19-200-0105B BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
• Thermodynamic systems – open, closed and isolated systems
• Equilibrium state of a system
• Thermodynamic property ,state, process, and cycle
• Thermodynamic process
• Thermodynamic Cycle
• Zeroth law of thermodynamics- concept of temperature, temperature scales.
• First law – internal energy, enthalpy, work and heat
• Different processes- isobaric, isochoric, isothermal ,adiabatic processes and polytropic processes
• Second law – Kelvin-plank and Claussius statements and their equivalence
• Carnot Cycle.
• Thermodynamic properties of Steam , Steam Generator
• Different types of boilers
• boiler mountings and accessories
• Formation of steam at constant pressure
• working of steam turbines
• compounding of turbines
• Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering science
that deals with the design and development of work producing
and work absorbing machines.

• Thermodynamics deals with the interaction between heat

and work and the working substance employed to obtain
energy conversion.
Thermodynamics
• Thermodynamics can be defined as the science of energy
and its effect on the physical properties of substances.
• The name thermodynamics was formed from the Greek
words therme (heat) and dynamics (power).
• Thermodynamics is a branch of Physics that deals with
the relationship among heat, work and properties of
system which are in equilibrium with one another.
• Thermodynamics deals with the change of one form of
energy to another form.
Working Substance
• The conversion of heat to work or work to heat takes place
through agency called working substance.
• Any pure substance can be employed as a working substance.
• Air and steam are two main working substance usually
employed in engineering practice.
• The working substance is capable of changing its volume so that
it can be a medium for work transfer.
Equilibrium: A state of balance

• Thermal equilibrium: If the temperature is the same throughout the

entire system.
• Mechanical equilibrium: If there is no change in pressure at any point
of the system with time.
• Phase equilibrium: If a system involves two phases and when the
mass of each phase reaches an equilibrium level and stays there.
• Chemical equilibrium: If the chemical composition of a system does
not change with time, that is, no chemical reactions occur.
 The transformation of a thermodynamic system from one state to another is called a
process.
• Isothermal process
• Isobaric process
• Isochoric process
• Isenthalpic process
• Isentropic process
• Adiabatic process
• Reversible process
• Irreversible process
• Quasi -static process
PATH
• The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
• To describe a process completely, one should specify the initial and
final states, as well as the path it follows, and the interactions with the
surroundings.
 Quasi-static Processes
The processes can be restrained or unrestrained, we need restrained processes in practice.

• A quasi-static process is one in which the deviation from

thermodynamic equilibrium is infinitesimal. All states of the
system passes through are equilibrium states.
Quasi-static Processes

• If we remove the weights slowly one by one the pressure of

the gas will displace the piston gradually. It is quasistatic.
• On the other hand if we remove all the weights at once the
piston will be kicked up by the gas pressure.(This is
unrestrained expansion) but we don’t consider that the work
is done - because it is not in a sustained manner. It is not
quasistatic.
• In both cases the systems have undergone a change of state.
• Another eg: if a person climbs down a ladder from roof to
ground, it is a quasistatic process. On the other hand if he
jumps then it is not a quasistatic process.
SIGNIFICANCE OF ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

• The Zeroth law of thermodynamics is the basis for

measurement of temperature and setting its scale.

• The zeroth law is incredibly important as it allows us to

define the concept of a temperature scale.

•It is by the property of temperature that we can make out

the difference between hot and cold body.

• The zeroth law of thermodynamics can be used to

compare temperature of several bodies
Temperature Scales
• All temperature scales are based on some easily
reproducible states such as the freezing and boiling
points of water: the ice point and the steam point
• Celsius scale: in SI unit system
• Fahrenheit scale: in English unit system
• For engineers the more useful temperature scale is the
absolute temperature scale.
• Kelvin scale (SI) Rankine scale (E)
Pressure
• Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid
per unit area
P = F/A
• The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa)
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
named after Blaise Pascal (1623-1662).
• Another popular unit is “bar”
1 bar = 105 N/m2
1atm = 1.01325 x 105 N/m2
ABSOLUTE, GAUGE and VACUUM PRESSURES
• Absolute pressure: When the pressure is measured , with
complete vacuum or absolute zero is taken as datum
• Gage pressure: local atmospheric pressure is taken as datum
The difference between the absolute pressure and the local
atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate
gage pressure.
• Vacuum pressures: pressure is measured below the
atmospheric pressure
FORMS OF ENERGY
Stored Energy and Energy in Transition
• Two categories of energy

• Stored energy is the energy contained by the system

( P.E,K.E, I.E , electrical energy, etc )

• Energy in transition is the energy that is getting transferred to

or from the system ( Heat and Work)
Internal Energy (U)

• Is the sum of all microscopic form of energy with in the

system ( degree of molecular activity, since it is stored
in the molecular or atomic structure of the system ).
• It is mainly , the sum of potential and kinetic energy of
the molecules of the system.
• In fact a substance does not contain heat – it contains
internal energy
• It is a point function and hence a property of the
system
• It is expressed in J or kJ, and internal energy per unit
mass is called specific internal energy
ENTHALPY (H)

• Measure of the total energy of a thermodynamic

system
• Sum of the internal energy and the product pressure
and volume
• H = U + pV
• Enthalpy is also a property of the system
• Unit is kJ
• Enthalpy per unit mass is called specific enthalpy(h)
• h = u + pv
HEAT and WORK

• Energy can cross the boundary of a system in two

ways:
• (1) Work
• (2) Heat
HEAT
• Heat is defined as the form of energy that is transferred
between two systems (or a system and its surroundings) by
virtue of a temperature difference
• The transfer of heat into a system is frequently referred to as
heat addition and the transfer of heat out of a system as heat
rejection
• It is a transient phenomenon
• Heat is transferred by three mechanisms: Conduction,
Convection, and Radiation
• A process during which there is no heat transfer is called an
adiabatic process
• It is measured in Joules(J) or kJ
Heat and Internal Energy
• Two categories of energy
• Internal energy is a property whereas heat is not
• A body may contain energy( in stored form), but not
heat .
• Internal energy is a property of the system (point
function) and its value depends only on the state of the
system.
• Heat is a path function and its value depends on the
path of the process in which the heat transfer is taking
place.
SPECIFIC HEATS
• The specific heat is defined as the heat energy
required to change the temperature of a unit mass of a
substance by one degree .
• Its unit is kJ/kgK
• The specific heat at constant volume, Cv is defined as the
energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a
substance by one degree as the volume is maintained
constant
• The specific heat at constant pressure, Cp is defined as the
energy required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a
substance by one degree as the pressure is maintained
constant
WORK

• Work, like heat, is an energy interaction between a system

and its surroundings

• The energy transfer across the boundary of the system, other

than due to temperature difference , is called work.

• Positive work is done by a system when the sole effect

external to the system can be reduced to the raising of a
weight
• Work changes the state of a system and is a path function,
hence it is not a thermodynamic property
WORK
WORK
• Consider a system consisting of an electrical
battery, switch and a resistance coil outside the
system
• When the switch is closed, current flows to the
resistance and is converted to heat, ie work is
done by the system.
• This can be illustrated by replacing the external
resistance by an imaginary motor, pulley and
weight arrangement
• When the switch is closed , the motor and pulley
rotates and raises the suspended weight.
• Thus the sole effect external to the system
becomes raising of a weight ie the system does
work
Displacement Work ( p dV work)
• Consider a gas enclosed in a piston- cylinder arrangement. The gas pressure acts
on the piston and moves it.
• Force applied on the piston , F = pA
• Differential work transfer through a piston displacement of ‘ds’ during the process,
δW = F x ds = pA x ds = pdv (A x ds = dv, change in volume )
Gas laws
Gas laws
First law applied to a process
• If a system undergoes a change of state during which
both heat transfer and work transfer are involved,
then the net energy transferred will be stored or
accumulated with in the system
If Q is the amount of heat transfered to the system and W is the work transfered
from the system during a process, the net energy (Q-W) will get stored in the
system.
Q-W = E
ie, Q - W = U. ………. (E = U)
• When heat is added into a system it can either 1) change the internal
energy of the system (i.e. make it hotter) or 2) go into doing work.
Q=W +U
SPECIFIC HEAT OF IDEAL GAS
LIMITATIONS OF FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
• The first law of thermodynamics is a law of conservation of
energy only. It does not specify any direction for heat flow.
But it is known that heat , by itself, can’t flow from low
temperature systems to higher temperature surroundings
• First law of thermodynamics does not stipulate any
restriction in the efficiency of heat to work conversion.
• there is a limitation on the conversion of one form of
energy in to other , about which the first law is silent.

