FLUOR. Manual Diseño LRFD. 2003
FLUOR. Manual Diseño LRFD. 2003
FLUOR. Manual Diseño LRFD. 2003
FEBRUARY, 2003
INTRODUCTION ........................................1
TENSION MEMBERS ...............................13
COMPRESSION MEMBERS ......................31
FLEXURAL MEMBERS .............................51
BEAM-COLUMNS ....................................81
BOLTED CONNECTIONS ..........................91
WELDED CONNECTIONS .......................106
HOMEWORK ........................................120
ÓRick Drake, SE
Fluor, Aliso Viejo, CA
http://www.aisc.org/
Fluor February, 2003
Steel Structures (LRFD) INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
LRFD MANUAL, 3RD EDITION
General
The design of structural steel buildings is based on information published in the
American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) Load And Resistance Factor
Design (LRFD) Manual of Steel Construction.
The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) is made up of membership
from:
· Steel producers
· Steel fabricators
· Design firms
· Universities
MATERIALS
· Weldable
ASTM A992 is currently used for W-shapes only.
· F y = 50 ksi {Manual 2-24}
· Weldable
Manual Page 2-25. Table 2-2. Applicable ASTM Specifications For Plates And
Bars
ASTM A514 is the most common structural heat-treated alloy steel.
· Fy = 90 to 100 ksi {Manual 2-25}
· Fu = 100 to 130 ksi {Manual 2-25}
· Weldable with proper procedures
· 0.2% offset line is parallel to elastic curve, offset at the strain of 0.002
inch/inch.
Manual Page 2-26. Table 2-3. Applicable ASTM Specifications For Various
Types Of Structural Fasteners
LOADS
ASCE 7-02
Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures
· Provides minimum design loads for buildings and structures subject to
building code requirements
· Loads are suitable for use with stresses and loads in design specifications
such as ACI 318 and the LRFD Specification.
· Building Codes and Design Specifications refer to ASCE 7 for loads
Dead Loads
Dead loads are the gravity loads that do not vary with time in regards to position
and weight. They are not moved once they are placed. They can be estimated
with reasonable accuracy.
Live Loads
Live loads are the loads that vary with time in regards to magnitude and/or
position. Floor and roof loads are the gravity loads produced by the use and
occupancy of a building.
Snow Loads
Special type of roof live load; typical values range from 10 to 40 pounds per
square foot.
· Usually determined or specified by local building department.
· Usually adjusted for roof slope and roof insulation.
Rain Loads
Earthquake Loads
(2) The ground moves to the right, displacing the base of the building and leaving
the top of the building in it's initial position. It's as if a "base shear" force was
applied while the top of the building was held in place.
(3) The spring stiffness of the building frame brings the top of the building back
over the base. Due to inertia effects, the top of the building overshoots the base
of the building. This inertial effect can be conveniently looked at in terms of
Newton's 2nd Law of Motion.
F = MA
Where:
F = force, Kips
M = mass, K-sec2/ft
A = acceleration, ft-sec2
Wind Loads
Wind pressures on the sides and roof of building must be accounted for.
rV 2
Wind Pr essure = q =
2
Where:
q = wind pressure, psf
r = mass of air, K-sec2/ft
V = wind velocity, ft/sec
The wind pressures on structures usually act away from the building surface due
to Bernoulli effects. As velocity increases, pressure decreases.
rV 2
+ P + gH = Constant Energy
2
Where:
P = atmospheric pressure, psf
g = unit weight of air, #/ft3
H = elevation of air stream, ft
LRFD Introduction.doc 7 R. M. Drake, SE
Fluor February, 2003
Steel Structures (LRFD) INTRODUCTION
Factors Of Safety
Allowable steel stresses are usually expressed as some fraction of the material's
specified yield strength (Fy) or ultimate tensile strength (Fu). The ASD method is
characterized by the use of one factor of safety. This factor of safety concept is
used in the determination of code allowable stresses. A limiting stress, either
Fy,or Fu, is divided by a factor of safety.
Fy Fu
F= or
F .S . F .S .
Factors of safety are determined for different stress states based on the
knowledge and experience of the code writers, with support from pertinent
laboratory research.
Acceptance Relationships
The AISC ASD Specification uses lower case f for design stresses and upper
case F for allowable stresses.
Demand £ Capacity
f £F
If the actual stress were caused solely by dead and live loads:
f a £ Fa
f b £ Fb
f v £ Fv
f b £ 1.33Fb
f v £ 1.33Fv
The LRFD specification is based on a 99.7% Reliability that the strength of the
structure will equal or exceed the maximum loading applied to the structure
during its 50-year life.
· This means that for every 1000 buildings, only 3 are expected to have
some members overloaded during their 50 year design lives.
· This does not mean that these 3 structures will collapse, just that some
part of the structure will experience noticeable distress (yielding).
Limit States
Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) is a method for designing steel
structures, utilizing the concepts of probability based limit states design. A limit
state is a condition that represents the limit of structural usefulness.
Strength Limit States define safety against the extreme loads during the intended
life of the structure, such as yielding, fracture, or buckling. The LRFD
Specification, like other structural codes, focuses on the strength limit states
because of the overriding considerations of public safety. For an individual
structural member, the Strength Limit State can be summarized as:
Demand £ Capacity
U = å g i Qi £ fRn {A5.3}
Where:
U = Required strength, kips or ft-kips
gi = Load factor, unitless
Qi = Load effect, kips or ft-kips
f = Resistance factor, unitless
Rn = Nominal resistance, kips or ft-kips
fRn = Design strength, kips or ft-kips
Each load combination takes one load at its maximum level with the other loads
at their probabilistic levels. The low probability of simultaneous load occurrence
is accounted for by the load factors.
Nominal Strength
Resistances are given in the LRFD Specification for the various limit states. The
primary resistances (Rn) are:
· Plastic Moment (Mp)
· Column Strength (Pcr)
· Yield Stress (Fy)
· Yield Stress of Web (Fyw)
· Yield Stress of Flange (Fyf)
· Minimum Tensile Strength (Fu)
Resistance Factors
TENSION MEMBERS
Typical Tension Member
When a tensile force is applied through the centroidal axis of a member, the
result is a uniform (average) tensile stress at each cross-section. The average
stress of an axial loaded tension member is given by:
P
f =
A
Where:
f = average stress across cross-section, ksi
P = axial load, Kips
A = cross-section area, in2
This stress is exact, provided that the cross-section under consideration is not
adjacent to the load application point, where stress distribution is not uniform. If
the cross-sectional area varies along it’s length, the stress is a function of the
particular section under consideration.
GROSS AREA
Manual Page 6-34. Section B1. Gross Area: Ag is the total cross-sectional area
of a tensile member taken along a transverse line where no holes are provided.
If we apply enough tension load to cause the entire length of the section to reach
yield, the total elongation of the member could be significant, rendering the
member unserviceable.
NET AREA
Manual Page 6-82. Table J3.3. Nominal Hole Dimensions: When fabricating
structural steel, standard bolt holes are usually punched 1 in larger than the
16
bolt diameter.
Manual Page 6-34. Section B2. Net Area: It is also assumed that another 1 in
16
of the surrounding area is damaged or destroyed. For design purposes, the bolt
hole net area is equal to the bolt diameter plus 1 in . For non-staggered holes:
8
æ 1ö
An = Ag - nç d + ÷t
è 8ø
Where:
An = member net area, in2
Ag = member gross area, in2
n = number of bolt holes in cross-section taken transverse to tension force
d = bolt diameter, in
t = material thickness, in
Staggered Fasteners
Manual Page 16-10. Section B2. Net Area: The effect of staggered holes is
accounted for in the relationship:
æ 1ö æ s2 ö
An = Ag - nç d + ÷t + Sçç ÷÷t
è 8ø è 4 g ø
Where:
s = pitch, longitudinal
center-to-center
spacing of any two
consecutive bolt
holes, inch
g = gage, transverse
center-to-center
spacing between
fastener gage lines,
inch
æ s2 ö
Note that åçç ÷÷ is an empirical relationship that adequately represents the
è 4g ø
effects of staggered holes. It is added to the net area to account for the diagonal
distance between holes.
