CS-VLA

Certification Specifications for Very Light Aeroplanes

CS-VLA

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SUBPART A – GENERAL

CS-VLA 1 Applicability
(a) This airworthiness code is applicable to
aeroplanes with a single engine (spark- or
compression-ignition) having not more than two
seats, with a Maximum Certificated Take-off
Weight of not more than 750 kg and a stalling
speed in the landing configuration of not more
than 83 km/h (45 knots)(CAS), to be approved
for day-VFR only. (See AMC VLA 1(a)).

CS-VLA 3 Aeroplane categories

This CS-VLA applies to aeroplanes intended
for non-aerobatic operation only. Non-aerobatic
operation includes -
(a) Any manoeuvre incident to normal
flying;
(b) Stalls (except whip stalls); and
(c) Lazy eights, chandelles, and steep turns,
in which the angle of bank is not more than 60°.

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SUBPART B – FLIGHT

GENERAL
(i) The highest weight selected
by the applicant;
CS-VLA 21 Proof of compliance (ii) The design maximum
weight, which is the highest weight at
(a) Each requirement of this subpart must
which compliance with each applicable
be met at each appropriate combination of
structural loading condition of this CS-
weight and centre of gravity within the range of
VLA is shown; or
loading conditions for which certification is
requested. This must be shown – (iii) The highest weight at which
compliance with each applicable flight
(1) By tests upon an aeroplane of the
requirement of this CS-VLA is shown.
type for which certification is requested, or by
calculations based on, and equal in accuracy (2) Assuming a weight of 86 kg for
to, the results of testing; and each occupant of each seat, not less than the
weight with –
(2) By systematic investigation of
each probable combination of weight and (i) Each seat occupied, full
centre of gravity, if compliance cannot be quantity of oil, and at least enough fuel
reasonably inferred upon combinations for one hour of operation at rated
investigated. maximum continuous power; or
(b) The following general tolerances are (ii) One pilot, full quantity of
allowed during flight testing. However, greater oil, and fuel to full tank capacity.
tolerances may be allowed in particular tests.
(b) Minimum weight. The minimum weight
Item Tolerance (the lowest weight at which compliance with
Weight +5% ,-10% each applicable requirement of this CS-VLA is
Critical items affected by weight +5%, -1% shown) must be established so that it is not more
C.G. ±7% total travel. than the sum of –
(c) Substantiation of the data and (1) The empty weight determined
characteristics to be determined according to this under CS-VLA 29;
subpart may not require exceptional piloting
(2) The weight of the pilot (assumed
skill, alertness or exceptionally favourable
as 55 kg); and
conditions. (See AMC VLA 21(c).)
(3) The fuel necessary for one half
(d) Consideration must be given to
hour of operation at maximum continuous
significant variations of performance and in-
power.
flight characteristics caused by rain and the
accumulation of insects. (See AMC VLA 21(d).)
CS-VLA 29 Empty weight and
corresponding centre of
CS-VLA 23 Load distribution limits
gravity
Ranges of weight and centres of gravity
within which the aeroplane may be safely (a) The empty weight and corresponding
operated must be established and must include centre of gravity must be determined by
the range of lateral centres of gravity if possible weighing the aeroplane with –
loading conditions can result in significant (1) Fixed ballast;
variation of their positions. (See AMC VLA 23.)
(2) Unusable fuel determined under
CS-VLA 959; and
CS-VLA 25 Weight limits (3) Full operating fluids, including -
(a) Maximum weight. The maximum (i) Oil;
weight is the highest weight at which compliance
with each applicable requirement of this CS- (ii) Hydraulic fluid; and
VLA is shown. The maximum weight must be (iii) Other fluids required for
established so that it is - operation of aeroplane systems,
(1) Not more than -

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(b) The condition of the aeroplane at the still air and a standard atmosphere, at sea level.
time of determining empty weight must be one (See AMC VLA 45.)
that is well defined and can be easily repeated.

CS-VLA 49 Stalling speed

CS-VLA 33 Propeller speed and pitch
(a) VS0 is the stalling speed, if obtainable,
limits
or the minimum steady speed, in knots (CAS), at
(a) Propeller speed and pitch must be which the aeroplane is controllable, with the –
limited to values that ensure safe operation under (1) Power condition set forth in
normal operating conditions. subparagraph (c);
(b) Propellers that cannot be controlled in (2) Propeller in the take-off position;
flight must meet the following requirements:
(3) Landing gear extended;
(1) During take-off and initial climb at
VY, the propeller must limit the engine (4) Wing flaps in the landing position;
rotational speed at full throttle to a value not (5) Cowl flaps closed;
greater than the maximum allowable take-off
rotational speed, and (6) Centre of gravity in the most
unfavourable position within the allowable
(2) During a glide at VNE with throttle range; and
closed or the engine inoperative, provided this
has no detrimental effect on the engine, the (7) Maximum weight.
propeller must not permit the engine to
(b) VS0 may not exceed 83 km/h (45 knots)
achieve a rotational speed greater than 110%
(CAS).
of the maximum continuous speed.
(c) VS1 is the stalling speed, if obtainable,
(c) A propeller that can be controlled in or the minimum steady speed, in knots, CAS at
flight but does not have constant speed controls which the aeroplane is controllable with –
must be so designed that –
(1) Engine idling, throttle closed;
(1) Sub-paragraph (b)(1) is met with
the lowest possible pitch selected, and (2) Propeller in the take-off position;
(2) Sub-paragraph (b)(2) is met with (3) Aeroplane in the condition
the highest possible pitch selected. existing in the test in which VS1 is being used;
and
(d) A controllable pitch propeller with
constant speed controls must comply with the (4) Maximum weight.
following requirements: (d) VS0 and VS1 must be determined by
(1) With the governor in operation, flight tests, using the procedure specified in CS-
there must be a means to limit the maximum VLA 201.
engine rotational speed to the maximum
allowable take-off speed, and
CS-VLA 51 Take-off
(2) With the governor inoperative,
there must be a means to limit the maximum (a) The distance required to take-off from a
engine rotational speed to 103% of the dry, level, hard surface and climb over a 15
maximum allowable take-off speed with the metre obstacle must be determined and must not
propeller blades at the lowest possible pitch exceed 500 metres.
and the aeroplane stationary with no wind at
(b) This must be determined, in a rational
full throttle position.
and conservative manner, with –
(1) The engine operating within
approved operating limitations; and
PERFORMANCE
(2) The cowl flaps in the normal take-
off position.
CS-VLA 45 General
(c) Upon reaching a height of 15 metres
Unless otherwise prescribed, the performance above the take-off surface level, the aeroplane
requirements of this CS-VLA must be met for

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must have reached a speed of not less than 1.3 (3) The wing flaps in the landing
VS1. position, except that if the flaps may be safely
retracted in two seconds or less, without loss
(d) The starting point for measuring take-
of altitude and without sudden changes of
off distance must be at rest except for seaplanes
angle of attack or exceptional piloting skill,
and amphibians where it may be a point at which
they may be retracted.
a speed of not more than three knots is reached.

CS-VLA 65 Climbs FLIGHT CHARACTERISTICS

The steady rate of climb must be at least
2m/sec with –
CS-VLA 141 General
(a) Not more than take-off power;
The aeroplane must meet the requirements of
(b) Landing gear retracted; CS-VLA 143 to 251 at the normally expected
operating altitudes.
(c) Wing flaps in take-off position; and
(d) Cowl flaps in the position used in the
cooling tests.
CONTROLLABILITY AND
MANOEUVRABILITY
CS-VLA 75 Landing
The horizontal distance necessary to land and CS-VLA 143 General
come to a complete stop (or to a speed of
approximately 5,6 m/s (3 knots) for water (a) The aeroplane must be safely
landings of seaplanes and amphibians) from a controllable and manoeuvrable during –
point 15 m above the landing surface must be (1) Take-off;
determined as follows:
(2) Climb;
(a) A steady gliding approach with a
calibrated airspeed of at least 1.3 VS1 must be (3) Level flight;
maintained down to the 15 m height. (4) Descent; and
(b) The landing must be made without (5) Landing (power on and power off)
excessive vertical acceleration or tendency to with the wing flaps extended and retracted.
bounce, nose over, ground loop, porpoise, or
water loop. (b) It must be possible to make a smooth
transition from one flight condition to another
(c) It must be shown that a safe transition to (including turns and slips) without danger of
the balked landing conditions of CS-VLA 77 can exceeding the limit load factor, under any
be made from the conditions that exist at the 15 probable operating condition.
m height.
(c) If marginal conditions exist with regard
to required pilot strength, the 'strength of pilots'
CS-VLA 77 Balked landing limits must be shown by quantitative tests. In no
case may the limits exceed those prescribed in
For balked landings, it must be possible to the following table:
maintain - Values in daN of force Pitch Roll Yaw Flaps,
(a) A steady angle of climb at sea level of at as applied to the Trim tabs,
least 1:30; or controls landing
gear etc
(b) Level flight at an altitude of 915 m (a) For temporary
(3 000 ft) and at a speed at which the balked application:
landing transition has been shown to be safe, Stick ----------------- 20 10 ------
with – Wheel (applied to 25 20 ------
(1) Take-off power; rim) ------------------
Rudder pedal ------- ------ ------ 40
(2) The landing gear extended; and Other controls ------ ------ ------ ------ 20
(b) For prolonged
application ---------- 2 1·5 10

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CS-VLA 145 Longitudinal Control that an increase in control forces is needed to

cause an increase in load factor. It must be
(a) It must be possible at any speed below shown by flight measurements that the stick
1·3 VSI, to pitch the nose downwards so that a force per ‘g’ is such that the stick force to
speed equal to 1-3 Vsi can be reached promptly. achieve the positive limit manoeuvring load
(1) This must be shown with the factor is not less than 7 daN in the clean
aeroplane in all possible configurations, with configuration.
power on at maximum continuous power and
power idle, and with the aeroplane trimmed at
1·3 Vsi. CS-VLA 157 Rate of roll

(b) It must be possible throughout the (a) Take-off. It must be possible, using a
appropriate flight envelope to change the favourable combination of controls, to roll the
configuration (landing gear, wing flaps etc ...) aeroplane from a steady 30 degree banked turn
without exceeding the pilot forces defined in CS- through an angle of 60 degrees, so as to reverse
VLA 143(c). the direction of the turn within 5 seconds from
initiation of roll with –
(c) It must be possible to raise the nose at
VDF at all permitted c.g. positions and engine (1) Flaps in the take-off position;
powers. (2) Landing gear retracted;
(d) It must be possible to maintain steady (3) Maximum take-off power; and
straight flight and transition into climbs,
descents, or turning flight, without exceeding the (4) The aeroplane trimmed at 1·2 Vsi,
forces defined in CS-VLA 143(c). or as nearly as possible in trim for straight
flight.
(e) It must be possible to maintain
approximately level flight when flap retraction (b) Approach. It must be possible, using
from any position is made during steady favourable combination of controls, to roll the
horizontal flight at 1·1 Vsi with simultaneous aeroplane from a steady 30 degree banked turn
application of not more than maximum through an angle of 60 degrees, so as to reverse
continuous power. the direction of the turn within 4 seconds from
initiation of roll with -
(f) For any trim setting required under CS-
VLA 161(b)(l) it must be possible to take-off, (1) Flaps extended;
climb, descend and land the aeroplane in (2) Landing gear extended;
required configurations with no adverse effect
and with acceptable control forces. (3) Engine operating at idle power and
engine operating at the power for level flight;
and
CS-VLA 153 Control during landings (4) The aeroplane trimmed at 1·3 Vsi.
It must be possible, while in the landing
configuration, to safely complete a landing
following an approach to land- TRIM
(a) At a speed 9.3 km/h (5 knots) less than
the speed used in complying with CS-VLA 75
and with the aeroplane in trim or as nearly as CS-VLA 161 Trim
possible in trim; (a) Lateral and directional trim. In level
(b) With neither the trimming control being flight at 0·9 VH or Vc (whichever is lower) the
moved throughout the manoeuvre nor the power aeroplane must remain in trimmed condition
being increased during the landing flare; and around roll and yaw axis with respective controls
free. (VH is maximum speed in level flight with
(c) With power off. maximum continuous power.)
(b) Longitudinal trim
CS-VLA 155 Elevator control forces in (1) The aeroplane must maintain
manoeuvres longitudinal trim in level flight at any speed
The elevator control forces during turns or from 1·4 Vsi to 0·9 VH or Vc (whichever is
when recovering from manoeuvres must be such lower).

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(2) The aeroplane must maintain CS-VLA 175 Demonstration of static

longitudinal trim during - longitudinal stability
(i) A climb with maximum Static longitudinal stability must be shown as
continuous power at a speed VY with follows:
landing gear and wing flaps retracted, (a) Climb. The stick force curve must have a
(ii) A descent with idle power at stable slope, at speeds between 15% above and
a speed of 1·3 VSI with landing gear below the trim speed, with –
extended, and Wing flaps in the landing (1) Flaps in the climb position;
position.
(2) Landing gear retracted;
(3) At least 75% of maximum
STABILLTY continuous power; and
(4) The aeroplane trimmed for VY,
except that the speed need not be less' than
CS-VLA 171 General 1·4 Vsi or the speed used for showing
The aeroplane must be longitudinally, compliance to the powerplant cooling
directionally, and laterally stable under CS-VLA requirement ofCS-VLA 1041.
173 to 181. In addition, the aeroplane must show
suitable stability and control 'feel' (static (b) Cruise. The stick force curve must have
stability) in any condition normally encountered a stable slope with a range of 15% of the trim
in service, if flight tests show it is necessary for speed, but not exceeding the range from 1·3 Vsi
safe operation. to VNE, with –
(1) Flaps retracted;

CS-VLA 173 Static longitudinal stability (2) Landing gear retracted;

Under the conditions specified in CS-VLA (3) 75% of maximum continuous

175 and with the aeroplane trimmed as indicated, power; and
the characteristics of the elevator control forces (4) The aeroplane trimmed for level
and the friction within the control system must flight.
be as follows:
(c) Approach and landing. The stick force
(a) A pull must be required to obtain and curve must have a stable slope at speeds
maintain speeds below the specified trim speed throughout the range of speeds between 1·1 Vsi
and a push required to obtain and maintain and VFE or 1·8 Vsi if there is no VFE, with –
speeds above the specified trim speed. This must
be shown at any speed that can be obtained, (1) Wing flaps in the landing position;
except that speeds requiring a control force in (2) Landing gear extended;
excess of 18 daN, or speeds above the maximum
allowable speed or below the minimum speed for (3) Power idle; and
steady unstalled flight, need not be considered. (4) The aeroplane trimmed at 1·3 Vsi.
(b) The airspeed must return to within (See AMC VLA 173 and AMC VLA 175.)
±10% of the original trim speed when the control
force is slowly released at any speed within the
speed range specified in sub-paragraph (a) of this
paragraph. CS-VLA 177 Static directional and
lateral
(c) The stick force must vary with speed so
that any substantial speed change results in a (a) Three-control aeroplanes. The stability
stick force clearly perceptible to the pilot. (See requirements for three-control aeroplanes are as
AMC VLA 173 and AMC VLA 175.) follows:
(1) The static directional stability, as
shown by the tendency to recover from a skid
with the rudder free, must be positive for any
landing gear and flap position appropriate to
the take-off, climb, cruise, and approach
configurations. This must be shown with

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power up to maximum continuous power, and whichever is lower, with flaps and landing
at speeds from 1·2 Vsi up to maximum gear retracted, and with a rearward centre of
allowable speed for the condition being gravity.
investigated. The angle of skid for these tests
must be appropriate to the type of aeroplane.
At larger angles of skid up to that at which CS-VLA 181 Dynamic stability
full rudder is used or a control force limit in
(a) Any short period oscillation not
CS-VLA 143 is reached, whichever occurs
including combined lateral-directional
first, and at speeds from 1·2 Vsi to VA, the
oscillations occurring between the stalling speed
rudder pedal force must not reverse.
and the maximum allowable speed appropriate to
(2) The static lateral stability, as the configuration of the aeroplane must be
shown by the tendency to raise the low wing 'heavily damped with the primary controls –
in a slip, must be positive for any landing gear
(1) Free; and
and flap positions. This must be shown with
power up to 75% of maximum continuous (2) In a fixed position
power at speeds above 1·2 VSI, up to the
(b) Any combined lateral-directional
maximum allowable speed for the
oscillations ('Dutch roll') occurring between the
configuration being investigated. The static
stalling speed and the maximum allowable speed
lateral stability may not be negative at 1·2 Vsi.
appropriate to the configuration of the aeroplane
The angle of slip for these tests must be
must be damped to 1/10 amplitude in 7 cycles
appropriate to the type of aeroplane, but in no
with the primary controls –
case may the slip angle be less than that
obtainable with 10° of bank. (1) Free; and paragraph must be
shown under the following
(3) In straight, steady slips at 1·2 VSI
for any landing gear and flap positions, and (2) In a fixed position.
for power conditions up to 50% of maximum
continuous power, the aileron and rudder
control movements and forces must increase
STALLS
steadily (but not necessarily in constant
proportion) as the angle of slip is increased up
to the maximum appropriate to the type of
aeroplane. At larger slip angles up to the CS-VLA 201 Wings level stall
angie at which full rudder or aileron control is (a) For an aeroplane with independently
used or a control force limit contained in CS- controlled roll and directional controls, it must
VLA 143 is obtained, the rudder pedal force be possible to produce and to correct roll by
may not reverse. Enough bank must unreversed use of the rolling control and to
accompany slipping to hold a constant produce and to correct yaw by unreversed use of
heading. Rapid entry into, or recovery from, a the directional control, up to the time the
maximum slip may not result in aeroplane stalls.
uncontrollable flight characteristics.
(b) For an aeroplane with interconnected
(b) Two-control (or simplified control) lateral and directional controls (2 controls) and
aeroplanes. The stability requirements for two- for an aeroplane with only one of these controls,
control aeroplanes are as follows: it must be possible to produce and correct roll by
(1) The directional stability of the unreversed use of the rolling control without
aeroplane must be shown by showing that, in producing excessive yaw, up to the time the
each configuration, it can be rapidly rolled aeroplane stalls.
from a 45° bank in one direction to a 45° bank (c) The wing level stall characteristics of
in the opposite direction without showing the aeroplane must be demonstrated in flight as
dangerous skid characteristics. follows: The aeroplane speed must be reduced
(2) The lateral stability of the with the elevator control until the speed is
aeroplane must be shown by showing that it slightly above the stalling speed, then the
will not assume a dangerous attitude or speed elevator control must be pulled back so that the
when the controls are abandoned for two rate of speed reduction will not exceed one knot
minutes. This must be done in moderately per second until a stall is produced, as shown by
smooth air with the aeroplane trimmed for an uncontrollable downward pitching motion of
straight level flight at 0-9 VH or Vc, the aeroplane, or until the control reaches the

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stop. Normal use of the elevator control for (1) For a turning flight stall, may not
recovery is allowed after the aeroplane has exceed one knot per second; and
stalled.
(2) For an accelerated stall, be 3 to 5
(d) Except where made inapplicable by the knots per second with steadily increasing
special features of a particular type of aeroplane, normal acceleration.
the following apply to the measurement of loss
(b) When the stall has fully developed or
of altitude during a stall
the elevator has reached its stop, it must be
(1) The loss of altitude encountered in possible to regain level flight by normal use of
the stall (power on or power off) is the change controls and without –
in altitude (as observed on the sensitive
altimeter testing installation) between the (1) Excessive loss of altitude;
altitude at which the aeroplane pitches and the (2) Undue pitchup;
altitude at which horizontal fight is regained.
(3) Uncontrollable tendency to spin;
(2) If power or thrust is required
during stall recovery the power or thrust used (4) Exceeding 60 degree of roll in
must be that which would be used under the either direction from the established 30 degree
normal operating procedures selected by the bank; and
applicant for this manoeuvre. However, the (5) For accelerated entry stalls,
power used to regain level flight may not be without exceeding the maximum permissible
applied until speed or the allowable limit load factor.
(e) During the recovery part of the (c) Compliance with the requirements of
manoeuvre, it must be possible to prevent more this paragraph must be shown with –
than 15 degrees of roll Or yaw by the normal use
of controls. (1) Wing Flaps: Retracted and fully
extended for turning flight and accelerated
(f) Compliance with the requirements of entry stalls, and intermediate, if appropriate,
this paragraph must be shown under the for accelerated entry stalls;
following conditions:
(2) Landing Gear: Retracted and
(1) Wing Flaps: Full up, full down and extended;
intermediate, if appropriate.
(3) Cowl Flaps: Appropriate to
(2) Landing Gear: Retracted and configuration;
extended.
(4) Power: 75% maximum continuous
(3) Cowl Flaps: Appropriate to power; and
configuration.
(5) Trim: 1·5 Vsi or minimum trim
(4) Power: Power or thrust off, and speed, whichever is higher.
75% maximum continuous power or thrust.
(5) Trim: 1·5 Vsi or at the minimum
trim speed, whichever is higher. CS-VLA 207 Stall warning

(6) Propeller: Full increase rpm (a) There must be a clear and distinctive
position for the power off condition. (See stall warning, with the flaps and landing gear in
AMC VLA 201.) any normal position, in straight and turning
flight.
(b) The stall warning may be furnished
CS-VLA 203 Turning flight and either through the inherent aerodynamic qualities
accelerated of the aeroplane or by a device that will give
Turning flight and accelerated stalls must be clearly distinguishable indications under
demonstrated in tests as follows: expected conditions of flight. However, a visual
stall warning device that requires the attention of
(a) Establish and maintain a coordinated turn the crew within the cockpit is not acceptable by
in a 30 degree bank. Reduce speed by steadily itself.
and progressively tightening the turn with the
elevator until the aeroplane is stalled or until the (c) The stall warning must begin at a speed
elevator has reached its stop. The rate of speed exceeding the stalling speed by a margin of not
reduction must be constant, and - less than 9,3 m/s (5 knots), but not more than

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18,5 m/s (10 knots) and must continue until the expected operating condition, including rebound
stall occurs. during landing or take-off. Wheel brakes must
operate smoothly and may not induce any undue
tendency to nose over.
SPINNING (b) A seaplane or amphibian may not have
dangerous or uncontrollable porpoising
characteristics at any normal operating speed on
CS-VLA 221 Spinning the water.
(a) The aeroplane must be able to recover
from a one-turn spin or a 3-second spin,
CS-VLA 233 Directional stability and
whichever takes longer, in not more than one
control
additional turn, with the controls used in the
manner normally used for recovery. In addition – (a) There may be no uncontrollable ground
or water looping tendency in 90° cross winds, up
(1) For both the flaps-retracted and
to a wind velocity of 18.5 km/h (10 knots) at
flaps-extended conditions, the applicable
any speed at which the aeroplane may be
airspeed limit and positive limit manoeuvring
expected to be operated on the ground or water.
load factor may not be exceeded;
(b) A landplane must be satisfactorily
(2) There may be no excessive back
controllable, without exceptional piloting skill or
pressure during the spin or recovery; and
alertness, in power-off landings at normal
(3) It must be impossible to obtain landing speed, without using brakes or engine
uncontrollable spins with any use of the power to maintain a straight path.
controls.
(c) The aeroplane must have adequate
For the flaps-extended condition, the flaps may directional control during taxying.
be retracted during recovery.
(b) Aeroplanes ‘characteristically
incapable of spinning’. If it is desired to CS-VLA 235 Taxying condition
designate an aeroplane as ‘characteristically The shock-absorbing mechanism may not
incapable of spinning’, this characteristic must damage the structure of the aeroplane when the
be shown with - aeroplane is taxied on the roughest ground that
may reasonably be expected in normal operation.
(1) A weight five percent more than
the highest weight for which approval is
requested;
CS-VLA 239 Spray characteristics
(2) A centre of gravity at least three
Spray may not dangerously obscure the vision
percent of the mean aerodynamic chord aft of
of the pilots or damage the propeller or other
the rearmost position for which approval is
parts of a seaplane or amphibian at any time
requested; during taxying, take-off, and landing.
(3) An available elevator up-travel 4°
in excess of that to which the elevator travel is
to be limited for approval; and
MISCELLANEOUS FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
(4) An available rudder travel, 7° in
both directions, in excess of that to which the
rudder travel is to be limited for approval. CS-VLA 251 Vibration and buffeting
Each part of the aeroplane must be free from
excessive vibration under any appropriate speed
GROUND AND WATER HANDLING and power conditions up to at least the minimum
CHARACTER ISTICS value of VD allowed in CS-VLA 335. In
addition, there may be no buffeting, in any
normal flight condition, severe enough to
CS-VLA 231 Longitudinal stability and
interfere with the satisfactory control of the
aeroplane, cause excessive fatigue to the pilot, or
control
result in structural damage. Stall warning
(a) A landplane may have no uncontrollable buffeting within these limits is allowable.
tendency to nose over in any reasonably

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SUBPART C – STRUCTURE

GENERAL cases, substantiating load tests must be made.

Dynamic tests, including structural flight tests,
are acceptable if the design load conditions have
CS-VLA 301 Loads been simulated. (See AMC VLA 307 (a).)
(a) Strength requirements are specified in (b) Certain parts of the structure must be
terms of limit loads (the maximum loads to be tested as specified in Subpart D.
expected in service) and ultimate loads (limit
loads multiplied by prescribed factors of safety).
Unless otherwise provided, prescribed loads are
FLIGHT LOADS
limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the air,
ground, and water loads must be placed in CS-VLA 321 General
equilibrium with inertia forces, considering each
(a) Flight load factors represent the ratio of
item of mass in the aeroplane. These loads must
the aerodynamic force component (acting normal
be distributed to conservatively approximate or
to the assumed longitudinal axis of the
closely represent actual conditions.
aeroplane) to the weight of the aeroplane. A
(c) If deflections under load would positive flight load factor is one in which the
significantly change the distribution of external aerodynamic force acts upward, with respect to
or internal loads, this redistribution must be the aeroplane.
taken into account.
(b) Compliance with the flight load require-
(d) Simplified structural design criteria ments of this subpart must be shown -
given in this Subpart C and its appendices may
(1) At each critical altitude within the
be used only for aeroplanes with conventional
range in which the aeroplane may be expected
configurations. If Appendix A is used, the entire
to operate;
appendix must be substituted for the
corresponding paragraphs of this subpart, i.e. (2) At each practicable combination of
CS-VLA 321 to 459.(See CS VLA 301 (d).) weight and disposable load within the
operating limitations specified in the Flight
Manual.
CS-VLA 303 Factor of safety
Unless otherwise provided, a factor of safety
of 1·5 must be used. CS-VLA 331 Symmetrical flight
conditions
(a) The appropriate balancing horizontal tail
CS-VLA 305 Strength and deformation load must be accounted for in a rational or
(a) The structure must be able to support conservative manner when determining the wing
limit loads without detrimental, permanent loads and linear inertia loads corresponding to
deformation. At any load up to limit loads, the any of the symmetrical flight conditions
deformation may not interfere with safe specified in CS-VLA 331 to 345.
operation. (b) The incremental horizontal tail loads
(b) The structure must be able to support due to manoeuvring and gusts must be reacted by
ultimate loads without failure for at least three the angular inertia of the aeroplane in a rational
seconds. However, when proof of strength is or conservative manner.
shown by dynamic tests simulating actual load
conditions, the three second limit does not apply.
CS-VLA 333 Flight envelope
(a) General. Compliance with the strength
CS-VLA 307 Proof of structure requirements of this subpart must be shown at
(a) Compliance with the strength and any combination of airspeed and load factor on
deformation requirements of CS-VLA 305 must and within the boundaries of a flight envelope
be shown for each critical load condition. (similar to the one in sub-paragraph (d) of this
Structural analysis may be used only if the paragraph) that represents the envelope of the
structure conforms to those for which experience flight loading conditions specified by the
has shown this method to be reliable. In other

1–C–1 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

manoeuvring and gust criteria of sub-paragraphs must correspond to the conditions determined
(b) and (c) of this paragraph respectively. as follows:
(b) Manoeuvring envelope. Except where (i) Positive (up) and negative
limited by maximum (static) lift coefficients, the (down) gusts of 15·24 m/s at VC must
aeroplane is assumed to be subjected to be considered.
symmetrical manoeuvres resulting in the
(ii) Positive and negative gusts
following limit load factors:
of 7·62 m/s at VD must be considered.
(1) The positive manoeuvring load
(2) The following assumptions must
factor specified in CS-VLA 337 at speeds up
be made:
to VD;
(i) The shape of the gust is –
(2) The negative manoeuvring load
factor specified in CS-VLA 337 at VC; and where-
(3) Factors varying linearly with S = distance penetrated into gust (m);
speed from the specified value at VC to 0·0 at
VD. C = mean geometric chord of wing (m); and

(c) Gust envelope Ude= derived gust velocity referred to in sub-

paragraph (c)(l) (m/s)
(1) The aeroplane is assumed to be
subjected to symmetrical vertical gusts in (ii) Gust load factors vary
level flight. The resulting limit load factors linearly with speed between VC and
VD.