• The second law takes in to account the direction of process

as well as the quality of energy
STATEMENTS OF SECOND LAW
• Clausius Statement
It is impossible for a self acting machine , operating in
a cycle, to supply heat from a body at a lower
temperature to a body at a higher temperature, without
the aid of an external agency
• Kelvin- Plank Statement
It is impossible to construct an engine working on a
cyclic process whose sole purpose is to convert all the
heat supplied to it in to equivalent amount of work
Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
• Violation of the Clausius statement leads to the violation of the Kelvin–Planck
statement
Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius Statements
• Violation of the Kelvin–Planck statement leads to the violation of the Clausius
statement
1. Constant Volume(Isochoric) Process

Property Relationship P – V diagram

Constant Volume(Isochoric) Process
Constant Volume(Isochoric) Process
2. Constant Pressure(Isobaric) Process

Property Relationship P – V diagram

Constant Pressure(Isobaric) Process
Constant Pressure(Isobaric) Process
3. Constant Temperature(Isothermal) Process

Property Relationship P – V diagram

Constant Temperature(Isothermal) Process
Constant Temperature(Isothermal) Process
Constant Temperature(Isothermal) Process
Numerical Problems:-

1.)A rigid tank is having a capacity of 1 m3 . It contains nitrogen

gas at a pressure and temperature of 0.5 Mpa and
30 C. 250 kJ of heat is added to the gas. Determine:
(i)Final pressure and temperature
(ii)Change in internal energy, Take ℽ = 1.4 and Cv = 743
J/kg K
Given :
V1 = V2 = 1 m3
p1 = 0.5 Mpa
T1 = 30 C = 303 K
Q = 250 kJ
2). A gas is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.07 m3 to a final volume of
0.055 m3. The initial pressure and temperature of the gas is 150 kPa and 100 C .
If the compression is carried out at constant pressure, find
(i) temperature at the end of compression
(ii) Work spent in compressing the gas

(iii) Heat transfer from the gas

(iv) Change in internal energy
Assume Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and R = 285 J/kgK

Given :
V1 = 0.07m3
p1 = 150 kpa
T1 = 100 C = 373 K
Q = 250 kJ
V2 = 0.055m3
Cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK and R = 285 J/kgK
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Reversible Adiabatic(Isentropic) Process
Polytropic Process
• It is the general thermodynamic process, obtained by generalising all
thermodynamic processes
Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process
Polytropic Process
Polytropic process for various values of ‘n’
Summary of processes for perfect gas
Numerical Problems:-
Numerical Problems:-
Carnot Cycle
Carnot cycle is not a practical cycle
• In order to achieve isothermal process, the piston has to move
very slowly, so that the temperature remains constant during
heat exchange. But, in order to achieve adiabatic process, the
piston has to move very fast, so that there is no heat
exchange with the surroundings. Since isothermal and
adiabatic processes are to take place simultaneously, the
cycle is not practically possible
Carnot Cycle
Thermal efficiency from T-S diagram
Carnot cycle is not a practical cycle
• In order to achieve isothermal process, the piston has to move
very slowly, so that the temperature remains constant during
heat exchange. But, in order to achieve adiabatic process, the
piston has to move very fast, so that there is no heat
exchange with the surroundings. Since isothermal and
adiabatic processes are to take place simultaneously, the
cycle is not practically possible
Module 2

Internal Combustion Engines: Air standard cycles – Otto and

Diesel cycles, working of two stroke and four stroke Petrol and
Diesel engines, Carburatted and MPFI engines, fuel pump, fuel
injector, ignition system, cooling system, lubricating system.
Refrigeration & Airconditioning: Introduction to refrigeration and
air -conditioning, Rating of refrigeration machines, Coefficient of
performance, Simple refrigeration vapour compression cycle,
summer and winter air conditioning.
Air standard cycles
● Air standard cycle is an idealised cycle in which air is
taken as the working fluid
● Air standard cycles can be used for comparing the
performance of real internal combustion engine

Air Standard Efficiency

● A hypothetical efficiency calculated from the ideal air
standard cycle, in order to compare the efficiency of
various cycles is called air standard efficiency or ideal
thermal efficiency
Ideal thermal efficiency of an air standard cycle may be defined as
the ratio of net work done to the heat supplied during the cycle
TERMINOLOGIES RELATED TO RECIPROCATING ENGINE
•
Bore the internal diameter of the cylinder of the engine is called bore
OTTO CYCLE
• The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition
reciprocating(Petrol) engines. It is named after Nikolaus A.
Otto, who built a successful four stroke engine in 1876 in
Germany using the cycle proposed by Frenchman Beau de
Rochas in 1862
• Otto cycle forms the basis for the petrol engine
• The cycle is:
1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Heat addition at constant volume
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1:Heat rejection at constant volume
p-V & T-S diagram
DIESEL CYCLE

• The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for Compression Ignition(CI)

reciprocating engines. The CI engine, first proposed by Rudolph
Diesel in the 1890s
• Diesel cycle forms the basis for the diesel engine
• The cycle is:
1-2: Isentropic compression
2-3: Heat addition at constant pressure
3-4: Isentropic Expansion
4-1:Heat rejection at constant volume
p-V & T-S diagram
HEAT ENGINES
Heat engine which converts chemical energy in a fuel into
mechanical energy.
Engines are classified into
1. Internal Combustion Engines(IC Engine)-Engine where
combustion of air-fuel mixture takes place inside the
cylinder of the engine
Eg: Petrol engine, Diesel engine
1. External Combustion Engines-Engine where combustion
of air-fuel mixture takes place outside the cylinder of the
engine.
Eg:Steam turbine
Parts of IC engine
PARTS OF THE ENGINE
Cylinder block Cylinder head
Piston Intake valve
Piston rings Exhaust valve
Piston pin Camshaft
Connecting rod Timing gears
Crankshaft Spark plug
• Four stroke petrol engine requires 4 strokes of piston or 2 revolution of crank shaft to
complete 1 cycle of operation
WORKING
FOUR STROKE CYCLE ANIMATION
HEAT ENGINES
❖Heat engine which converts chemical energy in a fuel into
mechanical energy.
❖Engines are classified into
1. Internal Combustion Engines(IC Engine)-Engine where
combustion of air-fuel mixture takes place inside the
cylinder of the engine
Eg: Petrol engine, Diesel engine
1. External Combustion Engines-Engine where combustion
of air-fuel mixture takes place outside the cylinder of the
engine.
Eg:Steam turbine
Parts of IC engine
PARTS OF THE ENGINE
❖Cylinder block ❖Cylinder head
❖Piston ❖Intake valve
❖Piston rings ❖Exhaust valve
❖Piston pin ❖Camshaft
❖Connecting rod ❖Timing gears
❖Crankshaft ❖Spark plug
• Four stroke petrol engine requires 4 strokes of piston or 2 revolution of crank shaft to
complete 1 cycle of operation
WORKING
FOUR STROKE CYCLE ANIMATION
FUEL –AIR SYSTEM FOR CARBURETTED PETROL ENGINE
Carburetor
1. Needle valve
2. Float chamber
3. Vent
4. Venturi
5. Nozzle
6. Throttle valve
• Needle valve attached to the float lever serves to close or open the fuel inlet to the float

chamber depending upon the requirement. Thus a constant head of fuel is maintained in the

float chamber.