EFFECTIVE AREA
Effective Area, Ae, is referred to as Effective Net Area in previous AISC
Specifications.
Manual Page 16.1-10. Section B3. Effective Area Of Tension Members: A
structural shape consists of elements that make its shape.
For example:
· A wide flange shape consists of
five elements, two elements for
each flange and one web.
· An angle consists of two elements,
one element for each leg.
The concept of effective area addresses whether or not the transfer of tension
loads from a structural shape to a fastener involves all or some of the elements
of that shape.
If the distance to transfer the tension load between two members is short, the
internal shear forces cannot be efficiently distributed from the entire cross-section
(all of the elements) to the reduced cross-section (some of the elements) at the
connection. This shear lag is accounted for by reducing the net area to an
effective area.
Ae = An
Where:
Ae = member effective area, in2
An = member net area, in2
(2) When a tension load is transmitted by fasteners or welds through some but
not all of the cross-sectional elements of the member, the effective area shall be
computed as follows:
æ-ö
ç x÷
U = 1 - ç ÷ £ 0 .9
ç L÷
è ø
Where:
U = reduction coefficient, unitless
-
x = connection eccentricity, inch
L = connection length in loading direction, inch
When the tension load is transmitted only by longitudinal welds to other than a
plate member, or by longitudinal welds in combination with transverse welds:
Ae = Ag U {Eq. B3-2}
æ-ö
ç x÷
U = 1 - ç ÷ £ 0 .9
ç L÷
è ø
Ae = AU {Eq. B3-3}
U = 1 .0
Where:
A = gross area of directly connected element, in2
When the tension load is transmitted to a plate only by longitudinal welds along
both edges of the plate:
Ae = Ag U {Eq. B3-4}
Where:
L = length of weld, in
Estimates Of "U"
When the member size is not known, such as when selecting a tension member,
estimate U as follows: {Manual 16.1-177}
2
· U = 0.90 for W, M, or S shapes with b f £ d , with 3 or more lines of
3
fasteners to the flanges in the direction of loading
· U = 0.75 for W, M, or S shapes not included above, with 3 or more lines of
fasteners to the flanges in the direction of loading
· U = 0.75 for all other cases
Manual Page 16.1-13. Section B7. Limiting Slenderness Ratios: For tension
L
members other than rods, AISC prefers that < 300 .
r
Rods
AISC does not provide limiting slenderness ratios for rods. Industry practice
provides the following limitations:
5
d min = in
8
L
< 500
d
If we apply enough tension load to cause the entire length of the section to reach
yield, the total elongation of the member could be significant, rendering the
member unserviceable.
Specification Requirements
Manual Page 16.1-24. Section D1. Design Tensile Strength: The specification
addresses this limit state by limiting the nominal tension member strength to the
material strength times the member gross area.
Pu £ f t Pn {A5.3}
f t = 0.90
Pn = Fy Ag {Eq. D1-1}
Where:
Pu = required tensile strength, Kips
ft = tension resistance factor, unitless
Pn = nominal axial strength, Kips
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Ag = member gross area, in2
ASD Sec. D1: The allowable stress Ft shall not exceed 0.60Fy on
the gross area …
It is recognized that steel has a large capacity to take additional load without
failure after the yield stress has been reached.
We consider this capacity when we look at local elongation at bolt holes, allowing
the reduced cross-section at bolt holes to reach stresses between yield strength
and ultimate tensile strength.
Specification Requirements
Manual Page 16.1-24: Section D1. Design Tensile Strength: The specification
addresses this limit state by limiting the nominal tension member strength to the
material ultimate tensile strength times the effective net area, Ae.
Pu £ f t Pn {A5.3}
f t = 0.75
Pn = Fu Ae {Eq. D1-2}
Where:
Fu = specified minimum tensile strength, ksi
Ae = member effective area, in2
ASD Sec. D1: The allowable stress Ft shall not exceed … 0.50Fu
on the effective net area.
( )
f t Pn = f t Fy Ag = (0.90)(36 ksi ) 2.50 in 2 = 81.0 K
( )
f t Pn = f t Fu Ae = (0.75)(58 ksi ) 1.75 in 2 = 76.1 K Ü lowest limit state
Design Strength = 76.1K
Pu £ fRn {A5.3}
f = 0.75
Rn = 0.6 Fu Anv {Eq. J4-1}
[ ]
f Rn = f 0.6 F y Agv + Fu Ant £ f [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] {Eq. J4-3a}
Where:
Agv = member gross shear area, in2
Agt = member gross tension area, in2
( )
f t Pn = f t Fy Ag = (0.90)(36 ksi ) 4.00 in 2 = 130 K
( )
f t Pn = f t Fu Ae = (0.75)(58 ksi ) 3.19 in 2 = 139 K
æ3 ö
Agv = ç in ÷(10 in ) = 3.75 in 2
è8 ø
æ 1 öæ 3 ö
Anv = 3.75 in 2 - 2.5ç1in + in ÷ç in ÷ = 2.70 in 2
è 8 øè 8 ø
( )
Fu Ant = (58 ksi ) 0.91in 2 = 52.8 K
( )
0.6 Fu Anv = 0.6(58 ksi ) 2.70 in 2 = 94.0 K
( )
Fy Agt = (36 ksi ) 1.12 in 2 = 40.3 K
[ ]
f Rn = f 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt £ f [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] {Eq. J4-3b}
DESIGN PROCEDURE
Design Considerations
Pu £ f t Pn {A5.3}
· Compactness - Member no bigger than necessary.
· Dimensions that fit into the structure with reasonable relation to the
dimensions of other members.
· Connections to as many parts of the tension member as possible, to minimize
shear lag.
Pu
Ag (required ) ³
0.90 Fy
æ - ö
ç x÷
(
Pu £ f t Fu ç1 - ÷ Ag - holes )
ç L÷
è ø
LPu
Ag (required ) ³ + holes
æ -ö
0.75 Fu ç L - x ÷
è ø
Slenderness Ratio
Except For Rods Rods (Industry Practice)
L L
£ 300 £ 500
rmin d min
L £ 300rmin L
d min ³
L 500
rmin ³
300 5
d min = in
8
4) Select member
PROVIDED REQUIRED
SIZE Weight Ag rz x Ag Ag rz
(#/ft) (in )
2
(in) (in) (in2) (in2) (in)
L5x5x5/8 20.1 5.90 0.975 1.47 5.86 5.98 ng 0.72 ng
L6x4x5/8 (LLV) 19.8 5.83 0.860 1.03 5.86 5.63 0.72 ok
5) Check L6x4x5/8 (LLV) block shear design strength
Agt = (0.625 in )(3 in ) = 1.88 in 2
æ7 1 öæ 5 ö
Ant = 1.88 in 2 - (0.5)ç in + in ÷ç in ÷ = 1.57 in 2
è8 8 øè 8 ø
æ7 1 öæ 5 ö
Anv = 6.25 in 2 - (2.5)ç in + in ÷ç in ÷ = 4.69 in 2
è8 8 øè 8 ø
( )
Fu Ant = (58 ksi ) 1.57 in 2 = 91.1 K
( )
0.6 Fu Anv = 0.6(58 ksi ) 4.69 in 2 = 163 K
( )
Fy Agt = (36 ksi ) 1.88 in 2 = 67.7 K
[ ]
f Rn = f 0.6 Fu Anv + Fy Agt £ f [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] {Eq. J4-3b}
4) Select member
PROVIDED REQUIRED
SIZE tf (in) Ag (in2) ry (in) - 2
Ag (in ) Ag (in2) ry (in)
x (in)
W8x18 0.33 5.26 1.23 0.83 4.44 ok 5.92 ng 0.48 ok
W8x21 0.40 6.16 1.26 0.83 4.44 ok 6.16 ok 0.48 ok
5) Check W8x21 block shear rupture design strength
Agv = 4(0.40 in )(8 in ) = 12.8 in 2
é æ3 1 öù
Anv = 4(0.40 in )ê8 in - 2.5ç in + in ÷ú = 9.30 in 2
ë è4 8 øû
æ 5.27 in - 4 in ö
Agt = 4(0.40 in )ç ÷ = 1.02 in
2
è 2 ø
é æ3 1 öù
Ant = 4(0.40 in )ê0.635 in - 0.5ç in + in ÷ú = 0.32 in 2
ë è4 8 øû
(
Fu Ant = (65 ksi ) 0.32 in 2 = 20.8 K)
(
0.6 Fu Anv = 0.6(65 ksi ) 9.30 in 2 = 363 K )
Fu Ant < 0.6 Fu Anv Use Eq. J4-3b
[ ]
f Rn = f 0.6 Fu Anv + F y Agt £ f [0.6 Fu Anv + Fu Ant ] { Eq. J4-3b }
[ ( ) ( )]
= 0.75 0.6(65 ksi ) 9.30 in 2 + (50 ksi ) 1.02 in 2 £ 0.75[363 K + 20.8 K ]
= 310 K £ 288 K
fRn = 288 K > 200 K = Pu ok
Select: W8x21
COMPRESSION MEMBERS
ECCENTRICITIES
Ideal concentrically loaded columns do not exist. All columns have accidental
eccentricities due to:
· material imperfections
· types of end connections
· initial crookedness of column
· eccentric loads on columns
· residual stresses
EULER BUCKLING
Leonhard Euler was a Swiss Mathematician.