(d) Flight envelope

Ude  1πs 
U= 1 − cos 
2  25C 

Point G need not be investigated when the supplementary condition specified in CS-VLA 369 is
investigated.
.
(1) VC (in m/s) may not be less than
Mg / S Mg / S
CS-VLA 335 Design airspeeds 2·4 (Vc (kt) = 4·7 )
Except as provided in sub-paragraph (a)(4) of (2) Vc need not be more than 0·9 VH
this paragraph, the selected design airspeeds are at sea level.
equivalent airspeeds (EAS).
(b) Design dive speed VD. For VD, the
(a) Design cruising speed, Vc. For VC the following apply:
following apply:

08.08.2003 1–C–2
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(1) VD may not be less than 1·25 Vc; C = mean geometric chord (m);
and
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
(2) With Vc min, the required
minimum design cruising speed, VD may not V = aeroplane equivalent speed (m/s);
be less than 1·40 vc min. and
(c) Design manoeuvring speed VA. a = slope of the aeroplane normal
For VA, the following applies: force coefficient curve CNA per
n, radian if the gust loads are applied
(1) VA may not be less than Vs
to the wings and horizontal tail
where –
surfaces simultaneously by a
(i) Vs is a computed stalling rational method. The wing lift
speed with flaps retracted at the design curve slope CL per radian may be
weight, normally based on the maximum used when the gust load is applied
aeroplane normal force coefficients, to the wings only and the
CNA; and horizontal tail gust loads are
treated as a separate condition.
(ii) n is the limit manoeuvring
load factor used in design.
(2) The value of VA need not exceed CS-VLA 345 High lift devices
the value of VC used in design
(a) If flaps or similar high lift devices to be
where – used for take-off, approach, or landing are
installed, the aeroplane, with the flaps fully
M/S = wing loading (kg/m2)
deflected at VF, is assumed to be subjected to
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) symmetrical manoeuvres and gusts resulting in
limit load factors within the range determined
by –
CS-337 Limit manoeuvring load (1) Manoeuvring to a positive limit
factors
(2) Positive and negative gust of 7·62
(a) The positive limit manoeuvring load
m/s acting normal to the flight path in level
factor n may not be less than 3·8.
flight.
(b) The negative limit manoeuvring load
(b) VF must be assumed to be not less than
factor may not be less than -1·5.
1·4 Vs or 1·8 VSF, whichever is greater, where –
VS is the computed stalling speed with flaps
CS-VLA 341 Gust load factors retracted at the design weight; and
In the absence of a more rational analysis, the VSF is the computed stalling speed with flaps
gust load factors may be computed as follows: fully extended at the design weight.
1 / 2 ρο Va K g Ude However, if an automatic flap load limiting
n = 1+ device is used, the aeroplane may be designed
Mg / S
for the critical combinations of airspeed and flap
where – position allowed by that device.

0 ⋅ 88 µg (c) In designing the flaps and supporting

5 ⋅ 3 + µg structures the following must be accounted for:
Kg = = gust alleviation factor;
(1) A head-on gust of 7·62 m/s (EAS).
2 (M / S)
ρ Ca (2) The slipstream effects specified in
µg = = aeroplane mass ratio; CS-VLA 457 (b).
Ude = derived gust velocities referred to (d) In determining external loads on the
in CS-VLA 333(c) (m/s) ; aeroplane as a whole, thrust, slipstream, and
Po = density of air at sea level (kg/m3); pitching acceleration may be assumed to be zero.
p = density of air (kg/m3); (e) The requirements of CS-VLA 457, and
this paragraph may be complied with separately
M/S = wing loading (kg/m2); or in combination.

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CS-VLA 347 Unsymmetrical flight speed acting simultaneously with 75% of the
conditions limit loads from flight condition A of CS-CS
333 (d);
The aeroplane is assumed to be subjected to
the unsymmetrical flight conditions of CS-VLA (2) The limit engine torque as
349 and 35 1. Unbalanced aerodynamic moments specified in CS-VLA 361 (b) acting
about the centre of gravity must be reacted in a simultaneously with the limit loads from
rational or conservative manner, considering the flight condition A of CS-VLA 333 (d); and
principal masses furnishing the reacting inertia
forces. (b) The limit engine torque to be considered
under subparagraph (a)(2) of this paragraph must
be obtained by multiplying the mean torque for
CS-VLA 349 Rolling conditions maximum continuous power by a factor
determined as follows:
The wing and wing bracing must be designed
for the following loading conditions: (1) For four-stroke engines –
(a) Unsymmetrical wing loads. Unless the (i) 1·33 for engines with five or
following values result in unrealistic loads, the more cylinders,
rolling accelerations may be obtained by (ii) 2, 3, 4 or 8, for engines with
modifying the symmetrical flight conditions in four, three, two or one cylinders,
CS-VLA 333(d) as follows: respectively.
In condition A, assume that 100% of the semi- (2) For two-stroke engines -
span wing airload acts on one side of the
aeroplane and 70% of this load acts on the other (i) 2 for engines with three or
side. more cylinders,
(b) The loads resulting from the aileron (ii) 3 or 6, for engines with two
deflections and speeds specified in CS-VLA 455, or one cylinder respectively.
in combination with an aeroplane load factor of
at least two thirds of the positive manoeuvring
load factor used for design. Unless the following CS-VLA 363 Side load on engine mount
values result in unrealistic loads, the effect of
(a) The engine mount and its supporting
aileron displacement on wing torsion may be
structure must be designed for a limit load factor
accounted for by adding the following increment
in a lateral direction, for the side load on the
to the basic aerofoil moment coefficient over the
engine mount, of not less than 1·33.
aileron portion of the span in the critical
condition determined in CS-VLA 333 (d); (b) The side load prescribed in
∆Cm = − 0 ⋅ 01δ
subparagraph (a) of this paragraph may be
assumed to be independent of other flight
where – conditions.
∆Cm is the moment coefficient increment;
and
CS-VLA 369 Special conditions for rear
δ is the down aileron deflection in degrees in lift truss
the critical condition.
(a) If a rear lift truss is used, it must be
designed for conditions of reversed airflow at a
design speed of –
CS-VLA 351 Yawing conditions
The aeroplane must be designed for yawing V = 0·65 Mg / S + 4·47
loads on the vertical tail surfaces resulting from V in m/s M/S = Wing loading (kg/m2)
the loads specified in CS-VLA 441 to 445.
M in kg
S in m2
CS-VLA 361 Engine torque
g in m/s2
(a) The engine mount and its supporting
structure must be designed for the effects of - (b) Either aerodynamic data for the
particular wing section used, or a value of CL
(1) A limit engine torque
equaling -0.8 with a chordwise distribution that
corresponding to take-off power and propeller

08.08.2003 1–C–4
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

is triangular between a peak at the trailing edge Compliance with this sub-paragraph may be
and zero at the leading edge, must be used. shown by designing for loads resulting from
application of the minimum forces prescribed
in CS-VLA 397(b).
CS-VLA 373 Speed control devices
(b) A 125% factor on computed hinge
If speed control devices (such as spoilers and movements must be used to design elevator,
drag flaps) are incorporated for use in en-route aileron, and rudder systems. However, a factor as
conditions - low as 1·0 may be used if hinge moments are
based on accurate flight test data, the exact
(a) The aeroplane must be designed for the
reduction depending upon the accuracy and
symmetrical manoeuvres and gusts prescribed in
reliability of the data.
CS-VLA 333, 337 and 341, and the yawing and
manoeuvres and lateral gusts in CS-VLA 441 (c) Pilot forces used for design are assumed
and 443, with the device extended speed up to to act at the appropriate control grips or pads as
the placard device extended speed; and they would in flight, and to react at the
attachments of the control system to the control
(b) If the device has automatic operating or
surface horns.
load limiting features, the aeroplane must be
designed for the manoeuvre and gust conditions
prescribed in sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph
CS-VLA 397 Limit control forces and
at the speeds and corresponding device positions
that the mechanism allows. (a) In the control surface flight loading
condition, the airloads on movable surfaces and
the corresponding deflections need not exceed
those that would result in flight from the
CONTROL SURFACE AND SYSTEM LOADS
application of any pilot force within the ranges
specified in subparagraph (b) of this paragraph.
In applying this criterion the effects of tabs must
CS-VLA 391 Control surface loads
be considered.
(a) The control surface loads specified in
(b) The limit pilot forces and torques as
CS-VLA 397 to 459 are assumed to occur in the
follows:
conditions described in CS-VLA 331 to 351.
(b) If allowed by the following paragraphs, Maximum forces
Minimum
the values of control surface loading in or torques in
Control forces or
Appendix B may be used, instead of particular daN (D=wheel
torques
control surface data, to determine the detailed diameter)
rational requirements of CS-VLA 397 to 459, Aileron:
unless these values result in unrealistic loads. Stick --------------------- 30 --------------- 17·8
Wheel* ------------------ 22·2 D (mdaN) 17·8 D (mdaN)
Elevator:
Stick --------------------- 74 --------------- 44·5
CS-VLA 395 Control system loads
Wheel (symmetrical) -- 89 --------------- 44·5
(a) Each flight control system and its Wheel (unsymmetrical)* ------------------ 44·5
supporting structure must be designed for loads
Rudder ---------------------- 89 --------------- 58
corresponding to at least 125% of the computed
hinge moments of the movable control surface in *The critical parts of th e aileron contro l system
the conditions prescribed in CS-VLA 391 to 459. mu st also b e design ed fo r a single tang en tial fo rce
with a limit valu e of 1·2 5 times the coup le fo rce
In addition, the following apply:
determined from the above criteria.
(1) The system limit loads need not
(c) The rudder control system must be
exceed the loads that can be produced by the
designed to a load of 100 daN per pedal, acting
pilot. Pilot forces used for design need not
simultaneously on both pedals in forward
exceed the maximum forces prescribed in CS-
direction.
VLA 397(b).
(2) The design must, in any case,
provide a rugged system for service use,
considering jamming, ground gusts, taxying
down- wind, control inertia, and friction.

1–C–5 08.08.2003
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CSD-VLA 399 Dual control systems where –

Dual control systems must be designed for - H = limit hinge moment (Nm);
(a) The pilots acting together in the same c = mean chord of the control surface aft
direction; and of the hinge line (m);

(b) The pilots acting in opposition, S = area of the control surface aft of the
hinge line (m2);
each pilot applying 0·75 times the load specified
in CS-VLA 395(a). q = dynamic pressure (Pa) based on a
design speed not less than 2·01
M / S + 4·45 (m/s), except that the
CS-VLA 405 Secondary control system design speed need to exceed 26·8 m/s;
Secondary controls, such as wheel brakes, and
spoilers, and tab controls, must be designed for K = limit hinge moment factor for ground
the maximum forces that a pilot is likely to apply gusts derived in sub-paragraph (b).
to those controls. (See AMC VLA 405.) (For ailerons and elevators, a positive
value of K indicates a moment tending
to depress the surface and a negative
CS-VLA 407 Trim tab effects value of K indicates a moment tending
to raise the surface.)
The effects of trim tabs on the control surface
design conditions must be accounted for only (b) The limit hinge moment factor K for
where the surface loads are limited by maximum ground gusts must be derived as follows:
pilot effort. In these cases, the tabs are
Surface K Position of control
considered to be deflected in the direction that
would assist the pilot. These deflections must (a) Aileron 0·75 Control column locked or lashed in
correspond to the maximum degree of 'out of mid-position
trim' expected at the speed for the condition (b) Aileron ±0·50 Ailerons at full throw;
under consideration.
+moment on one aileron
-moment on the other

CS-VLA 409 Tabs (c)

} Elevator ±0·50 { (c)
(d)
Elevator full up (-)
Elevator full down (+)
Control surface tabs must be designed for the (d)
most severe combination of airspeed and tab
deflection likely to be obtained within the flight
(e)
} Rudder ±0·75 { (e)
(f)
Rudder in neutral
Rudder at full throw
(f)
envelope for any usable loading condition.

CS-VLA 415 Ground gust conditions

HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFACES
(a) The control system must be investigated
as follows for control surface loads due to
ground gusts and taxying downwind:
CS-VLA 421 Balancing loads
(1) If an investigation of the control
(a) A horizontal tail balancing load is a load
system for ground gust loads is not required
necessary to maintain equilibrium in any
by sub-paragraph (a)(2) of this paragraph, but
specified flight condition with no pitching
the applicant elects to design a part of the
acceleration.
control system for these loads, these loads
need only be carried from control surface (b) Horizontal tail surfaces must be
horns through the nearest stops or gust locks designed for the balancing loads occurring at any
and their supporting structures. point on the limit manoeuvring envelope and in
the flap conditions specified in CS-VLA 345.
(2) If pilot forces less than the
The distribution in figure B6 of Appendix B may
minimum forces specified in CS-VLA 397(b)
be used.
are used for design, the effects of surface
loads due to ground gusts and taxying
downwind must be investigated for the entire
control system according to the formula –
H = KcSq

08.08.2003 1–C–6
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

CS-VLA 423 Manoeuvring loads (ii) Speed VA, maximum

downward deflection;
Each horizontal tail surface must be designed
for manoeuvring loads imposed by one of the (iii) Speed VD, one-third
following conditions (a) plus (b), or (c), or (d): maximum upward deflection;
(a) A sudden deflection of the elevator (iv) Speed VD, one-third
control, at VA, to (1) the maximum upward maximum downward deflection.
deflection, and (2) the maximum downward
The following assumptions must be made:
deflection, as limited by the control stops, or
pilot effort, whichever is critical. The average (A) The aeroplane is initially in level
loading of B11 of Appendix B and the flight, and its attitude and air speed do not
distribution in figure B7 of Appendix B may be change.
used.
(B) The toads are balanced by inertia
(b) A sudden downward deflection of the forces.
elevator, at speeds above VA, followed by a
(d) A sudden deflection of the elevator such
downward deflection of the elevator, resulting in
as to cause the normal acceleration to change
the following combinations of normal and
from an initial value to a final value, the
angular acceleration:
following cases being considered (see Figure 1):
Condition Normal Angular acceleration
acceleration (n) (radian/sec2) Speed Initial Final Load Factor
Condition Condition Increment
20⋅1
Down load 1·0 + nm (nm −1⋅ 5) VA A1 A n1 – 1
V
A A1 1 – n1

20 ⋅ 1 A1 G n4 – 1
Up load nm − n m (n m − 1 ⋅ 5)
V G A1 1 – n4

where – VD D1 D n2 – 1

(1) nm = positive limit manoeuvring D D1 1 – n2

load factor used in the design of the aeroplane; D1 E n3 – 1
and
E D1 1 – n3
(2) V = initial speed in m/s.
(See CS-VLA 33.)
The conditions in this paragraph involve loads
For the purpose of this calculation the difference
corresponding to the loads that may occur in a
in air speed between VA and the value
‘checked manoeuvre’ (a manoeuvre in which the
corresponding to point G on the manoeuvring
pitching control is suddenly displaced in one
envelope can be ignored.
direction and then suddenly moved in the
opposite direction), the deflections and timing The following assumptions must be made:
avoiding exceeding the limit manoeuvring loads
(1) The aeroplane is initially in level
factor. The total tail load for both down and up
load conditions is the sum of the balancing tail flight, and its attitude and airspeed do not
loads a V and the specified value of the normal change;
load factor n, plus the manouvring load (2) The loads are balanced by inertia
increment due to the specified value of the forces;
normal load factor n, plus the manoeuvring load
increment due to the specified value of the (3) The aerodynamic tail load
angular acceleration. The manoeuvring load increment is given by –
increment in figure B2 of Appendix B and the
distributions in figure B7 (for down loads) and in  Xcg S ht a ht  dε  ρο  S ht a ht l t  
∆P = ∆nMg  − 1 −  _   
figure B8 (for up loads) of Appendix B may be  l t S a  dα  2  M  
used. where -
(c) A sudden deflection of the elevator, the ∆P = horizontal tail load increment, positive
following cases must be considered: upwards (N)
(i) Speed VA, maximum upward ∆n = load factor increment
deflection;
M = mass of the aeroplane (kg)

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CS-VLA BOOK 1

G = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) tail load resulting from the gusts must be added
to the initial balancing tail load to obtain the
xcg = longitudinal distance of aeroplane c.g.
total tail load.
aft of aerodynamic centre of aeroplane
less horizontal tail (m) (d) In the absence of a more rational
analysis, the incremental tail load due to the
Sht = 2
horizontal tail area (m )
gust, must be computed as follows:
aht = slope of horizontal tail lift curve per
Kg Ude Va htSht  dε 
radian ∆Lht = 1 − 
16 ⋅ 3  dα
dε where-
= rate of change of downwash angle with
dα
angle of attack ∆Lht = incremental horizontal tail load
3 (daN);
ρo = density of air at sea-level (kg/m )
Kg = gust alleviation factor defined in
It = tail arm (m)
CS-VLA 341;
S = wing area (m2)
Ude = derived gust velocity (ds);
A = slope of wing lift curve per radian
V = aeroplane equivalent speed (m/s);
aht = slope of horizontal tail lift curve
per radian;
Sht = area of horizontal tail (m2); and
 dε 
1 − 
 dα  = downwash factor.

CS-VLA 427 Unsymmetrical loads

(a) Horizontal tail surfaces and their
supporting structure must be designed for
unsymmetrical loads arising from yawing and
slipstream effects, in combination with the loads
prescribed for the flight conditions set forth in
CS-VLA 421 to 425.

CS-VLA 425 Gust loads (b)In the absence of more rational data for
aeroplanes that are conventional in regard to
(a) Each horizontal tail surface must be location of the engine, wings, tail surfaces, and
designed for loads resulting from - fuselage shape -
(1) Gust velocities specified in CS- (1) 100% of the maximum loading
VLA 333(c) with flaps retracted; and from the symmetrical flight conditions may be
(2) Positive and negative gusts of 7·62 assumed on the surface on one side of the
m/s nominal intensity at VF corresponding to plane of symmetry; and
the flight conditions specified in CS-VLA (2) The following percentage of that
345(a)(2). loading must be applied to the opposite side:
(b) The average loadings in figure B3 and % = 100-10 (n - 1), where n is the specified
the distribution of figure B8 may be used to positive manoeuvring load factor, but this value
determine the incremental gust loads for the may not be mort than 80%.
requirements of subparagraph (a) applied as both
up and down increments for subparagraph (c).
(c) When determining the total load on the
horizontal tail for the conditions specified in
sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph, the initial
balancing tail loads for steady unaccelerated
flight at the pertinent design speeds VF, Vc and
VD must first be determined. The incremental

08.08.2003 1–C–8
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

VERTICAL TAIL SURFACES Lvt = vertical tail loads (daN);

0 ⋅ 88 µgt
Kgt = = gust alleviation factor;
CS-VLA 441 Manoeuvring loads 5 ⋅ 3 + µgt

(a) At speeds up to VA, the vertical tail 2M K

2

surfaces must be designed to withstand the µgt =   = lateral mass ratio;

ρ C t ga vtSvt  l t 
following conditions. In computing the tail
loads, the yawing velocity may be assumed to be Ude = derived gust velocities ( d s ) ;
zero -
Ρ = air density(kg/m3);
(1) With the aeroplane in
unaccelerated flight at zero yaw, it is assumed M = aeroplane mass (kg);
that the rudder control is suddenly displaced Svt = area of vertical tail (m2);
to the maximum deflection, as limited by the
control stops or by limit pilot forces. Ct = mean geometric chord of vertical
(2) With the rudder deflected as surface(m);
specified in sub-paragraph (a)(l) of this avt = lift curve slope of vertical tail (per
paragraph, it is assumed that the aeroplane radian);
yaws to the resulting sideslip angle. In lieu of
a rational analysis, an overswing angle equal K = radius of gyration in yaw (m);
to 1.3 times the static sideslip angle of sub- lt = distance from aeroplane c.g. to lift
paragraph (a)(3) of this paragraph may be centre of vertical surface (m);
assumed.
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);
(3) A yaw angle of 15 degrees with
the rudder control maintained in the neutral and
position (except as limited by pilot strength). V = aeroplane equivalent speed (mh).
(b) The average loading of Appendix By B (c) The average loading in figure B5 and
11 and figure B1 of Appendix B and the the distribution in figure B8 of Appendix B may
distribution in figures B6, B7 and B8 of be used. (See AMC VLA 443.)
Appendix B may be used instead of requirements
of subparagraphs (a)(2), (a)( 1) and (a)(3) of this
paragraph, respectively. CS-VLA 445 Outboard fins
(c) The yaw angles specified in sub- (a) If outboard fins are on the horizontal tail
paragraph (a)(3) of this paragraph may be surface, the tail surfaces must be designed for the
reduced if the yaw angle chosen for a particular maximum horizontal surface load in combination
speed cannot be exceeded in – with the corresponding loads induced on the
(1) Steady slip conditions; vertical surfaces by endplate effects. These
induced effects need not be combined with other
(2) Uncoordinated rolls from steep vertical surface loads.
banks. (See AMC VLA 441.)
(b) If outboard fins extend above and below
the horizontal surface, the critical vertical
CS-VLA 443 Gust loads surface loading (the load per unit area as
determined under CS-VLA 441 and 443) must be
(a) Vertical tail surfaces must be designed to applied to –
withstand, in unaccelerated flight at speed VC,
lateral gusts of the values prescribed for VC in (1) The part of the vertical surfaces
CS-VLA 333 (c). above the horizontal surface with 80% of that
loading applied to the part below the
(b) In the absence of a more rational horizontal surface; and
analysis, the gust load must be computed as
follows: (2) The part of the vertical surfaces
below the horizontal surface with 80% of that
K gt U de Va vt Svt loading applied to the part above the
L vt =
16 ⋅ 3 horizontal surface; and
where - (c) The endplate effects of outboard fins
must be taken into account in applying the

1–C–9 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

yawing conditions of CS-VLA 441 and 443 to rate of roll not less than obtained in sub-
the vertical surfaces in sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph (a)(2)(i) of this paragraph.
paragraph.
(iii) Sufficient deflection at VD
to produce a rate of roll not less than
one-third of that obtained in
SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS FOR TAIL subparagraph (a)(2)(i) of this paragraph.
SURFACES
(b) The average loading in Appendix B,
B11 and figure B1 of Appendix B and the
distribution in figure B9 of Appendix B may be
CS-VLA 447 Combined loads on tail
used.
surfaces
(a) With the aeroplane in a loading
condition corresponding to point A or D in the CS-VLA 457 Wing flaps
V-n diagram (whichever condition leads to the
(a) The wing flaps, their operating
higher balance load) the loads on the horizontal
mechanisms, and their supporting structures
tail must be combined with those on the vertical
must be designed for critical loads occurring in
tail as specified in CS-VLA 44 1.
the flaps-extended flight conditions with the
(b) 75% of the loads according to CS-VLA flaps in any position. However, if an automatic
423 for the horizontal tail and CS-VLA 441 for flap load limiting device is used, these
the vertical tail must be assumed to be acting components may be designed for the critical
simultaneously. combinations of airspeed and flap position
allowed by that device.
(b) The effects of propeller slipstream,
CS-VLA 449 Additional loads applicable
corresponding to take-off power, must be taken
to V-tails
into account at not less than 1·4 Vs, where Vs is
An aeroplane with V-tail, must be designed the computed stalling speed with flaps fully
for a gust acting perpendicularly with respect to retracted at the design weight. For the
one of the tail surfaces at speed VE. This case is investigation of slipstream effects, the load
supplemental to the equivalent horizontal and factor may be assumed to be 1·0.
vertical tail cases specified. Mutual interference
between the V-tail surfaces must be adequately
accounted for. CS-VLA 459 Special devices
The loading for special devices using aero-
dynamic surfaces (such as slots and spoilers)
AILERONS, WING FLAPS, AND SPECIAL must be determined from test data.
DEVICES

CS-VLA 455 Ailerons GROUND LOADS

(a) The ailerons must be designed for the

loads to which they are subjected CS-VLA 471 General
(1) In the neutral position during The limit ground loads specified in this
symmetrical flight conditions; and subpart are considered to be external loads and
inertia forces that act upon an aeroplane
(2) By the following deflections
structure. In each specified ground load
(except as limited by pilot effort), during
condition, the external reactions must be placed
unsymmetrical flight conditions; and
in equilibrium with the linear and angular inertia
(i) Sudden maximum forces in a rational or conservative manner.
displacement of the aileron control at
VA. Suitable allowance may be made
for control system deflections. CS-VLA 473 Ground load conditions
and assumptions
(ii) Sufficient deflection at Vc,
where Vc is more than VA, to produce a (a) The ground load requirements of this
subpart must be complied with at the design
maximum weight.