• A small vent in the float chamber keeps the pressure inside atmospheric.

• Venturi is simply a restriction in the air passage. Increase in velocity & decrease in pressure

is caused at the throat of the venturi where nozzle tip is located. Due to this depression being

applied at the nozzle, the fuel comes out and is vaporized by the incoming air stream.

• The mixture then goes through the inlet manifold, to the engine cylinder.

• The purpose of a throttle valve is to control the quantity of air fuel mixture.
 Methods of Engine Cooling

• Air cooling

• Liquid cooling
Air cooling

• Cooling fins

• Fan cooling

The amount of heat dissipated depends on

• Surface area of metal in contact with air
• Rate of air flow
• Temperature difference between the heated surface and the air
• Conductivity of the metal.
Water cooling
Lubrication Systems

1) Petroil system

2) Splash system

3) Pressure system..
Splash system
Splash system
Pressure system
Battery Ignition System
Magneto Ignition system
MULTI POINT FUEL INJECTION(MPFI)
MPFI
 Refrigeration
• Branch of engineering sciences that deals with the
transfer of heat from a lower temperature region
to a higher temperature region, in order to
maintain a region at a temperature lower than
the surrounding atmosphere
• System used for accomplishing the process of
refrigeration is called refrigeration system
• The region which is maintained at a temperature
lower than its surroundings is called refrigerated
space
 Applications of Refrigeration System
• Preservation and transportation of food
products
• Preserving life saving drugs, vaccines,…etc
• Used for air conditioning purpose
• Used in medical fields
• Used for making ice products
• Used for the efficient operation of computers
and other work stations
Refrigerating Effect
• It is the amount of heat energy removed per unit
time from the space to be cooled by the
refrigeration process
Tons of Refrigeration
• The capacity of a refrigerating machine is
generally expressed in tons of refrigeration(TR)
• A ton of refrigeration is defined as the amount of
refrigeration effect produced by the uniform
melting of one ton (1000kg) of ice from and at
0∘C in 24 hours
• One ton of refrigeration(1TR) is equivalent to
210KJ/min or 3.5KW
 Basic components of a VCR system
• Compressor: Suck the low temperature refrigerant
vapour from the evaporator and to compress it to a
high pressure and temperature
• Condenser: Condense the high pressure and
temperature refrigerant vapour from the compressor,
by rejecting its latent heat to the cooling water at
ambient temperature( or rejects heats to ambient air)
• Expansion valve(Throttle valve): Throttle the liquid
refrigerant from the condenser. By throttling, the
pressure and temperature reduces and the refrigerant
becomes partly liquid and partly vapour at the required
low temperature. It also regulates the flow of liquid
refrigerant to the evaporator
• Evaporator: To evaporate the liquid refrigerant by
absorbing the latent heat of vapourization from the
cold refrigerated space
 Working Principle
• In vapour-compression refrigeration cycle, the
refrigerant enters the compressor at state 1 as
saturated vapour and is compressed
ISentropically to the condenser pressure. The
temperature of the refrigerant increases during
this isentropic compression process to well above
the temperature of the surrounding medium.
• The refrigerant then enters the condenser as
superheated vapour at state 2 and leaves as
saturated liquid at state 3 as a result of heat
rejection to the surroundings. The temperature of
the refrigerant at this state is still above the
temperature of the surroundings
• The saturated liquid refrigerant at state 3 is throttled to
the evaporator pressure by passing it through an
expansion valve or capillary tube. The temperature of
the refrigerant drops below the temperature of the
refrigerated space during this process
• The refrigerant enters the evaporator at state 4 as a
low-quality saturated mixture, and it completely
evaporates by absorbing heat from the refrigerated
space. The refrigerant leaves the evaporator as
saturated vapour and re-enters the compressor,
completing the cycle
• The area under the process curve 4-1 represents the
heat absorbed by the refrigerant in the evaporator, and
the area under the process curve 2-3 represents the
heat rejected in the condenser
 Psychrometry
• Psychrometry is an engineering science that
deals with the behaviour of moist air(dry air +
water vapour mixture)
• The amount of water vapour in air plays
important role in both comfort and industrial
air conditioning
 Terms used in Psychrometry
• 1)Dry air: Air contains no water vapour
• 2) Moist air: Mixture Of dry air and water vapour
3)Saturated air: Air Which contains maximum amount of
water vapour which air can hold at a given temperature
and pressure
• 4)Dry bulb temperature: Temperature of air measured by
ordinary thermometer
• 5)Wet bulb temperature: Temperature Recorded by a
thermometer, when its bulb is covered by a wet cloth
6)Specific humidity: Ratio of the mass of water vapour to
the mass of dry air
• 7)Relative humidity: Ratio of mass of water vapour in a
given volume of moist air at a given temperature to the
mass of water vapour contained in the same volume of
moist air at the same temperature, when the air is
saturated
Psychrometric Process
Winter Air Conditioning
Winter Air Conditioning
 Winter Air Conditioning
• Air is heated and generally humidified
• Outside air flows through the damper, and mixes
up with recirculated air(obtained from the
conditioned space).
• The mixed air passes through a filter to remove
dust, dirt and other impurities
• Air now passes through a preheat coil in order to
prevent the possible freezing of water and to
control the evaporation of water in the humidifier
• The preheated air passes through a reheat coil
to bring the air to the designed room temperature
• The humidification of air can be achieved in
several ways, e.g. by bringing the air in contact
with a wetted surface, or with droplets of
water as in an air washer, by adding water
droplets directly to air or by direct addition of
dry saturated or superheated steam
• The most common method of humidifying air
for these applications is by direct addition of
dry steam to air
Summer Air Conditioning
Summer Air Conditioning
• summer air conditioning system requires a
refrigeration system that reduces the temperature of
the air to temperatures much lower than the
surroundings.
• Air is cooled and generally dehumidified
• Outside air flows through the damper, and mixes up
with recirculated air(obtained from the conditioned
space).
• The mixed air passes through a filter to remove dust,
dirt and other impurities
• Air now passes through a cooling coil. The coil has a
temperature much below the required dry bulb
temperature of the air in the conditioned space
• The cooled air passes through a perforated membrane
and loses its moisture in the condensed form which is
collected in a sump
• Then air is heated by using a heating coil to bring the air
to the designed room temperature
Module 3
Module 3
Hydraulic Turbines & Pumps : Introduction,
Classification, Construction details and working of Pelton,
Francis and Kaplan turbines, Specific speed. Classification
of water pumps, working of centrifugal pumps and
reciprocating pumps (Theory of working principles only)

Power plants: Hydro-electric power plants, Thermal power

plants, Nuclear power plants, Diesel power plants, Wind
mills, solar energy (Working principles using schematic
representations only)
 Hydraulic machines are defined as those
machines which convert hydraulic energy in to
mechanical energy or vice versa.

 Hydraulic Machines convert

Hydraulic energy Mechanical energy eg : Turbine

mechanical energy Hydraulic energy eg: Pumps

 Mechanical energy developed by turbines is used to
run electric generators coupled to the shaft of turbines
 • Hydro electric power is the most cheapest source of
power generation
Classification of turbines
1. Based on type of energy at inlet
• a) Impulse turbine: Water possess only kinetic energy
at the inlet of the turbine, eg. Pelton turbine
• b) Reaction turbine: Water possess both kinetic
energy and pressure energy at the inlet, eg. Francis
and Kaplan turbine
2.Based on head and discharge
• a) High head turbine: Head is more than 250m, low
discharge, eg. Pelton turbine
• b)Medium head turbine: 60m to 250m, medium
discharge types, eg. Francis turbine
• c) Low head turbine: Head will be below 60m, high
discharge, eg. Kaplan turbine
3.Based on specific speed
1. Low specific speed ( 10 – 60 ) eg: Pelton
2 . Medium sp speed ( 60 – 300 ) eg: Francis
3 . High sp speed (300 – 1000) eg : Kaplan

4.Based on direction of flow through runner

1. Radial Flow turbine eg : Francis turbine
2 . Axial flow eg : Kaplan
3 . Mixed flow eg : new Francis
4 . Tangential flow eg : Pelton wheel
Impulse turbine
 the energy available at inlet of turbine, is only
kinetic energy.
 Before reaching the turbine the fluid's
Pressure head is changed to velocity head by
flowing through nozzle.
Eg. Pelton wheel
 Runner changes the direction of flow of a high
velocity fluid jet.
Reaction turbine
 Water at inlet possess KE as well as PE

 The pressure of the fluid reduces as it passes

through the turbine runner blades, pressure
energy changes to kinetic energy.

