal Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh.

The Narmada River System

 The Narmada is a river located in central India.

 It rises to the summit of the Amarkantak Hill in Madhya Pradesh state.
 It outlines the traditional frontier between North India and South India.
 It is one of the major rivers of peninsular India. Only the Narmada, the Tapti,
and the Mahi rivers run from east to west.
 The river flows through the states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and
Maharashtra.
 It drains into the Arabian Sea in the Bharuch district of Gujarat.

The Tapi River System

 It is a central Indian river. It is one of the most important rivers of peninsular

India with the run from east to west.
 It originates in the Eastern Satpura Range of southern Madhya Pradesh state.
 It flows in a westward direction, draining some important historic places like
Madhya Pradesh’s Nimar region, East Vidarbha region and Maharashtra’s
Khandesh in the northwest corner of the Deccan Plateau and South Gujarat
before draining into the Gulf of Cambay of the Arabian Sea.
 The River Basin of Tapi River lies mostly in eastern and northern districts
Maharashtra state.
 The river also covers some districts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat as well.
 The principal tributaries of Tapi River are Waghur River, Aner River, Girna
River, Purna River, Panzara River and Bori River.

The Godavari River System

  The Godavari River is the second-longest course in India with brownish water.
 The river is often referred to as the Dakshin (South) Ganga or Vriddh (Old)
Ganga.
 It is a seasonal river, dried during the summers, and widens during the
monsoons.
 This river originates from Trimbakeshwar, near Nasik in Maharashtra.
 It flows southeast across south-central India through the states of Madhya
Pradesh, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Orissa, and drains into the Bay of
Bengal.
 The river forms a fertile delta at Rajahmundry.
 The banks of this river have many pilgrimage sites, Nasik(MH),
Bhadrachalam(TS), and Trimbak. Some of its tributaries include Pranahita
(Combination of Penuganga and Warda), Indravati River, Bindusara, Sabari,
and Manjira.
 Asia’s largest rail-cum-road bridge which links Kovvur and Rajahmundry is
located on the river Godavari.

The Krishna River System

 Krishna is one of the longest rivers of India, which originates from

Mahabaleshwar in Maharashtra.
 It flows through Sangli and drains the sea in the Bay of Bengal.
 The river flows through the states of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana and
Andhra Pradesh.
 Tungabhadra River is the main tributary which itself is formed by the Tunga
and Bhadra rivers that originate in the Western Ghats.
 Dudhganga Rivers, Koyna, Bhima, Mallaprabha, Dindi, Ghataprabha, Warna,
Yerla, and Musi are some of the other tributaries.

The Cauvery River System

 The Cauvery is also known as Dakshin Ganga.

 It originates from Talakaveri located in the Western Ghats.
 It is a famous pilgrimage and tourist place in the Kodagu district of Karnataka.
 The headwaters of the river are in the Western Ghats range of Karnataka
state, and from Karnataka through Tamil Nadu.
 The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The river supports irrigation for
agriculture and is considered as a means of support of the ancient kingdoms
and modern cities of South India.
 The river has many tributaries called Arkavathy, Shimsha, Hemavati, Kapila,
Shimsha, Honnuhole, Amaravati, Lakshmana Kabini, Lokapavani, Bhavani,
Noyyal, and Tirtha.
The Mahanadi River System

 The Mahanadi originates from the Satpura Range of central India and it is a
river in eastern India.
 It flows east to the Bay of Bengal. The river drains of the state of
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa.
 The largest dam, the Hirakud Dam is built on the river.