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BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(b) The selected limit vertical inertia load (neglecting wing lift) must be properly combined
factor at the centre of gravity of the aeroplane with the vertical reactions. (See AMC VLA
for the ground load conditions prescribed in this 479(b).)
subpart may not be less than that which would be
obtained when landing with a descent velocity
(V), in metres per second, equal to 0·51 (Mg/S)¼ CS-VLA 481 Tail-down landing
except that this velocity need not be more than conditions
3·05 m/s and may not be less than 2·13 m/s.
(a) For a tail-down landing, the aeroplane is
(c) Wing lift not exceeding two-thirds of assumed to be in the following attitudes:
the weight of the aeroplane may be assumed to
(1) For aeroplanes with tail wheels, an
exist throughout the landing impact and to act
attitude in which the main and tail wheels
through the centre of gravity. The ground
contact the ground simultaneously.
reaction load factor may be equal to the inertia
load factor minus the ratio of the above assumed (2) For aeroplanes with nose wheels, a
wing lift to the aeroplane weight. stalling attitude, or the maximum angle
allowing ground clearance by each part of the
(d) If energy absorption tests are made to
aeroplane, whichever is less.
determine the limit load factor corresponding to
the required limit descent velocities, these tests (b) For aeroplanes with either tail or nose
must be made under CS-VLA 725. wheels, ground reactions are assumed to be
vertical, with the wheels up to speed before the
(e) No inertia load factor used for design
maximum vertical load is attained.
purposes may be less than 2·67, nor may the
limit ground reaction load factor be less than 2-
00 at design maximum weight, unless these
CS-VLA 483 One-wheel landing conditions
lower values will not be exceeded in taxying at
speeds up to take-off speed over terrain as rough For the one-wheel landing condition, the
as that expected in service. aeroplane is assumed to be in the level attitude
and to contact the ground on one side of the main
landing gear. In this attitude, the ground
CS-VLA 477 Landing gear arrangement reactions must be the same as those obtained on
that side under CS-VLA 479.
Paragraphs CS-VLA 479 to 483, or the
conditions in Appendix Cy apply to aeroplanes
with conventional arrangements of main and CS-VLA 485 Side load conditions
nose gear, or main and tail gear.
(a) For the side load condition, the
aeroplane is assumed to be in a level attitude
CS-VLA 479 Level landing conditions with only the main wheels contacting the ground
and with the shock absorbers and tyres in their
(a) For a level landing, the aeroplane is static positions.
assumed to be in the following attitudes:
(b) The limit vertical load factor must be
(1) For aeroplanes with tail wheels, a 1·33, with the vertical ground reaction divided
normal level flight attitude. equally between the main wheels.
(2) For aeroplanes with nose wheels, (c) The limit side inertia factor must be
attitudes in which – 0·83, with the side ground reaction divided
(i) The nose and main wheels between the main wheels so that –
contact the ground simultaneously; and (1) 0·5 (Mg) is acting inboard on one
(ii) The main wheels contact the side; and
ground and the nose wheel is just clear (2) 0·33 (Mg) is acting outboard on
of the ground. the other side.
The attitude used in sub-paragraph (a)(2)(i) of
this paragraph may be used in the analysis
required under sub-paragraph (a)(2)(ii) of this CS-VLA 493 Braked roll conditions
paragraph.
Under braked roll conditions, with the shock
(b) A drag component of not less than 25% absorbers and tyres in their static positions, the
of the maximum vertical ground reactions following apply:

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CS-VLA BOOK 1

(a) The limit vertical load factor must be (2) A drag component of 0·8 times the
1·33. vertical load.
(b) The attitudes and ground contacts must (b) For forward loads, the limit force
be those described in CS-VLA 479 for level components at ground contact must be –
landings.
(1) A vertical component of 2·25
(c) A drag reaction equal to the vertical times the static load on the wheel; and
reaction at the wheel multiplied by a coefficient
(2) A forward component of 0·4 times
of friction of 0-8 must be applied at the ground
the vertical load.
contact point of each wheel with brakes, except
that the drag reaction need not exceed the (c) For side loads, the limit force
maximum value based on limiting brake torque. components at the axle must be –
(1) A vertical component of 2·25
times the static load on the wheel; and
CS-VLA 497 Supplementary conditions for
tail wheels (2) A side component of 0·7 times the
vertical load.
In determining the ground loads on the tail
wheel and affected supporting structures, the
following apply:
CS-VLA 505 Supplementary conditions
(a) For the obstruction load, the limit for skiplanes
ground reaction obtained in the tail down landing
In determining ground loads for skiplanes and
condition is assumed to act up and aft through
assuming that the aeroplane is resting on the
the axle at 45°. The shock absorber and tyre may
ground with one main ski frozen at rest and the
be assumed to be in their static positions.
other skis free to slide, a limit side force equal to
(b) For the side load, a limit vertical ground 0·036 times the design maximum weight must be
reaction equal to the static load on the tail wheel, applied near the tail assembly, with a factor of
in combination with a side component of equal safety of 1.
magnitude, is assumed. In addition
(1) If a swivel is used, the tail wheel
is assumed to be swivelled 90° to the WATER LOADS
aeroplane longitudinal axis with the resultant
ground load passing through the axle;
CS-VLA 521 Water load conditions
(2) If a lock, steering device, or
shimmy damper is used, the tail wheel is also The structure of seaplanes and amphibians
assumed to be in the trailing position with the must be designed for water loads developed
side load acting at the ground contact point; during take-off and landing with the seaplane in
and any attitude likely to occur in normal operation
at appropriate forward and sinking velocities
(3) The shock absorber and tyre are under the most severe sea conditions likely to be
assumed to be in their static positions. encountered.

CS-VLA 499 Supplementary conditions

EMERGENCY LANDING CONDITIONS
for nose wheels
In determining the ground loads on nose wheels
and affected supporting structures, and assuming CS-VLA 561 General
that the shock absorbers and tyres are in their
static positions, the following conditions must be (a) The aeroplane, although it may be
met: damaged in emergency landing conditions, must
be designed as prescribed in this paragraph to
(a) For aft loads, the limit force components protect each occupant under those conditions.
at the axle must be –
(b) The structure must be designed to give
(1) A vertical component of 2·25 each occupant reasonable chances of escaping
times the static load on the wheel; and injury in a minor crash landing when

08.08.2003 1–C–12
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(1) Proper use is made of seat belts achieve an adequate safe-life. (See AMC VLA
and shoulder harnesses; and 572(b).)
(2) The occupant experiences the
ultimate inertia forces listed below –
Ultimate Inertia Load Factors
Upward 3·0g
Forward 9·0g
Sideward 1·5 g.
(c) Each item of mass that could injure an
occupant if it came loose must be designed for
the load factors stated above, except that the
engine mount and supporting structure must
withstand 15 g forward for engines installed
behind and above the seating compartment.
(d) The structure must be designed to
protect the occupants in a complete turnover,
assuming, in the absence of a more rational
analysis –
(1) An upward ultimate inertia force
of 3g; and
(2) A coefficient of friction of 0·5 at
the ground.

(e) Each aeroplane with retractable landing

gear must be designed to protect each occupant
in a landing –
(1) With the wheels retracted;
(2) With moderate descent velocity;
and
(3) Assuming, in the absence of a
more rational analysis
(i) A downward ultimate inertia
force of 3g; and
(ii) A coefficient of friction of
0·5 at the ground.

FATIGUE EVALUATION

CS-VLA 572 Parts of structure critical to

safety
(a) Each part in the primary structure the
failure of which can be regarded as safety critical
and which could endanger the occupants and/or
lead to loss of the aeroplane must be identified.
(See AMC VLA 572(a).)
(b) There must be sufficient evidence that
each of the parts identified under subparagraph
(a) of this paragraph has strength capabilities to

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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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BOOK 1 CS-VLA

SUBPART D – DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

GENERAL (1) Weathering;

(2) Corrosion; and
CS-VLA 601 General (3) Abrasion; and
The suitability of each questionable design (b) Having adequate provisions for
detail and part having an important bearing on ventilation and drainage.
safety in operations, must be established by tests.

CS-VLA 611 Accessibility

CS-VLA 603 Materials and
Means must be provided to allow inspection
workmanship
(including inspection of principal structural
(a) The suitability and durability of elements and control systems), close
materials used for parts, the failure of which examination, repair, and replacement of each
could adversely affect safety, must - part requiring maintenance, adjustments for
proper alignment and function, lubrication or
(1) Be established by experience or servicing.
tests;
(2) Meet approved specifications that
ensure their having the strength and other CS-VLA 613 Material strength
properties assumed in the design data; and properties and design
values
(3) Take into account the effects of
environmental conditions, such as (a) Material strength properties must be
temperature and humidity, expected in service. based on enough tests of material meeting
specifications to establish design values on a
(b) Workmanship must be of a high statistical basis.
standard.
(b) The design values must be chosen so
that the probability of any structure being
CS-VLA 605 Fabrication methods understrength because of material variations is
extremely remote. (See AMC VLA 613(b).)
(a) The methods of fabrication used must
produce consistently sound structures. If a (c) Where the temperature attained in an
fabrication process (such as gluing, spot essential component or structure in normal
welding, heat-treating, bonding, processing of operating conditions has a significant effect on
composite materials) requires close control to strength, that effect must be taken into account.
reach this objective, the process must be (See AMC VLA 613(c).)
performed under an approved process
specification.
CS-VLA 615 Design properties
(b) Each new aeroplane fabrication method
must be substantiated by a test program. (a) Design properties may be used subject
to the following conditions:
(1) Where applied loads are
CS-VLA 607 Self-locking nuts eventually distributed through a single
No self-locking nut may be used on any bolt member within an assembly, the failure of
subject to rotation in operation unless a non- which would result in the loss of the structural
friction locking device is used in .addition to the integrity of the component involved, the
self-locking device. guaranteed minimum design mechanical
properties (‘A’ values) must be met.
(2) Redundant structures, in which the
CS-VLA 609 Protection of
failure of the individual elements would result
structure
in applied loads being safely distributed to
Each part of the structure must – other load carrying members, may be
designed on the basis of the ‘90% probability
(a) Be suitably protected against
(‘B’values)’.
deterioration or loss of strength in service due to
any cause, including – (3) ‘A’ and ‘B’ values are defined as
follows:
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CS-VLA BOOK1

(i) An ‘A’ is a value above CS-VLA 623 Bearing factors

which at least 99% of the population of
(a) Each part that has clearance (free fit),
values is expected to fall with a
and that is subject to pounding or vibration, must
confidence of 95%.
have a bearing factor large enough to provide for
(ii) A ‘B’ value is a value above the effects of normal relative motion.
which at least 90% of the population of
(b) For control surface hinges and control
values is expected to fall with a
system joints, compliance with the factors
confidence of 95%.
prescribed in CS-VLA 657 and 693,
(b) Design values greater than the respectively, meets sub-paragraph (a) of this
guaranteed minimums required by sub-paragraph paragraph.
(a) of this paragraph may be used if a ‘premium
selection’ of the material is made in which a
specimen of each individual item is tested before CS-VLA 625 Fitting factors
use to determine that the actual strength
For each fitting (a part or terminal used to
properties of that particular item will equal or
joint one structural member to another), the
exceed those used in design. following apply:
(c) Material correction factors for structural (a) For each fitting whose strength is not
items such as sheets, sheet-stringer proven by limit and ultimate load tests in which
combinations, and riveted joints, may be omitted actual stress conditions are simulated in the
if sufficient test data are obtained to allow a fitting and surrounding structures, a fitting factor
probability analysis showing that 90% or more of
of at least 1·15 must be applied to each part of –
the elements will equal or exceed allowable
selected design values. (See AMC VLA 615.) (1) The fitting;
(2) The means of attachment; and
CS-VLA 619 Special factors (3) The bearing on the joined
members.
The factor of safety prescribed in CS-VLA
303 must be multiplied by the highest pertinent (b) No fitting factor need be used for joint
special factors of safety prescribed in CS-VLA designs based on comprehensive test data (such
621 to 625 for each part of the structure whose as continuous joints in metal plating, welded
strength is – joints, and scarf joints in wood).
(a) Uncertain; (c) For each integral fitting, the part must
be treated as a fitting up to the point at which the
(b) Likely to deteriorate in service before
section properties become typical of the member.
normal replacement; or
(d) For each seat, and safety belt with harness,
(c) Subject to appreciable variability
its attachment to the structure must be shown by
because of uncertainties in manufacturing
analysis, tests, or both, to be able to withstand
processes or inspection methods for composite
the inertia forces prescribed in CS-VLA 561
structures, a special test factor which takes into
multiplied by a fitting factor of 1·33.
account material variability and the effects of
temperature and absorption of moisture must be
used. (See AMC VLA 619.)
CS-VLA 627 Fatigue strength
The structure must be designed, as far as
CS-VLA 621 Casting factors practicable, to avoid points of stress
concentration where variable stresses above the
For castings, the strength of which is
fatigue limit are likely to occur in normal
substantiated by at least one static test and which
service.
are inspected by visual methods, a casting factor
of 2·0 must be applied. This factor may be
reduced to 1·25 providing the reduction is
CS-VLA 629 Flutter
substantiated by tests on not less than three
sample castings and all production castings are (a) It must be shown by one of the methods
subjected to an approved visual and radiographic specified in sub-paragraph (b), (c), or (d) of this
inspection or an approved equivalent paragraph, or a combination of these methods,
nondestructive inspection method. that the aeroplane is free from flutter, control

08.08.2003 1–D–2
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

reversal, and divergence for any condition of (ii) Does not have unusual mass
operation within the limit V-n envelope, and at distributions or other unconventional
all speeds up to the speed specified for the design features that affect the
selected method. In addition – applicability of the criteria, and does not
have a significant amount of sweep,
(1) Adequate tolerances must be
established for quantities which affect flutter, (iii) Has fixed-fin and fixed-
including speed, damping, mass balance, and stabiliser surfaces.
control system stiffness; and
(e) For longitudinal, lateral and directional
(2) The natural frequencies of main controls, freedom from flutter, control reversal,
structural components must be determined by and divergence up to VD must be shown after
vibration tests or other approved methods. the failure, malfunction, or disconnection of any
This determination is not required if (c) and (d) single element in any tab control system.
are both applied, and VD is lower than 259
km/h (140 kt).
(b) A rational analysis may be used to show WINGS
that the aeroplane is free from flutter, control
reversal, and divergence if the analysis shows
freedom from flutter for all speeds up to 1.2 VD. CS-VLA 641 Proof of strength
(c) Flight flutter tests may be used to show The strength of stressed-skin wings must be
that the aeroplane is free from flutter, control proven by load tests or by combined structural
reversal, and divergence if it is shown by these analysis and load tests.
tests that –
(1) Proper and adequate attempts to
induce flutter have been made within the CONTROL SUR FACES
speed range up to VD;
(2) The vibratory response of the CS-VLA 651 Proof of strength
structure during the test indicates freedom
from flutter; (a) Limit load tests of control surfaces are
required. These tests must include the horn or
(3) A proper margin of damping exists fitting to which the control system is attached.
at VD; and
(b) In structural analyses, rigging loads due
(4) There is no large and rapid to wire bracing must be accounted for in a
reduction in damping as VD is approached. rational or conservative manner.
(d) Compliance with the rigidity .and mass
balance criteria (pages 4-12), in Airframe and
Equipment Engineering Report No. 45 (as CS-VLA 655 Installation
corrected) ‘Simplified Flutter Prevention (a) Movable tail surfaces must be installed
Criteria’ (published by the Federal Aviation so that there is no interference between any
Administration) may be accomplished to show surfaces or their bracing when one surface is
that the aeroplane is free from flutter, control held in its extreme position and the others are
reversal, or divergence if – operated through their full angular movement.
(1) The wing and aileron flutter (b) If an adjustable stabiliser is used, it must
prevention criteria, as represented by the have stops that will limit its range of travel to
wing torsional stiffness and aileron balance that allowing safe flight and landing.
criteria, are limited in use to aeroplanes
without’ large mass concentrations (such as
engines, floats or fuel tanks in outer wing CS-VLA 657 Hinges
panels) along the wing span; and
(a) Control surface hinges, except bail and
(2) The aeroplane is conventional in roller bearing hinges, must have a factor of
design, and – safety of not less than 6·67 with respect to the
(i) Does not have a T-tail, ultimate bearing strength of the softest material
boom-tail, or V-tail, used as a bearing.

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CS-VLA BOOK1

(b) For ball or roller bearing hinges, the (c) Each stop must be able to withstand any
approved rating of the bearing may not be loads corresponding in the design conditions for
exceeded. the control system.
(c) Hinges must have enough strength and
rigidity for loads parallel to the hinge line.
CS-VLA 677 Trim systems
(a) Proper precautions must be taken to
CS-VLA 659 Mass balance prevent inadvertent, improper, or abrupt trim tab
operation. There must be means near the trim
The supporting structure and the attachment
of concentrated mass balance weights used on control to indicate to the pilot the direction of
control surfaces must be designed for limit loads trim control movement relative to aeroplane
corresponding to – motion. In addition, there must be means to
indicate to the pilot the position of the trim
(a) 24 g normal to the plane of the control device with respect to the range of adjustment.
surface; This means must be visible to the pilot and must
(b) 12 g fore and aft; and be located and designed to prevent confusion.

(c) 12 g parallel to the hinge line. (b) Tab controls must be irreversible unless
the tab is properly balanced and has no unsafe
flutter characteristics. Irreversible tab systems
must have adequate rigidity and reliability in the
CONTROL SYSTEMS portion of the system from the tab to the
attachment of the irreversible unit to the
aeroplane structure.
CS-VLA 671 General
(a) Each control must operate easily,
smoothly, and positively enough to allow proper CS-VLA 679 Control system locks
performance of its functions. If there is a device to lock the control system
(b) Controls must be arranged and identified on the ground or water, there must be means to –
to provide for convenience in operation and to (a) Give unmistakable warning to the pilot
prevent the possibility of confusion and when the lock is emerged; and
subsequent inadvertent operation.
(b) Prevent the lock from engaging in flight.

CS-VLA 673 Primary flight controls

CS-VLA 681 Limit load static tests
(a) Primary flight controls are those used by
the pilot for the immediate control of pitch, roll (a) Compliance with the limit load
and yaw. requirements must be shown by tests in which –

(b) The design of the primary flight controls (1) The direction of the test loads
must be such as to minimise the likelihood of produces the most severe loading in the
failure of any connecting or transmitting element control system; and
in the control system that could result in loss of (2) Each fitting, pulley, and bracket
control of any axis. used in attaching the system to the main
structure is included.

CS-VLA 675 Stops (b) Compliance must be shown (by analyses

or individual load tests) with the special factor
(a) Each control system must have stops requirements for control system joints subject to
that positively limit the range of motion of each angular motion.
movable aerodynamic surface controlled by the
system.
(b) Each stop must be located so that wear, CS-VLA 683 Operation tests
slackness, or take up adjustments will not (a) It must be shown by operation tests that,
adversely affect the control characteristics of the when the controls are operated from the pilot
aeroplane because of a change in the range of compartment with the system loaded as
surface travel.

08.08.2003 1–D–4
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

prescribed in subparagraph (b) of this paragraph, of travel under operating conditions and
the system is free from – temperature variations; and
(1) Jamming; (3) There must be means for visual
inspection at each fairlead, pulley, end-fitting
(2) Excessive friction; and
and turnbuckle.
(3) Excessive deflection.
(b) Each kind and size of pulley must
(b) The prescribed test loads are –· correspond to the cable with which it is used.
Each pulley must have closely fitted guards to
(1) For the entire system, loads
prevent the cables from being misplaced or
corresponding to the limit air loads on the
fouled, even when slack. Each pulley must lie in
appropriate surface, or the limit pilot forces in
the plane passing through the cable so that the
CS-VLA 397 (b), whichever are less; and
cable does not rub against the pulley flange.
(2) For secondary controls, loads not
(c) Fairleads must be installed so that they
less than those corresponding to the maximum
do not cause a change in cable direction of more
pilot effort established under CS-VLA 405.
than 3°.
(d) Clevis pins subject to load or motion
CS-VLA 685 Control system details and retained only by split-pins may not be used
in the control system.
(a) Each detail of each control system must
be designed and installed to prevent jamming, (e) Turnbuckles must be attached to parts
chafing, and interference from cargo, passengers, having angular motion in a manner that will
loose objects, or the freezing of moisture. positively prevent binding throughout the range
of travel.
(b) There must be means in the cockpit to
prevent the entry of foreign objects into places (f) Tab control cables are not part of the
where they would jam the system. primary control system and may be less than 3
mm diameter in aeroplanes that are safely
(c) There must be means to prevent the
controllable with the tabs in the most adverse
slapping of cables or tubes against other parts.
positions.
(d) Each element of the flight control
system must have design features, or must be
distinctively and permanently marked, to CS-VLA 693 Joints
minimize the possibility of incorrect assembly
Control system joints (in push-pull systems)
that could result in malfunctioning of the control that are subject to angular motion, except those
system.
in ball and roller bearing systems, must have a
special factor of safety of not less than 3·33 with
respect to the ultimate bearing strength of the
CS-VLA 687 Spring devices softest material used as a bearing. This factor
The reliability of any spring device used in may be reduced to 2·0 for joints in cable control
the control system must be established by tests systems. For ball or roller bearings, the approved
simulating service conditions unless failure of ratings may not be exceeded.
the spring will not cause flutter or unsafe flight
characteristics.
CS-VLA 697 Wing flap controls
(a) Each wing flap control must be designed
CS-VLA 689 Cable systems so that, when the flap has been placed position
(a) Each cable, cable fitting, turnbuckle, upon which compliance with the performance
splice, and pulley used must meet approved requirements is based, the flap will not splice,
specifications. In addition – and pulley used move from that position unless
the control is adjusted or is moved by the
(1) No cable smaller than 3 mm
automatic operation of a flap load limiting
diameter may be used in primary control
device
systems;
(b) The rate of movement of the flaps in
(2) Each cable system must be
response to the operation of the pilot’s control or
designed so that there will be no hazardous
automatic device must-give satisfactory flight
change in cable tension throughout the range
and performance characteristics under steady or
1–D–5 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK1

changing conditions of airspeed, engine power, (4) Landing gears for which adequate
and attitude. experience and substantiating data are
available.
(b) The landing gear may not fail, but may
CS-VLA 699 Wing flap position
yield, in a test showing its reserved energy
indicator
absorption capacity, simulating a descent
There must be a wing flap position indicator velocity of 1·2 times the limit descent velocity,
for – assuming wing lift equal to the weight of the
aeroplane. The test may be replaced by an
(a) Flap installations with only the retracted
analysis in the same cases as sub-paragraphs
and fully extended position, unless –
(a)(l) to (a)(4) of this paragraph.
(1) A .direct operating mechanism
provides a sense of ‘feel’ and position (such
as when a mechanical linkage is employed); CS-VLA 725 Limit drop tests
or
(a) If compliance with CS-VLA 723 (a) is
(2) The flap position is readily shown by free drop tests, these tests must be
determined without seriously detracting from made on the complete aeroplane, or on units
other piloting duties under any flight consisting of wheel, tyre, and shock absorber, in
condition; and their proper relation, from free drop heights not
less than those determined by the following
(b) Flap installation with intermediate flap
formula:
positions if –
h = 0·0132 (Mg/S)½
(1) Any flap position other than
retracted of fully extended is used to show However, the free drop height may not be less
compliance with the performance than 0·235 m and need not be more than 0·475
requirements of this part; and m.
(2) The flap installation does not meet (b) If the effect of wing lift is provided for
the requirements of sub-paragraph (a)( 1) of in free drop tests, the landing gear must be
this paragraph. dropped with an effective weight equal to –
 h + (1 − L )d 
Me = M  
CS-VLA 701 Flap interconnection  h+d 

The motion of flaps on opposite sides of the where –

plane of symmetry must be synchronised by the
M= the effective weight to be used in the
mechanical interconnection.
drop test (kg);
H = specified free drop height (m);
CS-VLA 723 Shock absorption D = deflection under impact of the tyre (at
tests the approved inflation pressure) plus
(a) It must be shown that the limit load the vertical component of the axle
factors selected for design in accordance with travel relative to the drop mass (m);
CS-VLA 473 will not be exceeded. This must be M= MM for main gear units (kg), equal to
shown by energy absorption tests except that the static weight on that unit with the
analysis may be used for aeroplane in the level attitude (with the
nose wheel clear in the case of nose
(1) Increases in previously approved
wheel type aeroplanes);
take-off and landing weights,
M= MT for tail gear units (kg), equal to the
(2) Landing gears previously
static weight on the tail unit with the
approved wheel type aeroplanes with similar aeroplane in the tail down attitude;
weights and performances
M= MN for nose wheel units (kg), equal to
(3) Landing gears using a steel or the vertical component of the static
composite material spring or any other energy reaction that would exist at the nose
absorption element where the shock wheel, assuming that the mass of the
absorption characteristics are not essentially aeroplane acts at the centre of gravity
affected by the rate of compression or tension,

08.08.2003 1–D–6
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

and exerts a force of 1·0 g downward CS-VLA 727 Reserve energy

and 0·33 g forward; absorption
L = the ratio of the assumed wing lift to the (a) If compliance with the reserve energy
aeroplane weight, but not more than absorption requirement in CS-VLA 723 (b) is
0·667; and shown by free drop tests, the drop height may
g = the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2). not be less than 1·44 times that specified in CS-
VLA 725.
(c) The limit inertia load factor must be
determined in a rational or conservative manner, (b) If the effect of wing lift is provided for,
during the drop test, using a landing gear unit the unit must be dropped with an effective mass
attitude, and applied drag loads, that represent  h 
equal to M e = M   , when the symbols and
the landing conditions. h +d
(d) The value of d used in the computation other details are the same as CS-VLA 725.
of We in sub-paragraph (b) of this paragraph
may not exceed the value actually obtained in the
drop test. CS-VLA 729 Landing gear
extension and
(e) The limit inertia load factor must be retraction system
determined from the drop test in sub-paragraph
(b) of this paragraph according to the following (a) General. For aeroplanes with retractable
formula: landing gear, the following apply:
Me (1) Each landing gear retracting
n = nj +L
M mechanism and its supporting structure must
be designed for maximum flight load factors
where – with the gear retracted and must be designed
nj = the load factor developed in the drop for the combination of friction, inertia, brake
test (that is, the acceleration (dv/dt) in torque, and air loads, occurring during
g recorded in the drop test) plus 1·0; retraction at any airspeed up to 1·6 Vsi with
and flaps retracted, and for any load factor up to
those specified in CS-VLA 345 for the flaps-
We, W and L are the same as in the drop test
extended condition.
computation.
(2) The landing gear and retracting
(f) The value of n determined in accordance
mechanism, including the wheel well doors,
with sub-paragraph (e) of this paragraph may not
must withstand flight loads, including loads
be more than the limit inertia load factor used in
resulting from all yawing conditions specified
the landing conditions in CS-VLA 473.
in CS-VLA 351, with the landing gear
extended at any speed up to at least 1·6 Vsi
with the flaps retracted.
CS-VLA 726 Ground load dynamic
tests (b) Landing gear lock. There must be
positive means to keep the landing gear
(a) If compliance with the ground load
extended.
requirements of CS-VLA 479 to 483 is shown
dynamically by drop test, one drop test must be (c) Emergency operation. For a landplane
conducted that meets CS-VLA 725 except that having retractable landing gear that cannot be
the drop height must be – extended manually, there must be means to
extend the landing gear in the event of either –
(1) 2·25 times the drop height
prescribed in CSVLA 725 (a); or (1) Any reasonably probable failure in
the normal landing gear operation system; or
(2) Sufficient to develop 1·5 times the
limit load factor. (2) Any reasonably probable failure in
a power source that would prevent the
(b) The critical landing condition for each operation of the normal landing gear
of the design conditions specified in CS-VLA operation system.
479 to 483 must be used for proof of strength.
(d) Operation test. The proper functioning
of the retracting mechanism must be shown by
operation tests up to VLO.