 This change in pressure energy is termed as

reaction

 Requires water tight casing

 Eg: Francis Turbine, Kaplan Turbine etc.

Impulse Turbine - Pelton turbine
13
14
Main Parts of a Pelton Turbine

• Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

• Runner and buckets: Runner is a circular

disc on the periphery of which a number of
buckets are fixed.

• Casing: Prevent the splashing of water

• Breaking jet: Used to stop the runner

Working of Pelton wheel
 Nozzle directs the water against buckets
mounted around the runner.

 When the water jet strikes the bucket, the

water exerts impulsive force on the
bucket and hence the runner revolves.

 The runner shaft is connected with the

generator, thus the electricity is produced .
 FRANCIS TURBINE
• Francis turbine is a radial flow or mixed flow
reaction turbine
• It is well suited for medium head operations such as
head ranging from about 60 to 250 meters.

•The major parts of Francis turbine are

 Penstock,
 Spiral casing,
 Guide vanes,
 Runner
 Draft tube.
Francis Turbine
Main parts of Francis Turbine
 Spiral casing: Maintain a uniform velocity
around the guide vanes
 Guide vanes: Around the circumference of
the runner. It acts like a nozzle to increase
the velocity of water. It also regulates the
amount of water inlet to the turbine
 Runner and runner vanes: Runner vanes
have aerofoil like structure. Pressure
difference on the blades cause the rotation
 Draft tube: Water flows from runner outlet
to tail race through draft tube
Draft Tube
It is a pipe of gradually increasing area which connects runner
outlet to tailrace
Turbine exit.
Less area, Velocity more,
pressure less than atm

More area, Velocity less,

more pressure
Kaplan turbine
•It is axial flow reaction
turbine

•Low head reaction

turbine

•Water enters to the

runner axially and leaves
axially

•Guide vanes and runner

blades are adjustable
Main parts of a Kaplan Turbine
 Scroll casing
 Guide vanes: Used to turn the water through 900
 Hub and vanes: Vanes are fixed to hub. Vanes are
adjustable. Vanes are adjusted according to the
flow rate. Vanes are aerofoil shaped profile
 Draft tube
 Specific Speed (Ns)
 It is Speed of the turbine which is similar in shape,
geometrical dimensions, blade angles, gate openings
etc. with the actual turbine but of such a size that it
will develop unit power working under unit head.

 It is denoted by the symbol Ns. The specific speed is

used in comparing different types of turbines as every
type has different specific speed.

 Specific Speed is give by the equation

P is Power Developed
H is Head under which Turbine is
working
N is Speed of actual turbine
Pump
 Device which converts mech energy to
hydraulic energy.
 Pump is a mechanical device which
increases the pressure energy of a liquid.
 Pump is generally used for raising liquid
from low level to high level
Classification
1. Positive displacement pumps
eg: Reciprocating pump, Gear pump
2. Roto dynamic pumps
eg: Centrifugal pump
Positive displacement Pumps
 Reciprocating pump is a positive
displacement pump.

 The positive displacement pump operates

by alternating of filling a cavity and then
displacing a given volume of liquid.

 It creates the lift and pressure by displacing

the liquid using a moving mechanical
element called plunger(piston) inside a
cylinder.
Roto-dynamic pumps
 A centrifugal pump is a rotodynamic
pump that uses a rotating impeller to
create flow by the addition of energy
to a fluid
 The roto-dynamic pump produces a
head and a flow by increasing the
velocity of the liquid through the
machine with the help of a rotating
vane impeller.
Reciprocating Pump
Main parts of a reciprocating pump
1)Cylinder with valves at inlet and delivery: Suction and
delivery pipes with suction valve and delivery valve are
connected to the cylinder. The suction and delivery valves are
one-way valves or non-return valves, which allow the water to
flow in one direction only
2)Plunger or piston: Piston reciprocates in the closely fitted
cylinder
3)Connecting rod and crank mechanism: Crank and connecting
rod mechanism is operated by a power source
4)Suction and delivery pipe with one way valve: One end of
suction pipe remains dip in the liquid and other end attached
to the inlet of the cylinder. One end of delivery pipe attached
with delivery part and other end at discharge point
Working
• Working similar to that of reciprocating engines
• Piston moves creates a vacuum inside the
cylinder and atmospheric
pressure forces the liquid up through the suction
pipe into the cylinder.
Delivery valve will be closed during this stroke.
• During the return stroke, the pressure
developed in the fluid opens the
delivery valve, closes the inlet valve and pushes
the fluid through the
delivery valve.
• This pump is suitable for high heads and low
discharge
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

1. Foot valve & strainer

2. Suction pipe

3. Impeller

4. Casing

5. Delivery pipe
Centrifugal Pump
Parts of a centrifugal pump
1)Impeller: Rotating solid disc with curved blades. Impeller is
mounted on a shaft connected to the shaft of an electric
motor. As the impeller rotates, fluid is drawn into the impeller
inlet(eye of pump) is accelerated as it is forced radially
outwards
2)Casing: Air tight passage around the impeller
3)Suction pipe and delivery pipe: Pipe whose one end is
connected to the inlet of pump and other end dipped in a
sump is known as suction pipe.
Pipe whose one end is connected to the out let of the pump
and the other end delivers the working fluid at a required
height is known as delivery pipe.
Working
•Working fluid enters the pump at the centre of a
rotating impeller.
• Impeller impart centrifugal force on the liquid
entrapped in the impeller and throws the liquid
towards the outer periphery of the impeller
• Outward movement of liquid in the impeller creates
a partial vacuum near the eye of the impeller.
Consequently, liquid from the sump is sucked in
towards the impeller eye and enters through the inlet
tip of impeller vanes. Thus, there is a continuous flow
of liquid from the sump to the casing
• The liquid leaving the impeller vanes is at a higher
pressure and velocity
•The velocity head is converted to pressure head in
the casing
Reciprocating pump centrifugal pump
Module 3
 A power plant is an industrial facility used to generate
electric power with the help of one or more generators
which converts different energy sources into electric
power.
 Electricity is a secondary energy source - obtained from
the conversion of other primary sources of energy :-
coal, natural gas, nuclear, solar,
hydraulic or wind energy.
 Electricity itself is neither renewable nor non-renewable.
 The power plant is the location in which
the energy conversions take place.
 Fossil fuel power plants: Generates electric power by
burning fossil fuels like coal, natural gas or diesel.
 Nuclear power plants: Controlled nuclear reaction is
maintained to generate electricity.
 Hydroelectric power plants: Electricity is produced by
building dams on suitable rivers.
 Wind power plants: The kinetic energy of wind is used to
create power.
 Solar power plants: Generates power by
collecting solar radiation.
 Geothermal power plants: Uses the natural heat found
in the deep levels of the earth to generate electricity.
 Biomass power plants: Natural organic matter is burnt to
produce electricity.
 Hydro-electric power plants
 Thermal power plants
 Nuclear power plants
 Diesel power plants
 Wind power plants
 Solar power plants
 Hydro energy:- Energy generated by the force of water.
 Production of electricity depends upon:-
1. Water level from the ground
2. Flow rate of water
3. Efficiency of turbine
❑ Advantages
➢ The most important advantage is that it keeps the environment clean
➢ Hydro energy can be stored in high level reservoirs and used whenever
necessary.
➢ Electricity is produced at a constant rate.
➢ The life of dams and power plants last for many decades.