Critical Loads
(A) Long beam is mounted vertically and hinged at both ends so that it is free to
bend in any direction. A central horizontal load H is applied, causing a midspan
deflection of d.
(C) Axial load P is increased. Horizontal load H is decreased such that the
midspan deflection "d" is maintained. The P when H = 0 is defined as the critical
load, Pcr. In other words, Pcr is the critical load required to maintain the column in
it's deflected position without any side thrust.
Any increase in axial load beyond Pcr increases the deflection (d) and the
moment (M). Eventually, the column will buckle and fail elastically. The Euler
buckling theory defines the critical load, Pe.
p 2 EI
Critical load formula: Pe =
L2
Pe p 2 EI
Critical stress variation: Fe = = 2
A LA
I
Noting that: r=
A
p 2 EI p 2E
As used in LRFD: Fe = = 2
æ I ö
L2 ç 2 ÷ æç L ö÷
èr ø è r ø
Where:
Pe = Euler buckling load, Kips
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
I = member moment of inertia in plane of consideration, in4
L = member length, in
Fe = Euler buckling stress, ksi
A = member gross area, in2
r = member radius of gyration, in
This is the Euler Buckling Formula, the critical stress for a hinged-end column.
Test results indicate that many columns tend to fail before elastic flexural (Euler)
buckling can be achieved.
RESIDUAL STRESSES
Residual stresses are the stresses that remain in a member after it has been
formed into a finished product.
Rolled Shapes
All fibers on cross-section are not stressed at the same level. Residual stresses
cause early yielding, followed by inelastic behavior.
EFFECTIVE LENGTH
The concept of effective length is simply a mathematical method of replacing a
given column with an equivalent pinned-end, braced column. In other words, the
Euler buckling length is equal to KL.
Where:
K = effective length factor, unitless
L = column length between supports, in
The effective length factor, K, is added to adjust the Euler buckling formula for
different end conditions:
p 2E
Fe = 2
æ KL ö
ç ÷
è r ø
LOCAL STABILITY
Rolled and built up shapes are made up of plate elements. The column strength
of the overall section can only be achieved if the section plate elements do not
buckle locally first.
b h
· Examples are identified by or ratios.
t tw
· Note that for wide flange sections, the web is considered stiffened and the
flanges are considered unstiffened.
LRFD Requirements
If the width-thickness ratio of any element exceeds lr from Table B5.1, the
section is referred to as a slender-element compression section.
· Slender compression elements: lr < l
Element descriptions are listed. The width-thickness ratio (l) is defined for each
b h
element, such as or .
t tw
The values for lp and lr are defined for each width-thickness ratio, usually in
terms of the material yield strength (Fy) and modulus of elasticity (E).
E
Flange axial compression: lr = 0.56 ASD : 95 Fy
Fy
E
Web axial compression: lr = 1.49 ASD : 253 F y
Fy
Note that lp is undefined for axial compression. The LRFD specification does not
distinguish between compact or noncompact elements for columns.
E 29000 ksi
lr = 0.56 = 0.56 = 13.5
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
lr = 1.49 = 1.49 = 35.9
Fy 50 ksi
KL Fy 2p 2 E
lc = ASD : C c =
rp E Fy
Where:
lc = column slenderness parameter, unitless
K = effective length factor, unitless
L = column length between supports, inch
r = member radius of gyration, inch
Fy = specified yield stress, ksi
E = modulus of elasticity, ksi
The Euler buckling formula can be defined in terms of the column slenderness
parameter.
Fy
Fe = 2
lc
Out-Of-Straight Columns
æ 0.877 ö
Fe = ç ÷F
ç l2 ÷ y
è c ø
Test results indicate that long columns tend to fail in elastic flexural buckling.
The critical stress at which elastic flexural buckling occurs is best predicted by
the classic Euler buckling formula for pinned-end columns, modified for mean-
centered out-of-straightness.
Test results indicate that column behavior is correctly predicted by the modified
Euler buckling formula when lc > 1.5 .
Specification Requirements
Where:
Pu = design compression strength, Kips
fRn = design strength. Kips
fc = compression resistance factor, unitless
Pn = nominal compression strength, Kips
Ag = member gross area, in2
Fcr = critical compression stress, ksi
For long columns (lc > 1.5), the critical buckling stress Fcr is now defined as:
æ 0.877 ö
Fcr = ç ÷F {Eq. E2-3}
ç l2 ÷ y
è c ø
KL Fy
lc = {Eq. E2-4}
rp E
KL 12p 2 E
If > C c Þ Fa = ASD Eq. E2-2
r 23 KL( )
r
2
Analyses accounting for residual stress tend to yield parabolic curves such as:
é æ F öæ Fy - Fr öæ KL ö2 ù
Fcr = Fy ê1 - ç 2r ÷ç ÷ç ú
ç ÷è r ÷ø ú
ëê è p E øè Fy ø û
Where:
Fr = residual stress, ksi
[
Fcr = Fy 1 - 0.25lc
2
]
Modifying by a factor of 0.877 to account for average out-of-straightness and
simplifying:
2
Fcr = 0.658lc Fy
Test results indicate that short and intermediate columns tend to buckle
inelastically. Inelastic buckling is affected by residual stresses.
Specification Requirements
f c = 0.85
Pn = Ag Fcr {Eq. E2-1}
2
Fcr = 0.658lc Fy {Eq. E2-2}
é
ê1 -
( )
KL 2 ù
r úF
ê 2C c 2 ú
y
If
KL
< C c Þ Fa = ëê ûú
ASD Eq. E2-1
r
5
+
( r ) - (KL r )
3 KL
3
3 8C c 8C c 3
An examination of Equations E2-2 and E2-3 indicates that they are a function of
KL
only , Fy and E.
r
· Solutions to the equation can easily by tabulated for common ranges of
KL
and common values of Fy.
r
KL
· AISC has tabulated values for £ 200 and Fy = 36 ksi or Fy = 50 ksi for
r
use in analysis and design of compression members.
Manual Page 16.1-143. Table 3-36. Design Stress For Compression Members
Of 36 KSI Specified Yield Stress, fc = 0.85
· Tabulated values for fFcr for Fy = 36 ksi
Manual Page 16.1-145. Table 3-50. Design Stress For Compression Members
Of 50 KSI Specified Yield Stress, fc = 0.85
· Tabulated values for fFcr for Fy = 50 ksi
f c Fcr
Manual Page 16.1-147. Table 4. Values Of For Determining Design
Fy
Stress For Compression Members For Steel Of Any Yield Stress, fc = 0.85
· Can be used for any value of Fy.
KL
· Notice that is uses lc, not .
r
The Manual presents column load tables for W, WT, Pipe, Tube, and Double
Angles. Must use specification formulae for other shapes.
Tables are presented for Fy = 50 ksi only. Must use specification formulae or
Manual Table 4 for other stresses.