1–D–7 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK1

(e) Position indicator. If a retractable (1) By a load on each main wheel tyre
landing gear is used, there must be a landing equal to the corresponding static ground
gear position indicator (as well as necessary reaction under the design maximum weight
switches to actuate the indicator) or other means and critical centre of gravity; and
to inform the pilot that the gear is secured in the
(2) By a load on nose wheel tyres (to
extended (or retracted) position. If switches are
be compared with the dynamic rating
used, they must be located and coupled-to the
established for such tyres) equal to the
landing gear mechanical system in a manner that
reaction obtained at the nose wheel, assuming
prevents an erroneous indication of either ‘down
the mass of the aeroplane to be contracted at
and locked’ if the landing gear is not in the fully
the most critical centre of gravity and exerting
extended position, or of ‘up and locked’ if the
a force of 1·0 Mg downward and 0·21 Mg
landing gear is not in the fully retracted position.
forward (where Mg is the design maximum
The switches may be located where they are
weight), with the reactions distributed to the
operated by the actual landing gear locking latch
nose and main wheels by the principles of
or device.
statics, and with the drag reaction at the
(f) Landing gear warning. For landplanes, ground applied only at wheels with brakes.
the following aural or equally effective landing
(b) Each tyre installed on a retractable
gear warning devices must be provided:
landing gear system must, at the maximum size
(1) A device that functions of the tyre type expected in service, have a
continuously when the throttle is closed if the clearance to surrounding structure and systems
landing gear is not fully extended and locked. that is adequate to prevent contact between the
A throttle stop may not be used in place of an tyre and any part of the structure or systems.
aural device.
(2) A device that functions
continuously when the wing flaps are
CS-VLA 735 Brakes
extended to or beyond the approach flap (a) Brakes must be provided so that the
position, using a normal landing procedure, if brake kinetic energy capacity rating of each main
the landing gear is not fully extended and wheel brake assembly is not less than the kinetic
locked. The flap position sensing unit may be energy absorption requirements determined
installed at any suitable location. The system under either of the following methods:
for this device may use any part of the system
(1) The brake kinetic energy
(including the aural warning device) for the
absorption requirements must be based on a
device required in subparagraph (f)(1) of this
conservative rational analysis of the sequence
paragraph.
of events expected during landing at the
maximum weight.
CS-VLA 731 Wheels (2) Instead of a rational analysis, the
kinetic energy absorption requirements for
(a) Each main and nose wheel must be
each main wheel brake assembly may be
approved.
derived from the following formula:
(b) The maximum static load rating of each
KE = ½MV2/N
wheel may not be less than the corresponding
static ground reaction with – where –
(1) Design maximum weight; and KE = kinetic energy power wheel
(2) Critical centre or gravity. (Joules);

(c) The maximum limit load rating of each M = mass at maximum weight (kg);
wheel must equal or exceed the maximum radial V = aeroplane speed in m/s. V must be
limit load determined under the applicable not less than Vso, the power-off
ground load requirements. stalling speed of the aeroplane at
sea level, at the design landing
weight, and in the landing
CS-VLA 733 Tyres configuration; and
(a) Each landing gear wheel must have a N = number of main wheels with
tyre whose tyre rating (approved by the Agency) brakes.
is not exceeded –

08.08.2003 1–D–8
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(b) Brakes must be able to prevent the duties without unreasonable concentration or
wheels from roiling on a paved runway with fatigue.
maximum take-off power but need not prevent (b) The aerodynamic controls listed in CS-
movement of the aeroplane with wheels locked. VLA 779, excluding cables and control rods,
must be located with respect to the propeller so
that no part of the pilot or the controls lies in the
CS-VLA 737 Skis region between the plane of rotation of propeller
Each ski must be approved. The maximum and the surface generated by a line passing
limit load rating of each ski must equal or exceed through the centre of the propeller hub making
the maximum limit load determined under the an angle of 5° forward or aft of the plane of
applicable ground load requirements. rotation of the propeller.

CS-VLA 773 Pilot compartment

FLOATS AND HULLS
view
The pilot compartment must be free from
CS-VLA 751 Main float buoyancy glare and reflections that could interfere with the
pilot's vision, and designed so that –
(a) Each main float must have -
(a) The pilot's view is sufficiently
(1) A buoyancy of 80% in excess of
extensive, clear, and undistorted, for safe
the maximum weight which that float is
operation;
expected to carry in supporting the maximum
weight of the seaplane or amphibian in fresh (b) The pilot is protected from the elements
water; and so that moderate rain conditions do not unduly
impair his view of the flight path in normal flight
(2) Enough watertight compartments
and while landing; and
to provide reasonable assurance that the
seaplane or amphibian will stay afloat if any (c) Internal fogging of the windows covered
two compartments of the main floats are under sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph can be
flooded. easily cleared by the pilot unless means are
provided to prevent fogging. (See AMC VLA
(b) Each main float must contain at least
773.)
four watertight compartments approximately
equal in volume.
CS-VLA 775 Windshields and
windows
CS-VLA 753 Main float design
(a) Windshields and windows must be
Each seaplane main float must be approved
constructed of a material that will not result in
and must meet the requirements of CS-VLA 521.
serious injuries due to splintering. (See AMC
VLA 775 (a).)
CS-VLA 757 Auxiliary floats (b) Windshields and side windows of the
canopy must have a luminous transmittance
Auxiliary floats must be arranged so that
when completely submerged in fresh water, they value of at least 70% and must not significantly
provide a righting moment of at least 1.5 times alter the natural colours.
the upsetting moment caused by the seaplane or
amphibian being tilted.
CS-VLA 777 Cockpit controls
(a) Each cockpit control must be located to
PERSONNEL AND CARGO provide convenient operation, and to prevent
ACCOMMODATIONS confusion and inadvertent operation.
(b) The controls must be located and
arranged so that the pilot, when strapped in his
CS-VLA 771 Pilot compartment seat, has full and unrestricted movement of each
(a) The pilot compartment and its control without interference from either his
equipment must allow the pilot to perform his clothing (including winter clothing) or from the
cockpit structure.
1–D–9 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK1

(c) Powerplant controls must be located – (ii) The position indicator

pointer must be located at the part of the
(1) For tandem seated single-engine
handle that is the maximum dimension
aeroplanes, on the left side console or
of the handle measured from the centre
instrument panel;
of rotation.
(2) For other single-engine aeroplanes,
(2) For electrical or electronic fuel
at or near the centre of the cockpit, on the
pedestal, instrument panel, or overhead; and (i) Digital controls or electrical
selector switches must be properly
(3) For aeroplanes, with side-by-side
labelled.
pilot seats and with two sets of Powerplant
controls, on left and right consoles. (ii) Means must be provided to
indicate to, the flight crew the tank or
(d) The control location order from left to
function selected. Selector switch
right must be power lever, propeller (rpm
position is not acceptable as a means of
control), and mixture control. Power levers must
indication. The ‘off or ‘closed’ position
be at least 2·54cm higher or longer to make them
must be indicated in red.
more prominent than propeller (rpm control) or
mixture controls. Carburettor heat or alternate air (3) If the fuel valve selector handle or
control must be to the left of the throttle or at electrical or digital selection is also a fuel
least 20·3cm from the mixture control when shut-off selector, the off position marking
located other than on a pedestal. Carburettor heat must be coloured red. If a separate emergency
or alternate air control, when located on a shut-off means is provided, it also must be
pedestal must be aft or below the power lever. coloured red. (See AMC VLA 777.)
Supercharger controls must be located below or
aft of the propeller controls. Aeroplanes with
tandem seating or single-seat aeroplanes may CS-VLA779 Motion and effect of
utilise control locations on the left side of the cockpit controls
cabin compartment; however, location order
Cockpit controls must be designed so that
from left to right must be power lever, propeller
they operate in accordance with the following
(rpm control) and mixture control. movement and actuation:
(e) Wing flap and auxiliary lift device (a) Aerodynamic controls –
controls must be located –
Motion and effect
(1) Centrally, or to the right of
pedestal or powerplant throttle control (1) Primary
centreline; and controls:
Aileron -------- Right (clockwise) for
(2) Far enough away from the landing right wing down.
gear control to avoid confusion. Elevator ------- Rearward for nose up.
(f) The landing gear control must be Rudder -------- Right pedal forward for
located to the left of the throttle centreline or nose right.
pedestal centreline.
(g) Each fuel feed selector control must (2) Secondary
comply with CS-VLA 995 and be located and controls:
arranged so that the pilot can see and reach it Flaps(or Forward or up for flaps
without moving any seat or primary flight auxiliary lift up or auxiliary device
control when his seat is at any position in which devices) stowed; rearward or
it can be placed. down for flaps down or
auxiliary
(1) For a mechanical fuel selector – Trim tabs (or Switch motion or
equivalent) mechanical rotation of
(i) The indication of the control to produce
selected fuel valve position must be by similar rotation of the
means of a pointer and must provide aeroplane about an axis
positive identification and feel (detent, parallel to the axis
etc.) of the selected position. control. Axis of roll
trim control may be
displaced to

08.08.2003 1–D–10
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

accommodate
comfortable actuation
by the pilot. For single-
engine aeroplanes,
direction of pilot’s
hand movement must
be in the same sense as
aeroplane response for
rudder trim if only a
portion of a rotational
element is accessible.
(b) Powerplant and auxiliary controls -
Motion and effect (b) Powerplant control knobs must conform
(1) Powerplant to the general shapes (but not necessarily the
controls: exact sizes or specific proportions) in the
Power Forward to increase following figure:
(thrust) forward thrust and
lever. rearward to increase
rearward.
Propellers - Forward to increase rpm.
Mixture---- Forward or upward for
rich.
Carburettor, Forward or upward for
air heat or cold.
alternate
air.
Super Forward or upward for
charger. low blower.
Turbosuper Forward, upward or
-chargers. clockwise to increase
pressure.
Rotary Clockwise from off to
controls. full on.thrust.
(2) Auxiliary
controls:
Fuel tank Right for right tanks,
selector left for left tanks.
Landing Down to extend.
gear. CS-VLA 783 Exits
Speed Aft to extend. (a) The aeroplane must be so designed that
brakes. unimpeded and rapid escape is possible in any
normal and crash attitude excluding turnover.

CS-VLA 781 Cockpit control know (b) No exit may be located with respect to
shape any propeller disc so as to endanger persons
using that exit.
(a) Landing gear and flap control knobs
must conform to the general shapes (but not
necessarily the exact sizes or specific CS-VLA 785 Seats, safety belts,
proportions) in the following figure: and harnesses
(a) Each seat and its supporting structure,
must be designed for occupants weighing at least
86 kg, and for the maximum load factors
corresponding to the specified flight and ground
load conditions, including the emergency landing
conditions prescribed in CS-VLA 561.
1–D–11 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK1

(b) Each safety belt with shoulder harness, CS-VLA 787 Baggage
must be approved. Each safety belt with shoulder compartments
harness must be equipped with a metal to metal
(a) Each baggage compartment must be
latching device.
designed for its placarded maximum weight of
(c) Each pilot seat must be designed for the contents and for the critical load distributions at
reactions resulting from the application of pilot the appropriate maximum load factors
forces to the primary flight controls, as corresponding to the flight and ground load
prescribed in CS-VLA 395. conditions of this document.
(d) Proof of compliance with the strength (b) There must be means to prevent the
and deformation requirements of this paragraph contents of any baggage compartment from
for seats, approved as part of the type design and becoming a hazard by shifting, and to protect
for seat installations may be shown by – any controls, wiring, lines, equipment or
accessories whose damage of failure would
(1) Structural analysis, if the structure
affect safe operations.
conforms to conventional aeroplane types for
which existing methods of analysis are known (c) Baggage compartments must be
to be reliable; constructed of materials which are at least flame
resistant.
(2) A combination of structural
analysis and static load tests to limit loads; or (d) Designs which provide for baggage to
be carried must have means to protect the
(3) Static load tests to ultimate loads.
occupants from injury under the ultimate inertia
(e) Each occupant must be protected from forces specified in CS-VLA 561 (b)(2).
serious head injury when he experiences the
(e) If there is no structure between baggage
inertia forces prescribed in CS-VLA 561 (b)(2)
and occupant compartments the baggage items
by a safety belt and shoulder harness that is
located behind the occupants and those which
designed to prevent the head from contacting any
might become a hazard in a crash must be
injurious object. (See AMC VLA 785 (e).)
secured for 1·33 x 9 g.
(f) Each shoulder harness installed at a
pilot seat must allow the pilot, when seated and
with his safety belt and shoulder harness CS-VLA 807 Emergency exits
fastened, to perform all functions necessary for
Where exits are provided to achieve
flight operations.
compliance with CS-VLA 783 (a), the opening
(g) There must be a means to secure each system must be designed for simple and easy
safety belt and shoulder harness, when not in operation. It must function rapidly and be
use, so as to prevent interference with the designed so that it can be operated by each
operation of the aeroplane and with rapid egress occupant strapped in his seat, and also from
in an emergency. outside the cockpit. Reasonable provisions must
be provided to prevent jamming by fuselage
(h) Each seat track must be fitted with stops deformation.
to prevent the seat from sliding off the track.
(i) The cabin area surrounding each seat,
including the structure, interior walls, instrument CS-VLA 831 Ventilation
panel, control wheel, pedals, and seats, within The personnel compartment must be suitably
striking distance of the occupant’s head or torso ventilated. Carbon monoxide concentration may
(with the safety belt and shoulder harness not exceed one part in 20 000 parts of air.
fastened), must be free of potentially injurious
objects, sharp edges, protuberances, and hard
surfaces. If energy absorbing designs or devices
are used to meet this requirement they must FIRE PROTECTION
protect the occupant from serious injury when
the occupant experiences the ultimate inertia
forces prescribed in CS-VLA 561 (b)(2). CS-VLA 853 Compartment interiors
For the personnel compartment –
(a) The materials must be at least flame
resistant.

08.08.2003 1–D–12
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(b) [Reserved.] fluids and vapours and the resultant hazard if

ignition should occur.
(c) If smoking is to be prohibited, there
must be a placard so stating, and if smoking is to
be allowed there must be an adequate number of
CS-VLA865 Fire protection of
self-contained removable ashtrays.
flight controls and
(d) Lines, tanks, or equipment containing other flight structure
fuel, oil, or other flammable fluids may not be Flight controls, engine mounts, and other
installed in the personnel Compartment unless flight structure located in the engine
adequately shielded, isolated, or otherwise compartment must be constructed of fireproof
protected so that any breakage or failure of such material or shielded so that they will withstand
an item would not create a hazard. the effect of a fire.
(e) Aeroplane materials located on the cabin
side of the firewall must be self-extinguishing or
be located at such a distance from the firewall, or MISCELLANEOUS
otherwise protected, so that ignition will not
occur if the firewall is subjected to a flame
temperature of not less than ll00°C for 15 CS-VLA 871 Levelling means
minutes. This may be shown by test or analysis.
For self-extinguishing materials (except There must be means for determining when
electrical wire and cable insulation and small the aeroplane is in a level position on the ground.
parts that the Agency finds would not contribute
significantly to the propagation of a fire), a
vertical self-extinguishing test must be
conducted in accordance with Appendix F or an INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
equivalent method approved by the Agency. The
average bum length of the material may not
exceed 17 cm and the average flame time after
removal of the flame source may not exceed 15
seconds. Drippings from the material test
specimen may not continue to flame for more
than an average of 3 seconds after failing.

CS-VLA 857 Electrical bonding

(a) Electrical continuity must be provided
to prevent the existence of difference of potential
between components of the powerplant including
fuel and other tanks, and other significant parts
of the aeroplane which are electrically
conductive.
(b) The cross-sectional areas of bonding
connectors if made from copper must not be less
than 1.3 mm*.
(c) There must be provisions for electrically
bonding the aeroplane to the ground fuelling
equipment.

CS-VLA 863 Flammable fluid fire

protection
In each area where flammable fluids or
vapours might escape by leakage from a fluid
system, there must be means in the form of
adequate segregation, ventilation and drainage,
to minimize the probability of ignition of the
1–D–13 08.08.2003
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

SUBPART E – POWERPLANT

GENERAL conditions, that do not exceed values that have

been shown by the propeller manufacturer to be
safe for continuous operation. This must be
CS-VLA 901 Installation shown by –
(a) For the purpose of this CS-VLA the (1) Measurement of stresses through
aeroplane powerplant installation includes each direct testing of the propeller;
component that – (2) Comparison with similar
(1) Is necessary for propulsion; and installations for which these measurements
have been made; or
(2) Affects the safety of the
propulsive unit. (3) Any other acceptable test method
or service experience that proves the safety of
(b) The powerplant must be constructed, the installation.
arranged. and installed to -
(b) Proof of safe vibration characteristics
(1) Ensure safe operation to the for any type of propeller, except for
maximum altitude for which approval is conventional, fixed-pitch wooden propellers,
requested. must be shown where necessary.
(2) Be accessible for necessary
inspections and maintenance.
CS-VLA 909 Supercharger
(c) Engine cowls and nacelles must be
easily removable or openable by the pilot to (a) The supercharger must be approved
provide adequate access to and exposure of the under the engine type certificate.
engine compartment for preflight checks. (b) Control system malfunctions, vibrations,
(d) The installation must comply with – and abnormal speeds and temperatures expected
in service may not damage the supercharger
(1) The installation instructions compressor or turbine.
provided by the engine manufacturer.
(c) The supercharger case must be able to
(2) The applicable provisions of this contain fragments of a compressor or turbine that
subpart. fails at the highest speed that is obtainable with
normal speed control devices inoperative.
CS-VLA 903 Engine
(a) The engine must meet the requirements CS-VLA 925 Propeller clearance
of CS-22 Subpart H. Unless smaller clearances are substantiated,
(b) Restart capability. An altitude and propeller clearances with the aeroplane at
airspeed envelope must be established for the maximum weight, with the most adverse centre
aeroplane for in-flight engine restarting and the of gravity, and with the propeller in the most
installed engine must have a restart capability adverse pitch position, may not be less than the
within that envelope. following:
(a) Ground clearance. There must be a
clearance of at least 180 mm (for each aeroplane
CS-VLA 905 Propeller with nose wheel landing gear) or 230 mm (for
(a) The propeller must meet the each aeroplane with tail wheel landing gear)
requirements of CS-22 Subpart J. between each propeller and the ground with the
landing gear statically deflected and in the level,
(b) Engine power and propeller shaft normal take-off, or taxying attitude, whichever is
rotational speed may not exceed the limits for most critical. In addition, for each aeroplane
which the propeller is certificated or approved. with conventional landing gear struts using fluid
or mechanical means for absorbing landing
shocks, there must be positive clearance between
CS-VLA 907 Propeller vibration the propeller and the ground in the level take-off
(a) Each propeller with metal blades or attitude with the critical tyre completely deflated
highly stressed metal components must be shown and the corresponding landing gear strut
to have vibration stresses, in normal operating bottomed. Positive clearance for aeroplanes

1–E–1 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

using leaf spring struts is shown with a CS-VLA 955 Fuel flow
deflection corresponding to 1·5 g.
(a) General. The ability of the fuel system
(b) Water clearance. There must be a to provide fuel at the rates specified in this
clearance of at least 46 mm between each paragraph and at a pressure sufficient for proper
propeller and the water, unless compliance with carburettor operation must be shown in the
CS-VLA 239 can be shown with a lesser attitude that is most critical with respect to fuel
clearance. feed and quantity of unusable fuel. These
conditions may be simulated in a suitable
(c) Structural clearance. There must be –
mockup. In addition -
(1) At least 26 mm radial clearance
(1) The quantity of fuel in the tank
between h e blade tips and the aeroplane
may not exceed the amount established as the
structure, plus any additional radial Clearance
unusable fuel supply for that tank under CS-
necessary to prevent harmful vibration;
VLA 959 plus that necessary to show
(2) At least 13 mm longitudinal compliance with this paragraph; and
clearance between the propeller blades or
(2) If there is a fuel flowmeter, it must
cuffs and stationary parts of the aeroplane;
be blocked during the flow test and the fuel
and
must flow through the meter bypass.
(3) Positive clearance between other
(b) Gravity systems. The fuel flow rate for
rotating parts of the propeller or spinner and
gravity systems (main and reserve supply) must
stationary parts of the aeroplane.
be 150% of the take-off fuel consumption of the
(d) Clearance from occupant(s). There must engine.
be adequate clearance between the occupant(s)
(c) Pump systems. The fuel flow rate for
and the propeller such that it is not possible for
each pump system (main and reserve supply)
the occupant(s), when seated and strapped in, to
must be 125% of the take-off fuel consumption
contact the propeller inadvertently.
of the engine at the maximum power established
for take-off. This flow rate is required for each
primary engine driven pump and each emergency
CS-VLA 943 Negative acceleration
pump, and must be available when the pump is
No hazardous malfunction of an engine, or running as it would during take-off.
any component or system associated with the
(d) Multiple fuel tanks. If the engine can be
powerplant may occur when the aeroplane is
supplied with fuel from more than one tank, it
operated at negative accelerations of short
must be possible, in level flight, to regain full
duration such as may be caused by a gust. (See
power and fuel pressure to that engine in not
AMC VLA 943.)
more than 10 seconds after switching to any full
tank after engine malfunctioning due to fuel
depletion becomes apparent while the engine is
FUEL SYSTEM being supplied from any other tank.

CS-VLA 951 General CS-VLA 957 Flow between interconnected

tanks
(a) Each fuel system must be constructed
and arranged to ensure a flow of fuel at a rate It must be impossible, in a gravity feed
and pressure established for proper engine system with interconnected tank outlets, for
functioning under any normal operating enough fuel to flow between the tanks to cause
condition, and must be arranged to prevent the an overflow of fuel from any tank vent under the
introduction of air into the system. conditions in CS-VLA 959, except that full tanks
must be used.
(b) Each fuel system must be arranged so
that no fuel pump can draw fuel from more than
one tank at a time. Gravity feed systems may not CS-VLA 959 Unusable fuel supply
supply fuel to the engine from more than one
tank at a time, unless the airspaces are The unusable fuel supply for each tank must
interconnected in a manner to ensure that all be established as not less than that quantity at
interconnected tanks feed equally. which the first evidence of malfunctioning
occurs under the most adverse fuel feed
condition occurring under each intended

08.08.2003 1–E–2
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

operation and flight manoeuvre involving that (1) There must be pads, if necessary,
tank. Fuel system component failures need not to prevent chafing between each tank and its
be considered. supports;
(2) Padding must be nonabsorbent or
CS-VLA 961 Fuel system hot weather
treated to prevent the absorption of fuel;
operation (3) If flexible tank liner is used, it
Each fuel system must be free from vapour must be supported so that it is not required to
lock when using fuel at a temperature of 43°C withstand fluid loads;
under critical operating conditions, and with the (4) Interior surfaces adjacent to the
most critical fuel for which certification is liner must be smooth and free from
requested. projections that could cause wear, unless –
(i) Provisions are made for
CS-VLA 963 Fuel tanks: general protection of the liner at those points; or
(a) Each fuel tank must be able to (ii) The construction of the liner
withstand, without failure, the vibration, inertia, itself provides such protection;
fluid, and structural loads that it may be (5) A positive pressure must be
subjected to in operation. maintained within the vapour space of each
(b) Each flexible fuel tank liner must be of bladder cell under all conditions of operation
an acceptable kind. except for a particular condition for which it
is shown that a zero or negative pressure will
(c) Each integral fuel tank must have not cause the bladder cell to collapse; and
adequate facilities for interior inspection and
repair. (6) Siphoning of fuel (other than
minor spillage) or collapse of bladder fuel
cells may not result from improper securing or
CS-VLA 965 Fuel tank tests loss of the fuel filler cap.

Each fuel tank must be able to withstand the (b) Each tank compartment must be
following pressures without failure or leakage: ventilated and drained to prevent the
accumulation of flammable fluids or vapours.
(a) For each conventional metal tank and Each compartment adjacent to a tank that is an
nonmetallic tank with walls not supported by the integral part of the aeroplane structure must also
aeroplane structure, a pressure of 24 kPa. be ventilated and drained.
(b) For each integral tank, the pressure (c) No fuel tank may be on the engine side
developed during the maximum limit of the firewall. There must be at least 13 mm of
acceleration of the aeroplane with a full tank, clearance between the fuel tank and the firewall.
with simultaneous application of the critical limit No part of the engine nacelle skin that lies
structural loads. immediately behind a major air opening from the
(c) For each nonmetallic tank with walls engine compartment may act as the wall of an
supported by the aeroplane structure and integral tank.
constructed in an acceptable manner using (d) If a fuel tank is installed in the
acceptable basic tank material, and with actual or personnel compartment it must be isolated by
simulated support conditions, a pressure of 14 fume and fuel-proof enclosures that are drained
kPa, for the first tank of a specific design. The and vented to the exterior of the aeroplane. A
supporting structure must be designed for the bladder type fuel cell, if used, must have a
critical loads occurring in the flight or landing retaining shell at least equivalent to a metal fuel
strength conditions combined with the fuel tank in structural integrity.
pressure loads resulting from the corresponding
accelerations. (e) Fuel tanks and fuel system components
must be designed, located, and installed so as to
retain fuel -
CS-VLA 967 Fuel tank installation (1) Under the inertia forces prescribed
(a) Each fuel tank must be supported so that for the emergency landing conditions in CS-
tank loads axe not concentrated. In addition ·– VLA 561; and

1–E–3 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

(2) Under conditions likely to occur CS-VLA975 Fuel tank vents and
when an aeroplane lands on a paved runway at carburettor vapour vents
a normal landing speed under each of the
(a) Each fuel tank must be vented from the
following conditions:
top part of the expansion space. In addition –
(i) The aeroplane in a normal
(1) Each vent outlet must be located
landing attitude and its landing gear
and constructed in a manner that minimizes
retracted.
the possibility of its being obstructed by ice or
(ii) The must critical landing other foreign matter;
gear leg collapsed and the other landing
(2) Each vent must be constructed to
gear legs extended.
prevent siphoning of fuel during normal
operation;
CS-VLA 969 Fuel tank expansion space (3) The venting capacity must allow
the rapid relief of excessive differences of
Each fuel tank must have an expansion space pressure between the interior and exterior of
of not less than two percent of the tank capacity,
the tank;
unless the tank vent discharges clear of the
aeroplane (in which case no expansion space is (4) Airspaces of tanks with
required). It must be impossible to fill the interconnected outlets must be interconnected;
expansion space inadvertently with the aeroplane
in the normal ground attitude. (5) There may be no undrainable
points in any vent line where moisture can
accumulate with the aeroplane in either the
CS-VLA 971 Fuel tank sump ground or level flight attitudes;

(a) Each fuel tank must have a sump with (6) No vent may terminate at a point
an effective capacity, in the normal ground and where the discharge of fuel from the vent
flight attitudes, of 0·10% of the tank capacity, outlet will constitute a fire hazard or from
or120 cm3, whichever is the greater, unless – which fumes may enter personnel
compartments; and
(1) The fuel system has a sediment
bowl or chamber that is accessible for (7) Vents must be arranged to prevent
drainage and has a capacity of 25 cm3. the loss of fuel, except fuel discharged
because of thermal expansion, when the
(2) Each fuel tank outlet is located so aeroplane is parked in any direction on a ramp
that in the normal ground attitude, water will having a 1% slope.
drain from all parts of the tank to the sediment
bowl or chamber. (b) Each carburettor with vapour
elimination connections and each fuel injection
(b) Each sump, sediment bowl, and engine employing vapour return provisions must
sediment chamber drain required by sub- have a separate vent line to lead vapours back to
paragraph (a) of this paragraph must comply the top of one of the fuel tanks. If there is more
with the drain provisions of CS-VLA 999 (b)(1), than one tank and it is necessary to use these
(2) and (3). tanks in a definite sequence for any reason, the
vapour vent line must lead back to the fuel tank
to be used first, unless the relative capacities of
CS-VLA 973 Fuel tank filler connection the tanks are such that return to another tank is
(a) Fuel tank filler connections must be preferable.
located outside the personnel compartment.
Spilled fuel must be prevented from entering the
fuel tank compartment or any part of the CS-VLA 977 Fuel strainer or filter
aeroplane other than the tank itself. (a) There must be a fuel filter between the
(b) Each filler cap must provide a fuel-tight tank outlet and the carburettor inlet (or an
seal for the main filler opening. However, there engine-driven fuel pump, if any). This fuel filter
may be small openings in the fuel tank cap for must -
venting purposes or for the purpose of allowing (1) Have the capacity (with respect to
passage of a fuel gauge through the cap. operating limitations established for the
engine) to ensure that engine fuel system
functioning is not impaired, with the fuel

08.08.2003 1–E–4
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

contaminated to a degree (with respect to relative motion could exist must have
particle size and density) that is greater than provisions for flexibility.
that established for the engine approval; and
(3) Each flexible connection in fuel
(2) Be easily accessible for draining lines that may be under pressure and subjected
and cleaning. to axial loading must use flexible hose
assemblies.
(b) There must be a strainer at the outlet of
each fuel tank. This strainer must – (4) Each flexible hose must be
approved or must be shown to be suitable for
(1) Have 3 to 6 meshes per cm;
the particular application.
(2) Have a length of at least twice the
diameter of the fuel tank outlet;
CS-VLA 995 Fuel valves and controls
(3) Have a diameter of at least that of
the fuel tank outlet; and (a) There must be a means to allow the pilot
to rapidly shut off, in flight, the fuel to the
(4) Be accessible for inspection and
engine.
cleaning.
(b) No shut-off valve may be on the engine
side of any firewall. In addition, there must be
means to –
FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
(1) Guard against inadvertent operation
of each shut-off valve; and
CS-VLA 991 Fuel pumps
(2) Allow the pilot to reopen each valve
(a) Main pump. For the main pump, the rapidly after it has been closed.
following applies:
(c) Each valve and fuel system control must
For an engine installation having fuel be supported so that loads resulting from its
pumps to supply fuel to the engine, at least operation or from accelerated flight conditions
one pump must be directly driven by the are not transmitted to the lines connected to the
engine and must meet CS-VLA 955. This valve.
pump is a main pump.
(d) Each valve and fuel system control must
(b) Emergency pump. There must be an be installed so that gravity and vibration will not
emergency pump immediately available to affect the selected position.
supply fuel to the engine if the main pump (other
than a fuel injection pump approved as part of an (e) Each fuel valve handle and its
engine) fails. The power supply for the connections to the valve mechanism must have
emergency pump must be independent of the design features that minimise the possibility of
power supply for the main pump. incorrect installation.