➢ The water can be used for supplying

1. Drinking water
2. Irrigation
3. Water sports
4. Industries
5. Power plants
❑ Disadvantages
➢Constructing hydroelectric power plants and dams are very
expensive.
➢Requires large area.
➢Planning a hydro electric power plant and reservoir may
lead to the disruption of the lives of people as they have to
relocate to another area.
❑ A generating station which converts heat energy of coal combustion
into electrical energy is known as a steam power station
❑ The heat produced for burning of coal & with the help of water steam
is produced. This produced steam flow towards turbine i.e. kinetic
energy of the steam which converted into mechanical energy of the
turbine. The input steam drives the prime mover or turbine,
simultaneously the generator also start to rotate. At that time
mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy.
❑ Rankine cycle
❑ Advantages:
➢Less initial cost as compared to other generating stations.
➢It requires less land as compared to hydro power plant.
➢The fuel (i.e. coal) is cheaper.
➢The cost of generation is lesser than that of diesel power
plants.
❑ Disadvantages:
➢It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large
amount of smoke. This is one of the causes of global
warming.
➢The overall efficiency of a thermal power station is low
(less than 30%).
❑ Nuclear power plants generate electricity in a very similar way to
other traditional power plants, differing in the type of fuel used. All
electricity generation plants produce heat that turns water into steam,
which drives a turbine connected to a generator and subsequently
produces electricity.
❑ In a nuclear reactor, uranium atoms are split into smaller parts by
changing their molecular structure using the fission process. The
energy released during this split creates heat to produce steam, which
is used by a turbine generator to generate electricity.
 Advantages
➢Produces no polluting gases.
➢Does not contribute to global warming.
➢Low fuel quantity reduces mining and transportation effects
on environment.
➢Power station has very long lifetime.
 Disadvantages
➢Waste is radioactive and safe disposal is very difficult and
expensive.

➢Costs of building and safely decommissioning are very high.

➢Cannot react quickly to changes in electricity demand.

➢Local thermal pollution from wastewater affects marine life.

 A Diesel power station (also known as Stand-by power station) uses
a diesel engine as prime mover for the generation of electrical
energy. This kind of power station can be used to produce limited
amounts of electrical energy.
 The diesel burns inside the engine and the products of this
combustion act as the working fluid to produce mechanical energy.
The diesel engine drives alternator which converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy
 Advantages
➢Quick installation and commission
➢Quick starting and easy pick-up of loads
➢Easy operation
➢Required minimum labours
➢Simple fuel handling
➢Efficient ash disposal
➢High level of efficiency
 Disadvantages
➢Limited power generation capacity.
➢Expensive due to the use of diesel.
➢High maintenance cost.
➢Relatively short life.
 Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. The energy in
the wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a
rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft, which spins
a generator to create electricity
Wind Power Plant.mp4
 Advantages
➢Clean & Environment friendly Fuel source
➢Renewable & Sustainable
➢Cost Effective
➢Industrial and Domestic Installation
 Disadvantages
➢Fluctuation of Wind and Good wind sites
➢Noise and aesthetic pollution
➢Not a profitable use of land
 A solar power plant is any type of facility that converts sunlight either
directly, like Photovoltaics, or indirectly, like Solar Thermal plants, into
electricity.
Photovoltaics
 When photons from sunlight hit the semiconductor material free electrons
are generated which can then flow through the material to produce a direct
electrical current - known as the photo - effect in physics.
 DC to AC - convertors
 Can use the photo-effect directly without the need of other processes or
devices.
Photovoltaic.mp4
Solar Thermal Power Plants
 These kinds of solar thermal power plant work by focusing sunlight
from long parabolic mirrors onto receiver tubes that run the length
of the mirror at their focal point. This concentrated solar energy
heats up a fluid that continuously flows through the tubes.
 This heated fluid is then sent to a heat exchanger to boil water in a
conventional steam-turbine generator to generate electricity.
Solar Thermal Power plant.mp4
 Advantages
➢ Renewable Energy Source
➢ Reduces Electricity cost
➢ Diverse Applications
➢ Low Maintenance Costs
➢ Technology Development
 Disadvantages
➢ Weather Dependent
➢ Solar Energy Storage is Expensive
➢ Uses a Lot of Space
➢ Associated with Pollution
BASIC MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
Module 4
 MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
● Manufacturing is the art of transforming raw
materials in to finished products.
● It involves step by step procedures by changing
shape, size and properties of the material to
get a final finished component.
● Classification
1. Shaping Processes
2. Machining Processes
3. Joining Processes
4. Finishing Processes
5. Property modification process
 WELDING
• Is defined as –
• Welding is a process of making a permanent
joint by establishing inter atomic bonds
between two or more pieces of metal by using
heat or heat and pressure.
• Most essential requirement is heat.
• Pressure may or may not be used.
• Filler material may or may not be used.
• Flux is used to resist oxidation and to remove
impurities.
• Thus, “Welding is the process of joining similar
or dissimilar metals by the application of heat,
with or without the application of pressure
and addition of filler material”.
Classification Of Welding
 Classification Of Welding

• Welding of metals can be divided into two

categories.
1. Plastic Welding (Pressure welding)
2. Fusion (Diffusion) Welding.
• Plastic Welding -In this type of welding the
metals to be joined are to be heated to the plastic
state and then forced together by external
pressure without the addition of filler material.
Eg. Forge Welding, resistance welding.
• Fusion Welding
In this type of welding no pressure is involved
but a very high temperature is produced in or
near the joint.
• The metal at the joint is heated to the molten
state and a joint is formed as a result of
solidification.
• The heat may be generated by electric arc,
combustion of gases or chemical action. A
filler material may be used during the welding
process
 Advantages Of Welding

• It produces a permanent joint.

• Overall cost of welding equipment is low.
• Large number of metals can be welded.
• Welding operation can be mechanized.
• Welding operation is economical.
• High corrosion resistance compared to bolting
and riveting.
 Disadvantages of Welding

• Welding operation distorts workpieces.

• Skilled labour needed
• Weld joints require heat treatment
• Produces chemical and physical changes.
• Gives off harmful radiations.
 APPLICATIONS
• Aircraft construction
• Automobile Construction
• Bridges
• Buildings
• Pressure vessels and tanks
• Storage tanks
• Rail Road Equipments
• Piping and Pipelines
• Ships
• Machine tool
• Household
• Heavy machineries
 GAS WELDING
• Gas Welding is a Fusion-Welding process.

• It joins metals using the heat of combustion of some fuel

gas (acetylene, hydrogen, natural gas) in air or oxygen.