KL
· Tables include £ 200 .
r
· Tables assume that weak-axis buckling will govern the column design and
are calculated based on KyLy
· If KL is not the same for both axes, table may not indicate the governing
allowable load.
rx
· Ratio of in tables may be used to determine allowable loads when x-
ry
axis buckling governs the column design.
rx
· The ratio will be covered in the design examples.
ry
1) Boundary conditions
K = 1.0 for pinned-pinned column
(KL ) y = (KL )max = 1.0(15 ft ) = 15 ft
è ø
( 2
)
Fcr = æç 0.658 lc ö÷ Fy = 0.658 0.97 (50 ksi ) = 33.7 ksi
2
{Eq. E2-2}
( )
f c Pn = f c Fcr Ag = 0.85(33.7 ksi ) 17.9 in 2 = 513K
( )
f c Pn = f c Fcr Ag = (28.6 ksi ) 17.9 in 2 = 512 K
æI ö æ 170in 4 ö
å çç c ÷÷ 2çç ÷0.83
è Lc ø è 12 ft ÷ø
GB = = = 1.12
æ I b ö æ 199in 4 ö æ 199in 4 ö
å çç ÷÷ çç ÷+ç
÷ ç
÷
÷
è Lb ø è 20 ft ø è 18 ft ø
Kx = 1.37 {Manual 16.1-192}
Assuming Inelastic Behavior, Kx = 1.37
FLEXURAL MEMBERS
STRESS DISTRIBUTION AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LOADING
Where:
Mx-x = internal resisting bending moment about x-axis, in-K
M x - x = òA fy dA
My = internal resisting bending moment about x-axis when extreme fiber
has reached yield, in-K
Mp = internal resisting bending moment about x-axis when all fibers have
reached yield, in-K
f = fiber stress, ksi
y = distance from neutral axis, in
dA = b dy = change in area with respect to distance y, in2
FLEXURAL DESIGN
Manual Page 16.1-31. Section F1. Design For Flexure: the nominal flexural
strength, Mn, is the lowest value of the following limit states:
The applicable specification section depends on both the flexural limit state and
the local buckling limiting ratios.
Slender
Compact Noncompact Compression
Section Section Element
l < lp l p < l < lr l > lr
Plastic Buckling Section F1.1 Not Not
Applicable Applicable
Flange Local Buckling Not Appendix F1 Appendix F1
(not applicable to tees & double angles) Applicable
Web Local Buckling Not Appendix F1 Appendix F1
(not applicable to tees & double angles) Applicable
Lateral Torsional Buckling Section F1.2 for doubly-symmetric shapes.
(not applicable for members subject to Appendix F1. For all other sections
bending about minor axis or to square
or circular shapes)
· The entire beam cross-section can reach the yield stress without buckling
of individual elements.
f b = 0.90 {F1.1}
Mn = M p {Eq. F1-1}
M p = F y Z £ 1 .5 M y {F1.1}
M y = Fy S {F1.1}
Where:
Mu = required flexural strength, in-K
fb = resistance factor, unitless
Mn = nominal flexural strength, in-K
Mp = plastic bending moment, in-K
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Z = plastic section modulus, in3
My = elastic bending moment, in-K
S = elastic section modulus, in3
Note that the consideration of the elastic bending moment is not necessary for
sections with shape factors Z ( )
S
less than 1.5, such as all W-shape beams bent
about their x-axis.
Note that the consideration of the elastic bending moment is necessary for
sections with shape factors Z ( )
S
more than 1.5, such as all W-shape beams bent
about their y-axis.
Manual Page 5-42. Table 5.3. W-Shape Selection By Zx: AISC design aid is
very valuable when yielding limit state is expected to govern.
· The entire beam cross-section can reach the yield stress before local
buckling of the compression flange.
M u £ fb M n {A5.3}
æ l - lp ö
For l p < l £ lr : (
Mn = M p - M p - Mr ç )
ç lr - l p
÷
÷
{Eq. A-F1-3}
è ø
é bf ù
Fb = Fy ê0.79 - 0.002 Fy ú ASD Eq. F1-3
ëê 2t f ûú
For l > lr : M n = M cr = SFcr £ M p {Eq. A-F1-4}
æ 0.69 E ö
M n = Sç 2 ÷ {Table A-F1.1}
è l ø
· The entire beam cross-section can reach the yield stress before local
buckling of the web.
h
l=
tw
M u £ fb M n {A5.3}
æ l - lp ö
For l p < l £ lr : (
Mn = M p - M p - Mr ç )
ç lr - l p
÷
÷
{Eq. A-F1-3}
è ø
For l > lr : The web local buckling limit state is not applicable. See App. G2.
2.84 K / ft (40 ft )
2
Mu = = 568 ft - K
8
2) Design strength – flexural yielding
footnote indicates flange is noncompact {Manual 5-46}
flexural yielding is not valid limit state
3) Check flange local buckling
b
l= = 10.2
2t f
E 29000 ksi
l p = 0.38 = 0.38 = 9.15 {Table B5.1}
Fy 50 ksi
E 29000 ksi
lr = 0.83 = 0.83 = 22.35 {Table B5.1}
FL 50 ksi - 10 ksi
E 29000 ksi
l p = 3.75 = 3.75 = 90.31 {Table B5.1}
Fy 50 ksi
f b M p = f b Fy Z =
( )
0.90(50 ksi ) 157 in 3
= 589 ft - K
12 in / ft
f b M r = 429 ft - K {Manual 5-46}
æ l - lp ö
(
fb M n = fb M p - fb M p - fb M r ç ) ÷ = 589 - (589 - 428)æç 10.2 - 9.2 ö÷ = 577 ft - K
ç lr - l p ÷ è 22.3 - 9.2 ø
è ø
M u = 568 ft - K < 577 ft - K = f b M n ok
6) Deflection
L 40 ft (12 in / ft )
D L (allow ) = = = 1.33 in
360 360
DL =
( ) = 2.78 in > 1.33 in = D
5(1.4 K / ft )(40 ft )4 1728 in 3 / ft 3
ng
384(29000 ksi )(999 in ) 4 ( L allow )
The entire plate cross-section can reach the shear yield stress without shear
buckling of the plate.
Where:
h = vertical plate dimension, in
a = horizontal plate dimension, in
None of the web cross-section can reach the shear yield stress without shear
buckling of the entire web. As in all stability situations, slender plates can
elastically buckle before yield stresses are reached.
h E
When £ 2.45 : Vn = 0.6 Fyw Aw {Eq. F2-1}
tw Fy
h 380
When £ Þ Fv = 0.60 Fy ASD Eq. F4-1
tw Fy
Some, but not all of the web cross-section can reach the shear yield stress
without shear buckling of the entire web. As in all stability situations, residual
stresses and imperfections cause inelastic buckling as critical stress approach
yield stress.
Manual Page 16.1-152. Table 8-36. Design Shear Stress By Appendix F2 For
36 KSI Steel and Manual Page 16.1-154. Table 8-50. Design Shear Stress By
fV
Appendix F2 For 50 KSI Steel: Values of v n are tabulated as a function of a
Aw h
and h ratios. The calculation of kv is not required if these design tables are
tw
used.
Chapter F
31.3 K / ft (7 ft )
2
Mu = = 192 ft - K
8
31.3 K / ft (7 ft )
Vu = = 110 K
2
2) Design strength – flexural yielding
Select W16x31 compact {Manual 5-48}
f b M n = f b M p = 203 ft - K > 192 ft - K = M u ok {Manual 5-48}
DL =
(
5(18 K / ft )(7 ft )4 1728 in 3 / ft 3 ) = 0.089 in
384(29000 ksi ) 375 in ( 4
)
Select W16x31, DL = 0.089”
WEAK-AXIS BENDING
Compact Sections – Flexural Yielding
f b = 0.90 {F1.1}
Mn = M p {Eq. F1-1}
M p = F y Z £ 1 .5 M y {F1.1}
Fb = 0.75 Fy ASD Eq. F2-1
M y = Fy S {F1.1}
Where:
fb = resistance factor, unitless
Mn = nominal flexural strength, in-K
Mp = plastic bending moment, in-K
Fy = specified minimum yield stress, ksi
Z = plastic section modulus, in3
My = elastic bending moment, in-K
S = elastic section modulus, in3
Zx
Note that for W-shape beams bent about their y-axis: x x = shape factor = ³ 1.50
Sx
Fy Z £ 1.5 Fy S \ 1.5FyS will always govern f b M p
For beams bent about weak-axis, the web is barely in compression and web local
buckling is not a concern.