(c) Warning means. if both the main pump (f) Each check valve must be constructed,
and emergency pump operate continuously, there or otherwise incorporate provisions, to preclude
must be a means to indicate to the pilot a incorrect assembly or connection of the valve.
malfunction of either pump. (g) Fuel tank selector valves must –
(d) Operation of any fuel pump may not (1) Require a separate and distinct
affect engine operation so as to create a hazard, action to place the selector in the ‘OFF’
regardless of the engine power or the functional position; and
status of any other fuel pump.
(2) Have the tank selector positions
located in such a manner that it is impossible
for the selector to pass through the ‘OFF’
CS-VLA 993 Fuel system lines and fittings
position when changing from one tank to
(1) Each fuel line must be installed another.
and supported to prevent excessive vibration
and to withstand loads due to fuel pressure
and accelerated flight conditions.
(2) Each fuel line connected to
components of the aeroplane between which

1–E–5 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

CS-VLA 999 Fuel system drains material except that, if the total oil capacity of
the system including tanks, lines and sumps is
(a) There must be at least one drain to allow
less than 5 litres, it may be made of fire resistant
safe drainage of the entire fuel system with the
material.
aeroplane in its normal ground attitude.
(b) Each drain required by sub-paragraph
(a) of this paragraph and CS-VLA 971 must – CS-VLA 1015 Oil tank tests
(1) Discharge clear of all parts of the Oil tanks must be subjected to the tests
aeroplane; specified in CS-VLA 965 for fuel tanks, except
that in the pressure tests a pressure of 35 kPa
(2) Have manual or automatic means for must be applied.
positive locking in the closed position; and
(3) Have a drain valve –
CS-VLA 1017 Oil lines and fittings
(i) That is readily accessible
and which can be easily opened and (a) Oil lines must comply with CS-VLA
closed; and 993.

(ii) That is either located or (b) Breather lines. Breather lines must be
protected to prevent fuel spillage in the arranged so that –
event of a landing with landing gear (1) Condensed water vapour or oil that
retracted. might freeze and obstruct the line cannot
accumulate at any point;
(2) The breather discharge will not
OIL SYSTEM constitute a fire hazard if foaming occurs or
cause emitted oil to strike the pilot’s wind
shields;
CS-VLA 1011 General
(3) The breather does not discharge
(a) If an engine is provided with an oil into the engine air induction system;
system it must be capable of supplying the
engine with an appropriate quantity of oil at a (4) The breather outlet is protected
temperature not exceeding the maximum against blockage by ice or foreign matter.
established as safe for continuous operation.
(b) Each oil system must have a usable CS-VLA 1019 Oil strainer of filter
capacity adequate for the endurance of the
aeroplane. Each oil strainer or filter in the Powerplant
installation must be constructed and installed so
(c) If an engine depends upon a fuel/oil that oil will flow at the normal rate through the
mixture for lubrication, then a reliable means of rest of the system with the strainer or filter
providing it with the appropriate mixture must be element completely blocked.
established. (See AMC VLA 101 1 (c).)

CS-VLA 1021 Oil system drains

CS-VLA 1013 Oil tanks
A drain (or drains) must be provided to allow
(a) Each oil tank must be installed to – safe drainage of the oil system. Each drain must
have means for positive locking in the closed
(1) Meet the requirements of CS-VLA
position.
967 (a), (b) and (d); and
(2) Withstand any vibration, inertia
and fluid loads expected in operation. CS-VLA 1023 Oil radiators
(b) The oil level must be easy to check Each oil radiator and its supporting structures
without having to remove any cowling parts must be able to withstand the vibration, inertia,
(with the exception of oil tank access covers) or and oil pressure loads to which it would be
having to use any tools. subjected in operation.

(c) If the oil tank is installed in the engine

compartment it must be made of fireproof

08.08.2003 1–E–6
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

COOLING of the first occurrence of the maximum

component or fluid temperature recorded during
the cooling tests.
CS-VLA 1041 General
(e) Cylinder barrel temperatures must be
The powerplant cooling provisions must be corrected by adding to them 0·7 times the
able to maintain the temperatures of Powerplant difference between the maximum ambient
components and engine fluids within the atmospheric temperature and the temperature of
temperature limit established by the engine the ambient air at the time of the first occurrence
constructor during all likely operating of the maximum cylinder barrel temperature
conditions. recorded during the cooling test.

CS-VLA 1047 Cooling test procedure

for reciprocating engine LIQUID COOLING
aeroplanes
(a) To determine compliance with the CS-VLA 1061 Installation
requirement of CS-VLA 1041, a cooling test
must be carried out as follows: (a) General. Each liquid-cooled engine
must have an independent cooling system
(1) Engine temperatures must be (including coolant tank) installed so that –
stabilised in flight with the engine at not less
than 75% of maximum continuous power. (1) Each coolant tank is supported so
that tank loads are distributed over a large
(2) After temperatures have stabilised, part of the tank surface;
a climb must be begun at the lowest practical
altitude and continued for one minute with the (2) There are pads between the tank
engine at take-off power. and its supports to prevent chafing; and

(3) At the end of one minute, the (3) No air or vapour can be trapped in
climb must be continued at maximum any part of the system, except the expansion
continuous power for at least 5 minutes after tank, during filling or during operation.
the occurrence of the highest temperature Padding must be nonabsorbent or must be treated
recorded. to prevent the absorption of flammable fluids.
(4) For supercharged engines, the (b) Coolant tank
supercharger must be operated through that
part of climb profile for which operation with (1) Each coolant tank must be able to
the supercharger is requested and in a manner withstand the vibration, inertia, and fluid
consistent with its intended operation. loads to which it may be subjected in
operation;
(b) The climb required in sub-paragraph (a)
of this paragraph must be conducted at a speed (2) Each coolant tank must have an
not more than the best rate-of-climb speed with expansion space of at least 10% of the total
maximum continuous power. cooling system capacity; and

(c) The maximum anticipated air (3) It must be impossible to fill the
temperature (hot-day conditions) is 38°C at sea- expansion space inadvertently with the
level. Above sea-level, the temperature decreases aeroplane in the normal ground attitude.
with a temperature gradient of 2°C per 1 000 ft, (c) Filler connection. Each coolant tank
altitude. If the tests are conducted under filler connection must be marked as specified in
conditions deviating from this value, the CS-VLA 1557 (c). In addition -
recorded temperatures must be corrected
according to sub-paragraph (d) of this paragraph, (1) Spilled coolant must be prevented
unless a more rational method is applied. from entering the coolant tank compartment
or any part of the aeroplane other than the
(d) The temperatures of the engine fluids tank itself; and
and of the powerplant components (with the
exception of cylinder barrels) must be corrected (2) Each recessed coolant filler
by adding to them the difference between the connection must have a drain that discharges
maximum ambient anticipated air temperature clear of the aeroplane.
and the temperature of the ambient air at the time

1–E–7 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

(d) Lines und fittings. Each coolant system resistant diaphragm or if there are means to
line and fitting must meet the requirements of prevent the emergence of backfire flames.
CS-VLA 993, except that the inside diameter of
the engine coolant inlet and outlet lines may not
be less than the diameter of the corresponding CS-VLA 1093 Induction system icing
engine inlet and outlet connections. protection
(e) Radiators. Each coolant radiator must (a) The reciprocating engine air induction
be able to withstand any vibration, inertia, and system must have means to prevent and
coolant pressure load to which it may normally eliminate icing. Unless this is done by other
be subjected. In addition – means, it must be shown that, in air free of
visible moisture at a temperature of -1°C –
(1) Each radiator must be supported to
allow expansion due to operating (1) Each aeroplane with a sea-level
temperatures and prevent the transmittal of engine using a conventional venturi carburetor
harmful vibration to the radiator; and has a preheater that can provide a heat rise of
32°C with the engine at 75% of maximum
(2) If flammable coolant is used, the
continuous power;
air intake duct to the coolant radiator must be
located so that (in case of fire) flames from (2) Each aeroplane with an altitude
the nacelle cannot strike the radiator. engine using a conventional venturi
carburettor has a preheater that can provide a
(f) Drains. There must be an accessible
heat rise of 50°C with the engine at 75% of
drain that –
maximum continuous power;
(1) Drains the entire cooling system
(3) Each aeroplane with an altitude
(including the coolant tank, radiator, and the
engine using a carburettor tending to prevent
engine) when the aeroplane is in the normal
icing has a preheater that, with the engine at
ground attitude;
60% of maximum continuous power, can
(2) Discharges clear of the entire provide a heat rise of 38°C;
aeroplane; and
(4) Each aeroplane with a sea-level
(3) Has means to positively lock it engine using a carburettor tending to prevent
closed. icing has a sheltered alternate source of air
with a preheat of not less than that provided
by the engine cooling air downstream of the
CS-VLA 1063 Coolant tank tests cylinders.
Each coolant tank must be tested under CS- (b) For aeroplanes with a reciprocating
VLA 965, except that the test required by CS- engine having a supercharger to pressurise the
VLA 965 (a)(l) must be replaced with a similar air before it enters the carburettor, the heat rise
test using the sum of the pressure developed in the air caused by that supercharging at any
during the maximum ultimate acceleration with a altitude may be utilised in determining
full tank or a pressure of 24 kPa, whichever is compliance with sub-paragraph (a) of this
greater, plus the maximum working pressure of paragraph if the heat rise utilised is that which
the system. will be available, automatically, for the
applicable altitudes and operating condition
because of supercharging.
INDUCTION SYSTEM

CS-VLA 1101 Carburettor air preheater

CS-VLA 1091 Air induction design

(a) The air induction system must supply Each carburettor air preheater must be
the air required by the engine under the designed and constructed to -
operating conditions for which certification is (a) Ensure ventilation of the preheater when
requested. the engine is operated in cold air;
(b) Primary air intakes may open within the (b) Allow inspection of the exhaust
cowling if that part of the cowling is isolated manifold parts that it surrounds; and
from the engine accessory section by a fire-

08.08.2003 1–E–8
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(c) Allow inspection of critical parts of the (f) Each exhaust heat exchanger must
preheater itself. incorporate means to prevent blockage of the
exhaust port after any internal heat exchanger
failure.
CS-VLA 1 103 Induction system ducts
(a) Each induction system duct must have a CS-VLA 1123 Exhaust manifold
drain to prevent the accumulation of fuel or
moisture in the normal ground and flight (a) Each exhaust manifold must be fireproof
attitudes. No drain may discharge where it will and corrosion-resistant, and must have means to
cause a fire hazard. prevent failure due to expansion by operating
temperatures.
(b) Each duct connected to components
between which relative motion could exist, must (b) Each exhaust manifold must be
have means for flexibility. supported to withstand the vibration and inertia
loads to which it may be subjected in operation.
(c) Parts of the manifold connected to
CS-VLA 1105 Induction system screens components between which relative motion
If induction system screens are used – could exist must have means for flexibility.
(a) Each screen must be upstream of the
carburettor; CS-VLA 1125 Exhaust heat exchangers
(b) If the screen is located in any part of the For reciprocating engine powered aeroplanes
air induction system that is the only passage the following apply:
through which air can reach the engine, means
must be furnished to avoid and eliminate (a) Each exhaust heat exchanger must be
formation of ice. (See AMC VLA 1105 (b).); and constructed and installed to withstand the
vibration, inertia. and other loads that it may be
(c) It must be impossible for fuel to strike subjected to in normal operation. In addition -
any screen.
(1) Each exchanger must be suitable for
continued operation at high temperatures and
resistant to corrosion from exhaust gases;
EXHAUST SYSTEM
(2) There must be means for
inspection of critical parts of each exchanger;
CS-VLA 1121 General and

(a) Each exhaust system must ensure safe (3) Each exchanger must have cooling
disposal of exhaust gases without fire hazard or provisions wherever it is subject to contact
carbon monoxide contamination in the personnel with exhaust gases.
compartment. (b) Each heat exchanger used for heating
(b) Each exhaust system part with a surface ventilating air must be constructed so that
hot enough to ignite flammable fluids or vapours exhaust gases may not enter the ventilating air.
must be located or shielded so that leakage from
any system carrying flammable fluids or vapours
will not result in a fire caused by impingement of POWERPLANT CONTROLS AND
the fluids or vapours on any part of the exhaust ACCESSORIES
system including shields for the exhaust system.
(c) Each exhaust system component must be
separated by fireproof shields from adjacent CS-VLA 1141 General
flammable parts of the aeroplane that are outside (a) Each control must be able to maintain
the engine compartment. any necessary position without –
(d) No exhaust gases may discharge (1) Constant attention by the pilot; or
dangerously near any fuel or oil system drain.
(2) Tendency to creep due to control
(e) Each exhaust system component must be loads or vibration.
ventilated to prevent points of excessively high
temperature.

1–E–9 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

(b) Each control must be able to withstand CS-VLA 11 47 Mixture control

operating loads without failure or excessive
The control must require a separate and
deflection. distinct operation to move the control toward
(c) The portion of each powerplant control lean or shut-off position.
located in the engine compartment that is
required to be operated in the event of fire must
be at least fire resistant. CS-VLA 1163 Powerplant accessories

(d) Powerplant valve controls located in the (a) Each engine-driven accessory must –
cockpit must have – (1) Be satisfactory for mounting on
(1) For manual valves, positive stops the engine concerned;
or in the case of fuel valves suitable index (2) Use the provisions on the engine
provisions, in the open and closed position; for mounting; and
and
(3) Be sealed to prevent
(2) For power-assisted valves, a contamination of the engine oil system and
means to indicate to the pilot when the valve – the accessory system.
(i) Is in the fully open or fully (b) Electrical equipment subject to arcing or
closed position; or sparking must be installed to minimise the
(ii) Is moving between the fully probability of contact with any flammable fluids
open and fully closed position. or vapours that might be present in a free state.

CS-VLA 1143 Engine controls CS-VLA 1165 Engine ignition systems

(a) The power or supercharger control must (a) Each battery ignition system must be
give a positive and immediate responsive means supplemented by a generator that is
of controlling its engine or supercharger. automatically available as an alternate source of
electrical energy to allow continued engine
(b) If a power control incorporates a fuel operation if any battery becomes depleted.
shut-off feature, the control must have a means
to prevent the inadvertent movement of the (b) The capacity of batteries and generators
control into the shut-off position. The means must be large enough to meet the simultaneous
must - demands of the engine ignition system and the
greatest demands of any electrical system
(1) Have a positive lock or stop at the components that draw from the same source.
idle position; and
(c) The design of the engine ignition system
(2) Require a separate and distinct must account for -
operation to place the control in the shut-off
position. (1) The condition of an inoperative
generator;
(2) The condition of a completely
CS-VLA 1145 Ignition switches depleted battery with the generator running at
(a) Each ignition circuit must be its normal operating speed; and
independently switched, and must not require the (3) The condition of a completely
operation of any other switch for it to be made depleted battery with the generator operating
operative. at idling speed if there is only one battery.
(b) Ignition switches must be arranged and (d) There must be means to warn the pilot if
designed to prevent inadvertent operation. malfunctioning of any part of the electrical
(c) The ignition switch must not be used as system is causing the continuous discharge of
the master switch for other circuits. any battery used for engine ignition.

08.08.2003 1–E–10
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

POWERPLANT FIRE PROTECTION (c) Each opening in the firewall or shroud

must be sealed with close fitting, fireproof
grommets, bushings, or firewall fittings.
CS-VLA 1182 Nacelle areas behind firewalls
(d) The firewall and shroud must be
Components, lines, and fittings, located fireproof and protected against corrosion.
behind the engine-compartment firewall must be
constructed of such materials and located at such (e) The following materials are accepted as
distances from the firewall that they will not fireproof, when used in firewalls or shrouds,
suffer damage sufficient to endanger the without being tested:
aeroplane if a portion of the engine side of the (1) Stainless steel sheet, 0·38 mm
firewall is subjected to a flame temperature of thick;
not less than 1100°C for 15 minutes. This may
be shown by test or analysis. (2) Mild steel sheet (coated with
aluminium or otherwise protected against
corrosion) 0.5 mm thick; and
CS-VLA 1183 Lines, fittings and (3) Steel or copper base alloy firewall
components fittings.
(a) Except as provided in sub-paragraph (b) (f) Compliance with the criteria for
of this paragraph, each component, line, and fireproof materials or components must be
fitting carrying flammable fluids, gas, or air in shown as follows:
any area subject to engine fire conditions must
be at least fire resistant, except that flammable (1) The flame to which the materials
fluid tanks and supports which are part of and or components are subjected must be 1100
attached to the engine must be fireproof or be ±25°C.
enclosed by a fireproof shield unless damage by (2) Sheet materials approximately 64
fire to any non-fireproof part will not cause cm2 must be subjected to the flame from a
leakage or spillage of flammable fluid. suitable burner.
Components must be shielded or located so as to
safeguard against the ignition of leaking (3) The flame must be large enough to
flammable fluid. Flexible hose assemblies (hose maintain the required test temperature over an
and end fittings) must be approved. However, if area approximately 13 mm square.
the total capacity of the oil system, including (4) Firewall materials and fittings
tanks, lines and sumps is less than 5 litres, the must resist penetration for at least 15 minutes.
components of this system need only be fire
resistant.
(b) Sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph does CS-VLA 1193 Cowling and nacelle
not apply to - (a) Each cowling must be constructed and
(1) Lines, fittings, and components supported so that it can resist any vibration,
which are already approved as part of a type inertia, and air loads to which it may be
certificated engine; and subjected in operation.
(2) Vent and drain lines, and their (b) There must be means for rapid and
fittings whose failure will not result in, or add complete drainage of each part of the cowling in
to, a fire hazard. the normal ground and flight attitudes. No drain
may discharge where it will cause a fire hazard.
(c) Cowling must be at least fire resistant.
CS-VLA 1191 Firewalls
(d) Each part behind an opening in the
(a) The engine must be isolated from the engine compartment cowling must be at least fire
rest of the aeroplane by a firewall, shroud or resistant for a distance of at least 60 cm aft of the
equivalent means. opening.
(b) The firewall or shroud must be (e) Each part of the cowling subjected to
constructed so that no hazardous quantity of high temperatures due to its nearness to exhaust
liquid, gas or flame can pass from the engine system ports or exhaust gas impingement, must
compartment to other parts of the aeroplane. be fireproof.

1–E–11 08.08.2003
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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

08.08.2003 1–E–12
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

SUBPART F – EQUIPMENT

GENERAL indicators must be furnished for each

temperature for which the limitation is
established unless it is shown that the limitation
CS-VLA 1301 Function and installation will not be exceeded in all intended operations;
and
Each item of installed equipment must –
(j) A coolant temperature indicator for
(a) Be of a find and design appropriate to
liquid-cooled engines.
its intended function;
(b) Be labelled as to its identification, all
intended and function, or operating limitations, CS-VLA 1307 Miscellaneous equipment
or any applicable combination of these factors; There must be an approved seat for each
(c) Be installed according to limitations occupant.
specified for that equipment; and
(d) Function properly when installed. CS-VLA 1309 Equipment, systems, and
installations

CS-VLA 1303 Flight and navigation The equipment, systems, and installations
instruments must be designed to minimise hazards to the
aeroplane in the event of a probable malfunction
The following are required flight and or failure.
navigational instruments:
(a) An airspeed indicator;
(b) An altimeter; INSTRUMENTS : INSTALLATION

(c) A magnetic direction indicator.

CS-VLA 1321 Arrangement and
visibility
CS-VLA 1305 Powerplant instruments
Each flight, navigation, and powerplant
The following are required powerplant instrument must be clearly arranged and plainly
instruments:
visible to each pilot.
(a) A fuel quantity indicator for each fuel
tank. (See AMC VLA 1305 (a));
CS-VLA 1322 Warning, caution, and
(b) An oil pressure indicator or a low oil
advisory lights
pressure warning for the engine except for
engines with no oil pressure systems and for the If warning, caution, or advisory lights are
super charger oil system if it is separate from installed in the cockpit, they must be –
other oil systems;
(a) Red, for warning lights (lights
(c) An oil temperature indicator except for indicating a hazard which may require
two-stroke engines; immediate corrective action);
(d) A tachometer; (b) Amber, for caution lights (lights
indicating the possible need for future corrective
(e) A cylinder head temperature indicator for
action);
each air cooled engine with cowl flaps;
(c) Green, for safe operation lights; and
(f) A fuel pressure indicator or a low fuel
pressure warning for pump-fed engines; (d) Any other colour, including white, for
lights not described in sub-paragraphs (a) to (c)
(g) A manifold pressure indicator for an
of this paragraph, provided the colour differs
engine with variable pitch propeller, or
sufficiently from the colours prescribed in
supercharger;
subparagraphs (a) to (c) of this paragraph to
(h) An oil quantity indicator for each tank, avoid possible confusion.
e.g. dipstick;
(i) For supercharger installations, if
limitations are established for either carburettor
air inlet temperature or exhaust gas temperature,

1–F–1 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

CS-VLA 1323 Airspeed indicating (a) Each gyroscopic instrument must derive
system its energy from power sources adequate to
maintain its required accuracy at any speed
(a) The airspeed indicating system must be
above the best rate-of-climb speed;
calibrated to indicate true airspeed at sea-level in
standard atmosphere with a maximum pitot-static (b) Each gyroscopic instrument must be
error not exceeding ± 8 km/h or ±5% whichever installed so as to prevent malfunction due to
is greater, through the following speed range: rain, oil and other detrimental elements; and
(1) 1·3 VSI to VNE, with wing-flaps (c) There must be a means to indicate the
retracted. adequacy of the power being supplied to the
instruments.
(2) 1·.3 VSI to VFE, with wing-flaps
extended.
(b) Calibration must be made in flight. CS-VLA 1337 Powerplant instruments
(c) The airspeed indicating system must be (a) Instruments and instrument lines
suitable for speeds between VSO and at least
(1) Each powerplant instrument line
1·05 times VNE.
must meet the requirements of CS-VLA 993.
(2) Each line carrying flammable
CS-VLA 1325 Static pressure system fluids under pressure must -
(a) Each instrument provided with static (i) Have restricting orifices or
pressure case connections must be so vented that other safety devices at the source of
the influence of aeroplane speed, the opening pressure to prevent the escape of
and closing of windows, moisture or other excessive fluid if the line fails; and
foreign matter, will not significantly affect the
(ii) Be installed and located so
accuracy of the instruments.
that the escape of fluids would not
(b) The design and installation of a static create a hazard.
pressure system must be such that -
(3) Each powerplant instrument that
(1) Positive drainage of moisture is utilises flammable fluids must be installed and
provided; located so that the escape of fluid would not
create a hazard.
(2) Chafing of the tubing, and
excessive distortion or restriction at bends in (b) Fuel quantity indicator. There must be a
the tubing, is avoided; and means to indicate to the pilot the quantity of fuel
in each tank during flight. In addition -
(3) The materials used are durable,
suitable for the purpose intended, and (1) Each fuel quantity indicator must
protected against corrosion. be calibrated to read 'zero' during level flight
when the quantity of fuel remaining in the
tank is equal to the unusable fuel supply
CS-VLA 1327 Magnetic direction determined under CS-VLA 959;
indicator
(2) Each exposed sight gauge used as
(a) The magnetic direction indicator a fuel quantity indicator must be protected
required must be installed so that its accuracy is against damage;
not excessively affected by the aeroplane's
(3) Each sight gauge that forms a trap
vibration or magnetic fields.
in which water can collect and freeze must
(b) The compensated installation must not have means to allow drainage on the ground;
have a deviation in level flight, greater than 10°
(4) Tanks with interconnected outlets
on any heading except that when radio is trans-
and airspaces may be considered as one tank
mitting the deviation may exceed 10°but must
and need not have separate indicators.
not exceed 15°.
(c) Fuel flowmeter system. If a fuel
flowmeter system is installed, each metering
CS-VLA 1331 Instruments using a component must have a means to by-pass the
power supply fuel supply if malfunctioning of that component
severely restricts fuel flow.
For each aeroplane -

08.08.2003 1–F–2
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS AND the connection between the alternator and its
EQUIPMENT battery.
(c) Generating system. There must be at
least one generator if the electrical system
CS-VLA 1351 General supplies power to load circuits essential for safe
(a) Electrical system capacity. Each operation. In addition –
electrical system must be adequate for the (1) Each generator must be able to
intended use. In addition – deliver its continuous rated power;
(1) Electric power sources, their (2) Generator voltage control
transmission cables, and their associated equipment must be able to dependably
control and protective devices, must be able to regulate the generator output within rated
furnish the required power at the proper limits;
voltage to each load circuit essential for safe
operation; and (3) Each generator must have a
reverse current cut out designed to disconnect
(2) Compliance with sub-paragraph the generator from the battery and from the
(a)(l) of this paragraph must be shown by an other generators when enough reverse current
electrical load analysis, or by electrical exists to damage that generator;
measurements, that account for the electrical
loads applied to the electrical system in (4) There must be a means to give
probable combinations and for probable immediate warning to the pilot of a failure of
durations. any generator; and