• Temperature produced ranges from 3000 °C to 3400 °C

• The intense heat produced melts and fuses together the

edges of parts to be welded, generally with the addition of
filler material.
 Types of Gas Welding

• Oxy-Acetylene Welding

• Air-Acetylene Welding

• Oxy-Hydrogen Welding
Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
 Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment

• Acetylene Cylinder - Used for storing Acetylene

• Oxygen Cylinder -Used for storing Oxygen
• Oxygen and Acetylene pressure Regulators -The
pressure of the gases obtained from the cylinders
is considerably higher than the gas pressure
required to carry out the welding operation.
• The purpose of regulators is to
-reduce the pressures of gases
- to produce steady flow of gases.
Oxy-acetylene Welding Equipment
• Welding Rods - Used as Filler Metal
• Flux -Used for removing impurities and
oxides.
• Welding Torch or Blow Pipe -Oxygen and the
fuel gas are mixed in the welding torch.
Welding Torch controls the flow of gases to
the welding nozzle.
Oxy-Acetylene Welding
TYPES OF FLAMES
• Neutral flame.
1. All gas is burn
2. gives 100% heat.
3. Ideal flame used in gas welding.
• Reducing flame.
1. It is also called as carburizing flame.
2. It has an excess of acetylene over the oxygen
• Oxidizing flame.
1. It contain more oxygen than any other flame.
2. This is used for oxidizing metal like brass, Zink etc.
 Advantages Of Gas Welding
• Oxy-Fuel gas can be easily controlled.
• Suitable for thin sheets.
• Equipment is portable.
• It can weld most common materials.
• By changing the nozzle the torch can be use
for heating, and cutting purposes.
• Cost is low.
 Disadvantages of Gas Welding
• Heavy sections cannot be joined.
• Flame temperature is less than that of arc.
• Fluxes used produce fumes that are irritating
to eyes, nose and lungs.
• Slower than arc welding Process.
• Distortion to the work piece is more
compared to arc welding process.
• Careful handling and storing is required.
 ARC WELDING
• Method of fusion welding in which the metals
at the joint is heated to molten state by an
electric arc

• Arc column is generated between an

anode(electrode) and the cathode(metal to be
joined)

• Temperature of the arc is about 6000⁰C to

7000⁰C
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING
EQUIPMENT
ELECTRODES

• Non- consumable electrodes: carbon, graphite

or tungsten(they are not consumed during
welding operation)
• Consumable electrodes: steel(consumed
during welding operation), electrode may be
bare(uncoated) or flux coated
ARC WELDING
 ARC WELDING- MANUAL METAL ARC
WELDING
• The heat is generated by an electric arc between
base metal and a consumable electrode.
• In this process electrode movement is manually
controlled hence it is termed as manual metal arc
welding
• In shielded metal arc welding, the protection to
the weld pool is provided by covering of
a) slag formed over the surface of weld pool/metal
and
b) inactive gases generated through thermal
decomposition of flux/coating materials on the
electrode
 RESISTANCE WELDING
• Parts to be joined are heated to a plastic state
over a limited area by their resistance to flow
of electric current(resistance heating) and
then by mechanically pressing together
• Pressure is applied continuously till the weld
cools down
• It is generally used for joining thin plates and
structures
 1.RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
• Pieces are assembled and placed between
electrodes and pressure is applied
• When current passes, the pieces are heated
at the contact area, and due to the pressure,
the contact spot gets welded
 2.RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
• Similar to spot welding except that the
electrodes are disc shaped rollers
• Electrodes roll over the sheet and a
continuous weld is obtained
• Timed pulses of current pass through the
metal to form the overlapping welds. Welding
current is usually higher than the conventional
spot welding
 3.RESISTANCE BUTT WELDING
• Heat obtained from the resistance to electric
current through the area of contact of two
surfaces

• Pressure is applied before heating is started and is

maintained throughout the heating period

• Heavy current is passed from one metal piece to

other. The resistance to electric current flow
heats the faces to fusion temperature
• Both pressure and current are applied throughout
the weld cycle
• When the faces of the pieces become plastic,
they are pressed together more firmly, upsetting
the metal piece to form a dense joint

• Force is released as the welded joint has cooled to

the desired temperature

• Here one Clamp is stationary and other one is

movable
 WELDING DEFECTS
• Weld crack
• Porosity
• Undercut
• Spatter
• Slag inclusion
• Poor fusion
• Wraping and distortion
• Lack of penetration
WELDING DEFECTS
 SOLDERING

• Method of joining two or more metal pieces

by means of a fusible alloy or metal called
solder(filler alloy), applied in molten state

• The melting temperature of filler metal is

lower than 450°C and also lower than the
melting point of the components to be joined
SOLDERING
 SOLDERING
• No direct melting of the metals being joined
• During the process, the filler alloy(solder) flows
between the two closely adjacent surfaces of the
work pieces by capillary action

• Solder is melted by using a soldering iron, which is

heated by electrical resistance

• Soldering iron tips are made of copper core plated

with iron. The copper is used for heat transfer
and the iron plating is used for durability .
 TYPES
• Soft soldering – generally used in sheet metal
work for joining parts which are not subjected to
high load or high temperature. The melting point
of solder using ranges from 150 to 300 °C
• Hard soldering – stronger than soft soldering.
Silver alloy with tin is used as hard solder , the
melting point of which is 300 to 600 °C
 Applications
• Joining wires in electric connections
• Electronic boards and similar small parts
which are not subjected to load and
temperature
 BRAZING
• Metal pieces are joined by heating the closely placed
parts and then filler alloy called spelter applied in the
molten state which upon solidification produces the
desired joint
• Melting temperature of filler metal is more than
450°C but lower than the melting temperature of
the components to be joined
• No direct melting of the metals being joined
• Brazing gives a much stronger joint compared to
soldering
• During the process, the filler alloy(spelter) flows
between the two closely adjacent surfaces of the
work pieces by capillary action
 TYPES
• TORCH BRAZING
• FURNACE BRAZING
• RESISTANCE BRAZING
• INDUCTIVE BRAZING

APPLICATIONS - Fastening of pipe fittings, stove

burners, carbide tip on tools, radiators, heat
exchangers, electrical parts
 CASTING

• Casting is the process of producing metallic

parts of desired shape and size by pouring
molten metal into a mould having a cavity of the
part to be cast and then allowing the molten
metal to solidify.
• Molten metal on solidification gets the shape
of the mould
• Mould has the shape of the product to be
made
 SAND CASTING
• Molten metal: metal in the form of a liquid
• Mould: negative print of the product to be cast
(cavity whose geometry determines the shape of
the cast part), open and closed mould
• Moulding: process of making mould of desired
shape using sand, pattern and core
• Mould consists of two halves a) Cope: upper half
of the mould b) Drag: bottom half of the mould
• Pattern: model or replica of the component to be
made by casting( mould forming tool)
 PARTS OF GATING SYSTEM
• Pouring basin: top of the mould for pouring the
molten metal at the required rate into the
mould cavity
• Sprue: vertical passage made through the cope
for connecting pouring basin with the gate
• Runner: for connecting the sprue and gate
• Gates: passage for connecting the base of the
runner with the mould cavity
• Riser: passage made in the cope to permit
molten metal to rise up after filling the mould
cavity
GATING SYSTEM
SAND MOULDING AND CASTING
PROCEDURE
• Sand Casting Animation.mp4
 MOULDING SAND PROPERTIES
• FLOWABILITY: behave like a fluid, sand to get
compacted to uniform density

• GREEN STRENGTH: strength of the sand in moist

condition

• DRY STRENGTH: strength of the sand in dry condition

• POROSITY/ PERMEABILITY: ability to allow the

passage of mould gases

• REFRACTORINESS: ability of the sand to withstand

high temperature
• CHEMICAL STABILITY: resist chemical reaction

• COLLAPSIBILITY: ability of the sand to collapse after

the casting solidifies

• FINENESS: ability of the sand to produce smooth

surfaced castings

• ADHESIVENESS: ability of the sand to stick on to the

mould walls

• DURABILITY: ability of the sand to be used again and

again
• Advantages
• Production process is simple
• Cost of casting is low
• Sand can be reused

• Disadvantages
• More chances of defects
• Does not impart good surface finish
CASTING DEFECTS
 CASTING DEFECTS
• Blow holes- spherical voids formed due to
evolution of entrapped gases in the metal,
vapourisation of moisture in sand etc
• Cold shut and misrun – are discontinuities in the
casting as a result of poor fluidity of the molten
metal. Misrun are formed when the entire
section is not filled during pouring before
solidification.
Cold shuts formed when two streams of metal do
not fuse together.
• Hot tear – are cracks in the casting as a result of
contraction stresses after solidification
• Mismatch is a shift of the individual parts of a
casting with respect to each other. Mismathing of
cope and drag.
• Shrinkage cavities – are voids in the casting due
to insufficient feeding, poor casting design, high
temp of pouring metal etc.
• Swell – is an expansion of mould cavity by metal
pressure. It is due to insufficient ramming and too
rapid pouring of metal
• Scabs – are lumps of excess metal on the casting
as a result of erosion of mould by the stream of
molten metal.
 Metal Forming By Deformation