BIAXIAL BENDING
Interaction Formulae
For an individual structural member, the strength limit state can be summarized
as:
Where:
U = required strength, kips or ft-kips
gi = load factor, unitless
Qi = load effect, kips or ft-kips
f = resistance factor, unitless
Rn = nominal resistance, kips or ft-kips
fRn = design strength, kips or ft-kips
å g Q or
i i å Load Effects
£ 1 .0
fRn Re sis tan ce
If the section has at least on axis of symmetry and is loaded through the centroid,
the combined resistances of bending about both the x-axis and y-axis can be
expressed as:
M ux M uy
+ £ 1 .0
f b M nx f b M ny
Where:
Mux = required x-axis flexural strength, in-K
fb = flexural resistance factor = 0.90
Mnx = nominal x-axis flexural strength, in-K
Muy = required y-axis flexural strength, in-K
Mny = nominal y-axis flexural strength, in-K
Specification Requirements
Pu Pu 8 æç M ux M uy ö
÷ £ 1.0
When ³ 0 .2 : + + {Eq. H1-1a}
fPn fPn 9 çè f b M nx f b M ny ÷ø
Pu Pu æ M ux M uy ö
When < 0 .2 : +ç + ÷ £ 1.0 {Eq. H1-1b}
fPn 2f Pn çè f b M nx f b M ny ÷ø
fa f f f by
When £ 0.15 Þ a + bx + £ 1.0 ASD Eq. H1-3
Fa Fa Fbx Fby
Where:
Pu = required axial strength, Kips
Pn = nominal axial strength, Kips
f = ft = 0.90 for gross section yielding
f = ft = 0.75 for net section fracture
For the case of unsymmetrical bending with no axial loads (Pu = 0 K), Equation
H1-1b is applicable, and reduces to:
M ux M uy
+ £ 1.0
f b M nx f b M ny
The Specification clearly permits use of these equations for biaxial bending, even
though they were developed for members primarily in axial tension or
compression with some bending load.
f b M n = f b Fy Z y =
(
0.90(50 ksi ) 36.9 in 3 )
= 138 ft - K {F1.1}
12 in / ft
Select W14x68
Unless these members are properly braced against lateral deflection and
twisting, they are subject to failure by lateral-torsional buckling about the weak
axis prior to reaching their full strong axis capacity.
Therefore, at higher flexural compression loads, the flange would tend to buckle
in its strongest direction, the beam’s weak axis, twisting the beam. It is this
sudden instability in the lateral direction that is referred to as lateral buckling or
lateral torsional buckling.
Design procedures must account for the fact that a laterally unsupported beam
could experience lateral torsional buckling prior to reaching:
LATERAL SUPPORT
To evaluate the lateral support of a beam, it is necessary to provide some
construction examples.
· Continuous lateral
support by embedment of
the compression flange in
a concrete floor slab
· Lateral support at
intervals provided by
cross-beams, cross-
frames, ties, or struts.
The lateral support
system itself must be
adequately stiff and
braced.
· Timber decking that rests on the beam, but is not fastened to it, providing
only frictional restraint
The elastic lateral-torsional buckling strength, Mcr, for an I-shaped beam section
under the action of a uniform moment in the plane of the web over the laterally
unbraced length, L is as follows:
2
p æ pE ö
M cr = ç ÷ C w I y + EI y GJ
L è L ø
The first term represents the warping torsion and the second term represents the
pure torsion of the section.
Where:
Cw = warping constant, in6
Iy = weak-axis moment of inertia, in4
G = shear modulus = 11200 ksi
J = torsional constant, in4
Flexural Strength
Mr > Mn
Where:
Mn = nominal flexural strength, in-K
M n = M cr £ M p {Eq. F1-12}
Mr = limiting torsional buckling moment, in-K
M r = FL S x {Eq. F1-7}
Mp = plastic bending moment, in-K
Mcr = critical elastic moment, in-K
2
p æ pE ö
M cr = Cb EI y GJ + çç ÷÷ I y C w {Eq. F1-13}
Lb è Lb ø
é æL ö ù
2
ê2 F yç r ÷ ú
Fb = ê - è T ø ú F £ 0.60 F
y y ASD Eq. F1-6
ê 3 1530000Cb ú
ê ú
ë û
170000C b
Fb = 2
£ 0.60 Fy ASD Eq. F1-7
æL ö
ç r ÷
è Tø
12000C b
Fb = £ 0.60 Fy ASD Eq. F1-8
æd ö
Lç ÷
è Af ø
2
Cb S x X 1 2 X1 X 2
M cr = 1+ 2
{F1.2b}
æ Lb ö æ Lb ö
ç ÷ 2ç ÷
ç ry ÷ ç ry ÷
è ø è ø
L Cb S x X 1 2 X 12 X 2
Letting l = b : M cr = 1+
ry (l ) 2(l )2
Cb = bending coefficient, unitless
l = slenderness coefficient, unitless
BENDING COEFFICIENTS
Lateral-torsional buckling design moment strength equations are based on the
critical buckling strength of the compression flange.
These equations assume that the compression flange is at the same stress level
for its entire length. However, this is only true for a constant moment. Therefore,
the design strength must be adjusted upwards for other moment gradients.
AISC has developed an expression for Cb to adjust the beam moment gradients:
12.5M max
Cb = {Eq. F1-3}
2.5M max + 3M A + 4M B + 3M C
2
æM ö æM ö
Cb = 1.75 + 1.05çç 1 ÷÷ + 0.3çç 1 ÷÷ £ 2.3 ASD Sec. F1.3
è M2 ø è M2 ø
Where:
Mmax = absolute value of maximum moment in the unbraced segment
MA = absolute value of moment at quarter point of unbraced segment
MB = absolute value of moment at centerline of unbraced segment
MC = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of unbraced
segment
· This is similar to a piece of steel used as a column which may stretch for
two stories, but is treated as two column segments for analysis purposes.
· AISC permits the use of C b = 1.0 for all cases, because it is conservative.
· AISC requires that C b = 1.0 for cantilevers or overhangs where the free
end compression flange is unbraced.
Manual Page 5-35. Table 5-1. Values Of Cb For Simply Supported Beams: For
convenience, AISC tabulates certain common values.
Where:
Lp = limiting laterally unbraced length for full moment capacity uniform
moment case C b = 1.0 inch
E
L p = 1.76ry {Eq. F1-4}
Fyf
20000 102000
Lu = bigger of or rT ASD Sec. F1.3
æ d ö Fy
ç ÷ Fy
ç Af ÷
è ø
Flexural Strength
M p ³ Mn > Mr
é æ öù
(
M n = Cb êM p - M p - M r )çç ll --llp ÷ú £ M p
÷ú
êë è r p øû
é æ öù
(
M n = Cb ê M p - M p - M r )çç LLb -- LLr ÷÷ú £ M p {Eq. F1-2}
êë è r p øúû
[ (
f b M n = Cb f b M p - BF Lb - L p £ f b M p )]
fb M p - fb M r
BF =
Lr - L p
Where:
lp = slenderness coefficient, unitless
Lp
lp =
ry
lr = slenderness coefficients, unitless
L
lr = r
ry
Manual Page 5-42. Table 5-3. W-shapes Selection By Zx: Note that values for
f b M p , f b M r , Lp, Lr, BF, and f vV n are tabulated.