(b) Functions. For each electrical system, (5) Each generator must have an
the following apply: overvoltage control designed and installed to
prevent damage to the electrical system, or to
(1) Each system, when installed, must equipment supplied by the electrical system,
be – that could result if that generator were to
(i) Free from hazards in itself, develop an overvoltage condition.
in its method of operation, and in its (d) Instruments. There must be a means to
effects on other parts of the aeroplane; indicate to the pilot that the electrical power
(ii) Protected from fuel, oil, supplies are adequate for safe operation. For
water, other detrimental substances, and direct current systems, an ammeter in the battery
mechanical damage; and feeder may be used.
(iii) So designed that the risk of (e) Fire resistance. Electrical equipment
electrical shock to occupants and ground must be so designed and installed that in the
personnel is reduced to a minimum. event of a fire in the engine compartment, during
which the surface of the firewall adjacent to the
(2) Electric power sources must fire is heated to ll00°C for 5 minutes or to a
function properly when connected in lesser temperature substantiated by the applicant,
combination or independently, except that the equipment essential to continued safe
alternators may depend on a battery for initial operation and located behind the firewall will
excitation or for stabilisation. function satisfactorily and will not create an
(3) No failure or malfunction of any additional fire hazard. This may be shown by test
electric power source may impair the ability or analysis.
of any remaining source to supply load (f) External power. If provisions are made
circuits essential for safe operation, except for connecting external power to the aeroplane,
that the operation of an alternator that and that external power can be electrically
depends on a battery for initial excitation or connected to equipment other than that used for
for stabilisation may be stopped by failure of engine starting, means must be provided to
that battery. ensure that no external power supply having a
(4) Each electric power source control reverse polarity, or a reverse phase sequence, can
must allow the independent operation of each supply power to the aeroplane's electrical
source, except that controls associated with system.
alternators that depend on a battery for initial
excitation or for stabilisation need not break

1–F–3 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

CS-VLA 1353 Storage battery design CS-VLA 1357 Circuit protective devices
and installation
(a) Protective devices, such as fuses or
(a) Each storage battery must be designed circuit breakers, must be installed in all electrical
and installed as prescribed in this paragraph. circuits other than –
(b) Safe cell temperatures and pressures (1) The main circuit of starter motors;
must be maintained during any probable and
charging and discharging condition. No
(2) Circuits in which no hazard is
uncontrolled increase in cell temperature may
presented by their omission.
result when the battery is recharged (after
previous complete discharge) – (b) A protective device for a circuit
essential to flight safety may not be used to
(1) At maximum regulated voltage or
protect any other circuit.
power;
(c) Each resettable circuit protective device
(2) During a flight of maximum
(‘trip free’ device in which the tripping
duration; and
mechanism cannot be overridden by the
(3) Under the most adverse cooling operating control) must be designed so that –
condition likely to occur in service.
(1) A manual operation is required to
(c) Compliance with sub-paragraph (b) of restore service after tripping; and
this paragraph must be shown by tests unless
(2) If an overload or circuit fault
experience with similar batteries and
exists, the device will open the circuit
installations has shown that maintaining safe cell
regardless of the position of the operating
temperatures and pressures presents no problem.
control.
(d) No explosive or toxic gases emitted by
(d) If the ability to reset a circuit breaker or
any battery in normal operation, or as the result
replace a fuse is essential to safety in flight, that
of any probable malfunction in the charging
circuit breaker or fuse must be so located and
system or battery installation, may accumulate in
identified that it can be readily reset or replaced
hazardous quantities within the aeroplane.
in flight.
(e) No corrosive fluids or gases that may
(e) If fuses are used, there must be one
escape from the battery may damage surrounding
spare of each rating, or 50% spare fuses of each
structures or adjacent essential equipment.
rating, whichever is greater.
(f) Each nickel cadmium battery
installation capable of being used to start an
engine or auxiliary power unit must have CS-VLA 1361 Master switch
provisions to prevent any hazardous effect on arrangement
structure or essential systems that may be caused
(a) There must be a master switch or
by the maximum amount of heat the battery can
switches arranged to allow ready disconnection
generate during a short circuit of the battery or
of all electric power sources. The point of
of its individual cells.
disconnection must be adjacent to the sources
(g) Nickel cadmium battery installations controlled by the switch.
capable of being used to start an engine or
(b) The master switch arrangement must be
auxiliary power unit must have –
so installed that it is easily discernible and
(1) A system to control the charging accessible to the pilot in flight.
rate of the battery automatically so as to
prevent battery overheating;
CS-VLA 1365 Electric cables and
(2) A battery temperature sensing and
equipment
over-temperature warning system with a
means for disconnecting the battery from its (a) Each electric connecting cable must be
charging source in the event of an over- of adequate capacity.
temperature condition; or
(b) Each cable and associated equipment
(3) A battery failure sensing and that would overheat in the event of circuit
warning system with a means for overload or fault must be at least flame resistant
disconnecting the battery from its charging and may not emit dangerous quantities of toxic
source in the event of battery failure. fumes.

08.08.2003 1–F–4
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

CS-VLA 1367 Switches yielding, the structural loads expected, in

addition to hydraulic loads.
Each switch must be –
(b) A means to verify the quantity of
(a) Able to carry its rated current;
hydraulic fluid in the system must be provided.
(b) Constructed with enough distance or
(c) There must be means to prevent
insulating material between current carrying
excessive pressure resulting from fluid
parts and the housing so that vibration in flight
volumetric changes.
will not cause shorting;
(d) Tests. It must be shown by tests that –
(c) Accessible to the pilot; and
(1) The system is fully efficient when
(d) Labelled as to operation and the circuit
it has to transmit the maximum pilot force to
controlled.
which it can be submitted.
(2) There is no permanent
deformation or leakage, when the system is
LIGHTS
submitted to the maximum pilot force. (See
CS-VLA 405.) (See AMC VLA 1436.)
CS-VLA 1384 External lights
If external lights are installed they must
comply with the applicable sub-paragraphs of
paragraph 23.1385 to 23.1401, of CS-23.

SAFETY EQUIPMENT

CS-VLA 1411 General

(a) When safety equipment is installed it
must be readily accessible; and
(b) Stowage provisions for that equipment
must be furnished and must –
(1) Be arranged so that the equipment
is directly accessible and its location is
obvious; and
(2) Protect the safety equipment from
damage caused by being subjected to the
inertia loads specified in CS-VLA 561.

MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT

CS-VLA 1431 Electronic equipment

Electronic equipment and installations must
be free from hazards in themselves, in their
method of operation, and in their effects on other
components.

CS-VLA 1436 Hydraulic manually-

powered brake systems
(a) Each hydraulic manually-powered brake
system and its elements must withstand without

1–F–5 08.08.2003
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

SUBPART G – OPERATING LIMITATIONS AND INFORMATION

CS-VLA 1501 General (b) Additional combinations of flap setting,

airspeed, and engine power may be established if
(a) Each operating limitation specified in
the structure has been proven for the
CS-VLA 1505 to 1525 and other limitations and
corresponding design conditions.
information necessary for safe operation must be
established.
(b) The operating limitations and other CS-VLA 1519 Weight and centre of gravity
information necessary for safe operation must be
The weight and centre of gravity limitations
made available to the pilot as prescribed in CS- determined under CS-VLA 23 must be
CS 1541 to 1589. established as operating limitations.

CS-VLA 1505 Airspeed limitations CS-VLA 1521 Powerplant limitations

(a) The never-exceed speed VNE must be (a) General. T h e powerplant limitations
established so that it is – prescribed in this paragraph must be established
(1) Not less than 0·9 times the so that they do not exceed the corresponding
minimum value of VD allowed under CS- limits for which the engine or propeller is type
VLA 335; and certificated.
(2) Not more than the lesser of – (b) Take-off operation. The Powerplant
take-off operation must be limited by –
(i) 0·9 VD established under
CS-VLA 335; or (1) The maximum rotational speed
power;
(ii) 0·9 times the maximum
speed shown under CS-VLA 251. (2) The maximum allowable manifold
pressure for aeroplanes equipped with a
(b) The maximum structural cruising speed variable pitch propeller or supercharger;
VNO must be established so that it is –
(3) The time limit for the use of the
(1) Not less than the minimum value power or thrust corresponding to the
of Vc allowed under CS-VLA 335; and limitations established in sub-paragraphs (b)(l)
(2) Not more than the lesser of – and (b)(2) of this paragraph; and
(i) Vc established under CS- (4) If the time limit in sub-paragraph
VLA 335; or (b)(3) of this paragraph exceeds two minutes,
the maximum allowable cylinder head (as
(ii) 0·89 VNE established under applicable), liquid coolant, and oil
sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph. temperatures.
(c) Continuous operation. The continuous
CS-VLA 1507 Manoeuvring speed operation must be limited by –
The manoeuvring speed VA, determined (1) The maximum rotational speed;
under CS-VLA 335, must be established as an
(2) The maximum allowable manifold
operating limitation.
pressure for aeroplanes equipped with a
variable pitch propeller or supercharger;
CS-VLA 1511 Flap extended speed (3) The maximum allowable cylinder
head, oil, and liquid coolant temperatures.
(a) The flap extended speed VFE must be
established so that it is – (d) Fuel grade. The minimum fuel grade
must be established so that it is not less than that
(1) Not less than the minimum value
required for the operation of the engine within
of VF allowed in CS-VLA 345 and 457; and
the limitations in sub-paragraphs (b) and (c) of
(2) Not more than the lesser of – this paragraph.
(i) VF established under CS-
VLA 345; or
CS-VLA 1525 Kinds of operation
(ii) VF established under CS-
The kinds of operation to which the aeroplane
VLA 457. is limited are established by the category in

1–G–1 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

which it is eligible for certification and by the (s) Instructions for weighing the aircraft
installed equipment. and determining the actual centre of gravity.

CS-VLA 1529 Maintenance manual

MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
A maintenance manual containing the
information that the applicant considers essential
for proper maintenance must be provided. At CS-VLA 1541 General
least the following must be considered in
developing the essential information: (a) The aeroplane must contain –

(a) Description of systems; (1) The markings and placards

specified in CS-VLA 1545 to 1567; and
(b) Lubrication instructions setting forth the
frequency and the lubricants and fluids which are (2) Any additional information,
to be used in the various systems; instrument markings, and placards required
for the safe operation if it has unusual design,
(c) Pressures and electrical loads applicable operating, or handling characteristics.
to the various systems;
(b) Each marking and placard prescribed in
(d) Tolerances and adjustments necessary sub-paragraph (a) of this paragraph –
for proper functioning of the aeroplane;
(1) Must be displayed in a
(e) Methods of levelling, jacking, raising, conspicuous place; and
and ground towing;
(2) May not be easily erased,
(f) Methods of balancing control surfaces, disfigured, or obscured.
and maximum permissible values of play at
hingepins and control circuit backlash; (c) The units of measurement used on
placards must be the same as those used on the
(g) Identification of primary and secondary indicators.
structures;
(h) Frequency and extent of inspections
necessary for proper maintenance of the CS-VLA 1543 Instrument markings: general
aeroplane; For each instrument –
(i) Special repair methods applicable to the (a) When markings are on the cover glass of
aeroplane; the instrument, there must be means to maintain
(j) Special inspection techniques; the correct alignment of the glass cover with the
face of the dial; and
(k) List of special tools;
(b) Each arc and line must be wide enough
(1) Statement of service life .limitations and located to be clearly visible to the pilot.
(replacement or overhaul) of parts, components
and accessories subject to such limitations,
unless those limitations are given in documents CS-VLA 1545 Airspeed indicator
referred to in (m);
(a) Each airspeed indicator must be marked
(m) List of maintenance documents for as specified in subparagraph (b) of this
parts, components and accessories approved paragraph, with the marks located at the
independently of the aeroplane; corresponding indicated airspeed.
(n) The materials necessary for small (b) The following markings must be made:
repairs.
(1) For the never-exceed speed VNE,
(o) Care and cleaning recommendations; a radial red line.
(p) List of placards and markings and their (2) For the caution range, a yellow arc;
locations; ' extending from the red line specified in sub-
(q) Instructions for rigging and de-rigging; paragraph (b)(l) of this paragraph to the upper
limit of the green arc specified in sub-
(r) Information on supporting points and paragraph (b)(3) of this paragraph.
means to prevent damage. during ground
transport, rigging and de-rigging; and

08.08.2003 1–G–2
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(3) For the normal operating range, a CS-VLA 1555 Control markings
green arc with the lower limit at Vsi with
(a) Each cockpit control, other than primary
maximum weight and with landing gear and
flight controls and simple push button type
wing flaps retracted, and the upper limit at the
starter switches, must be plainly marked as to its
maximum structural cruising speed VNO
function and method of operation.
established under CS-VLA 1505 (b).
(b) Each. secondary control must be
(4) For the flap operating range, a
suitably marked.
white arc with the lower limit at VSO at the
maximum weight and the upper limit at the (c) For powerplant fuel controls –
flaps-extended speed VFE established under
(1) Each fuel tank selector control
CS- VLA 1511.
must be marked to indicate the position
corresponding to each tank and to each
existing cross feed position;
CS-VLA 1547 Magnetic direction indicator
(2) If safe operation requires the use
(a) A placard meeting the requirements of
of any tanks in a specific sequence, that
this section must be installed on or near the
sequence must be marked on or near the
magnetic direction indicator.
selector for those tanks;
(b) The placard must show the calibration
(3) The conditions under which the
of the instrument in level flight with the engine
full amount of usable fuel in any restricted
operating.
usage fuel tank can safely be used must be
(c) The placard must state whether the stated on a placard adjacent to the selector
calibration was made with radio receivers on or valve for that tank.
off.
(d) For accessory, auxiliary, and emergency
(d) Each calibration reading must be in controls –
terms of magnetic headings in not more than
(1) If retractable landing gear is used
30°increments.
the indicator required by CS-VLA 729 must
be marked so that the pilot can, at any time
ascertain that the wheels are secured in the
CS-VLA 1549 Powerplant instruments
extreme positions; and
For each required powerplant instrument, as (2) Each emergency control must be
appropriate to the type of instruments –
red and must be marked as to method of
(a) Each maximum and if applicable, operation.
minimum safe operating limit must be marked
with a red radial or a red line; –
CS-VLA 1557 Miscellaneous markings and
(b) Each normal operating range must be
placards
marked with a green arc or green line not
extending beyond the maximum and minimum (a) Baggage and cargo compartments, and
safe limits; ballast location. Each baggage and cargo
compartment, and each ballast location, must
(c) Each take-off and precautionary range
have a placard stating any limitations on
must be marked with a yellow arc or a yellow
contents, including weight, that are necessary
line; and
under the loading requirements.
(d) Each engine or propeller range that is
(b) Fuel and oil filler openings. The
restricted because of excessive vibration stresses
following apply:
must be marked with red arcs or red lines.
(1) Fuel filler openings must be
marked at or near the filler cover with the
CS-VLA 1551 Oil quantity indicator minimum fuel grade, fuel designation, fuel
capacity of the tank, and for each 2-stroke
Each oil quantity indicator must be marked to
engine without a separate oil system, fuel/oil
clearly indicate the maximum and minimum
quantity of oil that is acceptable. mixture ratio.
(2) Oil filler openings must be marked
at or near the filler cover:

1–G–3 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

(i) With the grade; and (1) Information required in CS- VLA
1583 to 1589 including the explanation
(ii) If the oil is detergent or non-
necessary for their proper use and the
detergent.
significance of the symbols used.
(c) Fuel tanks. The usable fuel capacity in
(2) Other information that is necessary
volumetric units of each tank must be marked at
for safe operation because of design operating
the selector and on the fuel quantity indicator.
or handling characteristics, including the
(d) When an emergency exit is provided in effect of rain and insects accumulation on
compliance with CS-VLA 807, each operating flight characteristics and performances as
control must be red. The placards must be near determined under CS-VLA 21 (d).
each control and must clearly indicate its method
(3) A list of effective pages, with
of operation.
identification of those containing approved
(e) The system voltage of each direct information according to sub-paragraph (b) of
current installation must be clearly marked this paragraph.
adjacent to its external power connection.
(b) Approved information. Each part of the
Flight Manual containing information prescribed
in CS-VLA 1583 to 1587 (a) must be limited to
CS-VLA 1559 Operating limitations placards
such information and must be approved,
The following placards must be plainly visible identified and clearly distinguished from each
to the pilot: other part of the Flight Manual. All Manual
(a) A placard stating the following material must be of a type that is not easily
airspeeds (IAS): erased, disfigured or misplaced, and it must be in
the form of individual sheets capable of being
(1) Design manoeuvring speed, VA; inserted in a Manual provided by the applicant,
(2) The maximum landing gear or in a folder or in any other permanent form.
operating speed, VLO. (c) Non-approved information. Non-
(b) A placard stating ‘This aeroplane is approved information must be presented in a
classified as a very light aeroplane approved for manner acceptable to the Agency.
day VER only, in non-icing conditions. All (d) Units. The units of measurement used in
aerobatic manoeuvres including intentional the Flight Manual must be the same as those
spinning are prohibited. See Flight Manual for used on the indicators.
other limitations’.

CS-VLA 1583 Operating limitations

CS-VLA 1561 Safety equipment
(a) Airspeed limitations. The following
(a) When installed, safety equipment must information must be furnished
be plainly marked as to method of operation; and
(1) Information necessary for the
(b) Stowage provisions for that equipment marking of the airspeed limits on the indicator,
must be marked for the benefit of occupants. as required in CS-VLA 1545 and the
significance of the colour coding used on the
indicator.
AEROPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL AND (2) The speeds VA, VLo, VLE where
APPROVED MANUAL MATERIAL appropriate.
(b) Weights. The following information
must be furnished:
CS-VLA 1581 General
(See AMC VLA 1581) (1) The maximum weight.
(a) Furnishing information. A Flight (2) Any other weight limits, if
Manual must be furnished with each aeroplane. necessary.
There must be an appropriate location for
stowage of the Flight Manual aboard the (c) Centre of gravity. The established c.g.
aeroplane and each Flight Manual must contain limits required by CS-VLA 23 must be
the following: furnished.

08.08.2003 1–G–4
BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(d) Manoeuvres. Authorised manoeuvres (f) Information on the total quantity of

established in accordance withCS-VLA 3. usable fuel, and conditions under which the full
amount of usable fuel in each tank can safely be
(e) Flight load factors. Manoeuvring load
used.
factors: the following must be furnished:
(1) The factors corresponding to point
A and point C of figure 1 of CS-VLA 333 (b), CS-VLA 1587 Performance information
stated to be applicable at VA.
(a) General. For each aeroplane, the
(2) The factors corresponding to point following information must be furnished
D and point E of figure 1 of CS-VLA 333 (b)
(1) The take-off distance determined
to be applicable at VNE.
under CS-VLA 51, the airspeed at the 15 m
(3) The factor with wing flaps height, the aeroplane configuration (if
extended as specified in CS-VLA 345. pertinent), the kind of surface in the tests, and
the pertinent information with respect to cowl
(f) Kinds of operation. The kinds of
fiap position, use of flight path control
operation (day VFR) in which the aeroplane may
devices, and use of the landing gear retraction
be used, must be stated. The minimum
system.
equipment required for the operation must be
listed. (2) The landing distance determined
under CS-VLA 75, the aeroplane
(g) Powerplant limitations. The following
configuration (if pertinent), the kind of
information must be furnished:
surface used in the tests, and the pertinent
(1) Limitation required by CS- VLA information with respect to flap position and
1521. the use of flight path control devices.
(2) Information necessary for marking (3) The steady rate or gradient of
the instruments required by CS-VLA 1549 to climb determined under CS-VLA 65 and 77,
1553. the airspeed, power, and the aeroplane
configuration.
(3) Fuel and oil designation.
(4) The calculated approximate effect
(4) For two-stroke engines, fuel/oil
on take-off distance (sub-paragraph (a)( 1) of
ratio.
this paragraph), landing distance (sub-
(h) Placards. Placards required by CS-VLA paragraph (a)(2) of this paragraph), and steady
1555 to 1561 must be presented. rates of climb (sub-paragraph (a)(3) of this
paragraph), of variations in altitude and
temperature. (See AMC VLA 1587(a)(4).)
CS-VLA 1585 Operating data and
(5) The maximum atmospheric
procedures
temperature at which compliance with the
Information concerning normal and cooling provisions of CS-VLA 1041 to 1047
emergency procedures and other pertinent is shown.
information necessary for safe operation must be
furnished, including – (b) Skiplanes. For skiplanes a statement of
the approximate reduction in climb performance
(a) The stall speed in the various may be used instead of complete new data for
configurations. skiplane configuration, if -
(b) Any loss of altitude more than 30 m or (1) The landing gear is fixed in both
any pitch attitude more than 30°below the landplane and skiplane configurations;
horizon occurring during the recovery part of the
manoeuvre prescribed in CS-VLA 201. (2) The climb requirements are not
critical; and
(c) Any loss of altitude of more than 30 m
occurring in the recovery part of the manoeuvre (3) The climb reduction in the
prescribed in CS-VLA 203. skiplane configurations is small (0.15 to 0.25
m/s (30 to 50 feet per minute)).
(d) Recommended recovery procedure to
recover from an inadvertent spin.
(e) Special procedures to start the engine in
flight, if necessary.

1–G–5 08.08.2003
CS-VLA BOOK 1

(c) Information concerning normal

procedures
(1) The demonstrated crosswind
velocity and procedures and information
pertinent to operation of the aeroplane in
crosswinds, and The airspeeds, procedures,
and information pertinent to the use of the
following airspeeds:
(i) The recommended climb
speed and any variation with altitude.
(ii) VX (speed for best angle of
climb) and any variation with altitude.
(iii) The approach speeds,
including speeds for transition to the
balked landing condition.
(d) An indication of the effect on take-off
distance of a grass surface as determined format
INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
least one take-off measurement on short mown
dry grass must be furnished.

CS-VLA 1589 Loading information

The following loading information must be
furnished:
(a) The weight and location of each item of
equipment installed when the aeroplane was
weighed under CS-VLA 25.
(b) Appropriate loading instructions for
each possible loading condition between the
maximum and minimum weights determined
under CS-VLA 25 that can result in a centre of
gravity beyond –
(1) The extremes selected by the
applicant;
(2) The extremes within which the
structure is proven; or
(3) The extremes within which
compliance with each functional requirement
is shown.

08.08.2003 1–G–6
BOOK 1 CS-VLA
APPENDICES

Appendix A

Simplified Design Load Criteria For Conventional Very Light Aeroplanes

the maximum design weight conditions must be

investigated.
A1 General
(b) Tables 1 and 3 and figure A3 of this
(a) The design load criteria in this Appendix must be used to determine values of
Appendix are an approved equivalent of those in ni, n2, n3 and n4, corresponding to the maximum
CS- VLA 321 t o 459 of this document for the design weights in the desired Categories.
certification of conventional very light
(c) Figures Al and A2 of this Appendix
aeroplanes as defined in CS-VLA 1 and 301 (d)
must be used to determine values of n3 and n4
and AMC 301 (d).
corresponding to the minimum flying weights in
(b) Unless otherwise stated, the the desired categories, and, if these load factors
nomenclature and symbols in this Appendix are are greater than the load factors at the design
the same as the corresponding nomenclature and weight, the supporting structure for dead weight
symbols in (a) items must be substantiated for the resulting
higher load factors.
(d) Each specified wing and tail loading is
A3 Special symbols
independent of the centre of gravity range.
n1 = Aeroplane Positive Manoeuvring However, a c.g. range, must be selected for the
Limit Load Factor aeroplane and the basic fuselage structure must
be investigated for the most adverse dead weight
n2 = Aeroplane Negative Manoeuvring
loading conditions for the c.g. range selected.
Limit Load Factor
(e) The following loads and loading
n3 = Aeroplane Positive Gust Limit
conditions are the minimums for which strength
Load Factor at VC
must be provided in the structure:
n4 = Aeroplane Negative Gust Limit
(1) Aeroplane equilibrium. The
Load Factor at VC
aerodynamic wing loads may be considered to
nflap = Aeroplane Positive Limit Load act normal to the relative wind, and to have a
Factor With Flaps Fully Extended magnitude of 1.05 times the aeroplane normal
at VF loads (as determined from sub-paragraph A9
(b) and (c) of this Appendix) for the positive
*VFmin = Minimum Design Flap Speed =
flight conditions and a magnitude equal to the
4.98 n1 W / S knots. aeroplane normal loads for the negative
conditions. Each chordwise and normal
*VAmin = Mini Design Manoeuvring Speed
component of this wing load must be
= 6.79 n1 W / S knots. considered.
*VCmin = Minimum Design Cruising Speed (2) Minimum design airspeeds. The
= 7.69 n1 W / S knots. minimum design airspeeds may be chosen by
the applicant except that they may not be less
*VDmin = Minimum Design Dive Speed = than the minimum speeds found by using
10.86 n1 W / S knots. Table 3 of this Appendix. In addition, Vcrnin
need not exceed values of 0.9 VH actually
*Also see sub-paragraph A7(e)(2) of this obtained at sea level for the lowest design
Appendix. weight category for which certification is
(Speeds in knots, W in kg, S in mZ.) desired. In computing these minimum design
airspeeds, ni may not be less than 3.8.
(3) Flight load factor. The limit flight
A7 Flight loads
load factors specified in Table 1 of this
(a) Each flight load may be considered Appendix represent the ratio of the
independent of altitude and, except for the local aerodynamic force component (acting normal
supporting structure for dead weight items, only to the assumed longitudinal axis of the
aeroplane) to the weight of the aeroplane. A

1–App A–1 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

positive flight load factor is an aerodynamic of approach, landing, and take-off, are
force acting upward, with respect to the installed, the aeroplane must be designed for
aeroplane. the two flight conditions corresponding to the
values of limit flap-down factors specified in
Table 1 of this Appendix with the flaps fully
A9 Flight conditions extended at not less than the design flap speed
VFmin from Table 3 of this Appendix.
(a) General. Each design condition in sub-
paragraphs (b) and (c) of this paragraph must be (c) Unsymmetrical flight conditions. Each
used to assure sufficient strength for each affected structure must be designed for
condition of speed and load factor on or within unsymmetrical loadings as follows:
the boundary of a V-n diagram for the aeroplane
(1) The aft fuselage-to-wing
similar to the diagram in figure A3 of this
attachment must be designed for the critical
Appendix. This diagram must also be used to
vertical surface load determined in accordance
determine the aeroplane structural operating
with sub-paragraphs Al 1 (c)(l) and (2) of this
limitations as specified in CS-VLA 1501 (c) to
Appendix.
1511 and 1519.
(2) The wing and wing carry-through
(b) Symmetrical flight conditions. The
structures must be designed for 100% of
aeroplane must be designed for symmetrical
condition ‘A’ loading on one side of the plane
flight conditions as follows:
of symmetry and 70% on the opposite side.
(1) The aeroplane must be designed
(3) The wing and wing carry-through
for at least the four basic flight conditions,
structures must be designed for the loads
‘A’, ‘D’, ‘E‘, and ‘G‘ as noted on the flight
resulting from a combination of 75% of the
envelope of figure A3 of this Appendix. In
positive manoeuvring wing loading on both
addition, the following requirements apply:
sides of the plane of symmetry and the
(i) The design limit flight load maximum wing torsion resulting from aileron
factors corresponding to conditions ‘D’ displacement. The effect of aileron
and ‘E’ of figure A3 must be at least as displacement on wing torsion at Vc or VA
great as those specified in Table 1 and using the basic aerofoil moment coefficient,
figure A3 of this Appendix, and the Cmo, modified over the aileron portion of the
design speed for these conditions must span, must be computed as follows:
be at least equal to the value of VDmin
(i) Cm = Cmo + 0.01 δu (up
found from Table 3 of this Appendix.
aileron side) wing basic aerofoil.
(ii) For conditions ‘A’ and ‘G‘
(ii) Cm = Cmo - 0.01 δd (down
of figure A3, the load factors must
aileron side) wing basic aerofoil, where
correspond to those specified in Table 1
δu is the up aileron deflection and δd is
of this Appendix, and the design speeds
the down aileron.
must be computed using these load
factors with the maximum static life (4) ∆ critical, which is the sum of δu +
coefficient CAN determined by the δd, must be computed as follows:
applicant. However, in the absence of
(i) Compute ∆a and ∆b from the
more precise computations, these latter
formulae –
conditions may be based on a value of
CNA = ±35 and the design speed for VA
∆a = × ∆ p and
condition ‘A’ may be less than VAmin. VC
(iii) Conditions ‘C‘ and ‘F‘ of VA
figure A3 need only be investigated ∆b = 0 ⋅ 5 × ∆p
VD
when n3 W/S or n4 W/S are greater than
n1 W/S or n2 W/S of this Appendix, where ∆p = the maximum total
respectively. The use of figures Al and deflection (sum of both aileron
A2 for points ‘C’ and ‘F’ is restricted to deflections) at VA with VA, VC, and VD
wings of Aspect Ratio of 7 or less. In described in sub-paragraph (2) of A7(e)
other cases, the method of CS-VLA 341 of this Appendix.
should be used.
(ii) Compute K from the
(2) If flaps or other high lift devices formula –
intended for use at the relatively low airspeed

08.08.2003 1–App A–2

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

(Cm0 − 0 ⋅ 01δb ) VD 2 which could be obtained in flight by employing

K=
(Cm0 − 0 ⋅ 01 δa ) VC 2 the maximum limit pilot forces specified in the
table in CS- VLA 397 (b). If the surface loads
where δa is the down aileron deflection are limited by these maximum limit pilot forces,
corresponding to ∆a and δb is the down the tabs must either be considered to be deflected
aileron deflection corresponding to ∆b to their maximum travel in the direction which
as computed in step (i). would assist the pilot or the deflection must
correspond to the maximum degree of ‘out of
(iii) If K is less than 1.0, ∆ a is ∆
trim’ expected at the speed for the condition
critical and must be used to determine
under consideration. The tab load, however, need
δu, and δd. In this case, VC is the critical
not exceed the value specified in Table 2 of this
speed which must be used in computing
Appendix.
the wing torsion loads over the aileron
span. (c) Surface loading conditions. Each
surface loading condition must be investigated as
(iv) If K is equal to or greater
follows:
than 1.0, ∆b is ∆ critical and must be
used to determine δu and δd. In this case, (1) Simplified limit surface loadings
VD is the critical speed which must be and distributions for the horizontal tail,
used in computing the wing torsion vertical tail, aileron, wing flaps, and trim tabs
loads over the aileron span. are specified in Table 2 and figures A4 and
A5 of this Appendix. If more than one
(d) Supplementary conditions; rear lift distribution is given, each distribution must be
truss; engine torque; side load on engine mount. investigated. Figure A4 is limited to use with
Each of the following supplementary conditions vertical tails with aspect ratios less than 2.5
mustbe investigated: and horizontal tails with aspect ratios less
(1) In designing the rear lift truss, the than 5 and tail volumes greater than 0.4.
special condition specified in CS-VLA 369
(d) Outboard fins. Outboard fins must meet
may be investigated instead of condition ‘G’
the requirements of CS-VLA 445.
of figure A3 of this Appendix.
(e) T- and V-tails. T- and V-tails must meet
(2) The engine mount and its
the requirements of CS-VLA 427.
supporting structure must be designed for the
maximum limit torque corresponding to (f) Special devices. Special devices must
Maximum Expected Take-off Power and meet the requirements of CS-VLA 459.
propeller speed acting simultaneously with the
limit loads resulting from the maximum
positive manoeuvring flight load factor n1. A13 Control system loads
The limit torque must be obtained by
(a) Primary flight controls and systems.
multiplying the mean torque by the factor
Each primary flight control and system must be
defined in CS-VLA 361 (b).
designed as follows:
(3) The engine mount and its
(1) The flight control system and its
supporting structure must be designed for the
supporting structure must be designed for
loads resulting from a lateral limit load factor
loads corresponding to 125% of the computed
of not less than 1.47.
hinge moments of the movable control surface
in the conditions prescribed in paragraph Al 1
of this Appendix. in addition -
A11 Control surface loads
(i) The system limit loads need
(a) General. Each control surface load must not exceed those that could be produced
be determined using the criteria of sub-paragraph by the pilot and automatic devices
(b) of this paragraph and must lie within the operating the controls; and
simplified loadings of sub-paragraph (c) of this
paragraph. (ii) The design must provide a
rugged system for service use, including
(b) Limit pilot forces. In each control jamming, ground gusts, taxying
surface loading condition described in sub- downwind, control inertia, and friction.
paragraphs (c) to (e) of this paragraph, the
airloads on the movable surfaces and the (2) Acceptable maximum and
corresponding deflections need not exceed those minimum limit pilot forces for elevator,

1–App A–3 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

aileron, and rudder controls are shown in the paragraph (a) of this paragraph, except that
table in CS-VLA 387 (b). These pilots loads individual pilot loads may not be less than the
must be assumed to act at the appropriate minimum limit pilot forces shown in the table in
control grips or pads as they would under CS-VLA 397(b).
flight conditions, and to be reacted at the
(c) Ground gust conditions. Ground gust
attachments of the control system to the
conditions must meet the requirements of CS-
control surface horn.
VLA 415.
(b) Dual controls. If there are dual controls,
(d) Secondary controls and systems.
the systems must be designed for pilots operating
Secondary controls and systems must meet the
in opposition, using individual pilot loads equal
requirements of CS-VLA 405.
to 75% of those obtained in accordance with sub-

Table 1 – Limit flight load factors

LIMIT FLIGHT LOAD FACTORS
Normal Utility Aerobatic
Category category category
n1 3·8 4·4 6·0

Flaps n2 –0·5 n1
FLIGHT Up n3 Find n3 from Figure A1
LOAD
n4 Find n4 from Figure A2
FACTORS
Flaps nflap 0·5 n1
Down nflap Zero*
*Vertical wing load may be assumed equal to zero and only the flap part of the wing need be
checked for this condition.

Table 2 - Average limit control surface loading

AVERAGE LIMIT CONTROL SURFACE LOADING
SURFACE DIRECTION OF MAGNITUDE OF CHORDWISE
LOADING LOADING DISTRIBUTION
HORIZONTAL (a) Up and Down Figure A4 Curve (2)
TAIL I (b) Unsymmetrical loading 100% w on one side
(Up and Down) aeroplane C
L

65% w on other side

L for normal and
aeroplane C
utility categories.
For aerobatic category see
A11(c)

VERTICAL (a) Right and Left Figure A4 Curve (1) Same as (A) above
TAIL II (b) Right and Left Figure A4 Curve (1) Same as (B) above
AILERON III (a) Up and Down Figure A5 Curve (5)

WING FLAP (a) Up Figure A5 Curve (4)

IV
(b) Down 0·25 x Up load (a)

TRIM TAB V (a) Up and Down Figure A5 Curve (3) Same as (D) above

08.08.2003 1–App A–4

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

Note: The surface loadings I, II, III an V above are based on speeds V Amin and Vcmin. The loading of IV is based on VFmin.
If values of speeds greater than these minimums are selected for design, the appropriate surface loadings must be
2
 Vselected 
multiplied by ratio   . For conditions I, II, III and V the multiplying factor used must be the higher of
 Vminimum 
2 2
 VAsel.   VCsel. 
  or  
 VAmin   VC min 

1–App A–5 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

FIGURE A l
CHART FOR FINDING n3 FACTOR AT SPEED Vc.

FIGURE A2
CHART FOR FINDING n4 FACTOR AT SPEED Vc.

08.08.2003 1–App A–6

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

Table 3 - Determination of minimum design speeds – Equations

W n1
VDmin = 10·86 n1 but need not exceed 1·4 VC min
S 3⋅8
W
VCmin = 7·69 n1 but need not exceed 0·9 VH
S
W
VAmin = 6·79 n1 but need not exceed V C used in design
S
W
VFmin = 4·98 n1
S

(Speeds are in knots, W in kg, S in m2)

W W W W
1. Conditions ‘C’ or ‘F’ need only be investigated when n3 or n4 is greater than n1 or n2 ,
S S S S
respectively.

2. Condition ‘G’ need not be investigated when the supplementary condition specified in CS-VLA 369 is
investigated.

FIGURE A3
FLIGHT ENVELOPE.

1–App A–7 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

FIGURE A4
AVERAGE LIMIT CONTROL SURFACE LOADING.

FIGURE A5
AVERAGE LIMIT CONTROL SURFACE LOADING.

08.08.2003 1–App A–8

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

APPENDIX B

Control Surface Loadings

B1 General
(1) With the conditions in CS-VLA
(a) If allowed by the specific requirements 423 (a)(i), obtain F as a function of W/S and
in this CS-VLA, the values of control surface surface deflection, using -
loading in this Appendix may be used to deter
(i) Curve C of figure B1 for a
mine the detailed rational requirements of CS-
deflection of 10" or less;
VLA 397 to 459 unless the Agency finds that
these values result in unrealistic loads. (ii) Curve B of figure B1 for a
deflection of 20";
(b) In the control surface loading conditions
of paragraph B11, the airloads on the movable (iii) Curve A for a deflection of
surfaces need not exceed those that could be 30" or more;
obtained in flight by using the maximum limit
(iv) Interpolation for all other
pilot forces prescribed in CS-VLA 397 (b). If the
deflections; and
surface loads are limited by these maximum limit
pilot forces, the tabs must be deflected - (v) The distribution of figure
B7; and
(1) To their maximum travel in the
direction that would assist the pilot; or (2) With the conditions in CS- VLA
423 (a)(2), obtain % from curve B of figure
(2) In an amount corresponding to the
B1 using the distribution of figure B7.
greatest degree of out-of-trim expected at the
speed for the condition being considered. (b) For vertical tail surfaces -
(c) For a seaplane version of a landplane (1) With the conditions in CS-VLA
the landplane wing loadings may be used to 441 (a)(l), obtain W as a function of W/S and
determine the limit manoeuvring control surface surface deflection using the same
loadings (in accordance with paragraph B11 and requirements as used in sub-paragraphs
figure B1 of this Appendix) if - (a)( l)(i) to (a)( l)(v) of this paragraph;
(1) The power of the seaplane engine (2) With the conditions in CS- VLA
does not exceed the power of the landplane 441 (a)(2), obtain F from Curve C, using the
engine; distribution of figure B6; and
(2) The placard manoeuvre speed of (3) With the conditions in CS-VLA
the seaplane does not exceed the placard 441 (a)(3), obtain W from Curve A, using the
manoeuvre speed of the landplane; distribution of figure B8.
(3) The maximum weight of the (c) For ailerons, obtain W from Curve B,
seaplane does not exceed the maximum acting in both the up and down directions, using
weight of the landplane by more than 10%; the distribution of figure B9.
(4) The landplane service experience
does not show any serious control-surface
load problem; and
(5) The landplane service experience
is of sufficient scope to ascertain with
reasonable accuracy that no serious control-
surface load problem will develop on the
seaplane.

B11 Control surface loads

Acceptable values of limit average
manoeuvring control-surface loadings may be
obtained from figure B1 of this Appendix in
accordance with the following:
(a) For horizontal tail surfaces -

1–App B–1 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

FIGURE B1 – LIMIT AVERAGE MANOEUVRING CONTROL SURFACE LOADING.

FIGURE B2 –MANOEUVRING TAIL LOAD INCREMENT (UP OR DOWN)

As an alternative to Figure B2, the following may be used:

T k2
= × 20 ⋅ 1 n1(n1÷1 ⋅ 5)
W g1t V
where:
k is the radius of gyration of the aircraft in pitch
lt is the distance between the aeroplane centre of gravity and the centre of the lift of the horizontal tail
V is the aircraft speed in m/s.

08.08.2003 1–App B–2

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

FIGURE B3
UP AND DOWN GUST LOADING ON HORIZONTALTAIL SURFACE.

FIGURE B4
RES E RVED.

1–App B–3 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

FIGURE B5 - GUST LOADING ON VERTICAL TAL SURFACE.

FIGURE B6 -TAIL SURFACE LOAD DISTRIBUTION.

NOTES:

(a) In balancing conditions in CS-VLA 421, (1) 140% of the net balancing load for
P = 40% of net balancing load (flaps retracted); the flaps retracted case of note (a);
and P = 0 (flaps deflected).
(2) 100% of the net balancing load for
(b) In the condition in CS-VLA 441 (a)(2), the flaps deflected case of note (a); and
P = 20% of net tail load.
(3) 120% of the net balancing load for
(c) The load on the fixed surface must be - the case in note (b).

08.08.2003 1–App B–4

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

FIGURE B7 FIGURE B8
TAIL SURFACE LOAD DISTRIBUTION. TAIL SURFACE LOAD DISTRIBUTION.

FIGURE B9
AILERON LOAD DISTRIBUTION.

1–App B–5 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

08.08.2003 1–App B–6

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

Appendix C

Basic Landing Conditions

Tail wheel type Nose wheel type

Level
Level
landing with
Condition Level Tail-down landing with Tail-down
nose wheel
landing landing inclined landing
just clear
reactions
of ground
Reference section--------------------------------- CS-VLA CS-VLA CS-VLA CS-VLA CS -VLA
479 (a)(1) 381 (a)(1) 479 (a)(2)(ii) 479 (a)(2)(ii) 481 (a)(2)
and (b)
Vertical component at c.g ----------------------- nW nW nW nW nW
Fore and aft component at c.g. ----------------- KnW 0 KnW KnW 0
Lateral component in either direction at c.g -- 0 0 0 0 0
Shock absorber extension (hydraulic shock Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) Note (2)
absorber) -----------------------------------------
Shock absorber deflection (rubber or spring 100 % 100% 100% 100% 100%
shock absorber) ---------------------------------
Tyre deflection------------------------------------ Static Static Static Static Static

{
Vr (n-L)W (n-L)Wb/d (n-L)Wa’/d’ (N-LW (n-L)W
Main wheel loads (both wheels) -----
Dr KnW 0 KnWa’/d’ KnW 0

Tail (nose) wheel loads ---------------- { Vf

Df
0
0
(n-L)Wa/d
0
(n-L)Wb’/d’
KnWb’/d’
0
0
0
0
Notes ----------------------------------------------- (1), (3), and (4) (1) (1), (3), and (3) and (4)
(4) (4)

NOTES: (1) K may be determined as follows: K = 0.25 for W = 1361 kg or less; K = 0.33 for W = 2722 kg or greater, with linear
variation of K between these weights.
(2) For the purpose of design, the maximum load factor is assumed to occur throughout the shock absorber stroke from
25% deflection to 100% deflection unless otherwise shown and the load factor must be used with whatever shock
absorber extension is most critical for each element of the landing gear.
(3) Unbalanced moments must be balanced by a rational conservation method.
(4) L is defied in CS-VLA 725 e).
(5) n is the limit inertia load factor, at the c.g. of the aeroplane, selected under CS-VLA 473 (d), (f), and (g).

1–App C–1 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

08.08.2003 1–App C–2

BOOK 1 CS-VLA

Appendix F
Test Procedure For Self-Extinguishing Materials For Showing Compliance with CS-VLA 853 (e)

F1 Conditioning F4 Vertical test

Specimens must be conditioned to 70° F, A minimum of three specimens must be tested
±5°and at 50% ±5% relative humidity until and the results averaged. For fabrics, the
moisture equilibrium is reached or for 24 hours. direction of weave corresponding to the most
Only one specimen at a time may be removed critical flammability conditions must be parallel
from the conditioning environment immediately to the longest dimension. Each specimen must be
before subjecting it to the flame. supported vertically. The specimen must be
exposed to a Bunsen or Tirrill burner with a
nominal 9.5 mm (0.375 inch) I.D. tube adjusted
F2 Specimen configuration to give a flame of 38.1 mm (14 inches) in height.
The minimum flame temperature measured by a
Materials must be tested either as a section calibrated thermocouple pyrometer in the centre
cut from a fabricated part as installed in the of the flame must be 1550" F. The lower edge of
aeroplane or as a specimen simulating a cut the specimen must be 19 mm (0.75 inch) above
section, such as a specimen cut from a flat sheet the top edge of the. burner. The flame must be
of the material or a model of the fabricated part. applied to the centre-line of the lower edge of the
The specimen may be cut from any location in a specimen. The flame must be applied for 60
fabricated part; however, fabricated units such as seconds and then removed. Flame time, burn
a sandwich panel, may not be separated for test. length, and flaming time of drippings, if any,
The specimen thickness must be no thicker than must be recorded. The bum length determined in
the minimum thickness to be qualified for use in accordance with paragraph F5 of this Appendix
the aeroplane, except that thick foam parts must must be measured to the nearest 2.5 mm (0.1
be tested in 12.7 mm (0.5 inch) thickness. In the inch).
case of fabrics, both the warp and fill direction
of the weave must be tested to determine the
most critical flammability conditions. When
F5 Burn length
performing the test prescribed in paragraph F4 of
this Appendix, the specimen must be mounted in Burn length is the distance from the original
a metal frame so that - edge to the farthest evidence of damage to the
test specimen due to flame impingement,
(a) The two long edges and the upper edge including areas of partial or complete
are held securely; consumption, charring, or embrittlement, but not
(b) The exposed area of the specimen is at including areas sooted, stained, warped, or
least 51 mm (2 inches) wide and 305 mm (12 discoloured, nor areas where material has shrunk
inches) long, unless the actual size used in the or melted away from the heat source.
aeroplane is smaller; and
(c) The edge to which the burner frame is
applied must not consist of the finished or
protected edge of the specimen but must be
representative of the actual cross section of the
material or part installed in the aeroplane.

F3 Apparatus
Tests must be conducted in a draught-free
cabinet in accordance with Federal Test Method
Standard 191 Method 5903 (revised Method
5902) which is available from the General
Services Administration, Business Service
Center, Region 3, Seventh and D Streets SW,
Washington, D.C. 20407, or with some other
approved equivalent method. Specimens which
are too large for the cabinet must be tested in
similar draught-free conditions.

1–App F–1 08.08.2003

CS-VLA BOOK 1

INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

08.08.2003 1–App F–2

BOOK 2 CS-VLA

BOOK 2 – ACCEPTABLE MEANS OF COMPLIANCE– AMC

1. GENERAL

1.1 This Book 2 contains Acceptable Means of Compliance.

2. PRESENTATION

2.1 The Acceptable Means of Compliance are presented in full page. It should be noted that the
page-numbering is provisional. As soon as the Agency has determined the final format of a CS, the
format and lay-out including page-numbering will be adapted.

2.2 A numbering system has been used in which the Acceptable Means of Compliance uses the
same number as the paragraph in Book 1 to which it is related. The number is introduced by the
letters AMC (Acceptable Means of Compliance) to distinguish the material from the Book 1.

2.3 Explanatory Notes not forming part of the AMC text appear in smaller typeface.

2.4 In addition to the AMC’s in Book 2 of this Certification Specification, also AMC’s in AMC-20
may provide Acceptable Means of Compliance to the requirements in book 1 of this CS.

2–0–1 08.08.03
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INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

08.08.03 2–0–2
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

AMC VLA 1(a)

Applicability (Interpretative Material)

This CS-VLA is considered to be applicable to conventional aeroplanes. Some specific, non- conventional
designs such as canards, tandem wings, winglets, may need additional requirements.

AMC VLA 21 (c)

Proof of Compliance (Interpretative Material)

Whenever used, the sentence 'may not require exceptional piloting skill' should be interpreted to mean that
it is no more than the skill expected from an average pilot.

AMC VLA 21 (d)

Proof of Compliance (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

1 Performance and flight characteristics related to stalling speed, take-off , and climb should be
investigated with a wet profile.

2 Although the performance may exceed the limits specified in CS-VLA 45, CS-VLA 51, CS-VLA 65,
(dry conditions), the variations from those achieved in dry conditions should not exceed 9.3 km/h (5 kt) for
VS0, 50 m for take-off distance, 0·5 m/s (100 ft per min.) for rate of climb.

3 The test conditions should be such that the profile must remain wet throughout all of the test.

AMC VLA 23
Load Distribution Limits (Interpretative Material)

1 The centre of gravity range within which the aeroplane may be operated safely without the use of
removable ballast should not be less than that which corresponds to –

a. An occupant weight of 55 kg to 86 kg for single-seat aeroplanes.

b. An occupant weight of 55 kg to 172 kg for two-seat aeroplanes.

2 In each case the safe c.g. range should permit operation with a fuel load ranging from the lower limit
of usable fuel up to fuel sufficient for one hour of operation at rated maximum continuous power.

AMC VLA 45
Performance, General (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

1 The performance tests may be conducted in a non-standard atmosphere, not at sea level, and in
non-still air. This requires testing procedures and data reduction methods that reduce the data to still air
and standard sea level atmospheric conditions, where the performance must be met.

2 Data reduction should include corrections for engine power.

AMC VLA 173 and 175

Static Longitudinal Stability (Interpretative Material)

Instrumented stick force measurements should be made unless –

a. Changes in speed are clearly reflected by changes in stick forces; and

2-1 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

b. The maximum forces obtained under CS-VLA 173 and 175 are not excessive.

AMC VLA 201

Wings Level Stall (Interpretative Material)

Yawing angles up to 5° should not appreciably change the stalling characteristics.

AMC VLA 301 (d)

Loads (Interpretative Material)

A conventional configuration may be taken as an aeroplane with –

a. A forward wing with an aft cruciform tail unit substantially separated in the fore and aft sense from
the wing; and
b. Whose lifting surfaces are either untapered or have essentially continuous taper with no more than
30° fore or aft sweep at the quarter chord line and equipped with trailing edge controls. Trailing edge flaps
may be fitted.

NOTES: Configurations for which specific investigation is required include –

(i) Canard, tandem-wing, close-coupled or tailless arrangements of the lifting surfaces;

(ii) Cantilever bi-planes or multiplanes;

(iii) T-tail or V-tail arrangements;

(iv) Highly swept (more than 30° at quarter chord), delta or slatted lifting surfaces;

(v) Winglets or other tip devices, including outboard fins.

AMC VLA 307 (a)

Proof of Structure (Interpretative Material)

1 Substantiating load tests made in accordance with CS-VLA 307 (a) should normally be taken to
ultimate design load.
2 The results obtained from strength tests should be so corrected for departures from the mechanical
properties and dimensions assumed in the design calculations as to establish that the possibility of any
structure having a strength less than the design value, owing to material and dimensional variation, is
extremely remote.

AMC VLA 405

Secondary Control System (Interpretative Material)

Single hand or foot loads assumed for design should not be less than the following:

a. Hand loads on small hand-wheels, cranks, etc, applied by finger or wrist-force: P = 15 daN.
b. Hand loads on levers and hand-wheels applied by the force of an unsupported arm without making
use of the body weight: P = 35 daN.
c. Hand loads on levers and hand-grips applied by the force of a supported arm or by making use of the
body weight: P = 60 daN.
d. Foot loads applied by the pilot when sitting with his back supported (e.g. toe-brake operating loads):
P = 75 daN.

08.08.03 2-2
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

AMC VLA 441

Manoeuvring Loads (Interpretative Material and Acceptable Means of Compliance)

For aeroplanes where the horizontal tail is supported by the vertical tail, the tail surfaces and their
supporting structure including the rear portion of the fuselage should be designed to withstand the
prescribed loadings on the vertical tail and the roll-moments induced by the horizontal tail acting in the
same direction.

2 For T-tails in the absence of a more rational analysis, the rolling moment induced by deflection of the
vertical rudder may be computed as follows:
ρο
Mr = 0 ⋅ 3 St β V 2 bΗ
2
where –
Mr = induced roll-moment at horizontal tail (Nm)
bH = span of horizontal tail (m)
ß = angle of zerolift line due to rudder deflection
dL
ß = η fη
dη
η = rudder deflection
dL
= change of zerolift angle of ηfη = 1
dη
fη = effectivity factor in accordance with angle of rudder deflection
V = speed of flight (m/s)
St = area of horizontal tail (m2)
ρο = air density at sea level (kg/m3)

AMC VLA 443

Gust Loads (Interpretative Material and Acceptable Means of Compliance)

1 For aeroplanes where the horizontal tail is supported by the vertical tail, the tail surfaces and their
supporting structure including the rear portion of the fuselage should be designed to withstand the
prescribed loadings on the vertical tail and the roll-moments induced by the horizontal tail acting in the
same direction.

2 For T-tails in the absence of a more rational analysis, the rolling moment induced by gust load may
be computed as follows:
ρο
0 ⋅ 3 St VUbΗ K
Mr = 2
where –

Mr = induced roll-moment at horizontal tail (Nm)

K = gust factor = 1·2
bH = span of horizontal tail (m)
St = area of horizontal tail (m2)
ρο = density of air at sea level (kg/m3)
V = speed of flight (m/s)
U = gust speed (m/s)

AMC VLA 479(b)

Level Landing Conditions (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

'Properly combined' may be defined by a rational analysis or as follows:

a. Max spin-up condition –

2-3 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

Pz = 0·6 Pz max; Px = -0·5 Pz max.

b. Max spring back condition –

Pz = 0·8 Pz max; Px = 0·5 Pz max.

c. Max vertical load condition –

Pz = Pz max; Px = ±0·3 Pz max.

where –

Px = horizontal component of ground reaction

Pz = vertical component of ground reaction.

AMC VLA 572 (a)

Parts of Structure Critical to Safety (Interpretative Material)

At least the wing main spar, the horizontal tail and their attachments to the fuselage should be
investigated to determine whether or not their stress levels exceed the values given in the table in
AC VLA 572 (b).

AMC VLA 572 (b)

Parts of Structure Critical to Safety (Interpretative Material and Acceptable Means of Compliance)

1 The use of the following stress levels may be taken as sufficient evidence, in conjunction with good
design practices to eliminate stress concentrations, that structural items have adequate safe lives:

Allowable normal stress

Material used level of maximum limit
load
– Glass rovings in epoxy resin 25 daN/mm2
– Carbon fibre rovings in epoxy 40 daN/mm2
resin
– Wood According to ANC-18*
– Aluminium Alloy Half of rupture tensile strength
– Steel Alloy Half of rupture tensile strength

2 Higher stress levels need further fatigue investigation using one or a combination of the following
methods:

a. By a fatigue test, based on a realistic operating spectrum.

b. By a fatigue calculation using strength values which have been proved to be sufficient by fatigue
tests of specimens or components.

*ANC-18 is the ANC Bulletin 'Design of wood aircraft structures'; issued June 1944 by the Army-Navy-Civil
Committee on Aircraft Design Criteria (USA).

08.08.03 4-4
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

AMC VLA 613 (b)

Material Strength Properties and Design Values (Interpretative Material)

Material specifications should be those contained in documents accepted either specifically by the Agency
or by having been prepared by an organisation or person which the Agency accepts has the necessary
capabilities. In defining design properties these material specification values should be modified and/or
extended as necessary by the constructor to take account of manufacturing practices (for example method
of construction, forming, machining and subsequent heat treatment).

AMC VLA 613 (c)

Material Strength Properties and Design Values (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

Test Temperature –

a. For white painted surface and vertical sunlight: 54°C. If the test cannot be performed at this
temperature an additional factor of 1·25 should be used.

b. For other coloured surfaces the curve below may be used to determine the test temperature.