• Process in which shape of the metals are changed

to desire shapes by subjecting them to stresses
greater than yield stress of the metal
• It is a deformation process

• Types are
• Rolling
• Forging
• Extrusion
 ROLLING
• Process of plastically deforming metal by
passing it between rolls
• Cylindrical rolls are used to reduce the cross
sectional area of a bar or plate with a
corresponding increase in the length
• Process of rolling basically consists of passing
metal between two rolls rotating in opposite
direction at the same speed
• Two types
1. Hot Rolling
• Process in which metal is fed to the rolls after
being heated above the recrystallization
temperature
2. Cold Rolling
• In cold rolling, metal is fed to the rolls when it
is below the recrystallization temperature
 Types of rolling mills

• a) Two high mill

• b) Three high mill
• c) Four high mill
• d) Cluster mill
 TWO HIGH MILL
• Two rolls
• Lower roll will be fixed
• Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space
between the rolls
• Both the rolls rotate at the same speed but in
opposite directions .
THREE HIGH ROLL MILL
• Three rolls positioned one over another
• Upper and lower rolls rotate in the same
direction
• Middle roll rotates in the opposite direction
• Middle roll is fixed
• Upper and lower rolls are moved to adjust the
roll gap
 Cluster Mill
• Used for rolling very thin sheet or foils
• It consists of a Pair of working rolls of very
small diameter, supported by a number of
back up rolls on either side
 FORGING

• Process of changing the shape of metals when it is

in the plastic state, by applying compressive force

• Hot forging – forging at high temperature

• Cold forging- forging at room temperature

• Forged product has better mechanical properties

than a cast one
 Components produced by forging

• Nails
• Bolts
• Spanners
• Crane hooks
• Axles
• Crankshafts
• Connecting rods
 Dies used for forging
a) Open die forging
b) Closed / Impression die forging

Open Die Forging

• Work piece is upset,
compressed or forged
between two flat dies

• Used for simple shapes

and low production
volumes
 b) Closed/Impression Die Forging

• Work piece takes the

shape of the die cavity
while being forged
between two shaped dies
• Used for forging
complicated shapes
• Process is usually carried
out at elevated
temperatures
 Types of Forging

• A. Hand forging
• B. Drop forging
• C. Press forging
 A. HAND FORGING

• Traditional forging operation carried out by

blacksmith in a section of workshop called smithy

• Hand tools are used for forging (eg. Hammer,

chisel…etc)

• Not suitable for mass production

 Hand forging operations

• a) Upsetting
• b) Drawing down(necking down)
• c) Setting down
• d) Bending
• e) Welding
• f) Cutting
• g) Swaging
• h) Drifting
• i) Fullering
a. Upsetting
• Process of increasing the cross sectional area of a
bar at any desired portion at the expense of
length of the bar
• Portion to be upset is heated and then hammered
axially

b. Drawing Down
• Process of reducing the cross section of a bar by
increasing its length

c. Setting Down
• Local thinning down operation using a set of
hammer
d. Drifting
• Process of increasing the diameter of a
punched hole
• Drift which has tapered end is made to pass
through the punched hole to produce a
finished hole
 Bending
Bars and rods are bent to form rings, hooks…etc
Swaging
• Operation by which the
required cross sectional
shape is obtained
• Two swage blocks, top
swage and bottom swage
are used for swaging
operation
• Work piece is held
between the top and
bottom swages and is
hammered
Welding
• Joining two metallic surfaces
• Surfaces to be joined are
heated to a temperature of
about 1000⁰C
• Metal surfaces are joined by
applying pressure at the
mating surfaces
• Reduce the cross sectional
area of a portion of a stock
• Metal flow outwards and away
from the center of the
fullering tool
B. DROP FORGING
• Force for shaping the component is applied in a series
of blow by using drop hammers
• Open die or closed dies are used for this purpose

C. PRESS FORGING
• Process is similar to drop forging but for the method of
application of force
• In this case the force is applied by a continuous
squeezing operation by means of a hydraulic press
• Mass production technique
 EXTRUSION
• Process of forcing a metal enclosed in a
container to flow through the opening of a die
• Metal is subjected to plastic deformation
• Metal undergoes reduction and elongation
during extrusion
• Used for manufacture rods, tubes, circular,
rectangular, hexagonal and other shapes both
in hollow and solid form
 Types of Extrusion

• a) Direct Extrusion
• b) Indirect Extrusion
• c) Cold Extrusion/ Impact Extrusion
 a. Direct Extrusion

• Also called forward

extrusion
• Flow of metal through
the die is in the same
direction as the
movement of ram
• Hot billet(work piece) is
used
 b. Indirect Extrusion

• Also called backward extrusion

• Flow of metal through the die
is in the opposite direction as
the movement of ram
• Hot billet(work piece) is used
• Ram used is hollow
• Billet remains stationary while
die is pushed into the billet by
the hollow ram
• Less force is required as
compared to direct extrusion
 c. Cold/Impact Extrusion

• Carried out at higher velocity

• Unheated metal is placed in the die cavity
• Punch is forced into the die cavity causing the
metal to flow upwards through the gap
between punch and die
• Tooth pastes tubes are made by this process
 Methods of Power Transmission

• Mechanical power can be transmitted from one

shaft to another by following methods
• Belt drive
• Rope drive
• Chain drive
• Gear drive
The shaft from which power is transmitted is called
driver shaft and the shaft to which power is
transmitted is called driven shaft
 The choice of the type of drive for
power transmission
depend on many factors such as
• Distance between shafts
• Amount of power to be transmitted
• Speed ratio of shafts
• Accuracy required
 BELT DRIVE
• A belt is a thin inextensible band made of leather,
rubber, steel
• Belts are used to transmit power between two
parallel shafts, which are at a considerable
distance apart
• Belts are made endless to run over the pulleys
mounted on the shafts
• Friction between the belt and the pulley is
responsible for transmitting power from one
pulley to other
• It’s a friction drive
 BELT DRIVE

• It is not a positive drive, since there is always

some possibility of slipping between the belt
and pulley
Amount of power transmitted depends on
• Velocity of the belt
• The tension with which the belt is placed
under the pulleys
• The arc of contact between the belt and the
smaller pulley
(a) FLAT BELT
• Flat belt are run on flat pulleys
• They are used in sawmills, conveyors, electrical
generators…etc
• Used for moderate amount of power transfer
• Up to 10 m distance
• Advantages
• Simple in construction, smooth operation, low maintenance
and long life
• Flexible
• Disadvantages
• Not positive drives
• Less efficient
• Not suitable for short distances
(b)V BELT
• V belts have trapezoidal cross section
• They run in the V- grooved pulleys
• Multiple V belts are used when the power to
be transmitted is large for a single belt
• V belts are used in automotives and in
agricultural purposes
• Advantages
• Transmits higher torque than flat belts
• Suitable for short distance
• Easily installed and removed
• Slip is negligible
• Operation is quiet
• Suitable for large speeds
• Disadvantages
• Not suitable for large distances
• Costly
• V belts cannot be repaired
• Construction is complicated
OPEN BELT DRIVE
 OPEN BELT DRIVE
• It is used to transmit power when the distance
between the shafts is large
• Both shafts are in parallel
• Both shafts rotates in the same direction
• When the driver rotates in the clockwise
direction, the lower side of the belt is tight
and the upper side is slack
• Upper side of the belt is called the slack side
• Lower side of the belt is called the tight side
 CROSS BELT DRIVE
• Shafts are parallel and rotating in the opposite
directions
• At the point where the belt crosses, it rubs
against itself and wears
• The drive should operate at low velocity
Calculation of length of belt
• X= distance between centers of pulleys
• r1, r2 = radii of larger and smaller pulleys
respectively
• L = total length of belt