1b) Determine X1
p EGJA
X1 = {Eq. F1-8}
Sx 2
=
p (29000 ksi )(11200 ksi )(0.30 in 4 )(7.65 in 2 ) = 1816 ksi
33.4 in 3 2
X 1 = 1820 ksi {Manual 1-21}
1c) Determine X2
2
Cw æ S x ö
X2 = 4 ç ÷ {Eq. F1-9}
I y è GJ ø
2
607 in 6 æ 33.4 in 3 ö in 4
=4 ç ÷ = 0.0139
(
17.3 in 4 çè (11200 ksi ) 0.30 in 4 ) ÷
ø K2
X 2 = 13900 x10 -6 (1 / ksi )2 {Manual 1-21}
1d) Determine Lr
FL = 50 ksi - 10 ksi = 40 ksi
ry X 1 2
Lr = 1 + 1 + X 2 FL {Eq. F1-6}
FL
1.51in(1816ksi ) æ in 4 ö
= 1 + 1 + ç 0.0139 2 ÷÷(40 ksi )2 = 165.4 in = 13.78 ft
ç
40 ksi è K ø
Lr = 13.8 ft {Manual 5-48}
Lp = 5.34 ft, X1 = 1816 ksi, X2 = 13900 x 10-6 (1/ksi)2, Lr = 13.78 ft
é æ öù
(
f b M n = C b êf b M p - f b M p - f b M r )çç LLb -- LLr ÷÷ú £ f b M p {Eq. F1-2}
êë è r p øúû
é æ L - 5.3 öù
= C b ê140 - (140 - 100)ç b ÷ú = Cb (164.9 - 4.71Lb ) £ 140 ft - K
ë è 13.8 - 5.3 øû
= 1.0(164.9 - 4.71Lb ) = 164.9 - 4.71Lb £ 140 ft - K {for Cb = 1.0}
2æ in 4 ö
(1820 ksi ) ç 0.0139 2 ÷÷
ç
= 0.90
( )
Cb 33.4 in 3 (1820 ksi ) 2
1+ è K ø
£ 140 ft - K
2
æ Lb ö æ L ö
çç ÷÷ 2çç b ÷÷
è 1.51in ø è 1.51in ø
116829C b 52491
= 1+ £ 140 ft - K
Lb L ( )
2
b
Where:
fbMn, in-K
Lb, in
2e) Equation plot
{Manual 5-100}
W12x26, ASTM A992, Cb = 1.00
Data Point Remarks
fbMn (ft-K) L b (ft)
140 0 Continuous support
140 5.3 Lp = 5.3 ft, indicated by l
100 13.8 Lr = 13.8 ft, indicated by m
78 16
63 18 Chart stops
4.48 K / in(32 ft )
2
Mu = = 573 ft - K
8
4.48 K / in(32 ft )
Vu = = 71.7 K
2
2) Design strength - flexural yielding
L p = 6.4 ft {Manual 5-46}
DL =
5wL4
=
(
5(2.0 K / ft )(32 ft )4 1728 in 3 / ft 3 )
= 1.10 in
384 EI 384(29000 ksi ) 1480 in 4( )
L 32 ft (12 in / ft )
D L (allow ) = = = 1.07 in < 1.10 in = D L ng
360 360
W21x68 Is Unacceptable For Deflection
The current LRFD specification is the first AISC specification that includes
column brace strength and stiffness requirements.
Pbr = 0.01Pu {Eq. C3-5}
8Pu
b br = {Eq. C3-6}
fLb
Where:
Pbr = required bracing strength, Kips
Pu = required column strength, Kips
bbr = required bracing stiffness, K/in
Lb = brace spacing = unbraced length of compression flange, in
f = resistance factor = 0.75
The current LRFD specification is the first AISC specification that includes beam
compression flange brace strength and stiffness requirements.
· For reverse curvature loading, the required bracing must be attached near
both flanges.
Where:
Mu = required beam flexural strength, Kips
Cd = curvature coefficient, unitless
= 1.0 for single curvature bending
= 2.0 for reverse curvature bending
ho = distance between flange centroids, inch
3) Design stiffness
for single span beam with point load at center
PL3
D= {Manual 5-164}
48 EI
Pbr 48EI
b br = = 3
D L
Bbr L3 10.7 K / in(120 in )3
I x ( req ) = = = 13.3 in 4
48 E 48(29000 ksi )
Try C6x10.5
I x = 15.1in 4 > 13.3 in 4 = I x (req )
4) Design strength – flexural yielding – x-axis - C6x10.5
Pbr L 1.2 K (10 ft )
Mu = = = 3.0 ft - K
4 4
L p = 2.20 ft {Manual 5-122}
BEAM-COLUMNS
GENERAL
Beam-columns commonly occur in many steel structures:
· Loads applied to column with eccentricity due to construction tolerances or
connection details
· Rigid frame action of lateral wind and seismic loads
· Rigid frame action of vertical dead and live loads when the loads or the
frame are not symmetric
· Top chords of roof trusses supporting roof vertical loads between panel
points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
· Bottom chords of roof trusses supporting interior ceilings and light fixtures
between panel points in addition to the axial loads from truss action
If the eccentricity (e) is large, the member will behave like a beam. If the
eccentricity is small, the member will behave like a column.
Moments concurrent with axial tension loads are not of significant concern
because the axial tension tends to reduce compressive buckling tendencies.
p 2 EI
Pe1 = {C1.2 }
(KL )2
Where:
B1 = magnification factor, unitless
Cm = modification factor, a function of moment curvature, unitless
Pu = required axial strength, Kips
Pe1 = elastic Euler buckling load, Kips
E = steel modulus of elasticity = 29,000 ksi
I = member moment of inertia in plane of bending moment, in4
K = effective length factor in plane of bending moment, unitless
L = member unbraced length in plane of the bending moment, inch
YPu
Cm = 1 +
Pe1
SPECIFICATION REQUIREMENTS
For doubly and singly symmetrical members:
Pu Pu 8 æç M ux M uy ö
÷ £ 1.0
When ³ 0 .2 : + + {Eq. H1-1a}
fPn fPn 9 çè f b M nx f b M ny ÷ø
fa f C mx f bx C my f by
When > 0.15 Þ a + + £ 1.0 ASD Eq. H1-1
Fa Fa æ fa ö æ f ö
çç1 - ÷÷ Fbx ç1 - a ÷ Fby
è F ' ex ø
ç F ' ey ÷
è ø
fa f f by
and + bx + £ 1.0 ASD Eq. H1-2
0.60 Fy Fbx Fby
Pu Pu æ M ux M uy ö
When < 0 .2 : +ç + ÷ £ 1.0 {Eq. H1-1b}
fPn 2fPn çè fb M nx f b M ny ÷ø
fa f f f by
When £ 0.15 Þ a + bx + £ 1.0 ASD Eq. H1-3
Fa Fa Fbx Fby
Where:
Pn = nominal axial strength, Kips
f = f t = 0.90 for gross section yielding
f = f t = 0.75 for net section fracture
f = f c = 0.85 for compression
f b = 0.90 for flexure
Mux = required x-axis flexural strength, including second order effects, in-K
Muy = required y-axis flexural strength, including second order effects, in-K
Mnx = nominal x-axis flexural strength, in-K
Mny = nominal y-axis flexural strength, in-K
Peff = Po + M x m + M y mU
Where:
P0 = actual axial load, Kips
Mx = x-axis bending moment, ft-K
My = y-axis bending moment, ft-K
M = factor from Table B, unitless
U = factor from column load tables, unitless
æ 2ö æ 7.5 ö
Pu (equiv ) = Pu + M ux ç ÷ + M uy ç ÷
d
è ø ç b ÷
è f ø
Where:
Pu(equiv) = equivalent required axial strength, Kips
Mux = required x-axis flexural strength, in-Kips
Muy = required y-axis flexural strength, in-Kips
d = member depth, inch
bf = member flange width, inch
æd ö
M ux (equiv ) = M ux + Pu ç ÷
è2ø
Where:
Mux(equiv) = equivalent design bending moment for trial section, ft-K
2) Select trial section Using AISC, Jura, or Alternate Trial Selection Method.
Pu
5) Compute and determine appropriate interaction equation for trial section.
fPn
Pe1 =
p 2 EI
=
(
p 2 (29000 ksi ) 1240 in 4 ) = 12575 K
(KL )2
(168 in ) 2
Pu 8 æç M ux M uy ö
÷ = 750 K + 8 æç 212 ft - K + 0 ö÷
+ + {Eq. H1-1a}
fPn 9 çè f b M ux f b M uy ÷ 11706 K 9 çè 7170 ft - K ÷
ø
ø
0.64 + 0.26 + 0.00 = 0.90 < 1.00 ok
Check to see if next lightest section will work.