Curve based on: NASA Conference Publication 2036

NASA Contractor Report 3290

AMC VLA 615

Design Properties (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

When the manufacturer is unable to provide satisfactory statistical justification for A and B values,
especially in the case of manufacturing of composite materials, a safety super factor should be applied to
ensure that A and B values are met.

2-5 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

AMC VLA 619

Special Factors (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

For the substantiation of composite structures, unless more rational means are agreed by the Agency, one
of the following may be used:
a. An additional factor of 1·2 for moisture conditioned specimen tested at maximum service temperature,
providing that a well established manufacturing and quality control procedure is used.

b. An additional factor of 1·5 for specimen tested with no specific allowance for moisture and
temperature.

NOTES: 1 For cold cured structures it may be assumed that the completed structure is fully moisture conditioned.

2 The factor in a. above may be varied based on the coefficient of variation that the manufacturer is able
to show for this product. (See Table 1.)

TABLE 1

Coefficient of Test Factor

Variation %
5 1·00
6 1·03
7 1·06
8 1·10
9 1·12
10 1·15
12 1·22
14 1·30
15 1·33
20 1·55

Definition: Coefficient of Variation

For a population with mean M and standard deviation s, the coefficient of variation, Cv, is defined by-
Cv = σ/M

The coefficient of variation is frequently expressed as a percentage, in which case

Cv (%) = 100 σ/M

Additional Advisory Material:

When the population coefficient of variation is estimated from tests of critical structural features, the results
from tests of at least 6 specimens should be used.

The sample coefficient of variation should be adjusted to obtain a 95% confidence estimate of the
population coefficient of variation which may be used in Table 1.

In the absence of a more rational method, this may be done by multiplying the sample coefficient of
variation by a Factor F, defined by –

08.08.03 6-6
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

1/ 2
  c2U p 2  2
1   c 
1 + Up   1 − +
 n
 2f 

n 
 
F=  
c2U p 2
1−
n
where –

Up is the standardised normal variate corresponding to the confidence level being used (for 95% confidence,
Up = 1·6452)
n is the number of specimens in the Sample
f is the number of statistical degree of freedom [=(n-1)]
c is the population coefficient of variation. The value of the factor F is relatively relatively insensitive to the
value of c used – in the absence of more rational data, a value of 0·2 should be used.

AMC VLA 773

Pilot Compartment View (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

Compliance with CS-VLA 773 may be provided by the canopy having a suitable opening.

AMC VLA 775 (a)

Windshields and Windows (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

Windshields and windows made of synthetic resins are accepted as complying with this requirement.

AMC VLA 777

Cockpit Controls (Interpretative Material)

The pilot should not need to change the hand operating the primary controls in order to operate a secondary
control during critical stages of the flight (e.g. during take-off and landing).

AMC VLA 785 (e)

Seats, Safety Belts and Harnesses (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

Installation of shoulder harness. Figures 1(a), 1(b) and 1(c) show the recommended installation geometry
for this type of restraint.

2-7 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

FIGURE 1(a)

FIGURE 1(b)

FIGURE 1(c)

NOTES: 1 Where possible it is recommended that a negative g or crotch strap is fitted, otherwise during abrupt
decelerations the shoulder straps tend to raise the belt portion (unless tightly adjusted) from around
the hips onto the stomach, thus allowing the wearer to slide underneath the lap portion of the belt.

08.08.03 8-8
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

2 Where there is more than 152 mm (6 in) of webbing between the attachment point of the shoulder
straps, and the lop of the seat back, suitable means should be provided to limit sideways movement
e.g. guide loops, in order to ensure compliance with CS-VLA 785 (e) and to ensure adequate
separation of shoulder straps to minimise injury or chafing of the wearer's neck.
3 Where the seat back is of adequate strength and such height that the harness geometry relative to the
shoulder conforms with Figure 1(a) (i.e. 650 mm (25· 5 in)), it is permissible to attach the shoulder
straps to the seat back or via guide loops to the aeroplane floor.
4 Where the seat back is of adequate strength the use of means, e.g. guide loop of suitable strength, will
limit sideways movement during the emergency alighting accelerations of CS-VLA 561 (b)(2).

Safety belt with one diagonal shoulder strap (ODS Safety Belt). Figures 2(a) and 2(b) show the
recommended installation geometry for this type of restraint.

FIGURE 2(a)

2-9 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

FIGURE 2(b)

NOTES: 1 The total length of the diagonal shoulder strap should be kept as short as possible in order to reduce
the effect of webbing stretch under the emergency alighting loads.
2 Where the seat back is of adequate strength and such height that the harness geometry relative to the
shoulder conforms with the Figure 2(a) (i.e. 650 mm (25 ·5 in)), it is permissible to attach the shoulder
strap to the seat back or via guide loops to the aeroplane floor.
3 The installation should be such as to minimise the risk of injury or chafing of the wearer's neck, a guide
loop may assist in achieving this.

AMC VLA 943

Negative Acceleration (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

Compliance with CS-VLA 943 may be shown by submitting the aeroplane to such period of negative
acceleration that is within the capability of the aeroplane, but not less than –

a. One continuous period of 2 seconds at less than zero 'g'; and separately,

b. At least two excursions to less than zero 'g' in rapid succession in which the total time at less than
zero 'g' is at least 2 seconds.

AMC VLA 1011 (c)

Oil System, General (Interpretative Material)

In assessing the reliance that can be placed upon the means for providing the appropriate fuel/oil mixture to
the engine to prevent a hazardous condition, account should be taken of, for example –

a. The tolerance of the engine to fuel/oil mixture ratios other than the optimum;

b. The procedure established for refuelling and introducing the appropriate amount of oil; and

c. The means by which the pilot may check that the fuel contains an adequate mixture of oil.

AMC VLA 1105 (b)

Induction System Screens (Acceptable Means of Compliance)

The de-icing of the screen may be provided by heated air.

08.08.03 10-10
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

AMC VLA 1305 (a)

Powerplant Instruments (Interpretative Material)

A single indicator is acceptable for each group of interconnected tanks functioning as a single tank, such
that individual tanks cannot be isolated.

AMCVLA 1436
Hydraulic Manually-Powered Brake Systems (Interpretative Material)

For hydraulic systems other than manually-powered brake systems the requirement of CS 23.1435 should
be applied.

AMC VLA 1587 (a)(4)

Performance Information (Interpretative Material)

The variation in aerodrome altitude to be covered need not exceed from sea level to the smaller of 2 438 m
(8 000 ft), and the altitude at which a steady rate of climb of 1·02 m/s (200 ft per min.) may be achieved.
The temperature variations to be covered at each altitude need not exceed 33°C below standard to 22°C
above standard.

AMC VLA 1581

Specimen Flight Manual For A Very Light Aeroplane

See following pages.

2-11 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

Model:

Serial No:

Registration:

Document No. (If appropriate):

Date of Issue:

Pages identified by 'Appr.' are approved by:

Signature:

Authority:

Stamp:

Original date of approval:

This aeroplane is to be operated in compliance with information and limitations contained

herein.

2-12 08.08.03
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H0.l Record of revisions

Any revision of the present manual, except actual weighing data, must be recorded in the
following table and in case of approved Sections endorsed by the Agency.
The new or amended text in the revised pages will be indicated by a black vertical line in
the left hand margin, and the Revision No. and the date will be shown on the bottom left
hand side of the page.

Rev. Affected Affected Date

Date Approval Date Signature
No Section Pages Inserted

2–13 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H0.2 List of Effective Pages

Section Page Date Section Page Date

0 (i)
(ii)
(iii)
1 1.1
1.2
1.3
2 2.1
Appr. 2.2
Appr. 2.3
Appr. 2.4
Appr. 2.5
3 3.1
Appr. 3.2
etc

08.08.2003 2–14
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H0.3 Table of Contents

Section

General (a non-approved section) 1

Limitations (an approved section) 2

Emergency procedures (an approved section) 3

Normal procedures (an approved section) 4

Performance (a partly approved section) 5

Weight and balance/equipment list (a non-approved section) 6

Aircraft and systems description (a non-approved section) 7

Aircraft handling, servicing and maintenance (a non-approved section) 8

Supplements 9

2–15 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

(Model Designation or Document No.)

Section 1

H1 General

H1.1 Introduction

H1.2 Certification basis

H1.3 Warnings, cautions and notes

H1.4 Descriptive data

H1.5 Three-view drawing

08.08.2003 2–16
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H1. 1 Introduction
The aeroplane Flight Manual has been prepared to provide pilots and instructors with
information for the safe and efficient operation of this very light aeroplane.
This manual includes the 'material required to be furnished to the pilot of CS-VLA. It
also contains supplemental data supplied by the aeroplane manufacturer.

H1.2 Certification basis

This type of aircraft has been approved by the European Aviation Safety Agency in
accordance with CS-VLA including Amendment ..................... and the Type Certificate
No. .....................has been issued on (date ) ..................
Category of Airworthiness: Normal
Noise Certification Basis: ............

H1.3 Warnings, cautions and notes

The following definitions apply to warnings, cautions and notes used in the flight manual.

WARNING: means that the non-observation of the corresponding procedure leads to an

immediate or important degradation of the flight safety.

CAUTION: means that the non-observation of the corresponding procedure leads to a

minor or to a more or less long term degradation of the flight safety.

NOTE: draws the attention to any special item not directly related to safety but which is
important or unusual.

H1.4 Descriptive data

(Kind of very light aeroplane)
(Design details)
(Engine and propeller)
(Span, length, height, MAC, wing area, wing loading)

H1.5 Three-view drawing

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CS-VLA BOOK 2

(Model Designation or Document No.)

Section 2

H2 Limitations

H2.1 Introduction

H2.2 Airspeed

H2.3 Airspeed indicator markings

H2.4 Powerplant

H2.5 Powerplant instrument markings

H2.6 Miscellaneous instrument markings

H2.7 Weight

H2.8 Centre of gravity

H2.9 Approved manoeuvres

H2.10 Manoeuvring load factors

H2.11 Flight crew

H2.12 Kinds of operation

H2.13 Fuel

H2.14 Maximum passenger seating

H2.15 Other limitations

H2.16 Limitation placards

08.08.2003 2–18
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H2.1 Introduction
Section 2 includes operating limitations, instrument markings, and basic placards
necessary for safe operation of the aeroplane, its engine, standard systems and standard
equipment.
The limitations included in this section and in Section 9 have been approved by
European Aviation Safety Agency.

H2.2 Airspeed
Airspeed limitations and their operational significance are shown below -

Speed (IAS) Remarks

VNE Never exceed speed Do not exceed this speed in any
operation
VNO Maximum structural cruising Do not exceed this speed except in
speed smooth air, and then only with caution.
VA Manoeuvring speed Do not make full or abrupt control
movement above this speed, because
under certain conditions the aircraft
may be overstressed by full control
movement.
VFE Maximum Flap Do not exceed these speeds with the
Extended speed (if applicable given flap setting.
give different flap settings)
VLO Maximum Landing Gear Do not extend or retract the landing
Operating Speed gear above this speed.
VLE Maximum Landing Gear Do not exceed this speed with the
Extended Speed landing gear extended.

2–19 08.08.03
CS-VLA BOOK 2

(Model Designation or Document No.)

H2.3 Airspeed indicator markings

Airspeed indicator markings and their colour-code significance are shown below -

Marking (IAS) value or range Significance

White arc Positive Flap Operating Range. (Lower
limit is maximum weight 1-1 Vso in
landing configuration.
Upper limit is maximum speed permissible
with flaps extended positive.)
Green arc Normal Operating Range. Lower limit is
maximum weight 1.1 Vsi at most forward
c.g. with flaps and landing gear retracted (if
retractable).
Upper limit is maximum structural cruising
speed.
Yellow Manoeuvres must be conducted with
arc caution and only in smooth air.
Red line Maximum speed for all operations

H2.4 Powerplant
Engine Manufacturer:
Engine Model:
Maximum Power, Take-off:
Continuous:
Maximum Engine rpm at MSL, Take-off:
Continuous:
Maximum Cylinder Head Temperature:
Maximum Oil Temperature:
Oil Pressure, Minimum:
Maximum:
Fuel pressure, Minimum:
Maximum:
Fuel Grade (Specification):
Oil Grade (Specification):
Propeller Manufacturer:
Propeller Model:

08.08.2003 2–20
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

Propeller Diameter, Minimum:

Maximum:
Propeller Blade Angle (at 75% station), low:
high:
Propeller Rotational speed restrictions (if applicable):

H2.5 Powerplant instrument markings

Powerplant instrument markings and their colour code significance are shown below:
Red Line Green Arc Yellow Arc Red Line
Instrument Minimum Normal Caution Maximum
Limit Operating Range Limit
Tachometer --- (range) (range)
Oil --- ---
Temperature
Cylinder head
temperature --- ---
Fuel pressure --- ---
Oil pressure ---
Fuel quantity --- --- ---
(unusable fuel
mark)

H2.6 Miscellaneous instrument markings

(Limitations and markings for miscellaneous instruments, such as vacuum pressure
instrument gauge, must be provided, as appropriate.)

H2.7 Weight
Maximum Take-off weight:
Maximum Landing weight:
Maximum Zero Fuel weight:
Maximum weight in Baggage Compartment:

H2.8 Centre of gravity

Centre of gravity range (specified for Minimum Flight Weight up to Maximum Take-off
weight)
Reference datum

H2.9 Approved manoeuvres

This aeroplane is certified in the Normal Category.
(Manoeuvres which are approved must be listed herein with the appropriate entry speeds).

2–21 08.08.03
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(Model Designation or Document No.)

H2.10 Manoeuvring load factors

(Maximum positive and negative load factors under different conditions must be listed
herein.)

H2.11 Flight crew

(A statement of the minimum crew must be provided.)

H2.12 Kinds of operation

(Herein must be listed the approved kinds of operation according to CS-VLA 1525 and the
minimum equipment required for each kind of operation.)

H2.13 Fuel
(Tank capacity)
Total fuel:
Usable fuel
Unusable fuel:
Approved fuel grades:
(Special instructions for fuel management)
(Special instructions for fuel/oil-mixing in case of two-stroke engine.)

H2.14 Maximum passenger seating

(Any limit of number or weight of passengers should be stated.)

H2.15 Other limitations

(Provide a statement of any limitations required, but not specifically covered in this Section.)

H2.16 Limitation placards

(The operating limitation placard required in CS-VLA 1559 should be illustrated.)
Remark: For further placards refer to Maintenance Manual Doc. No. ............

08.08.2003 2–22
BOOK 2 CS-VLA

(Model Designation or Document No.)

Section 3

H3 Emergency procedures (approved)

H3.1 Introduction

H3.2 Engine failure (carburettor icing)

H3.3 Air start

H3.4 Smoke and fire

H3.5 Glide

H3.6 Landing emergency

H3.7 Recovery from unintentional spin

H3.8 Other emergencies

2–23 08.08.03
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(Model Designation or Document No.)

H3.1 Introduction
Section 3 provides checklist and amplified procedures for coping with emergencies that may
occur. Emergencies caused by aeroplanes or engine malfunction are extremely rare if proper
preflight inspections and maintenance are practised.
However, should an emergency arise, the basic guidelines described in this section should be
considered and applied as necessary to correct the problem.

H3.2 Engine failure

(Procedures should be provided for all cases of engine failure during take-off and flight.)

H3.3 Air start

(Procedures should be provided for starting the engine in flight and, if the engine does not
start, for subsequent actions. The altitude and speed range for air start of the engine should
be indicated.)

H3.4 Smoke and fire

(Procedures should be provided for coping with cases of smoke or fire in the cabin or in the
engine compartment in the following flight phases:
(a) On ground
(b) During take-off
(c) In flight.)

H3.5 Glide
(Information and procedures should be provided for a gliding descent, including:
The recommended airspeed,
The associated configuration, and
The distance from a specified height above ground that an aeroplane will glide or the glide
ratio.)

H3.6 Landing emergencies

(Procedures should be provided for the various landing emergencies under the following
conditions:
(a) Precautionary landings
(b) With a flat tyre
(c) With a defective landing gear
(d) With power, landing gear retracted
(e) Without power, landing gear retracted
(f) Approach and landings with flaps retracted, if flapless landings require any special
technique.)

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H3.7 Recovery from unintentional spin

(The spin recovery procedure should be explained, other than for those aeroplanes which
have been shown to be ‘characteristically incapable of spinning’. A discussion of prevention
of spins should be included with the statement that the aeroplane is not approved for spins.)

H3.8 Other emergencies

(Emergency procedures and other pertinent information necessary for safe operations should
be provided for emergencies peculiar to a particular aeroplane design, operating or handling
characteristics.)

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Section 4

H4 Normal procedures

H4.1 Introduction

H4.2 Rigging and derigging (if appropriate)

H4.3 Daily inspection

H4.4 Preflight inspection

H4.5 Normal procedures and check list

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H4.1 Introduction
Section 4 provides checklist and amplified procedures for the conduct of normal operation
Normal procedures associated with optional systems can be found in Section 9.

H4.2
to
H4.4 } (Description of the steps which are necessary for rigging and inspections.)

H4.5 Normal procedures and checklist

(This chapter should contain the recommended normal procedures for the following phases
of flight after the performed preflight inspection listed under 4.4:
(a) Before starting engine
(b) Use of external power
(c) Engine starting
(d) Before taxying
(e) Taxying
(f) Check before take-off
(g) Take-off
(h) Climb
(i) Cruise
(j) Descent
(k) Check before landing
(1) Balked landing
(m) After landing
(n) Engine shutdown
(o) Postflight ELT
If take-off, flight and landing characteristics are different in rain this should be specially
stated herein.)

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Section 5

H5 Performance (partly approved)

H5.1 Introduction

H5.2 Approved data

H5.2.1 Airspeed indicator system calibration

H5.2.2 Stall speeds

H5.2.3 Take-off performance

H5.2.4 Landing distances

H5.2.5 Climb performance

H5.3 Additional information

H5.3.1 Cruise

H5.3.2 Endurance 0 H5.3.3 Balked landing climb

H5.3.4 Take-off measurements

H5.3.5 Effect on flight performance and characteristics

H5.3.6 Demonstrated crosswind performance

H5.3.7 Noise data

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(

H5.1 Introduction
Section 5 provides approved data for airspeed calibration, stall speeds and take-off
performance and non-approved additional information.
The data in the charts has been computed from actual flight tests with the aeroplane and
engine in good condition and using average piloting techniques.

H5.2 Approved data

H5.2.1 Airspeed indicator system calibration

(The data should be presented as Calibrated Airspeed (CAS) versus Indicated Airspeed (IAS)
assuming zero instrument error. The presentation should include all flap setting
configurations and should cover the appropriate speed operating range.)

H5.2.2 Stall speed

(The data should be presented as indicated airspeed and calibrated airspeed versus flap
setting configurations and angle of bank at maximum weight with throttle closed. Altitude
loss of more than 30 m and pitch below the horizon of more than thirty degrees during
recovery from stalls should be added if applicable.)

H5.2.3 Take-off performance

(Ground roll distance and take-off distance over a 15 m obstacle should be presented as
distance versus outside air temperature, altitude and wind. The speeds required to attain
these distances should be scheduled in indicated airspeed (IAS). The presentation should
incorporate the calculated approximate effect on take-off performances of temperature and
altitude.)

H5.2.4 Landing distances

(The ground roll distance and the landing distance over a 15 m obstacle should be presented
as distance versus outside temperature, altitude and wind. The speed(s) at the 15 m height
point required to obtain the distances should be included. The presentation should
incorporate the calculated approximate effect on landing performances of temperature and
altitude.)

H5.2.5 Climb performance

(The data should be presented as rate-of-climb, versus outside air temperature and altitude at
maximum take-off weight and maximum continuous power (MCP).
Climb speeds should be either the best rate-of-climb speeds or an average best rate-of-climb
speed and scheduled in indicated airspeed (IAS).)

H5.3 Additional. information

H5.3.1 Cruise
(The data should be presented as engine power settings and true air speed (TAS) versus
altitude and temperature.)

H5.3.2 Endurance
(The data should be presented as endurance time of aeroplane versus altitude for various
power settings and at least a full fuel loading.)

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H5.3.3 Balked landing climb.

(The data should be presented as rate-of-climb versus outside temperature and altitude at
maximum landing weight and maximum take-off power with flaps in full extended position
and landing gear retracted (if appropriate).)

H5.3.4 Take off measurement from a dry, short-mown grass surface.

H5.3.5 Effect on flight performances and characteristics caused by rain or accumulation of

insects.

H5.3.6 Demonstrated crosswind performance.

(The maximum crosswind speed at which landings have been demonstrated should be
presented.)

H5.3.7 Noise data.

(The noise data, approved according to the environmental rules, should be presented.)

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Section 6

H6 Weight and balance

H6.1 Introduction

H6.2 Weight and balance record and permitted payload range

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H6.1 Introduction
This section contains the payload range within which the aeroplane may be safely operated.
Procedures for weighing the aircraft and the calculation method for establishing the
permitted payload range and a comprehensive list of all equipment available for this aircraft
and the installed equipment during the weighing of the aircraft are contained in the
applicable Maintenance Manual Doc. No. ....................

H6.2 Weight and balance record permitted payload range

Permitted crew + passenger weight with

Max. baggage ..... kg Half baggage ..... kg No baggage
Empty c.g. Approved
Date Front seat Rear seat Front seat Rear seat Front seat Rear seat
weight pos
Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Date Signed

EXAMPLE FOR A TANDEM SEATER AIRCRAFT

Condition: Aircraft in the range from max. fuel of ........ kg to min. Fuel of .......kg.
For calculation of max. and min. Crew + passenger weight refer to Maintenance Manual Doc. No. .......

Permitted crew + passenger weight with

Max. baggage ..... kg Half baggage ..... kg No baggage
Empty c/g Approved
Date Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum Maximum Minimum
weight pos
Date Signed

EXAMPLE FOR A SIDE-TO-SIDE SEATER AIRCRAFT

Condition: Aircraft in the range from max. fuel of ........ kg to min. Fuel of .......kg.
For calculation of max. and min. Crew + passenger weight refer to Maintenance Manual Doc. No. .......

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Section 7

H7 Aeroplane and system description

H7.1 Introduction

H7.2 Airframe

H7.3 Flight controls (including Flap and Trim)

H7.4 Instrument panel

H7.5 Landing gear system

H7.6 Seats and safety harness

H7.7 Baggage compartment

H7.8 Doors, windows and exits

H7.9 Powerplant

H7.10 Fuel system

H7.11 Electrical system

H7.12 Pitot and static pressure systems

H7.13 Miscellaneous equipment

H7.14 Avionics

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H7.1 Introduction
This section provides description and operation of the aeroplane and its systems. Refer to
Section 9, Supplements, for details of optional systems and equipment.

H7.2 Airframe
(Describe structure of fuselage, wings and empennage.)

H7.3 Flight controls

(Describe control surfaces, including flaps.
Describe operating mechanism - sketches may be provided.
Explain trimming arrangements.
Explain any interconnect arrangement.)

H7.4 Instrument panel

(Provide a drawing or picture of the instrument panel.
Name and explain the use of the instruments, lights, controls, switches and circuit breakers
installed on or near the panel.)

H7.5 Landing gear system

(Describe construction.
Describe retraction mechanism if provided.
Describe brake system.
Describe emergency extension system if provided.)

H7.6 Seats and safety harness

(Describe how to adjust the seats.
Describe how to use the safety harness.)

H7.7 Baggage compartment

(Describe location and tie down provisions.
Explain restrictions regarding weight and kind of baggage.)

H7.8 Doors, windows and exits

(Describe how to operate and lock doors, windows and exits.
Explain how to close a door or window if it opens unintentionally in flight and any
restrictions necessary.
Explain the use of emergency exits.)

H7.9 Powerplant
(Describe the engine, the engine controls ' and instrumentation. Describe the propeller and
explain how the propeller should operate.)

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H7.10 Fuel system

(Describe the system by a good schematic and explain the operation.
Explain unusable fuel.
Explain the fuel measuring system and the fuel venting system.
Explain how to avoid and notice fuel contamination.)

H7.11 Electrical system

(Describe the system by use of simplified schematics.
Explain how this system operates including warning and control devices.
Explain circuit protection.
Discuss capacity and load shedding.)

H7.12 Pilot and static pressure sytrems

(Describe pitot and static pressure systems.)

H7.13 Miscellaneous equipment

(Describe important equipment not already covered.)

H7.14 Avionics
(Describe items installed by the aircraft manufacturer and explain their functions and how
they are operated.)

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Section 8

H8 Aeroplane handling, servicing and maintenance

H8.1 Introduction

H8.2 Aeroplane inspection periods

H8.3 Aeroplane alterations or repairs

H8.4 Ground handling/Road transport

H8.5 Cleaning and care

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H8.1 Introduction
This section contains factory-recommended procedures for proper ground handling and
servicing of the aeroplane. It also identifies certain inspection and maintenance requirements
which must be followed if the aeroplane is to retain that new-plane performance and
dependability. It is wise to follow a planned schedule of lubrication and preventive
maintenance based on climatic and flying conditions encountered.

H8.2 Aeroplane inspection period

(Reference to Maintenance Manual of the aeroplane.)

H8.3 Aeroplane alterations or repairs

It is essential that the Agency be contacted prior to any alterations on the aeroplane to ensure
that airworthiness of the plane is not violated. For repairs refer to the applicable
Maintenance Manual Doc. No. ,... ... .. ...

H8.4 Ground handling/ Road transport (f applicable)

(Explain the following procedures:
(a) Towing
(b) Parking
(c) Mooring
(d) Jacking
(e) Levelling
(f) Road transport (if applicable) including dissembling for road transport and assembling
after road transport.)

H8.5 Cleaning and care

(Describe cleaning procedures for the following aircraft items:
(a) Painted exterior surfaces
(b) Propeller
(c) Engine
(d) Interior surfaces, seats and carpets,
and explain the recommended cleaning agents and give caution notes, if necessary.)

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Section 9

H9 Supplements

H9.1 Introduction

H9.2 List of inserted supplements

H9.3 Supplements inserted

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H9.1 Introduction
This section contains the appropriate supplements necessary to safely and efficiently operate
the aeroplane when equipped with various optional systems and equipment not provided
with the standard aeroplane.

H9.2 List of inserted supplements

Date Doc. No. Title of the inserted supplement

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H9.3 Supplements inserted

(Each supplement should normally cover only a single system, device or piece of equipment
such as an autopilot, ski or navigation system. The supplement may be issued by the
aeroplane manufacturer or by any other manufacturer of the applicable item.
The supplement must be approved by the Agency and must contain all deviations and
changes relative to the basic Flight Manual.
Each supplement should be a self-contained, miniature Flight Manual with at least the
following:
Section 1 General
The purpose of the supplement and the system or equipment to which it
specifically applies should be stated.
Section 2 Limitations
Any change to the limitations, markings or placards of the basic Flight Manual
should be stated. If there is no change, a statement to that effect should be made.
Section 3 Emergency procedures
Any addition or change to the basic emergency procedures of the Flight Manual
should be stated. If there is no change, a statement to that effect should be made.
Section 4 Normal procedures
Any addition or change to the basic normal procedures of the Flight Manual
should be stated. If there is no change, a statement to that effect should be made.
Section 5 Performance
Any effect of the subject installation upon aeroplane performance as shown in the
basic Flight Manual should be indicated. If there is no change, a statement to that
effect should be made.
Section 6 Weight and balance
Any effect of the subject installation upon weight and balance of the aeroplane
should be indicated. If there is no change, a statement to that effect should be
made.)

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