• L = л(r1+r2) + (r1-r2)2/x + 2x……

• α = (r1-r2)/x
Ratio of Belt Tensions
• If the thickness of the belt, t is also
considered, then
i = N2/N1 = (d1+t)/(d2+t)
Slip of Belt Drive
• Slip is measured as a difference between the linear
speeds of the pulley rim and the belt over it
• Generally it is expressed as a percentage

Slip occurs due to

• Friction between the belt and pulley decreases
• When the smoothness of pulley surface is high
• Difference between tensions in the tight and slack
sides are very large
 ROPE DRIVE
• Rope drives are used for transmission of large
amount of power over long distances
• For a rope drive, groove angle of the pulley is
usually 45⁰
• Fibre ropes and wire ropes are used
Advantages
• Smooth and silent operation
• Less weight
• Longer life
• Efficiency is high
• More reliable
• Low cost
 CHAIN DRIVE
• Chain drive consists of an endless chain running over
special profile toothed wheels called sprockets
• One of the sprockets will be the driver and the other driven
• Smaller sprocket is called pinion and the bigger one is called
wheel
Advantages
• It is a non-slip drive
• Very high efficiency
• Occupies less space
Disadvantages
• High cost
• More weight
• Needs accurate mountings
• Lubrication is critical
• A gear is a toothed wheel
• One gear is mounted on the driving shaft and
another one on the driven shaft, their teeth
meshing with each other
• It is a positive drive(no slip)
• The axes of the shafts may be parallel or non-
parallel
• When two gears of different sizes mesh, the
smaller one is called pinion and the larger one is
called gear
• When pinion(smaller gear) is the driver, output
speed(driver speed) decreases and torque
increases
• When the gear(larger gear) is the driver, output
speed(driver speed) increases and torque
decreases
 1.SPUR GEAR
• SPUR gears are those which have teeth cut parallel to
the axis of the shaft
• Spur gears are used to transmit power between parallel
shafts
• They are used in high speed and high load applications
• Two types External gear and internal gear
• Internal gears have teeth on the inner periphery
• Two gears rotate in same direction
• Pinion or smaller gear is inside the spur gear
• Internal gears are used in heavy duty tractors, where
much torque is required
• External gears have teeth on the outer surfaces
and the two shafts rotate in opposite directions
SPUR GEAR
 2.HELICAL GEAR
• In helical gear, the teeth cut on the periphery are
of helical screw form
• Helical tooth is inclined at an angle to the axis of
the shaft
• Helical gears are used to transmit power between
parallel shafts
• The two shafts rotate in opposite directions
• They have higher load carrying capacity
• They operate smoother and quieter than spur
gears
• Herringbone gears have opposing helical teeth
which nullify two axial thrusts
• Load carrying capacity is very high
• These gears are used to transmit power
between two parallel shafts at high speeds
• The two shafts rotate in opposite directions
 BEVEL GEAR
• Bevel gears are used to connect two non-
parallel shafts with intersecting axes
• Teeth of these gears are formed on a conical
surface
• These gears are used to transmit power
between two shafts at any angle, generally the
shafts are at right angles
• They are used to slow speed applications
 WORM GEAR
• Worm gears are used for power transmission
between non-intersecting shafts that are
generally at right angles to each other
• Worm gearing consists of worm and worm wheel
• Worm is a threaded screw and is used as the
driver
• Worm wheel is a toothed wheel
• Teeth of the worm wheel remain engaged with
the threads of the worm
Rack and pinion gears are used to convert rotation(pinion) into linear motion(rack)
or vice versa
Advantages of gear drive
• Smooth and reliable
• Transmits more power
Disadvantages
• Not suitable for large distances
• Needs lubrication
• Maintenance cost is high
• Power loss due to friction
• Production cost is high
HEAT TREATMENTS
⚫ Definition:
- a combination of heating and
cooling operations timed and applied to a
metal or alloy in the solid state to produce
desired properties
Objectves/ Purposes of heat treatment

⚫ To improve mechanical properties

⚫ To improve surface hardness
⚫ To increase resistance to wear, corrosion etc
⚫ To improve machinability
⚫ To relieve internal stresses
⚫ To refine grain structure after hot working
⚫ To improve magnetic and electrical proprties
Stages of HT
⚫ Heating to required temperature
⚫ Holding the material at this temperature for a
specified period of time (soaking)
⚫ Cooling the steel at specified rate.
HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES
⚫ Annealing – to soften the steel
⚫ Normalising – to refine the structure
⚫ Hardening – to increase the hardness
⚫ Tempering – to eliminate brittleness in
hardened steel
⚫ Surface hardening – to provide wear
resistance surface with tough core
 Heat Treatments

⚫ A – Normalising
⚫ B – Annealing or
Hardening
⚫ C – Spheroidising or
Process Annealing
⚫ D - Tempering
Annealing
⚫ Any heating and cooling operation that is
usually applied to induce softening
⚫ Depending on the specific purpose ,
annealing process are classified as:
⚫ Full annealing
⚫ Process annealing
⚫ Spheroidise annealing
Full annealing
Purposes
⚫ To soften the steel

⚫ To relieve internal stresses

⚫ To refine grains

Process
⚫ Heating the steel 30 -50 degree above UCT
for hypo-eutectoid steel and by same temp.
above LCT for hyper-eutectoid steel
⚫ It is held at this temp. for some time and then
cooled slowly
Process Annealing
Purposes
⚫ To relieve internal stresses

⚫ Increasing the machinability of steel

Process
⚫ steel is heated to a temp. below or close to
LCT (generally 550 -650 degree) , held at this
temp. for sometime and then cooled slowly
Spheroidising
Purposes
⚫ It improves the machinability, toughness and
ductility of steels, but lowers hardness and
tensile strength.
Process
⚫ heating the steel to a temp slightly above the
LCT (730 – 770 degree) , it is held at this
temp for sometime and then cooled slowly to
a temp. of 600 degree.
Normalising
Purposes
⚫ To refine the grain structure

⚫ To relieve internal stresses

⚫ To improve machinability, tensile strength etc

Process
⚫ Heating the steel 30 – 50 degree above its
UCT for hypo and hyper eutectoid steels,
holding at this temp. for shorter time and then
allowed to cool down in still air.
Hardening
Purposes
⚫ to increase the hardness of metal so that it
can resist wear
⚫ To enable it to cut other metals

Process
⚫ Heating the steel 30 -50 degree above UCT
for hypo-eutectoid steel and by same temp.
above LCT for hyper-eutectoid steel
⚫ It is held at this temp. for considerable time
and then quenched in a suitable cooling
medium
Tempering

Purposes
⚫ To reduce the brittleness of hardened steel.

⚫ To increase toughness and ductility

⚫ To remove internal stresses

⚫ Process

⚫ Reheating the hardened steel to some

temperature below LCT , followed by any
desired rate of cooling.
Surface hardening/Case hardening
⚫ In many important industrial products should
have a hard, wear resistant surface and soft
and tough core
.
⚫ Case hardening seeks to give a hard outer
skin over a softer core on the metal.
⚫ The surface layers of steel plates heated to
the hardening temp. And it is then quenched
in water or some other medium.
SURFACE HARDENING PROCESSES
⚫ Carburising – introducing carbon in to the
surface of steel. In this process low carbon
steel is heated in contact with carbonaceous
material from which steel absorbs carbon
⚫ Nitriding – introducing nitrogen in to the
surface of steels by heating and holding it at
a suitable temp. In contact with paritially
dissociated ammonia or suitable medium
⚫ Cyaniding – both carbon and nitrogen are
added to the surface layers of steel
 Induction hardening

⚫ Induced eddy currents heat

the surface of the steel
very quickly and is quickly
followed by jets of water to
quench the component.
⚫ A hard outer layer is
created with a soft core.
⚫ The slideways on a lathe
are induction hardened.
Flame hardening
⚫ Gas flames raise the
temperature of the
outer surface above the
upper critical temp.
⚫ Water jets quench the
component and thereby
hardens it .