Pe1 =
p 2 EI
=
(
p 2 (29000 ksi ) 1110 in 4 ) = 11256 K
(KL )2
(168 in ) 2
Cm 1.00
B1 = = = 1.07 governs {Eq. C1-2}
Pu 750 K
1- 1-
Pe1 11256 K
B1(min ) = 1.0
Pu 8 æç M ux M uy ö 750 K 8 æ 214 ft - K
÷= ö
+ + + ç + 0 ÷÷ {Eq. H1-1a}
fPn 9 çè f b M nx f b M ny ÷ 1060 K 9 çè 643 ft - K ø
ø
= 0.708 + 0.296 + 0 = 1.00 ok
Select W14x99
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
TYPES OF BOLTS
In the early days of construction, structural steel connections were made with
rivets. Installation of rivets was a time-consuming and labor intensive process.
Eventually riveted connections were replaced by bolted connections, which were
easier to install.
Common Bolts
ASTM A307 bolts, known as common bolts. The bolts are tightened using long-
handled manual wrenches. The induced tension in the bolts is small and
unpredictable. The bolts are satisfactory in building frames not subject to shock
and vibration and in lightly loaded applications.
Most bolted connections today consist of high strength bolts, either ASTM A325
or ASTM A490. Because they are made of high-strength steel, fewer bolts are
needed for the same connection loads. The bolts can be tightened to large
tensions, which produce high clamping forces between the connected parts.
· Fy is not specified
· Fu(A325) = 105 or 120 ksi, depending on grade {Manual 2-26}
· Fu(A490) = 125 ksi {Manual 2-26}
· Available in diameter up to 1½ inches
· Available as headed bolts only
In other cases connections may be made with A307 bolts or with high strength
bolts that are installed snug tight.
Manual Page 16.1-58. Section J3.1 High Strength Bolts: Use of high strength
bolts shall conform to the provisions of the LRFD Specification For Structural
Joints Using ASTM A325 or A490 Bolts.
All ASTM A325 and A490 bolts shall be installed as fully tensioned, unless noted
otherwise.
All other bolts need only be tightened to a snug tight condition, defined as the
“tightness attained by either a few impacts of an impact wrench or the full effort of
a worker with an ordinary spud wrench that brings the plies into full contact”.
Manual Page 16.1-62. Table J3.3. Nominal Hole Dimensions: Many AISC
design and installation requirements in the AISC Specification and the Bolt
Specification are tied to these definitions of nominal hole dimensions
· Notice that the standard hole is the bolt diameter plus 1 inch. This is
16
the most common hole size. Fabrication shops and AISC design aids are
standardized to this hole size.
· Oversize and slotted holes are used to facilitate construction when
additional "slop" is required to allow bolts to be installed.
Manual Page 16.1-60. Section J3.8. Minimum Spacing: Defines the minimum
bolt spacing requirements.
2
· Minimum bolts spacing = 2 d
3
· Preferred bolt spacing = 3d
· Industry standard bolt spacing = 3"
Manual Page 6-81. Section J3.9. Minimum Edge Distance: Table J3.4 defines
the minimum edge distance. It is necessary to put limitations on minimum edge
distances between the bolt holes and the sides of the plate to preclude failure by
tear out of the plate before bearing failure is achieved.
Manual Page 6-82. Table J3.4. Minimum Edge Distances: Indicates minimum
edge distance from center of standard holes to edge of connecting part.
Manual Page 6-82. Section J3.5. Maximum Spacing And Edge Distance:
Maximum spacing and edge distance requirements are intended to minimize the
opportunity for corrosion by precluding gaps between the plies of connected
parts.
BEARING-TYPE CONNECTIONS
In a bearing-type
connection, there is
slippage under the design
load conditions.
Bearing-type connections are installed with the bolts tightened to a snug tight
condition.
DESIGN STRENGTH
Manual Page 6-70. Section J1.1. Design Basis: Connection components shall
be proportioned so that the design strength equals or exceeds the required
strength.
Vu or Pu £ f Rn {A5.3}
Bolt Areas
pd 2
AISC and Structural Engineers use the gross bolt area: Ab =
4
2
æ 0.9743 ö
p çd - ÷
è n ø
Mechanical Engineers use the net tensile area: Ab =
4
Where:
Ab = nominal unthreaded bolt body area, in2
d = nominal bolt diameter, inch
n = threads per inch, unitless
The shank of the bolt fails in tension parallel to the line of force and bolt axis.
The shank of the bolt fails in shear parallel to the line of force and perpendicular to the
bolt axis.
The frictional resistance between the connected plies slips before the bolt can fail
in shear or the connected part fails in bearing or excessive deformation.
The connected part fails by deformation at the bolt hole. Failure may either by
"bearing" at the bolt/part interface or by excessive deformation of the bolt hole.
(a) For bolts in connections with standard, oversized, and short-slotted holes or
long-slotted holes with the slot parallel to the direction of bearing force:
Where:
lc = clear distance in direction of force from the edge of the bolt hole under
consideration to the edge of either the next hole or the material,
inch
t = material thickness, inch
(b) For bolts in connections with long-slotted holes with the slot perpendicular to
the direction of bearing force:
Manual Page 16.1-51. Section J1.8. Placement of Welds And Bolts: The
connection center of gravity must coincide with the member center of gravity,
unless the eccentricity is accounted for. Based on common practice,
eccentricities can be neglected for statically loaded angles and tee-sections.
This does not mean this is a good practice. Notice that wind and earthquake are
dynamic loads, not static.
Manual Page 7-44. Table 7-18. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Bolt
Groups: AISC has precalculated "C" values for a number of bolt group
geometries. Variables considered are:
· number and spacing of bolt group rows
· number and spacing of bolt group columns
· load eccentricity from bolt group center
· angle of load relative to vertical
Manual Page 16.1-63. Section J3.7. Combined Tension And Shear In Bearing-
Type Connections: Design tension strength equals f Ft Ab .
Where:
Ft = nominal bolt tensile strength as a function of the required factored
load shear stress equations from Table J3.5, ksi
Manual Page 16.1-65. Table J3.5. Nominal Tensile Stress Limit (Ft), KSI,
Fasteners In Bearing-Type Connections: The shear stress to tensile stress
interaction is defined based on observed empirical relationships.
Vu
fv =
Ab
A325 bolts, threads inc.: Ft = 117 - 2.5 f v £ 90 ksi ASD : Ft = (44 )2 - 4.39 f v 2
A325 bolts, threads exc.: Ft = 117 - 2.0 f v £ 90 ksi ASD : Ft = (44)2 - 2.15 f v 2
Where:
fv = required factored load shear stress, ksi
Vu = required shear strength, Kips
Slip-Critical Connections
The shear strength for a slip-critical connection is the product of the normal force
and an appropriate coefficient of friction. When there is applied tension to such a
joint, the available normal force and shear strength is proportionately reduced.
REQUIRED: Determine maximum required bolt design strength using the LRFD
Manual tables
SOLUTION:
1) Coefficient
n = 4, s = 3", e = 12", f = 30°, column spacing = 5.5"
C = 2.65 {Manual 7-52}
2) Bolt design strength - required
Pu 50 K
frn = = = 18.9 K
C 2.65
Required Bolt Design Strength = 18.9K
GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check
adequacy of bolts.
Assume connected
parts are adequate.
SOLUTION:
1) Required strength
Pu = 1.4(30.6 K ) = 42.8 K
Pu = 1.2(30.6 K ) + 1.6(45.8 K ) = 110 K governs
1 æ 110 K ö
Vu = Tu = ç ÷ = 19.4 K
2è 4 ø
2) Bolt design strength – shear
( )
fRn = fFv Ab = 0.75(60 ksi ) 0.785 in 2 = 35.3 K > 19.4 K = Vu ok
( )
fRn = fFt Ab = 0.75(80 ksi ) 0.785 in 2 = 47.1 K > 19.4 K = Tu ok
Connection Is Acceptable
GIVEN:
REQUIRED: Check
adequacy of bolts.
Assume connected
parts are adequate.
SOLUTION:
1) Required strength (factored loads)
Pu = 1.4(30.6 K ) = 42.8 K
Pu = 1.2(30.6 K ) + 1.6(45.8 K ) = 110 K governs
1 æ 110 K ö
Vu = Tu = ç ÷ = 19.4 K
2è 4 ø
2) Bolt design strength – tension
( )
fRn = fFt Ab = 0.75(90 ksi ) 0.785 in 2 = 53.0 K > 19.4 K = Tu ok
æ Tu ö æ 19.4 K ö
f Rstr = f 1.13mTb N s çç1 - ÷÷ = (1.0 )(1.13)(51 K )(1)çç1 - ÷÷
è 1.13T N
b b ø è 1.13(51 K )(1) ø
= (19.0 K )(0.66) = 12.5 K < 19.4 K = Vu ng
Connection Is Not Acceptable
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Welding is the localized joining of metals by heating the base materials to above
their melting points, with or without the addition of filler metals.
Almost all structural welding is arc welding. The power source is connected by a
ground cable to the work piece. The power source is also connected by a "hot"
cable to an electrode. When the circuit is energized and the electrode tip
touches the work piece, the circuit is completed. When the electrode tip is then
withdrawn from, but held close to the work piece, an arc is created across the
gap. The arc produces a temperature of about 6500°F, which melts the base
metal, and any filler metal. After the melted metals cool and solidify, a solid
piece of bonded metal is left, the completed weld. The pool of molten metal can
hold a fairly large amount of gases in solution. If the pool is not shielded from the
surrounding atmosphere, it will chemically combine with the free oxygen and
nitrogen. A relatively brittle, nonductile weld would result. As a result, arc welds
are typically shielded by using either a specially coated electrode, or a granular
flux.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW) is commonly called stick welding or manual
welding. It is the most commonly used process because it is simple and
versatile. Welds can be made in all positions and in many difficult-to-reach
areas. The coated electrode is consumed as it is transferred to the base metal
during the welding process. The electrode coating produces a gaseous shield to
exclude air and stabilize the arc. The electrode coating introduces materials to
refine the grain structure of the metal. The electrode coating produces a blanket
of slag over the molten metal and solidified weld. The slag protects the weld
from nitrogen and oxygen that would otherwise react with the hot metals. The
slag also serves to slow down the cooling process of the weld, reducing potential
brittleness. The work area must be kept dry to preclude the introduction of
hydrogen and oxygen into the molten material. Similarly, wind speeds must be
fairly low to preclude dissipation of the protective shielding gasses. Constant
replacement of new electrodes for the consumed electrodes decreases the time
actually spent welding and adds to the labor cost.
The arc and the weld metal are buried in a layer of flux, which protects the weld
metal from contamination and concentrates the heat into the base metal. The
base metal (work piece) must be laid flat to allow gravity to hold the granular flux
in place. The molten flux arises through the weld pool, deoxidizing and cleaning
the weld metal, and forms a protective slag over the newly deposited metal. The
flux is a granular, fusible material. Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) is commonly
automated and is used in fabrication shops because of economies.
· Fast deposition of weld metal
· More uniform and better quality welds
· Good ductility and impact resistance
· Higher heat input, deeper penetration into base metal
STUD WELDING
Stud welding involves the same basic principles and metallurgical aspects as any
other arc welding procedure, in that a controlled electric arc is used to melt the
end of the stud or electrode and a portion of the base metal. The stud is plunged
automatically into the molten metal and a high quality fusion weld is
accomplished where the weld is stronger than the stud itself. Stud welding is
applicable to mild steel, stainless steel and aluminum. Studs may be fed to the
welding gun manually or automatically, depending upon the application. In either
case, a simple squeeze of the welding gun trigger produces a positive
attachment between the weld stud and the base metal in a split second.
FILLET WELDS
Weld Nugget is the melted filler metal and base metal joining the work pieces.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) is the base metal whose mechanical properties or
microstructure have been altered by the heat of welding and subsequent cooling.
· Stronger, but more brittle than other base metal
· Susceptible to absorption of hydrogen
· Preheat of base metal will slow down HAZ cooling rate, reduces cooling
rate and allows absorbed hydrogen to escape
Face is the exposed weld surface on the side from which the welding was done.
GROOVE WELDS
DESIGN STRENGTH
Manual Page 16.1-7. Section A5. Design Basis: Connection components shall
be proportioned so that the design strength equals or exceeds the required
strength.
Vu or Pu £ fRn {A5.3}
Manual Page 16.1-56. Section J2. 4. Design Strength: The design strength
shall be the lower of:
or
fRn = fFW AW
Where:
f = resistance factor as defined in Table J2.5
Rn = weld nominal strength, Kips
FBM = base metal nominal strength as defined in Table J2.5, ksi
ABM = base metal cross-sectional area, in2
Fw = weld electrode nominal strength as defined in Table J2.5, ksi
Aw = weld effective area, in2
Manual Page 16.1-57. Table J2.5. Design Strength Of Welds: Table lists
resistance factors and nominal strengths for:
Where:
f = resistance factor = 0.75
FEXX = weld electrode minimum specified strength, ksi
q = angle of loading measured from the weld longitudinal axis, degrees
Specification
Manual Page 16.1-51. Section J1.8. Placement of Welds And Bolts: The
connection center of gravity must coincide with the member center of gravity,
unless the eccentricity is accounted for.
Elastic Method
bd 2 T (L )2
S= =
6 6
M Pe 6 Pu e
fb = = u 2 =
S T (L ) T ( L )2
6
fv = ( f s )2 + ( fb )2
Where:
fs = shear stress parallel to load due to direct shear, ksi
L = weld or plate length, in
t = effective weld throat or plate thickness, in
S = bending elastic section modulus, in2
fb = bending stress perpendicular to load due to eccentricity, ksi
Note that the maximum bending stress occurs at the farthest point from the
neutral axis. The maximum shear stress occurs at the neutral axis. The nominal
shear stresses are equal at all points. Combination of the maximum bending
stress with the nominal shear stress is conservative.
Strength Method
Manual Page 8-52. Table 8-5. Coefficient C For Eccentrically Loaded Weld
Groups: This table addresses shear and bending with the special case where k =
0. Note that the solution will yield the weld size for each of the welds indicated.
The total weld size would be 2D.
( )
Pu £ f t Fy Ag = 0.90(36 ksi ) 14.7 in 2 = 476 K
2) Design strength - tension on net section
( )
Ae = UAg = 0.85 14.7 in 2 = 12.5 in 2
( )
Pu £ f t Fu Ae = 0.75(58 ksi ) 12.5 in 2 = 544 K
3) Fillet weld limitations
tw = 0.387"
thicker plate = 1"
5
tmin = in
16 {Table J2.4}
7
b f = 2 in
8
7 1 13
tmax = 2 in - in = 2 in
8 16 16 {J2.2b}
5
t = tmin = in
for economy, try 16
4) Design strength - SMAW weld shear
æ 5 öæ in ö
fFW Aw = f (0.60 FEXX )(t e Le ) = 0.75(0.60 )(70 ksi )(4 )(0.707 )ç in ÷ç L ÷ = 27.8 L Kips
è 16 øè in ø
Vu = 476 K = 27.8L Kips = fFw Aw
476 K
Lreq = = 17.1in
27.8 K / in say 18 in
æ5 ö
Lmax = 100ç in ÷ = 31.2 in ok {Manual 16.1-55}
è 16 ø
Select: 5/16” Fillet Welds, 18" Long
3
thicker plate = 4 in
1
tmin = in
4 {Table J2.4}
3 1 11
tmax = in - in = in
4 16 16 {J2.2b}
(
fFw = f (0.60 FEXX ) 1 + 0.50 sin1.5 q ) {Eq. A-J2-1}
æ æ 4ö ö
1.5
9.90
= 0.75(0.60 )(70 ksi )ç1.0 + 0.50ç ÷ ÷ = 42.8 ksi = ksi = f weld
ç è 5 ø ÷ t
è ø
9.90 K / in 1
t req = = 0.231in
42.8 ksi say 4 in = tmin
HOMEWORK
HOMEWORK PROBLEM #1
GIVEN:
HOMEWORK PROBLEM #2
GIVEN:
HOMEWORK PROBLEM #3
GIVEN:
HOMEWORK PROBLEM #4
GIVEN: