Fisica Classica
Fisica Classica
Fisica Classica
Classical Physics
A Two-Semester Coursebook
Classical Physics
Bekir Karaoglu
Classical Physics
A Two-Semester Coursebook
Bekir Karaoglu
Istanbul, Turkey
Cover picture: The Three Country Bridge at night, between France, Germany and Switzerland, by Wladyslaw Taxiarchos228
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
V
PREFACE
This book has been prepared as a textbook for use in the Introductory Physics courses
given in the first year of the Science, Engineering, Education and Medicine schools of
universities. It is calculus-based and can be taught entirely in two semesters.
Over the last decade, many universities around the world have been reducing un-
dergraduate degree credits in favor of Master’s degree programs. Introductory Physics
courses that once spanned 4 semesters were reduced to 2 semesters. Subsequently, a
serious problem arose in the use of standard textbooks. Of course, one cannot find fault
with the physics covered in these books, which I, too, have used in the past. However, it
is also a fact that they are not fully useful in Physics courses that have been shortened to
2 semesters with reduced hours. The main reason for this is the excessive volume of these
books. I have personally observed the panic and despair of students when they first see
these books, which run at least 1600 pages. Because of this volume problem, instructors
also have difficulty in deciding which parts they will teach, while still informing the
students about the omitted parts. Thus, the coherence and flow of the text are lost.
Sometimes, less is more. You may consider this book as a trimmed-down version of
standard textbooks for a two-semester course. Whichever topics you choose to teach,
you will find the same calculus-based approach and the same essential concepts covered,
and all this without worrying about continuity and time limits.
THE BOOK’S APPROACH TO PHYSICS
No single book can be expected to meet the needs of each and every course, with their
varied aims and different student bodies. I would like briefly to explain the philosophy of
the book and answer other possibly relevant questions.
An important problem that holds back the teaching of physics in many universities
is that the calculus courses given in parallel with physics cannot keep abreast of it. Such
topics as integrals, vectors, differential equations, complex analysis, etc., come too late to
be useful. Hence, it is necessary to teach physics topics either by keeping mathematics at
a reasonable level or by developing some mathematics yourself.
In accordance with this viewpoint, the book develops some vital mathematics (inte-
grals and vectors) along the way and omits minor topics that require advanced mathe-
matics. However, in the treatment of each subject, care has been taken to ensure that the
conclusions and concepts reached are based on the fundamental laws of physics. Thus,
the student will be able to grasp the unifying concepts of physics and retain the results
without the need for memorization.
ABOUT USING THE BOOK
In accordance with the above understanding, the book’s distinctive features are:
(1) Each theoretical development in the book should be considered together with the
worked examples that follow. The examples extend the theory a little further, so that the
volume of the book and the duration of the lecture can be reasonable. For each topic, the
number of examples is more than you may need.
(2) Students’ ability to solve problems is an integral part of learning in physics. One can
avoid rote learning only by solving problems. For this purpose, problems and multiple-
choice questions are given at the end of each chapter, at a level that can be solved by
the student, and hence can be assigned as homework. The numerical answer to each
problem is given below it so that the student can easily check his/her own solution. In
this approach, the steps of solving are more important than the numerical result.
Lastly, I want to address the students: You live in a wonderful World, rich in detail,
sometimes enigmatic, but sometimes dangerous as well. The least you can do is to be
aware of its basic laws, knowledge that can take you to new heights of understanding
and wisdom.
VI PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
In the long writing phase of this book, many people from all parts of the world
have helped. Many colleagues have contributed by using the book in their courses or by
reading and correcting it. Students were in touch, informing us of the mistakes they had
spotted. Moreover, it was a pleasant surprise to discover that all of the people of whom
we asked permission to use their visual materials wanted to contribute to such a book
project without expecting any financial compensation.
Among these people of goodwill whose help I gratefully acknowledge are Hayrettin
Sönmez, Muzaffer Adak, Allen Crockett, Christophe Ehlen, Cesur Ekiz, Erik Forsberg,
Murat Gökbayrak, Dave Jackson, Taner Kalayci, Orhan Kamer, Birtan Kavanoz, Ahmet
Köroglu, Sedat Ozsoy, Suat Ozkorucuklu, Hakan Omer Oztek, Eren Ozturk, Wolfgang
Rueckner, Hakan Koray Tutkun, Yaşar Yılmaz and Boris Veytsman.
I thank Mehmet Karaoglu for capably translating the book, Ismail Çam for single-
handedly drawing all the figures, and Marc Beschler for editing of the manuscript. Their
time and effort are greatly appreciated.
I thank Seçkin Publishing House for the successful publication of the book in Turkish,
its director Koray Seçkin, and its staff, Mesut Yildirim and Musa Gündogan, for their help.
I also thank Springer for believing in the value of the book, in particular, Marina
Forlizzi, Barbara Amorese and Suraj Kumar for their help and support.
Finally, I would like to thank in advance all lecturers and students who will con-
tact us ([email protected] or [email protected]) with their
suggestions for a better book.
Bekir Karaoglu
6.2 LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MOMEN-
TUM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.3 COLLISIONS IN ONE DIMENSION . . . 99
6.4 COLLISIONS IN TWO DIMENSIONS . . 102
6.5 CENTER OF MASS . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Contents 6.6 ROCKET MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . .
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS . . . . . . .
107
109
PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
VII
VIII CONTENTS
perimeter, etc., are different, their common aspect is that they are a kind of length,
i.e., they have the dimension of length. Let’s take a look at some examples:
Three of these units, the Meter, the Kilogram and the Second are sufficient
for mechanical topics. The other units shall be defined in due course.
Now let us define these basic units:
1.1. DIMENSIONS AND UNITS 3
• Meter : The distance traveled by light in vacuum in 1/299 792 458 seconds.
• Second : 9 192 631 770 times the vibration period of the Cs133 atom.
Note that these two units are defined with atomic methods. The units of meter
and second were defined differently in the past: The meter was taken as a
fraction of the length of the meridian or the length of a special platinum stick
stored in France. Likewise, fractions of the Earth’s movement around the Sun
(year) or around its own axis (day) were used for the second. However, these
became insufficient as the precision of measurements in science gradually
increased. Atomic definitions are both very precise and are repeatable at
anywhere around the world without the necessity of traveling to France.
Multiples Fractions
name symbol quantity name symbol quantity
kilo k 103 milli m 10−3
mega M 106 micro µ 10−6
giga G 109 nano n 10−9
tera T 1012 pico p 10−12
peta P 1015 femto f 10−15
4 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
These prefixes have entered daily life: Examples include kilometer (km),
gigahertz (GHz) and terabyte (TB).
Derived Units
The 3 basic units (meter, kilogram and second) mentioned above are sufficient
to derive the units of all other quantities in mechanics. Here are some examples:
Consistency of Units
It is not sufficient merely to have the same numbers on both sides of the
equation in a physical formula. The dimensions and units must also be consistent.
In other words, “you cannot compare apples and oranges."
Only the quantities with the same dimension can appear on both sides
of physical formulas.
For example, let us take a look at the accelerated motion formula you know
from high school:
x = v0 t + 12 a t2
The left-hand side of this equation has the dimension of length. Thus, each of the
terms on the right-hand side must also have the length dimension. Let us plug in
the dimensions of each quantity explicitly:
meter meter
meter = second
×
+ second
× 2
= meter
second second 2
This gives us a clue from the start about whether or not the formula is consistent.
We shall reconsider examples on units in the next section after learning how
to carry out numerical calculations.
Other Systems of Units
It will be useful to know two systems of units other than SI.
• In the CGS system, the basic units are cm, gram and second. It is easy to
convert into the SI system.
• The Imperial System of Units is used in the Anglo-Saxon world; and, with
slight differences, in the United States. The unit of length is the foot, the unit
of mass is the pound and the unit of time is the second. The fraction of the
unit of length is the inch and the multiples are the yard and the mile.
These units are converted into the SI system using the following formulas:
z=a±b =⇒ ∆z = ∆a + ∆b
∆y ∆a ∆b
(
ab
y= =⇒ = +
a/b y a b
These two rules are sufficient to find the margin of error in complex calculations.
For example, the margin of error in the expression z = a3 (b + c)2 is found as
6 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
follows:
z = a3 (b + c)2
∆z ∆(a3 ) ∆(b + c)2
= +
z a3 (b + c)2
∆a ∆a ∆a ∆(b + c) ∆(b + c)
= + + + +
a a a b+c b+c
∆z ∆a ∆b + ∆c
= 3 +2
z a b+c
It is also possible to guess the margin of error from the expression of data.
For example, if two separate mass measurements are given as 45 g and 45.0 g ,
this means that, in the first measurement, nothing is known after the last digit,
in other words, the absolute error is ∆m = 1 g . In the second measurement, the
decimal of gram was also measured and found to be 0, in other words, absolute
error is ∆m = 0.1 g .
Significant Figures
The precision of physical data is not always given by its absolute error. Some-
times it is understood from the number of significant figures expressing the
data.
For example, if the mass of an object is given as 76.4 g , the number of signifi-
cant figures is 3. Nothing changes when we express this as 0.0764 kg ; the number
of significant figures is still 3. The number of significant figures of a number is
found without taking into consideration the leading zeros. For example,
1.2398 Number of significant figures: 5
0.00000039 Number of significant figures: 2
3.00007 Number of significant figures: 6
2.70 Number of significant figures: 3
(Notice, on the last row, that the zero on the right-hand side was written explicitly.
This means it was measured and found to be zero. Hence, the number of significant
figures is 3.) The higher the number of significant figures, the more precisely that
quantity is known.
How many significant figures should be kept in the result after arithmetic
operations are carried out with two numbers? For example, if a moving object
travels 8.0 meters in 3.0 seconds , the speed value goes on as v = 8.0/3.0 =
2.6666 . . . . Where should we cut this value?
There are, again, two simple rules for keeping the correct number of significant
figures in calculation results:
• In additions and subtractions, the lowest of the number of decimal
places is kept:
3.2339 + 5.4 = 8.6339 = 8.6
9.12 − 5.4917 = 3.6283 = 3.63
(In the last row above, the round off rule was applied when discarding two
digits. According to this rule, if the first number of the discarded part is 5
or greater, the last kept number is rounded up. Here, the first number of the
discarded part is 8, hence the last kept number was rounded up from 2 to 3.)
1.2. PRECISION AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES 7
Example 1.3
Answer
The conversion of mass into energy is calculated with Einstein’s The number of significant figures of the material m = 1.0 g
famous formula: is 2, taking into account the zero on the right. Therefore, the
result should be given with 2 significant figures. Knowing
E = m c2 this, it will be sufficient to round the speed of light down to 3
digits:
Here, c = 2.997925 × 108 m/s is the speed of light, E is energy
and its unit is joule (J) in the SI system. ( 1 J = 1 kg·m2 /s2 ). E = mc2 = (1 × 10−3 kg) × (3.00 × 108 )2
Calculate the energy of 1.0 gram of material. E = 9.0 × 1013 J
8 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
1.3 VECTORS
Physical quantities can be divided into two distinct groups with respect to
measurement: Some quantities can be completely specified just by giving a nu-
merical value. We call these scalars. For example, saying “the temperature of this
room is 18◦ degrees” or “the mass of that table is 25 kg ” is sufficient. Quantities
of the scalar type include mass, energy, volume, temperature, electrical resistance,
refractive index, etc. Scalars can be manipulated by algebraic calculations.
For certain quantities, merely giving a numerical value is not sufficient; one
should also specify its direction. For example, when we say, “the speed of this
ship is 10 km/hour", they will ask us: “But 10 km/hour in which direction?” If
we reply, “10 km/hour in the north-east direction,” we will have fully specified
the velocity of the ship.
Quantities that have both a magnitude and a direction are called vectors. Vec-
tors are manipulated according to certain rules of addition. Velocity, acceleration,
~
Figure 1.3: Notation of the A force, momentum, electric field, etc., are among vector quantities. Vectors are
vector. ~ ~F . . . .
shown with an arrow ( → ) over letters, such as A,
The magnitude (or, the norm) of a vector is a positive scalar number shown
~
as |A| or, briefly, as A .
In diagrams, a vector is represented by an arrow drawn in the direction of
the vector. The length of the arrow is a measure of the magnitude of the vector.
Multiplication of a Vector with a Scalar Number
The product of the number c and the vector A ~ is the vector cA
~ which has a
magnitude of cA .
~ and cA
A ~ are in the same direction if c is positive,
~ is in the opposite direction if c is negative.
cA
For example, the vector 3A ~ is shown with an arrow that is 3 times as long in the
~
direction of the vector A whereas the vector −2A ~ is shown with an arrow twice
~ 3A
Figure 1.4: Vectors A, ~ and as long in the opposite direction (Figure 1.4).
~
−2A . Addition of Two Vectors
Vectors are not added by rules of arithmetic, because these are quantities with
directions. For example, when a ship is displaced 3 km to the east and then 4 km
to the north, its total displacement is not 3 + 4 = 7 km , but only 5 km. Therefore,
vector algebra is different from scalar numbers and all algebraic operations must
be redefined.
The vector A ~ +B ~ and B
~ , which is the sum of vectors A ~ is defined with the
triangle rule or the parallelogram rule. These rules are shown in Figures 1.5 and
1.6.
In the parallelogram rule, the two vectors are first shifted by preserving
their directions such that both of their tail points are in the same location. Then,
a parallelogram is formed by drawing lines from the head points of each vector
parallel to the other. The diagonal between the vectors of this parallelogram is
the vector A ~ +B~.
1.3. VECTORS 9
Both rules give the same result. However, the parallelogram rule is not
suitable for adding more than two vectors, as things immediately get complicated.
However, the sum of more than two vectors can be drawn immediately using
the triangle rule (Figure 1.7a). After the vectors are lined up head-to-tail, it is
sufficient to draw a vector from the tail of the first vector to the head of the last
vector.
Vector Subtraction
~ −B
Vector subtraction is performed using the same rule. The difference A ~ is
~
nothing but the sum of the vectors A and −B ~:
Figure 1.8: Difference of two
~ −B
A ~ + (−B
~ =A ~) (1.1) vectors.
~ −B
Observing Figure 1.8, you will notice that the head of the vector A ~ ends at
~
the positive-signed vector ( +A ).
Example 1.4
Use the triangle rule to calculate the following for the vectors ~ B
(b) The difference of two vectors is written as A− ~
~ = A+(− ~)
B
~ B
A, ~ shown above:
~ , and C and turned into a sum. Here, the vector −B ~ is in opposite
(a) the sums A ~ +B~ and B ~ +C ~, direction to B~ . The results shown in the following figure are
~ ~
(b) the differences A − B and C ~ −B ~. obtained when the triangle rule is applied again:
Answer
According to the triangle rule, one of the two vectors is shifted
in parallel to itself until it comes into contact with the tail
point of the other vector. The vector drawn from the tail of
the fixed vector to the head of the shifted vector is the sum.
These sum vectors are shown below:
10 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
Components of a Vector
Vector components are defined in order to perform addition and other vector
operations algebraically and not graphically. The components are simply algebraic
numbers.
Consider the familiar rectangular coordinate system on the plane. We call
this the cartesian coordinate system. This system consists of an origin O and
two coordinate axes denoted as x - and y -. Positive coordinates are located in
the half of the axes between the origin and the direction of the arrow, and the
negative coordinates are located in the other half.
Let us draw parallel lines from the head points of the vector A~ to the x - and
y - axes (Figure 1.9).
Figure 1.9: Components of a The lengths intersected by these parallels are the x - and y -components of
~.
vector A the vector A ~ and are indicated with A x and Ay respectively. This is shown as,
~ : (A x , Ay )
A
Now, the components themselves can be used to specify the vector, instead of
magnitude and direction.
More generally, in three-dimensional space with three coordinate axes x -, y -
and z - the components are defined as follows: A perpendicular is dropped from
the head of A ~ onto the xy -plane. At the intersection point, two lines are drawn
parallel to the x - and y -axes. The lengths that these parallels intersect with the
axes constitute the A x and Ay components of the A ~ vector. The perpendicular
drawn down to the plane or its projection on the z -axis is the Az component:
Figure 1.10: Vector compo-
nents in 3 dimensions. ~ : (A x , Ay , Az )
A
Now let us find the formula that gives us the components of a vector A ~ in
a plane. Let the magnitude of this vector be A and its angle with the +x axis
be θ . The positive direction of the angle θ is accepted as the anticlockwise rotation
direction.
Let us remember the trigonometric formulas of a right triangle:
b a b
sin θ = , cos θ = , tan θ = (1.2)
c c a
~ (refer to Figure 1.9), we get
Applying these formulas to the components of A
Figure 1.11: Right triangle.
Ax
cos θ = −→ A x = A cos θ
A
Ay
sin θ = −→ Ay = A sin θ
A
In the opposite case, if the components are given, the magnitude and direction
of a vector are found with the following formulas (remember the Pythagorean
formula):
q
A = A2x + A2y
Ay
tan θ =
Ax
1.3. VECTORS 11
We can thus use these formulas to specify a vector either in terms of its compo-
nents or in terms of its magnitude and direction.
Let us summarize these important formulas together:
q
A x = A cos θ A= A2x + A2y
Ay (1.3)
Ay = A sin θ tan θ =
Ax
Notice on calculating the angle θ : The expression for tan θ in formula (1.3)
may not always give the correct result when θ is calculated as an inverse trigono-
metric function on a calculator. It may sometimes give the complement of that
angle, because (−3)/4 and 3/(−4) have the same value of −0.75 for the calcula-
tor.
However, the result of the calculator can be corrected if the signs of the
components A x and Ay are taken into account separately. For example, if A x =
−3, Ay = 4 then the vector A ~ is in the 2nd quadrant, in other words, [90◦ < θ <
180◦ ] . Likewise, if Bx = 2, By = −5 then the vector B ~ is in the fourth quadrant,
in other words, [−90 < θ < 0 ] . (It is incorrect to say that [270◦ < θ < 360◦ ] here;
◦ ◦
angles greater than 180◦ are measured from the negative side.)
Example 1.5
Find out the components of the vectors ~a, ~b, ~c and ~d shown in Answer
the figure. (Each division has a unit of 1 .) You can read from the graph by taking note of the signs of
the components:
ax = 5 ay = 2
bx = 7 by = −2
c x = −4 cy = 0
d x = −3 dy = −2
Example 1.6
Answer
~ ~ ~ ~
Calculate the components of the vectors A, B, C and D whose We use formulas (1.3), taking care to measure the angles anti-
magnitudes and angles are shown below. (You may use Ap- clockwise from the +x axis:
pendix C at the end of the book for unknown sinus and cosine A x = A cos(90 − 30)◦ = 10 × cos 60◦ = 10 × 0.5 = 5
values.) Ay = A sin 60◦ = 10 × 0.87 = 8.7
Bx = B cos(90 + 53)◦ = 6 × (− cos 37◦ ) = −6 × 0.8 = 4.8
By = B sin(90 + 53)◦ = 6 × sin 37◦ = 6 × 0.6 = 3.6
C x = −C cos 25◦ = −8 × 0.91 = −7.3
Cy = −C sin 25◦ = −8 × 0.42 = −3.4
If a vector is on one of the axes, this means its other compo-
nent is zero:
D x = 0 and Dy = −3
Example 1.7
Find the magnitudes and directions of these vectors.
The components of the vectors ~F and G
~ are given as follows:
Answer
F x = 3, G x = −5
Fy = −4, Gy = −12 We use Eqs. (1.3) that give magnitude and direction,
12 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
q
θ = −53◦ .
p
F= F 2x + Fy2 = 32 + (−4)2 = 5
We use the same ~
Fy −4 p method in calculating G :
tan θ = = = −1.33 G = (−5) + (−12) = 13
2 2
Fx 3 −12
Two angles with tangents equal to -1.33, are +127◦ and −53◦ . tan θ = = 2.4
−5
We decide which is correct by taking into account the signs Two angles with tangents equal to 2.4 are +64◦ and −113◦ .
of the components. Since ~F has a negative y-component, this ~
This angle is in the 3rd quadrant, as both components of G
angle must be in the 4th quadrant. Therefore, the answer is are negative. Therefore, the answer is θ = −113◦ .
Unit Vectors
Vectors of unit length (1) are defined along the coordinate axes in order to be
able to manipulate vectors easily. First, the ı̂ vector of unit length is taken along
the x -axes in the positive direction. Let us write its components:
ı̂ : (1, 0, 0)
Here, the hat ( ˆ ) sign is used to denote that a vector has a unit length. A unit
Figure 1.12: Unit vectors. vector can be defined for every vector. For example, when we write  , we
understand the unit vector in the direction of A ~.
Likewise, the unit vector in the direction of the y -axis is defined as ̂ and
the unit vector along the z -axis is defined as k̂ . And their components are as
follows:
̂ : (0, 1, 0) , k̂ : (0, 0, 1)
Now let us construct a vector A ~ on a plane using what we have learned so far.
First, let us try to see what the A x ı̂ product is (Figure 1.13). This is a vector of
unit length multiplied with the number A x . Its magnitude is A x and its direction
is ı̂, in other words, in the direction of the +x -axis. Likewise, the product Ay ̂ is
a vector in the +y direction with length Ay .
Now let us look at the sum of these two vectors: Placing these end-to-end
starting from the origin, we get the A ~ vector according to the triangle rule:
Figure 1.13:
~ = A x ı̂ + Ay ̂
A
This expression can easily be generalized to three-dimensional space:
~ = A x ı̂ + Ay ̂ + Az k̂
A (1.4)
This expression will be used quite often. When vectors are written in this form,
all addition and multiplication operations performed on vectors can be carried
out as arithmetic operations on the components. Likewise, the components of
the vectors given in such form can be identified immediately. For example, the
expression
~ = 3ı̂ − 5 ̂ + 6 k̂
D
↓ ↓ ↓
D x Dy Dz
~ = A x ı̂ + Ay ̂ + Az k̂
A
~ = Bx ı̂ + By ̂ + Bz k̂
B
~ =A
Using them, let us form the vector C ~ +B
~:
~ = A
C ~ +B
~
= (A x ı̂ + Ay ̂ + Az k̂) + (Bx ı̂ + By ̂ + Bz k̂)
= (A x + Bx )ı̂ + (Ay + By ) ̂ + (Az + Bz ) k̂
~ = C x ı̂ + Cy ̂ + Cz k̂
C
Comparing the last two rows, we see that the sum of two vectors is a vector whose
components are the arithmetic sum of the corresponding components of the two
vectors. In other words,
C x = A x + Bx
~ =A~ +B
~
Cy = Ay + By (1.5)
C ⇐⇒
Cz = Az + Bz
Example 1.8
Bx = 2 By = 0 Bz = −3
~ = 3ı̂ − 4 ̂ + 7 k̂ , B
The vectors A ~ = 2ı̂ − 3 k̂ and C~ = 8 ̂ Cx = 0 Cy = 8 Cz = 0
are given. (b) When making additions and subtractions using compo-
(a) Find the components of each vector. nents, the coefficients of unit vectors are algebraically added
(b) Calculate the sum A ~ +B ~ and the difference B ~.
~ −C or subtracted:
~ ~
(c) Calculate the expression 3A − 8B + 9C . ~ ~ +B
A ~ = (3ı̂ − 4 ̂ + 7 k̂ ) + (2ı̂ − 3 k̂ )
= 5ı̂ − 4 ̂ + 4 k̂
~ −C
B ~ = (2ı̂ − 3 k̂ ) − (8 ̂ ) = 2ı̂ − 8 ̂ − 3 k̂
Answer
(a) The coefficients of the unit vectors ı̂, ̂ , k̂ are the x -, y - (c) Likewise, the coefficients are calculated using algebraic
and z -components respectively. The components are identi- rules:
fied from the given expressions: ~ − 8B
3A ~ = 3(3ı̂ − 4 ̂ + 7 k̂ ) − 8(2ı̂ − 3 k̂ ) + 9(8 ̂ )
~ + 9C
Ax = 3 Ay = −4 Az = 7 = −7ı̂ + 60 ̂ + 45 k̂
Example 1.9
terms of unit vectors,
(b) Calculate the vector R~ which is R
~ = 3A
~ − 2B~.
~.
(c) Find the magnitude and direction of the vector R
Answer
(a) The components:
A x = 5 cos 53◦ = 3 Ay = 5 sin 53◦ = 4
The magnitudes and directions of the vectors A ~ and B~ are Bx = −8 cos 37 = −6.4
◦
By = −8 sin 37◦ = −4.8
given in the figure. Accordingly, in terms of the unit vectors:
(a) Calculate the components and express these two vectors in ~ = 3ı̂ + 4 ̂
A
14 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
√
~ = −6.4ı̂ − 4.8 ̂
q
B R = R2x + R2y = 21.82 + 21.62 = 31
~ is calculated as follows:
(b) The vector R Its direction is calculated as its angle with respect to the +x
~ ~
R = 3A − 2B ~ = 3(4ı̂ + 3 ̂ ) − 2(−6.4ı̂ − 4.8 ̂ ) axis:
~ = 21.8 ı̂ + 21.6 ̂ Ry 21.6
R tan θ = = ≈1
R x 21.8
~ is calculated as follows:
(c) The magnitude of the vector R The angle is θ = 45◦ as both components are positive.
Scalar Product
Many formulas in physics can be expressed as products of vectors. Two types
of product are defined for this purpose:
(1) Scalar product,
(2) Vector product.
As can be understood from their names, the first results in a scalar number and
the second in a vector. First, let us consider the scalar product.
The scalar product of two vectors A ~ and B~ is a scalar number defined as
Figure 1.14: Scalar product.
~ ·B
A ~ = A B cos θ (Scalar product) (1.6)
where A, B are magnitudes, and θ is the angle between the two vectors.
Let us underline the important properties of a scalar product:
• Commutation: ~ ·B
A ~ =B ~
~ ·A
• Distribution: ~ · (B
A ~ =A
~ + C) ~ ·B ~ ·C
~ +A ~
• If two vectors form an angle θ = 90◦ , in other words, if the two vectors are
perpendicular to each other, the scalar product is zero. ( cos 90◦ = 0 ). This
feature is often used in calculations as the condition for perpendicularity.
~ ·A
• A ~ = A A cos 0◦ = A2 or the scalar product of a vector by itself gives the
square of its magnitude.
• The sign of the scalar product comes from the cos θ term. The product is
positive if the angle between the two vectors is less than 90◦ and negative if
greater.
Expression of Scalar Product in Terms of Its Components
First, let us find the scalar products of the unit vectors (ı̂, ̂ , k̂ ) with each
other:
ı̂ · ı̂ = 1.1. cos 0 = 1
ı̂ · ̂ = 1.1. cos 90◦ = 0
Likewise, the scalar products of the vectors ̂ and k̂ with themselves is 1 and
with other combinations is zero. Therefore,
ı̂ · ı̂ = ̂ · ̂ = k̂ · k̂ = 1
(1.7)
ı̂ · ̂ = ̂ · k̂ = k̂ · ı̂ = 0
Now let us use these results in the scalar product of two vectors given with
components:
~ ·B
A ~ = (A x ı̂ + Ay ̂ + Az k̂ ) · (Bx ı̂ + By ̂ + Bz k̂ )
1.3. VECTORS 15
As the scalar products in the brackets are expanded, the components, which are
numbers, become coefficients, and only the scalar products of the unit vectors
remain:
~ ·B
A ~= A x Bx (ı̂ · ı̂) + A x By (ı̂ · ̂) + A x Bz (ı̂ · k̂) +
+Ay Bx ( ̂ · ı̂) + Ay By ( ̂ · ̂) + Ay Bz ( ̂ · k̂) +
+Az Bx ( k̂ · ı̂) + Az By ( k̂ · ̂) + Az Bz ( k̂ · k̂)
As the scalar products of the vectors in this expression will either be 1 or 0, the
result simplifies as follows:
~ ·B
A ~ = A x Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
In particular, the scalar product of a vector with itself gives the square of its
magnitude:
~ ·A
A2 = A ~ = A2x + A2y + A2z (1.8)
Consequently, also recalling the definition (1.6), we can calculate the scalar
product in two different ways:
A B cos θ
(
Scalar Product : ~ ·B
A ~= (1.9)
A x Bx + Ay By + Az Bz
Scalar product will be used in many definitions in this course, such as work,
electric potential, magnetic flux, etc.
Example 1.10
~ B
Find the scalar products of the vectors A, ~ with each Answer
~ and C
other. Calculate the angles between the vectors from the figure
when using the formula A.~ B
~ = AB cos θ :
~
A·B ~ = AB cos(180◦ − 37◦ ) = 3 × 5 × (− cos 37◦ )
~ ·B
A ~ = 15 × (−0.8) = −12
~
A·C ~ = AC cos(90◦ − 30◦ ) = 3 × 4 × cos 60◦
~ ·C
A ~ = 12 × (0.5) = 6
~
~ · C = BC cos(90◦ + 67◦ ) = 5 × 4 × cos 157◦
B
~ ·C
B ~ = 20 × (− cos 23◦ ) = 20 × (−0.92) = −18
Example 1.11
Answer
(a) Use the component expression of scalar product:
~p = 3ı̂ − 8 ̂ , ~q = 8ı̂ + 7 ̂
~p · ~q = p x q x + py qy = 3 × 8 + (−8) × 7 = −32
(a) Find the scalar product ~p · ~q ,
(b) Find the angle between these two vectors. (b) First, find the magnitudes of the vectors:
16 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
q p √ ~p · ~q −32
p= p2x + p2y = 32 + (−8)2 = 73 ≈ 8.5 cos θ = = = −0.34
pq 8.5 × 11
√ √ θ = 110◦
q= 82 + 72 = 113 ≈ 11
The result is an obtuse angle, as the scalar product is negative.
This data is used in formula (1.10):
Example 1.12
Answer
The scalar product must be zero if the two vectors are per-
A~ = A x ı̂ + 12 ̂ , B
~ = 4ı̂ + 5 ̂
pendicular. Write this condition in terms of the components,
What should the value of the unknown component A x be such ~ ·B
A ~ = A x Bx + Ay By = 0
that these two vectors are perpendicular? A x × 4 + 12 × 5 = 0 → A x = −60/4 = −15
Vector Product
There are many cases in physics in which operations on two vectors result in
a new vector. Hence, it is convenient to define a vector product.
Definition: The vector product of the vectors A ~ and B~ with an angle θ
between them, is a new vector denoted as
~ =A
C ~ ×B
~
• Magnitude: C = A B sin θ ,
~ and B
• Direction: Perpendicular to the plane formed by A ~ and given by
the right-hand rule.
• Anticommutativity: B ~ ×A ~ = −A ~ ×B~.
Hence, the order matters in a vector product.
• Distribution: ~ × (B
A ~ =A
~ + C) ~ ×B ~ ×C
~ +A ~
ı̂ × ı̂ = ̂ × ̂ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
Now let us look at the product ı̂ × ̂ : As the magnitudes are 1 and the angles are
90◦ , the result of the vector product will be a vector of magnitude 1.1. sin 90◦ =1 .
Its direction will be in the +z direction according to the right-hand rule. Hence,
this is just our unit vector k̂ .
Also, as the vector product is anticommutative, ̂ × ı̂ = − k̂ .
The vector products of unit vectors are thus as follows:
ı̂ × ı̂ = ̂ × ̂ = k̂ × k̂ = 0
(1.11)
ı̂ × ̂ = k̂, ̂ × k̂ = ı̂, k̂ × ı̂ = ̂
Now let us use these results in the vector product of two vectors given with
components:
~ =A
C ~ ×B
~ = (A x ı̂ + Ay ̂ + Az k̂ ) × (Bx ı̂ + By ̂ + Bz k̂ )
If the brackets are expanded and the component are taken outside of the vector
products,
~ = A x Bx (ı̂ × ı̂) + A x By (ı̂ × ̂) + A x Bz (ı̂ × k̂) +
C
+Ay Bx ( ̂ × ı̂) + Ay By ( ̂ × ̂) + Ay Bz ( ̂ × k̂) +
+Az Bx (|{z}
k̂ × ı̂ ) + Az By ( k̂ × ̂ ) + Az Bz (|{z}
k̂ × k̂)
|{z}
̂ −ı̂ 0
The result simplifies as follows when the vector product expressions of unit
vectors are used:
~ =A
C ~ ×B
~ = (Ay Bz − Az By ) ı̂ + (Az Bx − A x Bz ) ̂ + (A x By − Ay Bx ) ı̂ (1.12)
| {z } | {z } | {z }
Cx Cy Cz
x → y → z, y → z → x, z→x→y
C x = Ay Bz −Az By , Cy = Az Bx −A x Bz , Cz = A x By −Ay Bx
| {z } | {z } | {z }
x→y→z y→z→x z→x→y
If you expand this determinant according to the minors of the first row, the
expression (1.12) of the vector product follows.
Quantities expressed as vector products in physics include torque, angular
momentum, magnetic force, etc.
The limited vector information we provided here is vital to understanding
subsequent topics. It would be wrong to continue without understanding these
matters.
Example 1.13
Answer
According to the right-hand rule, if four fingers are pointed
towards the first vector and the palm is turned towards the
second vector, then the thumb gives the direction of the prod-
uct. Accordingly, the results are as follows:
Example 1.14
Answer
Let us first find the magnitude of the vector ~c . It can be
seen from the figure that the angle between the vectors is
90 − (23 + 30) = 37◦ . Accordingly,
c = a b sin 37 = 15 × 12 × 0.6
c = 108
The magnitudes of vectors ~a and ~b shown on the xy -plane are The direction of ~c should be perpendicular to the xy -plane,
a = 15 and b = 12 units respectively. Find the magnitude and in other words, along the z -axis. The −z direction is found
direction of the vector ~c which is the product ~c = ~a × ~b . according to the right-hand rule.
Example 1.15
remember the components.
~E = 7ı̂ − 3 k̂ are given.
~ = 3ı̂ − 5 ̂ ,
The vectors D F x = Dy Ez − Dz Ey = −5 × (−3) − 0 × 0 = 15
Calculate the components of the vector ~F = D~ × ~E .
Fy = Dz E x − D x Ez = 0 × 7 − 3 × (−3) = 9
Answer
Fz = D x Ey − Dy E x = 3 × 0 − 5 × 7 = −35
Use the formula (1.12) that gives the components. The circu-
lar permutation of the component indexes allows us to easily Accordingly, ~F = 15ı̂ + 9 ̂ − 35 k̂ .
Multiple-choice Questions
10. Which equality is true for the three vectors in Diagram 18. Which of the following is true if the sum of three vectors
3? is zero?
(a) ~c = ~a + ~b (a) All three vectors are on the same plane.
(b) ~a − ~b = ~c (b) The vectors are perpendicular.
(c) ~a + ~b + ~c = 0 (c) The vectors have the same magnitude.
(d) The sum of three vectors cannot be zero.
(d) ~b = ~a + ~c
11. Which of the following is true if the vector product of 19. Which of the following is true if the scalar product of
two vectors is zero? two vectors is negative?
(a) The vectors are parallel. (a) The vectors have equal magnitude.
(b) The vectors are perpendicular. (b) The vectors are in opposite directions.
(c) The magnitudes of the vectors are equal. (c) Their angle is obtuse.
(d) None of the above. (d) The vectors are perpendicular.
20 1. UNITS AND VECTORS
20. If ~a ·~b = ~a ·~c , then which of the following is always true? (b) ~b and ~c are in the same direction.
(c) ~b and ~c are perpendicular.
(a) ~b = ~c (d) The projections of ~b and ~c along ~a are equal.
Problems
Motion is one of the main topics of interest in physics. The branch of physics
called Mechanics studies all moving objects, from tiny pebbles to automobiles,
from cannon shells to planets and massive stars.
Mechanics comprises two parts: Kinematics is the branch of Mechanics
that studies the relations between the positions and speeds of objects with time,
regardless of the reasons for the motion. Dynamics sets the laws of motion and
examines the motion under physical forces. In this chapter, we will examine
one-dimensional kinematics. Vector concepts shall not be required here, but the
basic concepts that we will develop will later form the basis of vector expressions
in two and three-dimensional motions.
Only one coordinate axis is required in one-dimensional space. For this purpose,
an infinite line is taken and the positive direction is marked by an arrow at the
end. Then, an origin (O), in other words, a yardstick, is chosen to mark the place
from which the measurements are to be made. This can be a tree or a pole that is
known to everyone. The origin separates the positive region from the negative
one on the x -axis.
Figure 2.1: The position of an
object in a one-dimensional coor-
dinate system.
∆x = x2 − x1 (Displacement) (2.2)
is called the displacement (Figure 2.2). Its unit is the meter (m). (In physics,
the ∆ sign before a symbol means the change in that quantity. For example:
∆a = alast − afirst .)
The sign of displacement determines the direction of motion. If ∆x > 0 then
x2 > x1 , in other words, the object moves in the positive direction. Likewise, if
∆x < 0 then x2 < x1 , and the object moves in the negative direction.
Average and Instantaneous Velocity
Anyone can run 100 meters, but some of us run it in a shorter time. It is
important to know the amount of displacement in a given time interval. Velocity
is defined for this purpose.
2.1. POSITION, DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION 25
x2 − x1 ∆x dx
v = lim = lim = (velocity) (2.4)
t2 →t1 t2 − t1 ∆t→0 ∆t dt
We thus know the velocity at a given time t . The direction of motion again
depends on the sign of the velocity v .
Speed
Speed is the absolute value (or, the magnitude) of the velocity, shown as | v | .
In one-dimensional motion, the velocity seems merely to be an algebraic
quantity, it can be either positive or negative. But, in reality, it is a vector quantity,
as will be clear in two- and three-dimensional motion. The speed of a vector
velocity has the same definition as the magnitude.
Brief information on derivatives
The concept of derivative and derivation techniques are examined extensively
in calculus courses. Here, let us briefly review the derivatives of the most fre-
quently encountered types of functions without proof. The derivatives of most
useful functions y(x) with respect to the independent variable x are as follows:
26 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Example 2.1
the figure:
The positions of a moving object at various times t are shown During the interval [t1 , t2 ] : ∆x = x2 − x1 = 6 − 2 = 4 m
on the x axis: (a) Determine the displacements ∆x = x2 − x1 The object was displaced by 4 m in the positive direction.
and ∆x = x3 − x2 . (b) Determine the average velocities at the During the interval [t2 , t3 ] : ∆x = x3 − x2 = −4 − 6 =
time intervals ∆t = t2 − t1 and ∆t = t3 − t2 . −10 m
The object was displaced by 10 m in the negative direction.
(b) The average velocity is the ratio of these displacements to
the elapsed time:
∆x 4
During the interval [t1 , t2 ] : vav = = = 4 m/s
∆t 2−1
Answer ∆x −10
During the interval [t2 , t3 ] : vav = = = −3.3 m/s
(a) We read the positions of the object at various times from ∆t 5−2
Example 2.2 ∆x 8 − 4
(b) vav = = = 1 m/s
∆t 5−1
The position of an object is given as a function of time as:
(c) The general expression of velocity is the derivative dx/dt :
x = t3 − 5t2 + 8 (meters) dx
(a) Find the positions of the object at times t = 1 s and t = 5 s , v= = 3t2 − 10t
dt
(b) Calculate the average velocity of the object during this The values of this expression at the requested times t are the
time interval, instantaneous velocities:
(c) Find the velocities of the object at times t = 1 s and t = 5 s , The velocity at t = 1 : v(1) = 3 × 12 − 10 × 1 = −7 m/s
(d) Find the positions at which the velocity of the object is The velocity at t = 5 : v(5) = 3 × 52 − 10 × 5 = 25 m/s
zero.
(d) When the velocity is zero, we have v(t) = 0 :
Answer v = 3t2 − 10t = 0
(a) The x values of the given function at times t = 1 s and The velocity is zero at the roots of this expression, which
t = 5 s give the positions: are t = 0 and t = 10/3 . We calculate the x positions that
For t = 1 s : x(1) = 13 − 5 × 12 + 8 = 4 m correspond to these t values:
For t = 5 s : x(5) = 53 − 5 × 52 + 8 = 8 m x(0) = 8 m and x (10/3) = −11 m
v2 − v1 ∆v
aav = = (average velocity) (2.5)
t2 − t1 ∆t
∆v dv d2 x
a = lim = = 2 (acceleration) (2.6)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt
In other words, acceleration is the derivative of velocity with respect to time.
Also, as velocity is the derivative of position, we may regard acceleration as the
second derivative of position. In mathematics, the second derivative is shown
with d2 x/dt2 or x00 .
We can thus know the acceleration at a given time t . Acceleration is not often
used in daily life. However, we sometimes hear the performance of sports cars
expressed as “reaching 100 km/h speed in 6 seconds”, etc. This is, in fact, another
expression of acceleration.
Example 2.3
Example 2.4
v = x0 = 3t2 − 10t
The position of an object as a function of time is given by a = v0 = 6t − 10
(b) For t = 1 , v = 3 × 12 − 10 × 1 = −7 m/s ,
x = t3 − 5t2 + 4 (meters) .
(a) Determine the velocity and acceleration functions using for t = 5 , v = 3 × 52 − 10 × 5 = 25 m/s .
derivative, (c) These velocities are used in the definition of average ac-
celeration:
(b) Find the velocities of the object at times t = 1 s and t = 5 s ,
(c) Calculate the average acceleration of the object during this ∆v 25 − (−7)
aav = = = 8 m/s2
time interval, ∆t 5−1
(d) We use the values t = 1 and 5 in the acceleration expres-
(d) Find the accelerations of the object at times t = 1 s and
sion:
t = 5 s,
a(1) = 6 × 1 − 10 = −4 m/s2
(e) Find the time when the acceleration is zero.
a(5) = 6 × 5 − 10 = 20 m/s2
Answer (e) We calculate the time when the acceleration expression is
(a) The first derivative of x is the velocity v and its second zero:
derivative is the acceleration a : 0 = 6t − 10 → t = 1.7 s .
We can eliminate the average velocity vav in the last expression as follows: The
average of the velocity that changes uniformly from the value v0 to the value v
will be,
v + v0
vav =
2
Also, after using this expression, the position formula can finally be written:
x = x0 + v0 t + 21 a t2
2.2. MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION 29
Notice that the position x changes with the square of time ( t2 ) in motion with
constant acceleration.
If the time t in the velocity expression is extracted as t=(v−v0 )/a and used in
the position expression, we find a very useful velocity formula without time:
v2 − v20 = 2 a (x − x0 )
These formulas allow us to calculate the position and velocity at time t of the an
object with given initial conditions, in other words, initial position x0 and initial
velocity v0 , moving with acceleration a .
Let us summarize all the formulas for motion with constant acceleration:
v = v0 + a t
x = x0 + v0 t + 12 a t2 (motion with constant acceleration) (2.7)
v2 − v20 = 2 a (x − x0 )
If we wish to know the distance traveled by the object rather than its final position,
we can write this formula in terms of the distance traveled s using s = x − x0 , as
follows:
s = x − x0 = v t (distance traveled) (2.9)
Example 2.5
v = v0 + at = 0 + 2t = 2t
A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of x = x0 + v0 t + 12 t2 = 0 + 0 + 12 2t2 = t2
2 m/s2 . We can solve each item using these equations:
(a) The velocity and position at time t=3 s are found by plug-
(a) What will its velocity and distance traveled be after 3 s ?
ging t = 3 in the expressions that we found for v and x :
(b) In how many seconds will it reach the velocity 10 m/s ?
v = 2 × 3 = 6 m/s and x = (3)2 = 9 m .
(c) In how many seconds will it cover a distance of 64 m ?
(b) t is found by taking v = 10 m/s in our velocity expression:
Answer 10 = 2t −→ t = 5 s .
If we choose the origin at the initial position of the object, (c) The t value giving x = 64 m in the position expression is
then x0 = 0 . Since it starts from rest, v0 = 0 . As the acceler- calculated:
ation is given as a = 2 m/s2 , using Eqs. (2.7), 64 = t2 −→ t = 8 s .
Example 2.6
velocities given in terms of km/h into m/s units:
A car traveling at 72 km/h is slowed down through the pressing v0 = 72 km/h = 72000/3600 m/s = 20 m/s
of its brakes and its velocity is reduced to 36 km/h in 5 s . v = 36 km/h = 10 m/s
(a) What is the constant acceleration of the car? (a) We use the time t = 5 s that passes between these two
(b) How much distance does it travel during that time? velocities to find the acceleration:
(c) How much time passes from the start until the car fully v = v0 + at → 10 = 20 + a × 5 → a = −2 m/s2
stops? As the car traveling in positive direction slows down, its
Answer First, it is necessary to convert the initial and final acceleration is negative.
30 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
(b) If we take the initial position of the car as the origin, then (c) The car coming to a full stop means that its final velocity
x0 = 0 . Accordingly, is v = 0 . Using this value,
x = x0 + v0 t + 2 at = 0 + 20 × 5 + 2 (−2) × 5 = 75 m .
1 2 1 2 v = v0 + at → 0 = 20 − 2t → t = 10 s
Example 2.7
started to accelerate, then x0 = 0 and v0 = 4 m/s . It will
A runner cruising at a velocity of 4 m/s suddenly starts to be suitable to use the velocity formula without time, as the
accelerate and reaches a velocity of 7 m/s over a distance of first and final velocities are given. Substituting the position
11 m . x = 11 m and the velocities, we get,
(a) What is the constant acceleration of the runner? v2 − v20 = 2a(x − x0 ) → 72 − 42 = 2a × 11 → a = 1.5 m/s2
(b) How much time elapsed during this acceleration? (b) Both the v and the x formula can be used to find the time
Answer t . The velocity formula gives a quicker result:
(a) If we choose the origin as the point at which the runner v = v0 + at → 7 = 4 + 1.5t → t = 2 s
Example 2.8
final velocity with v M and position with x M , the accelerated
motion formulas are as follows:
v M = v M0 + at = 0 + 3t → v M = 3t
x M = x M0 + v M0 t + 12 at2 = 0 + 0 + 1.5t2 → x M = 1.5t2
An automobile is traveling at a constant speed of 90 km/h when The automobile performs uniform linear motion at a constant
it passes a police motorcycle parked under a tree. Spotting a velocity of 25 m/s , in other words, its acceleration is zero.
traffic violation, the policeman starts the chase on his motor- The initial position of the automobile is 100 m at t = 0 . If
cycle when the automobile is 100 m away and accelerates at a we indicate its final position with xA ,
rate of 3 m/s2 . vA = vA0 = 25 m/s = constant
(a) Choose a coordinate system and starting time to write xA = xA0 + v0A t → xA = 100 + 25t
the equations giving the positions and velocities of the In this systematic approach, the solution follows easily once
automobile and motorcycle. the equations of motion are written down:
(b) How long will it take the policeman to catch the automo-
(b) When the motorcycle catches the automobile, they will
bile?
both have the same position. The mathematical expression
(c) How far will the motorcycle be from its original position?
of this is as follows:
(d) What is the velocity of the motorcycle when it catches up
x M = xA
to the automobile?
Let us substitute the expressions we found for x M and xA :
Answer 1.5t2 = 100 + 25t
In problems with two moving objects, a good approach is From this, we find a quadratic equation:
to choose a single coordinate system and write both of their 3t2 − 50t − 200 = 0
equations in that same system. This systematic approach will
The roots of these equation are t = −3.3 and t = 20 . As the
be much more efficient in the long run.
negative root is not physically valid, the result is t = 20 s .
First, let us convert the velocity of the automobile into m/s :
(c) Substituting t = 20 s in the expression for x M , the distance
90 km/h = 90 000/3 600 = 25 m/s .
traveled by the motorcycle is found as follows:
(a) Let us take the position where the motorcycle sets off
as the origin and also start the clock when the motorcycle x M = 1.5t2 = 1.5 × 202 = 600 m
begins moving. Accordingly, the initial velocity and position (d) The value t = 20 s is used in the expression v M = 3t :
of the motorcycle are zero: x M0 = v M0 = 0 . If we indicate its v M = 3 × 20 = 60 m/s
Example 2.9
(a) Choose a coordinate system for writing the equations of
motion for each car.
(b) When do the cars meet?
(c) What is the distance of the meeting point to the origin?
(d) What is the velocity of each car when they meet?
Two cars 100 m apart, start moving toward each other at the
same instant. The first car starts with a speed of 4 m/s and Answer
increases its speed at a rate of 1 m/s2 . The second car starts in This problem could be solved by choosing a separate coordi-
the opposite direction with a speed of 6 m/s and increases its nate system for each moving object. In that case, two origins
speed at a rate of 3 m/s2 . and two positive directions would be necessary. Yet, in the
2.3. FREE FALL 31
g = 9.81 m/s2 .
ously, then working with a single y axis and not changing it provides the correct
solutions.
Therefore, the choice of the y -axis must also be specified when applying the
constant acceleration formulas (2.7). We summarize them for free fall motion:
These formulas apply both when the object is moving upwards or downwards,
as long as we do not change the coordinate system. For example, we can use the
same equation to examine the motion of a stone thrown upwards until it falls to
the ground. We will discuss this in worked examples below.
Maximum height
Equations (2.10) are sufficient to solve all free fall problems; it is not necessary
to memorize formulas for special cases. As an example, let us calculate the
maximum height reached by an object thrown vertically upwards with an initial
speed v0 . When the object reaches the peak point, it stops for an instant and then
Figure 2.5: The distances trav- starts moving downwards. In other words, the characteristic of the maximum
eled by a falling object in equal height is that the velocity there is zero:
time intervals.
v=0 (at maximum height)
In the last one of Eqs. (2.10, upwards) we take v = 0 and then solve for y − y0 =
hmax :
v2
hmax = 0
2g
Example 2.10
(b) The velocity and position at the value t = 1 s can be
A ball is thrown from the ground upwards with a speed of directly calculated:
15 m/s . v = 15 − 10 × 1 = 5 m/s
(a) Choose a coordinate system to write the equations giving y = 15 × 1 − 5 × 12 = 10 m
the velocity and position of the ball. (c) The characteristic of maximum height is that the velocity
(b) What will be its position and velocity 1 s after being is zero there: v = 0 . We use this condition to find the time:
thrown? 0 = 15 − 10t → t = 1.5 s
(c) In how many seconds does it reach maximum height? (d) We find the maximum height by using the time t = 1.5 s
(d) What is the maximum height? in the y equations:
(e) At what times does it pass through 10 m above the ground? y = 15 × 1.5 − 5 × 1.52 = 11.3 m
(f) After how many seconds from being thrown will it fall (e) The y equation should satisfy the value y=10 m :
back to the ground? 10 = 15t − 5t2 → t2 − 3t + 2 = 0
Answer (a) If we choose the +y direction upwards, the ac- The two solutions to this equation are t=1 s (going upward)
celeration will be −g . Choosing the place where the ball and t = 2 s (coming downward).
is thrown as the origin (y0 = 0) , the equations of motion (f) As the time taken to reach the maximum height will be
for a ball thrown in the positive direction with a velocity of equal to the time it takes to fall back to the ground, we take
v0 = 15 m/s are as follows: twice the time found in (c). However, if we had not known
v = v0 − gt = 15 − 10t this property, we could have directly found the answer by
y = y0 + v0 t − 21 gt2 = 15t − 5t2 using the y equation above. The equation y = 15t − 5t2 is
2.3. FREE FALL 33
valid regardless of whether the ball is moving upwards or Both solutions are valid. The t = 0 solution is the starting
downwards. In particular, y = 0 should be true when the time and the t = 3 s solution is the falling time. In other
ball is at the ground level. Using this condition, words, the ball is at y = 0 height at both times.
0 = 15t − 5t2 = t(15 − 5t) → t = 0 and t = 3 s .
Example 2.11
This is the maximum height from the origin, in other words,
A stone is thrown upwards with a velocity of 30 m/s from the from the ground. If we wish to find the height from where it
roof of a building at a height of 35 m from the ground. was thrown, it is y − y0 = 80 − 35 = 45 m .
(a) Choose a coordinate system to write the velocity and posi- (c) The stone falling to the ground means it reaches the posi-
tion equations of the stone. tion y = 0 :
(b) Calculate the maximum height and the time to reach it. 0 = 35 + 30t − 5t2 = 0 → t = −1 and 7 s
(c) How many seconds will it take to fall to the ground? The negative solution is not considered and the answer is
(d) With what velocity will it hit the ground? t = 7 s . Notice here that we used the same equation through-
Answer (a) Taking the ground level as the origin and up- out. Since we remain in the same coordinate system, we
wards as the positive direction, we get y0 = 35 m and a = −g . are able to solve all of the problems with a single equation
Accordingly, the equations of motion are as follows: without separating the motion into two parts of upwards and
v = v0 + at = 30 − 10t downwards.
y = y0 + v0 t + 12 at2 = 35 + 30t − 5t2 (d) The velocity of the stone when it falls to the ground is
We can answer all of the questions using these two equations. found by taking t = 7 in the v equation:
(b) At maximum height v = 0 : v = 30 − 10t = 30 − 10 × 7 = −40 m/s .
0 = 30 − 10t → t = 3 s The negative sign here indicates that the velocity is in the
Plugging this value of t into the y equation, opposite direction to the direction that we chose as positive,
y = 35 + 30 × 3 − 5 × 32 = 80 m in other words, it is downwards.
Example 2.12
chronometer will show 1 second less than the first one during
The different times technique. Water is dripping in each stage. In other words, the relation between the two
1 second intervals from the roof of a building at a height of times will be as follows:
45 m from the ground. What is the height of the second drop t2 = t1 − 1
when the first drop hits the ground? Therefore, the expression of the y2 coordinate will be
y2 = 12 g(t1 − 1)2 .
Answer It would be too complicated to try to solve this prob-
Now, when the first drop reaches the ground, it will have
lem using our familiar methods. However, the solution will
traveled a distance of y1 = 45 m . We use this value to find
be simpler if we write each drop in terms of a separate time t
the time t1 :
with its own chronometer.
45 = 5t12 → t1 = 3 s
Let us take the origin as being at the roof and the y direction
downwards. Let us start the chronometer when the first drop The distance traveled by the second drop at the end of this
sets off and show the measured time with t1 . Accordingly, time t1 :
the equation of motion will be: y2 = 12 g(t1 − 1)2 = 5 × 22 = 20 m
y1 = 12 gt12 The difference between the two distances shows how far
When the second drop sets off 1 second later, we start time behind the second drop is:
t2 in a separate chronometer. Its motion will be y2 = 12 gt22 . y1 − y2 = 45 − 20 = 25 m .
As the drops set off in one-second intervals, the second The second drop is 25 m above the ground.
Example 2.13
the ground, a second ball is thrown downwards with a velocity
of 4 m/s from the roof of a building at a height of 32 m .
(a) Using the same coordinate system, write the equations of
motion for both balls.
(b) When will the two balls meet?
(c) At what height will they meet?
(d) What are their velocities when they meet?
Answer
When a ball is thrown upwards with a velocity of 12 m/s from In this problem, we will again examine the motion of two
34 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
Multiple-choice Questions
1. In a coordinate system, which of the following is incor-
rect for an object with an acceleration of a = +2 m/s2 : 7. A stone is thrown upwards from the ground. Which of
the following is correct if the +y axis is chosen upwards?
(a) It is getting faster if it is traveling in the positive
direction. (a) Its acceleration is +g when traveling upwards.
(b) It is getting slower if it is traveling in the negative (b) Its acceleration is zero at maximum height.
direction. (c) Its acceleration is +g when moving downwards.
(c) Its velocity is always different from zero. (d) Its acceleration is −g throughout the motion.
(d) Its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal time
intervals. 8. A stone dropped from a height falls to the ground in 5
seconds. What is its average acceleration in m/s2 ?
2. Which of the following is correct if an object traveling
(a) 0 (b) 2 (c) 5 (d) 10
in the positive direction has negative acceleration?
(a) The velocity of the object increases.
9. A stone is thrown upwards. Which of the following is
(b) The object stops at some point and turns back.
correct at maximum height?
(c) The velocity of the object remains constant.
(d) None of the above. (a) Velocity and acceleration are zero.
(b) Velocity is zero, acceleration is maximum.
3. Which is true for accelerated motion? (c) Velocity is maximum, acceleration is zero.
(a) Acceleration is zero if the velocity is zero. (d) Velocity is zero, acceleration is the gravitational
(b) Acceleration is always positive if the velocity is acceleration.
always positive.
(c) An object with constant acceleration may stop. 10. A car traveling at speed v can stop at a distance d when
(d) An object with constant acceleration cannot stop. the brakes are applied. At what distance will it stop
when it travels at a velocity of 2v ?
4. How many seconds does it take for an object dropped
from a height of 20 m to fall to the ground? (a) d/2 (b) d (c) 2d (d) 4d
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
11. The velocity of an object traveling in the positive direc-
5. What distance does an object dropped from a height tion increases by 8 m/s in 5 s . What is its acceleration
travels in 5 s ? in m/s2 ?
(a) 50 (b) 75 (c) 100 (d) 125 (a) 1.0 (b) 1.2 (c) 1.4 (d) 1.6
13. The gravitational acceleration of the Moon is less than 17. What are the ratios of the distances traveled by an ob-
that of the Earth. Which of the following is true for a ject getting faster with constant acceleration in 1, 2, 3
stone dropped from a height on the Moon? seconds?
(a) It falls to the ground in less time than on the Earth. (a) 1:2:3 (b) 1:3:5 (c) 1:4:8 (d) 1:4:9
(b) It falls to the ground in more time than on the Earth.
(c) It falls to the ground in the same time.
(d) None of the above. 18. A stationary object speeds up with constant acceleration.
What are the ratios of the distances it travels at the 3rd
14. A bicycle rider traveling at 10 m/s presses the brakes and 4th seconds?
and stops in 5 s . How many meters does the bike travel (a) 3/4 (b) 5/7 (c) 7/9 (d) 9/16
before stopping?
(a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 20 (d) 25
19. Two stones are thrown upwards from the ground with
15. The positions of an object at times t = 1, 2, 3, 4 s are velocities v0 and 2v0 . What is the ratio of the maximum
x = 2, 7, 9, 15 m , respectively. What is the average ve- height of the faster one with respect to the other?
locity of this object in the [2, 4] s interval in m/s ? √ √
(a) 2/1 (b) 4/1 (c) 2/1 (d) 1/ 3
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
16. Which of the following propositions is true? 20. Two objects start to move from the same position at
(a) The acceleration of an object traveling at constant the same time and in the same direction. The object
velocity is zero. A travels at constant velocity of 10 m/s . The object B
(b) The acceleration of an object slowing in the negative accelerates at a rate of 4 m/s2 . After how many seconds
direction is positive. will the two objects be in the same position again?
(c) The acceleration of an object getting faster in the (a) 2 (b) 3 (c) 4 (d) 5
negative direction is negative.
(d) All of the above.
Problems
Problem 2.3
2.3 The velocities of an object at various times are shown
in the figure above. (a) Find the average accelerations in the
[t1 , t2 ] and [t2 , t3 ] time intervals.
Problem 2.1 [A: aav = 2 m/s2 and aav = −3.3 m/s2 .]
2.1 The positions of an object at various times are shown in 2.4 The velocity of an object varies as v(t) = 20 − 3t2 .
the figure above. (a) Find the displacements in the [t1 , t2 ] and (a) Calculate its average acceleration in the t = [1, 2] s time
[t2 , t3 ] time intervals. (b) Calculate the average velocities in interval. (b) Find its instantaneous accelerations at times
the same intervals. t = 1 and t = 2 s .
[A: (a) ∆x = 4 m ve ∆x = −2 m , (b) vav = 4 m/s [A: (a) aav = −9 m/s2 , (b) a = −6, −12 m/s2 .]
and vav = −0.67 m/s ]
2.5 A ball hits a wall perpendicularly with a speed of 24 m/s
2.2 The position of a moving object varies in time as x = 5t2 and is rebounded back at the same speed. The ball has con-
(meters). (a) What are its positions at times t = 1 s and tacted the wall for 0.03 s . (a) What is the change in velocity?
t = 3 s ? (b) What is its average velocity in the t : [1, 3] time (b) What is the average acceleration during the collision?
interval? (c) What are its instantaneous velocities at times [A: (a) 48 m/s , (b) 1600 m/s2 .]
t = 1 s and t = 3 s ?
[A: (a) 5 and 45m , (b) 20 m/s , (c) 10, 30 m/s .]
36 2. MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE
2.2 Motion With Constant Acceleration 2.13 An automobile is trying to pass a trailer truck that has a
length of 20 m . At the start, the automobile and the truck are
2.6 In order to make a safe landing, an airplane has to touch
in the same lane and traveling at the same constant velocity
the ground at a maximum speed of 120 m/s and slow down
of 15 m/s . Once the opposite lane is empty, the automobile
with a maximum acceleration of 5 m/s2 . (a) In how many
passes to the left lane and starts to accelerate at 5 m/s2 , man-
seconds can the plane stop? (b) What should the minimum
aging to pass the truck once it reaches its front end. (a) How
length of the runway be? [A: (a) 24 s , (b) 1440 m .]
long does it take for the automobile to pass the truck? (b)
2.7 An object moving with constant acceleration passes What length would the empty lane need to be for this pass-
through two points 25 m apart at a velocity of 10 m/s from ing? (Note: The length of the automobile is added to that of
the first and 15 m/s from the second. (a) What is the accel- the truck and can be neglected.) [A: (a) 2.8 s , (b) 62 m .]
eration of the object? (b) In how many seconds will it travel
between the two points? [A: (a) a = 2.5 m/s2 , (b) t = 2 s .]
2.9 A train departing from a station accelerates at a rate of moment, a truck traveling at a constant velocity of 8 m/s con-
2 m/s2 for 12 s . It then travels for 5 s at constant velocity. tinues on its way through the green light without changing
Finally, it decelerates at 4 m/s2 and stops at the second sta- its velocity. (a) When will the motorcycle catch up with the
tion. What is the distance between the two station in meters? truck? (b) How much distance has the motorcycle traveled
[A: 336 m .] once it catches up? [A: (a) t = 3.2 s , (b) x = 25.6 m .]
2.10 A jet airplane can accelerate at a maximum rate of 2.3 Free Fall
4 m/s2 on the runway and can takeoff once it reaches a ve-
locity of 80 m/s . However, if the pilot changes his/her mind 2.15 A stone is thrown downwards with a velocity of 20 m/s
about the takeoff, the plane can be slowed down at a max- from the roof of a building at a height of 105 m . (a) How long
imum rate of 5 m/s2 . In an emergency, the pilot changes will it take to reach the ground? (b) With what velocity will
his/her mind about takeoff when the plane is at the takeoff it hit the ground? [A: (a) 3 s , (b) 50 m/s .]
velocity. What should the minimum total length of the run-
way be so that the airplane can stop safely? [A: 1440 m .] 2.16 A stone is dropped into a water well and the sound of
the stone hitting the water’s surface is heard 4.5 s after it
2.11 The maximum acceleration of a train is 8 m/s2 . This was dropped. Since the propagation speed of sound in air is
train should travel between two stations 1800 m apart in 340 m/s , how deep down is the surface of the water at the
the shortest time possible. For this purpose, it accelerates in bottom of the well? [A: 90 m .]
the first half of the path and decelerates in the second half,
stopping at the station. Calculate the maximum velocity that 2.17 After throwing a ball upwards, a juggler runs to and
the train can reach and how many seconds it takes to travel then back from a door at a distance of 9 m with a velocity of
the path. [A: v = 120 m/s and t = 30 s .] 5 m/s , catching the ball before it falls to the ground. At what
minimum velocity should he/she throw the ball upwards to
be able to do this? [A: 18 m/s .]
Problem 2.12
2.12 The driver of a sports car traveling at velocity 34 m/s
suddenly sees a truck 30 m ahead, traveling in the same direc- Problem 2.18
tion with a constant velocity of 4 m/s , and applies the brakes. 2.18 A ball is dropped from the roof of a building. A man
If the car can decelerate at a maximum rate of 6 m/s2 , will it standing behind a window on one of the lower floors sees the
crash into the truck from behind? (Hint: Solve the equivalent ball pass his window in 0.2 seconds. The height of the win-
problem of a stationary truck and a car with different veloc- dow is 1.80 m . How high is the roof from the upper edge of
ity.) the window? (Hint: The given information is sufficient to find
[A: It crashes. The car needs at least 95 m to slow down the velocity of the stone at the upper edge of the window.)
before crashing.] [A: 3.2 m .]
PROBLEMS 37
A bird flying through the air, a fish swimming in water, a free throw in
basketball, a spacecraft flying past a planet, etc. How can the motion of all these
objects be examined? We cannot apply the method that we discussed in the
previous chapter directly because these objects do not move in a straight line.
In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system, the coordinates (x, y, z) of
these objects simultaneously vary depending on time t :
Notice that, when an object is moving in space, each of the coordinates travels
along its own axis, in other words, it performs linear motion! Therefore, we can
apply the concepts that we developed for linear motion to each of the (x, y, z)
coordinates. Then, we can unify them using vectors.
In this course we will only examine two-dimensional motion. The methods
that we will develop can easily be extended to three-dimensional motion.
The magnitude (absolute value, norm) of the velocity vector and its angle with
the +x axis are found using familiar formulas:
q vy
v = | ~v | = v2x + v2y , tan θ = (3.5)
vx
What is the direction of the velocity vector? In order to determine this, let us
−−−−→ −−−−→
consider the secant ∆~r = P1 P2 . The P1 P2 vector is in the direction of motion
(Figure 3.3). Also, as ∆t → 0 , P2 will gradually approach the point P1 , and in the
end, the secant P1 P2 will come to the tangent line. Therefore, in two-dimensional
motion, the velocity vector is always tangent to the trajectory.
3.1. POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT VECTORS 41
Acceleration Vector
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time. In order
to extend this to two-dimensional motion, we use the same method for the
components.
Definition: If the velocity vector of an object at time t1 is ~v1 and its velocity
vector at a later time t2 is ~v2 (Figure 3.4), then the average acceleration vector
is
∆~v ~v2 − ~v1
~aav = = (3.6)
∆t t2 − t1
Example 3.1 dv x
ax = = 6t − 4 (m/s2 )
dt
The coordinates of an object moving on a plane are given as, dvy
ay = =6 (m/s2 )
x = t3 − 2t2 + 5 (m) dt
y = 3t2 − 4t + 4 (m) (b) We find the components by taking t = 1 in these expres-
sions for x, v, a :
(a) Express velocity and acceleration as functions of time.
(b) Calculate the components of position, velocity and accel- x=4 y=3
eration at time t = 1 s . v x = −1 vy = 2
(c) Find the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration at time ax = 2 ay = 6
t = 1 s. (c) We calculate the magnitudes of the vectors with the given
(d) Find the angle between velocity and acceleration at time components:
t = 1 s. q p √
v = v2x + v2y = (−1)2 + 22 = 5 = 2.2 m/s
Answer q √ √
(a) Derivatives of the position components with respect to a = a2x + a2y = 22 + 62 = 40 = 6.3 m/s2
time give the velocity components:
vx =
dx
= 3t2 − 4t (m/s) (d) The angle between the two vectors is found using the
dt scalar product method (Eq. 1.10):
dy √
vy = = 6t − 4 (m/s) ~v · ~a (−1) × 2 + 2 × 6 2
dt cos θ = = √ √ =
Derivatives of the velocity components give the acceleration v a 5 40 2
components: From here, the angle is found to be θ = 45◦ .
ax = 0
)
−→ ~a = −g ̂ (3.10)
ay = −g
The components of motion can easily be deduced from this: We observe uniform
linear motion in the horizontal x direction and motion with constant acceleration
in the vertical y direction We examined both types of motions in Chapter 2. Now,
we can write those formulas for each component.
Let us consider an object thrown from the surface of the earth with an initial
velocity of v0 with an angle of θ to the horizontal (Figure 3.5). The components
of the initial velocity can be written as follows:
Choosing the place where the object was thrown as the origin and the y direction
as upwards, we can write the projectile motion formulas:
x = x0 + (v0 cos θ) t
(3.14)
y = y0 + (v0 sin θ) t − 12 g t2
These formulas are valid for all types of projectile motion in which the air
resistance can be neglected. It is not necessary to develop separate formulas
for the maximum height or the horizontal range. For example, since θ = 0 for
a horizontal projectile, it is sufficient to have sin θ = 0 and cos θ = 1 in the
formulas:
v x = v0 vy = −gt
(horizontal projectile) (3.15)
x = x0 + v 0 t y = y0 − 12 g t2
Example 3.2
of motion (3.12) follow:
A ball kicked by a football player rises with an initial velocity v x = v0 cos 37 = 24 vy = v0 sin 37◦ − gt = 18 − 10t
◦
of 30 m/s at an angle of 37 to the horizontal. x = v0 cos 37 t = 24 t y = v0 sin 37◦ t − 12 g t2 = 18t − 5t2
(a) Write the equations of motion of the ball.
(b) Plugging t = 1 into these expressions,
(b) What are the position and velocity components of the ball
v x = 24 m/s vy = 18 − 10 × 1 = 8 m/s
at time t = 1 s ?
x = 24 m y = 18 − 5 = 13 m
(c) In how many seconds does it reach maximum height?
(c) At maximum height the motion becomes horizontal, in
(d) What is the maximum height of the ball?
other words, y component of velocity vanishes:
(e) How far away will the ball land on the ground?
vy = 18 − 10t = 0 → t = 1.8 s
Answer (d) The y value at this t = 1.8 s gives the maximum height:
(a) First, calculate the components of the initial velocity: y max = 18 × 1.8 − 5 × 1.8 = 16.2 m
2
(e) The range of the ball, in other words, the horizontal dis-
v0x = v0 cos 37◦ = 30 × 0.8 = 24 m/s tance of the falling point is the value of the x coordinate at
v0y = v0 sin 37◦ = 30 × 0.6 = 18 m/s t = 2 × 1.8 = 3.6 s . The range is shown as R :
We choose the origin at the kicking point, and the equations R = xmax = 24 × 3.6 = 86 m
44 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
Example 3.3
Example 3.4
jumping point and the y axis upwards. Since the motorcycle
jumps horizontally, we take θ = 0◦ in the projectile motion
formulas (3.12):
v x = v0 x = v0 t
vy = −gt = −10t y = y0 − 21 gt2 = 20 − 5t2
(a) The y coordinate should be zero when the motorcycle
falls to the ground:
0 = 20 − 5t2 → t = 2 s
(b) In order to pass the river, its x coordinate should be greater
than or equal to 9 m at the time t = 2 s when it touches the
A motorcycle rider wants to jump off of a cliff at a height of ground:
20 m with a horizontal velocity of v0 and get to the other side x = v0 t → 9 = v0 × 2 → v0 = 4.5 m/s
of a river that is 9 m wide. (c) We calculate the velocity components at time t = 2 s :
(a) What is the time of flight of the motorcycle?
v x = v0 = 4.5 m/s vy = −10t = −20 m/s
(b) What should the minimum initial velocity of the motorcy-
The negative sign of the vy component shows that it is down-
cle be in order to cross the river?
wards. We calculate the magnitude of the velocity using these
(c) With what velocity will the motorcycle touch the ground?
components:
Answer
q p
v = v2x + v2y = (4.5)2 + (−20)2 = 21 m/s
Let us chose the origin at the ground level directly below the
Example 3.5
(b) What will the time of flight of the ball be until it falls to
the ground?
(c) How far away from the building will the ball land?
(d) What should the acceleration of the kid be so that he/she
can catch the ball?
Answer
We first calculate the initial velocity components of the ball:
v0x = v0 cos 53◦ = 5 × 0.6 = 3 m/s
v0y = v0 sin 53◦ = 5 × 0.8 = 4 m/s
(a) Taking the origin at the place where the kid starts, the x
A ball is thrown with at an angle of 53◦ and initial velocity and y coordinates of the ball are as follows:
5 m/s from the roof of a building that is 33 m high. Waiting x1 = v0x t = 3 t
directly below on the ground, a kid starts to run with constant y1 = y10 + v0y t − 21 g t2 = 33 + 4t − 5t2
acceleration a at the same time and in the same direction as The kid accelerates in the x direction and does not move in
the ball. the y direction:
(a) Choose a coordinate system and write the equations of x2 = 12 at2 y2 = 0
motion for the ball and for the kid. (b) When the ball reaches the ground level, its y coordinate
3.3. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 45
should be zero: x1 = 3 t = 9 m
y1 = 33 + 4t − 5t2 = 0 → t = −11/5 and + 3 s (d) The kid should arrive to the same position x = 9 m at the
The solution is the positive value t = 3 s . same time t = 3 s as the ball:
(c) We find the x position of the ball at this time t : x2 = 21 at2 → 9 = 12 a × 32 → a = 2 m/s2
Example 3.6
ball will collide with the elevator?
The outdoor elevator of a building starts to descend with a con- Answer
stant speed u from a height of 8 m from the ground. At the We first calculate the initial velocity components of the ball:
same time, a kid waiting on the ground at a horizontal distance v0x = v0 cos 53◦ = 20 × 0.6 = 12 m/s
of 6 m from the building throws a ball towards the elevator v0y = v0 sin 53◦ = 20 × 0.8 = 16 m/s
with a velocity of 20 m/s and at an angle of 53 . ◦
(a) Taking the origin as the place where the ball is thrown,
the equations of the ball are as follows:
x1 = v0x t = 12 t y1 = v0y t − 12 g t2 = 16t − 5t2
The horizontal distance of the elevator is constant and it is
moving in the y direction with a constant downward speed:
x2 = 6 m y2 = y20 − ut = 8 − ut
(b) The ball will have traveled 6 m in the x direction when
it hits the wall:
6 = 12 t → t = 0.5 s
(a) Choose a coordinate system and write the equations of
(c) We calculate the y position of the ball at this time t :
motion of the elevator and of the ball.
y1 = 16 × 0.5 − 5 × (0.5)2 = 6.75 m
(b) After how many seconds will the ball hit the wall?
(c) At what height will the ball hit the wall? (d) The elevator should be at the same y position at that time:
(d) What should the velocity u of the elevator be so that the 6.75 = 8 − u × 0.5 → u = 2.5 m/s
Example 3.7
The solution x = 0 is where the object was thrown. The
Maximum range. What is the optimal angle for an object that other solution is the range and is indicated by R . Us-
is always thrown at the same speed v0 so that its horizontal ing the trigonometric identities tan θ = sin θ/ cos θ and
range is maximum? 2 sin θ cos θ = sin 2θ , we find the range formula as follows:
v2 sin 2θ
Answer R= 0
Let us use the trajectory equation to find the range formula. g
For the same v0 initial velocities, the sine function should be
y = 0 should be true when the ball is at the ground level.
maximum for R to be maximum. The sine function takes its
This condition is used in the (3.13) trajectory formula:
g maximum value 1 at 90◦ . Therefore,
0 = (tan θ) x − 2 x2 2θ = 90◦ → θ = 45◦
2v0 cos2 θ
2v2 cos2 θ tan θ For maximum range, objects should be thrown at an angle of
Solution: x = 0 and x = 0 45◦ .
g
The magnitudes of these two velocities are the same: |~v1 | = |~v2 | = v . However,
they should be considered as two different vectors, as their directions are different.
46 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
∆~v
~a = lim (3.16)
∆t→0 ∆t
Since this acceleration is a vector, we must determine both its magnitude and its
direction. We start with the magnitude.
Now, what is this vector ∆~v ? To get an idea about it, let us shift both vectors
to the midpoint of the arc on the circle, keeping their directions unchanged
(Figure 3.6b). The equal sides of the isosceles triangle formed are ~v1 and ~v2 while
the opposite side is ∆~v .
Let us compare this triangle with the triangle OP1 P2 formed in the original
circle. These are similar triangles, because both are isosceles and both of their
apex angles are equal to ∆θ . (When the object turns by ∆θ , its velocity vector
also turns by the same amount.) Therefore, the ratios of similar sides are equal:
| ∆~r | | ∆~v |
=
r v
Here, we shall introduce a small error by using the length of the arc ∆s instead
of the length of the secant | ∆~r | , but the difference will approach zero later when
we take the limit ∆t → 0 . Therefore, substituting | ∆~r | ≈ ∆s ,
v ∆s
| ∆~v | =
r
and, taking the limit ∆t → 0 we get,
| ∆~v | v ∆s v ∆s
a = lim = lim = lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 r ∆t r ∆t→0 ∆t
where we took the constants outside of the limit. The limit in this expression is
just the definition of speed v with which we are familiar, because it is the ratio
of the distance taken ∆s to the elapsed time: lim∆t→0 ∆s/∆t = v . Therefore, the
magnitude of the acceleration is as follows:
v2
a=
r
This magnitude is constant, because the radius r and the speed v are constant.
Next, we find the direction of the acceleration ~a . In Eq. (3.16), since ∆t is just
a scalar, the direction of ~a will be the same as the limit direction of ∆~v . Look
at Figure 3.6b again. As ∆θ → 0 , or velocity ~v2 gets closer to ~v1 , they align
3.3. UNIFORM CIRCULAR MOTION 47
This formula can also be written in terms of period T , the time for one complete
cycle. As the distance traveled in one complete cycle is the perimeter length 2πr ,
the speed and the acceleration can also be expressed in terms of the period:
2πr
v =
T
4π2 r
ar = (3.18)
T2
Figure 3.8: In circular motion,
the centripetal acceleration ~ar
Tangential Acceleration is always towards the center at
If, along with the direction, the magnitude of the velocity also changes in every point.
circular motion, a tangential acceleration (Figure 3.9) will arise in addition
to the centripetal acceleration. The expression of tangential acceleration is the
change in the magnitude of velocity:
dv
at = (3.19)
dt
We will address tangential acceleration later in the discussion of rotational motion
in Chapter 7.
The acceleration ~a is the resultant of these centripetal and tangential acceler-
ations:
Figure 3.9: If the magnitude
~a = ~ar + ~at (3.20) of velocity also changes, a tan-
Therefore, in the most general case, the acceleration ~a does not necessarily point gential acceleration ~at is also
to the center, but may be in any direction. formed.
Example 3.8
circle is 2πr , the distance traveled in 150 cycles is divided by
An object revolving in a circular orbit with a radius 80 cm is 1 minute:
observed to make 150 cycles per minute. distance 150 × 2πr
v= = = 5πr = 12.5 m/s
(a) What is the velocity of the object? time 60 s
(b) What is the centripetal acceleration of the object? (b) The velocity found above is used in the centripetal accel-
eration formula (π2 ≈ 10) :
Answer
(a) The constant velocity v is directly calculated as the ratio v2 (5πr)2
ar = = = 25π2 r = 200 m/s2
of the traveled distance to time. As the circumference of the r r
48 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
Example 3.9
(b) Calculate the centripetal acceleration of a GPS satellite.
The Global Positioning System (GPS) consists of around 20 satel- Answer
lites revolving at an altitude of 20 000 km from the surface of
the Earth. Each satellite circles the Earth twice a day. The (a) The period of a satellite, in other words, the time it takes
Earth’s radius is approximately 6 400 km . to complete one full cycle is half a day. We calculate this in
terms of seconds:
T = 12 × day = 21 × 24 × 60 × 60 = 43 200 s
(b) We use the formula that expresses centripetal accelera-
tion in terms of the period T . Here, r is the distance mea-
sured from the center of the circle. If the Earth’s radius is
R and the height of the satellite from the surface is h , then
r = R + h = 6400 + 20000 = 26400 km = 26.4 × 106 m . We
substitute these values ( π2 ≈ 10 ):
4π2 r 40 × 26.4 × 106
(a) Calculate the period of a GPS satellite. ar = 2 = = 0.57 m/s2 .
T (43.2 × 103 )2
Hence, while these positions change with time, we will always have:
where we switched the order of the last two terms. By taking the derivative of
this expression with respect to time, we get velocities:
d~rBO d~rBA d~rAO
= +
dt dt dt
~vBO = ~vBA + ~vAO
• It is very easy to remember the velocity addition rule, Eq. (3.22). Notice
the ordering of the subscripts. We see that the inner subscripts ( A ) on the
right-hand side are the same. And the outer subscripts ( B, O ) are just those
on the left-hand side.
Hence, any velocity that you wish to obtain can be separated into two terms
into which you insert the missing subcript. For example, if we want ~vAB (the
velocity of A with respect to B), we write:
where, in the last term, we reversed subscripts to get the velocity of B with
respect to origin, hence we picked up a negative sign.
The relative velocity addition rule given in Eq. (3.22) is valid only in classic
physics, in which speeds are small compared to the speed of light. When the
speed of light is approached, we must use The Theory of Relativity developed by
Einstein.
Relative Acceleration
Let us reconsider Eq. (3.22) which gives us the velocity addition rule:
The objects shall have acceleration if their velocities are changing in time. The
second derivative of this equation with respect to time will give the relation
between the accelerations:
We will not use this general expression in this course. However, in order to draw
an important conclusion, let us assume that only the velocity of the object B
changes and the object A moves at constant velocity with respect to the origin.
In this case, ~aAO = 0 and we find that
Example 3.10
The speed of the boat with respect to the water:
A boat has a speed of 20 km/h in still water. The captain is vBW = 20 km/h
trying to cross a river that is 2 km wide. The current speed in The velocity of the boat with respect to the ground: vBO =?
the river is 5 km/h . Velocity addition formula: ~vBO = ~vBW + ~vWO
This vector equality is valid for both questions.
(a) We get the situation observed in Figure (a) when the ve-
locity of the boat with respect to the water ~vBW is kept per-
pendicular to the water. Writing the hypotenuse and angle
formulas in this right triangle,
q √
vBO = v2BW + v2WO = 202 + 52 = 21 km/h
tan θ = vWO /vBW = 5/20 = 0.25 → θ = 14◦ .
(a) What will the speed and direction of the boat be with re- (b) We get the situation observed in Figure (b) when the veloc-
spect to the ground if the captain heads straight across the ity of the boat with respect to the river ~vBW is kept at some
river? angle, such that the resultant velocity ~vBO is ensured to be
(b) The captain wants to cross the river perpendicular to the perpendicular to the shore. The triangle formulas give:
shore. In which direction should he keep the bow of the q √
boat so that its velocity observed from the ground is per- vBO = v2BW − v2WO = 202 − 52 = 19 km/h
pendicular? In such a case, what will its velocity be with sin θ = vWO /vBW = 5/20 = 0.25 → θ = 15◦ .
respect to the ground?
(c) If we denote the width of the river as L , the diagonal path
(c) Calculate the time to cross the river in both cases.
taken in part (a) will be L/ cos θ . Accordingly,
Answer L 2
ta = = = 0.10 hour = 6 minutes .
In order to apply the velocity addition formula, let us desig- vBO cos 14◦ 21 × 0.97
nate the river water with W , the boat with B , and the ground The path taken in part (b) will be L . The crossing time is
with O . Accordingly, the given data are: calculated accordingly:
The speed of the water with respect to the ground: L 2
tb = = = 0.11 hour = 6.5 minutes .
vWO = 5 km/h vBO 19
Example 3.11
ship B as observed by the captain of ship A ?
Answer
If we denote the velocity of ship B with respect to A as
~vBA , we may write the relative velocity addition formula (by
following the subscripts correctly) as follows:
~vBA = ~vBO + ~vOA
Here, ~vOA is the velocity of the ground with respect to the
The velocities of two ships in the Mediterranean Sea are mea- ship A and if we reverse it as ~vOA = −~vAO the formula we
sured from the ground. Ship A is observed to be sailing at seek is:
25 km/h in the South-North direction and ship B at 40 km/h ~vBA = ~vBO − ~vAO
in the East-West direction. The difference between these two vectors is shown in the
What are the magnitude and direction of the velocity of figure. If we denote the angle at which the ship A observes
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 51
the vector ~vBA as θ , we can calculate the velocity vBA and vBO 40
tan θ = = = 1.6 → θ = 58◦
the angle using vAO 25
q the right triangle
√
formulas:
vBA = v2BO + v2AO = 402 + 252 = 47 km/h
Example 3.12
~vAW , the velocity of the wind with respect to the ground ~vWO ,
The pilot of an airplane with a speed of 60 m/s in still air is we find the velocity of the airplane with respect to the ground
flying by keeping the nose of the airplane directed towards the in windy air ~vAO :
North in a region where the wind is 20 m/s in the South-East ~vAO = ~vAW + ~vWO
direction. What is the velocity of the airplane with respect to These velocity vectors are shown in the figure.
the ground and its angle with the North? We use the Sine and Cosine theorems (Appendix B) to
solve this triangle:
√
c = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos C (The cosine theorem)
sin A sin B sin C
= = (The sine theorem)
a b c
By comparing these two triangles, we calculate the requested
velocity vAO and its direction:
q
vAO = v2AW + v2WO − 2vAW vWO cos 45
q √
Answer = 602 + 202 − 2 × 60 × 20 × 2/2 = 48 m/s
Let the airplane be A , the wind W and the ground O . If we √
sin θ 2/2
add to the velocity of the airplane with respect to the wind = → θ = 36◦
20 48
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following is true for an object moving in a (a) Velocity is zero.
plane with a constant magnitude of velocity? (b) The horizontal component of velocity is zero.
(a) The acceleration of the object may not be zero. (c) The vertical component of velocity is zero.
(b) The velocity of the object is parallel to the trajectory. (d) Velocity is maximum.
(c) The object may have centripetal acceleration. 6. Object A is revolving around a circle with radius r at a
(d) All of the above. constant velocity v . Object B is revolving around a circle
2. Which is true for a motion on any curved trajectory? with radius 2r at velocity 2v . Which one has higher
centripetal acceleration?
(a) Acceleration and velocity are in the same direction.
(b) The velocity vector is tangent to the trajectory. (a) A (b) B (c) Equal (d) None.
(c) The velocity is perpendicular to the trajectory. 7. Object A is revolving around a circle with radius r at
(d) Acceleration and velocity are perpendicular. a constant velocity v . Object B is revolving around a
circle with radius 2r at velocity v/2 . Which one has
3. Two balls are thrown from the same height at the same higher centripetal acceleration?
instant. Ball A is dropped in free fall, while ball B is (a) A (b) B (c) Equal (d) None.
thrown in a horizontal direction. Which is true?
8. Which of the following is incorrect for an object per-
(a) A reaches the ground first.
forming accelerated motion on a plane?
(b) B reaches the ground first.
(c) They arrive at the same time. (a) The velocity vector may be constant.
(d) It is impossible to tell. (b) The velocity magnitude may be constant.
(c) The velocity direction may be constant.
4. Which of the following remains constant in projectile (d) Velocity may change direction.
motion? 9. In how many seconds will an object dropped from a
(a) The magnitude of velocity. height of 80 meters reach the ground?
(b) The horizontal component of velocity. (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
(c) The vertical component of velocity.
10. Two objects are traveling in the same direction along a
(d) The angle of velocity.
straight line. Object A has a speed of 10 m/s and object
5. Which is correct at the maximum height in projectile B has a speed of 4 m/s . Which of the following will be
motion? observed by object A?
52 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
√ √
(a) Object B moving away at 6 m/s. (a) 3t (b) 3t (c) t/ 3 (d) 9t
(b) Object B moving away at 14 m/s.
(c) Object B approaching at 6 m/s. 16. Which of the following is incorrect if the direction and
(d) Object B approaching at 14 m/s. magnitude of velocity are changing in circular motion?
11. Two objects are traveling towards each other in the oppo- (a) There is centripetal acceleration.
site directions along a straight line. Object A has a speed (b) There is tangential acceleration.
of 10 m/s and object B has a speed of 4 m/s . Which of (c) Acceleration is perpendicular to velocity.
the following will be observed by object A? (d) Acceleration can be in any direction.
(a) B moving away at 6 m/s. 17. You want to swim to the point right across you in a river
(b) B moving away at 14 m/s. where the current runs from the left to the right. In
(c) B approaching at 6 m/s. which direction should you swim?
(d) B approaching at 14 m/s. (a) Right ahead.
12. What is the cause of the centripetal acceleration in uni- (b) Towards the left.
form circular motion? (c) Towards the right.
(a) A change in the magnitude of velocity. (d) Halfway towards left and then towards the right.
(b) A change in the direction of velocity. 18. A boy who can swim at 4 m/s in still water tries to swim
(c) A change in position. perpendicular to the shore in a river where the current
(d) Velocity being tangent to the trajectory. is 3 m/s . What will be its velocity and direction be as
13. A stone is dropped from the window of a moving train. observed from the ground?
Which of the following is incorrect? (a) 4 m/s perpendicular to the shore.
(a) Observer on the train sees the stone in free fall. (b) 5 m/s perpendicular to the shore.
(b) Observer on the ground sees the stone in free fall. (c) 5 m/s and 37◦ wide.
(c) Observer on the ground sees a horizontal projectile (d) 5 m/s and 53◦ wide.
motion. 19. A man wants to get upstairs with an escalator. The man
(d) None of the above. walks up the stairs in 6 s when the escalator is still. The
14. Which of the following is incorrect for projectile mo- man gets upstairs in 3 s when the escalator is moving
tion? and he is at rest on the steps. In how many seconds will
(a) The time it takes to rise is equal to the time it takes the man get upstairs by walking when the escalator is
to fall. moving?
(b) Speeds are the same in two directions at the same (a) 1 (b) 1.5 (c) 2 (d) 2.5
height.
(c) The speed on the ground is maximum. 20. Two objects are thrown at the same angle from the same
(d) The speed at the maximum height is equal to the point. Object B reaches a maximum height that is 3 times
vertical component of the velocity. that of object A. What is the ratio of the initial velocity
of B with respect to A?
15. In a horizontal projectile motion, the object falls to the √ √
ground in t seconds. What will the time of flight be if (a) 3 (b) 3 (c) 1/ 3 (d) 9
the height is tripled?
Problems
3.2 Projectile Motion building will it hit the ground? (c) What are its velocity com-
ponents when the ball hits the ground?
[A: (a) 4 s , (b) 69 m , (c) v x = 17 vy = −30 m/s .]
Problem 3.1
3.1 A ball is thrown from the roof of a 40 m high building,
Problem 3.2
with a speed of 20 m/s at an angle of 30◦ to the horizontal.
(a) What is the time of flight? (b) How far away from the 3.2 A stone is thrown horizontally towards the sea from a
PROBLEMS 53
45 m high cliff. There is a 20 m wide beach extending to- standing next to the platform wall on the ground starts to
wards the sea under the cliff. (a) What is the time of flight? run with acceleration a . What should the acceleration a be
(b) What should the minimum speed of the stone be in order so that the kid can catch the ball? What is the time of flight
to land in the sea? [A: (a) 3 s , (b) 6.7 m/s .] of the ball? [A: a = 2 m/s2 , t = 4 s .]
3.3 An athlete jumps up off the ground with a speed of 8 m/s 3.8 A basketball player shoots the ball at the basket, which
and lands 6.2 m away horizontally. (a) At what angle has he is 4 m away and 2 m high from the level of his hand. Since
jumped? (b) How long does the jump take in seconds? (Hint: the throwing angle is 53◦ , what should the initial velocity be
Use the trajectory equation.) [A: (a) 37◦ , (b) 1 s .] in order to make a basket? [A: 8.2 m/s .]
Problem 3.9
3.9 A gunner located on a 140 m high hill can fire shells
with an initial speed of 100 m/s and at an angle 37◦ with the
horizontal. Observing that a tank is approaching with a con-
Problem 3.4
stant speed of 10 m/s on a horizontal path on the ground, the
3.4 A rescue airplane flying horizontally at a speed of 80 m/s
gunner fires when the tank is at a distance d . What should
at an altitude of 50 m drops a relief package when a boat on
the distance d be for the shell to hit the tank? What is its
the sea is right underneath it. (a) In how many seconds will
time of flight? [A: d = 1260 m and 14 s .]
the package fall to the sea? (b) How far away from the boat
will it fall? [A: (a) 3.2 s , (b) 256 m .]
Problem 3.5
Problem 3.10
3.5 A ball thrown horizontally from a height hits a wall that 3.10 An outdoor elevator of a building is descending at a con-
is 20 m away at a point 15 m below. (a) What is the time of stant speed of 7 m/s . As the elevator passes through height
flight? (b) What is the initial
√ speed of the ball?
√ h , a boy located on the ground 36 m away from the building
[A: (a) 3 = 1.7 s , (b) 20/ 3 = 11.5 m/s .] throws a ball towards the elevator with an initial speed of
20 m/s and at an angle of 53◦ .
What should the height h be in order for the ball to hit the
elevator? What is the time of flight of the ball?
[A: h = 24 m and 3 s .]
3.3 Uniform Circular Motion
Problem 3.6
3.6 A ball rolls off of the edge of a 30◦ inclined roof whose 3.11 What is the centripetal acceleration of a point on the
edge is 35 m above the ground. The ball falls to the ground Earth’s surface due to its rotation about its own axis? The
in 2 s . (a) What is its initial speed? (b) How far away from Earth’s radius is 6400 km . [A: 0.03 m/s2 .]
the edge of the roof will it fall? [A: (a) 15 m/s , (b) 26 m .] 3.12 A racing car must have a maximum centripetal accelera-
tion of 9 m/s2 in order to go around a curve without slipping.
At what maximum speed can it take a circular curve with a
radius of 150 m ? [A: 37 m/s .]
3.13 The human body can withstand a maximum of 9g of
acceleration. What is the minimum radius of the loop that a
pilot can make in the air with a fighter jet having a speed of
Problem 3.7
900 km/h ? [A: 694 m .]
3.7 A ball is thrown at an angle of 37◦ to the horizontal and
with a speed of 20 m/s from one end of a horizontal platform, 3.14 Protons are accelerated at the European Nuclear Re-
which is 48 m long and 32 m high. At the same time, a kid search Center (CERN) and caused to collide at very high
54 3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
acceleration of Mercury with respect to Earth. still air wants to fly in the South-North direction on a day
[A: ar (Mercury)/ar (Earth) = 7 .] when the wind is 60 km/h in the East-West direction. In
which direction should he keep the nose of the airplane and
3.4 Relative Motion what will be the velocity of the airplane with respect to the
3.16 The velocity of a boat in a river is 10 m/s when it sails ground? ◦
in the same direction as the current, and 4 m/s when it sails [A: 17 with the North towards the East and 191 km/h .]
against the current. Calculate the speeds of the boat and the
current. [A: 7 m/s and 3 m/s .] 3.19 The velocities of two airplanes in the air are measured
from the ground. Airplane A is observed to be flying at
250 km/hour in the South-North direction and airplane B at
200 km/hour in the East-West direction. What are the mag-
nitude and direction of the velocity of plane A as observed
by the pilot of B?
[A: 320 m/s and 39◦ with the North towards the East.]
Problem 3.17
3.17 The pilot of an airplane with a speed of 60 m/s in still 3.20 The captain of a ship A sailing at a velocity of
air is flying by keeping the nose of the airplane directed to- 60 km/hour in the South-North direction observes another
wards the North in a region where the wind is 20 m/s in the ship B as sailing with a velocity of 50 km/hour in the West-
North-East direction. What is the velocity of the airplane East direction. What is the velocity and direction of ship B
with respect to the ground and its angle with the North? with respect to the ground?
[A: 75 m/s and θ = 11◦ .] [A: 78 km/hour and 40◦ with the North towards the East.]
4
NEWTON’S LAWS OF
MOTION
years. Around the 1900s, these laws were found to give incorrect results both for
particles at the atomic scale and for particles traveling close to the speed of light.
Two modern theories were later developed, one for microscopic scales (Quantum
Mechanics) and the other for large speeds (Relativistic Mechanics). However,
Newtonian mechanics continues to remain valid for macroscopic objects.
~Fnet = 0 ⇐⇒ ~a = 0 (4.1)
The force ~Fnet in this law is the vector sum of many forces and is called the
net force or resultant force:
Until Galileo, people believed in the following law by Aristotle: “Objects move
when a force is applied, and they stop if the force is removed.” Even today, many
people unaware of physics think in this manner. Indeed, doesn’t a book on a
tabletop that we push with our hand stop as soon as we withdraw our hand?
What is wrong with that?
Galileo answered this question by showing that an invisible friction force
was causing the object to stop. He devised very fine experiments by perfectly
polishing wood and marble surfaces in order to reduce friction. Then, although
Figure 4.1: Why are these they did not immediately stop when the driving force was removed, objects went
sportswomen sweeping in front further, depending on how polished the surface was. He thus discovered the first
of the moving curling stone? law.
We emphasize the following points about the first law:
• It is important that the net (resultant) force be zero in this law: Many forces
may be acting together on the object, but the law shall apply if their resultant
is zero.
• It is also easy to understand the “either, or” expression of the law: The
acceleration of the object is zero if it is either at rest or in uniform linear
motion.
4.1. NEWTON’S LAWS 57
• The first law is actually the definition of the force. Notice that the arrow is
bidirectional in Eq.(4.1) expression of the law. It means that the reverse
statement is also true: If an object is accelerating, there must be a net force
acting on it. In other words, acceleration is a sign of the presence of force.
Newton’s Second Law
If there is a net force acting on an object, it will perform accelerated motion.
The amount of this acceleration gives us the second law.
~Fnet = m ~a (4.2)
Galileo again found this law as a result of the fine experiments that he con-
ducted using inclined planes. Galileo was able to show that the acceleration of
an object placed on an inclined plane, which he had polished to reduce friction,
increased as its slope was increased.
Let us stress some important points about the second law:
• The second law fixes the unit of force. This is a derived unit named the
Newton and abbreviated with (N) in the SI system. Writing the units of both
sides in the law’s expression, we get
1 N = 1kg·m/s2
More clearly, a force that gives 1 m/s2 acceleration to a 1-kg object will have
a magnitude of 1 Newton.
• The second law is a vector equation. In other words, this equation must be
true for each component in the xy -coordinate system:
F x,net = m a x
(
~Fnet = m ~a ⇐⇒ (4.3)
Fy,net = m ay
• At first glance you may think that the first law is a special case of the second
law. Indeed, if we set ~a = 0 in the second law (4.2), we get ~Fnet = 0 which
gives us the first law, right? This thinking is incorrect, because the second
law is actually the definition of mass. If the first law did not specify what the
force was, the second law could not relate this to mass and acceleration.
• The second law defines mass as a measure of the object’s resistance to accel-
eration. In other words, if the same force is applied to two objects, it will be
more difficult to accelerate the one with the larger mass (Figure 4.2). This
property of objects “to resist acceleration” is called inertia. In other words, Figure 4.2: Which bucket is
mass is the measure of the inertial characteristic of objects. harder to push?
58 4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
• For which observers are Newton’s laws valid? For example, an accelerating
observer will see a still object on the ground as accelerating in the reverse
direction and find an incorrect solution: He/she will observe acceleration
although there is net zero force. In order to reply to this question, let us
remember the topic of relative speed from Chapter 2. We had seen that
(Equation 3.24), observers making uniform linear motion with respect to
each other will measure the same acceleration. Therefore, Newton’s laws are
valid for observers in uniform linear motion with respect to each other. We call
these inertial reference frames.
Before rockets were built, some scientists claimed that it would be impossible
to fly in the vacuum of space, where there is no air. However, rockets are able to
fly in space by utilizing the reaction force generated when they discharge their
fuel in the reverse direction with a large thrust. This is possible with the third
law.
The points to pay attention to in applying the third law are as follows:
• Action and reaction are applied on different objects. There can be a contradic-
tion if this distinction is not made.
As an example, consider a horse-drawn carriage (Figure 4.3). How would
you reply to this statement: “If the horse pulls the carriage forward, the
carriage will pull the horse back with the same force in the reverse direction.
Therefore, both forces will cancel each other out and the carriage will not
move.” This reasoning is incorrect, because it ignores the fact that the action
and reaction are applied on different objects. When examining one of these
objects, only the forces acting on that object should be taken into consideration.
The horse manages to not be pulled back by balancing the reaction force of
Figure 4.3: Forces on a horse the carriage with the friction force that it generates on the ground. However,
and carriage. the friction on the wheels of the carriage does not prevent it from going
forward, because it is very low.
• Only the external forces acting on an object are taken into consideration when
examining its motion. This is because internal forces mutually cancel each
other out according to the third law. Is it possible for a person inside of a
boat to make it move by pushing it? No. Let us examine the boat and the
4.2. TYPES OF FORCES IN MECHANICS 59
• It is irrelevant to ask which of these forces between two objects is the action
and which is the reaction. Both arise simultaneously, in other words, there
is no causality between them. Only an action-reaction pair is mentioned in
order to state this fact.
Now let us apply this law to an object with mass m near the Earth’s surface
(Figure 4.6). Let one object have mass m and the other object be the Earth, with
mass ME and radius RE . Accordingly,
mME GME
Fg = G 2 = m 2
RE RE
The expression inside of the brackets depends only on the mass and radius of the
Earth. The Earth’s mass is ME = 5.97×1024 kg and its radius is RE = 6.38×106 m .
Figure 4.6: Weight is caused by Using these values, we find the gravitational force acting on mass m :
the law of gravitation.
Fg = m × (9.81 m/s2 )
The constant factor has dimensions of acceleration and a value of 9.81 m/s2 . It
is just the gravitational acceleration g that we are familiar with. Hence, this
gravitational force is the weight W itself:
W = Fg = m g (Weight) (4.8)
GME (The gravitational acceleration
g = (4.9)
R2E on the Earth’s surface)
Example 4.1
~)
Normal Force On Surfaces ( N
Consider a book on a desk (Figure 4.7). We know that the book has a weight
and is pulled towards the center of the Earth with a force W=mg . If this force were
acting alone, then the book would have to go through the table and accelerate
downwards according to the F=ma rule.
However, the book is motionless, in other words, has zero acceleration. There-
fore, there should be another force acting upwards, opposite to the weight, so
that the net force can be zero. This force acting perpendicular to the surface and
always outwards from the surface is called the normal force and is indicated by
~ . It only appears when the object is in contact with the surface and disappears
N
when the objects leaves the surface. The source of the normal force is the complex
interactions between the molecules that constitute the table and the book.
Normal force is always perpendicular to the surface and large enough to prevent
the object from entering the surface. For example, in the case of the book on
the table, we had N=W (Figure 4.7). Now, let us consider an additional force
F pressing the book down towards the table. This time, the normal force will
increase to a value that counters both the W and F forces, in other words, we
have N = W + F .
The following question could come to mind here: “Doesn’t the normal force Figure 4.7: The normal reac-
have a reaction force?” Yes, it does. Indeed, there is an opposite force (−N) tion force N generated on the
applied by the book on the table. However, as we are only concerned with the surface of the table is always per-
forces acting on the book, we did not deal with this (−N) force applied on the pendicular to the surface.
table.
This (−N) force is what is measured when you step on a bathroom scale. If
someone presses down on your shoulder at that moment, the scale will add this
to your weight.
Example 4.2
(c) What is the normal reaction force of the table?
A force of F = 12 N is applied at an angle of 37◦ with the Answer
horizontal, on an object with mass m = 3 kg located on a (a) In addition to the force ~F applied on the object, there is the
frictionless plane. downward weight W = mg and the vertical reaction force N
applied by the surface. These forces are shown in the figure.
(b) If we choose the axes as shown in the figure, the accelera-
tion will be in the x -direction. Since there is no acceleration
perpendicular to the table, the net force component is zero in
the y -direction. Therefore, the second law can be written as
follows for the components:
F x,net = ma
(
~Fnet = m~a →
Fy,net = 0
(a) Show all of the forces acting on the object. The first equation gives the acceleration. In the x -direction
(b) What is the acceleration of the object? there is only F x =F cos θ :
62 4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Friction Force
Let us again consider a book on a tabletop. Let us push this book with a force
F that is parallel to the table. Will the book move along the table? The answer
depends on the magnitude of the force. We know from experience that there
will be a friction force preventing motion and that it will be necessary to apply a
minimum force that is large enough to overcome the friction force.
We experience friction force in every aspect of our daily lives. In fact, we can
say that life would be impossible without friction. We would be unable to walk on
the ground or hold anything in our hands. On the other hand, many technologies
became possible through the reduction of friction. For example, without oil in
the engine of an automobile, it would be necessary to replace its cylinders and
pistons before it had traveled barely one kilometer.
Similar to the normal force, friction force arises only upon contact with a
surface. Both are a type of force called contact force. If we look closely at
the cross-section of the interface between the book and the table (Figure 4.8),
Figure 4.8: Friction force is we will observe rough edges at the microscopic scale, even if they are perfectly
caused by the fact that surfaces polished. The atoms and chemical broken bonds at the tips of these rough surfaces
are rough. immediately interact and make weak bonds. When the object moves, these bonds
are broken and then immediately reformed along the path. They thus oppose the
motion.
Forces that oppose motion are also formed in liquids and gases. These have
different characteristics. We shall only deal with the friction force between solid
surfaces.
Experiments have demonstrated the following features of friction force:
• Friction force is approximately the same regardless of which surface of the
object is in contact if all surfaces have the same roughness.
• The friction force is approximately constant regardless of the velocity of the
object.
Figure 4.9 shows the behavior of friction force as the applied force F increases.
When F is small, the friction force f adjusts itself in the opposite direction so
as to fully counter it, and the object does not move. This balancing continues
until it reaches a maximum value fmax and it can no longer counter the force
F , whereupon motion starts. Experiments show that this maximum value of the
friction force is proportional to the normal force on the surface:
Figure 4.9: Friction force acts fmax = µN (4.10)
differently in static and kinetic
cases. where the dimensionless coefficient µ is the coefficient of friction and depends
on the type and roughness of the surfaces.
The maximum value of the friction force slightly decreases after the object
starts moving (Figure 4.9). In order to describe this behavior, a coefficient of
kinetic friction µk is defined for moving objects and a coefficient of static
friction µ s for objects at rest:
0 ≤ fs ≤ µs N (if the object is at rest)
(4.11)
fk = µk N (if the object is moving)
4.2. TYPES OF FORCES IN MECHANICS 63
Example 4.3
we only have the weight W and the reaction force N in the
vertical direction, we get N = W = mg . We first calculate
the maximum value of the friction force:
fmax = µN = µmg = 0.5 × 3 × 10 = 15 N
(a) The force F1 = 12 N is less than the maximum value of
the friction force. Therefore, the friction force fully counters
A block with mass m=3 kg is on a horizontal plane. The static
F and the block does not move:
and kinetic coefficients of friction between the block and the
f = 12 N
surface are equal and have the value µ = 0.5 .
(b) The block will move because the force F2 = 18 N is
(a) A horizontal force F1 = 12 N is applied on this block.
greater than the maximum value of the friction force. The
What is the friction force?
friction force is at maximum value during motion:
(b) This time, a horizontal force F2 = 18 N is applied. What
f = fmax
is the acceleration of the block?
We can find the acceleration using the second law:
Answer Fnet = ma → F2 − f = ma
The forces acting on the block are shown in the figure. As 18 − 15 = 3a → a = 1 m/s2
Example 4.4
F x,net = F cos 37◦ − f = ma
A block with mass m = 3 kg is on an inclined plane. The static Fy,net = N − F sin 37◦ − mg = 0
and kinetic coefficients of friction between the block and the sur- The reaction force N is calculated from the second equa-
face are equal and have the value µ = 0.3 . A force F = 20 N tion:
with an angle 37◦ below the horizontal is applied on this block. N = mg + F sin 37◦ = 30 + 20 × 0.6 = 42 N
Calculate the normal reaction force and the acceleration of the Now, we must determine if there will be motion. For this
block. purpose, it is necessary to compare the F cos θ component
of the applied force along the direction of motion with the
maximum value of the friction force:
F cos 37◦ = 20 × 0.8 = 16 N
f = µN = 0.3 × 42 = 12.6 N
The block will start moving, because F cos θ > f . We can find
the acceleration by plugging these values into the expression
Answer above for the x -component of the second law:
The forces acting on the block are shown in the figure. If we F cos 37◦ − f = ma → 16 − 12.6 = 3a
write the second law in terms of the components, a = 1.1 m/s2
64 4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Example 4.5
must be opposite, hence upward along the inclined plane.
A block of mass m = 5 kg is placed on a plane inclined at 37 . ◦ For the coordinate axes, we take the x -axis along the
The static and kinetic coefficients of friction between the inclined inclined plane and towards the direction of motion, in other
plane and the object are equal and have the value µ = 0.2 . words, downwards. The y -axis is taken as perpendicular to
(a) Show the forces acting on the object on a figure. the inclined plane.
(b) What is the friction force? Accordingly, will the object (b) First, the y -component of the second law is written so as
move? If so, what is its acceleration? to find the friction force from the normal reaction force:
Fy,net = N − mg cos 37◦ = 0 → N = mg cos 37◦
fmax = µN = µmg cos 37◦ = 0.2 × 5 × 10 × 0.8 = 8 N
The force moving the object is the component of weight along
the inclined plane:
mg sin 37◦ = 50 × 0.6 = 30 N > fmax , hence the object
will move.
Answer The x -component of the second law is used to find the accel-
(a) The three forces acting on the block are shown in the eration:
figure. Normal force N is perpendicular to the inclined plane. F x,net = mg sin 37◦ − f = ma → 30 − 8 = 5a
As the object will try to slip downwards, the friction force f a = 4.4 m/s2
Example 4.6
Answer
A painting frame with mass m = 5 kg is held in equilibrium,
Each rope applies an attractive tension along itself. These are
hanging on the wall by two ropes with the angles given in the
shown as T 1 and T 2 in the figure. We apply the first law, as
figure. Calculate the tensions in the ropes.
the object is at rest:
~Fnet = 0
This equality also applies to the components:
F x,net = 0 → T 1 cos 53◦ − T 2 cos 30◦ = 0
Fy,net = 0 → T 1 sin 53◦ + T 2 sin 30◦ − mg = 0
We find T 1 and T 2 from these two equations:
T 1 = 44 N and T 2 = 30 N .
Example 4.7
(c) Solve this system of equations to calculate acceleration a For mass (M + m) : (M + m)g − T = (M + m)a
and tension T . 110 − T = 11a
Answer For mass M : T − Mg = Ma
(a) The tensions on both ends of the rope are equal, because T − 100 = 10a
it is assumed that the mass of the rope is negligible and the (c) By solving these two equations, we find acceleration a
pulley is frictionless. For the same reasons, both masses will and tension T :
accelerate with the same acceleration a . a = 0.5 m/s2 and T = 105 N
Hence, the forces are as shown in the figure. Note: This setup is used in operating elevators and funiculars.
(b) The problem is one-dimensional. We apply the second A small mass m can be used to easily accelerate a larger mass
law in the vertical direction to each mass, in their direction M . If we had attempted to pull only the mass M upwards
of motion: with the same acceleration a , we would have had to use a
Fnet = ma force F much larger than the force mg here.
Example 4.8
Two blocks with masses m1 =1 kg and m2 =2 kg on a frictionless Answer (a) The two ends of the rope have equal tension T
horizontal plane are tied to each other with a rope. A horizontal in opposite directions. The normal reaction forces cancel out
force F=5 N is applied on mass m1 . the weights in the vertical direction. The forces are as shown
in the figure above.
(b) The second law is written in the direction of motion for
each block (it is not necessary to write the expressions in the
vertical direction, because there is no friction):
m1 mass : F − T = m1 a 5−T =a
(a) Draw a free-body diagram for each block. m2 mass : T = m2 a T = 2a
(b) Find the acceleration and the tension in the rope by sepa- From here, we find the acceleration and the tension:
rately considering the blocks m1 and m2 . a = 1.7 m/s2 and T = 3.3 N
(c) Consider the blocks together and calculate the acceleration (c) This problem can also be solved by considering the two
of the (m1 + m2 ) system. masses together. This is possible because the accelerations
are equal. Now, the tensions T and −T in the rope in the
two-mass system become internal forces, and, according to
third law, they cancel each other out. Thus, the acceleration
of the whole system is only due to the force F :
F = (m1 + m2 )a → a = 5/3 = 1.7 m/s2
It is not possible to find the tension T in this system, because
T is an internal force.
Example 4.9
Answer
(a) The forces acting on each block are shown above.
A block of mass m1 = 7 kg on a frictionless inclined plane with
Consider first the system as a whole. On one hand, the
a slope of 30◦ is tied to the end of a rope that passes through a
mass m2 g will try to pull the mass m2 down and, on the
pulley. A mass m2 = 5 kg is hanging on the other end of the
other hand, the component of mass m1 parallel to the in-
rope.
clined plane, m1 g sin θ will try to pull it down.
(a) Draw a free-body diagram for each block and determine Let us calculate which of these forces will become dominant:
the direction of motion. m1 g sin 30 = 7 × 10 × 0.5 = 35 N
(b) Separately, write the equations of motion for the masses m2 g = 5 × 10 = 50 N
m1 and m2 . Calculate the acceleration and the tension Since m2 g > m1 g sin θ , the motion will be downwards for m2
force in the rope. and upwards along the inclined plane for m1 .
4.3. APPLICATIONS OF NEWTON’S LAWS 67
Example 4.10
Answer
The rope in the figure has zero mass and the surfaces and the
(a) In this problem, the accelerations of the blocks are different.
pulley are frictionless. (a) Draw a free-body diagram for each
The forces acting on each one are shown in the figure.
block. (b) What is the relation between the accelerations?
(b) The acceleration of the mass m2 tied to the pulley will be
(c) Calculate the accelerations and the tension in the rope.
less, because, as it descends, some of the rope will be trans-
ferred to the other side. For example, how much does mass
m2 descend when mass m1 goes to the right by 1 m ? The
answer is 1/2 m . Therefore, the relationship is as follows:
a2 = a1 /2
(c) We use the second law for each mass along its direction
of motion:
for m1 : T = m1 a1 → T = a1
for m2 : m2 g − 2T = m2 a2 → 20 − 2T = 2a2
There are three unknowns in these two equations: a1 , a2 , T .
The third equation that we need for the solution is the relation
a1 = 2a2 between the accelerations that we found in item (b).
Solving these three equations, the results are as follows:
a1 = 6.7 m/s2 , a2 = 3.3 m/s2 and T = 6.7 N .
Example 4.11
opposite direction. The forces acting on the object are shown
in the figure.
Let us write the equations of motion:
F x,net = ma → − f = ma
Fy,net = 0 → N − mg = 0
With the friction force f = µN and N = µmg , the accelera-
A block with mass m is thrown with a speed of 4 m/s along a tion a is found to be negative:
horizontal plane on which the coefficient of friction is µ=0.25 . a = −µg = −0.25 × 10 = −2.5 m/s2
What distance will the block travel before it stops? Using the velocity formula without time from kinematics, the
Answer distance traveled until the object stops (v = 0) is calculated
In this problem, there is no force acting in the direction of as follows:
motion, rather the block moves due to its initial speed, and v2 − v20 = 2ax → 0 − 42 = 2(−2.5)x
then it slows down due to the friction force f acting in the x = 3.2 m .
Example 4.12
forces acting on the block. (b) Calculate the acceleration of the
block.
Answer
(a) The friction force will be in the opposite direction to that
of the motion, hence we must first determine in which direc-
A block of mass m = 1 kg is placed on an inclined plane with tion the block will move. Two forces come into play along the
a coefficient of friction of µ = 0.3 and incline angle of 37◦ . A inclined plane: The component mg sin θ of its weight pulling
horizontal force F = 20 N is applied on the block. (a) In what the block downwards, and the component F cos θ pushing
direction will the block move? Using this information, show the it upwards. Let us compare these two:
68 4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
mg sin 37◦ = 10 × 0.6 = 6 N and the y -axis is taken as perpendicular to the plane, the
F cos 37◦ = 20 × 0.8 = 16 N equations of motion will be as follows:
As F cos θ is greater, the block will try to go upward. It F x,net = ma → F cos 37◦ − mg sin 37◦ − f = ma
may not be able to move, due to the friction force, but, in any Fy,net = 0 → N − mg cos 37◦ − F sin 37◦ = 0
case it will not go downwards. The forces acting on the blockand we have the relation between friction and the normal
are thus as follows: force: f = µN .
We calculate acceleration a from these three equations:
(F cos 37◦ −mg sin 37◦ )−µ(mg cos 37◦ +F sin 37◦ )
a=
m
a = 4 m/s2
If the resulting acceleration were not positive here, we would
(b) If the x -axis is taken upwards along the inclined plane conclude that the block was unable to move.
Example 4.13
not always equal to mg . By definition, the normal reaction
force is one that counters all of the forces perpendicular to
the surface. In this problem, mg has no component perpen-
dicular to the surface; there is only the force F . Therefore,
we have
N−F =0 → N =F
The block can only move downwards. The equations of mo-
A block with a mass of 2 kg can slide downwards when pressed
tion in this direction are as follows:
by a horizontal force F = 30 N against a wall. The coefficient
mg − f = ma
of friction between the block and the wall is µ = 0.5 . Show the
Again, as the friction force is defined with the formula
forces acting on the block and find its acceleration.
f = µN , we get f = µF . We find the acceleration a from
Answer these two equations:
This is a good example that shows that the normal force is a = (mg − µF)/m = (20 − 0.5 × 30)/2 = 2.5 m/s2 .
Example 4.14
this will act on the lower block. This opposite force f is the
force that makes m2 move. Therefore, the forces acting on
the objects are as follows:
opposite direction to the motion, but may sometimes assist Therefore, the maximum acceleration that both masses
motion. Friction is only between two blocks. As the mass m1 can travel together will be a = 1.5 m/s2 .
will try to move to the right compared to the lower mass, the (c) We also use this maximum acceleration for the upper block
force (− f ) preventing it will be towards the left. However, m1 and find the maximum force F :
according to the third law, a force + f equal and opposite to F − f = m1 a → F = µm1 g + m1 a = 4.5 N .
4.4. CIRCULAR MOTION 69
v2
ar = (centripetal acceleration) (4.12)
r
According to the second law, there must be a force Fr acting in the same direction
as this acceleration, in other words, towards the center (Figure 4.14): Figure 4.14: There must be
a centripetal force causing the
v2 centripetal acceleration.
Fr = mar = m (centripetal force) (4.13)
r
This centripetal force Fr is the net force in the radial direction causing the
acceleration ar . It could be achieved in various ways. For example, if we are
swirling a stone tied to a rope, it will be the tension T in the rope. If a cart rotates
on rails, it will be the normal reaction force of the rails.
You may still wonder whether there is any need for such a force while the
object is rotating. Let us consider that the rope suddenly breaks while the object
is rotating (Figure 4.15). After that moment, according to the first law, the object Figure 4.15: What will happen
will travel along a linear path, since the tension T causing the rotation is no if the force causing centripetal
longer present. acceleration is removed?
As a car is turning around a bend, the centripetal force is caused by the friction
force on the tires. Likewise, for an object rotating inside of a railed circle, it will
be the normal reaction force N of the rails: N = mv2 /r .
Another example is the gravitational force that allows planets to rotate around
the Sun. For example, if we use the gravitational force for a satellite with mass m
rotating around the Earth on an orbit with radius r , we get
mME v2
Fr = G = m
r2 r
Using this equation, we can find the velocity of the satellite at any height.
Example 4.15
N of the surface have no components towards the center;
A block with mass m = 200 g rotating with constant speed at there is only the force T . Therefore,
the end of a rope of length 80 cm on a frictionless horizontal v2
Fr = mar → T = m .
plane makes 500 revolutions in 3 minutes. r
We must first calculate the velocity v . As one rotation
Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the block and the
around a circle with radius r will have a length of 2πr , we
tension in the rope.
divide the total distance by time:
Example 4.16
Answer
(a) As seen in the figure, the friction force f causes the cen-
tripetal acceleration:
v2 (72 × 1000/3600 m/s)2
f = m = 1200 × = 2400 N
r 200
(b) The maximum value of the friction force is fmax =µN=µmg ,
hence it is the maximum force directed towards the center.
We can write the centripetal acceleration caused by this force
(a) An automobile with mass 1200 kg is traveling on a horizon- as follows:
tal circular track of radius r = 200 m at a speed of 72 km/h . v2
µmg = m → v2 = µgr .
What is the friction force between the wheels and the road? r
This maximum√velocity is calculated as follows:
(b) If the coefficient of friction on this track is µ = 0.8 , what √
will the maximum speed be at which the automobile can turn v= µgr= 0.8 × 10 × 200 = 40 m/s = 144 km/hour .
without sliding?
Example 4.17
Answer
A car rounds a frictionless curve banked at an angle of 30 This time, there is no friction. So, which is the centripetal
◦
and with a radius of r = 100 m . Calculate the necessary speed force that keeps it on a circular path? As seen in the figure,
v so that the car will not slip up or down the incline. the normal reaction force N of the road will have a compo-
nent towards the center. This is the centripetal force that
causes rotation.
We write the equations of motion along the x - and y -
directions shown in the figure:
x -direction: N sin θ = mv2 /r
y -direction: N cos θ = mg
Dividing the two equations on both sides, we get
tan θ = v2 /gr
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 71
From this,
p we calculate the
√ necessary speed: v = 24 m/s = 87 km/hour .
v = gr tan 30◦ = 10 × 100 × 0.58
Example 4.18
In this problem, the centripetal force is the combination of
the weight mg of the pilot and the normal force N of the
The pilot of an airplane executes a loop-the-loop stunt at a
seat. (The centripetal force rotating the airplane is the force
constant speed of 300 m/s in a vertical circle of radius 2 km .
generated by the wings, but we only consider the pilot here.)
(a) Calculate the centripetal acceleration of the airplane.
(a) First, let us calculate the centripetal acceleration in terms
(b) Calculate the normal reaction force applied by the seat to
of multiples of g :
the pilot with mass m at the top and bottom of the circle
ar = v2 /r = 3002 /2000 = 45 m/s2 = 4.5g
in terms of multiples of the weight mg of the pilot.
(b) As seen in the figure, the reaction force N of the seat
is always towards the center at the top and bottom of the
circle. However, the weight mg is towards the center at the
top, but outwards from the center at the bottom. Therefore,
the resultant force towards the center will be written in both
cases:
At the top:
N + mg = mar → N = mar − mg = 4.5mg − mg
N = 3.5mg
At the bottom:
N − mg = mar → N = mar + mg = 4.5mg + mg
N = 5.5mg
Clearly, the most difficult part of the pilot’s maneuver is
Answer at the bottom of the circle.
Example 4.19
motion of the stone.
Therefore, the centripetal force should consist of the sum of
these two:
v2
mg + T = m
r
What will happen if we reduce the stone’s speed v ? The right
side of this expression will decrease. Since weight is constant
A stone tied to the end of a string with radius r is being rotated on the left side, tension T will also decrease. When a certain
around in a vertical circle. What should the speed of the stone speed is reached, we get T = 0 , in other words, the string
be at the top so that it will complete the circle without the string will get loose.
getting loose there?
Therefore, the minimum velocity v will be the velocity at
Answer T = 0:
Both the weight mg of the stone and the tension T of the v2 √
string will be towards the center at the top of the circular mg + 0 = m → v = gr
r
Multiple-choice Questions
7. Passengers on a train with no windows and traveling at 14. Which of the following is incorrect for friction force?
constant speed observe that a ball on the floor starts to (a) It is always opposite to the direction of motion.
roll forward. Which of the following could be true? (b) It is always proportional to mg.
I. The train could be slowing down. (c) It is always proportional to the normal reaction force
II. The train could be getting faster. N.
III. The train could be going uphill. (d) It is always perpendicular to the surface.
IV. The train could be going downhill.
(a) I & III (b) I & IV (c) II & III (d) II & IV 15. How would a ball tied to the end of a string and rotating
on a frictionless plane move when the string breaks?
8. Two people are playing tug of war. Which of the follow- (a) It will stop.
ing is correct? (b) It will continue rotating.
(a) The one who pulls stronger wins. (c) It will move along a straight line.
(b) The one with the higher mass wins. (d) It will move towards the center.
(c) The one with higher friction force on the ground
wins. 16. An object with mass 10 kg is rotating with a speed of
(d) The one who grabs the rope more tightly wins. 3 m/s on a circular path with radius 2 m . What is the
centripetal force acting on the object in newton units?
9. For which observers do Newton’s laws not apply? (a) 30 (b) 35 (c) 40 (d) 45
(a) Observers at rest.
17. What could cause an automobile to round a curve?
(b) Observers in uniform linear motion.
I. Friction force.
(c) Accelerating observers.
II. The mass of the automobile.
(d) All of the above.
III. The speed of the automobile.
IV. The normal force of the road.
10. An elevator goes into a free fall when its cable breaks.
How would a screw that comes off in the ceiling of the (a) I & II (b) II & III (c) III & IV (d) I & IV
elevator move with respect to an observer in the elevator?
PROBLEMS 73
√
18. If a car is able to turn around a curved road with radius (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4
r at a speed v without sliding, at what speed can it turn
without sliding around a curve with radius 2r ? 20. When the speed of a rotating stone at the end of a string
√
(a) v (b) 2v (c) 2v (d) 4v with length r reaches 10 m/s , the string breaks. If a
string with length 4r made of the same material is used,
19. What is the ratio of the centripetal forces F B /F A of an at what speed will the rope break (in units of m/s )?
automobile A with mass m turning around a curve with √ √
(a) 10 (b) 20 (c) 10 2 (d) 10/ 2
radius r at speed v and an automobile B with mass 2m
turning around a curve with radius 2r at speed 2v ?
Problems
4.3 Applications of Newton’s Laws is µ=0.3 . Calculate the accelerations of the blocks and the
tension in the rope. [A: a = 1.3 m/s2 , T = 8.7 N .]
4.1 A bathroom scale measures the normal reaction force
N that it applies on the person standing on it. A boy with
a mass of 50 kg is standing on the scale in an elevator. (a)
How many newtons (N) will the scale show when the eleva-
tor is accelerating upwards at 2 m/s2 ? (b) What will it show Problem 4.5
when the elevator is accelerating downwards with the same 4.5 The blocks with masses m1 =1 kg and m2 =2 kg in the
acceleration? [A: (a) 600 N , (b) 400 N .] figure are tied to each other with a rope passing through a
frictionless pulley. The coefficient of friction between the
blocks and on the ground is µ=0.35 . The lower block is be-
ing pulled with a force F=25 N parallel to the plane. Draw
free-body diagrams for each block and find the acceleration
of the blocks and the tension in the rope.
[A: a = 2.5 m/s2 , T = 6 N .]
Problem 4.2
4.2 In the figure, the forces F1 =18 N and F2 =20 N are ap-
plied on a block with a mass of m=1 kg on a horizontal plane.
The coefficient of friction of the plane is µ = 0.2 . Calculate
the acceleration of the block. [A: 2.5 m/s2 .] Problem 4.6
4.6 The blocks with masses m1 =1 kg and m2 =2 kg in the
figure are placed on two planes inclined at angles 53◦ and
37◦ respectively, and tied to each other with a massless rope
Problem 4.3 passing through a frictionless pulley. The coefficient of fric-
tion of the surfaces is µ=0.1 . (a) Determine the direction of
4.3 A 2 kg block is pressed against a vertical wall with a
motion. (b) Calculate the acceleration of the blocks and the
force F=30 N at an angle of 53 with the horizontal. The co-
◦
tension in the rope.
efficient of friction between the block and the wall is µ=0.2 .
[A: (a) m2 goes downward, (b) a = 0.6 m/s2 , T = 9.2 N .]
In which direction will the block move and what will be its
acceleration? [A: Upwards a = 0.2 m/s2 .]
Problem 4.7
4.7 The masses of three blocks tied to each other on a friction-
Problem 4.4 less horizontal plane are m1 =1, m2 =2, m3 =3 kg . The mass
4.4 The blocks in the figure with masses m1 =1 kg and m1 is being pulled with the horizontal force F=12 N . Draw
m2 =2 kg have been tied to each other with a rope with negligi- free-body diagrams for each block and calculate the accelera-
ble mass passing through a frictionless pulley. The coefficient tion of the blocks and the tensions in the ropes.
of friction between the horizontal plane and the block m2 [A: a = 2 m/s2 , T 1 = 10, T 2 = 6 N .]
74 4. NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
Problem 4.12
4.12 A block with mass m is thrown with an initial speed
Problem 4.8 of v0 =8 m/s upwards along an inclined plane with a slope
4.8 The three masses in the figure are equal and angle of 37◦ from the bottom of the plane. The coefficient of
m1 =m2 =m3 = 1 kg . All the surfaces and pulleys can be as- friction is µ=0.3 . Find the acceleration of the block and the
sumed to be frictionless and the ropes to be massless. Draw distance it travels along the inclined plane until it stops.
free-body diagrams for each block and calculate the accelera- [A: a = 8.4 m/s2 , 3.8 m .]
tion of the blocks and the tensions in the ropes.
[A: a = 1.7 m/s2 , T 1 = 8.3 N and T 2 = 1.7 N .] 4.4 Circular Motion
4.13 A car is driven with constant speed v on a horizontal
circular track with a radius of r=200 m . The coefficient of
friction between the tires and the road is µ=0.8 . What is
the maximum speed with which the car can turn without
slipping? [A: v = 40 m/s .]
Problem 4.9
4.14 Car A with mass m goes around a circular path with ra-
4.9 The block with mass m1 =1 kg in the figure is tied to dius r at speed v . Car B with mass 5m goes around another
the wall with a horizontal rope and placed on another block circular path with radius 3r at speed 2v . What will be the
with mass m2 =3 kg . The coefficient of friction of all of the ratio of the centripetal force F on car B to the centripetal
B
surfaces is µ=0.4 . The block m2 is being pulled away from force F on car A? [A: F B /F A = 6.7 .]
A
the wall with the horizontal force F=30 N . Draw free-body
diagrams for each block and calculate the acceleration of m2
and the tension in the rope. [A: a = 3.3 m/s2 , T = 4 N .]
Problem 4.16
4.16 The mass m = 2 kg tied to the end of a pendulum with
length 3 m has a speed of 10 m/s at the position where the
rope makes an angle of 60◦ with the vertical. Calculate the
tension in the string. [A: T = 77 N .]
Problem 4.11
4.11 Masses m1 =1 kg and m2 =2 kg are tied to each other
with a rope on an inclined plane with slope angle 53◦ . The
coefficients of friction of the masses are different because
they are made of different materials. The coefficient of fric-
tion between m1 and the inclined plane is µ1 =0.1 and, it is Problem 4.17
µ2 =0.2 for m2 . Calculate the acceleration of the blocks and 4.17 Conical pendulum. A ball with mass m = 1 kg is
the tension in the rope. [A: a = 7 m/s2 , T = 0.4 N .] tied to a string of length 8 m hung from the ceiling. The ball
PROBLEMS 75
is rotating on a circular trajectory on the horizontal plane this chairoplane at an angle of 37◦ with the vertical. Calcu-
where the rope makes an angle of 53◦ with the vertical. late the speed v of the boy and the tension in the chain.
(a) What is the tension in the rope? (b) What is the speed of [A: v = 6.7 m/s , T = 625 N .]
the ball? [A: (a) T = 16.7 N , (b) v = 9.2 m/s .]
Problem 4.19
5.1 WORK
The concept of ‘work’ borrowed from daily life is the ability of a force to
displace an object. It takes on a precise meaning in physics.
Work Done by a Constant Force
In order to understand the concept of work in an easier manner, let us first
define the work done by a constant force.
Definition: The work done by a constant force F exerted on an object
during displacement d is the scalar quantity
In this equation, θ is the angle between the force and the displacement. As seen
in the figure, F cos θ is the projection of the force along the path d . Thus, the
work is the projection of the force along the path times the displacement.
Figure 5.1: Work by a force. The unit of work is newton × meters. This derived unit was named as the
‘Joule’ after English scientist James P. Joule, and is abbreviated as J.
Let us emphasize the most important features of the work:
• The work is zero if the object is not displaced ( d = 0 ) despite a force being
applied on it.
This may seem contrary to our daily intuitions. For example, a weightlifter
standing motionless holding 200-kg dumbbells, does zero work according
to our definition. Yet, it would be obvious that the sweating sportsman is
getting exhausted, just like someone who performs work. This should not be
seen as a contradiction, because the concepts of physics are defined within a
precise context.
• The work is zero if the force is perpendicular to the displacement ( cos 90◦ = 0 ).
• If the force forms a wide-angle with the direction of motion, in other words,
if the projection of the force along the path is in the opposite direction to the
displacement, then the work done is negative.
Expression of Work As a Scalar Product
Our definition of work actually fits the form of the scalar product of two
~ and B
vectors that we defined in Chapter 1. Instead of the vectors A ~ used there,
if we take ~F as the force vector and ~d as the displacement vector, then we can
write the expression (5.1) as follows:
W = Fd cos θ = ~F · ~d (5.2)
Example 5.1
Calculate the works done by each of the forces on the object in
the figure for a displacement d=2m in the +x direction.
Answer
We apply the definition of work (Eq.5.1) to each force:
W1 = F1 d cos 30◦ = 15 × 2 × 0.87 = 26 J
W2 = F2 d cos 90◦ = 8 × 2 × 0 = 0
W3 = F3 d cos 180◦ = 3 × 2 × (−1) = −6 J
W4 = F4 d cos(180◦ − 37◦ ) = 6 × 2 × (−0.8) = −9.6 J
5.1. WORK 79
Let us divide the path [a, b] into N intervals, each with widths as small as
∆x . Assuming that the force F remains approximately constant in each of these
intervals, such as between xi and xi + ∆x , then the small work performed in this
ith interval is
∆Wi ≈ F(xi ) ∆x i = 1, 2, 3, . . . N
As seen in the figure, ∆Wi is just the area of the thin rectangle drawn in the ith
interval. Here, we commit a small error by assuming that the force has a constant
value of F(xi ) in this interval. However, this error will vanish when the ∆x → 0
limit is taken later.
We may thus write the total work as the sum of the works in these small
intervals:
N
X XN
W= Wi ≈ F(xi ) ∆x
i=1 i=1
As a result, the integral expression of the work done by a variable force F(x) in
the interval [a, b] becomes as follows:
Z b
W= F(x) dx (Work done by a variable force) (5.3)
a
80 5. WORK AND ENERGY
The result is the value of Φ at the higher limit less its value at the lower limit.
You do not need to remember this table if you know derivatives. The integral that
you are looking for should accept the given function F(x) as its derivative.
Example 5.2
Answer We use the integral definition of work (Eq. 5.3):
Z b Z 5 5
Using integrals, calculate the work done by a force varying x4 54 14
W= F(x) dx = x dx =
3
= −
as F(x) = x along the x axis from the position a = 1 to
3
a 1 4 1 4 4
position b = 5 . W = 156 J
Ws = − 12 kd2
Example 5.3
Hooke’s law gives us (the negative sign is not important):
A spring is observed to extend by 10 cm when a force of 30 N F = kx → 30 = k × 0.10
is applied. How much work should be performed to extend this k = 300 N/m
spring by 40 cm ? Using this value of constant k , we can calculate the work done
against the spring force to extend the spring by x=0.40 m :
Answer
We first calculate the spring constant k using the given data. W = −Ws = 12 kx2 = 12 × 300 × 0.42 = 24 J
5.2 POWER
Anyone can carry a load for a distance of 100 meters, but some of us can do it
faster. In daily life, and also in technology, it is important to know the amount of
work performed per unit time. We describe this with the concept of power.
82 5. WORK AND ENERGY
∆W
Pave = (average power) (5.6)
∆t
The instantaneous power at a given instant t is defined as,
∆W dW
P = lim = (instantaneous power) (5.7)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
which is just the derivative of work with respect to time t .
Units of Power
In the SI system, the unit of power is joule/seconds = watt and is abbreviated
as (W). The use of kilowatt ( 1kW = 1000W ) is more common in the industry.
The watt is one of the rare units used both in science and in technology.
If we rewrite the definition above as dW = P dt , we see that the unit of work
(joule) can also be expressed as watt × hours or kilowatt-hours (kWh). When we
talk about our electricity consumption as being in “kilowatts,” we actually mean
kilowatt-hours, as it refers to the energy that we consume.
Figure 5.4: Horsepower was Horsepower is another unit of power used in the automotive industry and
used in the past as a measure is abbreviated as (HP):
of the amount of coal extracted 1 HP=746 watts =0.746 kW
from a coal mine. The horsepower unit’s first historical use was in extracting coal from the mines
of Britain. Back in those days, when Scottish scientist James Watt (1736–1819)
invented the steam engine, he proposed this unit in order to compare the power
of the steam engine with the power of horses.
There is another useful formula for expressing power in terms of force and
velocity in mechanics. In the definition above, let us write the work ∆W as the
work performed by a force ~F over a small displacement of ∆~r . Then,
~F · ∆~r ∆~r
P = lim = ~F · lim
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t
The limit in the brackets is just the velocity ~v . Then, we can write the power
generated by the force ~F at time t as follows:
P = ~F · ~v (Power) (5.8)
Example 5.4
speed, it is exerting a force F = mg equal and opposite to
the weight mg . We use Eq. (5.8) that we found for power:
A crane is lifting a mass of 2 tons of coal from under the ground
P = F v = mgv = 2000 × 10 × (12000/3600)
to the surface at a speed of 12 km/hour . Calculate the power
= 67000 watt = 67 kW
of the crane engine in units of watts and horsepower.
and use the conversion formula 1 HP = 0.746 kW :
Answer Since the crane is pulling the mass m at constant P = 67/0.746 = 90 HP
Example 5.5
P ∆t :
An air-conditioner is operating at a power of 3 kW . How much ∆W = 3 × (30 days × 24 hours) = 2160 kWh.
energy does it consume in one month? What is the cost for one The monthly cost is found by multiplying this by the energy
month if the price is 20 cents per kilowatt-hours? unit price:
2160 × 0.2 = 432 $ .
Answer The consumed energy can be calculated as ∆W =
5.3. KINETIC ENERGY 83
kg × m
kg × (m/s)2 = × m = newton × m = joule
s2
Work-Energy Theorem
To show the relation between work and kinetic energy, let us calculate the
work performed by the net force exerted on an object with mass m . However,
rather than the most general cases of three-dimensional and variable force, we
will consider the work performed by a one-dimensional constant force.
An object with mass m has a speed of v0 at the location x0 , and, under the
influence of a constant force Fnet , reaches the speed v when it arrives at the
position x (Figure 5.6). Let us write the net work performed by the constant force:
Wnet = ma (x − x0 ) = m a(x − x0 )
| {z }
(v2 − v20 )/2
Wnet = 1
2 mv
2
− 21 mv20 = K − K0 (5.10)
Here, d~r refers to a small displacement vector with components (dx, dy, dz) .
84 5. WORK AND ENERGY
Example 5.6
by first calculating acceleration. But it is easier to use the
When a net force F is applied on an object with mass 3 kg work-energy theorem: the work performed by the unknown
traveling at a speed of 5 m/s , its speed is increased to 10 m/s force F produces the change in kinetic energy:
at the end of a distance of 9 m . Fd = 12 mv2 − 12 mv20
Calculate the magnitude of the force. m(v2 − v20 ) 3 × (102 − 52 )
F= = = 12.5 N .
Answer We could have solved this problem the long way, 2d 2×9
Example 5.7
other. Hence, only the friction force remains, and it is oppo-
An object with mass m is thrown along a horizontal surface at site to the motion. The work it performs is negative, and it
a speed of 6 m/s . The coefficient of friction is µ = 0.4 How far makes the final kinetic energy zero ( v = 0 ):
will it travel before coming to rest?
Wnet = 12 mv2 − 12 mv20
Answer − f d = −(µmg)d = 21 mv2 − 21 mv20
Among the forces exerted on the object, the weight and the
normal force are in the vertical direction and balance each d = v20 /(2µg) = 62 /(2 × 0.4 × 10) = 4.5 m .
Potential energy is that type of energy that can store and return the work.
According to the above example, potential energy can be defined only for conser-
vative forces.
The following criterion determines whether or not a force is conservative:
A force is conservative if the work done is independent of the path taken between
any two points. Figure 5.8: The work per-
Let us test this criterion in the example of gravitational force. We want to formed by a conservative force
is independent of the traveled
calculate the work performed by gravity on different paths taken by the mass m in
path.
Figure 5.9 from A to B. Since the work is zero when the force is is perpendicular
to the path, there follows:
The work along all three paths is the same. This shows that gravity is a conserva-
tive force. If we had made the same calculation for friction force, we would have Figure 5.9: Work done by grav-
found that the work varied according to the traveled path . ity along three different paths.
General Definition of Potential Energy
The work done against a conservative force is equal to the change in
potential energy.
If the conservative force is ~Fc then the force doing work against it will be
~
(−Fc ) . If we denote potential energy as U , then we may write this definition as
follows:
Z 2
− ~Fc · d~r = U2 − U1 (potential energy definition) (5.12)
1
The result shows that the work done against the gravitational force is independent
of the path taken and depends only on the heights ( y -coordinates) of the two
points. Now, we can define the gravitational potential energy using the general
definition of Eq. (5.12):
Comparing both sides of this equation, the potential energy at any place with
coordinate y can be written as,
U(y) = mgy + C
The choice of the zero level of the gravitational potential energy is arbitrary and
can be taken at any height. This has no importance, because, as we shall see
later, only the potential energy difference between two heights will appear in
equations. This difference does not change, regardless of where the zero level is
chosen.
Elastic Potential Energy
Next, we find the elastic potential energy due to spring force. As seen in
Figure 5.11, the spring force corresponding to an extension of x along the x -axis
is F = −kx and in the opposite direction. And the force (−~F) performing work
against this force becomes +kx , hence it is in the same direction as x . Thus, the
work done during the extension from the value x1 to the final value x2 is:
Z x2 Z x2 Z x2 x2
−W = (−F) dx = (+kx) dx = k x dx = k 12 x2 = 12 kx22 − 12 kx12
x1 x1 x1 x1
Using the general definition of potential energy (Eq. 5.12), we find that
Figure 5.11: Coordinates in
elastic potential energy. U2 − U1 = 1 2
2 kx2 − 12 kx12
U(x) = 1 2
2 kx +C
The constant C is again determined by arbitrarily choosing the place where the
potential energy is zero. If we take it to be zero at the normal length of the spring,
in other words, at x = 0 , then C = 0 . As a result, we can write the elastic
potential energy as follows:
It can be seen from the figure that the angle between the attractive force ~F and
the displacement vector d~r is 180◦ . Since cos 180◦ = −1 , and if the expression
for F is substituted, then
Z r2 1 r2
dr
−W = GmME 2
= GmM E −
r1 r r r1
1 1
= −GmME −
r2 r1
Again, if we write that the change in the potential energy is equal to this opposing
work, then 1 1
−W = U2 − U1 = −GmME −
r2 r1
From here, the potential energy at any distance r can be written as:
GmME
U(r) = − +C
r
How do we choose the constant C ? It is impossible to choose the origin ( r = 0 ),
as the expression diverges ( U → ∞ ). Instead, most naturally, U = 0 is chosen at
the point where objects are too far apart to interact, in other words, when r → ∞ .
Then, C = 0 and the gravitational potential energy is obtained:
GmME
U(r) = − (gravitational potential energy) (5.16)
r
We have also learned that we could separate the forces exerted on an object into
two groups as conservative and nonconservative. Then, we can divide the work
they perform into the following two terms:
~Fnet = ~Fc + ~Fnc
Z 2
(~Fc + ~Fnc ) · d~r = K2 − K1
1
Now let us recall the definition of potential energy: The work performed against
conservative forces is equal to the increase in potential energy:
Z 2 Z 2
~Fc · d~r + ~Fnc · d~r = K2 − K1
1
| {z } | {z } 1
−(U2 − U1 ) Wnc
In this expression, the work performed by nonconservative forces is denoted as
Wnc . Rearranging the terms on both sides, we arrive at the Law of Conservation
of Energy:
Here, K= 21 mv2 is the kinetic energy and U can be any of the gravitational, elastic
or other potential energies.
The law of conservation of energy states that, after we subtract the work of
nonconservative forces from the total initial energy (kinetic+potential), whatever
remains will be equal to the total final energy (kinetic+potential).
Here, we only took into consideration the conservation of mechanical energy.
Actually, the conservation of energy is still valid when all other types of energy
(electrical, magnetic, nuclear, etc.) are taken into consideration; it is a universal
law of physics.
Special case: If there are no nonconservative forces exerted on an object or
if their work is somehow zero, then,
In such a case, no mechanical energy is lost and the sum of the energies (ki-
netic+potential) remains constant throughout the motion.
The sum of kinetic and potential energies is called total mechanical energy
and is denoted with E :
General : E1 + Wnc = E2
If Wnc = 0 : E1 = E2
The terms in the law of conservation of energy are only scalar quantities.
Considering the difficulty of working with vector equations such as Newton’s
second law ~F = m~a , energy conservation formulas provide great convenience.
Example 5.8
Example 5.9
The ABC section of the path in the figure is frictionless, while Answer
the coefficient of friction is µ = 0.5 beyond C. A ball with a (a) Total mechanical energy is conserved at points A, B and
mass of m = 2 kg is thrown along the path with a speed of C, as there is no friction:
2 mvA + mgyA = 2 mv B + mgy B = 2 mvC + mgyC
1 2 1 2 1 2
3 m/s from a point A at a height of 2 m above the ground.
(a) Find the speeds of the ball at points B and C. From these equalities, we find the speeds vB and vC using
(b) How far will it travel after point C before coming to a stop? the valuesqyA = 2, yB = 0, yC = 1.2 m :
√
vB = v2A + 2gyA = 32 + 2 × 10 × 2 = 7 m/s
q √
vC = v2B − 2gyC = 72 − 2 × 10 × 1.2 = 5 m/s
(b) The kinetic energy of the object decreases from the point
C onward, due to the work done by friction:
2 mvC − f d = 2 mvC − (µmg) d = 0
1 2 1 2
Example 5.10
Here, W f = − f d is the work performed by the friction force
and is f = µmg cos 37◦ . Thus
2 mvA + mgyA − (µmg cos 37 ) d = 2 mv B + mgy B
1 2 ◦ 1 2
Example 5.11 s !
1 1
v2 = v21 + GME−
The speed of a meteor approaching the Earth is measured as r2 r1
100 m/s at a distance of 900 km from the sea level. At what (The product GME will appear very often in problems with
speed does this meteor crash on the Earth’s surface? gravitational potential energy.) Here, the distances r1 and
(For the Earth, GME =4 × 10 m /kg·s and RE =6400 km .) r2 must be measured from the center of the Earth, while the
14 3 2
data is given as measured from the surface of the Earth. We
Answer calculate them first:
The energy conservation is written as: r1 = 6400 + 900 = 7300 km = 7.3 × 106 m
GME m 1 2 GME m r2 = 6400km = 6.4 × 106 m
1
2 mv 2
1 − = 2 mv2 − From these values, we find the crash speed of the meteor:
R1 r2
We simplify as follows: v2 = 2780 m/s
Example 5.12
fall back to Earth? When the object is slowing down, if its
speed becomes zero at some finite distance, it will fall back.
Therefore, it should reach infinity when its speed becomes
zero: v∞ = 0 . Accordingly, we write the energy conservation
for an object with mass m between the Earth’s surface and
infinity:
GME m 1 GME m
Escape speed from the Earth. A rocket or stone thrown from 1 2
2 mvesc − = 2 m × 02 −
RE ∞
the surface of the Earth must have a minimum speed to move As 1/∞ = 0r, the escape speed formula is,
infinitely far away and to not fall back to the Earth. This
2GME
is called the escape speed. Calculate the value of this speed. vesc =
(GME = 4 × 1014 m3 /kg·s2 and RE = 6400 km .) RE
Substituting the numerical values, we get:
Answer What should the condition be for the object to not vesc = 11.2 × 103 m/s = 11.2 km/s
Example 5.13
Answer In example 4.19, we saw that the tension T at point
B should be at a minimum ( T =0 ) so that the rope would not
get loose. Accordingly, the centripetal acceleration at point
B is only due to the weight mg . We thus find the minimum
speed vB :
v2
Fr = mar → mg = m B
L
v2B = gL
Now, we write the energy conservation between points A
and B. As the height of point B is 2L ,
An object with mass m is tied to the end of a rope with length
2 mvA + 0 = 2 mv B + mg(2L)
1 2 1 2
L = 50 cm and is thrown with a horizontal speed vA from the
point A at the bottom. With what minimum speed vA should Using the expression v2B that we found above, the speed vA
it be thrown to ensure that the rope does not get loose when is found as follows:
v2A = gL + 4gL = 5mgL vA = 5gL = 5 m/s
p
passing through the point B at the top?
Example 5.14
Example 5.15
tential energy is 12 (k1 + k2 )x2 . Hence, we may consider this
system as a single spring with a spring constant of (k1 + k2 ) .
If the block is released from rest with springs extended by x0
at the start, then the speed v at a later extension x is found
from the conservation of energy:
A block with mass m = 1 kg is connected to two springs with
2 (k1 + k2 )x0 = 2 mv + 2 (k1 + k2 ) x
1 2 1 2 1 2
spring constants k1 = 30 N/m and k2 = 70 N/m on a fric- s
tionless plane. The springs are initially at normal length when (k1 + k2 )(x02 − x2 )
the block is initially at rest. The block is pulled a distance v=
m
of x0 = 50 cm to the right from its equilibrium position and Calculating for x = 0.4 m , we find that v = 3 m/s .
released. (b) For the speed to be maximum, according to the expression
(a) What is the speed of the block when it is at a distance of above, the factor (x02 − x2 ) in the square root must be maxi-
40 cm from the equilibrium position? mum. As x0 was given at the beginning, x must be minimum,
(b) What is the maximum speed of the block and at what in other words, x = 0 . Thus, the block reaches maximum
point is it reached? speed when passing through the equilibrium position. The
Answer maximum speed is found when we set x = 0 in this formula:
(a) When one of the springs is extended by x , the other is
r
k1 + k2
compressed by the same amount, and the total elastic po- vmax = x0 = 5 m/s
m
Multiple-choice Questions
1. What is the kinetic energy of an object with mass 2 kg (a) Its kinetic energy remains constant.
and speed 2 m/s ? (b) Its potential energy remains constant.
(a) 2 J (b) 4 J (c) 6 J (d) 8 J (c) Its kinetic energy increases, while its potential en-
ergy decreases.
(d) Its kinetic energy decreases, while its potential en-
ergy increases.
2. Which is incorrect?
(a) Force perpendicular to the displacement performs 5. Which of the following is correct for a simple pendulum?
no work.
(b) Force opposite to the displacement performs nega- (a) Potential is minimum at the highest point.
tive work. (b) Kinetic energy is maximum at the highest point.
(c) Work is the product of the parallel component of (c) Potential energy is minimum at the lowest point.
the force to the displacement with the displacement. (d) Total energy is minimum at the lowest point.
(d) Work is the product of the perpendicular component
of the force with the displacement. 6. What is the power of a crane if it is able to pull a mass
of 100 kg upwards at a speed of 2 m/s ?
(a) 1 kW (b) 2 kW (c) 3 kW (d) 4 kW
3. What is the speed of an object with mass 1 kg and ki-
netic energy 8 J ? 7. Which of the following performs the most work?
(a) 3 m/s (b) 4 m/s (c) 5 m/s (d) 6 m/s (a) A man carrying a stone with a force of 10 N for 2 m.
(b) A man carrying a stone with a force of 5 N for 3 m.
(c) A weight-lifter keeping dumbbells of 200 kg fixed.
(d) A kid who raises a mass of 20 kg to a height of 1 m.
4. If the work performed by the net force on an object is
zero, then which of the following is correct?
92 5. WORK AND ENERGY
8. Which of the following is incorrect? 15. Which of the following is correct for the gravitational
(a) The work performed by a conservative force is in- potential energy?
dependent of the path. (a) It is inversely proportional to the square of the dis-
(b) The work performed by a nonconservative force is tance.
dependent on the path. (b) It is proportional to the total mass of the two objects.
(c) Potential energy can be defined for a conservative (c) It is inversely proportional to the distance.
force. (d) It is inversely proportional to the mass.
(d) Potential energy can be defined for a nonconserva-
tive force. 16. The rotation radius is doubled for an artificial satellite
rotating on an orbit around the Earth. How does its
9. An elevator is being pulled upwards at a constant speed.
potential energy change?
The work performed on the elevator is:
(a) Zero. (a) It halves.
(b) Positive. (b) It doubles.
(c) Negative. (c) It decreases to one fourth.
(d) Constant. (d) It increases by 4 times.
10. If the work done by a net force on an object at rest is 17. An car applies the breaks to stop on a horizontal road.
doubled, its final speed increases by how many times? Where is the kinetic energy that it lost spent?
√
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4 (a) In the work performed by the friction force.
(b) To increase its potential energy.
11. How much should the net force acting on an object at (c) To the heating of the engine.
rest be increased such that its final speed increases 4 (d) All of the above.
times?
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 8 (d) 16 18. Which of the following is correct for an object sliding
along a path?
12. If an amount of work 5 J is needed to extend the length
of a spring by 1 cm , then how much work should be (a) The friction force does not perform any work.
done to extend it by 2 cm ? (b) The normal force performs positive work.
(a) 6 J (b) 10 J (c) 15 J (d) 20 J (c) The normal force performs negative work.
(d) The friction force performs negative work.
13. Which of the following is correct for the gravitational
potential energy of the Earth? 19. Which of the following is incorrect?
(a) It is zero at the center of the earth. (a) Friction force is conservative.
(b) It is zero at infinity. (b) Gravitational force is conservative.
(c) It is zero on the surface of the earth. (c) Spring force is conservative.
(d) It is zero at the center of the Sun. (d) Friction force is nonconservative.
Problems
Problem 5.18
5.18 A ball is compressed against a spring fixed on a fric-
tionless table and released. We would like the ball to fly off
of the edge of the table and fall inside a bowl on the floor
at a distance of 2 m . In a first trial in which the spring is
compressed by 20 cm , the ball falls 40 cm short of the bowl.
How much should the spring be compressed so that the ball
Problem 5.16 falls into the bowl in the second trial? (Hint: There is no need
to completely solve the horizontal projectile problem. The
ball’s time of flight will be the same in both trials.)
5.16 A spring with a constant of k=200 N/m is fixed to the [A: 25 cm .]
lower end of a plane inclined at an angle of 37◦ and a coef-
ficient of friction of µ=0.4 . A block with mass m = 1 kg is
thrown from point A downwards at a speed of 5 m/s . The
free end B of the spring is at a distance of AB=2 m . (a) At
what speed will the block hit the free end of the spring? (b)
What is the maximum compression of the spring, in other Problem 5.19
words, what is BC = x ? [A: (a) 6 m/s , (b) 0.44 m .]
5.19 A spring gun with a spring constant k=500 N/m is able
to shoot bullets of 50 g . It is observed that a bullet fired by
this gun at an angle of 37◦ to the horizontal reaches a height
of 180 cm . (a) Find the initial speed of the bullet, (b) Find the
amount of compression of the spring.
[A: (a) 10 m/s , (b) 0.1 m ]
Problem 5.17
Collision problems are one of the cases in which direct application of Newton’s
laws is difficult. When two billiard balls collide, action-reaction forces arise
between them during that very short contact. The details of these forces are
complicated and very difficult to examine. However, these two balls have some
well-defined velocities before and after the collision. Is it possible to find a relation
between the initial and final states without looking into the internal mechanisms
of the collision?
In this chapter, we will define the concepts of impulse and momentum, which
are easy to interpret for the interaction of two or more particles. Furthermore,
the momentum concept leads to another law of conservation that will make it
easier to solve many problems.
~F = m ~a = m d~v = d(m~v)
dt dt
Mass m can be included in the derivative because it is constant. This expression
shows that force itself is also the derivative of another quantity.
Definition: The momentum vector of an object with mass m and velocity
vector ~v is
~p = m ~v (Momentum) (6.1)
The unit of momentum is kg.m/s and does not have a particular name. Newton’s
second law can thus also be written as follows (Newton had actually expressed
the second law in this form):
~
Figure 6.1: Momentum vector. ~F = dp (6.2)
dt
Let the same object with mass m initially have a momentum ~p = m~v and
then, let a constant force ~F act on it during a short time interval ∆t . After the
interaction, the object may have a different momentum ~p 0 = m~v 0 . If we rewrite
Eq. (6.2) with ∆t ,
~ ~0 ~
~F = ∆p = p − p
∆t ∆t
or
~p + ~F ∆t = ~p 0
(6.3)
m~v + ~F ∆t = m~v 0
This expression resembles the work-energy theorem that we discussed in Chapter
5. There, the increase in kinetic energy was equal to the work performed by the
force ~F . And, in this formula, the increase in momentum is equal to the product
of force with time. It is defined as a new quantity:
Definition: The integral of a variable force ~F over a finite interval [t1 , t2 ] ,
Z t2
~J = ~F dt (Impulse) (6.4)
t1
is called the impulse of the force ~F . It has the same unit as momentum ( kg.m/s ),
and is mostly used for forces that act for a short period of time.
Let us rewrite the above Eq. (6.3) in terms of impulse and momentum:
Example 6.1
Answer
We should be careful to treat velocities as vectors when us-
ing the impulse-momentum theorem (Eq. 6.3). Choosing the
direction of the outgoing ball as the positive x -direction, we
write:
mv + F ∆t = mv0
A tennis ball incoming with a speed of 20 m/s is hit by a racket 0.056 × (−20) + F × 0.05 = 0.056 × (+30)
and is sent back at a speed of 30 m/s . The mass of the ball is
56 g and its contact with the racket lasts 0.05 seconds. Calcu- Solving for F , we find that
late the average force acting on the ball. F = 56 N .
Example 6.2
dimensions:
~F ∆t = m~v 0 − m~v → ~F = m ∆~v
∆t
Hence, ~F will have the same direction as the vector ∆~v .
As seen in the figure, when we calculate the vector ∆~v =
~v 0 − ~v by the triangle rule as the sum [~v 0 + (−~v)] , it is found
to be perpendicular to the wall.
Therefore, the vector ~F that is proportional to ∆~v will also
be perpendicular to the wall and in the +x direction.
A ball with a mass of 1 kg and a speed of v=10 m/s hits a wall As the initial and final velocities have equal magnitude,
at an angle of 53◦ and is reflected back by the same angle and we get ∆v = 2v cos 37◦ . From this, we can calculate the
at the same speed. If the ball is in contact with the wall for magnitude of the force F :
0.02 s , find the direction and magnitude of the force applied by m ∆v 2mv cos 37◦ 2 × 10 × 0.8
the wall on the ball. F= = = = 800 N
∆t ∆t 0.02
Answer We write the impulse-momentum theorem in 2-
The sum inside of the brackets is zero, because ~F21 = −~F12 according to the third
law. From this, we get the law of conservation of momentum:
~p1 + ~p2 = ~p1 0 + ~p2 0 = constant (law of conservation of momentum) (6.6)
98 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Notice that there is no need to know the details of the interaction between the
two objects.
This is a very general result, and is also valid for more than two objects. In
such a case, the total momentum of a system is defined as follows:
Fiext = 0 =⇒ ~P = ~P 0
X
i (6.8)
~p1 + ~p2 + · · · + ~pN = ~p1 0 + ~p2 0 + · · · + ~pN 0
This vector equation is true for each component. Let us write them for two
objects:
m1 v1x + m2 v2x = m1 v01x + m2 v02x
(6.9)
m1 v1y + m2 v2y = m1 v01y + m2 v02y
Important notice: The law of conservation of momentum is actually more
general than the one that we stated above. Let us say briefly that the external
forces need not be zero; it is sufficient that their impulse be zero for the the law of
conservation of momentum to hold. For example, there may be external forces,
but the time interval may be so short that their impulse can be neglected. We will
not go into these fine points.
Example 6.3
Example 6.4
MV = m1 v01 + m2 v02 From here, we get v01 = −6 m/s . The velocity of mass m1 is
Substitute m1 =3, m2 =7 kg : in the opposite direction.
10 × 8 = 3v01 + 7 × 14
Therefore, by solving the two Eqs.(6.10 and 6.11), we can find the velocities v01
and v02 after the collision. Explicit expressions of the general solution exist, but
they are too complicated to reproduce here.
Let us seek the solution for a special case here. If mass m2 is at rest before
collision, we can set v2 = 0 in the two equations above and simplify as follows:
m1 v1 = m1 v01 + m2 v02
m1 v21 = m1 v02
1 + m2 v2
02
If we write the difference of two squares as (v1 − v01 )(v1 + v01 ) and divide both
sides, we get
v1 + v01 = v02
100 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
and we can use this equation instead of the energy equation with squares. Now, if
we consider this last expression together with the equation for the conservation
of momentum (6.10), we get the following solution:
m1 − m2
v01 = v1
m1 + m2
(6.12)
2m1
v02 = v1
m1 + m2
Now, let us draw some important conclusions from these results:
1. If the masses are equal ( m1 =m2 ): We get v01 = 0 and v02 = v1 . In other words,
they exchange their velocities; the incoming object stops and the other one
starts with exactly the same velocity. We observe this in billiard balls in
head-on collisions. The elegant toy called Newton’s cradle uses this property
(Figure 6.4): When the ball at one end is pulled and released, the balls in the
middle remain motionless and the ball at the other end bounces off with the
Figure 6.4: Newton’s Cradle. same velocity. Because the masses are equal, each ball in the middle transfers
Because the masses are equal, all of its energy and momentum to the next one and remains motionless.
the momentum of the incoming 2. If m1 > m2 , in other words, if the incoming mass is heavier, Eqs. (6.12) tell us
ball is fully transferred to the that the final velocities of both masses will be positive and both will continue
last ball.
in the same direction. A small mass at rest will never bounce a heavier
mass back. When a truck crashes into a motionless automobile, it drags it
along. (The truck-automobile collision is not elastic, but we may expect this
behavior as an approximation.)
3. If m1 < m2 , in other words, if the incoming mass is lighter, the final velocity
of the incoming mass will be negative, which means that it will bounce back.
When an automobile crashes into a truck, it may sometimes bounce back.
4. If the incoming mass is much much lighter ( m1 /m2 ≈ 0 ), then the final
velocities will be v01 ≈ −v1 and v02 ≈ 0 . In other words, the incoming mass
will bounce back with the same velocity and the heavy mass will not move.
It is as if it is bouncing back from a wall. Rutherford discovered the structure
of the atom using this feature. When he bombarded heavy gold (Au) atoms
with lighter alpha particles, he observed that some alpha particles bounced
back with the same velocity. This was a clue to the existence of a heavy
nucleus at the center of the atom.
Inelastic Collision
Collisions in which kinetic energy is not conserved are called inelastic colli-
sions. In this case, the colliding objects can become deformed and kinetic energy
can be transformed into heat. Thus, the total kinetic energy of the system will
have decreased. The collisions of plastic balls used in sports or the collision of
cars in traffic are inelastic collisions.
Conservation of momentum is still valid in inelastic collisions:
v01 = v02 = v0
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 )v0 Figure 6.5: Cars are manufac-
tured in such a way that their
From here, we can find the common final speed: front and rear parts collapse
readily in a collision. Thus, less
m1 v1 + m2 v2 energy and momentum will be
v0 = (6.14)
m1 + m2 transferred to the passengers.
Example 6.6
Answer
We first find the velocity of block m2 on the ground level.
According to conservation of energy, its potential energy at
height h is supplied by the kinetic energy on the ground:
√
2 m2 v2 = m2 gh → v2 = 2gh = 2 × 10 × 0.45 = 3 m/s
1 02 0
p
Example 6.7
terms of height h . Numerical example: m = 50 g , M = 5 kg ,
L = 2 m and h = 80 cm .
Answer
We first find the speed of the (bullet+block) system right after
the collision, in other words, when the pendulum is in the
vertical position. We write conservation of momentum for
this inelastic collision:
m1 v1 + m2 v2 = (m1 + m2 )v0
Here, we have m1 =m and m2 =M , and if we show the final
velocity of the system with V , we get:
A ballistic pendulum is a device used to calculate the muzzle m
mv + M.0 = (m + M) V → V = v
velocities of bullets. It is a pendulum constructed by hanging a m+M
wooden block with a very high mass at the end of a rope with The (bullet+block) system rises to a height h due to its ki-
length L . When a bullet with mass m traveling at a speed v netic energy. According to conservation of energy, all of the
embeds itself into the wooden block with mass M , the (bul- kinetic energy at the start will be converted into gravitational
let+block) system rises by h . Calculate the speed of the bullet in potential energy:
102 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
1
+ M) V 2 = (m + M) gh m+M p
2 (m v= 2gh
m
Substituting V , we solve for v and get With the given numerical values, we get v = 400 m/s .
Example 6.8
Conservation of energy and momentum is thus sufficient for
A spring with spring constant k = 100 N/m is mounted onto the solution.
the front of a block with a mass of 2 kg at rest on a frictionless (a) If we use v0 to show the common velocities of the blocks
horizontal plane. Another block with a mass of 1 kg approaches when the spring is compressed to a maximum, conservation
at a speed of 6 m/s and collides with the spring. (a) How much of momentum is expressed as follows:
will the spring get compressed and what will the velocities of m1 v1 + 0 = (m1 + m2 ) v0
m1 v1 1×6
the blocks be at that instant? (b) What will the velocities of the v0 = = = 2 m/s
blocks be after they are separated? m1 + m2 1 + 2
Spring potential energy is also taken into consideration when
writing conservation of energy:
2 m1 v1 = 2 (m1 + m2 ) v + 2 kx
1 2 1 02 1 2
Eq. (6.6) which gives the law of conservation of momentum was found as a
vector equation. Therefore, it should be valid separately for both components in
a collision in two dimensions.
There are four unknown variables in this two-equation system, because the
final velocities have two components and the problem cannot be solved without
additional information. Another equation is provided by the conservation of
energy for elastic collisions:
2 m1 v1 + 12 m2 v22 = 21 m1 v02
1 + 2 m2 v2 (for elastic collision) (6.16)
1 2 1 02
Example 6.9
of 30◦ with the eastern direction. Using only this information,
calculate the ratio v2 /v1 and determine which car was going
faster.
Answer
Choosing the axes as shown in the figure, we use Eqs. (6.17)
for a totally inelastic collision in two dimensions:
m1 v1x +m2 v2x = (m1 +m2 )v0x → m1 v1 +0 = (m1 +m2 )v0 cos 30◦
m1 v1y +m2 v2y = (m1 +m2 )v0y → 0+m2 v2 = (m1 +m2 )v0 sin 30◦
Dividing both sides of the equation, we find the ratio v2 /v1 :
A car with a mass of m1 =800 kg traveling East and a pickup v2 m1 800
= tan 30◦ = × 0.58 = 0.38
truck with a mass of m2 =1200 kg traveling North collide head v1 m2 1200
on in an intersection and stick together. Both drivers claim According to this result, the car with mass m1 was traveling
that the other entered the intersection with excessive speed. You approximately 3 times faster than the pickup truck. (Do not
arrive at the site as the expert. You measure the black tire tracks underestimate this example. Conservation of momentum and
left on the tar surface and find that the tracks make an angle energy are the most important tools of traffic experts.)
Example 6.10
found from conservation of energy ( m1 =m2 =m ):
1 2
2 mv1 q+ 0 = 12 mv02
1 + 2 mv2
1 02
√
v02 = v21 − v021 = 52 − 32 × 106 = 4 × 106 m/s
In order to find the angles, we must write conservation of
momentum in two dimensions with axes as shown in the
figure:
m1 v1x + m2 v2x = m1 v01x + m2 v02x → v1 = v01 cos θ1 + v02 cos θ2
m1 v1y + m2 v2y = m1 v01y + m2 v02y → 0 = v01 sin θ1 − v02 sin θ2
Proton-proton collisions are an important source of infor- Substituting known velocities and simplifying, we get:
mation in nuclear physics. A proton with a speed of 5×106 m/s 5 = 3 cos θ1 + 4 cos θ2 → 4 cos θ2 = 5 − 3 cos θ1
has an elastic collision with another proton at rest. After the 0 = 3 sin θ1 − 4 sin θ2 → 4 sin θ2 = 3 sin θ1
collision, the incoming proton is observed to scatter off at a We add the squares of both sides and use the identity (sin2 θ2 +
speed of 3 × 106 m/s . Calculate the scattering angles of the cos2 θ2 = 1) , finding that
protons and the speed of the second proton.
16 = 9 sin2 θ1 + (9 cos θ12 − 30 cos θ1 + 25)
Answer We again use the identity (sin2 θ1 + cos2 θ1 = 1) and simplify:
The velocity v2 of the second proton can immediately be
0
cos θ1 = 0.6 → θ1 = 53◦
104 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
i mi ~
P
ri
~rcm = (center of mass) (6.20)
M
In the simplest system, let us consider two point masses m1 and m2 located
at positions x1 and x2 along the x -axis (Figure 6.8). Applying the formula for
center of mass, we get
m1 x1 + m2 x2
xcm = (6.21)
m1 + m2
If the masses are equal (m1 =m2 ) , the center of mass is the midpoint xcm =
Figure 6.8: The center of mass (x1 + x2 )/2 . This expression conforms to our daily experience. We hold a straight
of two objects. stick from the center, but if a weight is put on one end, we hold it from a point
nearer to that side.
Center of Mass of a Continuous Mass Distribution
For objects that have a continuous mass distribution, we can calculate their
center of mass using either one of the following two methods:
1. Symmetry. As seen in Figure 6.9, objects may have certain geometrical
shapes, such as a triangle, square, rectangle, disc or circle, that have a center
of symmetry. In addition, if they are homogeneous, in other words, if their
density is distributed evenly, then we can assume that the center of mass will
be located at that center of symmetry. The summing expression for center of
mass that we found for pointlike objects can thus also be applied to whole
symmetrical parts.
6.5. CENTER OF MASS 105
i xi ∆mi xi ∆mi
P P
xcm ≈ P = i
i ∆mi M
The sum in the denominator is written as the total mass M . Similar formulas can
be written for the y - and z -components.
Now, when we take the limit ∆mi → 0 , the sum in the numerator will become
an integral. Therefore, the integral expressions of all three components can be
written as follows:
Figure 6.10: The dm mass
y dm
R R R
x dm z dm element for continuously dis-
xcm = , ycm = , zcm = (6.22)
M M M tributed mass.
In these integrals, mass should be expressed as dm = ρ(r) dr in terms of a density
that depends on position. The details will be clear in the worked examples below.
Example 6.11 P
mi xi 1 × 1 + 4 × 3 + 5 × 0
xcm = Pi = = 1.3 m
i mi 1+4+5
mi yi 1 × 0 + 4 × 1 + 5 × 2
P
ycm = Pi = = 1.4 m
i mi 10
Example 6.12
Find the center of mass of a plate shaped like the letter L with
dimensions shown in the figure and with homogeneous density.
Answer Let us first separate the plate into two simpler pieces,
as shown in the figure. The mass of each plate will be propor-
tional to its surface area, because the same density coefficients
will cancel each other out in the numerator and denominator.
106 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
Example 6.13
and consider a thin piece with thickness dx between x and
Use the integration method to calculate the coordinates of the x + dx along the x -axis. The area of this piece is y dx and
center of mass of a plate shaped like a right triangle, in which its center of mass will be its own x coordinate.
the perpendicular sides have the lengths a, b and the density The equation for a line passing through the origin with a
is homogeneous. slope of (b/a) is y = (b/a) x . Accordingly, Eq. (6.22) can be
written as:
Z Z a
1 1
xcm = x dm = x (y dx)
M ab/2 0 a
Z a Z a
2 2 2 x3
= x (b/a)x dx = 2 x dx = 2
2
ab 0 a 0 a 3 0
Answer
Since the plate is homogeneous, its mass is proportional to xcm = 23 a
its surface area. Let us choose the axes as shown in the figure Using a similar calculation, we find that ycm = 13 b .
dt2 M dt2
The second derivative on the right-hand side of the equation is just the accelera-
Figure 6.11: The center of mass tion ~acm of the center of mass. Consequently, we obtain Newton’s law, which
of your body moves up and determines the motion of the center of mass:
down as you walk, and you thus
perform work against gravity. X
~Fiext = M ~acm
You will get less tired if you take (motion of center of mass) (6.23)
smaller steps. i
6.6. ROCKET MOTION 107
This result is important: In many-particle systems, there is one point that moves
with the resultant force of external forces, such that it obeys Newton’s law as if the
whole mass was concentrated at one point. The expression (6.23) is actually the
real definition of the center of mass.
vexh ∆m = m ∆v (6.24)
108 6. IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
∆m ∆v
vexh =m
| {z∆t} ∆t
Fthr
The term on the left-hand side has the dimensions of a force and it is called the
thrust of the fuel. And, in the limit ∆t → 0 , the derivative on the right-hand
side gives the acceleration of the rocket. In conclusion, we have Newton’s law
for rocket motion:
∆m
Fthr = vexh = ma (rocket motion) (6.25)
∆t
The ratio ∆m/∆t in the expression of the thrust on the right-hand side is the
mass of fuel exhausted per unit time. We can see that, the higher the exhaust
speed of the fuel, the higher the thrust will be.
During launch from Earth’s surface, the weight −mg should also be added to
the left-hand side of this expression, in other words, the thrust should be greater
than the weight: Fthr − mg > 0 .
We now want to calculate the rocket speed as a function of its mass. Let us
return to the expression (6.24):
vexh ∆m = m ∆v
Here, ∆m was the positive change in exhausted fuel mass. If we want to write the
change in the rocket’s mass, it will be just the opposite of this quantity. Hence, by
taking −∆m and dividing by m , we can write the equation governing the change
in rocket mass:
(−∆m)
vexh = ∆v
m
Let the rocket’s initial mass be m0 and its initial velocity v0 , and let them reach
the final values m and v . Taking the limits (∆m, ∆v) → (dm, dv) and integrating
both sides, we get:
Z m Z v
dm
−vexh = dv
m0 m v0
m
−vexh ln = v − v0
m0
Hence, the final velocity of the rocket in terms of mass loss is:
m0
v = v0 + vexh ln (6.26)
m
where the property ln(a/b)=− ln(b/a) of the logarithm was used to remove the
negative sign and to obtain a positive logarithm.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 109
Example 6.14
using the formula (6.26):
A rocket traveling in space at a constant speed of 80 m/s ejects m0
v = v0 + vexh ln
an amount of fuel backwards with a ratio of 1/20 to its own m
mass at a speed of 200 m/s with respect to the rocket. What Here, we have m 0 /m = 20/19 . Also, the numerical values of
will the final velocity of the rocket be? v exh and v0 are given in accordance with the definitions in
the formula. From here, we can find the final velocity:
Answer
As the mass loss m0 /m is given, the velocity is calculated v = 80 + 200 × ln(20/19) = 80 + 200 × 0.51 = 90 m/s
Example 6.15
velocity, to find that
A rocket with a mass of 1000 kg is ejecting fuel at a rate of Fexh = 1200 × 10 = 12000 N
10 kg per second and with a speed of 1200 m/s during its (b) In addition to thrust, there is now the weight of the rocket
launch from the surface of the earth. (a) What is the thrust? (b) opposing motion. We write the second law for the net force
What is the initial acceleration? acting on the rocket:
Fexh − mg
Answer Fexh − mg = ma → a =
m
(a) We use Eq. (6.25) for the thrust: 12000 − 10000
∆m a= = 2 m/s2
Fthr = vexh 1000
∆t This is only the initial acceleration; it will change later as the
We substitute the given ratio ∆m/∆t = 10 and the exhaust mass changes.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which quantity is preserved during all types of colli-
sions? 6. Which is correct for an elastic collision?
(a) Potential energy. (a) Only momentum is conserved.
(b) Kinetic energy. (b) Only kinetic energy is conserved.
(c) Momentum magnitude. (c) Both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
(d) Momentum vector. (d) None of the above.
11. An object at rest gains a velocity v under the action of 16. Which of the following is correct if the net force acting
a force F that lasts t seconds. How much velocity will on an object is zero?
the object gain by a force 3F acting for 3t seconds? (a) The impulse is zero.
(a) v (b) 3v (c) 9v (d) v/3 (b) The momentum will remain constant.
(c) Its center of mass will be in uniform linear motion.
12. A spring is placed between two blocks with unequal
(d) All of the above.
masses and compressed. What will happen when the
blocks are released?
(a) They will move away with equal and opposite ve- 17. If the position of mass m is x1 = 0 and the position of
locities. mass 2m is x2 = 6 , then what will the position of the
(b) The one with the larger mass will also have higher center of mass xcm be?
velocity.
(c) The one with the lower mass will have lower veloc- (a) 2 (b) 2.5 (c) 3 (d) 4
ity.
(d) The one with the lower mass will have higher ve- 18. Two equal masses are at positions x and x . What will
1 2
locity. the coordinate of the center of mass be?
13. A spring is placed between blocks with unequal masses (a) x2 − x1
and compressed. Which one will be true after the blocks (b) x1 + x2
are released? (c) (x1 + x2 )/2
(a) The kinetic energies of the blocks will be equal. (d) (x2 − x1 )/2
(b) Their momentums will be equal and opposite.
(c) The one with the higher mass will have higher mo-
mentum. 19. Which of the following is correct when a rifle is fired?
(d) The one with the lower mass will have higher mo- (a) The momentum of the rifle is greater.
mentum. (b) The momentums of the rifle and the bullet are equal
and opposite.
14. A car and a truck moving towards each other at the same
(c) The kinetic energies of the rifle and bullet are equal.
speed collide and stick together. Which of the following
(d) The kinetic energy of the rifle is greater than that
is correct?
of the bullet.
(a) The force on the car is greater.
(b) The force on the truck is greater.
(c) The car will receive the kinetic energy lost by the 20. A spring is placed between two blocks at rest and com-
truck. pressed. What will happen when the blocks are released?
(d) The automobile will receive the momentum lost by
the truck. (a) The center of mass will travel at constant velocity.
(b) The center of mass will move towards the heavier
15. Which of the following is incorrect if the total momen- block.
tum of a system is zero? (c) The center of mass will move towards the lighter
(a) Its kinetic energy will also be zero. block.
(b) Its center of mass will be at rest. (d) The center of mass will remain at rest.
(c) The net force acting on the system is zero.
(d) All of the above.
Problems
the right corner with a speed of 30 m/s and sends it towards ground at a horizontal distance of 3 m from the edge. Find
the goal perpendicular to its incoming direction at a speed of the initial velocity of the bullet. [A: 150 m/s .]
40 m/s . Since the contact of the ball with his foot took 0.05 s ,
find the average force acting on the ball and its direction.
[A: 400 N and 53◦ with the corner.]
Problem 6.9
6.3 A ball with a mass of 0.5 kg is dropped from a height 6.9 A spring with a constant of k=100 N/m is attached to
of h1 =5 m . The ball bounces back to a height of h2 = 3.2 m the back of a block with a mass of 2 kg traveling at a speed
after hitting the ground. What is the impulse given to the ball of 3 m/s on a frictionless horizontal plane. Another block
during the collision with the ground? [A: J = 9 kg·m/s .] with a mass of 1 kg comes with a speed of 6 m/s and collides
with the spring. What will the maximum compression of the
6.2-3 Conservation of Momentum-Collisions in spring be and what will the velocities of the blocks be at that
One Dimension instant? [A: 24 cm and 4 m/s .]
6.4 A block with a mass of 1 kg traveling at a speed of 10 m/s
on a frictionless horizontal road collides into another block
with a mass of 4 kg that is at rest. If the collision is elastic,
find the final velocities of the blocks. [A: −6, +4 m/s .]
Problem 6.13
6.13 Two balls with masses m1 =3 kg and m2 =2 kg are hang- Problem 6.16
ing side by side on the ends of two strings of equal lengths L 6.16 A ball with mass m1 =1 kg is traveling in the +x direc-
to form two pendulums side by side. The first ball is pulled tion at a velocity of v1 =10 m/s . It collides with another ball
aside and released at an angle of 53◦ from the vertical. If the with a mass of m2 =2 kg incoming with a velocity of v2 =5 m/s
balls collide elastically, what will be the maximum angle that that makes an angle of −53◦ with the x axis. After the col-
the second ball makes with the vertical? [A: 65◦ .] lision, m1 is scattered at a velocity of 15 m/s in a direction
that makes an angle of +45◦ with the x -axis. Calculate the
6.4 Collisions in Two Dimensions velocity components of m2 . [A: 2.7, −1.3 m/s .]
Problem 6.18
6.18 Find the center of mass of a T shaped homogeneous
plate with the dimensions given in the figure above.
[A: ycm = 2.6 ]
1. The motion of the rigid body’s center of mass is called the translational
motion. Both ends of a baton thrown up in the air by a majorette can rise by
rotating, but the center of mass of the stick travels on a parabolic trajectory,
just like a pointlike stone.
2. Even if its center of mass remains at rest, a rigid body can perform rotational
motion by rotating around its own center of mass. Let us apply a force ~F
perpendicular to one end of a ruler stick and a force −~F to the other end
(Figure 7.2). As the net force acting on the object is zero, according to the
first law, its center of mass will either remain at rest or perform uniform
linear motion. However, there is nothing preventing the stick from rotating
around its own center of mass.
Figure 7.2: The net force acting 3. Bodies can also perform vibrational motion. If we push two masses con-
on this ruler stick is zero. But nected by a string towards the center, the object will vibrate, even though the
it is not in equilibrium and will center of mass remains at rest. However, vibrational motion is not included
perform rotational motion. in the definition of a rigid body, because the body changes shape and will be
examined separately later in Chapter 9.
In Chapter 6, we saw that the center of mass moved as if all of the external
forces were acting at the center of mass. Hence, the translational motion of the
rigid body is the motion of its center of mass. It will thus be sufficient to examine
the rotational motion of rigid bodies here.
The unit of angle is the radian in angular kinematics. Using other units, like
degrees ( ◦ ) or grades, will give incorrect results. The formula θ=s/r actually
indicates that the radian is the natural unit of angle. Indeed, if we substitute
the circumference of a circle as s=2πr , we get the angle 2π radians. Therefore,
angles should be taken as radians in angular kinematics calculations. Remember
the following rule for converting degrees into radians:
Accordingly, 180◦ =π radians , 60◦ =π/3 radians , 45◦ =π/4 radians , etc.
Angular Velocity (ω)
Let us again consider a point P rotating on a circle with radius r . If the
angular position of this point at t1 is θ1 , and at a later time t2 is θ2 , the ratio
θ2 − θ1 ∆θ
ωav = = (7.2)
t2 − t1 ∆t
is the average angular velocity during this time interval.
The unit for angular velocity is radians/second (rad/s). Another unit that is Figure 7.4:
used in industry is revolutions per minute (rpm):
1 revolution 2π rad
1 rpm = = ≈ 0.10 rad/s
minute 60 s
As in linear motion, instantaneous angular velocity is defined by taking
the derivative at the limit ∆t → 0 :
∆θ dθ
ω = lim = (angular velocity) (7.3)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Angular Acceleration (α)
Angular acceleration is defined as the change of angular velocity in unit time
and the ratio
ω2 − ω1 ∆ω
αav = = (7.4)
t2 − t1 ∆t
is the average angular acceleration during this time interval.
The ∆t → 0 limit of average acceleration is instantaneous angular accel-
eration:
∆ω dω
α = lim = (angular acceleration) (7.5)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
The unit of angular acceleration is rad/s2 . Acceleration is positive if the object
gets faster as it rotates in the counterclockwise direction and negative if it gets
slower.
Let us emphasize once more: Angular velocity and angular acceleration have
the same value at all points of the rigid body.
Motion With Constant Angular Acceleration
The angular acceleration α of a rigid body is constant if its angular velocity
changes uniformly. In such a case, we get formulas for angular position and
angular velocity, just as we did for linear motion in Chapter 2. There is no need to
repeat this calculation. The results are displayed in the following table, together
with the linear motion formulas:
116 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Example 7.1
with correct units rad/s :
2π rad
A wheel at rest starts to rotate with constant angular accelera- 90 × = 0 + α × 10 → α = 0.3π rad/s2
tion and reaches an angular velocity of 90 rpm after 10 s . 60 s
(b) We use the angular position formula:
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the wheel?
θ = θ0 + ω0 t + 21 αt2
(b) How many revolutions has it performed during this period?
Here, we take the point θ0 = 0 of the wheel:
Answer θ = 0 + 0 + 12 × 0.3π × 102 = 15π radians
(a) We use the velocity formula for constant acceleration: The angle is requested in terms of revolutions. One revolution
ω = ω0 + α t is taken as 2π :
The radian unit must be used in all calculations. The initial 15π
θ = 15π radians = = 7.5 revolutions .
velocity is zero: ω0 = 0 . Let us substitute the final velocity 2π
where the constant radius r was moved outside of the derivative. The derivative
on the right-hand side is the angular velocity ω and the derivative on the left-hand
side is just the linear velocity v of point P :
v = rω (7.6)
v2
ar =
r
Substituting the expression v = r ω that we found above for linear velocity, we
can write centripetal acceleration in terms of ω :
Figure 7.6: Tangential and cen-
(r ω)2 tripetal accelerations.
ar = = r ω2 (7.7)
r
For tangential acceleration, let us rewrite the expression (3.19) that we
found in Chapter 3:
dv
at =
dt
If we substitute the expression v = rω that we found for linear velocity and take
the derivative, as the radius r is constant, we get
dω
at = r = rα (7.8)
dt
These formulas completely establish the relation between the rotational mo-
tion of the solid body and the linear motion of any point on it. Let us summarize
these formulas in a table:
Angular Linear
Position θ s = rθ
Velocity ω v = rω
ar = r ω2 (centripetal acceleration)
Acceleration α
at = r α (tangential acceleration)
Example 7.3
π/30=2π . We find angular acceleration using the velocity
formula without time: ω2 − ω20 = 2α(θ − θ0 )
A wheel starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate to
ω2 − 0 (2π)2
reach a velocity of 60 rpm after 5 revolutions . α= = = 0.4π rad/s2
(a) What is the angular acceleration of the wheel? 2(θ − 0) 2 × 5π
It is a good practice to leave π in angular calculations.
(b) What are the linear velocity and tangential and centripetal
They are either canceled out later or the value π2 ≈ 10 can
accelerations of a point located at a distance of 2 m from
be substituted.
the center of the wheel?
(b) We use the formulas for conversion to linear kinematics
Answer (a) The angular velocity of the wheel is 60 rpm=60× for r = 2 m :
118 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Example 7.4
eration. In particular, the linear speeds of points on the rim
of both disks must be equal:
v = v1 = v2
We use the relation v = rω for each wheel:
r1
r1 ω1 = r2 ω2 → ω2 = ω1
r2
There is no need to change units here, because we are working
with ratios:
10 cm
ω2 = × 40 rpm = 80 rpm
5 cm
Now, in addition to linear velocities, the linear acceleration
On a bicycle the crankset (toothed disk) fixed to the pedal has of the chain is also the same everywhere. In particular, at the
a radius of 10 cm and the sprocket (smaller toothed disk) at points on the rim, they become the tangential acceleration
the center of the rear wheel has a radius of 5 cm . The two are for each circular motion:
connected by a chain. a = a1t = a2t
(a) If the angular velocity of the crankset is ω1 =40 rpm and Using the relation at =rα that connects the tangential and
its angular acceleration is α1 =7 rad/s2 , what will be theangular acceleration for each wheel,
angular velocity and angular acceleration of the rear
r1 10 cm
wheel? α2 = α1 = × 7 rad/s2 = 14 rad/s2
r2 5 cm
(b) Calculate the centripetal accelerations of points on the rim
(b) The formula ar = rω2 giving the centripetal acceleration
of the crankset and of the sprocket.
is used for both disks:
Answer
(a) The chain is the connection between the two wheels. All a1r = r1 ω21 = 0.10 × (40 × π/30)2 = 1.8 m/s2
of the points on this chain have equal linear speed and accel- a2r = r2 ω22 = 0.05 × (80 × π/30)2 = 3.6 m/s2
τ = F r sin θ (7.9)
(Figure 7.9a):
τ=| sin}θ r = F⊥ r
F {z (7.10)
F⊥
On the other hand, considering that the product r sin θ is just the opposite
perpendicular side of the triangle (Figure 7.9b), we can write
τ = F |{z}
r sin θ = F d (7.11)
d
The distance d here is called the lever arm. Whichever expression is suitable
for the problem at hand should be used. Usually, the expression F⊥ r is more
practical.
Expression of Torque As a Vector Product
The factor sin θ in the defining expression (7.9) of the torque suggests that it
can be expressed as a vector product. Indeed, if the position vector ~r is measured
from the rotation axis to the application point of the force ~F , the torque vector
can be expressed as follows:
~τ = ~r × ~F (7.12)
Figure 7.10 shows that this expression satisfies the definition given above: Let
us assume that the vectors ~r and ~F are on the xy -plane. The direction of the Figure 7.10: Expression of
vector product is found using the right-hand rule. According to this definition, torque as vector product.
the direction of the torque vector will be along z , which is the rotation axis. If
the rotation of the force about the z -axis is counterclockwise, then the torque
will be in the +z direction, in other words, positive. If it rotates in the opposite
direction, the torque will be negative.
As the forces that we will take into consideration in this chapter are all on
a plane, the torques will always be along the z -axis, with positive or negative
components. We can thus work without referring to the vector nature of torque.
Example 7.5
τ1 = r F1⊥ = 0 , because the component of the force perpen-
dicular to r is zero. Torque is always zero if the line of the
force passes through the center of rotation.
τ2 = r F2⊥ = 2 × 10 = +20 N·m . Torque is positive, because
the direction of rotation of the force F2 is counterclockwise.
τ3 = −rF3⊥ = −1 × 10 = −10 N·m . Torque is negative,
All of the forces shown in the figure have the same magnitude because the direction of rotation of the force F is clockwise.
3
of 10 N . Calculate the torques of these forces with respect to τ = F d = 0 . Torque is zero, because the lever arm d=0 .
4 4
the point O.
τ5 = −rF5 sin 37◦ = −1 × 10 × 0.6 = −6 N·m . Torque is
Answer We use one of the expressions τ=rF⊥ or τ=F d for negative, because the direction of rotation of the force F5 is
torque: clockwise.
120 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Adding these equations on each side, the angular acceleration α on the right-hand
side becomes the common factor:
The left-hand side of this equation is the total torque of the forces acting on the
rigid body. The sum in the brackets on the right-hand side becomes a new term in
which each point mass is multiplied by the square of its own radius ri and added.
This is called the moment of inertia of the rigid body and is shown with I :
X
I= ∆mi ri2 (moment of inertia) (7.14)
i
As a result, the equation for the rotational motion of a solid object is written as
follows:
We must emphasize one small point here: Previously, we had specified the
positive direction of the torque as being counterclockwise. However, in calcula-
tions the positive direction of the torque can be chosen in the direction of motion,
and not the clock direction. In other words, the torques in the direction that
the rigid body is assumed to rotate are taken as positive and the torques in the
opposite direction are taken as negative.
Example 7.6
wheel.
(b) A block with mass m=1 kg is attached at the end of the
rope and released. Calculate the accelerations and the
tension in the rope.
Answer
The reaction forces that may be generated on the axis of the
wheel are not taken into account, because their torques will
A wheel with radius R=2 m and mass M=5 kg can rotate with- be zero as they pass through the axis of rotation. Accordingly,
out friction about its center. Its moment of inertia is I= 12 MR2 . only the torque of force F will cause motion. We write the
(a) The wheel is pulled with a force F=10 N from the end of equation of rotational dynamics (7.16):
a rope tied around it. Find the angular acceleration of the τnet = I α → F.R = 12 MR2 α
122 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
2F 2 × 10 Therefore, an extra equation is required. This is obtained
α= = = 2 rad/s2
MR 5×2 from the relation between linear and angular kinematics.
(b) This time, there are two moving objects: The rotating
Since each point of the rope will have the same acceleration
wheel and the mass m in linear motion. The forces acting on
a , it will be the tangential acceleration of the wheel at the
each one are shown below as free-body diagrams:
point of contact with the wheel. Therefore, the third equation
is as follows:
a = at = R α (3)
Taking the value T from equation (1) and using it with the
a = Rα in equation (2), we get
mg 10
Taking the direction of motion as positive for both objects, α= R= = 1.4 rad/s2
(m + M/2) (1 + 5/2) × 2
the equations of motion are as follows:
From here, we find the other unknowns:
For M : τnet = T R = I α = 12 MR2 α (1)
For m : Fnet = mg − T = ma (2) a = Rα = 2.8 m/s2
These are two equations with three unknowns T, α, a . T = m(g − a) = 7 N .
Example 7.7
us calculate their torques separately in order to determine
which is greater:
τ1 = F1 L = 6 × 5 = 30 N·m
τ2 = r F2⊥ = r F2 sin 37◦ = 2 × 15 × 0.6 = 18 N·m
The rod will rotate in the direction of F1 , because the value
A rod of length L = 5 m can rotate without friction around its τ1 is greater.
end O. The moment of inertia of the rod with respect to point We choose the positive rotation direction for F1 and write
O is I0 = 5 kg·m2 . The two forces shown in the figure are the rotational dynamics equation:
acting on this rod. Find the direction of rotation and angular τnet = τ1 − τ2 = I0 α
acceleration of the rod. From here, we find the angular acceleration:
Answer 30 − 18
α= = 2.4 rad/s2
The torques of the two forces are in different directions. Let 5
Example 7.8
We write the equations of motion for each object (the weight
of the mass on the plane and its reaction force N cancel each
other out and therefore are not taken into consideration.):
For m1 : m1 g − T 1 = m1 a (1)
For m2 : T 2 = m2 a (2)
A block of mass m1 = 1 kg is attached to one end of a rope For the pulley: T1R − T2R = I α (3)
going around a pulley. Another block of mass m2 = 2 kg at rest
on a frictionless horizontal plane is tied to the other end of the Additionally, we write the relation between the accelerations
rope. The pulley has a mass m2 = 2 kg , a radius R = 20 cm as follows:
and a moment of inertia I = 3 kg·m2 . Calculate the linear and a = Rα (4)
angular accelerations and the tensions in the ropes.
We find the accelerations and tensions from these four equa-
Answer tions. Taking the tensions from (1) and (2) and substituting
The important point to note here is that the tensions on two in equation (3), we get
ends of the rope will be different. For, if the tensions were
equal, there would be no net torque to rotate the pulley. The m1 gR 10 × 0.2
α= = = 0.64 rad/s2
forces acting on each object can thus be shown as follows: I + (m1 + m2 )R 2 3 + 3 × 0.22
Using these, we calculate the other unknowns:
a = Rα = 0.2 × 0.64 = 0.13 m/s2
T 1 = m1 (g − a) = 9.9 N
T 2 = m2 a = 0.3 N .
7.4. MOMENT OF INERTIA CALCULATIONS 123
Example 7.9
Since m2 R2 > m1 R1 , the direction of motion is obvious. We
take the direction of motion of each object as positive and
write the equations as follows:
For m1 : T 1 − m1 g sin 37◦ = m1 a1 (1)
For m2 : m2 g − T 2 = m2 a2 (2)
For the pulley: T 2 R2 − T 1 R1 = I α (3)
A rope is wrapped around the smaller radius R1 = 10 cm As the linear accelerations will again be the tangential accel-
of a pulley with moment of inertia I = 3 kg·m2 and the other eration of the pulley, we write the relations between linear
end of the rope is tied to a block with mass m1 = 1 kg on a and angular accelerations:
frictionless inclined plane with 37◦ slope. A block with mass a1 = R1 α (4)
m2 = 2 kg is tied to the end of a rope going around the outer a2 = R2 α (5)
radius R2 = 20 cm of the pulley. Calculate the accelerations We find the accelerations and tensions from these five equa-
and the tensions in the ropes when this system is released. tions. Taking T 1 and T 2 from (1) and (2) and substituting in
Answer equation (3), we find the angular acceleration:
The linear accelerations of the blocks are different in this m2 gR2 − m1 gR1 sin 37◦
α= = 1.1 rad/s2
problem because they are tied at different radii. Let us show I + m1 R21 + m2 R22
the forces acting on each object: We then calculate the accelerations and tensions using this
value:
a1 = R1 α = 0.1 × 1.1 = 0.11 m/s2
a2 = R2 α = 0.22 m/s2
T 1 = m1 g sin 37◦ + m1 a1 = 6.1 N
T 2 = m2 g − m2 a2 = 19.6 N .
Let us summarize the results of the calculation before delving into moment
of inertia calculations:
124 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
I= 1
12 M(a2 + b2 )
Here, M is the mass of the rigid body. We give this without a proof here. Accord-
ing to this theorem, considering that the term Md2 is positive, the axis where the
moment of inertia is the lowest, in other words, where it can rotate most easily,
is the axis passing through its center of mass.
Example 7.10
three masses shown in the figure with respect to each of the x -,
y - and z -axes.
Answer The moment of inertia will be i mi ri2 for point
P
masses. The mass m1 will have no contribution, because it is
on the axis, and therefore r1 = 0 .
We substitute the given values of m and ri :
I x = m2 r22 + m3 r32 = 0 + 5 × 22 = 20 kg·m2
Iy = m2 r22 + m3 r32 = 3 × 42 + 0 = 48 kg·m2
Calculate the moment of inertia of a system consisting of the Iz = m2 r22 + m3 r32 = 48 + 20 = 68 kg·m2
7.4. MOMENT OF INERTIA CALCULATIONS 125
Example 7.11
(a) Find the moment of inertia of a ring with mass m and
radius R about an axis passing through its center O and
perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
(b) Using the previous result, find the moment of inertia of a
disk with mass M and radius R about a perpendicular
axis passing through its center.
(b) Let us consider a small ring between the radii r and r + dr
on the disk. Its surface area will be approximately 2πr dr . If
the total mass is M , we find the mass of this small disk using
proportion:
dm 2πr dr M
= → dm = 2 2r dr
M πR2 R
We had found in item (a) that the contribution of this small
Answer disk is dm r2 . Therefore, their contributions are added, in
(a) We choose a small mass dm on the ring and use the integ- other words, integrated from r = 0 to r = R :
ral formula
Z (7.15):
Z Z R
M 2M R 3
Z
= 2
= 2
=
Z
I dm r 2r dr r r dr
I= dmR2 = R2 dm = MR2 0 R2 R2 0
As each mass dm is located at a constant distance R , it is The value of the integral is R /4 , and after simplification, we
4
taken outside the integral. The sum of dm is equal to the find the moment of inertia of the disk:
total mass M . I = 1
2 MR 2
Example 7.12 2
Solid sphere: Icm = MR2
5
The moment of inertia of each object with respect to the y -
axis is found using the parallel axis theorem, Eq. (7.17). The
distance of the parallel axis is L/2 for the rod and (L + R)
A solid sphere with mass M and radius R is welded to the end for the sphere:
of a rod with mass m and length L . Calculate the moment of L 2 1 1 1
inertia of this system with respect to the y -axis on the other Rod: Iy = Icm + m = mL2 + mL2 = mL2
2 12 4 3
end. 2
Solid sphere: Iy = Icm + M(L + R)2 = MR2 + M(L + R)2
Answer 5
The moments of inertia of the rod and sphere with respect to The total moment of inertia of the system is the sum of these
their own centers of mass are given in the table on Page 124: two:
1 1 2
Rod: Icm = mL2 Iy,total = mL2 + MR2 + M(L + R)2
12 3 5
Note the similarity of this expression with 12 mv2 for translational kinetic energy.
Therefore, the law of conservation of energy can still be valid using this expression
for rigid bodies.
Example 7.13
ley and the mass. The potential energy of the mass m will
A mass m=1 kg is attached to the end of a rope that is wrapped be completely converted into kinetic energy when the mass
around a pulley with radius R=20 cm and with moment of in- drops by h :
ertia I=0.5 kg·m2 . The mass is released at a height of h=2.7 m mgh = 12 mv2 + 12 Iω2
from the ground. With what velocity will it hit the ground? We write the relation between the linear velocity v of mass
m and the angular velocity of the pulley:
v = Rω
Substituting these values, we find the angular velocity:
r r
2mgh 20 × 2.7
ω= = = 10 rad/s
I + mR2 0.5 + 1 × 0.22
From this, we get the linear velocity:
Answer We write conservation of energy both for the pul- v = Rω = 2 m/s
Example 7.14
Answer
The potential energy of the rod will turn into kinetic energy
once it reaches the vertical position and its center of mass
descends by L/2 :
mg (L/2) = 12 I0 ω2
The moment of inertia here is with respect to the axis of
rotation O. We can calculate it from Icm with the help of the
parallel axis theorem:
I0 = Icm + m(L/2)2 = 12 1
mL2 + mL2 /4 = 13 mL2
A rod with mass m and length L = 1.2 m is hinged from one Substituting these values, we find the angular velocity:
end to a wall. The rod is released in horizontal position. What
r r
3g 30
will its angular velocity be once it reaches vertical position? ω= = = 5 rad/s .
L 1.2
The torques here should be taken with respect to the center of mass.
In the most general motion, there is no relation between linear acceleration
acm and angular acceleration α , and each may have a different value. However,
these two accelerations are related for an object that rolls on a surface without
slipping.
Let us consider a cylinder that rolls on a horizontal plane without slipping.
The velocity of each point of this cylinder is different, but there is one point that
is at rest, in other words, has zero velocity for one instant. This is point P, where
the object is in contact with the surface (Figure 7.14). Indeed, if the object is not
slipping, the two common points where the surface and the object meet must
have equal velocity. And this means that the velocity of the point on the object is
zero.
This is true only for one instant. Immediately afterwards, this contacting Figure 7.14: Rolling motion.
point of the object will detach from the surface and gain velocity. However,
another point will take its place and its velocity will also become zero at the
moment that it contacts the surface. This point of contact is the instantaneous
axis of rotation. Therefore, we can write the linear velocity and acceleration of
the center of mass, which is at a distance R from this axis, in terms of angular
quantities:
Rolling motion can be easily calculated by adding these conditions to the afore-
mentioned translation and rotation equations.
Important note: At the point of contact between the rolling object and the
surface, there is also a friction force f . However, the formula f = µN cannot be
used here, because the object is not slipping and that friction has not reached its
maximum value.
In rolling motion, as translation and rotation take place together, the kinetic
energy is the sum of both types of energy:
Example 7.15
angle of 37◦ .
Answer
The forces acting on the cylinder are shown in the figure. We
can explain the direction of the friction force f as follows:
If this was an inclined plane covered with ice, the cylinder
would have slipped down without rolling. Therefore, friction
would be upwards.
Let us write Eqs. (7.19 and 7.20) that we found for rolling
Find the angular acceleration of a cylinder with radius R = motion, with the indicated axes (we denote acm = a ). For
50 cm and mass M = 4 kg released on a plane inclined at an translational motion, we have:
128 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Example 7.16
Translation in the x -direction: F − f = Ma
Find the angular acceleration and the acceleration of the cen- Rotation around CM: FR1 + f R2 = I α
ter of mass of a cylinder with radius R2 = 40 cm and mass The relation between the accelerations is: a = R2 α
M = 1 kg pulled with force F = 12 N through a rope wrapped Eliminating the force f between these two equations, we
around the cylinder at R1 = 30 cm from the center. find the acceleration α :
F(R1 + R2 )
α=
I + MR22
Substituting the moment of inertia of the cylinder I= 12 MR22
and the other numerical values,
F(R1 + R2 ) 12 × (0.3 + 0.4)
α= 3 2
= 3
= 35 rad/s2
MR × 0.42
2 2 2
We find the linear acceleration of the center of mass, which
Answer is located at a distance of R2 from the instantaneous center
The forces acting on the cylinder are shown in the figure. We of rotation:
again apply the formulas (7.19 and 7.20): a = R2 α = 0.4 × 35 = 14 m/s2 .
Example 7.17
Mgh = 21 mv2 + 21 I ω2
Since there is no slipping, we can use the relation v = Rω
A sphere with radius R and mass M released on an inclined
between the linear and angular velocities. Substituting the
planed at height h from the ground rolls down without slipping.
expression I = 52 MR2 in this equation as well, we get:
What will the velocity of the center of mass be once it reaches r
the ground? (For sphere: Icm = 25 MR2 ) v=
10gh p
= 1.4gh
7
Answer Considering that a pointlike object would have a velocity
v = 2gh after descending by h , we see that the sphere goes
p
According to conservation of energy, the initial potential en- √ √
ergy of the sphere at height h is converted into translational down slower, as the factor 1.4 is less than 2 . The reason
and rotational kinetic energies at the bottom: for this is that some of the energy is used for rotation.
defining the angular momentum of a rigid body. Its unit is kg·m2 /s and does
not have a particular name.
7.6. ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND ITS CONSERVATION 129
dω d(Iω)
τ = Iα= I =
dt dt
dL
τ = (7.24)
dt
In the simplest case, the angular momentum of a point object traveling at
velocity v , with respect to an axis of rotation at a distance of r , is as follows:
L = Iω = (mr2 ) ω = mr (rω)
L = mvr (angular momentum of a pointlike object) (7.25)
~L = ~r × ~p
Its direction is perpendicular to the object’s plane of rotation. We will not use the
vector properties of angular momentum here and provide it merely as information.
If the net torque of external forces acting on a rigid body is zero, then its Figure 7.15: The angular mo-
angular momentum will remain constant, according to Eq. 7.24. This expression mentum vector ~L is perpendic-
is the law of conservation of angular momentum: ular to the rotation plane.
dL
τ = 0 =⇒ =0
dt
L1 = L2 = constant (conservation of angular momentum) (7.26)
When an object is rotating, even if the torque of external forces is zero, its
moment of inertia I may change with the impact of internal forces. For example,
a man on a rotating platform may increase his moment of inertia by spreading his
arms. As the final situation can again be considered as a rigid body, the angular
velocity will decrease to conserve angular momentum.
Example 7.18
Answer
We write the conservation of angular momentum for a point-
like object:
mvr = mv0 r0
We write the linear velocities in terms of angular velocity
using the formula v = rω :
A mass m is rotating with angular velocity ω = 3 rad/s at
r2
the end of a rope with length r = 50 cm tied to an axis on a r2 ω = r02 ω0 → ω0 = 02 ω
r
frictionless table. As the rope starts to wrap around the axis, By substituting the value r0 = r/2 , we find the final angular
what will the angular velocity of the object be when the length velocity:
of the rope shortens to 25 cm ? ω0 = 4ω = 4 × 3 = 12 rad/s .
130 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Example 7.19
We write the conservation of angular momentum:
A bullet with mass m = 50 g travels at a speed of v = 200 m/s Lbullet + Ldisk = Lbullet+disk
0
and embeds itself into the rim of a disk at rest that can rotate Initially, there is only the angular momentum mvR of the
freely, at a distance of R = 60 cm from the center. As the disk’s point mass m . After the collision, this mass will rotate with
mass is M = 900 g and the moment of inertia is I = 12 MR2 , an angular velocity ω together with the disk at a distance R .
find the angular momentum of the system (M + m) after the Therefore,
collision. mvR + 0 = (Idisk + Ibullet ) ω
Substituting the moments of inertia of the disk I = 12 MR2
and of the bullet I = mR2 , we find that:
mvR
ω=
(M/2 + m)R2
We find the angular velocity by substituting the numerical
Answer values:
The forces generated during the collision are the internal mv 0.05 × 200
ω= = = 33 rad/s
forces of the system (bullet+disk) and their net torque is zero. (M/2 + m)R (0.9/2 + 0.05) × 0.6
Example 7.20
direction with angular velocity ω2 =100 rpm . What will be the
final angular velocity when the disks are suddenly clamped
together?
Answer We write the conservation of angular momentum:
I1 ω1 + I2 ω2 = (I1 + I2 ) ω
I1 ω1 + I2 ω2
In the transmission box of a car, two disks are rotating, one ω=
connected to the engine and the other connected to the trans- I1 + I2
If we take ω1 in the positive rotation direction, then ω2 =
mission shaft. The moment of inertia of the disk connected
−100 rpm . From here, we find the final angular velocity (there
to the engine is I1 =2 kg·m2 and it rotates with angular veloc-
is no need to change units, as the ratios of I are used):
ity ω1 =2000 rpm . The moment of inertia of the disk on the 2 × 2000 + 5 × (−100)
transmission shaft is I2 =5 kg·m2 and it rotates in the opposite ω= = 500 rpm
2+5
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following formulas is incorrect?
5. Which of the following is correct?
(a) v = rω (b) at = rα (c) ar = rω2 (d) L = Iω2
(a) An object will not rotate if the net force acting on it
2. Which of the following is incorrect for the definition of is zero.
the torque of a force? (b) An object will not rotate if the net torque acting on
(a) Force×lever arm it is zero.
(b) Distance×perpendicular component of force (c) An object will rotate with a constant angular veloc-
(c) Force×distance ity if the net torque acting on it is zero.
(d) Force×distance2 (d) None of the above.
7. Which of the following is incorrect about the moment (a) Centripetal accelerations are equal.
of inertia of an object? (b) Linear velocities are equal.
(c) Tangential accelerations are equal.
(a) It increases with mass.
(d) Angular velocities are equal.
(b) It is directly proportional to the square of the dis-
tance from the axis.
15. The moment of inertia of a 3 kg object with respect to its
(c) Its value depends on the chosen axis.
center of mass is Icm = 5 kg·m2 . What will its moment
(d) It increases with velocity.
of inertia be in units of kg·m2 with respect to a parallel
axis that is 2 m away?
8. Which of the following is incorrect if the angular accel-
eration of a rotating object is zero? (a) 10 (b) 15 (c) 17 (d) 20
I. Net torque is zero.
II. Angular velocity is zero.
III. Centripetal acceleration is zero.
IV. Tangential acceleration is zero.
(a) I (b) I & II (c) II & III (d) IV
16. Which of the objects in the figure above has the highest
9. A mass m is rotating around a circle with radius R . An- moment of inertia?
other mass 2m is rotating around a circle with radius (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) D
R/2 . And a third mass 4m is rotating around a circle
with radius R/2 . Which one has highest moment of 17. Which of the following is incorrect for a rolling objects?
inertia? (a) The linear velocity is different at each point.
(a) m (b) 2m (c) 4m (d) m & 4m (b) The velocity of the point in contact with the ground
is zero.
10. The same tangential force F is applied on a ring, on a (c) The angular velocity is the same everywhere.
disk, and on a sphere with the same masses and radii. (d) No friction force acts on the object.
Which one will accelerate faster?
(a) Ring (b) Disk (c) Sphere (d) Equal 18. The moment of inertia of a solid cylinder is 12 MR2 and
that of a hollow cylinder is MR2 . Two cylinders, one
solid and one hollow, with equal masses and radii are
11. A rotating object’s angular velocity is doubled and its
released at the same height on an inclined plane. Which
moment of inertia is tripled. By what factor will its
one will roll down and reach the bottom first?
kinetic energy increase?
(a) The solid cylinder.
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 12 (d) 18 (b) The hollow cylinder.
(c) They will arrive at the same time.
12. A rotating object’s angular velocity is tripled and its (d) It is impossible to tell.
moment of inertia is doubled. By what factor will its
angular momentum increase? 19. Which of the following is incorrect if the net torque on
(a) 5 (b) 6 (c) 12 (d) 18 an object is zero?
(a) The angular acceleration is zero.
13. What will happen to the Earth’s rotation velocity if the (b) The kinetic energy remains constant.
icebergs melt as a result of “global warming”? (c) The angular momentum increases uniformly.
(a) It will increase. (d) The angular momentum remains constant.
(b) It will decrease.
20. Which is correct for a rolling object?
(c) It will remain constant.
(d) It is impossible to tell. (a) The axis of rotation is the center of mass.
(b) The axis of rotation is the point in contact with the
14. Which of the following is correct for a point A located surface.
at a distance of 1 cm and a point B at a distance of 2 (c) The translational kinetic energy is zero.
cm from the center of a wheel rotating with constant (d) The rotational kinetic energy is zero.
angular velocity?
132 7. ROTATIONAL MOTION
Problems
7.1 Angular Kinematics rod around the center of rotation O is I=5 kg·m2 , calculate
the direction of rotation and angular acceleration of the rod.
7.1 A wheel at rest starts to rotate and reaches an angular
[A: 0.8 rad/s2 , counterclockwise.]
velocity of 54 rpm in 3 s . Calculate the angular acceleration
of the wheel and the number of revolutions it makes during
this interval. [A: 0.6π rad/s2 and 1.4 revolutions .]
Problem 7.5
7.5 On a bicycle, the sprocket (small disk connected to the
rear wheel) has a radius of r1 =5 cm and the crankset (larger
disk connected to the pedal) has a radius of r2 =10 cm . The
Problem 7.9
biker starts from rest and increases the angular velocity of
the crankset to ω2 =30 rpm in 2 seconds. (a) What is the an- 7.9 The square plate seen in the figure has a side length
gular acceleration of the crankset? (b) What will the angular of 1 m and a moment of inertia I0 =7 kg·m2 with respect to
velocity and acceleration of the sprocket be at the end of this the center of rotation O. The forces F1 =10 N , F2 =20 N and
time? (c) What are the final centripetal accelerations on the F3 =30 N are applied on the corners of this square in the di-
rims of both disks? rections shown in the figure. What is the angular acceleration
[A: (a) α2 = 1.57 rad/s2 , (b) ω1 = 6.28 rad/s , of the plate? [A: 0.22 rad/s2 .]
α1 = 3.14 rad/s2 , (c) a1r = 2 m/s2 , a2r = 1 m/s2 .]
another disk with a moment of inertia I2 =3 kg·m2 and rotat- When the bullet rises by h , the center of mass of the rod will
ing in the opposite direction on the same axis with angular rise by h/2 .) [A: (a) ω = 2.9 rad/s , (b) h = 0.29 m .]
velocity ω2 =6 rad/s . What will be the common angular ve-
locity of the two disks? [A: −0.4 rad/s .]
Problem 7.20
Problem 7.19 7.20 A rope tied to a mass m=1 kg on a frictionless table is
7.19 A rod with mass M=10 kg and length L=1 m can rotate passed through a hole in the center of the table and is allowed
freely about its end hinged to the ceiling. A bullet with mass to rotate in a circle when a force F is applied to the other end.
m=100 g and a horizontal velocity v=100 m/s hits and sticks (a) What should the force F be so that the mass m can rotate
to the free end of the rod. The moment of inertia of the rod with angular velocity ω = 5 rad/s on a circular trajectory
with respect to its center of mass is Icm = ML2 /12 . (a) What with radius 60 cm ? (b) What will the angular velocity be if
will be the angular velocity of the (rod+bullet) system right the rope is pulled down and the rotation radius is brought to
after the collision? (b) How high will the bullet rise? (Note: 30 cm ? [A: (a) F = 15 N , (b) ω0 = 4ω = 20 rad/s .]
8
STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Stationary rigid structures are a part of our daily lives. The houses that we
live in, the roads and bridges that we pass by in traffic, dams, etc. All of these
structures are able to maintain their statical status because they can actually
keep the forces acting on them in equilibrium, in other words, they remain in
static equilibrium. The science that is concerned with objects and structures
in equilibrium is called Statics; it is an important area of study in civil and
mechanical engineering, architecture and many other branches of science and
technology.
In this chapter, we will discuss the conditions of static equilibrium of rigid
bodies.
The second type of motion, rotational motion about the center of mass,
is determined by the law of rotation dynamics (Equation 7.20):
X
τi,cm = Icm α (for rotation) (8.2)
i
Therefore, these two types of motion should be prevented for a rigid body to
remain in static equilibrium. The condition required to prevent translational
motion can be written directly as follows:
~Fi = 0
X
(8.3)
i
Having the center of mass at rest, let us now examine the rotational motion
of the object. To prevent rotation, we must have
X
τi,cm = 0
i
For a rotating body, this torque was calculated with respect to the center of mass.
However, in the static condition the axis of rotation is irrelevant. This is because,
if the object is not rotating, the net torque is zero regardless of the chosen axis.
(Otherwise, it would rotate about that axis.) Therefore, we write the second
condition of equilibrium as follows:
These two conditions are, in principle, sufficient for static equilibrium. How-
ever, in real life, there are other parameters to consider, and our conditions may
not be enough to calculate the static equilibrium of complex objects that consist
of many parts (bridges, buildings, etc.) Other parameters are added to achieve the
full solution of the problem. We will discuss these through worked examples.
8.2 APPLICATIONS
Now let us see how static problems can be solved using conditions of equilib-
rium, and other information particular to the problem at hand.
Example 8.1
Answer
There will be no rotational motion, as the tensions in the
ropes and the weight W meet at the same point and their
torques are zero, hence the first condition will be sufficient.
We write it with the chosen axes:
F =0 → −T 1 cos 30◦ + T 2 cos 53◦ = 0
P
Pi i,x
i F i,y = 0 → +T 1 sin 30 + T 2 sin 53 − W = 0
◦ ◦
Example 8.2
Example 8.3
cable and the reaction force on the hinge.
Answer
There are three forces acting on the beam: The weight W ,
the tension T along the cable and the reaction force R on
the hinge that can be in any direction.
We first write the first condition of equilibrium according to
the axes shown in the figure:
A beam with weight W = 10 N is hinged to a wall from one F = −T cos 37◦ + R x = 0
P
Pi i,x
i F i,y = +T sin 37 + Ry − W = 0
◦
end and tied to the wall from the other end with a cable, making
a 37 angle with the horizontal. Calculate the tension in the For the second condition, we are free to calculate the torque
◦
138 8. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
with respect to any arbitrary axis. Hence, it is convenient to We can immediately find T from this last equation:
choose an axis that gives a simpler equation. Here, it will be W 10
T= = = 8.3 N
smart to choose the axis at point A, because two unknowns 2 sin 37◦ 2 × 0.6
( R x , Ry ) will both have zero torque and not be included in
the equation: Substituting this value in the other two equations, we find
the components of the reaction force R x , Ry :
L
i τi,A = 0 → −W + T sin 37 L = 0 R x = 6.7 N and Ry = 5 N
P
2
Example 8.4
much force F should the biceps muscle apply to lift a weight
of W2 = 10 N ?
Answer
The forces on the arm are shown in the figure. We can take
the torque with respect to the elbow, as we do not need the
reaction force R :
i τi = 0 → F × 0.05 − W1 × 0.15 − W2 × 0.35 = 0
P
From here, we calculate the force F :
0.15W1 + 0.35W2
F= = 150 N .
The dimensions of an average human arm are shown in the 0.05
figure. The biceps muscle acts at a distance of 5 cm from the It may seem surprising that the force on the biceps is 15 times
elbow. The lower half of the arm has a weight of W1 = 20 N greater, but it is true. It is difficult for the arm to carry a load
and its center of mass is located at 15 cm distance from the in the horizontal position, and it therefore gets tired very
elbow. The distance of the hand to the elbow is 35 cm . How quickly.
Example 8.5
The friction force f can have any value when the ladder
A ladder with weight W and length L is leaned against a wall is in equilibrium, but when the ladder starts to slide, it will
with angle θ . The wall is frictionless, while the coefficient of reach its maximum value f =µN1 . Therefore, we will make
friction is µ=0.5 on the horizontal plane. What is the minimum the calculations for this limit value.
angle θ at which the ladder can stand without sliding? We write the first condition for equilibrium:
i F i,x = µN1 − N2 = 0
P
i F i,y = +N1 − W = 0
P
Example 8.6
At what maximum height h can we apply this minimum force
F without toppling the chest?
Answer
(a) It is sufficient to apply a force greater than the friction
force in order to move the chest. As the friction force will
reach the value f = µN once the chest starts to slide, we get
F = f = µN = µW
We want to push a chest without toppling it. The chest’s weight . We substitute the numerical values to find F :
is W=500 N and its length is L=2 m and it is at rest on a hor- F = 0.8 × 500 = 400 N
izontal plane with a coefficient of friction µ=0.8 . (a) What is
the minimum horizontal force F that can move the chest? (b) (b) The chest, when it is about to roll over, will only be in
8.2. APPLICATIONS 139
Example 8.7
Example 8.8
directions of the forces are chosen such that the top hinge
will pull and the bottom hinge will push the door.
We write the first condition of equilibrium:
F = R1x − R2x = 0 R1x = R2x
P
→
Pi i,x
i F i,y = R1y + R2y − W = 0 → R1y + R2y = W
Let us take the torque with respect to point A:
L
i τi,A = R2x H − W =0
P
2
From here, we find the horizontal components of the reaction
forces:
A barn door with height H=2 m ,width L=1 m , and weight L 1
R1x = R2x = W = 50 = 12.5 N
50 N is hinged to the wall at its top and bottom edge corners. 2H 4
Calculate the horizontal and vertical components of the reaction
We have no information for the vertical components of the
forces on the top and bottom hinges.
reaction force other than the equation R1y + R2y =W found
Answer above. Even if we took torque with respect to another point,
This problem is interesting in that it shows how the num- only the sum of these two vertical components would appear
ber of equations may sometimes be insufficient for the full in the equation. Therefore, it is not possible to calculate the
solution of static equilibrium problems. vertical components separately; we can only know their sum:
The forces acting on the door are shown in the figure. The R1y + R2y = W = 50 N .
140 8. STATIC EQUILIBRIUM
Problems
Problem 8.6
Problem 8.1 8.6 A stick with negligible mass and a length of 5 m is hinged
8.1 Two weights hanging from ropes as shown in the figure to a wall from one and, with its other end freely resting on
above, are in equilibrium. If W1 =10 N , find the weight W2 a frictionless horizontal plane. A horizontal force F=10 N
and the tensions in the ropes. is applied to the bottom end of the stick. Calculate the hori-
[A: W2 = 13, T 1 = 20, T 2 = 22, T 3 = 17 N .] zontal and vertical components of the reaction force on the
hinge. [A: R x = 10, Ry = 7.5 N .]
Problem 8.7
Problem 8.2 8.7 A horizontal beam with length L=1 m and weight
8.2 A block with weight W1 =10 N is placed on a plane in- W1 =10 N is hinged to a wall from one and tied to the wall
clined at an angle of 30◦ and with a coefficient of friction from the other end with a rope making a 37◦ angle with the
µ=0.9 . Another weight W2 is tied to the weight W1 with a horizontal. A block with weight W2 =40 N is placed on this
rope parallel to the inclined plane and with another rope at beam at distance x . The rope is able to endure a maximum
an angle of 37◦ to the wall. What is the largest weight W2 tension of 50 N . Find the maximum distance x that the block
that can be hung without having the weight W1 slide? can go and the components of the reaction forces on the hinge.
[A: 1.8 N .] [A: x = 0.63 m , R x = 40, Ry = 20 N .]
Problem 8.5
8.5 In the figure, one end of a beam with weight W2 =20 N
and length L is hinged to the wall and a weight W1 =10 N is
hung on the other end. The beam is kept at an angle of 37◦ Problem 8.9
with the horizontal by means of a horizontal rope tied at a 8.9 A ladder with weight W1 =50 N and length L=3 m is
distance 3L/4 from the hinged end A. Find the tension in leaned against a frictionless wall at an angle of 53◦ with the
the rope and the horizontal and vertical components of the horizontal. The coefficient of friction on the ground is 0.4 . A
reaction force at the hinge. [A: T = R x =36, Ry =30 N .] man with weight W2 =700 N is climbing on the ladder. How
PROBLEMS 141
far from the lower end can the man climb before the ladder of W2 /2 to each of the hanging points.)
slides? [A: x=1.61 m .] [A: T = 31, R x = 24, Ry = 12 N .]
Problem 8.13
Problem 8.10 8.13 A uniform rod with two ropes tied at each end is in
8.10 The dimensions of an average human arm are shown equilibrium, as shown in the figure. The rope attached to the
in the figure. The biceps muscle acts at a distance of 5 cm wall is horizontal. The rope attached to the ceiling makes
from the elbow. The lower half of the arm has a weight of an angle of α=53◦ with the horizontal. What is the angle β
W1 =20 N and its center of mass is located at 15 cm distance of the rod? (Note: The weight and length of the rod will not
from the elbow. The distance of the hand to the elbow is appear in the final expression.) [A: β=34◦ .]
35 cm . How much force F should the biceps muscle apply
to lift a weight of W2 = 50 N ? [A: 470 N .]
Problem 8.14
Problem 8.11 8.14 A cylinder with radius R=50 cm and a mass of 1 kg
is pulled at its center by a force F along a horizontal plane.
8.11 A rod with weight W=10 N and length L=1 m is freely
However, a step with height h=10 cm on the plane is pre-
placed vertically on a horizontal plane with a coefficient of
venting motion. What should the minimum value of the force
friction µ=0.5 . The top end of the rod is tied to the ground
F be for the cylinder to overcome the step? (Hint: What
using a rope making a 53◦ angle with the vertical. The rod is
will the normal force be when the cylinder is just leaving the
being pulled by a horizontal force F=20 N acting at height
ground?) [A: F = 7.5 N .]
h from the ground. At what height h will the lower end of
the rod start to slide? [A: h = 0.55 m .]
Problem 8.15
Problem 8.12 8.15 The two arms of a ladder shaped like a ‘slanted A’,
8.12 A beam with length L and weight W1 = 10 N is hinged standing on a frictionless horizontal plane, are hinged from
to a wall from one end, and tied to the same wall from the the top and tied to each other with a horizontal rope near
other end with a rope making a 37◦ angle with the horizontal. the bottom. The ladder arms have weights 30 N and 40 N ,
A signboard with mass W2 = 20 N is hung on this beam. One and lengths 3 m and L=4 m , respectively. The rope is at a
end of the signboard is tied to the outer end of the beam and height of 1 m from the ground. Find the tension in the rope,
the other end at a distance of L/3 from the hinge. Calculate the normal forces on the ground, and the components of the
the tension in the rope and the components of the reaction reaction force on the hinge.
force on the hinge. (Hint: The signboard applies equal forces [A: T = R x = 40, Ry = 7, N1 = 37, N2 = 33 N .]
9
HARMONIC MOTION
k
x00 = − x
m
What is the function x(t) such that its second derivative will be proportional
to its negative? We know these functions: They are sine and cosine functions.
Therefore, we can predict the form of the solution:
x = A cos ωt (9.2)
Here, A and ω are two constants to be determined later. We could have chosen
the solution as a sine function as well (We will discuss when to choose sine or
cosine below.)
Let us first make sure that this function satisfies the differential equation. Let
us take the derivative twice:
x0 = −ωA sin ωt
x00 = −ω2 A cos ωt
We substitute the expressions for x and x00 in Eq. (9.1) and simplify to get
k
−ω2 A cos ωt + A cos ωt = 0
m
h k i
− ω2 + A cos ωt = 0
m
This equation must be true at every time t . The cosine is not always zero, therefore
the expression in the brackets should be zero:
h ki
− ω2 + =0
m
9.1. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 145
From here, we find the constant ω , called the angular frequency, in terms of
the mass and the spring constant:
r
k
ω= (angular frequency) (9.3)
m
We will discuss the physical meaning of the angular frequency ω below. At this
stage, the equation of motion of the mass m can be written as follows:
x = A cos ωt
146 9. HARMONIC MOTION
There should pass a time interval T such that the object passes through the same
x again:
x(t + T ) = x(t)
A cos ω(t + T ) = A cos ωt
cos ω(t + T ) = cos ωt
The cosine function is periodic in the interval [0, 2π] , in other words, it repeats
itself after 2π . Therefore, the difference between the arguments of the cosines on
both sides of the equation must be 2π :
ω(t + T ) − ωt = 2π
ωT = 2π
2π
T= (period) (9.6)
ω
This expression is true for all kinds of harmonic motions. In particular, if we use
Eq. (9.3), which we found for the angular frequency of the mass-spring system,
the period formula becomes:
r
m
T = 2π (Period of spring-mass system) (9.7)
k
It can be checked that this expression gives the period unit in terms of seconds
(s). According to this formula, when we attach an object with a known mass m
to a spring with a known constant k and vibrate it, its period T is determined.
Frequency ( f )
The number of cycles that the objects performs per unit time is called the
frequency and is denoted by f . Accordingly, frequency is the reciprocal of
period. For example, if the period is 3 seconds, then the number of oscillations in
1 second will be 1/3. Therefore, the expression for frequency is:
1 ω
f = = (frequency) (9.8)
T 2π
This expression is true for all kinds of periodic motions. In particular, the fre-
quency of the spring-mass system is
r
k
f = 2π (9.9)
m
The unit of frequency is 1/second = s−1 and is also called the Hertz (Hz) in
technology:
1 s−1 = 1 Hz (9.10)
If we write the ω in the formula (9.8) in terms of frequency, we get
ω = 2π f (9.11)
9.1. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 147
This expression explains why ω is called the angular frequency. When the
frequency is 1, in other words, when a cycle is completed in 1 second, ω takes
the value of 360◦ = 2π as if it were rotating in one complete circle.
As a conclusion, the equations of simple harmonic motion can be written in
one of the three following forms:
A cos ωt
2π
x= (9.12)
A cos t
T
A cos 2π f t
Example 9.1 2π 2π
T= = = 2.5 s
ω 0.8π
The position of an object with mass m=3 kg attached to a spring
(b) We use Eq. (9.3), which gives the relation between spring
varies with time as
constant and
p angular frequency:
x = 6 cos 0.8πt (meters)
ω = k/m → k = mω2
(a) What are the amplitude, angular frequency and period of
k = 3 × (0.8π)2 = 1.92π2 ≈ 19 N/m .
the motion?
(c) We use t = 5/12 s in the equation of motion:
(b) What is the spring constant? 5 π
(c) What is the position of the object at time t=5/12 s ? x = 6 cos 0.8π × = 6 cos
12 3
(d) How many seconds does it take for the object to reach the Substituting cos π/3= cos 60◦ = 0.5 , we find x=3 m .
positions x=0 m and x=2 m ?
(d) The distance from inital position x=A to x=0 is one fourth
Answer of a cycle. Therefore, it will reach x=0 in T/4=2.5/4=0.63 s .
(a) Amplitude means maximum extension. As the cosine In order to find the time to reach the other position, we substi-
function varies within the range [−1, +1] , the object will tute the value x=2 m in the equation of motion and calculate
go back and forth within the range [−6, +6] . Therefore, the the t in the cosine:
amplitude will be A=6 m . x = 6 cos 0.8πt → 2 = 6 cos 0.8πt
Angular frequency is the coefficient in front of the variable cos 0.8πt = 1/3 = 0.33
t . Therefore, we get ω=0.8π s−1 =0.8π Hz . (It is convenient We use the table in Appendix C to find the angle whose cosine
to leave the constant π in these calculations. It is sometimes is 0.33 as 71◦ = 1.23 radian . It is necessary to use radian units
canceled out and sometimes taken as π2 ≈ 10 .) in these calculations. From here, we find time t :
We use Eq. (9.6), which relates period to angular frequency: 0.8πt = 1.23 → t = 0.49 s
Example 9.2
T = 4/5 = 0.8 s .
A mass m attached to a spring with a constant k=125 N/m From here, we can calculate the angular frequency and the
completes 5 cycles in 4 seconds. mass of the object:
2π
(a) What are the period, angular frequency and m ? ω= = 2.5π Hz
(b) The mass is stretched by 60 cm from its equilibrium po- 0.8
k 125
sition and released. The time t = 0 is started on the m= 2 = = 2 kg .
ω (2.5π)2
stopwatch as it passes through the equilibrium position.
(b) The object’s position at t = 0 is x = 0 . Therefore, we
Write the equation of the simple harmonic motion.
must use the sine function, which is zero at t = 0 . Amplitude
Answer is given as A = 0.6 m . The equation becomes:
(a) Period is the time for one cycle: x = 0.6 sin 2.5πt .
x = A cos ωt
dx
v = = −ω A sin ωt (9.13)
dt
dv
a = = −ω2 A cos ωt (9.14)
dt
These variations are shown in Figure (9.4). Let us emphasize the important points
about the position, velocity and acceleration of harmonic motion.
• The velocity and acceleration are also harmonic; they oscillate as sine or
Figure 9.4: Position, velocity cosine with the same frequency.
and acceleration. • The variations of position and velocity are opposite to each other: When
position reaches its maximum value (x=A) , velocity is zero. In contrast,
as the object passes through the equilibrium point (x=0) , its velocity is
maximum.
• Velocity and acceleration also act in opposition to each other: The accelera-
tion of the object is zero when its velocity is maximum (passing through the
equilibrium point). In contrast, the object has maximum acceleration when
it reaches maximum distance, where it has zero velocity.
• There is a relation between position and velocity that is always true regardless
of what time t is equal to. We use the identity sin2 a + cos2 a = 1 to eliminate
t between x and v :
x2 v2
cos2 ωt = ; sin2 ωt =
A2 ω 2 A2
x2 v2
sin2 ωt + cos2 ωt = + =1
A2 ω2 A2
Simplifying this expression, we get
p
v = ω A2 − x 2 (9.15)
a = −ω2 A cos ωt
a = −ω2 x (9.16)
Example 9.3 r r
k 72
ω= = = 6 Hz
A mass m=2 kg attached to a spring with spring constant m 2
k=72 N/m is stretched by 50 cm from its equilibrium posi- In Eqs. (9.13–9.14), which we found for velocity and accelera-
tion and released. (a) What will be its maximum velocity and tion, we set sine and cosine to their maximum values of 1 to
acceleration? (b) What will its velocity and acceleration be as calculate the maximum values of velocity and acceleration:
it passes through position x = 30 cm ? vmax = ωA = 6 × 0.5 = 3 m/s
Answer (a) We first calculate the angular frequency: amax = ω2 A = 62 × 0.5 = 18 m/s2 .
9.1. SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION 149
(b) We use Eq. (9.15), which gives the relation between posi- We use Eq. (9.16), which gives the relation between position
tion and velocity:
√ √ and acceleration:
v = ω A − x = 6 0.5 − 0.3 = 6 × 0.4 = 2.4 m/s .
2 2 2 2 a = −ω2 x = −62 × 0.3 = −11 m/s2 .
Example 9.4
v2 = ω2 A2 − x2
The angular frequency of an object performing simple harmonic We take the amplitude A from this formula:
motion is 5 Hz . This object passes through position x = 3 m A = x + (v/ω)2
p
2
Therefore, the total energy is constant in simple harmonic motion and has the
value of the potential energy at maximum extension. This is easy to understand,
because its velocity will be zero when it reaches maximum extension, in other
words, all of it will have turned into potential energy:
E = K+U = 1
2 kA2 (total energy of harmonic motion) (9.19)
Figure 9.5b also shows how kinetic and potential energies vary with position x
and how their sum E remains constant.
Note that the energy is proportional to the square of the amplitude A . The
energy is multiplied by a factor of 4 when the amplitude is doubled. This is why
the destructive impact of earthquakes increases with amplitude.
150 9. HARMONIC MOTION
Example 9.5
E = K + U = 12 kA2
r r
A mass m=1 kg attached to a spring with spring constant 2E 1600
k = 400 N/m has a total energy of 800 J . A= = = 2m
k 400
(a) What is the amplitude of the oscillations?
(b) What will the velocity of m be when the potential energy (b) If the potential energy is 200 J , the kinetic energy will be
of the system is 200 J ? 800 − 200 = 600 J : r
Answer 2 × 600
2 mv = 600 → v = = 35 m/s
1 2
(a) We use Eq. (9.19), which we found for total energy: 1
Example 9.6
that they are both half of the total energy. This value is taken
In a system performing simple harmonic motion, for potential energy:
x 1
2 kx = 2 2 kA = √
(a) At which x/A ratio will the kinetic and potential energies 1 2 1 1 2
→
be equal? A 2
(b) What will the ratio of the kinetic and potential energies (b) Let us write the formula that gives velocity in terms of
be when x = A/2 ? position:
v2 = ω2 A2 − x2
Answer
We write the ratio of energies for the value x = A/2 in this
(a) We write the total energy expression:
expression:
2 mv + 2 kx = 2 kA
1 2 1 2 1 2
K mv2 H mωH2 (A2 − A2 /4)
If the kinetic and potential energies are equal, this means = = =3
U kx2 ZZk (A/2)2
Phase Angle
We had previously discussed when to use cosine or sine in the harmonic
motion equation: We use sinus if the object starts from the origin, and cosine if it
is released from the maximum distance.
What if the motion starts at any place other than these two points? The
answer to this question is seen in Figure 9.6. We can make the function start at
any point by adding another term besides (ωt) as the argument of cosine. Having
the unit of an angle, this constant argument is called the phase angle or phase
difference and is indicated with φ :
Figure 9.6: Phase angle φ .
x = A cos(ωt + φ) (9.20)
In this expression, we should find the sine function when we take φ = −90◦ =
−π/2 , in other words, when we start the cosine function 90◦ from behind. Indeed,
the trigonometric identity cos(α − 90◦ )= sin α gives us the sine equation.
We can calculate the phase angle φ in terms of the initial position x0 when
we set t = 0 in this expression:
x0
x0 = A cos φ =⇒ cos φ = (9.21)
A
The phase difference will be important when we consider the superposition of two
harmonic motions. We will return to this issue later, in the section on interference
of waves.
Example 9.7
position and released. The clock is started as it passes through
position x = 1 m . Find the phase angle and write the equation
A mass-spring system can oscillate at an angular frequency
of the harmonic motion.
ω=5 Hz . The mass is stretched by 2 m from its equilibrium
9.2. PENDULUM MOTION 151
Example 9.8
given equation, and find the position: √
The equation of a harmonic motion is given as x = 3 cos(0 − π/4) = 3 cos(π/4) = 3 × 2/2 = 2.1 m .
x = 3 cos(0.2πt − π/4) (b) Maximum position is the amplitude x = A . We substitute
the amplitude value for x :
(a) What is its position at the start?
3 = 3 cos(0.2πt − π/4) → cos(0.2πt − π/4) = 1
(b) When will it reach the maximum position?
The angles whose cosine is 1 are 0, 2π, 4π . . . . We choose
Answer the smallest one 0 and find the time t :
(a) We use the starting time, in other words, t = 0 , in the 0.2πt − π/4 = 0 → t = 1.25 s .
When writing Newton’s law along the tangent, we choose the direction Figure 9.7: Simple pendulum.
towards which the angle θ increases as positive. If we also write acceleration as
the derivative of velocity, we get
Ft = mat
dv
−mg sin θ = m
dt
We write the velocity v in terms of angular velocity as the mass performs circular
motion with radius L . The angular velocity is the derivative of the angle θ :
dθ
v = Lω = L
dt
Substituting this expression and arranging the terms, we get
d2 θ g
− mg sin θ = mL → θ00 + sin θ = 0
dt2 L
This equation looks similar to Eq. (9.1), which we found for harmonic motion of
the mass-spring system, except that it is written for the angle θ . Also, we have
sin θ instead of θ , and therefore we cannot write the solution directly.
152 9. HARMONIC MOTION
The maximum angle θmax is used instead of the amplitude A when writing the
pendulum motion equation. Accordingly, the solution of pendulum motion is
θ = θmax cos ωt (9.24)
and is valid for oscillations with small angles. Notice that Eq. (9.23) for the period
of pendulum is independent of mass and amplitude. This property was used in
the designing of clocks for centuries.
Physical Pendulum
The simple pendulum is an ideal case. Actually, every rigid body can perform
pendulum motion. A rigid body that can rotate about an axis that is not through
the center of mass is called a physical pendulum. The pendulums used in wall
clocks and in the industry are physical pendulums.
Consider a rigid body with mass m and moment of inertia Icm with a rotation
axis a distance d from its center of mass (Figure 9.8). Only the mg sin θ component
of the weight causes the rotation motion.
Choosing the positive direction towards which the angle θ increases and
writing the net torque with respect to the center of rotation O , we get,
Figure 9.8: Physical pendulum.
τo = Ft d = −mg sin θ d = I α
If we write the angular acceleration α as the second derivative of the angular
position θ and arrange the terms, we get
mgd
θ00 + sin θ = 0
I
We again use the approximate value sin θ ≈ θ for small angles:
mgd
θ00 + θ=0 (9.25)
I
|{z}
ω2
Note that the moment of inertia I in this formula is with respect to the axis of
rotation O. We use the parallel axis theorem to relate it to the Icm values given in
the tables (Chapter 7):
I = Icm + m d2
Example 9.9 s
L gT
T = 2π → L= 2
We want to construct a simple pendulum with period 1 s . g 4π
(a) What length of string should be used? We use the values T = 1 s and g = 10 :
(b) What length would be needed on planet Jupiter, where 10 × 1
L= = 0.25 m
2
gravitational acceleration is 24 m/s ? 4π2
(b) We can find the length of the pendulum on Jupiter by
Answer taking g = 24 in the same formula:
We solve the formula (9.23), which we found for the period L=
24 × 1
= 0.60 m .
of a pendulum, for the length L : 4π2
Example 9.10 r
2 × 0.60 2π
T = 2π = = 1.26 s .
A physical pendulum is constructed by hanging a rod with 3 × 10 5
length L=60 cm and mass m from one of its ends. (b) If we write the value I = Icm + md2 for the axis at distance
(a) Calculate the period of the oscillations. d and then solve
s for d , we get
12 mL + md
1
(b) At what distance from its center of mass should it be hung 2 2
gT 2 L2
for the period to be 2 s ? T = 2π → d2 − 2 d + =0
mgd 4π 12
Answer Substituting T = 2 s and the other numerical values, we get
(a) The moment of inertia of the rod with respect to its center d2 − d + 0.03 = 0
of mass is Icm = 12 mL . We had previously found its mo- The two solutions to this equation are d = 0.03 and 0.97
1 2
ment of inertia with respect to one end to be 13 mL2 using the and the solution greater than L = 0.6 is not taken into con-
parallel axis theorem. Therefore, if we calculate the period sideration. Therefore, the solution is as follows:
for d = L/2 using the formula d = 0.03 m
s s (9.26), we get s
I mL2 /3 2L
T = 2π = 2π = 2π
mgd mgL/2 3g
slow steps, but the resistance of the water suddenly increases when we try to run.
Using Fd to show this friction force, we get
Fd = −b v (9.27)
and the constant b is called the damping coefficient. The negative sign in this
expression shows that the force is always in the opposite direction to the velocity.
In this new setup, there are two forces acting on the mass m (Figure 9.9): The
Figure 9.9: Damped oscillator. spring force is F and the friction force is Fd . Let us write Newton’s law:
F + Fd = ma
d2 x
−kx − bv = m 2
dt
Let us rearrange the terms and write the differential equation of motion:
d2 x b dx k
+ + x=0 (9.28)
dt2 m dt m
We see that a new term with a first derivative is added.
We can likewise guess the solution to this equation without going into the
topic of differential equations. In simple harmonic motion, we had found the
solution by guessing that cosine and sine are the functions proportional to their
own second derivative. Here, we have the additional friction term with the first
Figure 9.10: Damped harmonic derivative. Likewise, let us consider which function is proportional to its own
motion. It performs sinusoidal derivative. This is the exponential function. Therefore, we look for a solution
oscillations as it decreases expo- that includes both behaviors simultaneously, in other words, the product of
nentially. the exponential and cosine functions. We can then determine the necessary
coefficients by requiring that this solution satisfy the equation. Let us directly
write the solution here without going into too much detail of this long operation:
r
b2
x = A e−(b/2m) t cos ω20 − t with (ω20 = k/m)) (9.29)
4m2
We can check that this solution satisfies Eq. (9.28). The parameter ω20 = k/m is
just the angular frequency of the simple oscillator with no damping.
Let us examine what types of motion this expression involves:
• As shown in Figure 9.10, this is a sinusoidal motion whose amplitude de-
creases exponentially over time.
Figure 9.11: Critically damped • It is easy to see that this equation reduces to simple harmonic motion if
and overdamped oscillations. friction is zero, in other words, if b = 0 .
• Critical damping: When the argument of the cosine is zero, we get cos 0◦ =1
and the amplitude decreases exponentially without the object making any
oscillation. The following must be true for this to happen:
b2 √
ω20 − =0 =⇒ b= 4mk
4m2
No oscillation is observed for a coefficient of friction b above this limiting
value and the object exponentially comes to rest. In this case, it is said to be
overdamped.
9.4. DRIVEN HARMONIC MOTION – RESONANCE 155
d2 x b dx
+ + ω20 x = Fa cos ωt (9.30)
dt2 m dt
This time, we have a new term that is not dependent on the unknown x , but is
rather a function of time.
Again, we shall only write the solution of this equation without going into
its explicit solution:
x = A cos(ωt + φ) (9.31)
Fa /m
A = q (9.32)
(ω2 − ω20 )2 + b2 ω2 /m2
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which is incorrect for simple harmonic motion?
4. If the amplitude of a harmonic oscillator with total en-
(a) The number of oscillations per unit time is the fre-
ergy E is doubled, what will be its total energy?
quency.
(b) The time for one oscillation is the period. (a) E/2 (b) 2E (c) 4E (d) E/4
(c) The maximum oscillation distance is the amplitude.
5. Which is incorrect for simple harmonic motion?
(d) Acceleration is constant.
(a) Velocity is zero when the position is maximum.
2. The angular frequency ω is equal to which of the fol- (b) Position is zero when the velocity is maximum.
lowing? (c) Acceleration is zero when the velocity is maximum.
(a) 2π/ f (b) 2π/T (c) 2π/A (d) 2πA (d) Acceleration is zero when the position is maximum.
3. If a harmonic oscillator passes through the equilibrium 6. Which of the following are incorrect for the period of a
position at time t = 0 , which of the following describes mass+spring system?
its motion? I. It depends on the amplitude.
(a) A cos ωt II. It depends on the mass.
(b) A sin ωt III. It depends on the spring constant.
(c) A tan ωt IV. It depends on the phase angle.
(d) A cos(ωt + π/3) (a) I & III (b) I & IV (c) II & III (d) II & IV
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 157
7. By what factor will the period of a pendulum increase if (a) Maximum velocity will double.
its length is increased by a factor of 4? (b) Maximum acceleration will double.
(c) Energy will increase by a factor of 4.
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8
(d) Period will increase by a factor of 4.
8. Which is incorrect for the energy of a harmonic oscilla- 15. Which of the following will not help to increase the
tor? maximum velocity of a mass+spring system?
(a) Potential energy is maximum at the maximum posi-
(a) Increasing its amplitude.
tion.
(b) Increasing its angular frequency.
(b) Kinetic energy is maximum at the maximum veloc-
(c) Increasing its energy.
ity.
(d) Increasing its phase angle.
(c) Kinetic+potential energy is constant.
(d) Kinetic energy is zero at the equilibrium position. 16. How will a pendulum clock behave when taken to the
surface of the Moon?
9. In a mass+spring system, the spring constant is doubled (a) It will lag.
and the mass is halved. By what factor will the period (b) It will run too fast.
decrease? (c) It will not change.
(a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 6 (d) 8 (d) It will stop.
10. The oscillation period of a simple pendulum depends on 17. What is the source of damping in damped harmonic
which of the following? motion?
(a) Mass (a) Spring force.
(b) Amplitude (b) Friction force.
(c) Length (c) Amplitude.
(d) Kinetic energy (d) Potential energy.
Problems
9.1 Simple Harmonic Motion 9.7 A system with m=2 kg attached to a spring with spring
9.1 The position of an object with mass m=2 kg undergoing constant k=72 N/m has a total energy of 900 J . (a) What
simple harmonic motion varies with time as, is the amplitude of the oscillation motion? (b) At a certain
x = 3 cos 4π t (meters) . moment, the kinetic energy is 500 J . What is the extension
of the spring at that moment? [A: (a) 5 m , (b) 3.3 m .]
(a) What are the amplitude, angular frequency and period
of the motion? (b) What is the spring constant? (c) What is
9.8 When the body of a car with mass 1200 kg is pressed
the position of the object at time t=1/24 s ? (d) How many
from above and released, it vibrates at a frequency of 3 Hz .
seconds does it take for the object to reach the positions
What will the vibration frequency of the car be if 5 people,
x = −3 m and x = 1.5 m ?
each weighing 70 kg , get into the car? [A: 2.6 Hz .]
[A: (a) A = 3 m , ω = 4π Hz , T = 0.5 s , (b) k = 320 N/m ,
(c) 2.6 m , (d) 1/4 and 1/12 s .]
9.9 A system performs simple harmonic motion. (a) At which
9.2 A mass m=0.5 kg attached to a spring completes 25 cy- x/A ratio will the kinetic energy be twice the potential en-
cles in 10 s . (a) What are its period, angular frequency and ergy? (b) What will the ratios of the kinetic and potential
spring constant k ? (b) This object is stretched by 40 cm from energies be when x = A/5 ? √
its equilibrium position and released at the time t=0 . Write [A: (a) x/A = 1/ 3 , (b) K/U = 24 .]
the equation for the simple harmonic motion equation.
[A: (a) T =0.4 s , ω=5π Hz , k=125 N/m , (b) x=0.4 cos 5π t .] 9.10 A harmonic oscillator with angular frequency 3 Hz
is pulled by 5 m from its equilibrium position and released.
9.3 A mass m=3 kg attached to a spring with spring constant The time t=0 is initiated as it passes through position x=4 m .
k=75 N/m is pulled by 50 cm from its equilibrium point and Find the phase angle and write the equation of the harmonic
released. (a) What will be its maximum velocity and accel- motion. [A: x = 5 cos(3t + 37◦ ) .]
eration? (b) What will its velocity and acceleration be as it
passes through position x = 20 cm ? 9.11 The equation of a harmonic motion is given as
[A: (a) 2.5 m/s , 12.5 m/s2 , (b) 2.3 m/s , −5 m/s2 .] x = 4 cos(πt − π/3)
(a) What is its position at the start? (b) When will it reach
9.4 The angular frequency of an object performing simple the maximum position? [A: (a) 2 m , (b) 0.33 s .]
harmonic motion is 2 Hz . This object passes through position
x = 1 m with velocity v = 4.8 m/s . (a) What is the amplitude
of the motion? (b) What is its maximum velocity?
[A: (a) 2.6 m , (b) 5.2 m/s .]
Problem 9.12
9.12 A bullet with mass m=50 g and velocity v = 200 m/s
hits and embeds in a wooden block with mass M=950 g ,
which is attached to a spring with constant k=64 N/m . Cal-
culate the angular frequency and amplitude of the resulting
Problem 9.5 harmonic motion. [A: ω = 8 Hz , A = 1.25 m .]
9.5 The figure above shows the motion of a mass m = 2 kg
attached to a spring. (a) Find the angular frequency and the
spring constant. (b) Write the equation of this motion.
[A: (a) ω = π/4 , k = 1.25 N/m , (b) x = 0.8 sin πt/4 .]
Problem 9.13
9.13 A mass m=1 kg is placed on the plate of a spring with
constant k=50 N/m that can vibrate in the vertical direction.
How large can the amplitude of the harmonic motion be such
Problem 9.6 that the mass does not leave the plate? The mass of the plate
9.6 Write the equation of the simple harmonic motion shown can be neglected. (Hint: Consider the maximum acceleration
in the figure. [A: x = 0.05 cos(πt−37◦ ) .] of the harmonic motion.) [A: A 6 0.2 m .]
PROBLEMS 159
Problem 9.14
9.14 A mass m1 =1 kg is placed on another mass m2 =2 kg
lying on a frictionless horizontal plane. The friction coef-
ficient between the two blocks is µ=0.5 . The mass m2 is Problem 9.18
attached to a spring with spring constant k=60 N/m and set 9.18 A ring with mass M and radius R is hung on a nail, as
into harmonic motion. What is the maximum amplitude such shown in the figure. Show that the period of the harmonic
that both masses can oscillate together without the top mass motion about the axis O is,s
sliding? (Hint: Compare the maximum acceleration that can 2R
be given to the mass m1 solely by the friction force and the T = 2π
g
maximum acceleration of the harmonic motion.)
[A: A 6 0.25 m .] 9.19 When a rigid body with mass m=1 kg is oscillating
about an axis located at a distance of 20 cm from its center
9.2 Pendulum Motion
of mass, its period is 2 s . Calculate the moment of inertia of
9.15 The combined effect of the centripetal force at the equa- the rigid body with respect to its center of mass.
tor and the oblate shape of the Earth result in a g=9.78 m/s2 [A: 0.16 kg·m2 .]
at the equator and a g=9.83 m/s2 at the poles. By how much
will a simple pendulum clock with a period of 1 s on the
equator lag behind on the poles in 1 day? [A: 220 s .]
9.16 A simple pendulum with length 2.5 m is pulled by 5◦
from its equilibrium position and released. (a) In how many
seconds will it reach its equilibrium position? (b) In how
many seconds will it reach the angle θ = 2.5◦ ?
Problem 9.20
[A: (a) T/4 = π/4 = 0.79 s , (b) π/6 s .]
9.20 Calculate the period of oscillation of the solid sphere
with radius R=20 cm attached to the end of a rope with length
L=1 m , as shown in the figure. The moment of inertia of the
solid sphere with respect to its center of mass is Icm = 25 MR2 .
[A: 2.2 s .]
Problem 9.17
9.17 A stick with mass m and length L=1.20 m can rotate
about an axis O located at distance L/4 from one end. Calcu-
late the period of the pendulum motion. [A: 1.67 s .]
10
WAVES
We all know how waves are formed by a pebble thrown into a still pond. The
ripples move in ever growing circles. Likewise, waves propagate along a rope
when we shake it from one end. The propagation of any change, vibration or
perturbation in a medium is called a wave. There is a broad range of wave motions
in our everyday life and in nature: Sound waves, water waves, electromagnetic
waves that form light and radio-TV signals, etc.
The source of all of these waves is a vibration: we shake a rope, and a wave
propagates along the rope; a tuning fork is set to vibrate, and sound waves appear,
etc.
Notice that it is not the matter itself but the disturbance that propagates. If
you examine a bottle floating on wavy water, you will notice that the bottle goes
up and down as the wave passes, but does not move forward with the wave.
What is it that moves forward in wave? It is energy and momentum that prop- Figure 10.1: A bottle does not
agate. Each water molecule transfers the energy and momentum that it receives move forward as a wave does, it
to the next one as it goes up and down. Energy and momentum transferred in a only moves up and down.
certain harmony mediate the propagation of waves.
Note that the profile given with the function f is only displaced without
changing its form. The wave at time t = 0 is displaced by a distance +vt at time t .
Therefore, it is sufficient to write the same function by displacing it by +vt . And
this becomes the function f (x − vt) . (You may check this with a simple function:
The function y = x crosses the x -axis at 0 , but the function y = x − a crosses it
at +a and the function y=x−2a crosses it at +2a . . . )
164 10. WAVES
For another form of the wave equation, a quantity called a wavenumber and
indicated with k is defined as follows:
2π
k= (wavenumber) (10.7)
λ
The wavenumber is a measure of the number of wavelengths per unit length, but
gives it in terms of 2π . For example, if the wave length is 1 m, , 12 m, 13 m, . . . ,
then the wavenumber will be k = 2π, 4π, 6π, . . . .
On the other hand, let us remember the angular frequency ω that we know
from Chapter 9:
2π
ω= = 2π f (10.8)
T
The sinusoidal wave is written as follows in terms of these two quantities:
Example 10.1
Answer
The speed of sound in air is 340 m/s . The note A (La) com- We write the relation between frequency and wavelength:
ing out of a musical instrument has a frequency of 440 Hz . v 340
λ = vT = = = 0.77 m = 77 cm .
Calculate the wavelength of the note A (La). f 440
Example 10.2
Answer
We first calculate the wave speed for each string with
Eq. (10.1):
p
v1 = F/µ1 = 40/0.1 = 20 m/s
p
p
v2 = F/µ2 = 40/0.2 = 14 m/s
p
Two strings, each with length L=1 m , are attached end to end.
The linear density of the first is µ1 =0.1 kg/m and that of the A wave with speed v travels the distance L in time L/v .
second is µ2 =0.2 kg/m . The tension F=40 N is applied to the Accordingly, we calculate the total time as follows:
outer ends of the strings. How much time does it take for a wave L L 1 1
t = t1 + t2 = + = + = 0.12 s
to travel from end A to end B on this composite string? v1 v2 20 14
Example 10.3
Answer
The sinusoidal wave on a string with linear density µ=0.1 kg/m (a) We can directly identify the following quantities, as the
is given as wave is given in the form A sin(kx − ωt) :
y(x, t) = 0.03 sin(5πx − 40t) (meters) A = 0.03 m, k = 5π m−1 , ω = 40 Hz
(a) What are the wave amplitude, wavelength, period and The others are found using Eqs. (10.10):
wave speed? ω 40
(b) What is the tension in the string? v= = = 2.5 m/s
k 5π
166 10. WAVES
2π 2π v = F/µ → F = µ v2
p
λ= = = 0.4 m
k 5π We substitute the numerical values:
2π 2π
T= = = 0.05π s F = 0.1 × (2.5)2 = 0.63 N .
ω 40
(b) We use Eq. (10.1) for the wave speed on the string:
Example 10.4
is f (x + vt) , then it propagates in the −x -direction.
Determine the direction of propagation and wave speed for the We then convert the given functions into this form (without
following wave functions. considering the amplitudes or the signs):
(a) y = 2 sin(3x − 18t) (a) sin(3x − 18t) = sin[3(x − 6t)]
(b) y = 3 cos(4t − 10x) → v = 6 m/s, in the + x direction
(c) y = 4 sin(3x + 21t) (b) cos(4t−10x) = cos[−(4t−10x)] = cos[10(x− 25 t)]
Answer → v = 25 m/s, in the + x direction
If a function has the form f (x − vt) , then it is a wave propa- (c) sin(3x + 21t) = sin[3(x + 7t)]
gating in the +x -direction with speed v . However, if its form → v = 7 m/s, in the − x direction
Example 10.5
A = 0.20 m , λ = 0.60 m
To find the wave speed, let us note that the point at the origin
at time t = 0 was displaced by 1.80 m at time t = 0.6 s .
Accordingly, we calculate the wave speed as follows:
1.80
v= = 3 m/s
0.6
From here, we calculate the period:
The figure shows the profile of a sinusoidal wave on a string at λ 0.6
times t = 0 and t = 0.6 s . Find the wave function. T= = = 0.2 s .
v 3
Answer We find the wave function based on this information:
The amplitude and wavelength can be immediately identified
x t x t
y = A sin 2π − = 0.2 sin 2π −
by examining the figure: λ T 0.6 0.2
Example 10.6 s r
F 100
v= = = 20 m/s .
Two ends of a string with linear density µ=0.25 kg are stretched µ 0.25
with a pair of forces F=100 N . The string is transversely pulled We calculate the period and the wavelength:
from one end by 3 cm and released. It vibrates with a frequency 1 1
T = = = 0.125 s
of 8 Hz . f 8
(a) Find the wave speed, period and wavelength. λ = v T = 20 × 0.125 = 2.5 m .
(b) Write the equation of the sinusoidal wave produced. (b) We use Eq. (10.6), which expresses the wave function in
terms of T and λ:
Answer x t x t
y = A sin 2π − = 0.03 sin 2π −
λ T 2.5 0.125
(a) We use Eq.(10.1) for speed:
Superposition Principle
• If the algebraic sum of two waves at a point is zero, then that point will
remain motionless. This is called destructive interference (Figure 10.7b).
• Waves continue along their paths with their former shapes after overlapping
and separating.
Interference
Let us examine in detail the constructive and destructive interference that
we mentioned above. Consider two sinusoidal waves propagating in the same
medium and in the same direction (Figure 10.8). In the simplest case, let the
amplitudes, wavelengths and frequencies of both waves be equal. Let the only
difference between them be a phase difference φ on one of the waves:
y1 = A sin(kx − ωt)
y2 = A sin(kx − ωt + φ)
According to the superposition principle, the total wave in the medium will be
the algebraic sum of these two: Figure 10.8: The interference
of two identical waves with a
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx − ωt) + A sin(kx − ωt + φ) small phase difference.
If we apply an identity from trigonometry on this sum, we get
a+b
! !
a−b
sin a + sin b = 2 sin cos
2 2
sin(kx − ωt) + sin(kx − ωt + φ) = 2 sin(kx − ωt + φ/2) cos(−φ/2)
168 10. WAVES
Since cos(−a) = cos a , the total wave function can ultimately be written as
follows: h i
y = 2A cos(φ/2) sin(kx − ωt + φ/2) (10.12)
| {z }
A0
The term sin(kx − ωt + φ/2) here shows that this expression is again a wave
propagating in the +x direction with the same wavelength and same frequency,
but with a phase difference of φ/2 . The factor 2A cos φ/2 at the front of this
expression is independent of x and t and is considered the amplitude of the new
wave:
y = A0 sin(kx − ωt + φ/2) with A0 = 2A cos(φ/2) (10.13)
Let us consider two special cases of the phase angle:
• If φ = 0◦ , in other words, if the two waves are in equal phase, we get
cos 0◦ = 1 . In this case, the wave function y becomes the same function
with amplitude 2A . This is called constructive interference.
• If φ = 180◦ , in other words, if the two waves are in opposite phase, we get
cos 90◦ = 0 . In this case, we get y = 0 for every value of x and t . And this
is called destructive interference.
We have considered here the interference of two identical waves as the sim-
plest case. In more general cases, interference between two waves with different
wavelengths and frequencies exhibits more interesting features, as the following
example shows.
Standing Waves
Another important case of interference is that of two waves propagating
in opposite directions. Let us consider two waves with equal amplitude, equal
wavelength and equal frequency, one traveling in the +x -direction and the other
in the −x -direction:
y1 = A sin(kx − ωt) (wave traveling in the +x-direction)
y2 = A sin(kx + ωt) (wave traveling in the −x-direction)
According to the superposition principle, the total wave function will be
y = y1 + y2 = A sin(kx − ωt) + A sin(kx + ωt)
• This wave is no longer a propagating wave, because it does not have the
form f (x ± vt) . If you examine the wave produced on a guitar string, you will
notice that it does not propagate (Figure 10.10). Each point makes a vibration
motion with a different amplitude. This is the vibration motion cos ωt with
amplitude A0 = 2A sin kx :
• The points at certain x values do not move. These points, called nodes,
occur at the values sin kx = 0 :
Here, let us also use Eq. (10.1) v = F/µ , which we previously gave for the wave
p
speed on a string:
s
n F
fn = n f1 = n (n = 1, 2, 3 . . .) (10.19)
2L µ
When “tuning” a musical instrument, we vary the tension in the strings to ensure
Figure 10.11: Natural frequen- that it generates standing waves at the required frequency.
cies or harmonics on a string of Timbre: The property that distinguishes the sound of a violin from that of a
length L . guitar is called timbre. Timbre is a result of mixing harmonics. In each instrument,
together with the fundamental frequency, a few more of these harmonics are
generated. The mixing rates of these harmonics depends on the type of musical
instrument. A different harmonic mixture is generated in the violin than is
generated in the guitar.
Reflection and Transmission of Waves
What happens when a wave encounters an obstacle or reaches the boundary
between two mediums? If the second medium is also flexible, some of the wave
will be transmitted and some will be reflected back. Let us review the general
rules of reflection and transmission before going into their detailed calculation.
Figure 10.12 shows a wave on a string with one end fixed to the wall, with
the wave moving towards the wall. When the wave reaches the wall, it will be
fully reflected back, because it cannot pass to the other side. However, the point
A of the string connected to the wall must always remain motionless, due to the
superposition principle. The only way to ensure this is for the reflected wave to
have opposite phase with the incoming wave. It means that the reflected wave is
inverted.
Therefore, a wave reflected from a fixed end will be inverted. Another way
to see this is as follows: When the wave hits the wall, according to Newton’s
law, the wall will push the string back with an equal and opposite force. In other
words, the wave will be pushed downwards if it tries to get displaced upwards.
10.2. INTERFERENCE, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF WAVES 171
On the other hand, the end of the string could be free to move. For example,
we can consider a ring that can slide freely up or down the wall (Figure 10.13). In
this case, the reflection will be in the same phase, because this end of the string is
displaced in the same direction for the waves in both directions.
Apart from these two extreme cases, a wave is usually partially transmitted
into a second flexible medium and partially reflected. Whether or not there
is a phase difference during the reflection depends on the densities of the two
mediums. It gets reflected back without phase difference if it comes from a denser
medium. In contrast, the reflected wave will be inverted if transmitting into a
denser medium. Both cases are summarized in Figure 10.14.
Example 10.7
We first calculate the wavelength to find the nodes and antin-
Two waves propagating on a string are given as odes:
2π 2π
y1 = 3 sin(5πx − 4t) λ= = = 0.4 m .
k 5π
y2 = 3 sin(5πx + 4t) The nodes will be located at the integer multiples of λ/2 and
antinodes at the odd multiples of λ/4 :
(a) Determine the nodes and antinodes of the standing wave.
Nodes: x = 0, λ/2, λ, 3λ/2 · · · = 0, 0.2, 0.4 · · · m
(b) Calculate the amplitude at the point x = 0.05 m .
Antinodes: x = λ/4, 3λ/4, 5λ/4 · · · = 0.1, 0.3, 0.5 · · · m
Answer (b) The amplitude of the vibrational motion of any position
(a) The standing wave generated by the waves A sin(kx ± ωt) x will be the coefficient of cos ωt :
propagating in opposite directions was given by Eq. (10.14):
A0 = 2A sin kx = 6 sin 5πx
y = 2A sin kx cos ωt
Therefore, the values k = 5π and ω = 4 are read from this We find the amplitude by substituting the √ value x=0.05 :
expression. A = 6 sin 5π × 0.05 = 6 sin π/4 = 6/ 2 = 4.2 m .
0
Example 10.8
wavelength can fit in the string:
A tension of F = 100 N is applied on both ends of a string with λ1
L= → λ1 = 2L
length 1 m and linear density 0.1 kg/m . What are the funda- 2
mental frequency (1st harmonic) and 2nd harmonic frequency Frequency can be calculated if the wavelength and speed v
generated on this string? are known:
v 33.3
f1 = = = 17 Hz
Answer λ1 2
Let us first
p calculate
p the wave speed on the string: Likewise, two half-wavelengths should fit in the length L to
v = F/µ = 100/0.1 = 33 m/s obtain the 2nd harmonic:
We had previously found the formulas for the fundamental λ2
L=2 → λ2 = L
and harmonic frequencies. However, it is more convenient to 2
From here, we calculate the frequency:
keep in mind the wavelength condition, rather than memorize
v 33.3
these formulas. f2 = = = 33 Hz
The fundamental frequency should be such that a half- λ 2 1
172 10. WAVES
Example 10.9
We take n=1 for the fundamental frequency:
v 240
The wave speed on a string with length 80 cm is 240 m/s . f1 = = = 150 Hz .
2L 2 × 0.80
(a) What is the fundamental frequency? (b) We write the harmonic frequencies in terms of the funda-
(b) Considering that the human ear can hear sounds with a mental frequency:
maximum frequency of 20 000 Hz , what is the highest fn = n f1
harmonic that can be heard on this string? In order to be audible by the human ear, the frequency fn
Answer should be as close as possible to the value 20 000 Hz :
20 000
(a) We use the formula (10.17), which gives the harmonic n f1 6 20 000 → n 6 = 133.3
frequencies: 150
The closest value to this is n = 133 :
v
fn = n (n = 1, 2, 3 . . .) f133 = 133 × 150 = 19 950 Hz .
2L
Example 10.10
v = F/µ → F = µv2
p
A guitar string with linear density µ = 0.001 kg/m and length F = 0.001 × 3142 = 99 N
60 cm was tuned so that its fundamental frequency produces (b) The wave speed v is the same, because the tension of the
the note C (Do, frequency 262 Hz ). string has not changed. However, this time, the fundamental
(a) What is the tension in the string? frequency is changed to f 0 , because the length of the string
(b) Where should the string be pressed so that it can produce is changed to L0 :
the note D (Re, frequency 294 Hz )? v
v = λ0 f 0 = 2L0 f 0 → L0 = 0
Answer 2f
We first calculate the wave speed: We use the frequency of the note D and the wave speed found
v=λf in item (a):
314
The wavelength of the fundamental frequency is such that L0 = = 0.53 m .
λ = 2L . We can calculate the wave speed from this: 2 × 294
v = 2L f = 2 × 0.60 × 262 = 314 m/s Accordingly, one must press at 60 − 53 = 7 cm from one end
We calculate the tension F giving this speed: of the string.
effect gives different results depending on whether the object or the source is
approaching with the same speed. The reason for this is that the wavelength of
the sound propagating in the air is different in both cases. Relative velocity does
not change this fact.
Both source and observer moving
We can easily calculate this case by using the two formulas found above for
only one of the observer or the source moving.
The frequency fo heard by a stationary observer from a moving source was
given by Eq. (10.21). This fo value replaces f s in Eq. (10.20), which we found for
a moving observer. Therefore, if we apply both formulas successively, we get
v + vo v
fo = fs
v v − vs
v + vo
fo = fs (Doppler formula) (10.22)
v − vs
Note the signs of the velocities v s and vo when using this formula: Velocities in
the approaching direction are taken as positive for both the source and the observer.
In the “away” direction, they are taken as negative.
The Doppler formula for electromagnetic waves is slightly different from
this. This is because the relative velocity addition formula of the speed of light is
different from that of classical physics.
The Doppler effect has a wide range of applications in science and technology.
The most important one is determining the velocities of celestial bodies. The
approaching or receding speed of a star moving relative to the Earth can be
calculated by measuring the change in the frequency of a known color in the
Figure 10.17: The speed con-
light emitted by that star. Measurements indeed show that stars mostly move
trol device called radar, operates away from each other. This means that the universe is expanding.
with the Doppler effect in traffic. Another application is the device known as “radar” which is used by highway
patrols to monitor the speed of vehicles. In this device, an electromagnetic
wave (microwave) sent forward is reflected from a moving vehicle back into the
device. The speed of the vehicle can be calculated from the difference between
the frequencies of the outgoing and incoming waves.
Shock Wave
What happens if a wave source travels faster than the wave it generates?
We can again answer this question with wavefronts. Figure 10.18 shows the
wavefronts generated at various times by a source traveling at speed v s . These
are spherical surfaces in three-dimensional space. If v s <v , in other words, if the
source velocity is less than the wave velocity (Figure 10.18a), the distance between
consecutive fronts will decrease in the direction of motion and increase in the rear
direction, as seen in the figure. In this case, the Doppler effect will be observed.
However, if v s >v , in other words, if the source velocity is greater than the
wave velocity (Figure 10.18c), the source moves by leaving behind the wavefronts
that it previously emitted. Let us examine the surface of the cone tangent to all
of these wavefronts. When this cone reaches a stationary observer, the observer
will hear the sum total of the magnitudes of each wavefronts at once. He/she will
hear a booming explosion (sonic boom). Thus, we have what is called a shock
wave.
When modern fighter planes fly faster than the speed of sound, this conic
wavefront produces a sound that resembles an explosion everywhere it passes. It
is said that the “plane broke through the sound barrier.” This is actually incorrect,
because a shock wave is not an instantaneous phenomena. The plane is already
flying faster than the speed of sound, but the conic wavefront passes through an Figure 10.19: The shock wave
observer only once. As it applies the energy of all of the wavefronts at once, its formed when a fighter plane ex-
impact can be large enough to break window glasses. ceeds the sound barrier causes
Shock waves are used to break kidney stones in modern medicine. Sound the air to concentrate where it
passes, and a conic wavefront is
waves at frequencies called ultrasound, which are sent from outside of the body
observed.
transfer their energy into dense stones and break them into small parts.
Example 10.11 v + vo
fo = fs
v − vs
The siren of an ambulance can emit sound at the 440 Hz fre- The velocity of the stationary observer will be vo =0 . We
quency. The ambulance is approaching a junction at a speed of convert the velocity v s of the ambulance into m/s units:
144 km/hour . 144 × 1000
vs = = 40 m/s
3600
(a) What frequency is heard by an observer standing at the The velocity v s of the ambulance (source) is taken as posi-
junction? tive when it is approaching. Accordingly, we calculate the
(b) What frequency is heard by the observer when the am- frequency heard by the observer:
bulance is moving away? (The speed of sound in air is 340 + 0
v = 340 m/s .) fo = × 440 = 499 Hz
340 − 40
(b) We take the velocity v s as negative as the ambulance
Answer moves away:
(a) We calculate fo , the frequency heard by the observer, by 340 + 0
f = × 440 = 394 Hz .
using Eq. (10.22), which we found for the Doppler effect: 340 + 40
Example 10.12
and the speed of sound:
An orchestra in an open-top train car is playing the note A (La) 340
466 = × 440 → v s = 19 m/s .
(frequency 440 Hz ) as it travels. 340 − v s
(a) An observer sitting in a stationary car beside the railroad (b) We use the Doppler formula in which both the source and
tracks hears this sound as the note B-flat (Si-bemol) (fre- the observer are moving:
quency 466 Hz ). Calculate the speed of the train. v + vo
fo = fs
(b) In what direction and at what speed should the observer v − vs
drive his/her car to hear this sound as the note B (Si) (fre- The source velocity was found in item (a). We find the ob-
quency 494 Hz )? server velocity by also substituting the frequencies:
340 + vo
Answer 494 = 440 → vo = +20 m/s
(a) We set vo =0 in The Doppler formula (Eq. 10.22) as the 340 − 19
The observer should drive the car towards the train, because
observer is stationary:
v the velocity is positive.
fo = fs (Note: The experimental proof of the Doppler effect was pro-
v − vs
We find the source velocity by substituting the frequencies vided by a similar orchestra playing on a train in 1845.)
176 10. WAVES
Multiple-choice Questions
1. The speed of a wave on a string is not dependent on
which of the following? 8. When will a shock wave occur?
(a) If the source velocity is less than the speed of sound.
(a) The force stretching the string.
(b) If the source velocity is equal to the speed of sound.
(b) The density of the string.
(c) If the source velocity is greater than the speed of
(c) The length of the string.
sound.
(d) None of the above.
(d) If the amplitude of the sound is high.
2. A string is vibrated from one end. Which of the follow-
ing is incorrect if the vibration frequency is doubled? 9. Which is incorrect for two waves propagating on the
same string?
(a) The wave speed will double.
(b) The angular frequency will double. (a) Their frequencies may be different.
(c) The period will halve. (b) Their velocities may be different.
(d) The wavelength will halve. (c) Their wavelengths may be different.
(d) Their amplitudes may be different.
3. Two strings of equal lengths are stretched with equal
forces. Which of the following is correct? 10. The tension in a string is increased by a factor of 4. What
(a) The one with higher density will have a higher wave will happen to the wave speed?
speed. (a) It will decrease by a factor of 4.
(b) The one with the lower density will have a lower (b) It will be halved.
wave speed. (c) It will be doubled.
(c) The one with the higher density will have a lower (d) It will increase by a factor of 4.
wave speed.
(d) Their wave speeds will be equal. 11. The density of a string is increased by a factor of 4. What
will happen to the wave speed?
4. How would you hear the frequency of a sound source
(a) It will decrease by a factor of 4.
approaching you?
(b) It will be halved.
(a) At a higher frequency. (c) It will be doubled.
(b) At a lower frequency. (d) It will increase by a factor of 4.
(c) At the same frequency.
(d) At double the frequency.
12. Two strings with different densities are attached end to
5. Which is correct if the frequency of a wave is doubled end. Which will remain constant when a periodic wave
on a string with constant tension? is transmitted from one string to the other?
(a) The velocity will double. (a) Speed
(b) The wavelength will double. (b) Wavelength
(c) The wavelength will halve. (c) Frequency
(d) The period will double. (d) Amplitude
6. Which is correct when two waves reach the same point 13. Which is incorrect when a wave propagating on a light
at the same time? string reaches a dense string?
(a) Destructive interference will occur if they arrive (a) It will be reflected with the same phase.
with same phase. (b) It will be reflected with the opposite phase.
(b) Constructive interference will occur if they arrive (c) It will be transmitted with the same phase.
with opposite phases. (d) It is impossible to tell.
(c) Destructive interference will occur if they arrive
with opposite phases. 14. Which is correct for two waves propagating towards
(d) There will be no interference. each other on the same string?
7. Which of the following is correct? (a) They will collide like billiard balls.
(b) They will pass through each other.
(a) Sound waves are transverse waves.
(c) They will merge and become a single wave.
(b) Water waves are longitudinal waves.
(d) It is impossible to tell.
(c) Sound waves are longitudinal waves.
(d) The wave on a string is a longitudinal wave.
PROBLEMS 177
15. Which of the following is a wave propagating in the (a) They exchange energy.
−x -direction? (b) They will affect each other’s propagation.
(a) sin 3x cos 5t (c) They lose energy during the interference.
(b) sin(3x − 5t) (d) They are added algebraically.
(c) sin(3x + 5t)
(d) cos(3t − 5x) 19. Which wave property distinguishes the sound of a violin
from that of a guitar?
(a) Amplitude
16. Which is a standing wave?
(b) Frequency
(a) sin 3x cos 5t (c) Wavelength
(b) sin(3x − 5t) (d) Harmonics
(c) sin(3x + 5t)
(d) cos(3t − 5x) 20. Which of the following situations will decrease the fre-
quency heard by the observer due to the Doppler effect?
17. A wave propagating on a string does not transmit which (a) When the observer approaches the source.
of the following? (b) When the source approaches the observer.
(a) Material (b) Energy (c) Momentum (d) Work (c) When the source and observer approach each other
simultaneously.
18. Which of the following is correct when there is interfer- (d) When the source moves away from the observer.
ence between two waves?
Problems
(The speed of sound in air is to be used as 340 m/s wherever
end to end. If a tension of F=50 N is applied from the two
necessary.)
outer ends, how much time will it take for a wave to travel
10.1 General Properties of Waves from one end to the other? [A: 0.11 s .]
10.1 The note C (Do) coming out of a musical instrument 10.6 Tsunami waves in oceans have very long wavelengths.
has a frequency of 262 Hz . Calculate its wavelength. The wavelength of a tsunami wave that occurred after an
[A: 1.3 m .] earthquake in Japan was observed to be 200 km . This wave
was observed to reach the coasts of Australia, which are 7000
10.2 The range of visible light, which is a type of electromag- km away, in 9 hours. (a) What is the wave speed? (b) As
netic wave, is between red light at the frequency 4.3×1014 Hz the wavelength is very large with respect to the depth of the
and violet light at frequency 7.5 × 1014 Hz . Taking the speed ocean, what is the average ocean depth between Japan and
of light as c = 3 × 108 m/s , calculate the wavelength range Australia? [A: (a) 216 m/s , (b) 4.7 km .]
of visible light in units of nanometers (nm).
[A: 400 − 700 nm .] 10.7 The sinusoidal wave on a string with linear density
µ=0.2 kg/m is given as
10.3 Sound waves above 20 kHz , which is the highest fre-
quency audible by the human ear, are called ultrasound. They y(x, t) = 0.7 sin(0.4πx − 12t) (meters)
are used to obtain images by passing them through human
skin, after which they are reflected by the internal organs. The (a) What are the wave amplitude, wavelength, period and
speed of ultrasound in the body is 1540 m/s . The wavelength wave speed? (b) What is the tension on the string?
should be around 1 mm for high-quality imaging. What [A: (a) A = 0.7 m , λ = 5 m , T = π/6 s , v = 9.5 m/s ,
should the frequency of the ultrasound be that gives 1 mm (b) T = 18 N .]
wavelength inside of the body? [A: 1.54 MHz .]
10.8 Determine the direction of propagation and speed of
10.4 Wave speed is 30 m/s when a tension of 9 N is applied the wave for the following wave functions:
between two ends of a string. How much tension should be (a) y = 2 sin(2x − 7t)
exerted to obtain a wave speed of 40 m/s ? [A: 16 N .] (b) y = 3 cos(3t − 8x)
(c) y = 4 cos(7x + 21t)
10.5 Two strings with linear densities µ1 =0.05 kg/m and [A: (a) 3.5 m/s in the +x -direction, (b) 0.38 m/s in the +x -
µ2 =0.2 kg/m and with equal length L=1.20 m are attached direction, (c) 3 m/s in the −x -direction.)
178 10. WAVES
10.9 Two ends of a string with linear density µ=0.5 kg are frequency of 20 000 Hz , what is the highest harmonic that
stretched with a force F=8 N . When the string is transversely can be heard on this string?
pulled from one end by 5 cm and released, it oscillates with [A: (a) 450 Hz , (b) n = 44 .]
a frequency of 20 Hz . (a) Find the wave speed, period and
wavelength. (b) Write the equation of the sinusoidal wave 10.15 On a string with length 40 cm , the frequencies of two
that is produced. successive harmonics are 440 Hz and 500 Hz . (a) What is
[A:(a) 4 m/s , 0.05 s , 0.2 m , (b) y = 0.05 sin(10πx − 40πt) .] the fundamental frequency? (b) What is the wave speed on
the string? [A: (a) 60 Hz , (b) 48 m/s .]
We can distinguish the three states of matter known as solid, liquid and gas
by looking at their physical properties. Solids are hard, liquids flow and gases are
volatile. The reason for such behavior can only be understood by looking into their
microscopic structures and by examining the forces between atoms and molecules.
Solid atoms are regularly positioned and tightly bonded with atomic bonds; they
may only vibrate around their equilibrium positions. Liquid molecules, on the
other hand, do not have a very regular structure and the intermolecular force is
very weak. Their bonds are repeatedly broken and renewed. And, in gases, the
molecules are located too far apart to interact with each other and, they move
freely. The only force keeping gases together is the walls of the container. Liquids
and gases are jointly known as fluids.
Can we apply the dynamic and static methods that we have learned thus
far to fluids? The motion of fluids is much more complex, and it is practically
impossible to work with Newton’s law for so many molecules. Instead, we can
reach many conclusions using energy concepts.
You may find the densities of of the other elements in the periodic table
provided in Appendix D.
Pressure
A bicycle or automobile tire can carry very heavy loads, despite containing
air. Likewise, we feel a discomforting pain in our ears when we dive deep into
the sea. All fluids exert a force on the walls of their containers and on the objects
contained inside of them. This force is perpendicular to the surface; fluids cannot
exert a force parallel to the surface.
Other units, such as atmosphere, the bar, the millibar, and the height of a
column of mercury are used in technology and meteorology:
Hydrostatic Pressure
Pressure increases as you go deeper into a liquid. To calculate this, let us
consider a thin layer of liquid with surface area A and a small thickness dy at a
depth y , inside a liquid with density ρ (Figure 11.2). The mass of the liquid in
this layer is the product of volume and density:
m = ρ V = ρ A dy
If the pressure at the top surface of this mass of liquid is P , the pressure at its
bottom surface will be higher by dP . We may consider only the forces in the
vertical direction, as the forces on the lateral surfaces will balance each other:
Figure 11.2: Forces acting on
Ftop + mg = Fbottom the top and bottom surfaces of
P A + ρA dy g = (P + dP) A a layer with thickness dy inside
a liquid.
By simplifying we get
dP = ρg dy
Let us take the level y = 0 at the surface of the liquid. If there is an external
pressure P0 as well, acting on the surface from the outside, we take the integral
from that point down to depth y :
Z P Z y
dP = ρg dy
P0 0
P − P0 = ρg y
y should be replaced with −y for upward cases, like calculating the air pressure
in the atmosphere. In obtaining this formula, we considered density and gravity
to be constants and took them outside of the integral. However, the change in
density and the gravitational acceleration must also be taken into consideration
if the change in height is very high.
Very high pressures are exerted on submarines and divers when they dive
very deep below the sea level. The surfaces of submarines are reinforced with
special steel cages. Likewise, special suits prevent a diver’s thorax from collapsing
in.
182 11. FLUIDS
Pascal’s Principle
In the expression (11.3), which we found for the variation of pressure with
depth, notice that the surface pressure P0 is effective at every depth. When the
surface pressure changes, its impact will be felt at every depth. This is called the
Pascal’s principle:
The external pressure applied to a liquid is equally transmitted to
each point of the liquid.
Hydraulic cranes used in lifting jobs in industry operate on Pascal’s principle
(Figure 11.3). As the force exerted on a small surface of the liquid is transmitted
as pressure to another large surface, we can write Pascal’s principle for both
surfaces:
F1 F2
P1 = P2 =⇒ = (11.4)
A1 A2
Thus, the force on the large surface will also be larger. The hydraulic brake system
of automobiles also uses this principle. With the small force we exert on the brake
Figure 11.3: Hydraulic crane. pedal, the brake pads compress a disk on the wheel with a much greater force.
Measuring Pressure
The general name for an apparatus that measures pressure is pressure gauge,
also called a manometer; however, gauges used to measure atmospheric pressure
are called barometers. There are two main types of pressure gauge: closed-tube
and open-tube.
A closed-tube gauge is shown in Figure 11.4a. A glass tube with one closed-
end is fully filled with mercury and its open end is dipped inside of a tank of
mercury. The external atmospheric pressure forces some mercury to remain
inside of the column. The height of the mercury column is equal to the external
atmospheric pressure P0 :
P0 = ρHg gh
we get the pressure P in terms of the liquid height in the column and density.
Gauge pressure
Let us return to the pressure formula in the U-tube:
P = P0 + ρg h
Pg = ρgh (11.6)
Recommended pressure values for automobiles, blood pressure values, city water
and gas pressure values, etc. should all be considered to be gauge pressure.
The Force and Torque on a Dam Wall
As a good application of hydrostatic pressure, let us calculate the total force
acting on a dam wall and the torque that is trying to topple it.
Let us consider a dam with width L and a height of water H enclosed by it
(Figure 11.5). As the pressure exerted by the water on the wall is different at each
height, we can calculate the total force only by integration. For this purpose, let
us consider the small force dF exerted by a strip of water of length L and height
dy located between y and y + dy as measured from a point O at the bottom.
As the origin is selected at the bottom of the water, the depth of this strip from
the surface is (H − y) . Accordingly, the force acting on the strip with surface
dA = L dy due to hydrostatic pressure is
Figure 11.5: Force exerted on a
dF = P dA = [ρg(H − y)] (L dy) = ρgL (H − y) dy strip with thickness dy on the
dam’s surface.
We can find the total force by summing, in other words, integrating the contribu-
tions of these small strips from the value y = 0 to the value y = H :
y2 H
Z H
F = ρgL (H − y) dy = ρgL Hy −
0 2 0
We find the total force by substituting the integral limits:
F= 1
2 ρgLH 2 (11.7)
Note that the force is proportional to the square of the water height.
The torque of the force trying to topple the dam around the point O is likewise
calculated by integration. We again write the small torque dτ of the force dF in
the figure about the point O:
dτ = dF y = ρgL (H − y) dy y
τ= 1
6 ρgLH 3 (11.8)
Note that the total torque is proportional to the cube of the height of water. In
dam constructions, the toppling torque of water is more dangerous that the force
exerted by the water.
Example 11.1
volume of the classroom:
(a) What is the total mass of air in a classroom with dimen- m = ρ V = 1.2 × (10 × 20 × 4) = 960 kg
sions 10 × 20 × ×4 m3 ? It is surprising to see that the air in a typical room is so heavy.
(b) A gold crown weighing 1.5 kg is submerged in water and (b) We take the density of gold from Appendix D as
it displaces an 80 cm3 volume of water. Is the crown made 19.3 g/cm3 . We then calculate what the volume of 1.5 kg
of pure gold? pure gold would be:
Answer V = m/ρ = 1500/19.3 = 77.7 cm3
(a) We first take the density of air from the table on page 180 The volume to be displaced is lower, therefore the crown is
as 1.2 kg/m3 . We then calculate the mass of air using the not pure gold.
Example 11.2
with m1 , the mass of ethyl alcohol will be (132 − m1 ) . We
3
The density of water is 1.0 g/cm and the density of ethyl alco- write the volumes as V = m/ρ and add:
m1 132 − m1
hol is 0.8 g/cm3 . A water-ethyl alcohol mixture with volume V = V1 + V2 = +
150 cm3 has a mass of 132 g . Calculate the amount of water ρ1 ρ2
m1 132 − m1
and ethyl alcohol in this mixture. 150 = +
1.0 0.8
Answer From this equation, we first find the mass of water and then
Total volume will be the sum of the volume of water V1 and the mass of alcohol:
the volume of alcohol V2 . If we indicate the mass of water m1 = 60 g and m2 = 132 − 60 = 72 g .
Example 11.3
umn, in other words, 38 cm Hg .
The absolute pressure is the mercury column plus the at-
The pressure of the gas inside of a balloon is to be measured us-
ing an open-ended manometer in a place where the atmosphericmospheric pressure acting on it, in other words, 38 + 72 =
pressure is 72 cm Hg . If the open-ended mercury column is 110 cm Hg .
We use the definition 1 atm = 76 cm Hg if we wish to find
38 cm higher, what is the absolute pressure and gauge pressure
of the gas? these pressures in terms of atmospheres:
Answer Gauge pressure: P = 38/76 = 0.5 atm
The gauge pressure is only the pressure of the mercury col- Absolute pressure: P = 110/76 = 1.4 atm
Example 11.4
calculate the density of the oil.
Answer
The hydrostatic pressure of the water in two columns is equal
at points 1 and 2, which have the same height:
P0 + ρ1 gh1 = P0 + ρ2 gh2
Using this, we find the relation between the densities:
h1
ρ2 = ρ1
h2
An unknown type of oil is added to the water column in a U-tube We take the density of water as 1 g/cm3 and calculate:
with two open ends. Since the height of the water is h1 = 36 cm 36
ρ2 = 1 × = 0.72 g/cm3
and the height of the oil is h2 = 50 cm as seen in the figure, 50
11.2. ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE 185
Example 11.5
to Pascal’s principle. Accordingly, the relation between the
forces is
In a hydraulic crane used to lift cars, the circular piston pushing F1 F2
the large platform has a radius of 20 cm . The other piston =
A1 A2
pushing the liquid has a radius of 4 cm . How much force is We calculate the force by taking the area of the circles πr12
required to lift a car with a mass of 1500 kg ? and the weight of the car W = mg :
Answer πr2 42
F1 = 12 mg = 2 × 15000 = 600 N
The pressures on the piston and platform are equal according πr2 20
Example 11.6
the force by integration and found Eq. 11.7. We calculate by
substituting the numerical values:
The wall of a dam has a height of 170 m and length of 1800 m .
F = 12 ρgLH 2 = 12 ×1000×10×1800×1702 = 2.6×1011 N
Find the total force acting on the dam wall and the torque trying
to topple it over. Likewise, we had found the torque with respect to a point at
the bottom of the wall (Eq. 11.8):
Answer τ = 16 ρgLH 3 = 16 × 1000 × 10 × 1800 × 1703
As the pressure varies with the height, we had calculated τ = 1.5 × 1013 N·m
Archimedes’ Principle
Every object immersed in a liquid will be pushed upwards by
a force equivalent to the weight of the liquid displaced by that
object.
surfaces. If we write the force on each surface as the product of the pressure at
that depth and the surface area, we get
The value Ah here is the volume V of the object. Therefore, the expression is
found for Archimedes’ buoyant force F B :
Archimedes’ principle also applies for partially immersed bodies, but in this
case, only the immersed volume is taken into consideration. Likewise, if we write
the hydrostatic pressure difference between the top and bottom surfaces of the
object and repeat the calculations, the volume V of the object is replaced with
the volume V 0 of the immersed part:
The expression for the apparent weight of an object inside of a liquid can also be
found from this formula. If the object is made of a material with density ρ , its
real weight will be mg = ρVg . If we subtract the lightening effect of the buoyant
force, we get
W 0 = W − F B = mg − F B = ρVg − ρ0 Vg
W 0 = (ρ − ρ0 )Vg (apparent weight) (11.11)
Example 11.7
volume V 0 , the buoyant force F B will be equal to the weight
What percent of the volume of an iceberg floating on water is of the displaced water:
underwater? The density of sea water is ρ0 = 1.03 and the mg = F B
density of ice is ρ = 0.92 g/cm3 . ρVg = ρ0 V 0 g
Answer From here, we find the volume:
The buoyancy of the water balances the weight of the ice- V0 ρ 0.92
= = = 0.89
berg. If the submerged part of an iceberg with volume V has V ρ0 1.03
Example 11.8
mg = F B → ρ1 gV = ρ2 gV 0
A wooden block is observed to float half-immersed when placed We find the density of the wood by taking the density of the
in water. 60% of its volume is immersed when it is placed in water as ρ2 = 1 g/cm3 :
V0 1
oil. Find the densities of the wood and the oil. ρ1 = ρ2 = × 1 = 0.5 g/cm3
V 2
Answer Likewise, if the part submerged in oil has volume V 00 ,
Let us denote the densities of the wood, water and oil with the weight of the displaced oil will be equal to the weight of
ρ1 , ρ2 and ρ3 , respectively. If the submerged part of the wood the wood:
with volume V has volume V 0 , this means that a buoyant ρ1 gV = ρ3 gV 00
force F B equal to the weight of water with volume V 0 can V
ρ3 = 00 ρ1 =
1
× 0.5 = 0.83 g/cm3
balance the weight mg of the wood: V 0.6
11.3. SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY 187
Example 11.9
Answer
The downward weight of the stone is jointly balanced by the
upwards buoyant force and the tension in the rope. We write
the balance of the forces:
F B + T = mg
The buoyant force is equal to the weight ρ0 Vg of the mass
of water displaced by the volume V . From here, we calculate
3 the tension T :
A stone block with volume 0.01 m and density ρ=2.7 g/cm
3
In all of these examples, the liquid surface acts like an elastic membrane.
Liquid molecules bond together and try to form a stretched surface. For example,
a sewing needle carefully dropped on water may float. Mosquitoes and certain
insects can walk on the surface of water without sinking.
The property of liquid surfaces to resist external forces is called surface
tension. Water molecules, although they are neutral, can still attract each other
(we shall examine this in Chapter 14 as dipol interaction.) Briefly, if a water
molecule is considered as a rod with one positive end and one negative end, a
weak but attractive force called the van der Waals force occurs between the
two molecules. This force generates surface tension.
Let us consider a molecule inside of a liquid and another molecule on the
surface (Figure 11.8). As the forces inside of the liquid balance each other, this
molecule can circulate freely throughout the liquid. However, the forces are not Figure 11.8: Forces acting on
in equilibrium for a molecule on the surface; a net force is exerted that pulls this water molecules inside and on
molecule towards the liquid and prevents it from leaving the surface. the surface of a liquid.
Consider an imaginary line with length L drawn on the surface of the liquid
(Figure 11.9). If the force required to separate the molecules on both sides of this
line is F , then the coefficient
Figure 11.9: Surface tension co-
F
γ= (surface tension coefficient) (11.12) efficient.
L
is called the surface tension coefficient. The surface tension coefficients of
some liquids are as follows:
188 11. FLUIDS
In laundry, water should be able to reach the stains between the fibers of the
clothing material. Pure water cannot seep into these small gaps, because the
surface tension of water is high. However, the surface tension of water greatly
decreases when it is heated and soap is added, and it thus becomes able to pass
through fine gaps.
As the surface tension of soapy water is lower, it can spread over a larger
surface without breaking and larger foams can be formed. The surface of soapy
water can be stretched over a wire frame. The areas of these surfaces are minimum.
Figure 11.10: A minimal sur-
Various minimal surfaces can thus be formed (Figure 11.10).
face formed by soapy water.
Capillarity
When a tube with two open ends is submerged in water, the water inside of
the tube is observed to rise. The smaller the diameter of the tube is, the higher
the liquid rises. Water can be observed to rise up to a meter high in tubes with
very small diameters. This effect is called the capillarity. However, certain other
liquids do not rise, but in contrast, sink in capillary tubes.
A liquid exhibits two different behaviors when it comes into contact with a
solid surface, depending on the forces between the molecules. For example, some
liquid surfaces are observed to curve upwards where they touch a glass tube. On
the other hand, the surface of mercury curves downward (Figure 11.11).
This behavior can be explained with the forces between molecules. The
attractive force between two of the same type of molecule in a liquid is called the
cohesion force. On the other hand, the attractive force between molecules of
Figure 11.11: In a glass tube, different types is an adhesion force.
the surface curves upward for In the case of a water-glass surface, the adhesion force is greater and the water
water, and downward for mer- is attracted to the glass; the level of water rises and these molecules attracted
cury.. to the surface are replaced with other molecules from the inside. As the contact
angle changes during the rise, the adhesion force steps in again and attracts
new liquid molecules. This process in which the liquid rises along the glass tube
continues until it is balanced by gravitational force.
The angle θ that the liquid surface makes with the solid wall is called the
contact angle. Measured from solid surfaces, this angle is acute (less than 90◦ )
for liquids curved upward, such as water, and obtuse for liquids curved downward,
such as mercury (Figure 11.12).
In a capillary tube, the height h is expressed in terms of the contact angle θ ,
the surface tension coefficient γ and the tube radius r as follows:
Figure 11.12: Contact angles of 2γ cos θ
mercury and water with a glass h= (11.13)
tube.
ρgr
Capillarity is perhaps the most vital application of surface tension. It plays a
very significant role in the survival of living beings. The sap of a tree can reach
11.4. VISCOSITY 189
very high branches above; the blood in humans and animals can reach the finest
veins in the circulation system, due to capillarity. Capillarity is used in many
applications in medicine and technology. For example, a capillary glass tube is
used to draw blood sample; paper towels absorb water through capillary action.
11.4 VISCOSITY
Every liquid has a consistency. Liquids such as water and alcohol flow easily,
while liquids such as glycerin, tar and honey are difficult to stir. As the latter
shows, moving a solid object inside of a liquid is difficult. It is relatively easy to
walk in water but becomes more difficult when you try to move faster.
The internal friction effect of liquids, one that resists its own fluidity and
the motion of bodies inside of it, is called viscosity. Liquids with high consis-
tency have higher viscosity. Gases also have internal friction, but it is much less
compared to that of liquids.
The sources of viscosity are different in liquids and gases: Internal friction Figure 11.13: The higher con-
is caused by attractive van der Waals forces in liquids and by the collision of sistency a liquid has, the higher
molecules in gases. Because of this difference, the viscosities of liquids decrease, is its viscosity.
whereas those of gases increase with temperature.
A viscosity coefficient is defined to specify the effect of internal friction: Let
us consider a layer of liquid of width L between two solid horizontal plates as
seen in Figure 11.14. Let the top plate be pulled with speed v as the bottom plate
is kept fixed. The speed of the liquid layer will vary from one plate to the other:
The liquid surface in contact with the bottom plate will remain motionless, while
the surface in contact with the top plate will have speed v due to adhesion forces.
If the speed v is not too high, the speed of the liquid will increase linearly from
one layer to the other. This layered structure is called laminar flow. If the surface
area of each plate is A , the exerted force is
v Figure 11.14: Velocity profile
F = ηA (11.14) in laminar flow.
L
and the proportionality constant is called the viscosity coefficient, indicated
with the Greek letter η (eta). Its unit is (N/m2 )·s = Pascal × s = (Pa · s). Another
unit used in industry is the poise, denoted with P, and its value is one tenth that
of the SI unit. One hundredth of a poise is called a centipoise and is indicated
with cP:
1 Pa · s = 10 poise = 1000 cP
The viscosity coefficients of some liquids are as follows:
Viscosity varies rapidly with temperature. Motor oils that are viscous at room
temperature become as fluid as water when they reach the high temperature of a
running engine.
190 11. FLUIDS
Stokes’ Law
Solid bodies moving in fluids experience a resistant force caused by viscosity.
The magnitude of this drag force depends on the speed and geometric shape of
the object and the viscosity of the liquid. The result may be different for each
geometrical shape. The formula found by the British scientist G.G. Stokes for the
drag force acting on a sphere with radius r is as follows:
v is the speed of the fluid (or the speed of the object going in the opposite
Figure 11.15: A sphere inside direction). The fact that drag force is proportional to velocity v was used in the
viscous liquid. damped harmonic oscillator that we examined in Chapter 9.
In gases, the relation between drag force and velocity can be much different.
Internal friction is proportional to v in low speeds, but in airplanes traveling
faster than the speed of sound (supersonic), it becomes proportional to v2 and
enormous power must be spent at such speeds.
Let us write the mass m in terms of density and volume. The two cross-sections
of the tube and the distances traveled may be different, but the volume will remain
the same:
V = A1 L1 = A2 L2
If we also express mass in terms of density, we get
m = ρV = ρ A1 L1 = ρ A2 L2
The Bernoulli’s equation is the version of conservation of energy for liquids. This
equation is valid for ideal, in other words, non-viscous and incompressible fluids,
but it is also approximately correct for other fluids.
Let us emphasize the conclusions that can be drawn from the Bernoulli’s
equation:
• Hydrostatic pressure. If we take v1 = v2 = 0 in the Bernoulli’s equation
for a mass of liquid at rest, we get
P1 + ρgy1 = P2 + ρgy2
P = P0 + ρgy
P1 + 12 ρv21 = P2 + 12 ρv22
device, called the Venturi tube, is used in many technologies: in the carbure-
tors of gasoline engines for mixing gasoline and air, in pesticide sprayers, in
perfume sprays, etc. As seen in Figure 11.19, when air is blown from a tube
passing through the open end of the liquid, the pressure will decrease there,
and the liquid in the tank will rise and mix with the passing air.
The Pitot tube, which is a similar device, is used to measure the velocity
of airplanes with respect to air (Figure 11.21). Air passes with velocity v at
one end of a U-tube filled with liquid and the velocity is ensured to be zero
at the other end. The velocity of the air can be calculated using Bernoulli’s
equation by measuring the height h of the liquid rising due to the pressure Figure 11.21: Pitot tube.
difference.
• Torricelli’s formula. Let us consider that a hole is opened at a distance h
below the surface on a closed tank containing liquid. Let us compare the
top liquid surface in the container and the point of the hole in Bernoulli’s
equation. The velocity of the liquid can be taken as zero at the top, because
the liquid surface is very large. Let the liquid surface inside of the container
be at pressure P and the pressure at the hole, which is just the atmospheric
pressure P0 , because it is open to the air. Accordingly,
P + 0 + ρgh = P0 + 12 ρv2
s
2(P − P0 ) Figure 11.22: Velocities of wa-
v= 2gh + (11.20) ter at various depths according
ρ
to Torricelli’s formula.
We have P = P0 if the top of the container is also open to atmospheric
pressure, and we get
v = 2gh (11.21)
p
Called Torricelli’s formula, this relation shows that, just like a stone
dropped at a height of h in free fall, a liquid will also gain the velocity
v= 2gh . This is not surprising, because Bernoulli’s equation is an expres-
p
the air decreases the air speed locally, while the effect is opposite on side B.
Hence the air speed is greater at B than at A. This air speed difference causes
a pressure difference on both sides. As a result of the Bernoulli effect, a net
force arises that pushes the ball in the direction of lower pressure B shown
in the figure.
Example 11.10 Q 24
v1 = = = 6 m/s
A1 4
The main pipe of the city water network shown in the figure
We use the flow rate or equation of continuity (11.17) to find
has cross-section area A1 =4 m2 and another pipe connected to
the speed at the other cross-section:
it has a cross-section of A2 =2 m2 . The water flowing through
A1 4
cross-section A1 has a flow rate of Q=24 m3 /s . A1 v1 = A2 v2 → v2 = v1 = × 6 = 12 m/s
A2 2
(a) Calculate the speed of water in both cross-sections.
(b) If the pressure at the first cross-section is P1 =2 atm , what (b) We write Bernoulli’s equation (11.19):
is the pressure at the second cross-section? P1 + 12 ρv21 + ρgy1 = P2 + 12 ρv22 + ρgy2
We take y1 = y2 , because the cross-sections are at the same
height and solve for P2 :
P2 = P1 − 12 ρ v22 − v21
Answer We calculate the pressure by first converting the atmosphere
(a) The definition of flow rate is given in Eq. (11.16): unit into Pascal:
Q = A1 v1 P2 = 2 × 1.013 × 105 − 12 × 1000 × (122 − 62 )
From here, we find the speed v1 : P2 = 1.5 × 105 Pa = 1.5 atm
Example 11.11 A1 5
A1 v1 = A2 v2 → v2 = v1 = × 2 = 10 m/s
A2 1
We find the pressure using Bernoulli’s equation:
P1 + 12 ρv21 + ρgy1 = P2 + 12 ρv22 + ρgy2
We take y1 = 0 at the ground level and solve for P2 :
P2 = P1 − 12 ρ(v22 − v21 ) − ρgy2
We convert the pressure values into Pascal units, take the
density of water as ρ = 1000 kg/m3 and calculate:
P2 = 4×1.013×105 − 21 ×1000×(102 −22 )−1000×10×4
Water is pumped with a pressure of P1 =4 atm into the water
pipe at the entrance of a building. The water speed at the pipe P2 = 320 000 Pa = 3.1 atm .
with cross-section 5 cm2 is 2 m/s at the entrance. (b) The water rising up to the 10th floor means that it reaches
(a) What is the speed and pressure of the water flowing from that floor with at least zero speed. According to the equa-
a tap with cross-section 1 cm2 at a height of 4 m on the tion of continuity, the velocity at the ground should also be
second floor? zero. Therefore, taking v1 =v2 =0 and P2 =1 atm , Bernoulli’s
(b) What is the minimum pressure at the entrance such that equation simplifies as follows:
water can rise up to the 10th floor at a height of 40 m ? P1 + 0 + 0 = P2 + 0 + ρgy2
Answer Since the tap is in open air, P2 =1 atm . From here, we calcu-
(a) We find the water speed at the second floor using the late P1 :
equation of continuity: P1 = 1×1.013×105 +1000×10×40 = 501 000 Pa = 5 atm
Example 11.12
The mercury column of a Pitot tube on the wing of a flying
aircraft has risen by 6 cm . What is the speed of the aircraft
with respect to the air?
Answer
Let us compare the end points of both columns. The speed of
air will be zero on one of end and v on the other. Since both
ends are at the same height y1 =y2 =y , Bernoulli’s equation is
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 195
ρHg
r
written as follows: v = 2gh
P1 + 12 ρ × 02 + ρgy = P2 + 21 ρv2 + ρgy ρ
P1 − P2 = 2 ρv
1 2 We take the density of air as 1.2 and the density of mercury
Now, we look at the U-tube. The pressure difference will be as ρ Hg = 13600 kg/m 3
and calculate the speed:
equal to the pressure of the mercury column:
r
13600
ρHg gh = 12 ρv2 v = 20 × 0.06 × = 117 m/s .
1.2
Multiple-choice Questions
1. In which of the containers in the figure below is the (a) Lead
pressure at depth h lower? (b) Copper
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal (c) Equal
(d) It is impossible to tell.
13. A metal block floats half-submerged in a container full (a) The radius of the sphere.
of mercury. How will the level at which it floats in the (b) The speed of the sphere.
mercury be affected when it is taken to the surface of (c) The viscosity of the liquid.
the Moon? (d) All of the above.
(a) The level will be higher.
(b) The level will be lower. 17. Two spheres with equal radius, one made of lead and
(c) The level will stay the same. one made of wood, are dropped from the same height.
(d) It is impossible to tell. Assume that the drag force of the air on both is the same.
Which one reaches the ground first?
(a) The lead one.
(b) The wooden one.
(c) Both will reach the ground at the same time.
(d) It is impossible to tell.
14. Two immiscible liquids (water and mercury) are at equal 18. In which cross-section of the pipe in the following figure
heights on two sides of a U-tube when the central valve is the speed greater?
is closed. On which side will the level rise when the (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal
valve is opened?
(a) On the water side.
(b) On the mercury side.
(c) The two sides will remain equal.
(d) It is impossible to tell.
15. A bird lands on a man sitting in a boat in a pool. What 19. In which cross-section of the pipe in the figure above is
will happen to the level of the water? the pressure greater?
(a) It will rise. (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal
(b) It will fall.
(c) It will remain the same. 20. In which cross-section of the pipe in the figure above is
(d) It is impossible to tell. the flow rate greater?
(a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal
16. The viscosity force acting on a sphere moving at speed
v inside of a liquid depends on which of the following?
Problems
11.1 General Properties of Fluids
The density of sea water is ρ = 1030 kg/m3 .
11.1 In a place where atmospheric pressure is 1.2 atm , an [A: (a) 1.25 × 107 Pa , 123 atm , (b) 1250 N .]
open-ended gauge is used to measure the pressure of a gas
in a balloon. If the mercury column of the gauge indicates
40 cm , what are the absolute pressure and gauge pressure of
the gas? [A: 1.73 and 0.53 atm .]
11.2 Air density is 1.3 kg/m3 at sea level. What would the
thickness of the Earth’s atmosphere be if the density of air
did not decrease with height, remaining constant? (Hint: The Problem 11.4
pressure on the surface is still 1 atm.) [A: 7.8 km .] 11.4 An unknown liquid is added to the mercury column in
11.3 (a) What is the pressure at a depth of 1200 m below a U-tube with two open ends. Since the height of the mer-
the ocean? Calculate in terms of Pascal and atmosphere. (b) cury is h1 = 6 cm and the height of the unknown liquid is
What amount of force should the lens of a research camera h2 = 68 cm , as seen in the figure, calculate the density of the
with an area of 1 cm2 be able to withstand at such a depth? liquid. [A: 1.2 g/cm3 .]
PROBLEMS 197
Problem 11.12
11.12 The scale in the figure shows 2.4 kg when a container
of water is placed on it. A piece of iron with a mass of 780 g
Problem 11.5 and a density of 7.8 g/cm3 is tied to a rope and suspended
inside of the water. What will the scale show? [A: 2.5 kg .]
11.5 The pressure in veins is called blood pressure. This is the
gauge pressure that is present in addition to the atmospheric
pressure. When a patient is fed with serum, the serum pres-
sure at the entry point into the body should be greater than
the blood pressure. The serum inside of the bottle shown in
Problem 11.13
the figure has a density of 1040 kg/m3 . The liquid is able to
11.13 An empty spherical shell made of plastic has an in-
enter the blood only when the serum bottle is hung at a height
ternal radius of 5 cm and an external radius of 6 cm . This
of 80 cm . Calculate the blood pressure (gauge pressure) of
object floats half-submerged when dropped into the water.
the patient in terms of Pascal and cm Hg units.
Calculate the density of the plastic. [A: 1.2 g/cm3 .]
[A: 8320 Pa, 6.2 cm Hg .]
11.14 A block suspended on a spring scale shows 1.4 , 1.9
11.6 In a hydraulic crane used to lift vehicles, the cylin- and 2.5 kg , respectively, when suspended in water, oil and
der pushing the platform has a radius of 30 cm . The piston an unknown liquid. As the density of water is 1000 kg/m3
pushing the liquid has a radius of 3 cm . How much force is and the density of oil is 900 kg/m3 , what is the density of
required to lift a 5-ton truck? [A: 500 N .] the unknown liquid? [A: 780 kg/m3 .]
11.7 The wall of a dam has a height of 210 m and a length 11.5 Bernoulli’s Equation
of 1100 m . Find the total force acting on the dam wall and
the torque that is trying to topple it over.
[A: 2.4 × 1011 N and 1.7 × 1013 N·m .]
Problem 11.15
11.2 Archimedes’ Buoyancy
11.15 The main pipe of a city’s water network, shown in the
11.8 What percentage of the volume of a wooden block with figure, has a cross-sectional area A1 =3 m2 and another pipe
density 0.7 g/cm3 will sink when placed in an oil with a connected to it has A2 =1 m2 . The water flowing through
density of 0.92 g/cm3 ? [A: 76 % .] cross-section A1 has a flow rate of Q=15 m3 /s . (a) Calculate
the flow speed at each cross-section. (b) If the pressure is
11.9 An aluminum block with a density of 2.7 g/cm3 floats P1 =8 atm at the first cross-section, what will the pressure be
as partially submerged when placed in mercury with a density at the second? [A: 5 and 15 m/s , (b) 7 atm .]
of 13.6 g/cm3 . Water is poured on the mercury to make the
aluminum block become fully submerged. What percentage
of the block is underwater? [A: 87 % .]
Problem 11.16
11.16 The radii of the three separate cross-sections of the
pipe in the figure are r1 =3 , r2 =2 and r3 =5 cm . Considering
Problem 11.10
that the flow velocity of the water at the first cross-section
11.10 A wooden block with a mass of 2 kg and a density of is 2 m/s , calculate (a) the velocities in the other two cross-
400 kg/m3 is submerged by being tied to a rope at the bottom sections and (b) the flow rate of the water.
of a container of water, as seen in the figure. Calculate the [A: (a) v2 = 4.5 , v3 = 0.72 m/s , (b) 0.006 m3 /s .]
tension in the rope. [A: 30 N .]
11.17 The flow rate of water in a fire hose is constant at
11.11 What is the minimum volume of an ice layer that can 1 m3 /s . Water is to be sprayed on a fire located at a height
carry a car with a mass of 1000 kg on a lake? The density of of 40 m using a metal nozzle attached to the end of the hose.
ice is 0.92 g/cm3 . (Hint: Consider that the ice floats as fully What should the maximum radius of the nozzle be such that
submerged at the limit condition.) [A: 12.5 m3 .] the water can reach the fire? [A: 0.11 m .]
198 11. FLUIDS
Problem 11.18
11.18 The Pitot tube in the wing of an aircraft contains alco-
hol. What is the speed of the aircraft with respect to the air
if the alcohol column rises by 32 cm ? The density of alcohol
is 800 kg/m3 and the density of air is 1.2 kg/m3 .
[A: 65 m/s .]
Problem 11.20
11.20 Water is flowing at a speed of 3 m/s from the cross-
section of a pipe with an area A1 =4 cm2 located at a height
of h=12 m . If the pressure at the top cross-section is 1.2 atm ,
Problem 11.19 what is the pressure at the bottom cross-section with an area
11.19 Water is pumped with pressure P1 =5 atm and a speed A2 =5 cm2 ? [A: 2.4 × 105 Pa = 2.4 atm .]
12
TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
column is adjusted so that the volume remains constant and only the pressure
increases. The temperature can again be measured from the height of the mercury
column.
Yet another type of thermometer called a thermocouple, is used in technol-
ogy and laboratories. Thermocouple has two ends made of two different metals
(copper, iron or tungsten) or alloys (constantan, alumel or nisil). A voltage differ-
ence occurs between these two ends when one is kept at a standard temperature
( 0◦ ) and the other one is brought to a different temperature. The temperature is
determined by measuring this voltage, which is proportional to temperature.
Temperature Scales – Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin
To define a temperature scale, we must first decide on two reference temper-
atures that can easily be realized by anyone. A temperature scale is formed by
dividing the interval between these two temperatures into equal parts. There
are three commonly used temperature scales in everyday life, technology and
science: the Celsius ( ◦ C ), the Fahrenheit ( ◦ F ), and the Kelvin (K) scales.
In the Celsius scale, the freezing point of water under 1 atmosphere pressure
is taken as zero degrees Celsius ( 0 ◦ C ) and the boiling point of water as 100 ◦ C .
The distance between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts.
In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of water under 1 atmosphere
pressure is taken as 32 degrees Fahrenheit ( 32 ◦ F ) and the boiling point as 212 ◦ F .
The distance between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts.
The conversion formula between the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales is:
TC = 5
T F − 32◦ F (12.1)
9
The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales both require two constant points.
The absolute temperature scale, or the Kelvin scale, which requires only
one fixed point, was adopted in modern science. The unit of temperature in the
SI unit system is Kelvin and is indicated as K (the ◦ sign is not used). The fixed
point of this scale is the point called the triple point of water, at which all three
states (water-ice-steam) of water coexist. The property of the triple point is that
it occurs at a single value of temperature and pressure.
In the Kelvin scale, the temperature of the triple point is fixed as follows:
T K = TC + 273.15 (12.3)
The difference in the last digit between these two formulas may seem odd, but
it is, in fact, correct, because the triple point of water is actually at temperature
0.01 ◦ C . We will take it as zero in practice in this course:
The zero point of the Kelvin scale, in other words, the temperature −273.16 ◦ C ,
is the absolute zero of the universe. At this temperature, all motion stops in the Figure 12.3: Celsius and Kelvin
universe and lower temperatures are meaningless. scales.
202 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
12.2 HEAT
A pot of water starts to get warmer when put over the fire on a gas stove.
Here, the combustion energy of gas is transferred into the water. This energy can
be given to the water because the burning gas is hotter than water. Therefore,
the main reason for this energy transfer is temperature difference.
The type of energy that a system gives or receives due to a temperature
difference with its environment is called heat. Heat is indicated with Q .
The unit of heat is the Joule (J), because it is a measure of energy. The calorie
(cal) unit used in industry has the following value in terms of joules:
1 cal = 4.186 J
The expression “calorie” used for food in daily life is actually the kilo-calorie
(kcal) unit.
We must emphasize a point here: Heat is always something that is given or
taken. A system will not have heat as one of its properties, in other words, it is
wrong to say “the heat of the water”; it is proper to say “taken heat” or “given
heat.” In terms of thermodynamic language, heat is not a state variable.
Specific Heat
Objects use the heat that they receive in various ways: The temperature of
the object may increase, it may start to boil or expand, etc. Let us consider these
respectively.
Every object has a different rate of temperature change upon heating. A
coefficient called the specific heat is defined to indicate this feature. If Q is the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of the mass m of an object
by ∆T , then the coefficient
Q
c=
m ∆T
is called the specific heat of the object.
∆T = T 2 − T 1 is the temperature increase here. In other words, specific heat
is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1 unit of mass per 1
unit of temperature. The unit of specific heat is J/kg·K .
Based on this definition, the amount of heat required for a ∆T increase in
temperature is expressed as follows:
Q = mc ∆T (12.5)
This formula is used in the technique called calorimetry. To find the final temper-
ature when different liquids are mixed, the algebraic sum of received and given
heats is set to zero.
The specific heats of various materials are given in the following table. Specific
heat varies slightly with temperature, but can be taken as constant for small ∆T
variations.
12.2. HEAT 203
Specific heats
c c c c
(J/kg·K) (cal/g·◦ C) (J/kg·K) (cal/g·◦ C)
Note that the highest specific heat in this table belongs to water. So much
energy is required to heat or cool water that it prevents sudden temperature varia-
tions in neighboring environments. In other words, water makes the surrounding
climate temperate.
Here, we defined specific heat per mass; molar specific heat, which is more
convenient for gases, will be defined later. In defining specific heat for gases,
separate specific heats are defined depending on the type of heating. The constant-
volume specific heat cV is defined if heating takes place under constant volume,
and the constant-pressure specific heat cP is defined if it takes place under
constant pressure.
Latent Heat
If we continue to heat water at 100◦ C it will start to boil. The system
will continue to receive heat during this change of state, but surprisingly, its
temperature will not change. The received heat is used to convert water at 100◦ C
into vapor at 100◦ C . This is called a change of phase.
Another phase change is observed during the melting of ice. If we give heat
to ice at 0◦ C , it will start to melt and turn into water at 0◦ C . We say that there
is a latent heat if no temperature change occurs during a phase change.
The heat received or given by a unit mass of a system during a change of Figure 12.4: Temperature al-
phase is called the latent heat. Latent heat is indicated with L . According to ways remains constant when
this definition, the heat received or given by an object with mass m is water boils.
L will have a positive sign if the object is vaporizing or melting, and a negative
one if it is condensing or freezing. The heat received by the system is always
considered to be positive. Although many types of latent heats are defined in
thermodynamics, here we will only consider the latent heat of fusion (melting)
and the latent heat of vaporization. Some latent heats of fusion and vaporization
are provided in the following table:
204 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Example 12.1
multiply by 5, obtaining the following:
(Note: The specific heats required in the problems in this chapter TC = 59 (T F − 32◦ F)
will be taken from the tables above.) For T F = 100 ◦ F , TC = 38 ◦ C
(a) Convert the temperatures 100 ◦ F and −30 ◦ F into ◦ C . For T F = −30 ◦ F , TC = −34 ◦ C
(b) Convert the temperatures 100 ◦ C and −30 ◦ F into Kelvin (b) Celsius temperatures are converted into Kelvin by adding
units. 273:
Answer For TC = 100 ◦ C , T K = 100 + 273 = 373 K
(a) We subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit value, divide by 9 and For TC = −30 ◦ C , T K = 243 K .
Example 12.2
It is more convenient to make such calorimetry calculations
in calorie and gram units. At the end of the calculation, we
How much heat is required to increase the temperature of iron
can take 1 cal = 4.18 J and convert it into the joule unit.
with a mass of 250 g from 20 ◦ C to 80 ◦ C ?
The specific heat of iron is given as c=448 J/kg=0.11 cal/g in
Answer the table. We calculate by substituting the numerical values:
We use the formula (12.5): Q = 250 × 0.11 × (80 − 20) = 1650 cal
Q = mc ∆T Q = 1650 × 4.18 = 6900 J .
Example 12.3
by the water and the alcohol should be zero:
◦
200 g -water at a temperature of 20 C is mixed with 100 g - Q1 + Q2 = 0
alcohol at a temperature of 30 ◦ C . What will the final temper- m1 c1 (T − T 1 ) + m2 c2 (T − T 2 ) = 0
ature of the mixture be? Notice that one of the received heats ( Q2 ) will be negative.
Answer We calculate the final temperature by substituting the num-
We take the specific heat of water from the table as c1 =1 cal/g bers:
and that of alcohol as c2 =0.58 cal/g . If we show the final 200 × 1 × (T − 20) + 100 × 0.58 × (T − 30) = 0
temperature with T , the algebraic sum of the heats received T = 22 ◦ C .
Example 12.4
Let us write the stages of the whole process:
How much heat is required to turn a block of ice with a mass of Ice at −30 ◦ C → ice at 0 ◦ C → water at 0 ◦ C →
50 g at a temperature of −30 ◦ C into water at 20 ◦ C ? → water at 20 ◦ C .
We write the heats required at each stage and add them up:
Answer
In this problem, latent heat is also required during the melting Q = mc1 [0 − (−30)] + mL + mc2 (T − 0)
of the ice. From the table, we take the latent heat of fusion We calculate the result by substituting the numerical values:
as L = 80 cal/g and the specific heat as c1 = 0.5 for ice and Q = 50 × [0.5 × 30 + 80 + 1 × 20]
c2 = 1 cal/g for water. Q = 5750 cal .
12.3. THERMAL EXPANSION 205
Example 12.5
the specific heat of ice as c1 =0.5 , of water as c=1 and of
Some amount of water vapor at a temperature of 110 C is ◦ vapor as c2 =0.48 cal/g .
mixed with a block of ice with a mass of 30 g at a temperature The heat received by the ice with mass m1 is set to be equal
of −20 ◦ C in an insulated container. How much vapor was to the heat given by the vapor with mass m2 :
used, considering that the final temperature of the mixture is Q1 = Q2
20 ◦ C ? (The mass of the container can be neglected.) m1 c1 [0 − (−20)] + m1 L1 + m1 c(20 − 0) =
Answer = m2 c2 (110 − 100) + m2 L2 + m2 c(100 − 20)
As they all turn into water in the end, the ice and the water va- We find the amount of vapor by substituting the numbers:
por have undergone phase changes to reach their final states. 30 × [0.5 × 20 + 80 + 1 × 20] =
From the table, we take the values for latent heat of fusion as m2 [0.48 × 10 + 540 + 1 × 80
L1 =80 cal/g , the latent heat of vaporization as L2 =540 cal/g , m2 = 5.3 g .
Example 12.6
with mass m1 as equal to the heat given by some m2 amount
◦
100 g of ice at a temperature of −10 C is put inside 500 g of water turning into ice. (If, at the end of the calculation,
water at a temperature of 0 ◦ C in an insulated container. What this value of m2 turns out to be higher than the total amount
will the final state be? of water, it means that the final temperature will be less than
zero. In that case, we will use a different route.) There follows:
Answer m1 c1 [0 − (−10)] = m2 L
The fact that the amount of ice increases in this problem may We calculate by taking the specific heat of ice as c1 =0.5 cal/g
seem odd at first glance, but it is true. Ice (at −10 ◦ C ) will and the latent heat of fusion as 80 cal/g :
receive heat from water because it is colder. Water at 0 ◦ C 100 × 0.5 × 10 = m2 × 80 → m2 = 6.3g .
can only give heat by turning some of it into ice. According to this result, there will be 100 + 6.3 = 106.3 g
Let us assume that the final temperature will be 0 ◦ C , with of ice and 500 − 6.3 = 493.7 g of water at a temperature of
water and ice coexisting. We set the heat received by the ice 0 ◦ C in the container.
∆L = αL0 ∆T
∆V = βV0 ∆T (12.8)
206 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
and the constant β is called the coefficient of volume expansion. Rigid bodies
have the same expansion property in three dimensions, therefore the relation
between the α and β coefficients is as follows:
β ≈ 3α (12.9)
The expansion coefficients of some materials are given in the following table:
The most striking feature in this table is the fact that the expansion coefficients
of iron, steel and concrete are equal. The fact that buildings made of steel and
concrete can withstand very high temperature changes without cracking is only
possible with this property of concrete.
Examining the table, the expansion coefficients of iron and concrete may
seem to be small (on the order of one ten thousandths), but this may result in
considerable expansion. In a climate with a [−20, +40 ◦ C] temperature range,
such a difference in length means 1 cm per 10 meters. This is taken into account
in the construction of buildings, bridges and railroads with margins being left.
Figure 12.6: Expansion margin Also note that, in the table, the expansion coefficient of alcohol is much
in a bridge. greater than those of water and mercury; this is why alcohol is preferred in
thermometers. Gasoline is also observed to expand as much as alcohol. For this
reason, an expansion margin should always be left in the tank of vehicles when
filling with gasoline.
Anomalous behavior of water: The expansion of water exhibits an unusual
behavior in the temperature range [0, 4 ◦ C] . The volume of water at 0 ◦ C starts
to decrease when heated. This anomalous behavior continues until 4 ◦ C . Then,
it starts to expand with temperature. In other words, water is densest at 4 ◦ C .
This property allows fish and other living beings to stay alive under ice in frozen
Figure 12.7: This is how life lakes. This unusual behavior of water is caused by the special structure of H2 O
goes on in lakes during winter. molecules.
Example 12.7
∆L = αL0 ∆T
A steel bridge with a length of 1200 m at 0 C will expand by The coefficient of expansion of steel is given as α=12 × 10−6
◦
Example 12.8
filled with water and heated on an stove. How much water will
spill at a temperature of 95 ◦ C ?
A copper vessel with a volume of 5 liters at 20 ◦ C is completely
12.4. HEAT TRANSFER 207
Example 12.9
Let us take the ratio of periods t0 and t at temperatures
A simple pendulum used to measure time is made of a mass 0 ◦ C and 40 ◦ C , respectively, and use the thermal expansion
attached to the end of a steel wire. The period of the pendulum formula: s
L0 (1 + α ∆T ) √
r
correctly shows 1 s when the temperature is 0 ◦ C . Calculate t L
= = = 1 + α ∆T
how much time the clock will lose or gain in 1 day in a hot t0 L0 L0
country where the average temperature is 40 ◦ C ?
We take α = 12 × 10−6 for steel and t0 = 1 s and calculate
Answer the new period for the temperature difference ∆T =40 ◦ C :
(a) We had calculated the period of a simple pendulum in p
t − t0 = 1 + 12 × 10−6 × 40 − 1 = 24 × 10−6 s
Chapter 9 (Eq. 9.23). However, let us use t here to show the
This difference is calculated for one day:
period so that it will not get confused with the temperature
T: 24 × 3600 × (t − t0 ) = 20 s
t = 2π L/g The pendulum lags by 20 s per day.
p
Example 12.10
of the aluminum rod is α2 L0 ∆T , then the difference in ex-
pansion will be (α2 −α1 )L0 ∆T . We can reach the same result
A steel ruler measures correctly at a temperature of 0 ◦ C . This
by considering that the steel ruler is not expanding, but the
ruler is used to measure the length of an aluminum rod at a
aluminum rod is expanding with a coefficient of (α2 − α1 ) .
temperature of 0 ◦ C and it reads as 2.800 m . (a) How much
However, this time, the marks of the steel ruler will remain
will the ruler measure the length of the aluminum rod when
at the same place and correctly show the relative expansion
the temperature of both the steel ruler and the aluminum rod
of the aluminum.
is increased to 400 ◦ C ? (b) How much has the length of the
Therefore, we calculate the relative expansion of aluminum
aluminum rod really expanded?
using the coefficient (α2 − α1 ) :
Answer L = L0 [1 + (α2 − α1 ) ∆T ]
(a) This problem can be solved in various ways: We find the We look up the expansion coefficients from the table and
amount of expansion of the steel and aluminum and then calculate:
find their proportion. However, the easier method is to work L = 2.800 × [1 + (23 − 12) × 10−6 × 400] = 2.812 m
with the coefficient difference (α2 − α1 ) for jointly expanding The expanded ruler shows the length of the expanded rod as
objects: 2.812 m .
Of the two objects with the same length L0 =2.8 m , if the (b) We calculate the absolute expansion of the aluminum:
coefficient of expansion of the steel ruler is α1 L0 ∆T and that L = L0 [1 + α2 ∆T ] = 2.8[1 + 23 × 10−6 × 400] = 2.826 m .
Conduction
If we hold a copper rod at one end and place the other end on the heat of a
stove, we will soon feel heat in our hand. This is because, heat is transmitted
through conduction from one end to the other end of the rod. We have to examine
this at the atomic level to understand how it occurs.
There are two separate mechanisms for heat transmission at the atomic level:
• Lattice vibrations (Figure 12.8a): Copper atoms may only oscillate about
their fixed positions. However, their vibration amplitude, and thus their
energy, increases with the heat that they receive. They transmit some of this
energy to their neighboring atoms. A vibration wave thus reaches one end
of the copper from the other end.
The larger the coefficient k is, the better the heat is transferred. We want heat
conductivity to be low or high when selecting a material for any job in technology
or daily life. A material with good heat conductivity is required for heating food
on a stove. For this reason, we use copper and aluminum pots. On the other hand,
poor conducting materials should be used to insulate houses against the cold and
prevent heat losses. Therefore, glass (or, even better, double glazing with a layer
of air between two glass panes) is used.
12.4. HEAT TRANSFER 209
As seen in the table, metals such as copper, silver and aluminum, that are
good electrical conductors are also good heat conductors. This is because the
free electrons in the structure of metals also conduct energy while conducting
electrical charge.
The table shows that air is a poor conductor. This is true for still air. Hence, the
air trapped in double glazing or the material called styrofoam severely decreases
the heat conductivity of that material. The super insulators recently developed in
the aeronautics industry are also spreading into our daily life (Figure 12.10).
Convection
We cool off with the cool air blown by a fan or an air conditioner on a hot day. Figure 12.10: The supercon-
Here, heat is transferred by the motion of air molecules. Heat transfer through ductor aerogel developed by
NASA.
the displacement of matter is called convection.
Convection can occur in two ways. The air heated around a stove or heater
will expand to have less density, and thus, start to rise. It is replaced by the cooler
air above, which also soon gets heated and rises. A convection current is thus
formed automatically. This is called natural convection.
The second type of convection is forced convection. The cool air generated by a
fan or air conditioner is pushed in the desired direction by a fan motor. Although
still air is a poor conductor, it turns into a good conductor through convection.
The most important example of convection is the currents formed in the
atmosphere and the oceans. The natural convections of air and water are two of
the most important factors that make all kinds of life possible.
The detailed examination of convection is complex, and the transferred heat Figure 12.11: Air convection in
depends on many factors, such as type of material, velocity distribution, pressure a heated room.
and temperature conditions in the environment, etc. It is examined in detail in
the branch of science called Fluid Mechanics.
Radiation
The third heat transfer mechanism is the type of heat transferred through
electromagnetic waves. Its most important feature is its ability to transfer heat
in vacuum, without the presence of material in the medium. The solar rays that
pass through the empty space between the Earth and the Sun, which has no
conducting medium, to heat the Earth and are the source of all life.
All bodies radiate at every temperature. However, we can only see that part
that is in the visible light spectrum. Pieces of coal in a grill radiate by emitting red Figure 12.12: Radiation of hot
light. When the coals cool down, the radiation continues as infrared waves, but coal.
we cannot see them. Today, binoculars and cameras that operate with infrared
rays can be used to view the radiation of all objects.
The relation between radiated energy and heat is given by the Stefan-
Boltzmann law:
Q
= σ A T4 (Stefan-Boltzmann law) (12.11)
t
Here, A is the surface area of the object and T is the temperature in Kelvin units.
As for the other two coefficients, σ = 5.7 × 10−8 W/m·K4 , the Stefan-Boltzmann
constant is the same for all objects. The other dimensionless coefficient is called
emissivity. This is a parameter that can take values within the range [0, 1] and
depends on the type of radiating material.
The transfer of radiated energy between bodies with different temperatures
is obtained using this formula. If a body with temperature T 1 is kept in an
210 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
m 100 g
n= = = 3.125 mol
M 32 g
The molar masses of some materials are given in the following table:
12.5. IDEAL GAS 211
Here, P is the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of moles and T is the
temperature in Kelvin units. The proportionality constant indicated with R is
called the universal gas constant and its value is
R = 8.31 J/mol·K (universal gas constant) (12.15)
The constant R is also expressed as follows for use in practical calculations in
which the pressure is given in atmosphere units and the volume in liter units:
R = 0.082 liter·atm/mol·K (12.16)
If the mass m of the gas is given, taking its mole number as n = m/M , the ideal
gas law can also be expressed as follows:
m
PV = RT (12.17)
M
If we wish to write the density ρ of the gas, we form the ratio ρ = mass/volume =
m/V in the last equation:
m MP
ρ= = (12.18)
V RT
The ideal gas law allows us to see which quantity will vary when the state of a gas
changes. For example, if the volume V of the gas is kept constant, the pressure
will increase with the temperature. Likewise, when the pressure is kept constant,
Figure 12.14: Isothermal
the volume of the gas will increase with the temperature. curves.
When the temperature is kept constant, we get what is called isothermal curves
(Figure 12.14). In isothermal changes, volume and pressure change inversely: One
of them decreases when the other increases.
212 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
Example 12.11
in the mass m :
m 100
(The table on Page 211 will be used for the molar masses required n= = = 1.6 moles .
M 64
in these problems.) (b) A mole of mass contains NA Avogadro’s number of
(a) The molar mass of copper is 64 g . How many moles does molecules. From the given mass, we calculate the number of
100 g of copper contain? moles n and then the number of molecules N . The molar
(b) How many molecules does 100 g of oxygen contain? mass of oxygen is 32 g , and we find the number of molecules
as follows:
Answer m 100
N = n NA = NA = × 6.02 × 1023 = 19 × 1023
(a) The number of moles is the number of M molar masses M 32
Example 12.13
(b) We use Eq. (12.17), which gives the ideal gas law in terms
(a) How much volume will 1 mole of ideal gas hold at standard of masses: m
temperature and pressure (STP)? PV = RT
M
(b) What is the density of 1 mole of oxygen ( O2 ) under STP In this equation, we form density as ρ = m/V :
conditions? m MP
ρ= =
Answer V RT
(a) The reference point called STP (standard T and P ) for
We take the STP temperature as 273 K and the pressure as
gases refers to 0 ◦ C temperature and 1 atm pressure. In such
1 atm and use the molar mass of oxygen, which is 32 g . Using
a case, we calculate the volume of 1 mole of gas using the
the constant R in units of liters × atmospheres here, the other
ideal gas law:
nRT 1 × 0.082 × 273 units simplify, and we get the density in terms of grams/liter:
V= = = 22.4 liters 32 × 1
P 1 ρ= = 1.43 g/liter
All ideal gases have the same volume of 22.4 liters at STP. 0.082 × 273
Example 12.14
terms of pascals, and we take the universal gas constant as
Air is present under STP conditions in a room with volume R=8.31 J/mol·K :
6 × 10 × 4 m3 . PV 1.013 × 105 × 240
n= = = 10 700 mol
(a) How many moles of air is present in the room? RT 8.31 × 273
(b) How many moles of air is left in the room if it is heated (b) Using ratios is very convenient in problems that involve
up to 27 ◦ C ? state changes of a gas. We write the ideal gas law for each tem-
perature and compare them. As the pressures and volumes
Answer are equal, we get
(a) We solve the ideal gas law for the number of moles n : P2X
X VX Rn2 T 2 T1
2
PV = → n2 =
S
n1
PV = nRT → n = P1X
X VX
1 Rn1 T 1 T2
RT S
Let us calculate in terms of the SI units this time. The volume We substitute the values and calculate as follows:
of the room is 6 × 10 × 4=240 m3 and, in STP conditions, 273
n2 = × 10700 = 9740 mol
1 atmosphere of pressure equals 1 atm=1.013 × 105 Pa in 300
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 213
Example 12.15
(b) If we indicate the initial variables with (P1 , V1 , T 1 ) and
The cylinder of a diesel motor with a volume of 4 lt contains air the final variables with (P2 , V2 , T 2 ) , we can write the ideal
at a temperature of 27 ◦ C and a pressure of 1 atm . The piston gas law for each state and divide on both sides:
is pushed to decrease the volume of the air by a factor of 16 and P2 V2 H nRT
H 2 T2
= =
increase the pressure by a factor of 40 . P1 V1 nRT
HH 1 T1
(a) How many moles of air does the cylinder contain? We solve this expression for the final temperature T 2 :
P2 V2
(b) What will be the final temperature of the air? T2 = T1
P1 V1
Answer We calculate the final temperature by substituting the numer-
(a) We calculate the number of moles from the ideal gas law: ical values:
40 1
PV 1×4 T2 = × × 300 = 750 K
n= = = 0.16 moles . 1 16
RT 0.082 × 300
Example 12.16 PV2 nRT 2 V2 T 2
= → =
PV1 nRT 1 V1 T 1
A cylinder contains an ideal gas at a temperature of 27 ◦ C and From here, we calculate the final temperature:
a pressure of 5 atm . The gas is subject to the following processes V2
after the same initial state each time: T2 = T 1 = 3 × T 1 = 3 × 300 = 900 K .
V1
(a) Its volume is increased by a factor of 3 by heating under (b) The ratio of the change under constant volume is found
constant pressure. What will its final temperature be? the same way:
(b) This time its pressure is increased by a factor of 4 by heat- P2 T 2
=
ing under constant volume. What will its final temperature P1 T 1
be? P2
T2 = T 1 = 4 × 300 = 1200 K .
(c) It is heated such that both its pressure and volume increase P1
by factors of 3. What will its final temperature be? (c) The ratio is as follows when both the pressure and the
(d) Its absolute temperature is doubled by heating under con- volume change:
P2 V2 T 2
stant volume. What will its final pressure be? =
P1 V1 T 1
Answer P2 V2
T2 = T 1 = 3 × 3 × 300 = 2700 K .
(a) It is sufficient to establish the ratios in this problem. If P1 V1
we write the ideal gas law twice for each process, only the (d) The ratio for heating under constant volume was found
changing variables will remain in the formulas. in item (b):
P2 T 2 T2
The ratio is as follows for heating under constant pressure: = −→ P2 = P1 = 2 × 5 = 10 atm .
P1 T 1 T1
Multiple-choice Questions
1. How many ◦ C is a temperature of 373 K ?
4. The specific heat of iron is approximately twice the spe-
(a) 0 ◦ C (b) 73 ◦ C (c) 100 ◦ C (d) 173 ◦ C
cific heat of silver. How will their temperatures increase
if the same amount of heat is given to pieces of iron and
2. Which of the following is not a unit of temperature?
silver with the same mass?
(a) Fahrenheit (a) The iron will heat up more.
(b) Kelvin (b) The silver will heat up more.
(c) Centigrade (c) They will heat up equally.
(d) Celsius (d) It is impossible to tell.
3. How will a pendulum clock made of metal wire show 5. Two quantities of waters with equal mass at tempera-
the time when temperature increases? tures of 20 ◦ C and 50 ◦ C are mixed. What will the final
(a) It will lag. temperature be?
(b) It will run too fast. (a) 25 ◦ C (b) 30 ◦ C (c) 35 ◦ C (d) 40 ◦ C
(c) It will not change.
(d) It is impossible to tell. 6. The absolute temperature of a gas in a container is dou-
bled under constant volume. What will its pressure be?
214 12. TEMPERATURE AND HEAT
(a) 2P (b) 4P (c) P/2 (d) P/4 15. How many atoms are there in 16 g of oxygen ( O2 ) in
terms of Avogadro’s number NA ?
7. The absolute temperature of a gas in a container is dou-
(a) NA (b) 2NA (c) 3NA (d) 8NA
bled under constant pressure. What will its volume be?
(a) 2V (b) 4V (c) V/2 (d) V/4
16. Which of the following is not the ideal gas law?
8. The volume of a gas in a container is doubled under PV nRT P nRT
constant temperature. What will its pressure be? (a) =R (b) P= (c) V= (d) V=
nT V nRT P
(a) 2P (b) 4P (c) P/2 (d) P/4
17. Which of the following is correct when ice at 0 ◦ C is
9. The pressure of a gas in a container is doubled and its heated?
volume is halved. What will its temperature be? I. Its temperature will increase.
(a) 2T (b) 4T (c) T (d) T/2 II. It will melt under constant temperature.
III. Its volume will decrease.
10. A gas at a pressure of 1 atm in a container of volume IV. Its volume will increase.
V has its temperature increased from 0 ◦ C to 273 ◦ C at
(a) I & II (b) I & IV (c) II & III (d) II & IV
constant pressure. What will its volume be?
(a) V (b) 2V (c) V/2 (d) 4V
18. Which of the following is correct if a system is in ther-
11. Which of the following is incorrect? modynamic equilibrium with its surroundings?
(a) The volume of a heated ice will decrease. (a) The temperatures are equal.
(b) Water heated at 10 ◦ C will expand. (b) The pressures are equal.
(c) Heated water vapor will expand. (c) The volumes are equal.
(d) Water heated at 2 ◦ C will expand. (d) All of the above.
Problems
to be insulated and have zero specific heats.) tainer. What will the final temperature be? [A: 55 C .]
12.6 A 200 g piece of iron at a temperature of 400 ◦ C is put grams of 5 moles of carbon dioxide ( CO2 )?
together with 50 g of ice at a temperature of −10 ◦ C in an [A: (a) 5.6 moles , (b) 220 g .]
insulated container. What will the final state be?
[A: Water and iron at 60 ◦ C .] 12.14 A container with a volume of 20 liters has 160 g of
oxygen ( O2 ) gas at 25 atm of pressure. (a) How many moles
12.7 400 g of vapor at a temperature of 150 ◦ C is mixed of oxygen are there in the container? (b) What is the temper-
with water with a mass of 100 g at a temperature of 100 ◦ C ature of the gas? [A: (a) 5 moles , (b) 1220 K .]
in an insulated container. What will the final state be?
[A: 82 g of water and 418 g of vapor at 100 ◦ C .] 12.15 An oven with a volume of 1 m contains air at STP
3
12.3 Thermal Expansion present in the oven? (b) How many moles of air are left in
(Note: Expansion coefficients that may be needed in the prob- the oven if it is heated up to a 200 ◦ C temperature?
lems of this section shall be taken from the table on Page 206.) [A: (a) 45 moles , (b) 26 moles .
12.8 A steel tower with a height of 800 m at 0 ◦ C will expand 12.16 An oxygen tube used in industry contains oxygen gas
by how much at a temperature of 40 ◦ C ? [A: 38 cm .] compressed at 100 atm and at 27 ◦ C temperature in a vol-
ume of 200 liters . (a) What is the mass of the oxygen inside
12.9 A glass tube with a base area of 1 cm2 and a height of of the tube? (b) It is observed that the pressure of the tube
1 m is fully filled with mercury at 0 ◦ C . How much mercury decreases to 80 atm in the next week due to a leak in its valve.
will spill when the temperature is 150 ◦ C ? [A: 2.3 cm3 .] How much oxygen remains in the tube? (Assume that the
12.10 A physical pendulum made of an aluminum rod of temperature remains constant.) [A: (a) 14.6 kg , (b) 11 kg .]
length 1 m is used to measure time. The period of the pen- 12.17 The Loschmidt constant used in chemistry is defined as
dulum is 1 s at a temperature of 0 ◦ C . How much error will the number of gas molecules under STP conditions in 1 cm3
accrue in the pendulum’s measurement in one day when the volume. Calculate the Loschmidt constant. [A: 2.7 × 1019 .]
temperature becomes 50 ◦ C ?p(The period of a physical pen-
dulum of length L is T = 2π 2L/3g .) 12.18 The cylinder of a gasoline engine with a volume of
[A: It will lag by 50 s .] 3 lt contains air-gasoline mixture at a temperature of 27 ◦ C
and a pressure of 1 atm . The piston is pushed to decrease
the volume of the mixture by a factor of 8 and increase the
pressure by a factor of 12 . What will the final temperature
of the mixture be? [A: 447 ◦ C .]
Problem 12.11
12.19 A cylinder contains 10 liters of an ideal gas at a temper-
12.11 A steel bridge consists of two parts, each with a length ature of 27 ◦ C . The gas is subject to the following processes
of 150 m and hinged to each other at the center. The bridge each time after the same initial state:
can stretch flat in the horizontal position at 0 ◦ C . By how (a) Its pressure is increased by a factor of 5 by heating under
much will the central point rise when the temperature is constant volume. What will its final temperature be?
50 ◦ C ? [A: 5.2 m .] (b) Its volume is increased by a factor of 8 by heating under
constant pressure. What will its final temperature be?
12.12 A steel measuring tape measures correctly at 0 ◦ C .
(c) It is heated such that both its pressure and volume double.
The length of a copper pipe is measured by the measuring
What will its final temperature be?
tape as 25 m at 0 ◦ C . (a) What will the copper pipe’s mea-
(d) Its absolute temperature is increased by a factor of 4 by
surement be when both the measuring tape and the pipe are
heating under constant pressure. What will the final volume
heated up to 250 ◦ C ? (b) What is the real length of the pipe
be? [A: (a) 1500 K , (b) 2400 K , (c) 1200 K , (d) 40 liters .]
at that temperature? [A: (a) 25.03 m , (b) 25.11 m .]
12.20 On a day when air pressure is 1 atm and the temper-
12.4 Ideal Gas
ature is 27◦ , an air bubble with a volume of 1 cm3 breaks
12.13 The molar mass of the hydrogen atom (H) is 1 g , the off from the bottom of a lake with 25 m depth. What will its
molar mass of the oxygen atom (O) is 16 g and the molar volume be when it reaches the surface? (Hint: Calculate rates
mass of the carbon atom (C) is 12 g . (a) How many moles with the P = P0 + ρgh formula that we found in Chapter 11
are there in 100 g of water ( H2 O )? (b) What is the weight in for the hydrostatic pressure in liquids.) [A: 3.5 cm3 .]
13
THE LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
The pressure P inside of the integral cannot be taken outside of the integral as it
is a function of both the volume V and the temperature T .
It will be instructive to examine the work performed by the gas on a P - V
diagram. As shown in Figure 13.2, recalling the definition of an integral, the area
Figure 13.2: In the P - V dia- of the region under the curve will be the work W .
gram, the area under the curve The path taken by the gas when going from V1 to V2 during expansion is
is the work W performed by the important. The work will vary depending on the path. The work performed by
gas. the gas can be calculated as follows for the processes indicated in Figure 13.3:
(c) Work at constant volume (Figure 13.3c) : In this case the work is zero:
W=0 . At constant volume ( dV=0 ), the area under a vertical line is zero.
Example 13.1
W = P dV = P (V2 − V1 )
A container with 3 liters of volume contains a gas at 27 C ◦ The final volume is V2 = 4V1 = 4 × 3 = 12 L . Using the SI
temperature and 2 atm pressure. Starting each time from the units (pascal and cubic meters), we get
same initial state, calculate the work performed by this gas W = 2 × 1.013 × 105 × (12 − 3) × 10−3 = 1800 J = 1.8 kJ
during the following processes: (c) We had found the isothermal work in Eq. (13.3):
V2
(a) Its temperature is increased by a factor of 5 at constant W = nRT ln
volume. V1
Taking the final volume as V2 =2V1 , we get ln 2V1 /V1 = ln 2 :
(b) Its volume is increased by a factor of 4 at constant pressure.
W = nRT ln 2
(c) Its volume is increased by a factor of 2 at constant temper-
The number of moles n here could be calculated separately,
ature.
but this is not necessary, because we use the left-hand side
Answer rather than the right-hand side of the ideal gas equation
(a) The definition of work is dW=P dV . If the volume is PV = nRT :
constant, then dV=0 and the work performed will be zero: W = P1 V1 ln 2
W=0 . We substitute ln 2 = 0.69 and the other values:
(b) Since the pressure is constant, integration is not needed: W = 2 × 1.013 × 105 × 3 × 10−3 × 0.69 = 420 J
Example 13.2
Along the path ab , work will be zero, as the volume is con-
stant : Wab =0 . The other work is found using the formula
W=P(V2 − V1 ) as it is performed under constant pressure:
Wabd = 0 + Pb (Vd − Vb ) = 2 × 105 × (8 − 5) = 600 kJ
Path acd : We again calculate in two steps and no work is
performed along the path taken at constant volume:
Wacd = Wac + Wcd = Pa (Vc − Va ) + 0
Wacd = 6 × 105 × (8 − 5) = 1800 kJ
Path ad : We know the work is the area under the curve in the
Calculate the work performed by the gas during all three pro- P - V diagram. Accordingly, the work performed by Wad is
cesses ( abd, acd, ad ) shown in the P - V diagram above. the area under the diagonal. So, we simply add the area of the
triangle to the work Wbd that we had calculated previously:
Answer (Pa − Pb ) (Vd − Vb )
Wad = Wbd +
Path abd : We calculate in two steps: 2
Wabd = Wab + Wbd Wad = 600 kJ + 12 × (6 − 2) × 105 (8 − 5) = 1200 kJ .
220 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Example 13.3
W = 3 − 1 = 26 J .
3 3
∆E = Q − W (13.4)
Figure 13.4: The First Law:
The difference between received Let us emphasize the important points of the first law:
heat and work done equals the • The first law is a kind of energy bilan: It states that the difference between the
increase in internal energy. received heat and the work done is spent on increasing the internal energy.
• Note the difference between the signs of Q and W : The heat received by the
system and the work done by the system are accepted as positive. Therefore,
the energy increase is included as their difference.
13.3. APPLICATIONS OF THE FIRST LAW 221
∆E = Q
In other words, all of the received heat goes into increasing the internal
energy.
• If the system performs work but does not receive heat, then Q = 0
and, according to the law, we get
∆E = −W
Hence, the system performs this work by drawing it from its internal energy.
• This is a law that applies not only to gases, but to all systems. All kinds of
tools, machinery, etc., operate by obeying this law. For example, claims about
perpetual motion machines that operate without receiving any energy are Figure 13.5: The perpetual
not taken seriously in science, as they violate the first law (Figure 13.5). motion machine suggested by
• However, the first law does not tell us the direction in which the change Robert Boyle. In this machine,
water will not flow and circu-
occurs. For example, let us bring together two objects, one hot and the other
late by itself, because the point
cold. One of these objects will give heat Q to the other, but which one? The at which water exits the hose
first law says nothing and allows for heat transfer in both directions, as long should be below the surface of
as the heat received by one is Q and the other is −Q , in other words, as the water in the container.
long as the net heat is zero. However, we know that, in nature, the hot body
always gives heat to the cold one. It is the second law that that will tell us
the direction towards which the events will develop.
Q = mc ∆T
We can use the same definition in terms of the number of moles: Q = nc∆T . This
is more useful for gases, as we shall see later.
However, the temperature increase may take place under constant pressure
or constant volume, and therefore a separate specific heat is defined for each one
as follows:
Figure 13.6: 1→2 : Heating at
ncv ∆T (Heating at constant volume)
Q= (13.5) constant volume. 1→3 : heating
ncp ∆T
(Heating at constant pressure) under constant pressure.
222 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The increase in the internal energy would still have been ncv ∆T if we had per-
formed this heating under constant pressure. This is because internal energy is a
state variable and the value that it takes at that temperature is independent of
how it is reached.
The relation between cv and cp
Now, let us consider that we heat the same gas by ∆T under constant pressure.
It will both heat and perform work during this process. We can write the heat
directly:
Q = nc p ∆T
If the volume of the gas changes from V1 to V2 under constant pressure P , the
work can be written as follows:
W = P(V2 − V1 )
Using the ideal gas equation PV = nRT here, we get
W = PV2 − PV1 = nR T 2 − nR T 1 = nR ∆T
Now, let us use these heat and work expressions in the first law:
∆E = Q − W
ncv ∆T = nc p ∆T − nR ∆T
Simplifying, we find the relation between the specific heats:
This expression is used to find one of the specific heats if the other is known. We
will see how to find the specific heat cv . Here are the results without proof:
Adiabatic Process
The process that a system undergoes without any heat exchange ( Q = 0 ) is
called an adiabatic process. In such a case, there is only exchange of work with
the environment. Let us consider the gas in a container (Figure 13.7). No heat
will be exchanged if the container is insulated and all changes of state will be
adiabatic. Likewise, let us compress the gas in a cylinder by suddenly compressing
the piston. The gas does not have time to exchange heat with the environment,
as it takes place in a short period of time.
We can use the first law to calculate the final temperature, pressure and
volume of an ideal gas at the end of an adiabatic process. Consider that the
temperature of a gas changes by a small amount dT during an adiabatic process. Figure 13.7: No heat is ex-
If we take Q = 0 in the first law and write P dV for work and ncv dT for the changed in an adiabatic process:
increase in internal energy, we get Q = 0.
∆E = 0 − W
ncv dT = −P dV
Let us take the pressure as P = nRT/V from the ideal gas equation:
nRT
ncv dT = − dV
V
dT R dV
+ =0
T cv V
In this expression, let us substitute R with the formula R = c p − cv that we found
above for specific heats:
!
dT cp dV
+ −1 =0
T cv V
If we define the ratio of the specific heats as a dimensionless constant γ=c p /cv ,
we always get γ > 1 :
dT dV
+ (γ − 1) =0
T V
Taking the indefinite integral of both sides of this expression, we get
ln T + (γ − 1) ln V = constant
P V γ = constant
γ γ
P1 V1 = P2 V2
1−γ γ 1−γ γ
P1 T 1 = P2 T2 (Adiabatic process) (13.8)
γ−1 γ−1
T 1 V1 = T 2 V2
It is sufficient only to keep the first of these formulas in mind; the others can be
obtained from the ideal gas equation PV = nRT .
Work in an adiabatic process. As Q=0 in an adiabatic process, we get ∆E=−W
from the first law. Using Eq. (13.6) for the internal energy, we get
∆E = ncv ∆T
W = −∆E = −ncv ∆T (13.9)
The work performed by the gas is fully provided by the internal energy.
Example 13.4
under constant pressure:
Q = nc p ∆T
A diatomic gas of 5 moles is heated by giving it 600 J under
constant pressure. ( cv = 5R/2 , c p = 7R/2 .) We substitute the values and calculate ∆T as follows:
Q 600
(a) What will the temperature increase ∆T be? ∆T = = = 4.1 K
nc p 5 × 72 × 8.31
(b) What will the increase in internal energy be?
(b) The energy increase will be ∆E = ncv ∆T regardless of
(c) How much work will the gas perform?
the process being at constant pressure or volume:
Answer ∆E = n 52 R ∆T = 5 × 52 × 8.31 × 4.1 = 426 J
(a) It may seem that the information provided in this problem (c) The work is calculated from the first law when the heat
is insufficient, but it is actually sufficient for the requested and the increase in internal energy are known:
calculations. We use the formula for temperature increase ∆E = Q − W → W = Q − ∆E = 600 − 426 = 174 J .
Example 13.5
Work is zero, because the volume is constant: W = 0 . Then
A vessel contains 4 moles of a monatomic gas at 0 C . From we find the increase in internal energy using the first law:
◦
stant volume. Calculate the given heat, the work performed lated by taking c p = 25 R :
by the gas and the increase in internal energy. Q = nc p ∆T = 4 × 52 × 8.31 × (50 − 0) = 4200 J .
(b) The temperature of the gas is increased to 50 ◦ C under We do not have the information to calculate the work directly.
constant pressure. Calculate the given heat, the work per- However, if we first calculate the increase in internal energy,
formed by the gas and the increase in internal energy. we can then find the work by using the first law. The increase
Answer (a) The heat received by the gas at constant volume in internal energy is found using the formula (13.3):
is calculated using Eq. (13.5) and the cv = 32 R value in the ∆E = n cv ∆T = 4 × 32 R × (50 − 0) = 2500 J
table: We calculate the work from the first law using Q and ∆E :
Q = ncv ∆T = 4 × 3 × 8.31 × (50 − 0) = 2500 J . ∆E = Q − W → W = Q − E = 4200 − 2500 = 1700 J .
2
Example 13.6
into steam at 100 ◦ C in temperature. As the heat of vaporiza-
tion of water is L=540 cal/g , calculate the increase in internal
The volume of a 1 g of water at 100 ◦ C in temperature and
energy.
under 1 atm of pressure expands to 1670 cm3 when converted
13.4. KINETIC CALCULATION OF PRESSURE 225
Example 13.7
increase in internal energy will be zero: ∆E = 0 . Accord-
ingly, the net heat received during a cycle will be spent on
the net work done by the gas:
∆E = Qabca − Wabca = 0 → Qabca = Wabca
We do not have sufficient information to directly calculate
the heat, but we can calculate the work from the P - V dia-
gram. The work performed at each step of the cycle is the
area under that curve. However, the work will be negative if
V decreases in the direction moved. Accordingly, the work
A gas completes a cycle through the 3-step process ( a → b → performed along the path a → b will be positive, the work
c → a ) shown in the figure. What is the net heat received by performed along the path b → c will be negative and the work
the gas? performed along the path c → a will be zero. As a result, the
net work will be equal to the area of the red triangle shown
Answer
in the figure.
This problem may seem complicated at first glance, but it
Qabca = Wabca = Area of the triangle ABC
becomes simple when you think about it. When the gas starts
at point a and undergoes any process, it will have the same Qabca = 12 × (4 − 1) × (150 − 50) × 103 = 150 000 J
internal energy after it returns to point a, in other words, the Q = 150 kJ .
Example 13.8
equation twice and find their proportion:
A cylinder with 5 liters of volume contains a diatomic ideal gas P2 V2 T 2 P2 V2
= → T2 = T1
at 27 ◦ C in temperature and 1 atm in pressure with γ = 1.4 . P1 V1 T 1 P1 V1
The piston is suddenly pushed to compress the volume of the 9.5 × 1
T2 = × 300 = 570 K
gas to 1 L before it can exchange any heat. 1×5
(a) What will the final temperature and pressure be? (b) Adiabatic work is equal to the decrease in the internal
energy (Eqs. 13.9):
(b) How much work will the gas perform?
W = −∆E = −ncv ∆T = −ncv (T 2 − T 1 )
Answer Rather than calculating the number of moles n here, we find
(a) This is an adiabatic process, because there is no heat ex- the pressures and volumes using the formula nRT = PV :
change ( Q = 0 ). We first find the pressure using Eqs. (13.8): cv cv
W = (nRT 1 − nRT 2 ) = (P1 V1 − P2 V2 )
P1 V1γ = P2 V2γ R R
From here, we calculate the final pressure: The value cv = 52 R is taken from page 222 for diatomic gases:
V γ
1
5 1.4 W = 52 (P1 V1 − P2 V2 )
P2 = P1 = × 1 = 9.5 atm From here, we calculate the work performed by the gas:
V2 1
In order to find the final temperature, we write the ideal gas W = 52 × (1 × 5 − 9.5 × 1) × 1.013 × 105−3 = −1140 J .
Now let us consider that a molecule with velocity ~v inside of a cubic volume of
side length L collides with a wall that is perpendicular to the x -axis (Figure 13.10).
As a result of the elastic collision, the component vy of the molecule parallel
to the wall does not change and the horizontal component v x gets reflected
back. Therefore, the force on this molecule by the wall is only in the x -direction
(Figure 13.11):
Figure 13.10: Gas molecules in F ∆t = m0 v x − m0 (−v x ) = 2m0 v x
a cubic volume.
We are using m0 here for the mass of a molecule to avoid any confusion.
This molecule, after colliding with the wall, rebounds toward the opposite
wall, subsequently returning and colliding once more. Therefore, the time ∆t
between two collisions is the time of one collision. As the length of one side is L ,
we calculate the time required to travel back and forth along the path 2L :
2L
∆t =
vx
Using ∆t from the equation above, we write the force F as follows:
2m0 v x m0 v2x
F= =
∆t L
This is the force acting on the molecule. According to the action-reaction law,
Figure 13.11: The collision of a the molecule will push the wall with an equal and opposite force. We will ignore
molecule with a wall. the sign, because we are only concerned with the magnitude of the force here.
We have found the force exerted by one molecule on the wall. If there are N
molecules in the gas, the force exerted by each one of them on the wall will have
the same form. Therefore, the sum required to find the force of N molecules can
be written as follows:
m0 2
Ftotal = v1x + v22x + · · · + v2N x
L
Let us examine the sum in the brackets separately: If we divide this sum by
the number of molecules we will find the mean (or, the average) hv2x i of the v2x
velocities:
v2 + v22x + · · · + v2N x
hv2x i = 1x
N
In this expression, we want to see the mean of the velocity itself, rather than
the mean of the component hv2x i . As each velocity vector can be written as
v2 =v2x + v2y + v2z , the mean of both sides will be
Ignoring the effect of gravity, the mean velocities of the molecules will be equal
in all three directions due to symmetry:
We can now write the force above in terms of this mean velocity:
Nm0 hv2 i
Ftotal =
L 3
From here, we can calculate the pressure: As the surface area of the side is A = L2
and the volume is V = L3 , the pressure is expressed as follows:
Ftotal Nm0 2 Nm0 2
P= = 3
hv i = hv i (13.10)
A 3L 3V
Many important conclusions can be drawn from this expression:
• Internal energy and specific heat: Let us move the volume to the left-hand
side of this expression, and form the kinetic energy of one molecule:
PV = 2
3 N 1 m0 hv2 i
| 2 {z }
E
The product of the mean kinetic energy of one molecule, m0 hv2 i/2 , and the
number N is the total kinetic energy of the gas. At the start, we had assumed
that the molecules did not interact and only engaged in elastic collisions with
the wall. Therefore, according to the definition, the total kinetic energy will
be the internal energy E of this gas:
PV = 2
3 E
We write the left-hand side as PV = nRT from the ideal gas law:
nRT = 2
3 E
E = 3
2 nRT (Internal energy of a monatomic gas) (13.11)
We had previously found the expression for the internal energy in terms of
the specific heat cv , in Eq. (13.6):
E = ncv T
This result shows that the temperature is a measure of the total energy of
a body. We find the specific heat cv of an ideal gas at constant volume by
comparing the last two expressions:
cv = 3
2 R (Specific heat of a monatomic gas) (13.12)
We also know that c p =cv +R = 52 R . In conclusion, the heat received by, work
performed by and the internal energy increase of ideal gases in all kinds of
processes can thus be calculated using these formulas for E, cv , c p .
228 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
nRT = nM hv2 i
1
3
3RT
hv2 i =
M
We find the root-mean-square (rms) speed formula by taking the root of
this expression:
r
p 3RT
vrms = hv i =
2 (Root-mean-square speed) (13.13)
M
This formula is also valid for polyatomic gas molecules. According to the formula,
the mean speed of gases with lower molecular mass (hydrogen, helium) will be
higher. Therefore, light gases are very scarce in the atmosphere, because they
have already escaped gravity.
Example 13.9
gases and form their ratio:
r
vrms,2
r
What will the root-mean-square speed of oxygen gas (O2 ) be 3RT M1
vrms = → =
at the temperature at which the root-mean-square speed of M vrms,1 M2
Helium gas (He) is 1500 m/s ? Molar masses are MO2 =32 g ,
MHe =4 g . We find the speed by substituting the molar masses:
r r
Answer M1 4
vrms,2 = vrms,1 = × 1500 = 530 m/s
We write Eq. (13.13) for root-mean-square speed for both M 2 32
Example 13.10
the internal energy:
A vessel contains 2 moles of neon (Ne) gas, which has molar E = 32 nRT = 32 × 2 × 8.31 × 300 = 7500 J
◦
mass 20 g , at 27 C in temperature. (b) We use Eq. (13.13) for the root-mean-square speed:
(a) What is the total kinetic energy of the gas molecules? r
3RT
(b) What is the root-mean-square speed of one molecule? vrms =
M
Answer We calculate by substituting the molar mass of neon and the
(a) The gas is monatomic, in other words, it has no rotational temperature:
or vibrational energy; its internal energy consists only of the
r
3 × 8.31 × 300
total kinetic energy. We use the formula (13.11) to calculate vrms = = 610 m/s .
0.020
13.5. HEAT ENGINES 229
∆E = Q − W = (QH + QC ) − W = 0
W = QH + QC
W = |QH | − |QC |
Efficiency
The efficiency of a heat engine is the ratio of the net work performed to the
spent heat:
W |QH | − |QC |
e = =
QH |QH |
QC
e = 1 − (Efficiency of a heat engine) (13.14)
QH
Efficiency is a number within the range [0, 1] , for example, if e = 0.3 , then the
efficiency is 30 %.
Now, let us review the operating principles and efficiencies of some of the
most common heat engines.
Internal Combustion Engine – Otto Cycle
A cycle consists of four processes in an internal combustion engine, also
known as the gasoline engine or the four-stroke engine. Let us examine these pro-
cesses by following them on the adjacent P - V diagram 13.13 and on Figure 13.14
below:
A gasoline-air mixture is pumped into the cylinder through the left valve
being opened when the engine is at point a . Known as intake, this process is
not included in the cycle. This gasoline-air mixture is suddenly compressed after
point a along the path ab . Known as the compression stroke, this process is
230 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
adiabatic, because the system has no time for heat exchange. When the fuel is
ignited at point b (ignition), the pressure of the system increases under constant
volume before finding the opportunity to expand, as well as increasing its pressure
along the path bc under constant volume, the gas receiving the heat QH during
this process. As a result of this pressure increase, the gas expands adiabatically
to push the piston along the path cd (power stroke). At point d , the valve on
the right is opened and the burnt fuel-air mixture is discharged from the exhaust
Figure 13.13: Otto cycle. along the path da (exhaust stroke). Once the point a is reached, the cycle starts
again with the intake stroke.
Let us calculate the efficiency of this cycle, also known as the Otto cycle, which
consists of two adiabatic and two constant-volume processes. It is sufficient to
calculate heat along the paths bc and da , as there is no heat exchange in adiabatic
processes:
Observing from the diagram that T c > T b and T a < T d , it can be understood
that the heat QH is positive and the heat QC is negative.
Using the definition of efficiency,
QH + QC (T c − T b ) + (T a − T d )
e= =
QH Tc − Tb
The four temperatures here can actually be reduced to a single parameter. Let us
use V to indicate the value Vb = Vc at which the gas is compressed at a maximum
in the Otto cycle. If we use rV to indicate the volumes Va = Vd at which the gas
expands, r is defined as the compression ratio of the motor. Now, if we use the
formulas (13.8) that we found earlier for the adiabatic processes ab and cd , we
get
If we eliminate the common term V γ−1 in these equations and substitute the
temperatures T , the formula simplifies as follows:
T d rγ−1 − T a rγ−1 + T a − T d
e =
T d rγ−1 − T d rγ−1
1
e = 1− (Efficiency of the Otto cycle) (13.15)
rγ−1
13.5. HEAT ENGINES 231
Here, γ = c p /cv and is approximately γ=1.4 for air. This result is surprising. In
the gasoline engine, regardless of the type of fuel or dimensions that you use,
the efficiency depends only on the compression ratio r of the engine. Of course,
it is not possible to achieve high compression with certain fuels, as they burn
halfway through. Modern engines using high-octane gas have compression ratios
around r = 10 . If we take r = 10 and γ = 1.4 for air, the efficiency is found to
be e = 0.6 . In reality, the efficiency of a gasoline engine is around 25 %, due to
friction and other effects until the energy is transmitted to the wheels. Figure 13.15: The Jaguar V12
engine has a record compression
ratio of r=14 .
Example 13.11
Now, let us analyze each step along these principles:
Determine the signs of heat ( Q ), work ( W ) and internal en- The AB process:
ergy increase ( ∆E ) in each step of the ABC cycle shown in the
Temperature T and volume V increase along the path.
figure, and complete the table.
Therefore, Q and ∆E and W are all positive.
The BC process:
Temperature T increases, but volume V remains con-
stant along the path. Therefore, Q and ∆E are positive but
W = 0.
The CA process:
Answer Temperature T and volume V decrease along the path.
This problem constitutes the basis before examining cycles. Therefore, Q and ∆E and W are all negative. As a result,
First, let us remember some of the general principles: the table is completed as follows:
• In the P - V diagram, temperature increases with distance
to the origin.
• Internal energy always increases with T : ∆E=ncv ∆T .
• Heat is positive if the temperature increases. It can be in
either of two forms: Q=ncv ∆T or nc p ∆T
• The work dW=P dV by the gas is positive if it expands.
Example 13.12
Therefore, we will calculate the steps of the cycle at which
the gas receives heat and the steps at which it gives heat, and
use their ratio in the efficiency formula. In general, the result
will depend only on temperature differences.
In this problem, no heat exchange will take place in step
ab , as it is adiabatic. When the gas is compressed in step
bc , it is forced to give off heat in order to keep the pressure
constant. Therefore, QC =Qbc . In step ca , its pressure is in-
A gas with γ=c p /cv =1.4 undergoes a 3-step cycle, as shown in creased by heating at constant volume. Therefore, QH =Qca .
the figure. It expands adiabatically along the path ab , is com- In short, the situation is as shown in the figure below:
pressed under constant pressure along the path bc and is heated
at constant volume along the path ca . T a =500 K , T b =400 K
and T c =300 K . Calculate the efficiency of the cycle.
Answer
Calculating the efficiency of a cycle may seem complicated
at first glance, but it becomes easy when given some thought.
Efficiency was defined in Eq. (13.14) as the ratio of the net
work W to the positive heat: Now let us calculate the heats QH and QC :
W |QC | QH = Qca = ncv ∆T = ncv (T a − T c )
= =1− Q C = Qbc = nc p ∆T = nc p (T c − T b )
QH |QH |
232 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
The ratio of these heats is used in the efficiency formula: We calculate the efficiency by substituting the data:
Example 13.13
Calculate the efficiency of the Diesel cycle shown in the figure
in which T a =300 K , T b =1000 K , T c =1600 K and T d =800 K .
Diesel cycle. In a diesel engine, air compressed at high temper-
( γ=c p /cv =1.4 for air.)
ature is combusted by injected oil. The exploded air-oil mixture
expands and pushes the piston. The stages of the cycle are as Answer
follows: It is easy to see where the heats QH and QC are received
and given in this cycle. No heat is exchanged in the adiabatic
steps. The gas receives heat along the path bc because it is
heated, and gets cooler and gives off heat along the path da .
Therefore, we get QH = Qbc and QC = Qda . Let us calculate
these:
Under constant pressure : QH = Qbc = nc p (T c − T b )
Under constant volume : QC = Qda = ncv (T a − T d )
The ratio of these heats is used in the efficiency formula:
|ncv (T a − T d )| 1 Td − Ta
ab : adiabatic compression =1− =1−
nc p (T c − T b ) γ Tc − Tb
bc : expansion under constant pressure (explosion)
We calculate the efficiency by substituting the data:
cd : adiabatic expansion (work by pushing the gas piston)
1 800 − 300
da : cooling at constant volume (discharge from the exhaust) =1− × = 0.40 = 40 %
1.4 1600 − 1000
received is equal to the performed work. However, the second law states that
no heat engine can operate at 100 % efficiency. In other words, it specifies
the direction towards which natural events develop.
• According to the second law, a gasoline engine cannot operate without dis-
charging the burnt gas, or a steam engine without discharging the expanded
steam. If it could not discharge this heat into the environment, the machine
would eventually heat up and become inoperable.
• If there is no way to give heat to the cold source, then work cannot be done
either. For example, the engine of a ship could, in principle, be able to take
heat from the sea water and turn some of it into work. However, the machine
would not operate, because it would not be able to return the remaining heat
to the sea after the work is done.
The Carnot Cycle
The second law states that it is impossible to build a 100 % efficient heat
engine. So, what is the most efficient engine that can be built and what is its
efficiency? Scientists and engineers have pursued ways to increase the efficiency
of the heat engines ever since the invention of the steam engine. Eventually, a
French engineer named Sadi Carnot (1796-1832) demonstrated what it takes to
make the most efficient heat engine. Carnot proved that it is not possible to build
a heat engine more efficient than the Carnot cycle, which is named after him.
The Carnot cycle is an ideal cycle, in other words, it has no application in real
life.
The Carnot cycle consists of two adiabatic and two isothermal processes. As
seen in Figure 13.16, starting from point a at the high temperature T H , expansion
at constant temperature (isothermal) takes place along the path ab, after which
cooling takes place through adiabatic expansion until the temperature TC is
reached along the path bc, and then isothermal compression takes place along the
path cd, until, finally, the cycle is completed with adiabatic compression along
the path da.
In order to calculate the efficiency of the Carnot cycle, let us examine where Figure 13.16: The Carnot cycle.
heat is received and where it is given off. As Q = 0 in adiabatic processes, heat
exchange occurs only during the isothermal processes. The gas receives heat
during the ab process, because it expands, and it gives off heat to the environment
during the cd process. Therefore, the heat received from the hot source along the
path ab will be equal to QH and the heat given off to the cold source along the
path cd will be QC .
As ∆T = 0 in isothermal processes, we get ∆E=0 . Therefore, according to
the first law ∆E=Q−W , we get Q=W in isothermal processes. We can therefore
directly calculate work using Eq. (13.3), rather than the heat:
Vb
The isothermal process ab: QH = Wab = nRT H ln
Va
Vd
The isothermal process cd: QC = Wcd = nRTC ln
Vc
We use these values in the definition of efficiency. Since Vd < Vc in the last
expression, the heat Qc will be negative. We make the logarithm positive as
ln(Vd /Vc ) = − ln(Vc /Vd ) :
|QC | TC ln(Vc /Vd )
e=1− =1−
|QH | T H ln(Vb /Va )
234 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Now let us use the formula T V γ−1 = constant for the paths bc and da :
γ−1 γ−1
T H Vb = T C Vc
γ−1 γ−1
T H Va = T C Vd
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which is the first law of thermodynamics?
6. Which of the following is the efficiency of a heat engine?
(a) ∆E = Q + W
(b) ∆E = Q − W (a) Ratio of the work performed to the heat received by
(c) ∆W = E − Q the gas.
(d) ∆Q = E − W (b) Ratio of the work performed to the heat given by
the gas.
2. Which is correct for the second law of thermodynamics? (c) Ratio of the work done to the total heat.
(a) Received heat can be fully converted into work. (d) Ratio of the work performed to the internal energy.
(b) The difference between received heat and given heat
is converted into work. 7. Which of the following is correct?
(c) The sum of received heat and given heat is converted (a) A gas performs work if it is heating.
into work. (b) A gas performs work if it is cooling.
(d) It is not possible to fully convert received heat into (c) A gas performs work if it is expanding.
work. (d) A gas performs work if its pressure is increasing.
3. Which is correct for the adiabatic process?
8. The volume of a gas is increased by 2 m3 at a constant
(a) Gas performs no work.
pressure of 10 Pa . How much work will the gas per-
(b) Gas exchanges no heat.
form?
(c) Internal energy does not increase.
(d) Internal energy does not change. (a) 5 J (b) 1/5 J (c) 12 J (d) 20 J
4. Which is correct for the isothermal process? 9. A gas with 3 m3 in volume and 2 atm in pressure is
(a) The volume remains constant. heated at constant volume to increase its pressure to
(b) The pressure remains constant. 10 atm . How much work will the gas perform?
(c) The temperature remains constant. (a) 0 (b) 18 J (c) 12 J (d) 30 J
(d) Gas exchanges no heat.
10. A gas receives 50 J of heat and performs 30 J of work.
5. Which of the following is the formula for the work per-
What is the change in internal energy?
formed by a gas?
(a) P dV (b) V dP (c) V/dP (d) dP/V (a) -20 J (b) 20 J (c) 80 J (d) -80 J
PROBLEMS 235
11. The internal energy of an ideal gas changes with which II. There can be no heat engine more efficient than the
of the following? Carnot cycle.
(a) Temperature. III. The Carnot cycle has 100 % efficiency.
(b) Volume. IV. The Carnot cycle is used in industry. .
(c) Pressure. (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & IV (d) I & IV
(d) All of the above.
12. What is the relation between cv , the specific heat at 17. The molecules of which of the three gases, hydrogen
constant volume, and c p , the specific heat at constant (H2 ) , oxygen (O2 ) and carbon dioxide (CO2 ) at the
pressure of an ideal gas? same temperature have higher root-mean-square speed?
(a) c p =cv (b) c p =2cv (c) c p =cv +R (d) cv =c p +R (a) H2 (b) O2 (c) CO2 (d) Equal
Problems
13.2 A cylinder contains 5 moles of gas at a temperature of 13.3 Calculate the work performed by the gas during all
27 ◦ C . 2000 J of work is externally performed on this gas three processes ( abd, acd, ad ) shown in the P - V diagram
under constant pressure. What will the final temperature of above.
the gas be? [A: 348 K .] [A: Wabd = 2800 kJ , Wacd = 800 kJ , Wad = 1800 kJ .]
236 13. THE LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
Problem 13.4
Problem 13.9
13.4 A gas expands from volume V1 =1 m3 to volume 13.9 We had previously seen that 1 mole of monatomic ideal
V2 =2 m3 along the curve P=4 V 3 −3 (Pa) shown in the figure gas at STP conditions ( 0 ◦ C and 1 atm ) has a volume of 22.4 L
above. Calculate the work performed by the gas. [A: 12 J .] (point a in the figure above). The volume of this gas is in-
creased by a factor of 5 in two different ways: The process ab
13.2-3-4 Internal Energy - First Law of Thermo- is isothermal ( T =constant ) and the process ac is adiabatic
dynamics and Applications ( ∆Q=0 ). Calculate and compare the work performed by the
gas in both cases. ( cv =3R/2, γ=1.4 .)
[A: Isothermal 3700 J , adiabatic 1600 J , isothermal work is
13.5 As a gas is heated by being given 3000 J of energy, it
always greater.]
simultaneously performs 500 J of work. What is the change
in the internal energy of the gas? [A: ∆E = +2500 J ] 13.10 A cylinder contains 3 moles of diatomic gas at a tem-
perature of 27 ◦ C ( cv =5R/2 ). 1000 J of work is externally
13.6 A monatomic gas of 4 moles is heated by giving it 800 J performed on this gas under constant pressure. (a) What will
under constant pressure. ( cv =3R/2 , c p =5R/2 .) (a) What will the final temperature of the gas be? (b) What will the internal
the temperature increase ∆T be? (b) What will the increase in energy be? (c) How much heat has the gas received or given
internal energy be? (c) How much work will the gas perform? off? (Notice that the work is negative.)
[A: (a) 9.6 K , (b) 480 J , (c) 320 J .] [A: (a) 260 K , (b) ∆E = −2500 J , (c) Q = −3500 J has been
given off.]
the gas exert on the piston? (The mass of the oxygen molecule on the left in the figure above and mark them in the table on
is 5.3 × 10−26 kg .) [A: (a) 5.3 × 10−23 N , (b) 1600 Pa .) the right.
13.14 What are the root-mean-square speeds of oxygen gas
(O2 ) , which has molar a mass 32 g , and of nitrogen gas (N2 ) ,
which has a molar mass 28 g , at the temperature at which
the root-mean-square speed of argon gas (Ar) , which has a
molar mass 40 g , is 200 m/s ? [A: 224 and 239 m/s .]
13.15 A container with 5 L of volume contains 3 moles of he-
lium gas (He) at 127 ◦ C in temperature ( MH =4 g ). (a) What
is the total kinetic energy of the gas molecules? (b) What is
the root-mean-square speed of molecules?
[A: (a) 15 kJ , (b) 1580 m/s .] Problem 13.19
13.19 A gas with γ=c p /cv =1.67 undergoes a 3-step cycle
13.5 Heat Engines
as shown in the figure above. It is compressed adiabatically
13.16 (a) A heat engine receives 5000 J in heat from a hot along the path ab , then expanded at constant pressure along
source and releases 2000 J in heat to the environment. What the path bc , and finally cooled at constant volume along the
is the efficiency of the machine? (b) A heat engine oper- path ca . T a =300 K , T b =400 K and T c =600 K . Calculate the
ating with 20% efficiency performs 300 J of work in one efficiency of the cycle. [A: 10 % .]
cycle. How much heat does this machine release into the
environment? [A: (a) 60 % , (b) 1200 J .)
Problem 13.20
13.20 Diesel cycle. Calculate the efficiency of the Diesel
Problem 13.18 cycle shown in the figure in which T a =300 K , T b =900 K ,
13.18 Determine the sign of heat ( Q ), work ( W ) and internal T c =1400 K and T d =700 K . ( γ=c p /cv =1.4 for air)
energy increase ( ∆E ) in each step of the cycle ABC shown [A: 43 % .]
14
THE ELECTRIC FIELD
Gravitation was the first force to be discovered among the fundamental forces
of nature. Electricity and magnetism only came to be understood later, around
the 1600s. But electric and magnetic forces shape natural events and play a major
role, perhaps the most significant role for living things and for technology. The
nervous system in the human body operates with electric currents and the oxygen
exchange in blood takes place with electric potential differences. Light bulbs,
radios, televisions and other appliances facilitate domestic life; electric motors
and electronic components in technology are included in the structure of all kinds
of instruments and machinery.
Gravitational force may hold our solar system and much larger galaxies
together. But it is the electric force that keeps atoms and molecules together to
form living bodies and organisms. With this new force, a new property of matter,
called the electric charge, arises in two forms, positive and negative.
Then, moving charges produce another fundamental force, called magnetism.
The sciences of electricity and magnetism first developed independently, and
were later united into a single theory, called electromagnetism. We will first
discuss the basic concepts and laws of electricity in this chapter and then those
of magnetism in subsequent chapters.
• There are two types of electric charge with opposite signs. Only in
this way can one accommodate the attractive and repulsive forces that arise
in electricity. These were called positive and negative charges. Among the
elementary particles that were discovered later, protons (p+ ) were assumed
to be positively charged and electrons (e− ) to be negatively charged. We must
emphasize that this is only an assumption. Today, scientists consider that this
assumption was unfortunate, and that it would have been more practical to
assume electrons as positive. Indeed, in the majority of electrical phenomena,
it is usually electrons that move in matter and positively charged protons
and ions that are stationary, as they are heavier. As we shall discuss later,
the electric current is actually a flow of electrons in the inverse direction.
• Electric charge is conserved. In other words, the algebraic sum of the
electric charges in an isolated system is constant. For example, if -3 units of
charge are added to an object with +5 units of charge, the object’s net charge
will be +2 units. Objects accepted as neutral actually have both positive and
negative charges and seem neutral because they are in equal amount. If some
negative charge is taken away from such a neutral object, the object will be
positively charged.
Figure 14.4: Electron-positron In modern physics, charge conservation is not only algebraic, but also valid
pair production at Lawrence on a much more fundamental scale. Electron-positron pairs ( e− e+ ) can be
Berkeley National Lab. produced in vacuum in experiments conducted with elementary particles
14.1. ELECTRIC CHARGE 241
(Figure 14.4). As the charge of the positron is equal and opposite to the
electron, the net charge remains zero and charge conservation is respected.
• Electric charge of objects is always a multiple of an elementary
charge. It was observed that electric charge does not change continuously,
but varies as multiples of a minimum charge. In the terminology of modern
physics, it is said that electric charge is quantized. This elementary charge
is indicated with e . The electron charge (−e) and the proton charge (+e)
are exactly equal and opposite.
In today’s modern physics, this is actually not exactly correct. Particles called
quarks, considered to be the building blocks of elementary particles, are
thought to be charged as e/3 or 2e/3 , in other words, as fractions of the
electron charge. However, these quarks have not yet been observed directly. Figure 14.5: According to mod-
ern physics, a proton consists of
• Unit of electric charge. In the SI system, the unit of electric charge is the
3 quarks with fractional charges.
Coulomb (C). The value of the elementary charge e is as follows:
• You should also know that the fundamental electrical unit in the SI system is
not the Coulomb. Instead, the ampere (A), the unit of current, is chosen as
the fundamental unit. The reason for this is that, in practice, it is easier to
measure current than charge. We shall define the ampere in Chapter 20.
Conductors and Insulators – Structure of the Atom
Let us take an object charged through friction and place it next to a neutral
object. When we connect these two objects with a copper rod, we observe that
some of the electric charge is transferred to the neutral object. However, when
we connect these two objects with a plastic rod, we observe that no charge is
transferred and the neutral object remains neutral.
Figure 14.6: Example of a con-
ductor and an insulator: The cop-
per rod conducts the charge and
the plastic does not.
This experiment shows that metals such as copper and iron easily conduct
electricity and substances such as glass do not conduct electricity at all. All
materials show either conductor or insulator properties in terms of electrical
conductivity. All metals are conductors. On the other hands, insulators may
become conductors under very high charge accumulations.
Other than these, there are semiconductor materials developed in labo-
ratories and used in electronic devices. Also, many elements can switch to a
superconductor state at very low temperatures. These two types of materials
cannot be explained with classical electromagnetism and must be analyzed with
modern quantum theory.
The reason why a material is a good or bad conductor can be understood by
examining the structure of the atom. As explained by modern quantum theory, the
242 14. THE ELECTRIC FIELD
k = 8.99 × 109 ≈ 9 × 109 N·m2 /C2 (14.3) Figure 14.10: Coulomb’s law.
Unlike charges attract, like
The approximate value will be used in the problems. charges repel.
1 1
k= ↔ ε0 = = 8.85 × 10−12 C2 /(N·m2 ) (14.4)
4π ε0 4π k
The constant ε0 is called the electric permittivity of free space.
Coulomb Force for a System of Charges
If there are more than two charges in an environment, the net force on any
charge is the vector sum of the forces that the other charges exert upon it. For
example, consider four charges as q1 , q2 , q3 and q4 . The net force exerted upon
one of these, for example, upon q1 , is written as follows:
Figure 14.11: System of
~F1 = ~F12 + ~F13 + ~F14 (14.5) charges.
We take the vector sum of the forces Fi j after finding their magnitudes using the
Coulomb’s law.
Example 14.1
We calculate the magnitudes of both forces with the
Coulomb’s law. The signs of the charges are ignored when
calculating the magnitudes:
q1 q3 (4 × 10−6 ) × (2 × 10−6 )
F1 = k 2 = 9 × 109 ×
r1 (0.01 + 0.04)2
Calculate the total force exerted upon the charge q3 = 2 µC by
the charges q1 = 4 µC and q2 = −3 µC shown in the figure. F1 = 29 N
q2 q3 (3 × 10−6 ) × (2 × 10−6 )
Answer F2 = k 2 = 9 × 109 ×
Charges with the same sign repel and charges with opposite r2 0.042
signs attract each other. Accordingly, the directions of the F2 = 34 N
force F1 exerted by the charge q1 and the force F2 exerted We find the total force by taking the positive x -direction
by the charge q2 are shown on the right-hand side of the towards the right:
figure. F = F1 − F2 = 29 − 34 = −5 N .
Example 14.2
charge q3 = +4 µC .
(b) Find the magnitude and direction of the total force.
Answer
(a) The figure shows the forces ~F1 and ~F2 exerted by the
charges q1 and q2 . We first calculate the magnitudes of
these forces:
q1 q3 (3 × 10−6 ) × (4 × 10−6 )
F1 = k 2 = 9 × 109 ×
For the charges q1 = − 3 µC and q2 = + 2 µC in the figure, r1 0.052
(a) Calculate the components of the total force acting on the F1 = 43 N
244 14. THE ELECTRIC FIELD
q2 q3 (2 × 10−6 ) × (4 × 10−6 ) (b) We calculate the magnitude and angle of the force with
F2 = k = 9 × 109 ×
r22 0.032 the known qcomponents:
F2 = 80 N F = F 2x + Fy2 = 64 N
The total force is ~F = ~F1 +~F2 , and we calculate its components
Fy −35
as follows: tan θ = = = −0.65 → θ = −33◦
F x = F2 − F1 cos 53 = 80 − 43 × 0.6 = 54 N
◦ F x 54
Fy = −F1 sin 53◦ = −43 × 0.8 = −35 N
Example 14.3
Only the forces they exert at the points in between will be in
the opposite directions. Let x be the coordinate of the point
upon which the forces cancel each other out. Accordingly,
we write the total force and set it as equal to zero:
q1 q3 q2 q3
F1 = F2 → k 2 = k
x (1 − x)2
Simplifying, we get a quadratic equation:
q1 q2
The distance between the charges q1 = + 1 mC and q2 = + 9 mC = → (q2 − q1 ) x2 + 2q1 x − q1 = 0
x2 (1 − x)2
shown in the figure is 1 m . Where should a third charge q3 be
8x2 + 2x − 1 = 0
placed such that the net force exerted on it is zero?
The roots of this equation are −0.5 and +0.25 . We will not
Answer consider the negative root, as it will be outside of the charges.
As the charges q1 and q2 have the same sign, they exert Therefore, the solution is the positive root:
force in the same direction upon the charges on the outside. x = 0.25 m .
• An electric field can also be considered as the “force acting on a unit charge.”
• The unit of electric field is newton/coulomb (N/C) .
• The positive test charge q0 used in the definition is selected as very small, in
order not to disturb the distribution of the electric field in the environment.
In a more correct definition, it would be necessary to take the limit q0 → 0 ,
but we will not worry about this detail.
• According to this definition, the electric field ~E and the force vector ~F on
a charge q will have the same direction if the charge q is positive, and the
opposite direction if negative. An easy-to-remember rule is derived from
this:
Positive charges always try to go along with and negative charges always try to
go opposite to the electric field.
Electric Field of a Point Charge
As the simplest case, let us calculate the electric field produced by a point
charge q located at the origin, at a point with position vector ~r . According to
the definition, we place a positive test charge q0 at position ~r and examine the
force exerted upon it (Figure 14.14). If we write Coulomb’s law for the charges q
and q0 , the magnitude of the force is
qq0
F=k 2
r
From here, according to the definition of the electric field, we find that
F kq Figure 14.14: Electric field of a
E= = 2 point charge.
q0 r
The direction of this electric field depends on the sign of charge q (Figure 14.15):
If q is positive, it will be away from the origin, in other words, in the same
direction as ~r , as it shall repel the other positive test charge q0 . If q is negative,
it will attract the test charge, q0 , in other words, the force will be towards the
origin and in the direction of −~r .
If ~r1 ,~r2 . . .~rN are the position vectors of point P as measured from each charge,
Figure 14.16: The electric field and if we use the unit vectors along them, we get
of multiple point charges.
~EP = kq1 r̂1 + kq2 r̂2 + · · · + kqN r̂N = k
X qi
r̂i (14.9)
r12 r22 rN2 i
ri2
Let us draw the electric field of a point charge at a few points by going
further away from the charge (Figure 14.17a). The lengths of these ~E vectors will
gradually get smaller. Now, we draw a single line connecting successive vectors
in a given direction, extending from the origin to infinity (Figure 14.17b). We do
the same thing in another direction. We thus obtain a bundle that spreads out
from the origin like light beams. We put an arrow indicating the direction of the
electric field on each of these lines.
This simple example shows how to draw and interpret the field lines in the
most general case:
• At any given point, the electric field vector ~E is tangent to the field lines. The
arrow on the field lines determines the direction towards which we will draw
the tangent.
• The magnitude of the electric field at any point is proportional to the density
of the field lines around that point. For example, the electric field of a point
14.3. ELECTRIC FIELD 247
charge decreases with distance from the origin; therefore, the field lines also
diverge from each other. In Figure 14.18, the electric field at point A is greater
than that at point B.
• The electric field will be towards the origin at each point if the point charge
at the origin is a negative. Therefore, electric field lines start at positive charges
and end at negative charges or at infinity. Figure 14.18: At which point
• Electric field lines never intersect. If the opposite was true, it would be as if is the magnitude of the electric
field greater?
there could be two tangents, in other words, two electric fields at that point.
Example 14.4
We substitute the values and calculate q :
1.52 × 10000
(a) The magnitude of the electric field is measured as q= = 2.5 × 10−6 C = 2.5 µC
10 000 N/C at a distance of 1.5 m from a point charge. 9 × 109
What is the charge? (b) The force acting on the charge qe in the field ~E is ~F=qe ~E .
(b) What is the force exerted on an electron placed at 1 mm If we write the expression for the electric field E of a point
distance from such a charge? (Electron charge: qe = − e charge, the magnitude of the force is as follows:
= − 1.6×10−19 C ). kq
F = |qe |E = e 2
r
Answer Substituting the value q found in item (a), the electron charge
(a) We write the expression for the electric field at distance r e and the distance r = 0.001 m , we calculate the force as fol-
from a point charge q and solve for q : lows:
9 × 109 × 2.5 × 10−6
kq r2 E F = 1.6 × 10−19 × = 3.6 × 10−9 N .
E= 2 → q= 0.0012
r k
Example 14.5
opposite to the field ~E , in other words, downward. We write
Newton’s second law:
qE
F = ma → qE = ma → a =
m
This acceleration will be downward. We substitute the values
and calculate the acceleration:
1.6 × 10−19 × 10
There is a vertically upward constant electric field E=10 N/C a= = 1.8 × 1012 m/s2
9.1 × 10−31
in a region. An electron is thrown with a horizontal velocity
(b) This is a projectile motion problem with the acceleration
of v0 =106 m/s at a height of h=2 m from the ground. (For the
g replaced by acceleration a . We find the range R by finding
electron, me =9.1 × 10−31 kg and qe = − e = −1.6 × 10−19 C .)
the time t from the vertical component of the motion and
Ignoring gravitational force,
using it in the horizontal motion:
(a) What is the acceleration of the electron? p
(b) Calculate the horizontal range of the electron. h = 12 at2 → t = 2h/a
p
Answer R = v0 t = vr
0 2h/a
Example 14.6
charges and inwards towards negative charges. Accordingly,
the fields ~E1 and ~E2 at points A and B are shown below:
Example 14.7
the charges q1 and q2 at point P.
We first calculate the magnitudes of these fields separately:
kq1 9 × 109 × 5 × 10−6
E1 = = = 1800 N/C
r12 52
kq2 9 × 109 × 3 × 10−6
E2 = 2 = = 1690 N/C
r2 42
We then calculate the components of the vector ~E = ~E1 + ~E2 :
E x = E1 cos 53◦ = 1800 × 0.6 = 1080 N/C
Calculate the components of the total electric field due to charges Ey = E1 sin 53◦ − E2 = 1800 × 0.8 − 1690 = −250 N/C .
q1 = 5 µC and q2 = −3 µC at point P . According to this result, as the x -component is positive and
Answer the y -component is negative, the vector ~E is in the 4th quad-
The figure shows the electric fields ~E1 and ~E2 produced by rant of the plane.
Example 14.8
we can mutually decrease the charges at diagonally opposite
The figure shows the charges q, 2q, 3q and 4q respectively sides of point P . We get the following in the end:
placed on the corners of a square with side length a . Calculate
the electric field at point P in the center of the square.
Example 14.9
electric dipole. The properties of this neutral system is important
in many applications.
The electric field of the dipole plays an important role in the
structure of matter. The attraction between neutral molecules,
the operating principle of radio and TV antennas, the behavior
of dielectric materials, etc., all result from the electric properties
of dipoles.
(a) Find the expression for the total electric field at point P
located at distance r from the perpendicular bisector of
the charges.
Electric dipole. The system consisting of two equal and oppo- (b) Find the limit of the electric field very far away from the
site ±q charges with a small distance a in between is called an dipole, when r a .
14.3. ELECTRIC FIELD 249
Then, the approximate expression becomes exactly correct at the limit ∆qi → 0
and the sum turns into an integral:
X k ∆qi
~E = lim r̂i
∆qi →0
i
ri2
Z
~E = k dq
r̂ (continuous charge distribution) (14.11)
r2
250 14. THE ELECTRIC FIELD
This vector integral should not be confused with the one-dimensional integral
with which we are familiar. The contribution of each charge item is in a different
direction and a separate integral is required for each of their components. We
shall see how this is performed in the worked examples below.
Charge Densities
Distribution of a continuous charge over a region can be expressed more
clearly using the concept of charge density. This will make it easier to incorporate
the charge element dq into the integral expression above.
Let us review possible charge distributions and their corresponding charge
densities (Figure 14.20):
• Linear charge density (λ) : If the total charge Q is evenly distributed over
a rod with length L , the linear charge density is
Q
λ= (unit: C/m) (14.12)
L
• Surface charge density (σ) : If the total charge Q is evenly distributed
over a surface A , the surface charge density is
Q
σ= (unit: C/m2 ) (14.13)
A
• Volume charge density (ρ) : If the total charge Q is evenly distributed in
a volume V , the volume charge density is
Q
ρ= (unit: C/m3 ) (14.14)
V
With the above definitions of charge densities, we can express the charge element
dq in terms of either line, surface or volume elements ( dL, dA, dV ), depending
on the given distribution, as will be seen in the worked examples below:
dq = λ dL dq = σ dA dq = ρ dV (14.15)
Example 14.10
Example 14.11 Q
dq = ds
2πR
Ring of charge. A total charge Q is evenly distributed over a kQ ds
thin wire bent into a ring with radius R . Calculate the electric dE =
2πR h + R2
2
field at a point P located at distance h on the axis of the ring.
As the piece of arc ds rotates around the circle, the perpen-
dicular components dE⊥ of these small contributions dE
will cancel each other out due to symmetry. However, the
dE x components shall always be added in the same direction.
Therefore, the total electric field will be the integral of these
dE x components:
Z
E⊥ = dE⊥ = 0
ds cos θ
Z Z Z
kQ
E= dE x = dE cos θ =
2πR h2 + R2 √
Answer If we substitute the cosine of the angle as cos θ=h/ h2 + R2
According to the coordinate system in the figure, let us con- and take all of the constants Zout of the integral, we get
sider a piece of arc with length ds on the circle. We write the kQ h
E= · 2 ds
contribution of the small charge dq on this arc to the electric 2πR (h + R2 )3/2
field at point P: The integral, in other words, the sum of the arcs ds around
k dq k dq the circle, will be the circumference 2πR of the circle. We
dE = 2 = 2 simplify and find the electric field of the ring:
r h + R2
If the circle with circumference 2πR has total charge Q , the E= 2
kQh
amount of charge on the arc ds is calculated by proportioning (h + R2 )3/2
and then substituted: The electric field will be perpendicular to the ring.
Example 14.12
ring in the previous example. Consider a ring at a radius r
with thickness dr in the small interval [r, r + dr] .
Charged disk. Calculate the electric field at a point P located
If we use dq to show the small amount of charge on this ring,
at distance h along the axis of a disk with radius R and with
according to the previous example, its contribution to the
charge Q distributed evenly along its surface.
electric charge at point P will be as follows:
kh dq
dE = 2
(h + r2 )3/2
In order to find the amount of charge dq , let us calculate the
surface area of the piece with thickness dr : If we cut this
ring out and spread, we get a long thin rectangle with width
dr and length 2πr . Its surface area will be approximately
2πr dr . If a disk with surface area πR2 has a total charge of
Answer Q , we find the amount of charge on this small surface and
We can solve this problem using the result for the charged substitute it as follows:
252 14. THE ELECTRIC FIELD
Q We define the variable u = r2 + h2 and calculate du :
dq = 2πr dr
πR2 u = r2 + h2 → du = 2r dr
kQh 2r dr
dE = 2 (along the axis) The integral simplifies with this variable u :
R (h + r2 )3/2
2 Z ! R
kQh kQh 2 kQh 2
As the contributions of these small rings are always in the E= 2 −3/2
du= 2 − √ = 2 − √
u
R R R r2 + h2 0
same direction, we can directly integrate to find the total elec- u
Substituting the limit values and simplifying, we find the
tric field, without any need to separate it into its components:
Z R electric field of the charged disk:
kQh 2r dr
E= 2 2 + r 2 )3/2 2kQ
"
h
#
R 0 (h E = 2 1− √
This can be calculated using the change of variable method. R h2 + R2
Example 14.13
charge density σ . If the disk’s total charge is Q and its
Infinite plane of charge. Calculate the electric field at dis- surface area is πR2 , its surface charge density will be
Q
tance h from an infinite plane that has a constant surface σ=
charge density σ . πR2
We solve this expression for Q and substitute. Also, let us
express the constant k as k =# 1/4πε0 :
σ
"
h
E= 1− √
2ε0 h + R2
2
Now, what will happen if the radius R of the disk goes to in-
finity with the surface charge density σ remaining constant?
No difference remains between the infinite disk and the infi-
Answer nite plane. Therefore, this expression gives the electric field
of the infinite plane at the limit R → ∞ . The second term
We can solve this problem using the result of the charged
inside of the brackets becomes zero when the limit R → ∞
disk in the previous example. Let us write the electric field
is taken. We thus find the electric field of the infinite plane
expression that we found above for a charged disk with radius
of charge:
R: σ
E=
" #
2kQ h
E = 2 1− √ 2ε0
R h2 + R2 Note that the electric field is independent of h and has the
First, let us write this electric field expression in terms of constant value σ/2ε0 everywhere.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following are correct for the electric
(a) The force on charge A is greater.
charge?
(b) The force on charge B is greater.
I. The smallest charge is 1 Coulomb.
(c) The forces are equal.
II. There is no smallest charge, it continuously increases
(d) It is impossible to tell.
or decreases.
III. The smallest charge is the electron. 5. Which of the following are correct about the relation
IV. The charge varies as multiples of the electron charge. between the structure of the atom and conductivity?
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) III & IV (d) I & IV I. The electrons at the outermost orbit are weakly bonded
in conductors.
2. Which of the following carries current in conductors? II. The electrons at the outermost orbit are strongly
(a) Electron (b) Proton (c) Ion (d) Neutron bonded in insulators.
III. The electrons at the innermost orbit are weakly
3. What is the direction of the force acting on an electron bonded in conductors.
placed at a point at which the electric field is towards IV. The electrons at the innermost orbit are weakly
the right? bonded in insulators.
(a) Right (b) Left (c) Up (d) Down (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & IV (d) I & IV
4. Which of the following is true if charge qA = +3 C and 6. Which of the following are correct?
charge qB = +2 C interact? I. A neutral object has no electrical charge.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 253
Problems
Problem 14.2
14.2 Calculate the total force exerted upon the charge
q3 =3 µC by the charges q1 =5 µC and q2 = − 4 µC shown
Problem 14.8
in the figure. [A: 420 N .]
14.8 The charges q1 =3 µC and q2 = − 8 µC in the figure
are tied to each other with a rope of length 1 m . These two
charges are placed in a region with a uniform electric field of
E=5 × 106 N/C and the charge q1 is nailed and fixed to its
location. Calculate the tension in the rope. [A: T = 40 N .]
Problem 14.3
14.3 (a) Calculate the components of the total force exerted
upon the charge q3 = + 3 µC by the charges q1 = + 5 µC and
q2 = − 2 µC in the figure. (b) Find its magnitude and direction.
[A: (a) F x =43, Fy = − 27 N , (b) F=51 N and −33◦ ]
Problem 14.9
14.9 There is a vertically downward constant electric field
E = 1000 N/C in a region. A proton is thrown with a hori-
Problem 14.4 zontal velocity of v0 =106 m/s at a height of h=1 m from the
14.4 The distance between the charges q1 = + 9 mC and ground. (a) What is the acceleration of the proton? (b) Cal-
q2 = − 4 mC shown in the figure is 2 m . Where should a third culate the horizontal range of the proton. ( m=1.7 × 10−27 kg
charge q3 be placed such that the net force exerted upon it and q = e = 1.6 × 10−19 C for the proton and ignore gravity.)
is zero? [A: 4 m to the right of q2 .] [A: (a) 9.4 × 1010 m/s2 , (b) R = 4.6 m .]
Problem 14.10
14.10 Calculate the total electric field of the charges q1 and
Problem 14.5
q2 shown in the figure at points A and B .
14.5 The two identical spheres shown in the figure with mass [A: (a) −1380 N/C , (b) +4430 N/C .]
m=30 g and charge q are suspended from the ceiling with
two ropes of length L=1 m . What is the charge of the spheres
if the ropes each have an angle of 37◦ with the vertical in
equilibrium? [A: |q| = 6 µC .]
As E=0 for h=0 and for h→∞ , the electric field must be at
a maximum at a point in between. At what distance h will
the electric field be at a maximum? (Hint: The first derivative
√
is zero at the maximum.) [A: h = R/ 2 .]
Problem 14.12
14.12 Two equal charges +q , with a small distance a in be-
tween are shown in the figure. (a) Find the expression for the
electric field at distance of r from the perpendicular bisector
of the charges. (b) What will the limit of the electric field be Problem 14.17
when r a ? [A: (a) 2kqr/(r2 + a2 /4)3/2 , (b) 2kq/r2 .]
14.17 Find the total electric field in the region between the
two parallel planes shown in the figure above with surface
density ±σ . (Hint: Use the result from Example 14.13.)
[A: σ/ε0 .]
Problem 14.13
14.13 What is the electric field at point P of the isosceles Problem 14.18
triangle shown in the figure? [A: 2kq/a2 .] 14.18 The figure shows two infinite wires placed in parallel
at a distance of 2a and with linear charge densities ±λ . Find
the total electric field at the point P in the center. (Hint: Use
the result from Example 14.10.) [A: 4kλ/a .]
Problem 14.14
14.14 The figure shows the charges at the corners of a regu- Problem 14.19
lar hexagon with side length a . Calculate the electric field at 14.19 The figure shows a finite line of charge with length a
point P in the center of the hexagon. and uniform linear charge density λ . Use integration to cal-
[A: E = 2kq/a2 to the right.] culate the electric field at point P located along the extension
of the wire at distance a . [A: E = kλ/2a .]
Problem 14.15
14.15 The regular pentagon shown in the figure with side
length a has equal charges q on all but one corner. Calculate Problem 14.20
the electric field at point P in the center of the pentagon.
14.20 The inner radius of the hollow disk shown in the figure
(Hint: Use symmetry.) [A: E = 1.38kq/a2 upwards.]
is a and its outer radius is b . The total charge Q is evenly
14.16 In example 14.11, the expression for the electric field distributed over the surface of the disk. Calculate the electric
of a charged ring with radius R , at distance h along its axis field at distance h along the disk axis. (Hint: Use the method
was found to be in example 14.12.)
kQh 2kQ h h
E= 2 [A: E = 2 √ − √ .]
(h + R2 )3/2 b − a2 a2 + h2 b2 + h2
15
GAUSS’S LAW
The number of these field lines that pass through the surface A will be propor-
tional to the electric field, the surface area and the angle all at once. Accordingly,
the electric flux indicated with the symbol Φ is defined as follows (Figure 15.2):
Φ = E A cos θ = E⊥ A (15.1)
Here, θ is the angle between the vector ~E and the normal vector n̂ . The normal
vector is the unit vector perpendicular to the surface at that point.
Figure 15.2: Electric flux. This definition effectively shows that: (a) When θ=0 (or, the field lines are
perpendicular to the surface), we have maximum flux Φ = EA , and (b) When
θ=90◦ (or, the field lines are parallel to the surface), we have Φ=0 . The coefficient
cos θ in this definition also shows that, if the flux of a vector passing through the
surface in one direction is positive, the flux of a vector passing in the opposite
direction ( θ=180◦ ) will be negative. In general, flux flowing outward from a
closed surface is considered to be positive and that flowing inward to be negative.
The definition above is for a constant field ~E . The flux of a variable electric
field passing through a surface of any shape is defined with an integral. In order
to set it up, we divide the surface A into infinitely small ∆Ai elements and use
the flux definition above for each element. The total flux is the limit sum of these
fluxes as ∆Ai → 0 , in other words, the integral:
X Z
Φ = lim Ei ∆Ai cos θi = E dA cos θ
∆Ai →0 surface
i
This is usually a double integral, as it must be taken over the entire surface. If the
surface A is closed, a circle is added to the integral sign to indicate it:
I
Φ= E dA cos θ (electric flux) (15.2)
surface
The field E and the angle θ inside of the integral are usually variable, and
therefore not taken outside of the integral.
If we substitute E = kq/r2 for the electric field of a point charge r and A = 4πr2
for the surface area of a sphere, we get
kq
Φ=EA = 4π rS
S
2
rS2
q
E A = 4πk q =
ε0
In this last expression, we replaced the constant k = 1/4πε0 with the permittivity
of free space ε0 .
This result is rather remarkable. While both the electric field and the surface
area on the left-hand side are dependent on the distance r , on the right-hand
side, we get a result that is independent of the distance r and only proportional
to the charge q inside! Of course, we can see how this happens: As the field E is
inversely proportional to r2 and the surface area A is directly proportional to r2 ,
they cancel each other out in the product.
We can argue the case that this result will be valid for all closed surfaces and
for all charge distributions as follows:
• The result would be the same if the charge q was not located at the center
of the sphere (Figure 15.4a). Although the field lines that pass through the
surface are more frequent in one place and sparser in another, the number of
lines that cross the surface is still the same.
• The result would be the same if there was any other closed surface around
q instead of a sphere (Figure 15.4b). The total number of lines crossing this
surface will still be equal to that crossing the sphere.
• The situation is different if the charge q is outside of the Gaussian surface
(Figure 15.4c). In this case, each field line entering the spherical surface will
come out somewhere else. Therefore, the sum of positive and negative fluxes
will be zero.
Z
Φ= E dA cos θ = 0 (Charge outside Gaussian surface)
In the light of this analysis, we can express Gauss’s law as follows without
proof:
Gauss’s Law
The net electric flux over any closed surface is proportional to
the net charge inside of the surface:
I
qinside
E dA cos θ = (15.3)
surface ε0
260 15. GAUSS’S LAW
The charge qinside on the right-hand side of the equation is the algebraic sum
of the charges inside the Gaussian surface.
Let us emphasize the important points of Gauss’s law:
• Although the law is expressed as an integral, we will actually avoid it through
symmetry considerations. If the given charges are symmetrically distributed,
we choose such a Gaussian surface that the field E remains the same on this
surface, and can thus be taken outside of the integral. The remaining integral
will usually be much easier to calculate.
• Regardless of how much charge is present outside of the Gaussian surface, in
the end, only the net charge inside of the surface is included in the formula.
It may seem surprising that the left-hand side of the formula has the total
electric field and the right-hand side has the sum of the charges inside, but it
is correct.
• Selection of the Gaussian surface is arbitrary and any surface can be chosen.
However, the surface must be closed for the law to be valid. Otherwise, the
flux passing through the open part will not be counted.
Example 15.1
the surface: I
qinside
Calculate the total electric flux passing through the closed sur- Φ= E dA cos θ =
faces S 1 and S 2 shown in the figure, with q = 1 µC . surface ε0
Therefore, it is sufficient to calculate flux from the right-hand
side of this equation. The surface S 1 contains only the charge
q:
q 1 × 10−6
Φ1 = = = 1.1 × 105 N·m2 /C
ε0 8.85 × 10−12
Answer The surface S 2 contains both charges:
According to Gauss’s law, the electric flux passing through q + 3q
Φ2 = = 4.4 × 105 N·m2 /C
a closed surface is proportional only to the charge inside of ε0
Example 15.2
of the cube by integration, because the electric field varies
everywhere on this face. However, the problem becomes easy
if we consider symmetry. All six faces of the cube are equiv-
alent with respect to charge q . Therefore, the flux passing
through one face will be 1/6 of the total flux:
Φtotal
Φ1 =
6
Now, as the total surface is closed, we can find the flux using
Gauss’s law:
q q
The cube with side length a = 1 m shown in the figure contains Φtotal = inside =
ε0 ε0
the charge q = 3 µC . What is the electric flux passing through From here, we calculate the flux passing through one face:
one face of the cube? Φtop qinside 10−6
Φ1 = = =
Answer 6 6ε0 6 × 8.85 × 10−12
It would be difficult to calculate the electric flux on one face Φ1 = 1.8 × 10 N·m /C
4 2
15.3. APPLICATIONS OF THE GAUSS’S LAW 261
Example 15.3
The sum of small dA surface elements over the whole spher-
Charged spherical shell. A total of charge Q is evenly dis- ical surface will be the total area A of the Gaussian sphere:
tributed over a spherical surface with radius R . E A = qinside /ε0
The surface area of a sphere with radius r is A=4πr2 . The
(a) Find the electric field at distance r outside of the sphere.
qinside is the total charge Q . We substitute these values:
(b) Find the electric field at distance r inside of the sphere.
E 4πr2 = Q/ε0
Answer We find the solution by solving this expression for E :
(a) Let us draw an imaginary Gaussian surface with radius r Q kQ
outside of the sphere (r > R) (the blue surface in the figure E= = 2 (for r > R)
4πε0 r2 r
below): (b) This time, we choose the Gaussian surface with radius r
inside of the sphere ( r < R ) (the blue surface in the figure
below):
The electric field ~E at each point on this surface should be We again use the same thinking as in item (a): According to
perpendicular to the surface due to spherical symmetry. Like- symmetry, the field ~E should be perpendicular to the surface
wise, the electric field at each point on the surface should and have the same magnitude at very point of the surface.
have the same value because, again, according to spherical Accordingly, we can directly write Gauss’s law as the product
symmetry, we go from one point to another when we rotate E A instead of the integral:
the sphere. E A = qinside /ε0
Consequently, the electric field ~E should be equal and perpen- Now, what is the charge qinside inside of the Gaussian sur-
dicular to the surface at every point on the Gaussian surface. face? As all of the charges are left outside of the Gaussian
Let us write Eq.¨(15.3) for Gauss’s law: surface,
qinside = 0 → EA=0
I
q
E dA cos θ = inside Since the surface A is not equal to zero, we find that
surface ε0
E=0 (for r < R)
The field E inside of the integral can be taken outside, as it is Let us summarize the result:
constant over the surface. Also, as the angle with the normal
kQ/r2 (for r > R)
(
vector is θ = 0 , we get cos 0 = 1 :
◦ ◦
E =
I
q 0 (for r < R)
E dA = inside This result will be used later for conductors.
surface ε0
Example 15.4
sian surface with radius r such that r < R . Due to symmetry,
the electric field will be the same and perpendicular to the
surface at each point on this sphere.
sphere; the charge −Q on the sphere with radius R is not surface is the same and perpendicular to the surface at each
taken into account, as it is outside of the surface: point. (We do not need to draw the figure again.) We write
qinside = +Q the expression for Gauss’s law:
E A = qinside /ε0
E 4πr2 = +Q/ε0
This time, both the point charge +Q and the charge −Q on
From here, we find the electric field inside of the sphere:
the sphere with radius R are located inside of the Gaussian
E = kQ/r2 (for r < R) surface. Therefore, we get
Outside of the sphere: We draw a Gaussian surface with ra- qinside = +Q − Q = 0
dius r > R . Again, due to symmetry, the field ~E on this E 4πr2 = 0 → E=0 (for r > R)
Example 15.5
the wire with radius r and length L . The field ~E on the lat-
eral surface of this cylinder must be the same everywhere
Infinite line of charge. Calculate the electric field of an infi-
and perpendicular to the surface due to symmetry.
nite linear wire carrying uniform linear charge density λ .
On the base surfaces, the field ~E will be parallel to the surface,
in other words, do not cross it. Therefore, the flux is zero on
the base surfaces and not taken into consideration. Let us
write the expression for Gauss’s law:
E A = qinside /ε0
A is the lateral surface here and its area is
A = 2πr L
The charge inside of the cylinder with length L is
qinside = λ L
Answer We substitute these values:
λL
We solved this problem in Example 14.10 with a lengthy inte- E (2πrL) =
ε0
gration. Now let us see how easily it can be solved by Gauss’s We simplify and find the electric field as follows:
law. λ 2kλ
E= =
As the Gaussian surface, let us chose a coaxial cylinder around 2πε0 r r
Example 15.6
everywhere, due to symmetry, because a certain angle in any
Infinite plane of charge. Calculate the electric field of an direction would violate symmetry. Also, it will have the same
infinite plane carrying a uniform surface charge density σ . value everywhere on the base surface, because, as the plane is
infinite, the charge distribution does not change if any point
Answer at the base of the cylinder is shifted onto another point.
Again, we previously solved this problem in Example 14.13 ~E will be parallel to the lateral surface of the cylinder, hence
using integration. Now, let us see how easily it can be solved
the flux is zero on the lateral surface and only the flux on
using Gauss’s law.
the base surfaces are taken into consideration. The flux is
positive, as E is outwards in both bases.
Accordingly, we write the expression for Gauss’s law for both
bases as follows:
E A + E A = qinside /ε0
The amount of charge inside of the cylinder is found by using
the surface charge density σ :
qinside = σ A
We substitute these values and solve for the electric field:
σS A
2ES A=
ε0
σ
E= (Outward from the plane)
As the Gaussian surface, let us chose a cylinder extending 2ε0
equally to both sides of the surface by L and having a base ~E would have been towards the plane if its charge had been
area of A . The field ~E should be perpendicular to the plane negative.
15.3. APPLICATIONS OF THE GAUSS’S LAW 263
Example 15.7
negatively charged plate, the electric fields in between and
outside of the plates will be as follows:
Example 15.8 Q kQ
E= 2
= 2 (r > R)
4πε0 r r
Charged solid sphere. A total charge Q is uniformly dis- This result shows that, outside of the sphere, the electric field
tributed in a spherical volume with radius R . Find the electric behaves as if all of the charges were located at the center.
field outside and inside of the sphere.
Inside of the sphere: Again, let us take a spherical Gaussian
Answer surface with radius r such that r < R . The field ~E on this
Outside of the sphere: Let us take a spherical Gaussian surface sphere will be the same and perpendicular to the surface:
with radius r such that r > R . By symmetry, the field ~E on
this sphere will be the same everywhere and perpendicular
to the surface. We write the expression for Gauss’s law:
E A = qinside /ε0
The charge left inside of the Gaussian surface is the whole
charge Q :
Example 15.9
E A = qinside /ε0
Infinite cylinder. A cylinder with infinite length and radius Here, A=2πr L is the area of the lateral surface. The amount
R has uniform volume charge density ρ in its volume. Find the of charge inside of the cylinder is the charge inside of a vol-
electric field in the regions outside and inside of the cylinder. ume with length L and base radius R :
qinside = ρV = ρ (πR2 L)
We substitute these values:
ρ (πR2 L)
E (2πrL) =
ε0
We simplify and find the electric field as follows:
ρR2
Answer E= (r > R)
2ε0 r
Outside of the cylinder (r>R) , the problem is the same as the
infinite wire problem in Example 15.5. We take a cylinder Inside of the cylinder (r < R) , we again take a cylindrical
with length L and radius r as the Gaussian surface. Gaussian surface with radius r :
E A = qinside /ε0
This time, some charge is left outside of this surface and is
not taken into consideration. We calculate the charge inside
of the cylinder with length L and radius r :
qinside = ρV 0 = ρ (πr2 L)
We find the electric field using this expression for charge:
E (2πrL) = ρ πr2 L/ε0
ρr
We write the expression for Gauss’s law: E= (r < R)
2ε0
As ~E=0 is always true inside of the conductor, the left-hand side of this
equation will be zero. Accordingly the inner charge on the right-hand side
should also be zero:
qinside = 0
We can expand this Gaussian surface and make it encompass the conductor’s
surface from the inside (Figure 15.6). Even in this case, qinside =0 must be Figure 15.6: The widest Gaus-
true, as the electric field is zero inside. Therefore, the only place where the sian surface inside of a conduc-
excess charge can reside is the surface of the conductor. tor.
But, what if there were a cavity inside of the conductor and a charge +q
was placed there (Figure 15.7)? What sort of equilibrium would occur in that
case? The conductor cannot move that charge to the surface. In order to
fulfill the condition ~E = 0 inside, an amount of −q charge will have to move
from the outer surface to its inner surface. In this way, we will get qinside = 0
for all Gaussian surfaces drawn inside of the conductor.
3. The electric field just outside of the surface of a conductor is always Figure 15.7: +q charge in a
cavity inside of a conductor.
perpendicular to the surface.
If the electric field was not perpendicular to the surface, it would have a
component tangent to the surface. The tangential component would exert
a force ~F=q~E and move the free electrons. As there is static equilibrium, it
means that there is no tangential field component acting on the electrons.
A conductor placed inside an external electric field (Figure 15.8) will position
its charges such that the electric field lines are perpendicular to the surface.
We will take these properties into consideration when applying Gauss’s law Figure 15.8: Electric field lines
to conductors. will always be perpendicular to
the surface.
Example 15.10
total of ~E = 0 inside of the conductor:
A thick infinite conducting slab is placed in parallel against a
thin infinite insulator plate carrying uniform surface charge
density σ1 . The conducting slab is neutral. (a) Calculate the
surface charge densities formed on the surfaces of the slab. (b)
Calculate the electric field between the plate and the slab.
Example 15.11
Problems
15.3 Applications of Gauss’s Law radius b . Calculate the electric field in the three regions.
[A: E=0 for r<a , 3kq/r2 for a>r>b , kq/r2 for r>b ]
Problem 15.1
15.1 Calculate the total electric fluxes passing through the
closed surfaces S 1 , S 2 and S 3 shown in the figure.
[A: Φ1 = 0 , Φ2 = 2q/ε0 , Φ3 = 6q/ε0 .]
Problem 15.4
Problem 15.5
15.5 Two infinite plates with charge densities +3σ and −2σ
Problem 15.3 are placed in parallel. Calculate the electric field in the three
15.3 There are two concentric spherical shells, as shown in regions.
the figure. A total charge 3q is distributed over the one with [A: σ/2ε0 on the left, 5σ/2ε0 in the middle, σ/2ε0 on the
radius a and a charge −2q is distributed over the one with right.]
PROBLEMS 267
Problem 15.6
15.6 The spherical volume with radius a in the figure has a
uniform volume charge density +3ρ and the spherical shell
with inner radius a and outer radius b has a uniform volume
charge density −2ρ . Calculate the electric field in the three Problem 15.10
regions.
[A: E = ρr/ε0 for r < a , 5ρa3 /(3ε0 r2 ) − 2ρr/3ε0 for 15.10 A +3Q charge is given to a conducting spherical shell
a < r < b , (5a3 − 2b3 )ρ/(3ε0 r2 ) for r > b .] with inner radius a and outer radius b . A point charge +2Q
is placed at the center of the cavity inside of the conductor.
(a) What is the charge at the inner and outer surfaces of the
conductor? (b) Calculate the electric field in the three regions.
[A: (a) −2Q on the inside, +5Q on the outside,
(b) 2kQ/r2 for r < a , 0 for a < r < b , 5kQ/r2 for r > b .]
Problem 15.7
15.7 The infinite cylindrical shell with inner radius a and
outer radius b shown in the figure has a volume charge den-
sity ρ . Calculate the electric field in the three regions.
[A: E=0 for r < a , ρ(r2 − a2 )/2ε0 r for a < r < b ,
ρ(b − a )/2ε0 r for r > b .]
2 2
Problem 15.11
15.11 An infinite wire carrying a linear charge density λ is
surrounded by an infinite cylindrical conducting shell with
inner radius a and outer radius b , as shown in the figure.
Calculate the electric field in the three regions.
[A: 2kλ/r for r < a , 0 for a < r < b , 2kλ/r for r > b ]
Problem 15.8
15.8 An infinite wire carrying a linear charge density λ is
surrounded by an infinite conducting cylindrical shell with
inner radius a and outer radius b and carrying a volume
charge density ρ , as shown in the figure. Calculate the elec-
tric field in the three regions.
[A: 2kλ/r for, 2kλ/r+ρ(r2 −a2 )/(2ε0 r) for a < r < b ,
2kλ/r + ρ(b2 − a2 )/(2ε0 r) for r > b .]
15.4 Electric Field in Conductors
Problem 15.12
15.12 The thin planar layer shown in the figure has 3σ1
in surface charge density. A neutral thick conductor slab
is placed in parallel to it. (a) What will the surface charge
density σ2 of the conductor slab be? (b) What is the electric
Problem 15.9 field in the region in between?
15.9 What are the surface charge densities produced on both [A: (a) σ2 = ±3σ1 /2 , (b) 3σ1 /2ε0 .]
16
ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
Up until now we have dealt with Coulomb’s force and electric field, both of
which are difficult to work with because they are vector quantities. Now, it is
time to adapt the concepts of work and energy that we developed in mechanics
into their electrical equivalents. Indeed, like the gravitational force, the electric
force is also conservative, hence we can define a potential energy for electric
forces as well.
The electric potential that we shall define is a scalar quantity, and thus much
easier to deal with and to solve related problems. Also, the electric potential will
help us to better understand conductors, capacitors, electric circuits, etc., and
other technological applications.
Therefore, the work performed by the electrical force when this charge q is
moved from one point to another will be
Z 2
W=q ~E · d~r
1
U
V= (electric potential) (16.3)
q
Although the potential looks like the potential energy per unit charge, this simple
definition is somehow misleading: The potential at a point exists even when no
charge q is present there. Hence, we should stress that the potential is a property
of the electric field, and not of the charge q .
16.1. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 271
Z 2
V2 − V1 = − ~E · d~r (Electric potential difference) (16.5)
1
More precisely, the work performed against electric forces when moving the unit
charge from one point to another, is the potential difference between these two
points.
It is useful to remember the following two simple rules according to this
definition:
• Potential decreases when moving in the direction of electric field lines.
• Potential increases when approaching positive charges and decreases when
approaching negative charges.
For a small displacement ∆r , the small potential difference ∆V can be ex-
pressed without integration as:
Unit of Potential
According to the definition above, the unit of potential is joule/coulomb (J/C)
and is called the volt, indicated with the symbol V:
1 joule/coulomb = 1 volt = 1 V
The unit of electric field can also be re-expressed in terms of Volts. We had
previously defined the unit of electric field as (N/C). However, if we compare the
units in the formula ∆V = E ∆r , the electric field unit will be,
newton
1 = 1 V/m
coulomb
This V/m unit is used in technology, as it is more practical. The term voltage is
also used instead of potential difference.
Potential of Constant Electric Field
In Chapter 15, we learned that a constant electric field forms between two
oppositely charged parallel plates. Let us place two such plates along the x -axis,
as shown in Figure 16.2. Let the electric field be in the −x direction. (The reason
that we place them so is that the potential will increase in the opposite direction
to the electric field and we want it to increase in the +x direction.) We use
Eq. (16.5) to find the potential difference between position x1 and position x2 in
this electric field. As E is constant and in the −x direction, we get
Z x2 Z x2 Figure 16.2: Potential differ-
V(x2 ) − V(x1 ) = − (−E) dx = E dx = E (x2 − x1 ) ence in a constant electric field.
x1 x1
272 16. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
V(x) − V(0) = Ex
The zero reference point of potential is always arbitrary. If we choose the negative
plate at x = 0 as the zero potential, the potential change between the plates is
found to be as follows:
If the distance between the plates is d , the potential difference between the plates
will be V = Ed .
Example 16.1
energy U :
(a) A 2 µC charge gains 0.006 J potential energy when placed V = U/q = 0.006/(2 × 10−6 ) = 3000 V
in an electric field. What is the potential at that point? (b) The potential energy of the proton at a point with potential
(b) What will the velocity of a proton be if you convert all of its V will be eV . This is fully converted into kinetic energy:
potential energy at a point with potential 1000 V into kinetic q
1
m v 2
= eV → v = 2eV/m p
energy? (The proton’s mass is m p = 1.7 × 10−27 kg and the 2 p
charge is e = 1.6 × 10−19 C ) We substitute the given values and calculate the velocity:
r
Answer 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 × 1000
v= = 4.3 × 105 m/s
(a) We write the definition of potential in terms of potential 1.7 × 10−27
Example 16.2
V = Ex
Two parallel conducting plates with 5 mm of distance in be- We substitute the position x = 0.005 m of the positive
tween are connected to the terminals of a 20 V battery. (a) charged plate and find the electric field:
What is the magnitude of the electric field between the plates? E = V/x = 20/0.005 = 4 000V/m
(b) How much charge accumulates on one of the plates if its (b) We can assume the plates to be infinite if their dimensions
surface area is 100 cm2 ? are large with respect to the distance in between. Then, the
electric field is given by:
σ
E=
ε0
We write the surface charge density of a plate with charge Q
and surface area A :
Q
σ=
A
(Q/A)
E= → Q = ε0 EA
ε0
Answer We find the charge of a plate by substituting the numerical
(a) We know that a constant electric field E is formed be- data:
tween two oppositely charged plates. Also, we had found Q = 8.85 × 10−12 × 4000 × 100 × 10−4
Eq. (16.7) for the potential change in a constant electric field: Q = 35 × 10−11 C = 0.35 nC
r2 in this electric field. As the field E and the displacement dr are in the same
direction here, the scalar product can be written as the product E dr :
Z r2
V(r2 ) − V(r1 ) = − E dr
r1
kQ
V(r) − V(∞) =
r
We choose the zero reference point of the potential at infinity, V(∞) = 0 . With
this choice, the potential for a point charge is as follows:
kQ
V(r) = (Potential of point charge) (16.8)
r
In other words, the potential of a point charge is the work performed to bring it
from infinity to that point.
The distance ri here is the distance of charge qi to the point P (Figure 16.5).
274 16. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
kq1 q1 q2
U2 = q2 V1 = q2 =k
r12 r12
and this potential energy is the energy of the (q1 , q2 ) charge system. It would
be incorrect to consider this as belonging to q2 , as we could have first brought
charge q2 and then charge q1 .
Now let us bring charge q3 to its position. This charge will be subject to the
potential of the charges (q1 , q2 ) . Its potential energy at its position is
! !
kq1 kq2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U 3 = q3 + =k +
r13 r23 r13 r23
Now let us stop here and examine the potential energy of the whole system:
!
q1 q2 q1 q3 q2 q3
U = U1 + U2 + U3 = k + + (16.10)
r12 r13 r23
This result can easily be generalized for more than three charges: We find the
interaction of each charge with the others and add them. The total energy of N
charges is expressed as follows:
X qi q j
U=k (16.11)
i< j
ri j
This potential energy is due to the work performed in bringing these charges
from infinity to these positions.
Law of Energy Conservation in Electrostatics
The law of energy conservation that we developed in Chapter 5 is also valid
in electrostatics. Since the potential energy of a point charge q is U = qV in a
given potential V , Eq. (5.17) for energy conservation can be written as follows:
1 2
2 mv1 + qV1 = 12 mv22 + qV2 (16.12)
However, unlike gravitational potential energy, the charge q can have positive
or negative contribution to potential energy depending on its sign, as we shall
see in the examples below.
16.2. SYSTEM OF POINT CHARGES 275
Example 16.3
potentials of all three charges at that point:
kq1 kq2 kq3
VA = + +
r1 r2 r3
−6
5 × 10−6 −2 × 10−6
!
1 × 10
VA = 9 × 10 9
+ √ +
1 2 1
VA = 22 800 V .
(b) Another definition of potential energy is the work per-
The charges q1 =1 µC , q2 =5 µC and q3 = − 2 µC are placed on
formed to move a charge q from infinity to point A. Therefore,
three corners of a square with side length 1 m . we can write the potential energy of charge q4 at point A in
(a) What will the potential at point A be? terms of the potential at that point as follows:
(b) How much work needs to be done to bring a new charge U A = q4 VA
q4 = +4 µC from infinity to point A ? We substitute the values and calculate as follows:
Answer (a) The potential of point A is the algebraic sum of U A = 4 × 10−6 × 22800 = 0.09 J
Example 16.4
As charge q3 is released from rest at point A , we take vA = 0
and solve for vr
B:
2q3 (VA − VB )
vB =
m
Let us calculate the potential differences separately:
1 × 10−6 2 × 10−6
!
The charges q1 =1 µC and q2 = − 2 µC shown in the figure with VA =
kq1 kq2
+ = 9 × 109 × −
4 m of distance in between are fixed in their current locations. r1 r2 1 3
The charge q3 =3 µC with a mass of 1g is released from rest = 3000 V
1 × 10−6 2 × 10−6
!
between these two charges at point A . What will its speed be kq1 kq2
VB = + = 9 × 10 ×
9
−
when it reaches point B ? r1 r2 3 1
= −15 000 V
Answer
From here, we calculate the speed vB :
A charge q at a point with potential V has a potential energy r
U = qV . We thus write the conservation of energy for points 2 × 3 × 10−6 (3000 + 15000)
vB =
A and B : 0.001
vB = 10 m/s .
2 mvA + q3 VA = 2 mv B + q3 V B
1 2 1 2
Example 16.5
Answer
The charge q will have zero speed at some point B that it
approaches most: vB =0 . Let us use b to show the distance of
this point to the origin. We write the conservation of energy
between points A and B :
Charges q1 = − 5 µC and q2 = + 2 µC are fixed with 1 m of dis- ˜ 2 mvA + qVA = 2 mv B + qV B
1 2 1 2
q1 q2 q1 q2
tance in between. A third charge q=1 µC with a mass of 1 g is
1
2 mv 2
A + kq + = 0 + kq +
thrown with an initial velocity of 3 m/s towards q2 from point 4 4−1 b b−1
A located along the extension of these charges at a distance of If we substitute the given values and solve for b , we get the
3 m from q2 . Calculate the maximum distance that charge q following result:
can approach. b = 1.7 m
Example 16.6
Electric dipole. Calculate the potential of an electric dipole at
any point in space and find its limit value for r a .
Answer
We had found the electric field of an electric dipole in Example
14.8. Now, let us calculate its potential.
The charges ±q in the figure are placed along the y -axis with
distance a in between. We can immediately write the electric
276 16. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
k dq
dV =
r
The potential of the whole charge distribution will be the sum of these small
contributions at the limit dq → 0 , in other words, their integral:
Figure 16.7: The contribution Z
of a small charge dq on the po- dq
V=k (Potential of a continuously distributed charge) (16.13)
tential at point P . r
The charge element dq here is to be expressed in terms of charge density, by
examining the given charge distribution. It can be one of the following three
expressions if distributed over a line, surface or volume:
dq = λ dL dq = σ dA dq = ρ dV (16.14)
Also, note that the definition of potential as the integral of electric field ~E (Eq. 16.5)
can also be used to calculate V :
Z 2
V2 − V1 = − ~E · d~r (16.15)
1
Example 16.7
with linear charge density λ .
Answer
It is easier to use the definition in terms of electric field:
Z b Z b
Vb − Va = − ~E · d~r = − E dr
a a
Since ~E and d~r are parallel, we have ~E·d~r=E dr . The electric
Infinite line of charge. Find the potential difference between field of an infinite line of charge was found to be E=2kλ/r
two points located at distances a and b from an infinite wire in Example 15.5. We can use that result and integrate:
16.4. CONDUCTORS AND EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACES 277
Z b
2kλ dr As b > a , this result shows that the potential decreases when
b
Vb − Va = − = −2kλ ln r = −2kλ ln(b/a)
a r a moving away from a positively charged wire.
Vb − Va = −2kλ ln(b/a)
Example 16.8
ds on the ring. We write its contribution to the potential at
point P and add the contributions of ds all over the ring, in
other words, take its integral:
Z Z
dq dq
V=k =k √
r R2 + h2
The denominator inside of the integral can be taken outside,
as it is constant throughout
Z the ring:
Charged ring. Calculate the potential along the axis at a dis- k
V= √ dq
tance h from the center of a ring with radius R carrying a total R2 + h2
charge Q . The remaining integral is the sum of all of the charges Q :
kQ
Answer V= √
Let us choose a small charge dq corresponding to a small arc R2 + h2
Example 16.9
In order to find the charge dq , we have to multiply the area
Charged disk. Calculate the potential of a disk with radius R of the small ring with the surface charge density:
and uniform surface charge density σ , at point P located at dq = σdA = σ (2πr dr)
distance h on the axis of the disk. We substitute this value and find the contribution of all the
rings by integrating:
Z R
2r dr
V = πkσ √
0 r 2 + h2
We make a change of variable by defining a new variable
u=r2 + h2 . Then, du=2r dr . The integral is simplified with
Answer this variable uZ:
√
Consider a ring with thickness dr with a radius in the inter- R
V = πkσ u−1/2 du = πk 2u1/2 = πkσ 2 r2 + h2
val [r, r + dr] . If we use dq to indicate the small amount of 0
charge on this ring, according to the previous example, its Substituting the limit values and simplifying, we find the
contribution to the potential at point P will be as follows: expression for the potential of the disk:
k dq h√
dV = √ V = 2πkσ h2 + R2 − h
i
r 2 + h2
We had previously proven with Gauss’s law that electric field is perpendicular
Figure 16.10: A small displace- to a conductor surface.
ment d~r on a conductor surface.
• Electric field as the gradient of potential. Let us consider that we take a
small step d~r from an equipotential surface with potential V , in the perpen-
dicular direction (in other words, towards ~E ). As the vectors ~E and d~r are
in the same direction, the scalar product turns into a simple product:
dV = −E dr
From here we get the relation between electric field and potential:
dV
E=− (16.16)
dr
The rate of potential increase perpendicular to the equipotential surface
is called the potential gradient. Temperature gradient is mentioned in
meteorology, and its meaning is likewise the temperature increase per unit
length in the direction perpendicular to the isotherm. Therefore, electric
field is the negative potential gradient. The negative sign tells us that
the potential decreases in the direction of the electric field.
Example 16.10
of the electric field. We write the formula (16.5):
Z 2
V2 − V1 = − ~E · d~r
1
If we take r1 = ∞ in this formula, we get V1 = 0 , and the
potential at point r is written as V2 = V(r) :
Z r Z ∞ Z ∞
V(r) = − ~E · d~r = ~E · d~r = E dr
∞ r r
Conducting sphere. Calculate the potential outside and inside (We reversed the limits of the integral and used ~E · d~r=E dr ,
0f a conducting sphere with radius R and charge Q . as ~E and d~r are in the same direction.)
Answer Outside of the conducting sphere (r > R) : the electric field
It is easier in this problem to calculate potential as the integral is the same as the field E = kQ/r2 of a point charge:
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 279
Z ∞
kQ dr kQ ∞ kQ
V(r) = = −
r r V(r) = (r < R)
r r2 R
The potential inside of the conductor is constant and equal
kQ to its value at the surface.
V(r) = (r > R)
r Let us look at a graphic of the potential of a conducting
Inside of the conducting sphere (r < R) : Let us write the sphere:
integral in two parts for a point r :
Z ∞ Z R Z ∞
V(r) = E dr = E dr + E dr
r r R
Example 16.11
will be equal.
As the spheres are far away from each other, the potential on
the surface of each sphere only results from its own charge.
Let us denote q01 and q02 as the new charges on the spheres.
These new charges should fulfill two conditions:
Two conducting spheres are located far away from each other. Charge conservation: q01 + q02 = q1 + q2 = 1 + 8
The one with a radius of 1 m is charged with q1 =1 µC and q01 + q02 = 9 µC (1)
the other with a radius of 2 m is charged with q2 =8 µC . These 0
kq1 kq2 0
q0 q0
two spheres are connected with a metal wire. What is the new Equipotential: = → 1 = 2 (2)
r1 r2 1 2
charge of each sphere?
Answer After the spheres are connected with a wire, they Solving (1) and (2), we find the new charges:
all constitute one single conductor, and thus their potential q01 = 3 µC , q02 = 6 µC
Example 16.12
Answer (a) The potential due to the outer conducting sphere
will be constant inside of it and equal to the value on its
surface, and it will not contribute to the potential difference
between a and b . Hence, the potential difference between
the spheres will be the potential difference due to the inner
sphere charged with +Q at distances a and b :
1 1
Va − Vb = kQ −
a b
1 1
Two concentric conducting spheres have radii a=1 m and Va − Vb = 9 × 109−6 − = 4500 V
1 2
b=2 m , with charges Q= + 1 µC and −Q , respectively. (b) We write the energy conservation law for charge q :
(a) Calculate the potential difference between the two spheres.
1
2 mv
2
+ qVA = 21 mv2B + qVB
rA
(b) A q=2 µC point charge with a mass of 1 g is released
r
2q(VA − VB ) 2 × 2 × 10−6 × 4500
from rest near the positively charged sphere. What will its v= =
m 0.001
speed be when it reaches the negatively charged sphere? v = 4.2 m/s
Multiple-choice Questions
1. If a 2 C charge gains 10 J in potential energy when
placed at a point, what is the potential of that point? 3. Of three conducting spheres, sphere A has a radius of
1 m and is charged with 1 µC , sphere B has a radius
(a) 5 V (b) 10 V (c) 20 V (d) 40 V
of 2 m and is charged with 3 µC and sphere C has a
2. If the distance between two parallel conducting plates is radius of 3 m and is charged with 6 µC . Which sphere
2 m and their potential difference is 10 V , what is the has greater potential?
electric field between the plates? (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal
(a) 5 V/m (b) 10 V/m (c) 20 V/m (d) 40 V/m
4. Of two conducting spheres with equal potentials, if the
280 16. ELECTRIC POTENTIAL
one with a radius of 1 m has a charge of 4 µC , then (a) A (b) B (c) C (d) Equal
what is the charge on the one with a radius of 2 m ?
(a) 1 µC (b) 2 µC (c) 4 µC (d) 8 µC 13. What is the electric field in a region where potential is
constant?
5. Which of the following are correct? (a) 0
I. Electrons are attracted towards higher potential. (b) Constant.
II. Protons are attracted towards higher potential. (c) Increasing linearly.
III. Electrons are attracted towards lower potential. (d) Decreasing linearly.
IV. Protons are attracted towards lower potential.
14. What is the potential in a region where electric field is
(a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) I & IV
constant?
6. Which of the following is true at the middle point be- (a) 0
tween point charges +Q and −Q with distance r in (b) Constant
between? (c) Increasing linearly.
(d) Infinite.
(a) E = 0 (b) V = 0 (c) E=kQ/r2 (d) V = 2kQ/r
15. If the radius of a conducting sphere is doubled and its
7. Which of the following complies with the definition of
charge is increased by a factor of 4, by what factor will
potential?
its potential increase?
I. The potential energy of a unit charge.
II. The work performed to bring a unit charge from (a) 2 (b) 4 (c) 1/2 (d) Equal
infinity to that point.
III. The product of electric field and charge. 16. What is the total potential produced at point P located
IV. The electric field of a unit charge. at the center of the square by the charges shown on the
corners of the square in the figure below?
(a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) I & IV
Problems
16.1 Electric Potential 16.8 Two identical charges with masses m1 =m2 =1 g and
charges q1 =q2 =5 µC are released from rest with 2 m of dis-
16.1 (a) How much potential energy will a 3 µC charge have tance in between. What will their speeds be when the distance
when placed at a point with a potential of 500 kV ? (b) An is doubled? [A: 7.5 m/s .]
electron at rest at infinity is accelerated towards a metal plate
and hits it with a speed of 6 × 106 m/s . What is the potential
of the plate? (The electron’s mass is me = 9.1 × 10−31 kg and
the charge is −e = −1.6 × 10−19 C .)
[A: (a) 1.5 J , (b) 102 V .] Problem 16.9
16.9 The charges q1 = − 1 µC and q2 = + 2 µC in the figure
16.2 Two identical conducting plates are placed parallel to above are fixed with 2 m of distance in between. A third
each other with 2 mm distance in between and are connected charge q=3 µC with a mass of 1 g is released from rest at
to the terminals of a 24 V battery. (a) What is the magnitude point A located along the extension of these charges at a
of the electric field between the plates? (b) If the surface area distance of 1 m from q2 . What will be its speed at infinity?
of one plate is 100 cm2 , how much charge accumulates on [A: 9.5 m/s .]
each plate? [A: (a) 12 kV/m , (b) 1.1 nC .]
Problem 16.18
16.18 Of two concentric conducting spheres, the one with
Problem 16.14 radius a=1 m is charged with −4 µC and the one with radius
16.14 A q2 =2 µC point charge with mass m2 =1g is thrown b=2 m is charged with +4 µC . A point charge of q= − 1 µC
with v0 =10 m/s from the center and along the axis of a ring with a mass of 1 g is released from rest near the negatively
with radius R=1 m carrying charge q1 =1 µC . What will its charged sphere. What will its speed be when it reaches the
speed be at infinity? (Hint: Use the result of the Example positively charged sphere? [A: 6 m/s .]
16.8.) [A: v∞ = 12 m/s .]
Problem 16.19
16.19 Two identical conducting spheres located far away
Problem 16.15 from each other have a radius of 1 m . These two spheres
are connected with a metal wire and are together set to a
16.15 An electron is released from rest at a distance h=1 m
potential of 90 kV . (a) What is the charge on each sphere?
from a point on the axis of a disk with radius R=1 m and on
(b) While the spheres are interconnected, the radius of the sec-
which a total charge q1 =1 µC is distributed uniformly. With
ond sphere is increased to 2 m . What will the new charges of
what speed will it collide with the disk? (Hint: Use the result
the spheres be? (c) What is the new potential of the spheres?
of Example 16.9.) [A: v = 6.1 × 107 m/s .]
[A: (a) q1 = q2 = 10 µC , (b) q1 = 6.7 µC , q2 = 13.3 µC , (c)
16.16 In Example 16.9, the expression for the potential at 60 kV .]
distance h on the axis of a disk with radius r and carrying
σ surface charge
h √was found asi follows:
V = 2πkσ h +R −h
2 2
Problem 16.20
16.20 Of two conducting spheres separated by d=20 m from
their centers, one has radius R1 =1 m and a potential of
1000 V and the second has radius R2 =2 m and a potential of
−1000 V . Calculate the charge on each sphere. (Hint: The
Problem 16.16 total potential of each sphere is the sum of its own potential
Using this result, calculate the potential at distance h on the and the potential of the sphere at distance d . As the spheres
axis of a hollow disk with inner radius a and outer radius are far away, assume that the charges are evenly distributed
b and carrying surface charge density σ . (Hint: There is on their surfaces.) [A: q1 = +0.12 µC , q2 = −0.23 µC .)
?
17
CAPACITORS AND
DIELECTRICS
17.1 CAPACITANCE
A system consisting of two conductors carrying equal and opposite charges
±Q in vacuum or in an insulating medium is called a capacitor. The primary
function of capacitors is to store charge under a certain potential difference.
Regardless of their geometric shapes, the charge ±Q stored by all capacitors is
proportional to the applied potential V :
Q =CV
The proportionality coefficient C is called capacitance. It is the ratio of the
charge on the conductor to the applied potential difference:
Q
C= (capacitance) (17.1)
V
Here, V is the absolute value of the potential difference V2 − V1 between the two
conductors: V = |V2 − V1 | . ∆V should actually have been used to indicate this.
However, using V will not lead to any confusion in this chapter.
Capacitance depends on the geometric shape of the conductors and the prop-
erties of the intermediate insulator medium. You should think as follows to keep
this in mind: A capacitor with larger capacitance stores higher charge.
The unit of capacitance is coulomb/volt (C/V) and was named as the farad
(F) in memory of the great scientist Michael Faraday. The farad is a very large
Figure 17.1: Various capaci- unit and its fractions are used in practice:
tors.
1 nanofarad (nF) = 10−9 F
1 picofarad (pF) = 10−12 F
Parallel-plate Capacitor
Let us consider two parallel conducting plates (Figure 17.3). Let each have
surface area A and let the distance in between them be d . Two equal and opposite
charges ±Q will accumulate when these plates are connected to the terminals of
a battery generating potential difference V .
We can assume these plates to be approximately infinite planes if the dimen-
sions of the plate are very large with respect to the distance d . Accordingly, we
had previously found the electric field between two infinite planes carrying ±σ
surface charge density:
σ
Figure 17.3: Parallel-plate ca- E= = constant
pacitor connected to a battery. ε0
In Chapter 16, we found the potential difference at distance d under a constant
electric field:
σd
V = V2 − V1 = E d =
ε0
17.1. CAPACITANCE 285
If the plate carrying charge Q has surface area A , the surface charge density σ
will be σ = Q/A . Accordingly,
(Q/A) d
V=
ε0
and, if we write this in terms of Q ,
ε0 A
Q= V
d
Comparing with the definition in Eq. (17.1), we can identify the capacitance of a
parallel-plate capacitor as:
ε0 A
C= (capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor) (17.2)
d
As you can see, capacitance is dependent on the geometric dimensions and the
permittivity of the intermediate insulator space. Capacitance increases with the
surface area of the plates and decreases with the distance between the plates.
Cylindrical Capacitor
Let us consider two coaxial conducting cylinders, both with length L (Fig-
ure 17.4). Let the internal cylinder have radius a and the outer b . We wish to
calculate the potential difference when these cylinders are charged with equal
and opposite charge ±Q .
The cylinders can be assumed to be approximately infinite cylinders if their
length L is very large with respect to their radii a, b . In Chapter 15, we used
Gauss’s law to find the electric field of an infinite cylinder with linear charge
density λ :
2kλ Figure 17.4: Cylindrical capac-
E=
r itor.
Let us calculate the potential difference without taking into consideration whether
the field E is positive or negative:
Z b Z b
dr b
V = Vb − Va = E dr = 2kλ = 2kλ ln
a a r a
The linear charge density of a cylinder with length L carrying charge Q will be
λ = Q/L . Also, if we take k = 1/4πε0 , we find that
Q b 2πε0 L
V= ln −→ Q= V
2πε0 L a ln(b/a)
From here, we can find the capacitance C :
2πε0 L
C= (capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor) (17.3)
ln(b/a)
We likewise observe that capacitance is dependent only on the geometric proper-
ties of the conductors.
286 17. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS
Spherical Capacitor
Let us consider two concentric conducting spherical shells with radii a and
b with a < b . Let the inner sphere with radius a be charged with +Q and the
outer with −Q . Let us use the definition to calculate the potential difference V
between these two spheres:
Z b
V = Vb − Va = − E dr
a
We had found the electric field in the region between the two spheres (a < r < b)
Figure 17.5: Spherical capaci- as E = kQ/r2 , using Gauss’s law. Accordingly, the absolute value of the potential
tor. difference is
Z b b !
V = kQ
dr
= kQ − 1 = kQ − 1 + 1 = kQ(b − a)
2 r a b a ab
a r
If we solve this expression for Q and also write the constant k in terms of ε0 ,
4πε0 ab
Q= V
b−a
The coefficient of V will be the capacitance C of the spherical capacitor:
4πε0 ab
C= (capacitance of a spherical capacitor) (17.4)
b−a
Example 17.1
ε0 A 8.85 × 10−12 × 30 × 10−4
C= =
In a parallel-plate capacitor, the plates have a surface area of d 4 × 10−3
C = 6.6 × 10 F = 6.6 picofarad = 6.6 pF
−12
30 cm2 and a distance of 4 mm between them. This capacitor
is connected to a 5000 V voltage (potential difference). (a) Find (b) We use the definition of capacitance to find the charge:
the capacitance of the capacitor. (b) What will the total charge Q = C V = 6.6 × 10−12 × 5000 = 33 × 10−9 = 33 nC
accumulated on the plates be? (c) What is the electric field (c) As E is constant between the plates, its relation with
between the plates? potential is V = Ed :
Answer V 5000
E= = = 1.25 × 106 V/m
(a) We use Eq. (17.2) we found for a parallel-plate capacitor: d 4 × 10−3
Example 17.3
(c) When it is fully charged, the capacitor is disconnected
from the battery and then the distance between the plates
A parallel-plate capacitor with capacitance C=3 pF is con-
is doubled. What will the new capacitance and the new
nected to a 1000 V battery.
potential difference between the plates be?
(a) How much charge is accumulated?
(b) While the capacitor is connected to the battery, the dis- Answer (a) We calculate from the capacitance formula:
tance between the plates is doubled. What will the new Q = C V = 3 × 10−12 × 1000 = 3 nC
capacitance and new charge be? (b) As the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is inversely
17.2. COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS 287
proportional to the distance d in between, C will halve if d is (c) The charge will not change, as the capacitor is discon-
doubled. And V will remain constant, because it is connected nected while it has a charge Q . The potential difference V
to the battery, is again calculated from Q = CV , as C is halved:
C Q Q Q
Q0 = C 0 V = V = = 1.5 nC V0 = 0 = = 2V = 2 × 1000 = 2000 volt
2 2 C (C/2)
Q = Ceq V
Q = Q1 + Q2
Ceq V = C1 V + C2 V
Ceq = C1 + C2
We write the potential differences between the points a, b and c in the figure
and use the formula V = Q/C for each capacitor:
1 1 1 C1C2
= + or Ceq =
Ceq C1 C2 C1 + C2
1 1 1 1
= + + ··· + (Capacitors in series) (17.6)
Ceq C1 C2 CN
In series connection, the equivalent capacitance is less than each capacitance. Let
us remember the following two principles (in addition to the formula Q = CV )
when solving capacitor circuits:
(1) Capacitors in parallel have equal voltage.
(2) Capacitors in series have equal charge.
Example 17.4
for innermost capacitors.
In the circuit shown in the figure, we have C1 = 1 , C2 = 2 , C1 and C5 between points c and d are parallel. We use
C3 = 3 , C4 = 4 and C5 = 5 µF . C 0 to indicate their equivalent capacitance between cd and
(a) Calculate the equivalent capacitance between the termi- calculate:
nals ab . C 0 = C1 + C5 = 1 + 5 = 6 µF
(b) The terminals ab are connected to a 12 V potential dif- Now, if we consider that this capacitance C 0 is between cd ,
ference. How much charge accumulates in the equivalent it will be in series connection with C3 . We calculate their
capacitor? equivalent capacitance:
(c) How much charge accumulates on the capacitor C4 ? C3C 0 3×6
C 00 = = = 2 µC
C3 + C 0 3 + 6
Then, C4 is in parallel with C 00 . We calculate their equivalent
capacitance:
C 000 = C4 + C 00 = 4 + 2 = 6 µF
Finally, capacitance C2 is in series with C 000 and we find the
equivalent capacitance that we are looking for:
C2C 000 2×6
Ceq = = = 1.5 µF
Answer C2 + C 000 2 + 6
(a) We carefully examine the figure to seek components that (b) As the equivalent capacitor is connected to terminals ab ,
fit the definition of parallel or series. You should always look its potential difference is Vab . From here, we calculate the
17.2. COMBINATIONS OF CAPACITORS 289
Example 17.5
the definition of capacitance:
In the circuit shown below, we have C1 =1 , C2 =2 , C3 =3 and Q = Ceq V = 2 × 24 = 48 µC .
C4 =4 µF . (b) The connection between ab changes when the switch S
(a) First, the terminals ab are connected to a 24 V battery is closed. This time, the C1 and C3 are connected in parallel;
when the switch S is open. Calculate the equivalent ca- likewise, the pair C2 and C4 are connected in parallel. Then,
pacitance and the total charge drawn from the battery. these two pairs are connected in series. We calculate the
(b) The circuit is disconnected from the battery after charg- equivalent capacitance accordingly:
ing and then the switch S is closed. Find the equivalent (C1 + C3 )(C2 + C4 )
Ceq =
capacitance and the charge on each capacitor. (C1 + C3 ) + (C2 + C4 )
(1 + 3)(2 + 4)
Ceq = = 2.4 µF
1+2+3+4
The total charge Q remains the same when the circuit is
disconnected from the battery as charged. But, this time, it is
differently distributed into two branches. As the capacitors
C1 and C3 are connected to the common points aS , they
have the same voltage:
VaS = VaS
Answer Q1 Q3
=
(a) When the switch S is open, C1 and C4 are connected C1 C3
in series; likewise, C2 and C3 are also connected in series. Also, the sum of Q1 and Q3 should be equal to the initial
Then, these two branches are connected in parallel to each charge:
other. We calculate the equivalent capacitance accordingly: Q1 + Q3 = Q = 48 µC
C1C4 C2C3 We calculate Q1 and Q3 from these two equations:
Ceq = + = 12 µC , Q3 = 36 µC
C1 + C4 C2 + C3 Q 1
Ceq =
1×4 2×3 4 6
+ = + = 2 µF The charges on C2 and C4 are calculated using the same
1+4 2+3 5 5 method applied to the potential difference S b . The result is:
We calculate the charge of the equivalent capacitance from Q2 = 16 µC , Q4 = 32 µC
Energy of a Capacitor
Capacitors have energy because of the electric charge that they carry. They
can discharge this energy in a very short duration to produce high currents or
potential differences. For example, although automobile batteries have a 12 Volt
potential difference, a capacitor circuit can produce potential differences up to
800–1000 V which are required to ignite spark plugs.
Let a capacitor with capacitance C have a total charge Q . Its energy will be
equal to the amount of work required to bring it from zero to the final charge Q .
Consider a parallel-plate capacitor initially without charge. Let us first take a
small charge dq1 from one of the plates and carry it to the other (Figure 17.8).
The work is zero, because no potential exists yet:
dW1 = 0
290 17. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS
When we try to carry the next charge dq2 , there will be a potential difference of
dq1 /C between the plates, and therefore the work to be performed will be
dq1
dW2 = dq2 V1 = dq2
C
We carry out this process repeatedly and reach the charge Q in the end. We
Figure 17.8: Gradual charging can calculate the energy of the capacitor by adding the works performed at each
of a capacitor. stage.
Let q be the charge accumulated in the plates at some stage. The potential
difference at that stage will be V = q/C . Now, the work to be performed if we
wish to carry an additional charge dq will be
q
dW = dq V = dq
C
The work to be performed to bring the charge from zero at the start to the value
Q , in other words, the increase in the potential energy of the capacitor, will be
the integral of the small works dW :
Q
2 Q
Q2
Z
1 1 q
W = U Q − U0 = q dq = =
1
2
C 0 C 2 0 C
The energy of the neutral capacitor is chosen as zero potential: U0 =0 . Using the
formula Q = CV for the charge, the energy of a capacitor can be written under
various forms:
Q2
U= 1
2 = 1
2 CV 2 = 1
2 QV (Energy of a capacitor) (17.7)
C
Example 17.6
We calculate the energy using any one of the formulas (17.7):
U = 12 QV = 12 × 12 × 10−6 × 12
U = 72 × 10−6 J = 72 µJ
(b) When the switch S is closed in the direction of C2 , the
charge Q at the start is distributed between C1 and C2 . Con-
sidering that the potential differences between the terminals
of these two capacitors are equal, we get
The capacitor shown in the figure with capacitance C1 =1 µC is Q1 Q2
charged by closing the switch S in the direction of the battery V1 = V2 → =
C1 C2
with a potential difference of V=12 V . Q1 + Q2 = Q = 12 µC
(a) What are the charge and energy of the capacitor C1 ? We calculate Q1 and Q2 from these two equations:
(b) The switch S is then closed in the direction of the capacitor Q1 = 4 µC and Q2 = 8 µC
C2 = 2 µC . What will the charges and total energies of
the two capacitors be? We use the formula U = 21 Q2 /C to calculate the energies:
(c) How can the energy difference in between be explained? Q2 1 Q22 1 42 82
!
U =2
0 1 1
+ =2 + × 10−12+6
Answer C1 2 C2 1 2
(a) C2 is not taken into consideration when the switch S is U 0 = 24 µJ
closed in the direction of the battery. We calculate the charge (c) In this problem, we have U 0 < U , and it seems as if the
as follows: energy of the system automatically decreased, in other words,
Q = C1 V = 1 × 12 = 12 µC not conserved.
17.3. DIELECTRICS 291
This problem is actually an ideal case that is not found tween gets converted into heat in the wires of the circuit.
in real life. Circuit wires connecting capacitors usually have Otherwise, if such losses did not exist, the system would not
a certain resistance. When one capacitor transfers its charge reach equilibrium and the charge Q would go back and forth
by moving electrons to the other, energy will be lost in the from one capacitor to the other.
resistance of wires. As a result, the energy difference in be-
17.3 DIELECTRICS
In our analysis so far, we have assumed that there was vacuum between
the two plates of the capacitor. However, the area between the plates is filled
with an insulating material in capacitors used in technology. These materials
include paper, glass, plastic, oil, etc. When insulators are placed in an electric
field, they try to accommodate their structure with the applied field. They are
called dielectrics to emphasize this property.
According to experimental observations:
• A capacitor accumulates more charge when a dielectric material is inserted
between the plates while it is connected to a battery. According to this
observation, the capacitance of the capacitor increases due to the formula
C = Q/V .
• When a dielectric material is inserted between the plates after a charged ca-
pacitor is disconnected, the potential difference between the plates decreases.
According to this observation, for example, if we recall the formula V = E d
for parallel-plate capacitors, the electric field between the plates decreases.
How is the material between the plates able to change the properties of the
capacitor despite the fact that it is an insulator? In order to understand this, we
need to examine the microscopic structure of dielectric materials.
Remember the concept of electric dipole from Chapter 13: We discussed
that a system consisting of two equal and opposite charges (±q) separated by
distance a is called an electric dipole. This system could produce an electric field
in space and interact with other charges even though it is neutral. This system
has an electric dipole moment defined as p = qa .
In some molecules (like H2 O , NO2 , HCl ), the positions of positive and
negative charges do not coincide and they form a electric dipole. These are called
polar molecules (Figure 17.9a). They have a permanent dipole moment, even
when there is no electric field. When they are in an external electric field, they
try to align their dipole moments with it.
All of these results can be expressed simply by defining the permittivity of the
dielectric medium as:
ε = κ ε0 (17.12)
Here, ε is the electric permittivity of the medium. Therefore, all formulas
become valid in capacitors with dielectrics by using ε instead of ε0 .
Some dielectric constants are given in the table:
17.3. DIELECTRICS 293
Dielectric Strength
When the magnitude of the electric field applied on a dielectric is too strong,
the positive and negative charges of the molecules are subject to extreme forces
in the opposite directions and their bond is broken. Molecules become ionized
and the dielectric turns into a conducting medium in which an electric discharge
is observed. The high current passing through the dielectric turns into heat,
damaging the material (Figure 17.12).
The maximum electric field that a dielectric medium can endure without
dielectric breakdown is called its dielectric strength. The dielectric strengths of
some materials are given in the table above.
As can be seen from the table, air cannot withstand high electric fields. But
if we insert a dielectric between the plates of a capacitor, according to Eq. 17.9, Figure 17.12: Cracks formed
E = E0 /κ , it will have a weaker electric field for the same accumulated charge. on a plexiglass plate as a result
And the capacitor can operate in higher voltages without getting damaged. of dielectric breakdown.
van de Graaff Generator
How large an electric potential can be generated on a conductor? We can now
answer this question using what we have learned up to now about conductors
and dielectrics. Let us consider a hollow conducting spherical shell with radius
R as the simplest case. Let us remember the expressions for the potential and
surface electric field of this sphere:
kQ kQ
V= , E= and V = RE
R R2
In principle, the more we can increase Q , the more the potential of the conductor
will increase, until infinity. However, this actually has a limit. The electric field
around the conductor increases with its potential.
The dielectric strength of the air in which the sphere is located is Emax =3 ×
106 V/m , in other words, at higher electric fields, the air molecules get ionized
and dielectric breakdown occurs, with charges accumulated on the conducting
294 17. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS
sphere flowing to the ground. Therefore, the maximum potential that the sphere
can carry should fulfill the following equation:
Vmax = R Emax
For a sphere with radius R = 1 m , we find that the maximum charge that it can
carry is Qmax =1/3 mC and the maximum potential produced is Vmax = 3 × 106 V .
But how do we charge this sphere? If we bring the charges directly, as the
electric field around the sphere will increase gradually, the opposing force will also
increase and it will become more difficult to bring additional charges. However,
the following property of conductors will make it easier: Charges placed in the
internal surface of a conductor will accumulate in the outer surface. This is because
the electric field inside of the conductor must always be zero.
A simple diagram of the van de Graaff generator that uses this principle is
shown in Figure 17.13. In this mechanism, an insulating rubber belt moves by
turning a pulley on the lower end. A sharp metal brush connected to the positive
terminal of a battery stands very close to the belt near the bottom pulley. This
brush ionizes the air around it and transfers some of the positive charges to the
belt. A second metal brush near the top pulley has zero electric field around it, as
it is connected to the conducting sphere and easily collects the charges on the
belt and then transfers them to the external surface of the sphere.
Figure 17.13: Diagram of the The van de Graaf generator is used in nuclear physics researches to accelerate
van de Graaff generator. charged particles and operate X-ray tubes. High-voltage shows are also performed
in physics laboratories and science fairs. If your shoes are insulated from the
ground, when you touch the metal sphere, your hairs will repel each other and
stand up due to the high voltage formed on your body. (The van de Graaff
generator is not a dangerous device, despite this high potential. Considering that
the charge required for 3 million volts is on the order of merely millicoulombs,
the current that can flow from your feet to the ground is very low.)
Lightning
In stormy weather, we hear a peal of thunder like a big explosion after a flash
of light in the sky and understand that a lightning bolt has struck somewhere.
Lightning is the electric discharge that occurs after air becomes conductor when
the maximum value of electric field that the dielectric medium (air) can withstand
is exceeded, as explained above. There can be different types of lightning with
different structures. The most common type of lightning is explained as follows:
Water molecules that evaporate on the surface of the Earth start to rise, as
they are lighter than air. They start to condense into water droplets when they
reach the colder upper layers of the atmosphere. This mixture of microscopic
Figure 17.14: A tree struck by particles of water and ice collide with other rising water vapor molecules, and
lightning. ionize them by freeing their electrons. Negative electrons accumulate in the
bottom surface of the cloud and positive ions in the top surface.
Consequently, an electric field arises between the negative bottom surfaces
of the clouds and the Earth’s surface. As the magnitude of the electric field
increases, the molecules of the air in between generate a conducting path to
ensure a discharge. Hence, before the lightning strike, zigzagged fringes called
leaders consisting of ionized air molecules start to extend downward from the
clouds and upwards from the roofs on the Earth’s surface (Figure 17.15).
17.3. DIELECTRICS 295
Once the conducting path produced by these ionized air molecules is com-
pleted, the electric discharge occurs instantly and a very large electron current
reaches the Earth’s surfaces. The heat generated by the current causes the sur-
rounding air molecules to heat and expand. As this expansion occurs instantly, it
produces an explosive effect and a shockwave.
As the speed of light is greater than the speed of sound, the light is observed
first and the sound later. As the speed of sound in air is 340 m/s, you can guess Figure 17.15: Leaders that pre-
the distance of the place where the lightning struck by counting the seconds after pare the path of lightning.
it strikes (1 km per 3 seconds).
Leaders that prepare the path of lightning are usually produced on high
buildings and trees. Therefore, it can be dangerous to stay in open air or to take
shelter under a tree. The best thing to do is to crouch, but without touching the
ground with your hands, in order to not increase the conducting path.
Example 17.7
κε0 in the capacitance formula (17.2) of the parallel-plate
There is a 2 mm separation between the plates of a parallel- capacitor:
plate capacitor. Its capacitance is C0 = 3 µF when there is κε0 A
C= = κ C0 = 5 × 3 = 15 µF
vacuum between the plates. d
We calculate the potential V using this capacitance C and
(a) The capacitor is connected to a battery with V0 = 12 V .
charge Q :
What will the charge Q0 and the electric field E0 between
Q Q V0 12
the plates be? V= = = = = 2.4 V
(b) The capacitor is disconnected as charged and a glass layer C κC0 κ 5
The electric field is calculated with this potential difference
with dielectric constant κ = 5 is inserted between the
V:
plates. Find the capacitance C , charge Q , potential V V (V0 /κ) E0 6000
and electric field E of the capacitor. E= = = = = 1.2 kV/m
d d κ 5
(c) A glass layer is inserted between the plates when the capac-
(c) The potential difference remains constant if the capacitor
itor is still connected to the battery. Find the capacitance
is kept connected to the battery:
C , charge Q , potential V and electric field E of the ca-
pacitor. V = V0 = 12 V
The change in capacitance is the same when a dielectric is
Answer likewise inserted in between:
(a) We calculate Q0 from the definition: C = κ C0 = 15 µF
Q0 = C0 V0 = 3 × 12 = 36 µC
The charge is calculated using this capacitance and potential
We find the electric field using the formula V = Ed in con-
difference:
stant electric field:
V0 12 Q = CV = (κC0 ) V0 = 15 × 12 = 180 µC
E0 = = = 6000 V/m = 6 kV/m
d 0.002 The electric field is calculated using the same method:
(b) As the capacitor is disconnected as charged, its charge V V0
E= = = E0 = 6 kV/m
will remain constant afterwards: d d
Q = Q0 = 36 µC As you may see, a capacitor connected to the same battery
To calculate the new capacitance when a dielectric is inserted accumulates higher charge when there is a dielectric but the
in between, it is sufficient to replace the coefficient ε0 with electric field between the plates still remains the same.
Example 17.8
is inserted. What will the new capacitance be?
Answer
We write the capacitance C0 of the parallel-plate capacitor
before the dielectric layer is inserted as C0 = ε0 A/d .
We can consider the system as two capacitors connected in
A parallel-plate capacitor has capacitance C0 when the area series when the dielectric is inserted. The first capacitor has
between the plates is empty. A dielectric layer with constant κ thickness a and dielectric constant κ1 and the second capac-
that fills a distance a of the total distance d between the plates itor has thickness d − a and dielectric constant κ2 = 1 .
296 17. CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS
1 κd − (κ − 1)a
!
1 d a d−a
= + =
C ε0 A κd d C0 κd
From here, we find the capacitance C in terms of C0 and
dimensions a and d :
κd
Accordingly, we write the equivalent capacitance formula of C= C0
κd − (κ − 1)a
the capacitors in series as follows:
1 1 1 a d−a In order to check the validity of this expression, we can see
= + = + that C = C0 at the limit a = 0 . Likewise, it correctly gives
C C1 C2 κε0 A ε0 A
We factor out C0 in this expression: C = κC0 within the limit a = d .
Example 17.9
Answer
(a) The fact that air’s dielectric strength is 3×106 V/m means
The 4 mm wide space between the plates of a parallel-plate that air will lose its dielectric property and turn into a conduc-
capacitor is filled with air. tor if the electric field exceeds this value. Therefore, the max-
imum potential difference between the plates of the parallel-
(a) What is the maximum operating voltage of the capacitor?
plate capacitor is calculated using this Emax value:
(b) The space between the plates is filled with a porcelain layer.
V = Emax d = 3 × 106 × 0.004 = 12 000 V = 12 kV
What is the maximum operating voltage this time? (Di-
electric strengths: Air: Emax = 3 × 106 V/m , porcelain: (b) A similar method is used for porcelain:
12 × 106 V/m ) V = Emax d = 12 × 106 × 0.004 = 48 000 V = 48 kV
Example 17.10
From here, we calculate the distance d :
V 30 000
A parallel-plate capacitor is to be manufactured with a ma- d= = = 0.002 m = 2 mm
terial with dielectric constant κ=30 and dielectric strength Emax 15 × 106
15 × 106 V/m such that its capacitance shall be 1 pF and be We write the capacitance formula of the parallel-plate capaci-
operating up to 30 kV voltage. What should the surface area tor with dielectric constant κ :
κε0 A
and distance between the plates of this capacitor be? C=
d
Answer From here, we calculate the surface area A :
The electric field between the plates by the maximum voltage Cd 10−9 × 0.002
A= =
should be equal to the dielectric strength: κε0 30 × 8.85 × 10−12
V = Emax d A = 0.0075 m2 = 75 cm2
Multiple-choice Questions
1. What is the unit of capacitance?
III. The electric field doubles.
(a) joule (b) volt (c) faraday (d) farad IV. The capacitance doubles.
2. In a parallel-plate capacitor, the surface area of the plates (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) I & IV (d) II & IV
and the distance in between are both doubled. By what 5. The distance between the plates of a parallel-plate capac-
factor will capacitance increase? itor is doubled while it is connected to a battery. Which
(a) No change (b) 2 (c) 1/2 (d) 4 of the following are correct?
I. The potential difference remains the same.
3. The capacitance of a capacitor and the applied voltage II. The capacitance halves.
are both doubled. By what factor will the accumulated III. The charge halves.
charge increase? IV. The electric field remains the same.
(a) No change (b) 2 (c) 1/2 (d) 4 (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) I & IV (d) I, II & III
4. A parallel-plate capacitor is disconnected after being 6. When two capacitors with capacitance 1 µF and 2 µF
charged and the distance between its plates is doubled. are connected in parallel, how many µF will the equiva-
Which of the following are correct? lent capacitance be?
I. The charge remains the same. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 2/3 (d) 3/2
II. The potential doubles.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 297
11. By what factor will the energy of a capacitor charged (a) 6 µF (b) 6/11 µF (c) 1/6 µF (d) 4 µF
with Q increase when its capacitance is doubled?
(a) 1/2 (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1/4
Problems
17.1 Capacitance
17.1 A capacitor with capacitance 5 pF is to be manufactured
using two conducting plates with surface area 80 cm2 . What
should the distance between the plates be? [A: 14 mm .]
Problem 17.7
17.7 Each capacitor in the circuit shown in the figure above
has capacitance C=1 µF . What is the equivalent capacitance Problem 17.12
between ab ? [A: 2 µF .] 17.12 The capacitor shown in the figure above with capac-
PROBLEMS 299
Problem 17.14
17.14 Each of the 3 parallel plates shown in the figure above
have surface area A and the distances in between them are a Problem 17.18
and b . These plates are connected to a potential difference V , 17.18 The parallel-plate capacitor shown in the figure above
as shown in the figure. Prove that the expression for equiva- has capacitance C0 when the space between the plates is
lent capacitance is C = ε0 A(1/a + 1/b) . (Hint: The conductor empty. A dielectric with constant κ is inserted that fills one
plate in the center is the common plate of two capacitors. half of the vacuum between the plates. What will the new
Determine whether these two capacitors are connected in capacitance be? [A: C = (1 + κ)C0 /2 .]
parallel or series.)
17.19 The 5 mm wide space between the plates of a parallel-
plate capacitor is filled with air. (a) What is the maximum
operating voltage? (b) A paper layer is inserted between the
plates of the capacitor. What is the maximum operating volt-
age this time? (Dielectric strengths: Air: Emax = 3×106 V/m ,
paper: 15 × 106 V/m ) [A: (a) 15 kV , (b) 75 kV .]
Problem 17.15
17.15 After being charged under the same potential differ- 17.20 A parallel-plate capacitor is to be manufactured with
ence of 20 V , the capacitors with capacitance C1 =1 µF and a material with a dielectric constant of 12 and a dielectric
C2 =4 µF are connected in reverse, as shown in the figure strength of 5 × 106 V/m such that its capacitance shall be
above, in other words, the negative charged plate of one is 10 pF and it will be able to operate up to 20 kV of potential
connected to the positive charged plate of the other. (a) What difference. What should the surface area and distance be-
are the charges and total energies of the capacitors at the tween the plates of this capacitor be?
start? (b) What are the final charges and total energies of the [A: 3.8 cm2 and 4 mm .]
?
18
CURRENT, RESISTANCE
AND CIRCUITS
No other type of power more efficient and practical than electric power has
been discovered in modern technology and industry. Electricity can easily be
transferred and used in all places and under all operating conditions. It can also
be used in sending signals and in operating and controlling machinery.
The electric current lies at the basis of all of these activities. From this chapter
onwards, we shall leave the subject of electrostatics and examine the currents
produced by moving electric charges and their behavior in matter. We will learn
of electrical effects that are much richer and more complex compared to static
charges.
1 A = 1 C/s
However, as the ampere is the basic unit in the SI system, it is not necessary
to express ampere in terms of coulombs. On the contrary, the coulomb unit is
ampere × seconds.
Note the expression “net charge flowing through in a certain direction” here.
The free electrons in a conductor are continually in motion. When observed in
any cross-section, the average amount of charge flowing through in one direction
is equal to the average amount of charge flowing in the other direction, and
therefore the net charge flowing through is zero. A net charge flow is observed
in a certain direction when this conductor is connected to a potential difference.
Direction of Current
Before the microscopic structure of matter was known, the direction of electric
current was accepted as the direction of motion of positive charges. However, it
was later understood that only the negative electrons were moving. Positively
charged ions do not move; they only vibrate, as they are strongly bonded to each
other and are very heavy.
Figure 18.2: Current is formed Despite this, the direction of current was not changed. According to this
by (−) charged electrons, and + assumption, the direction of current is taken as the direction of motion of positive
charged ions do not move. charges. In actual fact, in a solid medium these are negatively charged electrons
moving in the opposite direction.
This creates no problem macroscopically. Consider this: A +q charge travel-
ing to the right increases the charge on the right by +q . However, a −q charge
traveling to the left also increases the charge on the right by +q . They both lead
to the same result. In this chapter, we will examine many cases as if +q charges
are moving, but the conclusions that we shall reach will not change.
Drift Speed
We can calculate the current in a conducting wire in terms of the speed of
the moving charges inside of the wire. A net electric field E will form inside
of a wire when a potential difference V is applied between the two ends of the
wire. The charges will start to accelerate as a force F=qE will be exerted upon a
charge q in the electric field.
(Let us make one correction here: We had previously stated that E=0 was
always true in a conductor in electrostatics. However, the conditions of elec-
trostatics are not valid any more, as we are examining moving charges and the
electric field may be different from zero.)
Charges under the force F = qE would be expected to accelerate according to
Newton’s law. However, this is not possible in a conducting medium (Figure 18.3).
This is because moving q charges collide with the ions in the medium and lose
energy or change direction. They then accelerate again and repeatedly collide
Figure 18.3: Electrons lose and slow down. You may consider this like an automobile trying to drive along a
energy by colliding with ions road with successive red traffic lights. The automobile accelerates, but halts at a
when accelerating in a conduc- red traffic light and waits; it then starts to accelerate again after a green traffic
tor. light and is then forced to stop again at the next red traffic light.
Electrons thus travel at an average speed inside of a conductor. This is called
the drift speed and is indicated with vd . Now, let us show the relation between
drift speed and current.
18.1. ELECTRIC CURRENT 303
∆q
I= = enAvd (18.2)
∆t
If current I is known, we can write this expression for speed vd as follows:
I
vd = (drift speed) (18.3)
enA
Let us see the order of magnitude of drift speed using a simple calculation: A
current I = 20 A is flowing through a copper wire with cross-section 1 mm2 .
The copper contains approximately 1029 free electrons per cubic meters. If we
take q = e = 1.6 × 10−19 C as the charge, we find that
I 20
vd = = ≈ 0.001 m/s
enA 1.6 × 10 × 1029 × 10−6
−19
This result may seem surprising. Electrons are moving as slow as 1 mm per
second inside the conductor. However, we see a lamp turn on immediately after
we switch it on. The reason for this is that there are free electrons everywhere in
the conductor. The neighboring charges of the lamp start to move as soon as you
switch it on and do not have to travel a long distance.
Biological Effects of Electric Current
The human body has limited resistance to electric voltage and current. The
effect called electric shock occurs at currents and potential differences above
certain limits and may lead to serious injuries that may result in death. Let us
emphasize the important points to keep in mind for protection from electricity.
• Electric current can flow through the body in two ways: It may flow through
by completing the circuit over the body, as shown in Figure 18.5a. Or by
reaching the ground through the body, as shown in (b).
Figure 18.5: Current can flow
through the body in two ways:
(a) By completing the circuit, (b)
By reaching the ground through
the body.
• The important factor in electric shock is not the voltage but current. You may
come into contact with a very high voltage, but it will not harm the body if a
304 18. CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND CIRCUITS
current does not flow as a result. However, if the high voltage completes the
circuit at another point of the body (for example, if two wires are held with
two hands or a conducting contact is made with the ground), then the circuit
is completed and current starts to flow. (This is why birds are able to land on
electric cables without getting electrocuted.)
• Direct currents higher than 0.3 − 0.5 A and alternating currents higher than
60 milliampere are harmful.
• Electric current can harm the body in two ways:
Burns on the skin and internal organs. The heat energy released
and the ionization that occurs along the current path may damage tissues
and lead to death.
Disruption of the heart and the nervous system. The nervous sys-
tem of our body consists of nerve cells called axons that operate with voltages
as small as 0.1 V . An external electric current disrupts this system and leads
to paralysis in muscles. The heart beat becomes irregular, especially in the
event of a paralysis in the heart ventricles. This is called fibrillation. The
heart may stop as a result of being unable to pump sufficient blood.
80 % of the deaths caused by electric shock are due to burns and the rest due
to heart and nervous system paralysis.
Figure 18.6: The defibrillator • The current flowing through the body depends on the electric resistance of
device used in cardiac arrest.
the body (see Ohm’s law below). This resistance may vary depending on
skin temperature or whether it is moist or dry. The resistance of a dry skin is
around 5 000 − 10 000 Ω but it may drop down to around 1 000 Ω for moist
skin.
• Considering these current and resistance limits, even voltages as low as 10 V
may be harmful.
• Protection. The first rule to be observed in the event of an electric shock
is to cut the contact with the voltage source. You must make sure to isolate
yourself while doing this.
Using three-prong plugs with ground connection will provide the necessary
protection for electric appliances with current leaks. One of the three wires in
these plugs carries the voltage and the other two are neutral. The third wire
is connected both to the ground and to the conductor frame of the electrical
appliance. Any electrical leak thus goes to the ground through this third
path.
Another protection method is to prevent currents flowing to the ground
through the body by wearing shoes with insulating soles (rubber, cork).
There is a linear relation between the current density J and the electric field
E in the medium in metals and many other conductors. Discovered for the first
time by the German scientist Ohm, this relation is known as Ohm’s law and is
expressed as follows:
ρ = ρ0 [1 + α (T − T 0 )] (18.8)
R = R0 [1 + α (T − T 0 )] (18.9)
Example 18.1
We find the resistivity of copper from the table on Page 305
A 5 Ω resistor is to be made using a copper wire with a 0.1 mm and calculate the required length:
2
Example 18.2
E = ρJ
An electric field with a magnitude of 100 V/m is formed when J = I/A is the current flowing through the unit cross-section.
2
a 3 A current flows through a wire with cross-section 2 mm . From here we calculate the resistivity:
I EA
What is the resistivity of the wire? E=ρ → ρ=
A I
Answer We substitute the data and calculate the resistivity:
We write Eq. (18.5), the microscopic expression of Ohm’s law: ρ = 100 × 2 × 10−6 /3 = 6.7 × 10−5 Ω·m
Example 18.3
R = R0 [1 + α (T − T 0 )]
A tungsten wire lamp has 10 Ω in resistance at 20 ◦ C . We find the temperature coefficient of tungsten from the table
(a) What will its resistance be at 600 ◦ C ? on Page 305:
(b) The lamp has 80 Ω in resistance when it is glowing. De- R = 10 [1 + 0.005 × (600 − 20)] = R = 39 Ω
termine the temperature of the lamp. (b) The same formula is used to find temperature T :
Answer 80 = 10 [1 + 0.005 × (T − 20)]
(a) Eq. (18.9) is used: T = 1420 ◦ C
18.3. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 307
Vb = Va + E
When we reach the internal resistance r , according to Ohm’s law, the potential
will drop by rI when going along the resistor in the direction of the current.
Therefore, the potential of point c is
Vc = Vb − r I = Va + E − r I
Likewise, the potential will drop by RI when going from point c through the
resistor R in the direction of the current. Therefore, the potential of point a on
the right will be
Va = Vc − R I = Va + E − r I − R I
We thus return to point a . The graph in Figure 18.11 shows the potential value at
each point along the circuit.
By simplifying, we get
E−rI −RI = 0
We thus find the current I in a circuit with resistor R by an emf source E with
internal resistance r :
E
I=
R+r
As this circuit operates with the current I flowing, the resistor R will be
subject to the potential difference between the ac terminals of the battery. And
this potential difference will be,
This potential difference Vac is called the terminal voltage of the battery. Ter-
minal voltage will always be less than the value of E , because the potential drop
across the internal resistor r should also be taken into account.
18.3. DIRECT CURRENT CIRCUITS 309
dW = dU = V dq
dW V dq dq
P= = =V
dt dt dt
As the amount of charge flowing during the unit time is I = dq/dt , the expression
for power will be as follows:
This formula is the most general expression of power, and it gives us the power
consumed when the potential difference is V and the current flowing through is Figure 18.12: Electric energy is
I on any component of the circuit, including resistors, capacitors, emf, motors, converted to heat in an electric
etc. heater.
To find the energy spent during a certain time interval, we write the definition
of power for dW :
dW = P dt
As a particular case, let us find the expression for the power consumed in a
resistor: As V = R I according to Ohm’s law, we get
or, alternately, the amount of energy consumed during time interval dt will be
dW = P dt = R I 2 dt (18.13)
Note that this energy converted into heat is proportional to the square of the
current.
Example 18.4
(c) Calculate the power consumed in the resistors and the
A 15 V battery is connected to a 7 Ω resistor. The internal power provided by the battery to the circuit.
resistance of the battery is 0.5 Ω . Answer
(a) Find the current flowing through the circuit. (a) We add the voltage changes over each circuit component
(b) Find the terminal voltage of the battery. as we make a complete clockwise cycle starting from the
310 18. CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND CIRCUITS
negative terminal of the battery: (c) We use the formula RI 2 to calculate the power consumed
+E − r I − R I = 0 in the resistors:
E 15 PR = RI 2 = 7 × 22 = 28 W and Pr = rI 2 = 0.5 × 22 = 2 W
I= = = 2A
R + r 7 + 0.5 The power provided by the battery is calculated using the
(b) The terminal voltage of the battery is defined in Eq. (18.10): formula (18.11):
Vab = E − rI = 15 − 0.5 × 2 = 14 V P = V I = E I = 15 × 2 = 30 W
Example 18.5
We calculate the power by using the resistance at room tem-
An electric kettle made of tungsten has 50 Ω in resistance at perature: 2
room temperature ( 20 ◦ C ) and operates under 240 V . P = 240 /50 = 1200 W = 1.2 kW
(a) How much power does the kettle consume when it starts (b) As the boiling point of water is 100 C , we have to calcu-
◦
◦
to heat water at 20 C ? late the resistance at that temperature:
(b) How much power does it consume when the water starts R = R0 [1 + α (T − T 0 )]
to boil? We take the temperature coefficient α of tungsten from the
table on page 305:
Answer
R = 50 [1 + 0.005 × (100 − 20)] = 70 Ω
(a) Using the power formula P=V I and Ohm’s law V=RI ,
We calculate the power consumed at this temperature:
the power of the heater can be written as follows:
V 2 2402
P = R I 2 = V 2 /R P= = = 820 W = 0.82 kW
R 70
The equivalent resistor Req should draw the same current I under the same
Figure 18.13: Resistors in se- potential difference V :
ries. V = Req I
Comparing the last two expressions, we find the series connected equivalent
resistor:
Req = R1 + R2
This result is also valid for more than two resistors:
Resistors in Parallel
Two resistors with resistance R1 and R2 are connected to the same battery
with potential difference V , as shown in Figure 18.14. In this case, each resistor
will be subject to the same V potential difference, but the current flowing through
each will be different. If we use I1 and I2 to indicate these currents, we get
V V
I1 = I2 =
R1 R2
The total current drawn from the battery will thus be I = I1 + I2 .
The equivalent resistor placed between the same terminals should draw the Figure 18.14: Resistors in par-
same total current: allel.
I = I1 + I2
V V V
= +
Req R1 R2
1 1 1
= +
Req R1 R2
1 1 1 1
= + + ··· + (Resistors in parallel) (18.15)
Req R1 R2 RN
Example 18.6
calculate the equivalent resistance of these two:
R3 R0 3×6
R00 = = = 2Ω
R3 + R0 3 + 6
This resistor R will be in series connection with R4 :
00
R000 = R4 + R00 = 4 + 2 = 6 Ω
Finally, resistor R000 will be in parallel connection with R2 :
R2 R000 2×6
Req = = = 1.5 Ω
R2 + R000 2 + 6
In the figure, we have R1 =1 , R2 =2 , R3 =3 , R4 =4 and R5 =5 Ω . (b) We first calculate the current drawn by the equivalent
(a) What is the equivalent resistance between ab ? resistor when the terminals ab are connected to the battery:
(b) How much current will flow through resistor R4 when the Vab 12
I= = = 8A
terminals ab are connected to a 12 V source? Req 1.5
Answer Let us assume that this current I enters through the terminal
(a) The resistance of wires is taken to be zero in circuit prob- b . The current will separate here into two branches, which
lems. In other words, we can extend, shorten or even merge we will indicate with I2 and I4 :
these wires at one point. It thus becomes easy to see series I = I2 + I4 = 8 A
or parallel connections. We can immediately calculate the current I2 using Ohm’s
If we examine the circuit in the figure starting from the law, because the resistor R2 is also subject to the potential
inside, we can observe that R1 and R5 are connected in series. difference Vab = 12 V :
Vab 12
Let us use R0 to show their equivalent resistor: I2 = = = 6A
R0 = R1 + R5 = 1 + 5 = 6 Ω R2 2
From here we calculate the current I4 :
If we replace these two resistors with a single resistor R0 , it
I4 = I − I2 = 8 − 6 = 2 A
will be observed to be in parallel connection with R3 . Let us
312 18. CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND CIRCUITS
R00 = R4 + R0 = 4 + 2 = 6 Ω
This resistor R00 will be in parallel with R2 :
R2 R00 2×6
R000 = = = 1.5 Ω
R2 + R00 2 + 6
This resistor R will be in series with R1 :
000
Galvanometer
When a current flows through a wire placed between the poles of a magnet, a
magnetic force acts on the wire (Figure 18.15). As we shall discuss in Chapter 20,
the magnetic force on the wire is proportional to the magnitude of the current.
Also, a torque is exerted if the wire is wound like a coil and the coil gets deflected in
the magnetic field. Likewise, the amount of deflection of the wire is proportional
to the current flowing through it. Thus, the current can be calculated by measuring
the deflection angle on a scale.
However, the wire inside of the galvanometer also has a resistance. This
resistance is part of the circuit, and will thus change the current flowing through
the circuit. The internal resistance of the galvanometer should be very small so that
this effect can be small.
The galvanometer is the basis of all kinds of electrical measuring instruments. Figure 18.15: Galvanometer.
Other quantities can be measured by connecting resistors in series or in parallel
to the galvanometer.
Ammeter
The ammeter used to measure current is actually a galvanometer with a very
small resistor. The ammeter is connected in series by inserting it into the branch
in which the current is to be measured. It is thus ensured that the whole current to
be measured flows through the ammeter. However, the resistance of the ammeter
should be very small, almost zero, such that the current flowing through this
branch is not affected. The current flowing through the ammeter in the circuit
shown in Figure 18.16 will be
Figure 18.16: An ammeter is
E
I= connected in series.
R + RA
The change in the current I can be neglected if the resistance of the ammeter is
RA R .
Voltmeter
The voltmeter used to measure the potential difference between two points is
actually a galvanometer with very large resistance. The voltmeter is connected in
parallel to points a, b of the circuit, and is thus subject to the potential difference
to be measured (Figure 18.17).
This time, some of the current will flow through the voltmeter and the current Figure 18.17: A voltmeter is
flowing through the resistor R will decrease. We calculate the potential difference connected in parallel.
on resistor R :
RI
V=
1 + R/RV
Therefore, the resistance RV of the voltmeter should be very large to ensure that
the potential difference does not deviate too much from its correct value RI .
Potentiometer
A potentiometer is an instrument used to measure the emf voltage of a battery.
As we have seen previously in Eq. (18.10), when a battery connected to the circuit
starts to produce a current, the terminal voltage will be Vab = E − rI and will be
less than E . Since we cannot eliminate the internal resistance r of the battery,
can we take a measurement at zero current?
We can do this with the potentiometer assembly shown in Figure 18.18. The
figure shows a battery with a known value of E and a resistor R . The emf source
314 18. CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND CIRCUITS
Multiple-choice Questions
1. What will the current be if a charge of 6 C flows through
the cross-section of a wire in 2 seconds? (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) I & IV (d) II & III
(a) 6 A (b) 8 A (c) 3 A (d) 1/3 A
5. Which of the following are correct for the biological
effects of electricity?
2. Which of the following are correct for electric current? I. It is dangerous to complete a circuit through the body.
I. Electrons perform accelerated motion in conductors. II. It is dangerous for a current the reach the ground
II. Electrons collide with ions in the conductor and slow through the body.
down. III. There will be no harm if the voltage is high but no
III. Electrons travel at a constant average speed due to current passes through.
collisions. IV. Voltages higher than 10 V can be dangerous.
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) I & III (d) I, II&III
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) I & IV (d) All
4. Which of the following are correct for electromotive 7. Both the length and the cross-section area of a wire are
force (emf)? doubled. By what factor will its resistance increase?
I. It converts another type of power into electrical (a) No change (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 8
power.
II. It is an electrical force. 8. Which is the expression for Ohm’s law?
III. It provides a constant current to the circuit.
(a) V = RI (b) I = VR (c) V = R/I (d) I = R/V
IV. It provides a constant potential difference to the cir-
cuit.
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 315
9. Which of the following are correct for the resistance of 14. How much energy does a light bulb with 5 W of power
a conductor? consume in 1 minute?
I. It is proportional to the resistivity. (a) 5 J (b) 10 J (c) 25 J (d) 300 J
II. It is proportional to the length.
III. It is proportional to the cross-section area.
15. How much power is consumed in a 3 Ω resistor through
IV. It is inversely proportional to the cross-section area.
which 2 A in current flows?
(a) I & II (b) I, II & IV (c) I & III (d) II & IV
(a) 5 W (b) 6 W (c) 12 W (d) 18 W
10. Which of the following will be correct when a 12 V emf
source with an internal resistance of 1 Ω is connected 16. What is the equivalent resistance of the resistors with
to a circuit? resistances of 3 and 6 Ω connected in series?
I. It will provide a constant 12 V potential difference (a) 2 Ω (b) 9 Ω (c) 18 Ω (d) 24 Ω
to the circuit.
II. It will provide a potential difference less than 12 V 17. What is the equivalent resistance of the resistors with
to the circuit. resistances of 3 and 6 Ω connected in parallel?
III. It will provide a constant current to the circuit.
(a) 2 Ω (b) 9 Ω (c) 18 Ω (d) 24 Ω
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) I & III (d) All
12. Which two of the following principles are correct for 19. Which of the following are correct for an ammeter?
direct current circuits? I. It is connected to the circuit in series.
I. The same current flows through resistors on the same II. It is connected to the circuit in parallel.
branch. III. It has very low internal resistance.
II. The potential difference is the same in resistors on IV. It has very high internal resistance.
the same branch. (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) II & IV
III. The same current flows through resistors connected
between the same two points.
20. Which of the following are correct for a voltmeter?
IV. The potential difference in resistors connected be-
I. It is connected to the circuit in series.
tween the same two points is the same.
II. It is connected to the circuit in parallel.
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) I & III (d) I & IV III. It has very low internal resistance.
IV. It has very high internal resistance.
13. A 12 V emf source delivers 3 A when connected to a
circuit. What is the power provided by the source? (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) II & IV
(a) 4 W (b) 15 W (c) 36 W (d) 108 W
316 18. CURRENT, RESISTANCE AND CIRCUITS
Problems
18.2 Ohm’s Law and Resistance consume when its temperature reaches 300 ◦ C ?
(Use the table on Page 305 for the resistivities and temperature [A: (a) 1440 W , (b) 600 W .]
coefficients that may be required in the problems.)
18.4 Combination of Resistors
18.1 A 3 Ω resistor is to be made using an aluminum wire
with a cross-section of 0.2 mm2 . (a) What should the length
of the wire be? (b) How many amperes of current will flow
when this resistor is connected to a potential difference of
60 V ? (c) What will the magnitude of the electric field inside
of the wire be? [A: (a) 21 m , (b) 20 A , (c) 2.8 V/m .]
Problem 18.11
18.2 How much current passes through when a tungsten 18.11 Calculate the equivalent resistance between the termi-
wire with a cross-section area of 1 mm2 and a length of 10 m nals ab shown in the figure. [A: 6 Ω .]
is connected to a 12 V battery? [A: 23 A .]
Problem 18.19
18.19 R1 = 1, R2 = 2, R3 = 3, R4 = 4 and R5 = 5 Ω in
Problem 18.17 the circuit shown in the figure. Considering that the current
18.17 58 W power is consumed in the circuit shown in the
flowing through R1 is 1 A , what is the emf value E of the
figure when the resistors, each with resistance R , are con-
battery? [A: 24 V .]
nected to a 45 V -battery. Calculate the value of R .
[A: 25 Ω .]
18.18 Wheatstone bridge. The circuit shown in the figure
below is used to determine an unknown resistance R x . After
a battery is connected to the circuit, the value of the variable
resistor R3 is changed such that the current flowing through
a galvanometer connected between ab is zero.
Problem 18.20
?
19
MAGNETIC FIELD
The magnetic needle of a compass will always point north, regardless of the
direction which you turn it. The Chinese and Indian civilizations were already
cognizant of magnetism thousands of years ago. It is said that, in Ancient Greece,
magnetized rocks were found in a region of Anatolia known as Magnesia. Sailors
have used magnetized compasses for navigation for a thousand years.
Understanding magnetism was possible as late as the 17th century. In the
1600s, the English scientist William Gilbert claimed that the Earth was a giant
magnet and that this was how it attracted the poles of a compass. In the 19th cen-
tury, two scientists, the French André Ampere and the Danish Oersted, observed
that a magnet would deflect a current-carrying wire. Later, Michael Faraday
discovered that moving magnets generated emf.
All these discoveries indicated that there was a close relationship between
electricity and magnetism. Ultimately, Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell
merged electricity and magnetism under a single theory.
We shall discuss the properties of magnetism and its relation to electrical
forces in this and the next two chapters.
~F = q ~v × B
~
(Magnetic force on a charge) (19.1)
19.1. MAGNETIC FORCE 321
Now, let us get to know the force ~F better by remembering the properties of a
vector product:
• Magnitude of the magnetic force. The magnitude of a vector product
~a × ~b is ab sin θ . Therefore, the force on charge q produced by velocity
vector ~v and magnetic field vector B ~ with angle θ in between, will have the
magnitude
F = qvB sin θ
It can be seen that the force will be zero if the velocity is zero ( v = 0 ) or if it
is parallel to the magnetic field (θ = 0◦ ) .
• Direction of the magnetic force. The orientation of a vector ~c = ~a × ~b is
perpendicular to both ~a and ~b . We use the right-hand rule to determine
which of the two directions in this orientation is to be used:
According to the right-hand rule, when we point our four fingers towards Figure 19.3: Direction of the
the first vector (~a ) and point our palm towards the second vector (~b) , our magnetic force according to the
thumb gives the direction of ~c . right-hand rule.
Likewise, for a positive charge q , the direction of the force is perpendicular
to the plane formed by both ~v and B ~ , and when we point the four fingers of
the right-hand towards the vector ~v and the palm towards the field vector
~ , the thumb gives the direction of the force ~F .
B
When the charge q is negative (−) , the formula (19.1) gives a force in the
direction of −~F . In other words, the magnetic forces exerted upon negative and
positive charges are in opposite directions.
Unit of Magnetic Field
The force formula (19.1) allows us to determine the unit of magnetic field. If we
compare both sides of the equation and substitute (coulomb/second = ampere) ,
we get the unit of magnetic field in the SI system as
N N
1 =1 = 1 tesla = 1 T
C × m/s A·m
The unit of magnetic field was named the tesla (T) in memory of the great Serbian
scientist Nikola Tesla (1857–1943).
The unit of tesla is extremely large for normal magnetic fields. Another unit
of magnetic field is the gauss and
1 gauss = 10−4 T
on the particle.) Even when the particle is slightly deflected, the force will still be
perpendicular to the velocity ~v .
We know already what kind of motion has this property in which the force is
always perpendicular to the velocity vector. This is the circular motion that we
discussed in Section 3.3. In this case, the magnetic force provides the centripetal
force of the circular motion:
v2
Fr = qvB = m
r
From here, we find the radius of the circular motion as follows:
mv
r= (19.2)
qB
Note that the numerator of this formula is p = mv , the momentum of the particle.
In scientific research and technological applications, the radius of the circular
motion of a particle is measured inside of a known magnetic field and either the
velocity v , the charge q or the m of the particle can be determined from this.
Figure 19.5: The most general If the particle does not enter the magnetic field as fully perpendicular, the
spiral motion of a charged parti- component of velocity along the magnetic field does not change. In such a case,
cle. it performs circular motion on one hand and continues to move forward on the
other hand. This is the spiral motion.
Let us briefly introduce the instrument called the mass spectrograph, which
is an important application of this formula.
In this instrument, shown in Figure 19.6, a charge +q generated at a source
of ion is first accelerated to a known velocity v under a potential difference V in
an electric field. The charge then enters perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic
field B and exits by following a semicircular path. The distance 2r of the point at
which it exits is determined using detectors. This data can be used to determine
the mass m of a particle with a known charge q .
The mass spectrograph was used to determine the masses of atoms very pre-
cisely and prove the existence of isotopes. Today, it is frequently used in medicine
Figure 19.6: Mass spectro-
graph. and engineering, in addition to physics, chemistry and biology researches.
Example 19.1
The velocity vector ~v of charge q1 is given in the direction
of the +y axis as the vector B ~ . The vector product of two
parallel vectors is zero:
~F1 = 0 ~)
( ~v k B
point in the +z direction. Therefore, the force ~F2 is in the right hand in the ~v ( −z ) direction and point our palm in the
+z direction. ~ ( +y ), our thumb will point in the +x direction.
direction of B
Note that charge q3 is negative. In other words, a force will be The force will be opposite to this direction. Therefore, the
~
exerted in the opposite direction of the one to be found using force F3 is in the −x direction.
the right-hand rule. Again, if we point the four fingers of our The results are shown in the figure above:
Example 19.2 Answer (a) The force exerted upon the proton will
be in the
+x direction according to the formula ~F=q ~v × B
~ , as shown
If we define ~L = ~vd dt as a displacement vector along the wire and in the direction
of the current, we can find the expression for the force exerted upon a piece of
wire with length L in a magnetic field:
~F = I ~L × B
~
(Magnetic force on a current) (19.3)
Note that the force is perpendicular to both the wire and the magnetic field.
324 19. MAGNETIC FIELD
Example 19.3
We calculate its magnitude as follows:
The wires extending along the sides of a cube with side length a , F1 = I LB sin 90◦ = IaB
as shown in the figure, carry the currents with the same magni- The force on I2 : This time, the vector product is zero, as the
~ is in the +y -direction. vector ~L is parallel to vector B
tude: I1 =I2 =I3 =I . The magnetic field B ~:
Calculate the forces exerted upon the currents I1 , I2 and I3 . F2 = 0
The force on I3 : As the vector B ~ in the figure is in the +y
direction, the vector ~F3 perpendicular to it will be parallel to
the xz -plane, in other words, inside that plane of the cube.
Likewise, the vector inside this plane that is perpendicular
to the vector ~L must be along its diagonal. The right-hand
rule gives the direction
√ of the force as downward. We take
the value L = 2a and calculate
√ the magnitude of the force:
Answer F3 = I LB sin 90 = 2IaB
◦
We use the formula (19.3) to calculate the magnetic force All three forces are shown in the figure below.
exerted upon a current-carrying wire:
~F = I ~L × B
~
Example 19.4
current flowing through the rod be such that the force on the
springs is zero?
Answer The magnetic force should be upward to balance
the weight of the rod. As the rod and the magnetic field are
perpendicular, we directly write the magnetic field and set it
equal to the weight W :
F = W → ILB = W
We calculate the current I from here as follows:
A conducting rod with weight W=0.3 N and a length of 50 cm W 0.3
is suspended with conducting springs, as shown in the figure. I= = = 3A
LB 0.5 × 0.2
The region has a magnetic field with a magnitude of 0.2 T into The current must flow from the left to the right so that the
the paper. What should the magnitude and direction of the force is upward according to the right-hand rule.
The net force on the loop is zero, as these forces are equal and opposite. Therefore,
the loop performs no translational motion.
However, the total torque of the forces is different from zero, and it may thus
perform a rotational motion. Let us calculate the torques of these forces with
respect to the rotation axis y .
Figure 19.9: The forces on
the sides from different angles:
Views from (a) above, (b) front.
(c) The dipole moment m ~ in the
direction of the normal of the
~.
loop as it makes angle θ with B
Let θ be the angle between the normal of the loop and the magnetic field at
any time. Accordingly, we can write the sum of the moments as follows:
In this expression, the moments of the forces F1 and F3 are zero, because they
are parallel to the axis. A = ab is the area of the loop.
The product I A here is defined as the magnetic dipole moment of a current
loop and is defined as a vector perpendicular to the plane of the loop, in the
direction of the normal vector n̂ (Figure 19.9c):
~ = I A n̂
m
More generally, if the loop has N windings, the magnitude of the dipole moment
will be:
m = N IA (Magnetic dipole moment) (19.5)
The aforementioned torque calculation is also valid for geometric shapes
other than a rectangle. As a result, the amount of torque exerted on a current
loop with dipole moment m ~ is found as follows:
~ in a magnetic field B
~τ = m ~
~ ×B (Magnitude: τ = mB sin θ) (19.6)
Example 19.5
Example 19.6
torque that is trying to rotate it.
Answer
The magnetic dipole moment of the loop is calculated with
the formula (19.5):
m = IA = I πr2 = 25 × 3.14 × 0.402
A current of 25 A is flowing through a circular loop with a m = 12.6 A·m2
radius of 40 cm on the xy -plane. This region has a uniform We then calculate the torque from the formula (19.6).
magnetic field of 0.3 T in a direction with a 45◦ angle with τ = mB sin θ = 12.6 × 0.3 × sin 45◦
the xy -plane. Find the magnetic moment of the loop and the τ = 2.7 N·m
MULTIPLE-CHOICE QUESTIONS 327
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which is the unit of magnetic field in the SI unit system?
(a) tesla (b) gauss (c) ampere (d) einstein
16. Which section of the wire shown in the figure below has (a) The charges of the particle are equal.
a force exerted upon it towards the right? (b) The masses of the particles are equal.
(c) The charge/mass ratios of the particles are equal.
(d) The product charge×mass of the particles are equal.
Problems
19.1 Magnetic Force on Charges exerted upon it. What is the angle between the velocity and
the magnetic field? [A: 30◦ .]
Problem 19.4
19.4 In a region where the magnetic field has magnitude
B=0.1 T in the direction of the +z -axis, an electron is thrown
Problem 19.1 at a velocity of 2 × 108 m/s along the +x -axis.
19.1 Determine only the directions of the forces exerted
(a) Find the magnitude and direction of the force exerted upon
upon charges q1 , q2 and q3 thrown with velocity v from the
the electron. (b) Calculate the radius of the circular trajectory
corners of a cube, in the directions shown in the figure. The
of the electron. (The electron’s charge is −e= − 1.6 × 10−19 C
magnetic field vector B~ is in the +z direction.
and its mass is me =9.1 × 10−31 kg .)
[A: F1 = 0 , F2 : in the +y direction: F3 in the −x
[A: (a) 3.2 × 10−12 N in +y -direction, (b) 0.01 m .]
direction.]
Problem 19.5
Problem 19.2 19.5 An electron enters the region of a magnetic field shown
19.2 In a region with a magnetic field with a magnitude of in the figure with a velocity of 2 × 108 m/s and exits perpen-
0.4 T in the +x direction, a q=3 µC charge is thrown with dicular to its incoming direction after traveling a quarter of a
a velocity of 5 × 106 m/s and at a 37◦ angle with the mag- circle 1.57 cm long. Calculate the magnitude of the magnetic
netic field. What are the magnitude and direction of the force field in the region. (Hint: Calculate the radius from the length
exerted upon the charge? [A: 3.6 N in the −z direction.] of the quarter circle.) [A: 0.11 T .]
19.3 When a 3 µC charge with a velocity of 106 m/s is 19.6 An electron at rest is first accelerated under an electric
thrown into a B = 0.1 T magnetic field, a 0.15 N force is potential difference of 200 kV , after which it enters a region
PROBLEMS 329
Problem 19.11
19.11 A conducting rod with weight W = 0.5 N and a length
of 40 cm is suspended with conducting springs, as shown in
the figure. The region has a magnetic field with a magnitude
Problem 19.7 of 0.1 T out of the paper. What should the magnitude and
19.7 The proton shown in the figure is thrown into a region direction of the current flowing through the rod be such that
of unknown magnetic field with a velocity of 2 × 106 m/s . the force on the springs is zero. [A: 12.5 A to the left.]
The proton travels a semicircle and exits 20 cm away. Calcu-
late the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field in the
area ( m p = 1.7 × 10−27 kg ). [A: 0.21 T out of the paper.]
Problem 19.9
19.9 The wires extending along the sides of a cube with side
length a , as shown in the figure, carry the currents with the
same magnitude: I1 =I2 =I3 =I . The magnetic field B ~ is in the
+z -direction. Calculate the forces exerted upon the currents
Problem 19.13
I1 , I2 and I3 .
[A: F1 = 0 , F2 = IaB : in the −y direction, F3 = IaB : in the 19.13 A constant current of 3 A is given to the circuit in
−x direction] the figure above from a source. A metal rod with a mass of
100 g and a length of 50 cm is freely placed on the friction-
less points ab . There is a magnetic field with a magnitude of
0.2 T into the paper. What will the acceleration of the rod be
when the current is flowing? [A: 3 m/s2 .]
Problem 19.10
19.10 A 3 A current is flowing through a wire that makes a
53◦ angle with the field lines in an area with a 0.5 T magnetic Problem 19.14
field in the plane shown in the figure. Calculate the magni- 19.14 A 5 A current is flowing through a circular loop with
tude and direction of the force exerted upon a unit length of radius 10 cm in the xy -plane. This region has a magnetic
the wire. [A: 1.2 N into the paper.] field of 0.2 T in a direction at a 37◦ angle with the xy -plane.
330 19. MAGNETIC FIELD
Find the magnetic moment of the loop and the torque that is each winding. The dimensions of the loop are a = 1 m and
trying to rotate it. [A: m = 0.16 A·m2 , τ = 0.25 N·m .] b = 2 m . The magnetic field in the region is B=3 T towards
the x -axis. (a) Calculate the magnetic moment of the loop,
(b) Calculate the torque exerted on the loop.
[A: (a) 200 A·m2 , (b) 360 N·m .]
?
20
SOURCES OF MAGNETIC
FIELD
~ = k0 I d~` × r̂
dB (Biot-Savart: vector expression) (20.4)
r2
It can be seen that this expression is equivalent to the magnetic field Eq. (20.1) in
terms of both magnitude and direction.
Magnetic Field of a Finite Wire
Every current flows through a finite wire consisting of the sum of small d`
parts. The magnetic field of a whole current will be the limit sum, in other words,
~ vectors above:
the integral of the small dB
I d~` × r̂
Z
~ = k0
B (20.5)
r2
This integral will be taken over the whole wire.
Let us state here that the result is 2/a2 without going into the details of the
Figure 20.4: Magnetic field of a calculation. (It can be calculated by a change of variable x=−a cot θ .) Accordingly,
straight wire. the magnetic field of an infinite straight wire is
2k0 I
B= (Magnetic field of a straight wire) (20.6)
a
The magnetic field lines form concentric circles with the wire as the axis. The
~ will be tangent to these circles (Figure 20.4).
vector B
Magnetic Field of a Current Loop
We wish to find the magnetic field at a point along the axis of a circular loop
with radius a and carrying a current I . Let us choose the small length element
d` along the wire as the arc of circle ds (Figure 20.5). Let us place this arc ds
on the y -axis and in the +z direction. Let point P be located on the x -axis at
distance h . These choices do not affect the generality because of the symmetry
of the loop.
Figure 20.5: The contribution As seen in the figure, the contribution dB of this current element I ds will be
dB of a piece of arc ds to the perpendicular to both ds and the unit vector r̂ , and therefore will be located in
magnetic field. the xy -plane. Also, the angle between ds and r̂ will be θ = 90◦ , because every
vector located on the plane perpendicular to ds will be perpendicular to ds .
If we write this contribution dB according to the Biot-Savart law, we get
I ds sin 90◦ ds
dB = k0 = k0 I 2
r 2 a + h2
Let us separate the vector dB~ into two components, one in the x -direction and
the other perpendicular to it:
dBx = dB cos γ
dB⊥ = dB sin γ
If we move the arc ds around the loop and add each contribution dB~ , the contri-
butions dB⊥ will make a circle around point P and give zero contribution due to
symmetry: Z
dB⊥ = 0 (due to symmetry)
Therefore, the contributions in the direction of the x -axis will give a total magnetic
field in the x -direction:
Z Z
B= dBx = dB cos γ
The γ angles shown in two places in the figure are equal because
√ they are angles
with perpendicular sides. Accordingly, we get cos γ = a/r = a/ h2 + a2 and the
20.2. MAGNETIC FIELD CALCULATIONS 335
All of the constants are taken outside of the integral here and the sign is used
H
to indicate that the elements ds form a closed curve around the loop.
The sum of the pieces of arc around a complete loop gives the circumference
of the circle. Therefore, if the value of the integral is taken as 2πa , we find the
result as follows:
2πk0 I a2
B= (Magnetic field on the axis of a loop) (20.7)
h2 + a2 3/2
The magnetic field at the center of the loop is found by taking h = 0 in this
formula:
2πk0 I
B= (Magnetic field at the center of a loop) (20.8)
a
Figure 20.6 shows the magnetic field lines of a current loop. The lines are not
parallel to the axis but curve over it at points outside of the axis. Figure 20.6: Magnetic field
Magnetic Field of a Magnetic Dipole lines of the current loop and
magnetic dipole moment.
In section 19.3, we defined the magnetic dipole moment of a current loop as
follows (Eq. 19.5):
m=IA
A is the surface area of the loop. Let us return to Eq. (20.7), which we found
above for the magnetic field on the axis of a current loop:
2πk0 I a2
B=
h2 + a2 3/2
We can easily form a dipole moment in this expression. As the surface area of the
circle is πa2 , we get
At distances very far from the magnetic dipole, in other words, when h a , the
approximate expression of magnetic field becomes as follows:
2k0 m
B≈ (Field of a magnetic dipole at large h ) (20.9)
h3
Considering a current loop as a magnetic dipole has many advantages: An electron
rotating around the nucleus in an atom generates a circular current loop and has
an orbital magnetic dipole moment. As we shall discuss later in this chapter, the
magnetic properties of matter can be explained by taking atoms to be very small
magnetic dipoles.
336 20. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Example 20.1
find the distance a :
−5 2k0 I 2 × 10−7 × 1
The Earth’s magnetic field is 5 × 10 T . a= =
(a) At what distance from a straight wire carrying a current of B 5 × 10−5
a = 0.004 m = 4 mm
1 A will the magnetic field be equal to this value?
(b) How much current should pass through a circular loop with (b) We use Eq. (20.6), which gives the magnetic field at the
a radius of 1 m for the magnetic field at its center to be equal center of a circular loop:
to this value? 2πk0 I
B=
Answer a
We again set this expression equal to Earth’s magnetic field
(a) We use Eq. (20.6) for the magnetic field of a straight wire: and calculate the current:
2k0 I aB 1 × 5 × 10−5
B= I = = = 80 A
a 2πk0 2 × 3.14 × 10−7
We set this expression equal to the Earth’s magnetic field and
Example 20.2
magnetic fields will appear as viewed from the top of the
paper in the figure above.
Then, we use the formula B = 2k0 I/a to calculate the mag-
netic field of each current:
At point A:
2k0 I1 2 × 10−7 × 100
B1 = = = 0.002 T = 2 mT
a 0.01
In the figure, there is a 2 cm distance between the parallel 2 × 10−7 × 200
currents I1 = 100 A and I2 = 200 A . B2 = = 4 mT
0.01
(a) Calculate the total magnetic field at the midpoint A be- We take the resultant vector of the two opposite vectors at
tween the wires. point A:
(b) Calculate the magnetic field at point B located 1 cm away BA = B1 − B2 = 0.002−0.004 = −2 mT
from the wire I2 .
At point B:
2 × 10−7 × 100
B1 = = 0.00067 T = 0.67 mT
0.03
2 × 10−7 × 200
B2 = = 0, 004 T = 4 mT
0.01
Answer We take the resultant vector of the two vectors in the same
(a) First, let us determine the directions of the magnetic fields direction at point B:
B1 and B2 at both points. Using the right-hand rule, the BB = B1 + B2 = 0.67 + 4 = 4.7 mT
Example 20.3
(b) There is no need to recalculate the value of the magnetic
1 A of current is flowing through a circular conducting loop field here. We only find the ratios of the expressions at the
with a radius of 1 m . center and at distance h . The expression for the magnetic
(a) What is the magnitude of the magnetic field at the center field at point h along the axis of a current loop was given
of the loop? with in Eq. (20.7):
(b) At what point along the axis will the magnetic field drop 2πk0 I a2
down to half of its value at the center? B=
h2 + a2 3/2
Answer Let us use B0 to indicate the expression that we wrote above
(a) We use Eq. (20.8) to find the magnetic field at the center for the field at the center of the loop, and take the ratio of
of the current loop: these two fields:
2πk0 I 2πk0 I a2
B= B
=
a −3/2
3/2 × 2πk0 I = (h/a) + 1
2
a
We substitute the numerical values and calculate the magnetic B0 h +a
2 2
field: We substitute the values B=B0 /2 and a=1 and solve for h :
2 × 3.14 × 10−7 × 1
B= = 6.3 × 10−7 T [h2 + 1]3/2 = 2 → h = 0.77 m
1
20.3. FORCE BETWEEN PARALLEL CURRENTS – AMPERE UNIT 337
2k0 I1 I2
F= L (Force between parallel currents) (20.10)
d
F 2k0 I1 I2 2 × 10−7 × 1 × 1
= = = 2 × 10−7 N/m
L d 1m
This expression is the definition of the unit of current ampere (A), which is one
of the basic units in the SI system:
When a force of 2 × 10−7 N/m is exerted per unit length between two parallel
wires separated by 1 m and carrying identical currents, the current flowing through
the wires is 1 ampere (A).
Figure 20.9: The Watt balance This definition allows for the most accurate measuring assembly that can be
used to measure the force be- installed in a laboratory. An instrument called the Watt balance (Figure 20.9) is
tween currents. used to keep a current-carrying weight in balance with the same current, and it
is thus ensured that the current in both wires is identical.
Example 20.5
2 × 10−7 × 1002
F1 = F2 = × 1 = 2N
0.001
We use the practical rule to find the directions of these two
forces: Parallel currents attract and anti-parallel currents re-
pel each other. Accordingly, the forces on current I3 are as
follows:
Example 20.6
A current of I2 =4 A flows through the rectangular loop laying
on the same plane as the straight wire carrying a current of
I1 =25 A , as shown in the figure. The distance of the loop to the
near side is a=1 cm , its width is b=3 cm and length is c=5 cm .
Calculate the net force exerted upon the loop.
Answer
We first write the magnetic field of the straight wire:
20.4. AMPERE’S LAW 339
0
2k I1 forces exerted upon four sides are in the directions shown in
B1 =
r the figure:
Its direction is into the plane of the paper inside of the loop.
Eq. (19.1) is used to find the force exerted upon the piece The forces F2 and F4 do not contribute to the total force, as
of current I2 with they are equal and in the opposite direction. Therefore, it is
length L in this magnetic field:
~F = I2 ~L × B
~1 sufficient to calculate the forces F1 and F3 :
c
F1 = I2 LB1 = 2k0 I1 I2
a
5
= 2 × 10−7 × 25 × 4 = 1 × 10−4 N
1
5
F3 = 2 × 10−7 × 25 × 4 = 0.125 × 10−4 N
1+3
The difference of these two forces gives the total force as
being towards the right:
Using the right-hand rule to calculate this vector product, the F = F1 − F3 = 0.875 × 10−4 N
The magnetic field B was taken outside of the integral, as it has the same value
everywhere on the circle. The integral of small elements of arc ds over the full
circle will be the circumference 2πr . If we also use the expression for magnetic
field, we get
2k0 I
I
B ds = B 2πr = 2πAr = 4πk0 I = µ0 I
rA
In the last expression, we replaced k0 = µ0 /4π with the magnetic permeability of
vacuum µ0 .
It is surprising that the result is independent of radius r . Of course, in this
particular case, this resulted from the fact that the magnetic field of an infinite
wire is inversely proportional to r . However, advanced integration techniques
can be used to prove that the integral of any current distribution over any closed
curve gives the same result in the most general case.
340 20. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
The result would have been zero if this integral had been taken over any
curve that left the current I outside. If we accept this without a proof, Ampère’s
law is expressed as follows:
Ampère’s Law
The line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic
field over any closed curve is proportional to the net current
crossing any surface bounded by the closed curve:
I
~ · d~s = µ0 Iencl
B (20.11)
In this formula, Iencl indicates the net current enclosed by the closed loop, in
other words, if the current in one direction is positive, the current in the negative
direction is included as negative. Currents outside of the loop are not taken into
Figure 20.11: The currents consideration. The scalar product B ~ · d~s shows that the projection of the magnetic
I1 , I2 are taken into considera- field along the path is to be taken.
tion according to Ampère’s law. It is not necessary to carry out this integral when applying Ampère’s law. We
The current I3 outside of the take the magnetic field B outside of the integral by examining the symmetry of
loop is not taken into considera-
the problem, and this makes it easier to calculate the left-hand side. It is only
tion.
required to add the currents on the right-hand side.
Example 20.7
perpendicular to both d` and r .)
The current I flowing through an infinite cylindrical conductor According to Ampère’s law Eq. (20.11), the integral of
with radius R is evenly distributed throughout its cross-section. this tangential magnetic field along the circle with radius r
Find the magnetic field outside and inside of the cylinder. should be equal
I to the enclosed net current:
~ · d~s = µ0 Iencl
B
As B is parallel to the path, we have B ~ · d~s = B ds and take
the constant value B outside of the integral. The remaining
integral is equal to the circumference of the circle 2πr . The
current on the right-hand side is the total current I :
µ0 I 2k0 I
B (2πr) = µ0 I → B = =
2πr r
This result is the same as the straight wire expression.
Answer
Inside of the wire: Let us again consider an imaginary circle
It is always necessary to find a symmetry to apply Ampère’s
with radius r < R . Again, according to symmetry, the mag-
law. The most basic symmetry in magnetism is the magnetic
netic field on the circle should have equal value at every point
field of a straight wire current. The magnetic field of a straight
on the circle and be tangent to the circle. We write Ampère’s
wire is generated as tangent to circles centered around the
law as follows:I
wire. This should be the starting point if nothing disrupts
this symmetry. B ds = B (2πr) = µ0 Iencl
Outside of the wire: Let us consider an imaginary circle with This time, the current inside of the circle is less. As the current
radius r > R . Looking from a point on this circle, both halves is uniformly distributed over the cross-section of the cylin-
of the wire will give the same contribution because of the der with radius R , we use proportions to find the amount
symmetry. Therefore, the magnetic field should be in a plane enclosed inside of the radius r :
perpendicular to the wire. Again, looking from a point on this Iencl =
I
· πr2
circle, the half sections along the wire would give the same πR2
contributions that would result in a magnetic field along the We substitute this expression and find B :
µ0 Ir 2k0 I
tangent of the circle. (We could also deduce that dB is in B= = r
the tangential direction from the Biot-Savart law, dB being 2πR2 R2
20.4. AMPERE’S LAW 341
Example 20.8
Example 20.9
around the toroid in the direction of the axes of loops.
Now let us consider an imaginary loop with radius r inside
of the toroid and
I apply Ampère’s law:
~ · d~s = µ0 Iencl
B
As B~ is parallel to the path along the circle, the scalar product
becomes B ds and we take B outside of the integral, because
it does not vary along the path. Also, Iencl on the right-hand
side is the sum of N currents with value I :
Toroid. Calculate the magnetic field at a distance r inside of a
B (2πr) = µ0 NI
solenoid consisting of N total windings wound in the shape of
From here, we find the magnetic field of the toroid:
a toroid (donut) carrying a current I .
µ0 NI 2k0 NI
Answer Let us consider the toroid as consisting of N cur- B= =
2πr r
rent loops. As the magnetic field of each loop on its axis is If we had performed the same operation for a circle outside
along that axis, the structure of the toroid will not change of the toroid, we would have found the magnetic field there
this symmetry and the magnetic field inside will circulate to be zero.
342 20. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
you may consider the electron as a spinning top rotating about its own axis.
Therefore, in addition to the orbital magnetic moment, it is necessary to add a
spin magnetic moment, indicated with m s :
~ =m
m ~L+m
~s
τ = mB sin θ
The atoms of a material at the macroscopic scale usually have magnetic moments
in random directions, and therefore do not produce a net macroscopic magnetic
moment. However, when this object is placed in an external magnetic field B ~0,
the torque exerted upon the magnetic moments of the atoms try to rotate them.
The object thus gains a macroscopic magnetic moment.
The net magnetic moment per unit volume is called magnetization :
~i
P
M~ = im (20.13)
V
The magnetic field generated by this magnetization is found to have the value
~ M =µ0 M
B ~ . Here, µ0 is the magnetic permeability of free space that we defined
earlier.
Therefore, the net magnetic field for a material medium is as follows:
~ =B
B ~ 0 + µ0 M
~
Let us write this expression as follows to bring the contributions to magnetic field
in the same dimension:
~
~B = µ0 B0 + M
~
µ0
The first term in the brackets is the contribution of external currents to the
magnetic field inside of the matter, but it is written in the magnetization dimension.
This term is called the magnetic field strength vector and is indicated with H ~:
~
~ = B0
H (20.14)
µ0
Accordingly, the magnetic field inside the material can be written as follows:
~ = µ0 H ~ +M
~
B (20.15)
~ = 0 , this
If there is no magnetization in the medium, in other words, if M
~
expression gives the magnetic field B0 in free space.
344 20. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
µ = (1 + χm ) µ0 (20.16)
Ferromagnetism
The magnetism of paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials occurs only when
an external magnetic field is applied. The magnetization disappears when the
external magnetic field is removed.
However, in five metals (iron, nickel, cobalt, gadolinium and dysprosium) and
certain oxide alloys, magnetism does not disappear when the external magnetic
field is removed. This permanent magnetization is called ferromagnetism. Fer-
romagnetic materials are used in the structure of credit cards, computer memories,
speakers, motor cores, compasses, etc.
20.5. MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER 345
The magnetic poles where the field lines converge do not coincide with the
geographical North and South Poles. The location of the magnetic pole varies
with time. Research on rocks show that they vary over 1000-year periods. For
example, according to measurements conducted in 2005, the magnetic North Pole
was located around Ellesmere Island in Northern Canada, with latitude 82.7°N
(north) and longitude 114.4°W (west), has been shifting towards Russia since then.
Magnetic field also shows local variations on Earth. The magnetic field of every
Figure 20.19: Homing pigeons region has been mapped for use in maritime and air transportation.
can find their home from thou- The source of Earth’s magnetic field is one of the greatest mysteries in science.
sands of miles away. It has been At first, it was considered that layers of iron and nickel at the center of the Earth
established that they use small were the source; however, we know that ferromagnetism disappears at very
magnetic crystals in their beaks high temperatures. Today, it is considered to be caused by convection currents
to detect Earth’s magnetic field.
generated by electrically charged underground molten lava.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following are the source of magnetic field?
I. Magnetic charges.
II. Currents. (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) II & IV
III. Magnetic moments of atoms.
8. What is the force exerted upon 1 m in length of one of
(a) All (b) I & II (c) I & III (d) II & III two parallel wires separated by 1 m and each carrying
1 A of current?
2. Which of the following are correct?
I. Parallel currents repel each other. (a) 1 × 10−7 N (b) 2 × 10−7 N (c) 3 × 10−7 N
II. Anti-parallel currents attract each other.
9. Which of the following is Ampère’s law?
III. Parallel currents attract each other.
IV. Anti-parallel currents repel each other. (a) The integral of the magnitude of the magnetic field
over any closed curve is proportional to the net current
(a) I & II (b) III & IV (c) I & IV (d) II & III
enclosed by the curve.
3. By what factor does the magnetic field increase when (b) The integral of the tangential component of the
the current flowing through an infinite wire is doubled? magnetic field over a straight line is proportional to
the net current in that wire.
(a) No change (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1/2
(c) The integral of the magnetic field over any volume is
proportional to the net current enclosed by the volume.
4. The radius of a current-carrying loop is doubled. By
(d) The integral of the tangential component of the
what factor will the magnetic field at the center of the
magnetic field over any closed curve is proportional to
loop increase?
the net current enclosed by the curve.
(a) No change (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1/2
10. By what factor does the magnetic field increase when
5. What is the magnetic field at a 1 m distance from a the current of a solenoid is doubled?
straight wire carrying 1 A in current?
(a) No change (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1/2
(a) 1×10−7 T (b) 2×10−7 T (c) 3 × 10−7 T (d) 4×10−7 T
11. By what factor does the magnetic field increase when
6. What is the expression for the magnetic field at the cen- the number of windings per unit length of a solenoid is
ter of a circular current loop? doubled?
(a) k0 I/a (b) k0 I/a2 (c) 2k0 I/a (d) 2πk0 I/a (a) No change (b) 2 (c) 4 (d) 1/2
7. In which of the following figures are the forces between 12. Which of the following is correct?
parallel currents shown correctly?
(a) Magnetic field is zero inside of a solenoid.
(b) Magnetic field is zero outside of a solenoid.
(c) Magnetic field is constant outside of a solenoid.
(d) Magnetic field is infinite outside of a solenoid.
PROBLEMS 347
13. What is the expression for the magnetic field of a (a) I (b) I & II (c) I & III (d) I & IV
solenoid?
(a) 12 µ0 nI 2 (b) µ0 nI 2 (c) µ0 nI (d) µ0 n2 I 18. Which of the following are correct for ferromagnetism?
I. Magnetism increases with temperature.
14. Which of the following produces a uniform magnetic II. Magnetism decreases with temperature.
field? III. Magnetism disappears above a certain temperature.
(a) Straight wire current. (a) I (b) II (c) I & III (d) II & III
(b) Circular current loop.
(c) Solenoid. 19. Which of the following is correct when a ferromagnetic
(d) Toroid. material is placed inside of an external magnetic field?
15. Which of the following is correct in terms of the magne- (a) It gets magnetized in the direction of the external
tization properties of matter? magnetic field.
(b) Magnetization increases with the external magnetic
(a) For paramagnetic materials: µ > µ0 field.
(b) For diamagnetic materials: µ < µ0 (c) Magnetization does not increase after a certain
(c) For ferro magnetic materials: µ µ0 saturation value.
(d) All of the above. (d) All of the above.
16. Which of the following is the source of the magnetiza-
20. Which of the following are correct for Earth’s mag-
tion property of materials?
netism?
I. The orbital motion of atomic electrons.
I. The geographic North Pole is the magnetic North
II. The spin property of electrons.
Pole.
III. The merging of magnetized domains.
II. The geographic South Pole is the magnetic North
(a) I (b) I & II (c) I & III (d) I, II & III Pole.
III. The locations of the magnetic poles vary over time.
17. Which of the following are correct? IV. The locations of magnetic poles do not vary over
I. Magnetic field increases inside paramagnets. time.
II. Magnetic field increases inside diamagnets.
III. Magnetic field decreases inside paramagnets. (a) I & III (b) II & III (c) I & IV (d) III & IV
IV. Magnetic field decreases inside diamagnets.
Problems
20.2 Magnetic Field Calculations at point P located at the center of the circle.
[A: 4 mT , out of the paper .]
20.1 (a) What is the magnetic field at a distance of 1 cm
from a straight wire carrying a current of 10 A ? (b) How
much current should be flowing through a loop current with
a radius of 1 cm such that a 1 mT magnetic field is generated
at its center? [A: (a) 0.2 mT , (b) 16 A .]
Problem 20.3
20.3 In the figure, there is a 2 cm distance between the anti-
parallel currents I1 =300 A and I2 =50 A . (a) Calculate the
total magnetic field at the midpoint A between the wires.
(b) Calculate the magnetic field at point B located 1 cm away
Problem 20.2
from the wire I2 . [A: (a) 7 mT , (b) 1 mT .]
20.2 A part of an infinite wire carrying a current I = 50 A
is bent into a circle with radius a = 1 cm , as shown in the 20.4 A current of 1 A is flowing through a conducting cir-
figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the magnetic field cular loop with a radius of 1 m . (a) What is the magnitude
348 20. SOURCES OF MAGNETIC FIELD
Problem 20.9
20.9 The straight wire currents perpendicular to the plane
of the paper and located on the corners of a square with side
a = 1 mm are equal and have I = 10 A magnitude. Calculate
Problem 20.5 the magnitude and direction of the total magnetic field at
20.5 Helmholtz coils. Two identical circular loops, each point P located at the center of the square. (Hint: The prob-
with radius a=1 cm and carrying the same I=100 A -currents lem will not be as lengthy as it looks if you first determine
in the same direction, are placed on an axis with 2a distance the direction of each magnetic field.)
in between, as shown in the figure. Calculate the magnetic [A: 8 mT to the right.]
field at the midpoint between the loops. (This assembly is
used to obtain uniform magnetic field in a small region.)
[A: 4.4 mT .]
Problem 20.6
20.6 The currents on two straight wires perpendicular to the
plane of the paper, as shown in the figure, are I1 = 1 A and Problem 20.10
20.10 The four straight wire currents on the plane of the
I2 = 5 A , respectively, and are separated by 1 m . At what
paper are equal and have magnitude I = 50 A . Calculate the
point on the x -axis (left, center, right) will the total magnetic
magnitude and direction of the total magnetic field at point
field be zero? [A: 0.25 m on the left.]
P located at the center of the square with a side length of
20 cm . [A: 0.2 mT into the paper.]
Problem 20.7
20.7 The two straight wires perpendicular to the plane of the
paper, as shown in the figure above, are separated by 6 mm Problem 20.11
and have equal currents of I = 100 A in opposite directions. 20.11 In the figure, wires perpendicular to the plane of the
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the total magnetic paper constitute the corners of an equilateral triangle with
field at point P at 4 mm in distance on the perpendicular a side length of 1 mm . Since I1 = I2 = I3 = 60 A , calculate
bisector of the currents. [A: 6.4 mT to the right.] the magnitude and direction of the total force exerted upon
1 m of length on the wire with current I3 .
[A: 1.2 N upward.]
Problem 20.8
20.8 The two straight wires perpendicular to the plane of
the paper, as shown in the figure above, are separated by Problem 20.12
5 mm and have equal currents of I = 60 A . Calculate the 20.12 In the figure, wires perpendicular to the plane of the
magnitude and direction of the total magnetic field at point paper constitute the corners of a square with a side length of
P , which forms a right triangle with the currents. 1 mm . Since the magnitude of the current passing through
[A: 5 mT .] each wire is I = 100 A , calculate the magnitude and direction
PROBLEMS 349
Problem 20.15
20.15 Of the two coaxial infinite cylindrical shells shown
in the figure, the one with radius a carries a current 3I and
the one with radius b carries a current I in the opposite
direction. Calculate the magnetic field in all three regions.
[A: B = 0 for r < a , B = 6k0 I/r for a > r > b , B = 4k0 I/r
Problem 20.13 for r > b .]
20.13 A current I2 =10 A flows through the rectangular loop
laying on the same plane as the straight wire carrying a cur-
rent of I1 =50 A as shown in the figure. The distance of the
loop to the near side is a=1 cm , its width is b=2 cm and
length is c=60 cm . Calculate the net force exerted upon the
loop. [A: 0.004 N to the left.]
Problem 20.16
20.16 The total current I is evenly distributed inside of the
20.4 Ampère’s Law infinite cylindrical region with inner radius a and outer ra-
dius b as shown in the figure. Calculate the magnetic field in
20.14 A current I flows through an infinite cylindrical shell all three regions.
with radius R . Calculate the magnetic field at a distance r r2 − a2
inside and outside of the cylinder. [A: 0 for r < a , B = 2k0 I 2 for a < r < b ,
(b − a2 )r
[A: B = 0 inside and B = 2k I/r outside.] B = 2k I/r for r > b .]
0 0
?
21
FARADAY’S LAW –
INDUCTION
Towards the mid-19th century, it was established that electric currents would
produce magnetic fields. Therefore, many people naturally asked the question,
“Could magnetic field also lead to electric field?”. Finally, in 1831, the British
scientist Michael Faraday and the American scientist Joseph Henry succeeded in
producing electric current through a changing magnetic field. No revolution has,
to date, been greater than this one. Motors, generators, transformers, wireless
energy, signal transmission, etc. were all developed as a result of this discovery.
The discovery of magnetic induction completed another great circle in science.
The British scientist James Clerk Maxwell was able unify electricity and mag-
netism in a single electromagnetic theory in which electrics and magnetism
induce and affect each other.
As the force ~F exerted upon a free charge +q inside of the conductor will be
Figure 21.2: Conducting rod perpendicular to both the magnetic field and the velocity, it will be towards the
moving in a magnetic field. top of the conductor. The +q charges will thus gather at the top of the conductor
and leave a negative end at the bottom. A potential difference will thus be induced
between the two ends of the conductor.
Faraday’s Law
We had discussed the concept of flux in examining Gauss’ law in electrics.
Magnetic flux is also defined here as the number of magnetic field lines crossing
an area A enclosed by a conducting wire, as follows:
Z
ΦB = B dA cos θ (Magnetic flux) (21.1)
A
The angle θ here is the angle between the magnetic field vector and the surface
normal n̂ (Figure 21.3).
Faraday’s law states that a variation in magnetic flux induces an emf:
dΦB
E=− (21.2)
dt
21.1. FARADAY’S LAW 353
We shall explain the meaning of the negative sign in this expression using Lenz’s
law.
Faraday’s law includes several ways in which the magnetic flux may vary:
• The magnetic field B may vary.
• The surface area A may vary.
• The angle θ between the surface and the magnetic field may vary.
• All or some of the above may vary simultaneously.
Lenz’s Law
The negative sign (−) in Faraday’s law is placed symbolically in the equation.
This sign tells us the direction of the emf or that of the current to flow through
the circuit. This direction is determined by Lenz’s Law:
Lenz’s Law
The current produced in a loop by the induced emf flows in a
direction such that its magnetic field opposes the change in orig-
inal magnetic flux.
In order to apply Lenz’s law, let us first recall the magnetic field at the center
of a circular loop carrying a current. According to the right-hand rule, when
the four fingers are curved in the direction of current I , the thumb points in the
direction of the magnetic field B.
Now let us consider the bar magnet in Figure 21.4a. The magnetic flux crossing
the surface of the loop increases as the magnet approaches. The current opposing
this must be induced in such a direction that its magnetic field B0 is generated
in the opposite direction, and thus decreases the increasing flux. According to
the right-hand rule, this current I 0 should be in the direction shown in the figure.
Likewise, the current produced will be in the opposite direction as the bar magnet
moves away.
Figure 21.4: (a) Magnetic flux
increases as the bar magnet ap-
proaches, therefore the induced
current should be in the direc-
tion that generates an opposing
magnetic field. (b) The current
I 0 in the bottom circuit will be
induced in the opposite direction
as the current I increases in the
top circuit, and in the same direc-
tion as I decreases.
Let us again consider two loops affecting each other, as shown in Figure 21.4b.
If the current I increases in the loop connected to the battery, its magnetic field B
will increase. The induced current to oppose this in the second loop will generate
a current I 0 with a magnetic field B0 in the opposite direction. Likewise, if the
current I and field B decrease, the magnetic field in the second loop should be
in the same direction so as to compensate for this decrease. Therefore, a current
I 0 is induced in the same direction.
Let us now look at some examples to see how Faraday’s law and Lenz’s law
are applied.
354 21. FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCTION
Example 21.1
ΦB = BA cos 0◦ = πa2 B
We write the magnetic field as B = 0.1t , as a function of time,
and take its derivative (we ignore the negative sign):
d[πa2 (0.1t)]
E= = 0.1πa2
dt
We use Ohm’s law to find the current generated in the circuit
by this electromotor force:
I = E/R = 0.1πa2 /R
The conducting loop with resistance R = 1 Ω , as shown in the I = 0.1 × 3.14 × 32 /1 = 2.8 A
figure, is located in a magnetic field B directed into the plane The direction of the current should be such as to oppose the
of the paper. increase in the magnetic field, in other words, its own mag-
(a) The magnetic field starts to increase as B = 0.1 t (tesla) , netic field B0 should be out of the paper. According to the
while the radius of the loop is constant at a=3 m . Deter- right-hand rule, the current on the loop should be counter-
mine the value and direction of the current induced in the clockwise.
loop. (b) This time, the variation in magnetic flux is caused by the
(b) When the magnetic value is constant at B=0.1 , the radius increase in the cross-section area A :
of the loop starts to increase as a = 3t (meters). Find the ΦB = BA = B(πa2 ) = πB(3t)2
value and the direction of the current at t=1 s . The induction emf is calculated using Faraday’s formula:
Answer dΦB d(9πBt2 )
E= = = 18πBt
We write Eq. (21.2) for Faraday’s law: dt dt
dΦB We use Ohm’s law to find the induced current at time t=1 s :
E=− I = E/R = 18πBt/R = 18 × 3.14 × 0.1 × 1/1 = 5.7 A
dt
The magnetic flux ΦB here is calculated using Eq. (21.1). As Again, according to Lenz’s law, the current will be counter-
B is constant and parallel to the surface normal, we get clockwise.
Example 21.2
ing A :
The rectangular loop with the dimensions given in the figure ΦB = BA cos θ
is located in a region where a uniform magnetic field B=1 THere, θ is the angle between the magnetic field and the sur-
face normal. As seen in the figure, the angle between B ~ and
in the +y direction is present. The loop plane has a 37◦ angle
the loop surface is 53 , and therefore the angle with the nor-
with the x -axis. The magnitude of the magnetic field is reduced
◦
Example 21.3
into the plane of the paper is present. The side of the loop with
length L=50 cm is pulled to the right at velocity v=4 m/s . Find
the value and direction of the induced current.
Answer
In this problem, the variation in the magnetic flux crossing
the loop is caused by the change in the surface area of the
loop. The side with length L of the rectangular loop is con-
The rectangular loop in the figure has a resistance R=2 Ω and stant and the length of the other side varies as x = vt . Let us
is located in a region where B=0.2 T in magnetic field directed write the magnetic flux:
21.2. GENERATORS AND TRANSFORMERS 355
Example 21.4
ΦB = BA = µ0 n I (πa2 ) = µ0 nπa2 I
We use Faraday’s law to find the induction emf:
dΦB dI
E= = µ0 nπa2
dt dt
The current I decreases exponentially. Its derivative will be
equal to itself:
dI d −t
= 5 e = −5 e−t
dt dt
The number of windings per unit length of the solenoid shown The value of this derivative at t = 0 s will be 5 (we ignore
in the figure is n=500 turns/meter and the current it carries the negative sign). We substitute this value and calculate the
varies with time as I=5 e−t (ampere). A conducting loop with current I 0 induced in the loop:
E µ0 nπa2 dI
radius a=50 cm placed inside of the volume of the solenoid has I0 = =
resistance R=1 Ω . Determine the value and direction of the R R dt t=0
current flowing through the loop at t=0 s . 4π × 10−7 × 500 × π × 0.52 × 5
I0 =
1
Answer I 0 = 0.0025 A = 2.5 mA
As we discussed in Chapter 20, the magnetic field inside of a The direction of this current I 0 should be in the direction
solenoid is uniformly distributed and given in Eq. (20.12): that compensates the decrease in the magnetic field of the
B = µ0 n I solenoid, in other words, in the same direction as the current
The magnetic flux crossing the loop with radius a is: I.
Example 21.5
ΦB = BA cos θ
B and A are constant here, but the angle θ varies as θ = ωt
depending on the angular velocity ω . We find the expression
for the induction emf using Faraday’s law:
dΦB d(cos ωt)
E= = BA = −ωBA sin ωt
dt dt
In the figure, a rectangular loop with dimensions a=1 m and We use Ohm’s law to find the current without considering
b=2 m is placed in a uniform magnetic field B=0.1 T directed the negative sign:
into the paper. The loop is rotating around its axis with an E ωBA
I= = sin ωt
angular velocity of ω=3 rad/s . Calculate the current induced R R
on the loop with resistance R=1 Ω as a function of time t . We substitute the numerical values:
3 × 0.1 × (1 × 2)
Answer I= sin 3t
1
We use the formula for the magnetic flux crossing a loop: I = 0.6 sin 3t
ΦB = NBA cos ω t
Applying Faraday’s law, the derivative of flux ΦB gives the induction emf:
dΦB
E=− = NBAω sin ωt (21.3)
dt
The sinusoidal variation of this current in time is given in Figure 21.7, with the
Figure 21.6: The angle θ be- various directions of the loop plane indicated. This is an alternating current, in
tween the loop plan and the other words, it varies between the values ±NBAω during a full 360◦ rotation of
magnetic field. the loop, positive in the first half and negative in the second half.
Figure 21.8 shows the structure of a transformer. Two coils of wire are wound
around a core of iron ring. The first coil, called the primary, consists of N1
windings and the second coil, called the secondary, consists of N2 windings.
Suppose that a current I1 is flowing through the first circuit. A very high
percentage of the magnetic field to be generated by this current will be concen-
trated inside of the core and almost all of it will pass through the secondary coil
on the other side. Accordingly, the flux crossing each winding will be the same
Figure 21.8: The primary and
everywhere:
secondary windings of a trans-
ΦB1 = ΦB2 = ΦB former.
Now, if we write the total emf induced by the varying current for both circuits
according to Faraday’s law, we get:
dΦB1 dΦB2
E1 = N1 E 2 = N2
dt dt
As ΦB1 = ΦB2 at each time t , their derivatives will also be equal. From here, we
obtain the following formula between the emf of both circuits:
Figure 21.9: A transformer
N2 densely wound to prevent mag-
E2 = E1 (21.4)
N1 netic flux losses.
This formula shows how the emf varies in the secondary circuit depending on
the number of windings. For example, if we wish to double the voltage, we need
to have N2 = 2N1 , in other words, the number of windings in the second circuit
should be double. Likewise, the number of windings in the second circuit should
be lower to reduce the voltage.
Energy losses are inevitable in a real transformer. Transformers therefore
heat up when operating and must be cooled. There are several causes for these
losses. First, the flux will be less in the secondary circuit if the magnetic flux is
not fully inside of the ferromagnetic core. Transformers are wound very densely
and without any gaps to prevent this.
Another cause of energy losses is eddy currents. Eddy currents in random Figure 21.10: Eddy currents in-
directions are induced in the ferromagnetic iron core when the transformer duced inside the transformer.
operates. These moving charges also take away some of the energy. To prevent
the forming of eddy currents, the iron core is laminated, in other words, made of
many insulated iron sheets.
Example 21.6
E = NBAω sin ωt
The rotating coil of a generator is made of N windings, each We calculate the number of windings N from the maximum
with cross-section area of 20 cm2 , and is rotating with an angu- value ( sin ωt=1 ) of this sinusoidal voltage:
lar speed of 6000 rpm inside of a 0.5 T magnetic field. What E 12
N= =
is the minimum number of windings required such that the BAω 0.5 × 0.0020 × (6000 × 2π/60)
maximum voltage generated by the generator is 12 V ? N = 19.1
Answer We use Eq. (21.3) to find the emf produced by the If we convert this into a whole number, we get the number
generator: of required windings as N = 20 .
Example 21.7
ampere current entering the transformer be at the output?
The primary coil of a transformer has 200 windings and its Answer The relation between the input and output voltages
secondary coil has 50 windings. What will a 240-volt and 20- of the transformer is found using Eq. (21.4):
358 21. FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCTION
N2 Considering that an ideal transformer has no power loss, the
E2 = E1
N1 power at the input and output are equal:
We calculate the output voltage from this formula: E1 I1 = E2 I2
50
E2 = × 240 = 60 V From here, we find the output current to be I2 = 80 A .
200
Example 21.8
Accordingly, the current I1 when the power P is transmitted
Power loss on transmission lines. 1 MW (megawatt) in at the voltage V1 is:
power generated at a dam is transmitted to a city using two P 106
I1 = = = 200 A
different methods: V1 5000
(a) What will the power converted into heat be on the 1 Ω We calculate the power converted into heat with this current
resistance of the line when this power is transmitted at aon the resistor R :
voltage of 5000 V = 5 kV ? P01 = R I12 = 1 × 2002 = 40 000 W = 40 kW
(b) What will the power converted into heat be on the 1 Ω re-
(b) We repeat the same calculation when the same power is
sistance of the line when this same power is first increased
transmitted at voltage V2 =500 kV :
to a voltage of 500 000 V = 500 kV using a transformer?
P 106
Answer I2 = = = 2A
V2 5 × 105
(a) The general power formula was found in Section 18.4: We calculate the power converted into heat with this current
P=VI on the resistor R :
Also, the power converted into heat on a resistor R was found
P02 = R I22 = 1 × 22 = 4 W
to be
The power loss is less with transmission at higher voltage.
P0 = R I 2
It can be proven that these two coefficients M21 and M12 are equal even if the
coils are not identical. We accept this result here without proof and define a single
mutual inductance for both coils:
M21 = M12 = M (Mutual inductance)
Thus, instead of the induction flux ΦB , we express the induction emf values in
terms of the directly measurable current:
dI2 dI1
E1 = −M and E2 = −M (21.6)
dt dt
Self-inductance
When you shut down the current of a building by turning off the main lever
switch, you will notice that a spark jumps between the two poles of the switch.
How can an emf of about 1000 Volts be induced in a circuit that is switched off,
when it is not possible for a spark to jump at 220 Volts? Faraday’s law holds the
answer to this. As the circuit is switched off, during that small duration, an emf
opposed to the decrease in magnetic flux is induced on itself. We describe this
with the concept of self-induction.
Consider the simple circuit in Figure 21.12 consisting of a coil with only
two windings. When the switch is closed, the current and its magnetic field are
constant. You will note that the magnetic flux of each winding passes through
the other winding. Now, suppose that we open the switch and cut the current.
The magnetic field of the second winding will decrease, and thus its magnetic
flux crossing the first winding will also decrease. According to Faraday’s law, an Figure 21.12: A circuit with
opposite emf will be induced in the first winding against this decrease. As both two windings to understand self-
windings are part of the same circuit, we can consider this induction effect as the induction.
self-induction of the circuit.
Every current loop opposes the variation in the current that it carries. It does
this by producing an opposing induction emf. This emf value is proportional to
the variation in the current I flowing through the coil. Likewise, if we gather all
of the geometric factors together and write the magnetic flux flowing through
the coil as proportional to current I , we get
ΦB = L I (21.7)
Magnetic Energy
In Chapter 18, the most general expression for energy in electric circuits was
found to be (equation 18.11):
P=VI
Using the expression that we found above for the potential difference between
the terminals of a coil carrying current I , we get
dI
P = LI
dt
The work performed on this coil during the time interval dt will be stored as an
increase in the potential energy of the coil:
dI
dU = dW = P dt = L I d@t
@
d@t
@
dU = L I dI
When the current goes from an initial value of zero to a final value of I , the
magnetic energy stored in the coil will be the integral of this expression:
Z I
U=L I dI = 1
2 L I2 (Magnetic energy of a coil) (21.10)
0
This magnetic energy is stored in the coil and may later be returned to the circuit.
Example 21.9
µ0 N 2 A
ΦB = NBA = N (µ0 NI/`) A = I
`
(a) Find the expression for the inductance of a solenoid. The inductance was defined in Eq. (21.8) as:
(b) Calculate the inductance of a solenoid with 500 windings, ΦB = L I
20 cm in length and a 10 cm2 cross-section area. We find the expression for inductance by comparing the last
(c) Calculate the energy stored when a 40 A current flows two expressions:
through this solenoid. µ0 N 2 A
L=
Answer `
(b) We substitute the numerical values in the expression L
(a) We had found the expression for the magnetic field of a
as follows:
solenoid in Chapter 20: 4π × 10−7 × 5002 × 0.0010
B = µ0 nI L=
0.20
n is the number of windings per unit length and, for a L = 0.0016 H = 1.6 mH
solenoid with length ` and N windings, it is n = N/` . (c) The energy stored in a coil was given with the formula
As the magnetic field is constant inside of the cross-section of (21.10):
the solenoid, the magnetic flux is calculated for N windings: U = 12 L I 2 = 12 × 0.0016 × 402 = 1.3 J
Example 21.10
(a) Find the mutual inductance of the solenoid and the coil.
(b) Find the coefficient M for N1 =500 , N2 =20 , `=10 cm
and A=40 cm2 .
Answer
(a) We write the magnetic field of a solenoid carrying a current
I1 :
B = µ0 nI1 = µ0 (N1 /`) I1
A wire is wound N2 times around a solenoid with length ` , The flux of this magnetic field flowing through a coil with
cross-section area A and N1 windings. N2 windings is
21.4. RLC CIRCUITS 361
µ0 N1 N2 A µ0 N1 N2 A
ΦB2 = N2 BA = I1 M=
` `
The mutual inductance was defined in Eq. (21.5) as follows: (b) M is calculated using the given numerical values:
4π × 10−7 × 500 × 20 × 0.0040
ΦB2 = M I1 M=
0.10
We find the coefficient M by comparing the last two formulas: M = 0.0005 H = 0.5 mH
d2 x dx
m 2
+b + k x = F(t)
dt dt
362 21. FARADAY’S LAW – INDUCTION
Comparing the two equations, we notice that the mass m in mechanics is replaced
by the coil L , the friction b is replaced by the resistance R and the spring k is
replaced by the capacitor 1/C . Let us remember the solutions that we found in
mechanics: The system makes a damped oscillation motion if there is no external
force ( F = 0 ). Likewise, resonance was observed when the frequency ω of the
external force was near the natural frequency.
The RLC circuit also has damped oscillation motion (Figure 21.14) and reso-
Figure 21.14: Damped motion nance solutions, depending on the applied potential difference E(t) . This topic is
in an RLC circuit. examined in more detail in courses on circuit analysis.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. According to Faraday’s law, the emf induced in a coil is:
IV. All of the above.
(a) Proportional to the magnetic field crossing the coil.
(a) I & II (b) II & III (c) I & III (d) IV
(b) Proportional to the magnetic flux crossing the coil.
(c) Proportional to the time rate of change of the mag-
6. The magnetic flux crossing a coil is varying as ΦB =t3 +
netic flux crossing the coil.
2t2 (T·m2 ) . What is the emf induced at time t=1 s ?
(d) Proportional to the cross-sectional area of the coil.
(a) 0 (b) 3 (c) 5 (d) 7
2. According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the current
7. What will happen to the generated emf if the coil of a
produced by an induction emf is:
generator rotates faster?
(a) Opposite to the current generating it.
(a) It will increase.
(b) In the same direction as the current generating it.
(b) It will decrease.
(c) In opposite direction to the change in the current
(c) It will remain the same.
generating it.
(d) It is impossible to tell.
(d) In the same direction as the change in the current
generating it. 8. When will an induction emf be induced in a coil?
(a) When a constant current flows.
3. The current I flows through the linear wire in the fig- (b) When the current is maximum.
ure below. In which of the two conductor coils will an (c) When the current varies over time.
induction emf be produced? (d) When the current is zero.
14. Which of the following are correct for the magnetic 20. Which of the following is the expression for mutual
energy stored in a coil? inductance?
I. It is directly proportional to the flowing current. µ0 N1 N2 A µ0 N1 A µ0 A µ0 A2
(a) (b) (c) (d)
II. It is directly proportional to the square of the flowing ` N2 ` N1 N2 ` N1 N2 `
current.
Problems
Problem 21.4
21.4 The coil with radius a=50 cm and resistance R=10 Ω
in the figure above is placed inside of a magnetic field that Problem 21.8 and Problem 21.9
varies as B=0.2t5 T . The magnetic field makes a 53◦ angle
21.9 How much force is required to pull the mobile side
with the plane of the coil. Find the value and the direction of
of the rectangular coil shown in the figure above with the
the current induced in the coil at time t=1 s .
same constant velocity of v=6 m/s ? (Hint: It is sufficient to
[A: 0.063 A , clockwise.]
overcome the force exerted upon the current-carrying wire
in a magnetic field.) [A: F = 0.016 N .]
Problem 21.5
21.5 The conducting coil with resistance R=10 Ω in the fig-
ure is placed in a magnetic field directed out of the plane of the
paper. The radius of the coil decreases as a(t)=2e−3t (meters) , Problem 21.10
while the magnetic field increases as B(t)=0.1 et (tesla) . Cal- 21.10 The mobile side with a length of 20 cm of a coil lo-
culate the value and direction of the induction current in the cated vertically in a B=0.5 T magnetic field directed out of
coil at time t=0 . [A: 0.63 A , counterclockwise.] the plane of the paper, as shown in the figure, has weight
W=0.1 N . The total resistance of the coil is R=10 Ω . What
is the limit velocity of the mobile side when it is released
for from rest? (Hint: The mobile side travels with constant
velocity when the magnetic force exerted upon its current is
equal to its weight.) [A: 100 m/s .]
Problem 21.6
21.6 The rectangular loop with the dimensions given in the
figure above is located in a region where a uniform magnetic
field B=0.5 T in the −y direction is present. The loop plane
makes a 30◦ angle with the x -axis. The magnitude of the
Problem 21.11
magnetic field is reduced down to zero in 0.1 s . Calculate the 21.11 The number of windings per unit length of the solenoid
value and direction of the current induced in the loop. The shown in the figure is n=800 turns/meter and the current
resistance of the loop is R=1 Ω . it carries decreases as I1 =5/t2 (ampere). A coil with radius
[A: 8.7 mA , upward on the front side.] a=20 cm and 25 windings placed inside of the volume of the
21.7 A coil with 100 windings has a cross-section area of solenoid has resistance R=1 Ω . Determine the value and di-
40 cm2 and is placed perpendicularly to a B=0.4 T magnetic rection of the current flowing through the inner coil at t=1 s .
field. The direction of the coil is suddenly reversed by 180◦ . [A: 0.032 A , in the same direction as I1 .]
Considering that this rotation takes place in 0.1 s , what will
the average induction emf inducted on the coil be?
[A: 3.2 V .]
of ω=5 rad/s . Calculate the current induced in the coil as a converted into heat be on the 1 Ω of resistance of the line
function of time t . [A: I = 0.75 sin 5t .] when this same power is first increased to a voltage of 500V
using a transformer? [A: (A) 25 W , (b) 4 W .]
21.2 Generators and Transformers
21.13 The rotating coil of a generator is made of N windings, 21.3 Inductance – Magnetic Energy
each with cross-sectional area 40 cm2 and is rotating with 21.17 Of two coaxial solenoids, the current on the first one
an angular velocity of 100 rad/s inside of a 0.2 T magnetic decreases from 5 A to zero in 0.01 s and a 2000 V emf is
field. What is the minimum number of windings required generated on the second solenoid. Determine the mutual
such that the maximum voltage generated by the generator inductance of this system. [A: M = 4 H .]
is 24 V ? [A: N = 300 windings.]
21.18 A 3 A current is flowing through a coil with 2 H in
21.14 The primary circuit of a transformer has 100 windings inductance. (a) How much energy is stored in the coil? (b)
and its secondary circuit has 40 windings. What will a 120- The current increases by 40 A/s each second. What is the
volt and 10-ampere current entering the transformer be at emf induced in the coil? [A: (a) 9 J , (b) 80 V .]
the output? [A: 48 V and 25 A .]
21.19 (a) Calculate the inductance of a solenoid with 600
21.15 A 24 V and 20 A current supplied to the primary cir- windings, 50 cm in length and a 20 cm2 cross-sectional area.
cuit of a transformer is required to generate a 1 A current. (b) Calculate the energy stored when a 10 A current flows
What will the ratio N2 /N1 and the output voltage be? through this solenoid. [A: (a) 1.8 mH , (b) 0.09 J .]
[A: N2 /N1 = 20 and E2 = 480 V .]
21.16 The 1000W in power generated in a generator is 21.20 A conducting wire is wound N2 =50 times around a
transmitted using two methods. (a) What will the power con- solenoid with length `=20 cm , cross-section area A=100 cm2
verted into heat be on the 1 Ω of resistance of the line when and N1 =800 windings. Calculate the mutual inductance of
transmitted at a voltage of 200V ? (b) What will the power the system. [A: M = 2.5 mH .]
?
22
GEOMETRIC OPTICS
In this chapter, we shall introduce Optics, one of the most important branches
of physics. All human activity in nature starts with the sense of sight. The sense
of sight uses a property of materials called light. The light emitted from the
objects around us forms an image in our eyes. We thus know that such an object
is there even if we are unable to touch it.
We will first learn the structure of light. Understanding that light is an
electromagnetic wave was one of the most important developments in the history
of science. Many technical and optic instruments were able to be developed after
this wave structure was understood.
We will also discuss the laws governing the way in which light behaves when
passing from one medium into another or when being reflected. We will work
out to calculate the formation of images by mirrors and lenses, which facilitates
daily life and technology.
Maxwell found the following expression for the propagation speed of electro-
magnetic waves in free space in terms of the electric permittivity and magnetic
permeability of free space:
1
v= √
ε0 µ0
When calculated, this expression was found to be equal to the speed of light:
1
c= √ = 2.9979 × 108 m/s ≈ 3 × 108 m/s
ε0 µ0
After coming up with this result, Maxwell went one step further and asserted
that light was also an electromagnetic field. His ideas were soon proven experi-
mentally. In 1887, Heinrich Hertz managed to generate an electromagnetic wave
in laboratory.
Today, we know of all kinds of electromagnetic waves, from radio waves to
microwaves, infrared rays to X- and gamma rays. Let us show these waves on a
graph called a spectrum, sorted according to their frequencies (Figure 22.2):
• Radio waves are waves whose wavelength ranges from 10 cm to 10 km
and that can easily cross the atmosphere. They are used in radio and TV
broadcasts.
22.1. THE WAVE NATURE OF LIGHT 369
a wave with the source at infinity is called a plane wave. Accordingly, the rays
become parallel to each other.
Huygens–Fresnel Principle
What will happen when a propagating light wave meets an obstacle? Huygens
and Fresnel explained the propagation of light in a medium with the following
principle:
Every point of a medium on which a light is incident constitutes a new source of
Figure 22.5: Wave fronts be- waves, and the wave front emitted therefrom spreads evenly in every direction.
come planes and rays become Consider two adjacent rooms. Let there be a hole in the wall between the two
parallel at very great distances rooms. When someone speaks in the first room, the sound will be heard in the
from the source.
second room as if emitted from this hole. Even if the speaker changes position in
the room, in the second room, the sound wave will always be heard as if coming
from the same point. This complies with the Huygens–Fresnel principle.
Figure 22.6 shows what happens when a plane wave meets two slits in a
screen. The light spreads as new spherical wave fronts are emitted from these
slits.
The Speed of Light and Index of Refraction
The speed of propagation of light is a universal physical constant:
c = 2.9979 × 108 m/s ≈ 3 × 108 m/s
is called the index of refraction of the medium. The index of refraction depends
on the type of medium and the wavelength of the incident light. The index of
refraction of some media are as follows:
θ1 = θ10 (22.4)
is on the same wave front still has to cover distance BC . While this second ray
travels distance BC at velocity v1 , the ray at point A will start to travel at velocity
v2 in the second medium. The distances traveled in the same time interval ∆t
will be as follows:
BC = v1 ∆t AD = v2 ∆t
The new wave front thus becomes DC . Let us write the distances BC and AD
in terms of the common side AC and the angles:
BC = v1 ∆t = AC sin θ1 AD = v2 ∆t = AC sin θ2
Figure 22.9: Successive wave
We now divide both sides:
fronts travel slower in the sec- v1 sin θ1
ond medium. =
v2 sin θ2
Lastly, we replace velocities v using the formula n = c/v :
v1 n2 sin θ1
= =
v2 n1 sin θ2
This is the Snell’s law in Eq. (22.5).
Let us emphasize the important points of reflection and refraction:
• If the incident ray is perpendicular (θ1 =0) , then θ2 =0 and the ray goes into
the second medium without refraction.
• If the rays fall on an interface where n1 < n2 (e.g., air-water), there is always
refraction in the second medium. In this case, we have θ2 < θ1 and the
Figure 22.10: Light coming out refracted ray approaches the surface normal. This is what causes a rod
of water shows a pencil as if bro- submerged in water to seem as if it is broken (Figure 22.10).
ken.
• Total internal reflection. An interesting thing happens when rays try to
exit a denser medium, e.g., from water into the air (n1 > n2 ) . In this situation,
the exiting rays bend away from the normal. As the angle of incidence θ1
increases, the angle of refraction θ2 approaches 90◦ (Figure 22.11). When θ1
is greater than this value, no refraction occurs and all of the light is reflected
internally. Let us write Eq. (22.5) for θ2 :
n1
sin θ1 = sin θ2
n2
As n1 /n2 > 1 when leaving a denser medium, this equation has no solutions
Figure 22.11: Total internal re- for angles that make the right-hand side greater than 1. Therefore, for a
flection and critical angle θc . solution to exist, we must have
n1
sin θ1 6 1
n2
In particular, the maximum incident angle that makes the right-hand side
equal to 1 is called the critical angle and is indicated with θc :
n2
sin θc = (Critical angle) (22.6)
n1
In conclusion, it is possible to exit from a denser medium only with angles
θ1 < θc . The light cannot exit the medium and is fully reflected back at angles
greater than this. This interesting phenomenon is called total internal
Figure 22.12: Light entering reflection.
one end of a fiber optic cable is The most important application of total internal reflection is fiber optic
transmitted to the other side by cables. Both visible light and other electromagnetic waves can be transmitted
total internal reflection. through fiber optic cables with very slight losses.
22.2. REFLECTION AND REFRACTION 373
Dispersion of Light
White light incident on a glass prism is dispersed into all of the colors of
visible light after passing through the glass medium. As seen in the adjacent
figure, all of the components of visible light from red to violet are refracted at
different degrees. Red light, which has a greater wavelength, is refracted less and
violet light, which has a lesser wavelength, is refracted more.
This property, which shows that the index of refraction is different at each
wavelength, is called the dispersion of light:
Example 22.1
(b) Frequency remains constant when light passes into an-
The yellow light of sodium, which has a 598 nm wavelength other medium, however, its speed and wavelength changes.
in vacuum, enters a glass medium with an index of refraction We use Eq. (22.1), in which we defined the index of refraction:
c c
of 1.6 . (a) What is the frequency of this light in vacuum? n= → v=
v n
(b) What is its speed in a glass medium? (c) What is its wave- From here, we calculate the speed of light in a glass medium:
length in a glass medium? c 3 × 108
v= = = 1.9 × 108 m/s
Answer n 1.6
(c) The wavelength in a glass medium can either be calcu-
(a) The relation between the speed, frequency and wavelength lated using λ = v/ f in terms of speed and frequency or by
of a wave is found using Eq. (22.2): taking the ratio of these values in the two media. There is
v
f = less calculational error in taking the ratio:
λ λ2 v2
We calculate frequency by taking the speed of light in vacuum =
λ1 v1
as c : v2 1.9
c 3 × 108 λ2 = λ1 = × 598 = 379 nm .
f = = = 5 × 1014 Hz v1 3
λ 598 × 10−9
Example 22.2
We use tables or a calculator to find the angle with a known
A light ray is sent from air to glass ( n = 1.60 ) with a 30 angle sinus value:
◦
Example 22.4
The apex angle of a prism is 90◦ . A ray that enters the prism
with an angle of incidence of 53◦ from point A on one side
exits from the other side at point B as parallel to the surface.
Determine the index of refraction of the glass.
Answer
We write Snell’s law for the first surface:
22.3. IMAGE BY REFLECTION – MIRRORS 375
q = −p
376 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
1. The ray drawn from the object to the middle point O will be reflected back
at an equal angle with the principal axis (Figure 22.17, ray 1).
2. The ray passing through the center C of the sphere will be reflected back on
itself, since it falls perpendicularly on the mirror (Figure 22.17, ray 2).
Figure 22.17: Coordinates in a A real image forms at the intersection of these two rays. If they do not
concave mirror. intersect, their extension beyond the mirror will form a virtual image, to be
examined later.
Let us use the coordinates shown in Figure 22.17 to find the position and
height of the image. Let p be the position of the object at point P as measured
from the mirror and q be the position of the image at point Q .
Also, let us use h to indicate the height of the object and h0 to indicate the
height of the image. We make a new assumption here for the heights:
Sign rule 2: The height of an inverted image is expressed with a negative sign.
This means that the h0 shown in the figure has a negative sign.
As the right triangles OPP0 and OQQ0 facing the same angle θ are similar
triangles, the ratios of their sides are equal:
h p
0
= (22.8)
−h q
Note that, as the height of the inverted image h0 is negative, an extra negative
sign was placed before it to make it positive.
This time, let us use the similarity of the triangles CPP0 and CQQ0 facing
the same angle α . Remember to take the height of the inverted image as (−h0 ) .
When writing the ratios of the sides, we get
h p−R
0
=
−h R−q
Eliminating h/h0 from the last two formulas, we get
p p−R
=
q R−q
From here, we obtain the formula that gives us the position of the image q :
1 1 2
+ = (22.9)
p q R
Focal point: When the object is very far away, in particular, when p→∞ in the
equation above, we have 1/p = 0 and the image position is:
R
q=
2
22.3. IMAGE BY REFLECTION – MIRRORS 377
This special point is called the focal point F and its distance to the mirror is
called the focal length f =R/2 . The focal point is the midpoint between the
mirror and the center of the mirror.
Likewise, when the object is placed at the focal point, p= f =R/2 in the equa-
tion above, we have 1/q=0 and q→∞ , in other words, the image is at infinity.
In conclusion, the concave mirror equation in terms of the focal length f is:
1 1 1
+ = (Concave mirror equation) (22.10)
p q f
Magnification: The ratio of the image height h0 to the object height h is called
the magnification and is indicated with M = h0 /h . Eq. (22.8) gives us the magnifi-
cation in terms of positions:
h0 p
M= =− (Magnification) (22.11)
h q
pf
q=
p− f
Example 22.5
Answer A diagram should always be drawn in mirror cal-
culations to get an idea about the image. Certain particular
The focal length of a concave mirror is f =30 cm . (a) Where will
rays are useful for obtaining the image. Three particular rays
the image of an object with 1 m in size placed 120 cm away
are shown in the following figure:
from the mirror form and what will its size be? (b) Answer
the same question for an object with 1 m in size placed 10 cm
away from the mirror.
378 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
1st ray: Each ray coming from infinity will be reflected from
the focal point.
2nd ray: The ray incident at the central point (O) of the
mirror will be reflected at an equal angle.
3rd ray: The ray passing through the focal point (F) will be
reflected as parallel.
Only two of these three rays are sufficient, because the image
The image position is calculated using the same formula:
will form at the intersection of two rays. 10 × 30
q= = −15 cm
(a) We write the concave mirror equation (22.10): 10 − 30
1 1 1 pf The image is virtual, because q is negative.
+ = → q= We then calculate the magnification:
p q f p− f
h0 q (−15)
The focal length is taken as positive if the mirror is concave: M= =− =− = +1.5
f = 30 cm . Accordingly, we calculate the image of an object h p 10
The positive sign means that the image is upright, in other
p = 120 cm away:
words, in the same direction as the object. Therefore, an
120 × 30
q= = 40 cm image enlarged by 1.5 times is formed in the same direction.
120 − 30
The image is real, because q is positive.
Convex Mirror
A convex mirror reflects rays from the outer surface of a sphere. We again take
two rays to obtain the image of a convex mirror. As shown in Figure 22.20, since
one of the rays is directed towards the center C of the sphere, it is perpendicularly
incident to the surface of the mirror and is reflected back in the same direction.
When the other ray is drawn towards the point O on the principal axis, it will be
reflected at an equal angle with the principal axis.
Reflected rays will never intersect at any point, regardless of which other
rays are taken, but their extensions intersect behind the mirror. Therefore, the
image is always virtual in a convex mirror.
There is no need to derive a new equation for the convex mirror. In a concave
mirror, the distance p of the virtual image behind the mirror was taken with a
negative sign. Likewise, the same formula will be valid again if we take the radius
R , and therefore the focal point f , as negative, since the center of a concave
22.4. IMAGE BY REFRACTION– LENSES 379
pf h0 q −f
q= M= =− =
p− f h p p− f
Considering that f is always negative in the formula on the left, the numerator
will always be negative and the denominator will always be positive. Therefore,
q will always be negative, in other words, the image will always be virtual. Also,
since the denominator is always larger, the magnification will be less than 1, in
other words, the image will always be smaller than the object.
Convex mirrors can contain the image of a broader area, because the image is Figure 22.21: A wing mirror on
smaller than the object. Due to this property, they are used in the wing mirrors a car.
and rear-view mirrors of automobiles.
Example 22.6
(a) We write the formula (22.10) that we found for the convex
The focal length of a convex mirror is 20 cm . Where will the mirror:
image of an object with 1 m in size placed 60 cm away from 1 1 1 pf
the mirror form and what will its size be? + = → q=
p q f p− f
The focal length should be taken as negative, because the mir-
Answer
ror is convex: f = −20 cm . We calculate the image position
The image will form as follows if we take two particular rays, accordingly:
one reflecting from the midpoint at an equal angle, and the 60 × (−20) 120
other directed towards the center and reflected back on itself: q= =− = −15 cm
60 − (−20) 80
The image is virtual, because q is negative.
We then calculate the magnification:
h0 q (−15) 3
M= =− =− =+
h p 20 4
The positive sign means that the image is upright, in other
words, in the same direction as the object. Therefore, an
image diminished by 3/4 is formed in the same direction.
This time, let us take the object as a point P on the principal axis. Let one
of the rays emitted from that point be the principal axis itself. This ray directly
passes into the second medium when it is incident on the surface at a right angle.
Let the other ray start at angle α with the principle axis and be incident to the
surface of the glass at point A at angle θ1 with the normal.
According to Snell’s law, this ray will get refracted by a certain angle θ2 . The
image will form at the point Q where this ray intersects the principal axis.
If a ray with a very small angle α is chosen, the ray will be incident to the
surface almost perpendicularly, in other words, θ1 , and therefore θ2 , will be very
small. Accordingly, Snell’s law is simplified at very small angles where we can
take sin θ ≈ θ :
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 =⇒ n1 θ1 ≈ n2 θ2
In a triangle, an exterior angle is equal to the sum of the two opposite interior
angles. Applying this property to the triangles PAC and QAC , we get
θ1 = α + β and β = θ2 + γ
n1 α + n2 γ = (n2 − n1 )β (22.13)
d d d
α ≈ tan α ≈ β ≈ tan β ≈ γ ≈ tan γ ≈
p R q
We substitute the values of these three angles in the equation (22.13) and simplify:
n1 n2 n2 − n1
+ = (22.14)
p q R
This formula is valid for all n1 , n2 values. Also, this proof was made for a convex
spherical surface. But it can also be shown to be valid for a concave spherical
surface. In order to do this, we agree on the sign of the radius R of the sphere as
follows: R is taken as positive if the center C of the sphere surface is inside of the
medium n2 and R is taken as negative if it is outside. Then, this formula will also
be valid for refraction from a concave surface.
This expression shall be used later to obtain the lens formula.
22.4. IMAGE BY REFRACTION– LENSES 381
According to this result, the image will always be virtual on a plane surface. For
example, a pool seems to be shallower when looked at from the outside (n1 > n2 ) . Figure 22.23: A fish under wa-
Likewise, a fish looking at us from under the water (n1 < n2 ) sees us as further ter seems nearer when looked at
away. from above.
Thin Lenses
Glass lenses with two spherical surfaces are used in all kinds of optical instru-
ments. The image may be real or virtual, depending on whether these surfaces are
convex or concave. Lenses with convex surfaces are called converging lenses
and those with concave surfaces are called diverging lenses. This designation
will be understood later.
We have to use the formula (22.14) twice in order to obtain a formula that is
valid for all lenses. To simplify the calculations, let us take the first medium as air
and the index of refraction as n ≈ 1 .
Let us consider a lens with radius of the first surface R1 , radius of the second
surface R2 and thickness t (Figure 22.24). Let p1 be the distance between an
object at point P outside of this lens. Let q1 be the position of the intermediate
virtual image ( Q0 ) formed on the same side as P ( q1 is negative). Accordingly,
if we apply Eq. (22.14) to a surface with radius R1 at the interface between air
( n1 = 1 ) and glass ( n2 = n ), we get
1 n n−1
+ =
p1 q1 R1
The rays intersecting at this virtual image q1 then continue on their paths and
arrive at the second surface located at distance t . If the thickness of the glass is
t , this intermediate image is considered as an object at position p2 = t − q1 for
the second surface. We apply the equation (22.14), this time to the surface with
382 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
n 1 1−n
+ =
t − q1 q2 R2
Note that R2 is negative, because it is inside of the glass.
Now, we take t ≈ 0 , assuming that the lens is thin and we add these last two
equations on both sides and eliminate q1 . Also, if we remove the subscripts and
rename them as the first object ( p1 = p ) and the final image ( q2 = q ), we get the
following result:
!
1 1 1 1
+ = (n − 1) − (Lens makers’ equation) (22.16)
p q R1 R2
This result is known as the lens makers’ equation. We can write it in terms of
the focal length f to make it more practical. As q = f when p → ∞ , substituting
these values, we get !
1 1 1
0 + = (n − 1) −
f R1 R2
and f is positive for a converging (convex) lens because we take R1 > 0 and
Figure 22.25: Converging lens. R2 < 0 . f is negative for a diverging (concave) because R1 < 0 and R2 > 0 .
Every lens has two focal points, because the rays can go in both directions.
In conclusion, the thin lens equation for both converging and diverging lenses
is as follows:
1 1 1
+ = (Thin lens equation) (22.17)
p q f
f is positive for a converging lens and f is negative for a diverging lens. The
Figure 22.26: Diverging lens. image is real if q is positive and virtual if it is negative.
Magnification ( M )
As in mirrors, the ratio of the height h0 of the image to the height h of the
object is the magnification, and its relation with the positions is as follows:
h0 q
M= =− (22.18)
h p
If M is positive, the image is in the same direction as the object and virtual; if M
is negative, the image is inverted and real.
Power of a Lens ( D ).
Opticians use the optical power of a lens, rather than its focal length. The
power of a lens is just the inverse of the focal length f , which is expressed in
meter units:
1
D=
f (meters)
The unit of lens power is the diopter. For example, a lens with D = 3 diopter
will focus parallel incident rays to f = 1/D = 1/3 m = 33 cm .
22.4. IMAGE BY REFRACTION– LENSES 383
Example 22.8
We write the thin lens equation:
1 1 1 pf
+ = → q=
p q f p− f
The focal length should be taken as negative, because the lens
is diverging: f = −50 cm . We calculate the image position
accordingly:
75 × (−50) 3750
q= =− = −30 cm
75 − (−50) 125
The image is virtual, because q is negative.
The focal length of a diverging lens is 50 cm . Where will the We then calculate the magnification:
image of an object with a size of 1 m placed 75 cm away from q (−30) 2
the lens form and what will its size be? M=− =− = + = 0.4
p 75 5
Answer The positive sign means that the image is upright, in other
The image will form as follows if we take two particular rays, words, in the same direction as the object. Therefore, an
one coming from infinity and reflecting from the focal point image diminished by 2/5 is formed in the same direction.
and the other directed towards the center and passing without
being refracted:
384 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Example 22.9
unknowns p and q will be as follows:
An object is placed 16 cm away from a screen. It is required p + q = 16
that we obtain the image of the object on the screen using a Second, these p, q values fulfill the lens formula:
converging lens with a focal length of 3 cm . How far away 1 1 1 1
+ = =
from the object should the lens be placed? p q f 3
If we get q = 16 − p from the first formula and substitute it
in this equation, we obtain an equation for p :
1 1 1
+ = → p2 − 16p + 48 = 0
p 16 − p 3
We find the roots of this 2nd degree equation and calculate q
Answer starting from p . There are two solutions:
( (
The image should be real ( q positive), because it must ap- 4 cm 12 cm
p= → q=
pear on the screen. Therefore, the first relation between the 12 cm 4 cm
Example 22.10 q
M=−
p
An object placed in front of a converging lens with a focal length
The magnification should be taken as negative, because the
of 24 cm has an image that is inverted and 3 times magnified.
image is inverted:
Find the position of the object. q
Answer −3 = − → q = 3p
p
We establish and solve two equations for the two unknowns We substitute this expression for q in the lens equation and
(p, q) in this problem. The first one of these is the lens equa- solve for p :
tion: 1 1 1 4 × 24
1 1 1 1 + = → p= = 32 cm
+ = = p 3p 24 3
p q f 24
The other equation is obtained from the magnification: And the position of the image is found as q = 3p = 96 cm .
see clearly after a certain point, called the near point. The near point is around 25
cm in adults. The muscles lose their flexibility with age and the near point may
recede up to 2-3 meters.
A net image is not formed on the retina in defective eyes (Figure 22.28).
The eye has nearsightedness (myopia), if the image forms before the retina
and farsightedness (hyperopia) if it forms behind the retina. The defect is
corrected by using a diverging lens for nearsightedness and a converging lens for
farsightedness.
Astigmatism, another eye defect, is caused by the difference in curvature
in horizontal and vertical planes. An astigmatic eye does not see horizontal and Figure 22.29: You have astig-
vertical lines with the same clarity (Figure 22.29). matism if you do not see these
lines with equal thickness when
Microscope
you look with one eye.
We bring very small objects close to our eyes in order to see them. However,
we cannot bring them closer than the near point of the eye, because the eye
cannot focus on the object after the near point. In such a case, we use a simple
magnifying glass or a more complex microscope.
Microscopes consist of at least two converging lenses. The one called the
objective lens is located near the object and has a focal length of about 2−40 mm .
The one on the side of the eye is called the eyepiece lens and has a larger focal
length. The operating principle of the microscope is roughly as follows: If we
can obtain a larger and real image of the small object near the focal point of the
eyepiece, we can produce the final image as much larger and at the near point of
the eye.
In the microscope diagram in Figure 22.30, the object is placed just in front
of the focal point of the objective lens. A larger and real intermediate image is
thus formed. The diverging rays from this image are considered as a new object
for the eyepiece. Then, the eyepiece’s distance is varied to ensure that this real
image is closer to the focal point of the eyepiece.
386 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
Recall the formula for magnification: If we use h to indicate the height and p
to indicate the position of the object, and h0 for the height and q for the position
of the image, we get
h0 q
M= =−
h p
First, let us calculate Mo , the magnification at the objective lens: We can take
p ≈ fo , because the object is placed near the focal point of the objective lens. If
we ignore the negative size, the magnification of the objective is as follows:
q1
Mo =
fo
We take the following into consideration when calculating the magnification for
the eyepiece: The angular magnification is what is important for the eye. Even if
the size of the object is small, the angle at which the eye sees it becomes large.
For example, a needle close to the near point of the eye is perceived as larger
than a distant pole. For this reason, it is required that the final image given by the
eyepiece be close to the near point of the eye, in other words, at approximately
25 cm in distance. Accordingly, the magnification of the eyepiece is (for p2 = fe
and q2 = 25 cm ),
25 cm
Me =
fe
Combining these results, the total magnification of the microscope is the product
of these two magnifications:
(25 cm) q1
M = Mo Me = (22.19)
fo fe
Microscopes operating with visible light have limited magnification. Microscopes
Figure 22.31: A microscope using electron beams are much more powerful.
made in 1879. Telescope
Telescopes are used to see celestial bodies and other distant objects much
larger and in detail. There are two types of telescopes: Refracting telescopes,
which only use lenses and reflecting telescopes, which use a combination of lenses
and mirrors.
If the focal point of the eyepiece is located right at this point, it will form a virtual
image at infinity with the rays that it receives from this intermediate image.
The angular magnification of the telescope is defined as the angular ratio of
the angle θ covered by the image to the angle θ0 of the object observed with a
naked eye:
θ
m=
θ0
As seen in the figure, the angle θ0 covered by the object in the objective lens is
equal to the angle covered by the intermediate image in the objective lens. The
tangent of this angle is taken approximately as tan θ ≈ θ for small angles. If we
use fo to indicate the focal length of the objective lens, we get
h0
θ0 ≈ tan θ0 =
fo
Likewise, the angle θ covered by the final image in our eye is equal to the angle
covered in the eyepiece by the ray drawn as parallel from the intermediate image
to final image. Its tangent is also taken as an approximation for small angles. If
we use fe to show the focal length of the eyepiece, we get
h0
θ ≈ tan θ =
fe
We use these two formulas to find the angular magnification of the telescope as
follows:
θ fo
m= = (22.20)
θ0 fe
It is necessary to use very large lenses, as the magnification of the telescope is Figure 22.33: The Mount Gra-
proportional to the focal length of the objective lens. However, reflecting tele- ham telescope in Arizona is the
scopes that utilize mirrors are preferred, because large lenses are both expensive largest reflecting telescope in
to produce and difficult to install. Likewise, radio wave, X-ray or gamma ray the world with a diameter of
telescopes are used in astronomy, rather than visible light. 2 × 8.4 meter.
Multiple-choice Questions
1. Which of the following is correct for electromagnetic (a) Microwave-X-ray-infrared-ultraviolet
waves? (b) Infrared-ultraviolet-X-ray-microwave
(a) The electric field is perpendicular and the magnetic (c) Microwave-infrared-ultraviolet-X-ray
field is parallel to the direction of propagation. (d) Infrared-visible light-gamma rays-microwave
(b) The magnetic field is perpendicular and the electric
field is parallel to the direction of propagation.
(c) The electric and magnetic fields are perpendicular 4. Which of the following are correct?
to the direction of propagation. I. Wavelength decreases as the speed of light decreases.
(d) The electric and magnetic fields are parallel to the II. The speed of light decreases as the index of refraction
direction of propagation. of the medium increases.
III. Wavelength decreases as the index of refraction of
2. What is the speed of light in a medium with index of the medium increases.
refraction n=1.5 ?
(a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) All
(a) c/2 (b) 2c/3 (c) 3c/2 (d) 3c/4
3. Which of the following orderings of electromagnetic 5. Which of the following is the Huygens-Fresnel princi-
waves is done according to increasing frequency? ple?
388 22. GEOMETRIC OPTICS
(a) Every point of a medium on which light is incident 12. What is the focal length of a concave mirror with a 40 cm
reflects the wave. radius of curvature?
(b) Every point of a medium on which light is incident (a) 10 cm (b) 20 cm (c) 40 cm (d) 80 cm
refracts the wave.
(c) Every point of a medium on which light is incident 13. What is the focal length of a convex mirror with a 20 cm
constitutes a new source of waves. radius of curvature?
(d) Two waves, one passing and one reflected, are (a) -20 cm (b) -10 cm (c) 10 cm (d) 40 cm
formed at every point of a medium on which light
is incident. 14. When will the image of a real object on a converging
lens be virtual?
6. Which of the following is Snell’s law? (a) Object is between the center and the focal point,
(a) n1 cos θ1 = n2 cos θ2 (b) Object is between the focal point and the lens,
(b) n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2 (c) Object is between infinity and the focal point.
(c) n1 sin θ2 = n2 sin θ1 (d) Object is between infinity and the center.
(d) n1 / sin θ1 = n2 / sin θ2
15. When will the image of a real object on a diverging lens
7. Which of the following is correct for a light ray sent be real?
from the water medium into the air? (a) Object is between the center and the focal point,
(a) It never passes into the air. (b) Object is between infinity and the center,
(b) It always passes into the air. (c) Object is between the focal point and the lens,
(c) It passes at angles larger than a critical angle. (d) Never.
(d) It passes at angles smaller than a critical angle.
16. Which of the following are correct?
8. Which of the following is correct for a ray incident on I. The image is always virtual on a convex mirror.
the interface between water ( n=1.3 ) and glass ( n=1.5 )? II. The image is always upright on a convex mirror.
(a) The rays always pass from glass to water. III. The image is always virtual on a concave mirror.
(b) The rays always pass from water to glass. IV. The image is always inverted on a concave mirror.
(c) The rays always pass in both ways. (a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) II & IV
(d) All of the above.
17. Which of the following is correct for the magnification
9. In which of the following cases will the image of a real M?
object on a mirror be real? (a) The image is inverted and real if M > 0.
I. If it is observed on a screen, (b) The image is upright and real if M > 0.
II. If the reflected rays intersect at a point, (c) The image is inverted and virtual if M > 0.
III. If the image is inverted. (d) The image is upright and virtual if M > 0.
(a) I & II (b) I & III (c) II & III (d) All 18. Which of the following is correct for the magnification
10. When will the image of a real object on a concave mirror M?
(a) The image is inverted and real if M < 0.
be virtual?
(a) When the object is between the center and the focal (b) The image is upright and real if M < 0.
point, (c) The image is inverted and virtual if M < 0.
(b) When the object is between the focal point and the (d) The image is upright and virtual if M < 0.
mirror, 19. Which of the following is correct?
(c) When the object is between infinity and the focal (a) The image is formed before the retina in a near-
point. sighted eye.
(d) When the object is between infinity and the center. (b) The image is formed behind the retina in a near-
11. When will the image of a real object on a convex mirror sighted eye.
be real? (c) The image is formed before the retina in a farsighted
(a) When the object is between the center and the focal eye.
point, (d) The image is formed behind the retina in an astig-
(b) When the object is between the focal point and the matic eye.
mirror, 20. By what factor will the magnification of a microscope
(c) When the object is between infinity and the focal increase if its objective lens magnifies by 5 times and its
point, eyepiece magnifies by 20 times?
(d) Never.
(a) 25 (b) 30 (c) 50 (d) 100
PROBLEMS 389
Problems
22.2 Reflection and refraction
point B on the lateral surface? (Hint: What is the relation be-
tween the critical angle at point B and the angle of incidence
22.1 A light with a 600 nm wavelength in vacuum enters a
at point A ?) [A: 78◦ .]
glass medium with an index of refraction 1.5 . (a) What is the
frequency of this light in vacuum? (b) What is its speed in a 22.8 A fish at the bottom of a 4 m deep lake looks upward
glass medium? (c) What is its wavelength in a glass medium? toward the surface of the water. What will be the radius of
[A: (a) 5 × 1014 Hz , (b) 2 × 108 m/s , (d) 400 nm .] the surface area from which this fish can see incident rays?
(The index of refraction of water is 1.33 .) [A: 4.6 m .]
22.2 What is the wavelength in glass of a light with a 500 nm
wavelength in water? ( nwater = 1.33 , nglass = 1.5 .) 22.3 Image by Reflection - Mirrors
[A: 440 nm .]
22.9 The focal length of a concave mirror is f =30 cm .
22.3 A light ray has a angle of refraction of 37◦ when sent (a) Where will the image of an object 1 m in size placed 40 cm
from air towards glass at a 60◦ angle of incidence. Determine away from the mirror form and what will its size and type
the index of refraction of the glass. [A: 1.45 .] be? (b) Answer the same question for an object 1 m in size
placed 15 cm away.
[A: (a) q = 120 cm , real, inverted and 3 times larger. (b)
q = −30 cm , virtual, upright and 2 times larger.]
22.17 An object is placed 125 cm away from a screen. We 22.19 The image of an object placed before a converging
want to obtain the image of the object on the screen using a lens is 200 cm away, inverted and 4 times larger. What is the
converging lens with a focal length of 20 cm . How far away focal length of the lens? [A: 40 cm .]
from the object should the lens be placed?
[A: p = 25 cm and 100 cm .]
22.20 An object is placed 45 cm away from a screen. The
22.18 An object placed in front of a converging lens with a image obtained on the screen by a converging lens placed in
focal length of 30 cm has an image that is inverted and twice between is inverted and twice larger. What is the focal length
as large. Find the position of the object. [A: p = 45 cm .] of the lens? [A: f = 10 cm .]
?
23
WAVE OPTICS
In order to simplify this formula, let us consider the right triangle AOP formed
by drawing a line from the midpoint A of the slits in the figure to P . As the two
sides of this triangle are perpendicular to two sides of the triangle S 1 S 2 B, they
are similar triangles and their angle θ is equal. For small angles, both the sine
and the tangent can be taken as equal to the radian value of the angle:
ym
θm ≈ sin θm ≈ tan θm = (23.3)
D
This angle is used in the above expressions for dark and light fringes. We can
combine both cases into a single formula:
λD
m d (Bright)
ym = (m = 0, ±1, ±2 . . .) (23.4)
λD
m + 12 (Dark)
d
Therefore, if the distance D of the screen, the distance d between the slits and
the wavelength λ of the used light are known, the type and number of fringes
at distance ym can be calculated. This experiment is actually mostly used to
measure the wavelength of light.
Example 23.1
Accordingly, we find the distance between two successive
In a Young’s experiment conducted with an Argon laser using fringes:
green light with a wavelength of 514 nm , the distance between λD
y2 − y1 =
the slits is 0.1 mm and the screen is placed 3 m away. d
(a) What is the distance between two bright fringes? 514 × 10−9 × 3
(b) What is the distance between the 3rd bright fringe and the y2 − y1 = = 0.015 m = 1.5 cm
0.1 × 10−3
7th dark fringe?
(b) We write Eq. (23.4) for the 7th dark and 3rd bright fringes
Answer
and calculate the difference:
(a) The positions of the bright fringes are given with Eq. (23.4): λD
λD y7 − y3 = (7.5 − 3) × = 4.5 × 1.5 = 6.8 cm
ym = m d
d
Example 23.2
We use the value sin θm ≈θm for small angles and calculate the
In a Young’s experiment conducted with a ruby laser using red angular difference ∆θ between two successive maximums:
λ
light with a wavelength of 695 nm , the distance between the ∆θ = θ2 − θ1 =
slits is 0.1 mm . d
695 × 10−9
(a) What is the angular difference between two bright fringes? ∆θ = = 0.007 radians
(b) How many bright fringes are there in an angular area of 0.1 × 10−3
We convert this value into degrees by multiplying by 180/π :
±10◦ from the center? ∆θ = 0.007 × 180/π = 0.4◦
Answer (b) After finding the angle covered between two maximums,
(a) We use Eq. (23.1), which we developed for angular posi- we calculate the number of maximums within the given range:
tions: 10
N =2× = 50
d sin θm = mλ 0.4
394 23. WAVE OPTICS
2t = (m + 12 ) λn (m = 0, 1, 2 . . .) (Maximum) (23.5)
2t = m λn (m = 1, 2, 3 . . .) (Minimum) (23.6)
Note that these formulas are opposite to those in Young’s experiment. The
reason for this is that a phase difference of 180◦ from reflection is added
here to the phase difference with the second wave.
• If the film layer is less dense than the rear medium (Figure 23.4):
In this case, a 180◦ phase difference will arise in the rays reflected from both
the front and the rear surfaces. Therefore, the phase differences caused by
the surface effects will cancel each outer out and only the phase difference
from the path difference in the film medium will be taken into consideration.
In this case, we reverse Eqs. (23.5) and (23.6) that we found above for con-
structive and destructive interference. In other words, we use the maximum
(constructive interference) formula for the minimum (destructive interference).
This is the reason why various colors are observed on soap bubbles and on
oil slicks. The fact that, for example, the color blue is reflected from a point of a Figure 23.5: The colors re-
thin film reflecting white light, is caused by the fact that all of the other colors flected from a thin oil slick are
are canceled due to destructive interference. a result of interference.
Example 23.4
without reflection means destructive interference. Therefore,
An oil slick with a refractive index of 1.5 is spread over a water the formula (23.6) should be used:
puddle (n = 1.33) . What is the minimum value of the oil 2t = m λn
slick thickness such that the yellow light with a wavelength of If the path difference is equal to one wavelength for m=1 , it
600 nm within the white light coming from air passes through shall be multiples of the wavelength for the other m values.
without getting reflected? Also, in the oil medium, we take the wavelength as λm = λ/n :
λ λ 600
Answer Only a phase difference of 180◦ will occur in the 2t = 1 × → t= = = 200 nm
n 2n 2 × 1.5
first surface, because the refractive index of the oil slick is Yellow light will not get reflected at multiples of this thick-
greater than the water underneath. Also, passing through ness.
Example 23.5
the refractive index of the film layer is less than the refractive
A thin transparent film with refractive index n=1.3 is spread index of the rear glass.
on a window glass with a refractive index of 1.5 . The thickness In this case, we must invert Eqs. (23.5-23.6) for destructive
of the film should be multiples of which value such that the interference of the red light:
reflected light does not contain red)? (Take the wavelength of 2t = (m + 12 ) λn (Minimum)
red light as 700 nm .) We take m = 0 and λn = λ/n and calculate the thickness:
λ λ 700
Answer Two 180◦ phase differences will occur this time, as 2t = 12 × → t= = = 135 nm
n 4n 4 × 1.3
396 23. WAVE OPTICS
Example 23.6
ym = m λD/a (m = 1, 2, 3 . . .)
A red light with a wavelength of 700 nm is sent through a We calculate for m = 1 :
λD 700 × 10−9 × 5
0.1 mm wide slit. A screen is located 5 m away. y1 = = = 0.035 m = 35 mm .
a 0.1 × 10−3
(a) What is the position of the first dark fringe?
(b) The bright fringe at the center is limited by the first dark
(b) What is the width of the bright area at the center?
fringes at both sides. Therefore, its width is 2 times the value
Answer that we found in item (a):
(a) We use Eq. (23.8), which we found for dark fringes: ∆y = 2 × y1 = 70 mm .
Example 23.7 λ1 D
y1 (m = 5) = 5
a
A red light with wavelength λ1 = 700 nm and a green light Eq. (23.9) for bright fringes gives us, for m=3 of the green
with wavelength λ2 = 650 nm are simultaneously sent through light:
a slit. On a screen that is 2 m away, the distance between the λ2 D
y2 (m = 3) = 3 + 12
5th dark fringe of the red light and the 3rd bright fringe of the a
green light is observed to be 2 mm . Determine the width of the We equate the difference between these two positions to
slit. 2 mm and solve for the unknown a :
y1 (m = 5) − y2 (m =
3) = 0.002
Answer 5λ1 − 3.5λ2 D
Eq. (23.8) for dark fringes gives us, for m=5 of the red light: a= = 0.0012 m = 1.2 mm
0.002
Resolution
The image formed formed in our eye or on photographic film by optical
instruments such as microscopes, telescopes or spectroscopes must be very sharp.
However, there is a limit to the ability of an instrument to distinguish between
objects that are close together, regardless of how perfectly it is manufactured.
This ability, limited by the diffraction of light, is called the resolution or the
resolving power of the instrument.
The limit of the resolution is caused by diffraction. Let us consider two light
sources S 1 and S 2 located near each other (e.g., two neighboring stars in the
sky). Let the rays from these two sources pass through a slit with width a and be
398 23. WAVE OPTICS
Figure 23.11: (a) Two resolvable
images. (b) Two images on the
limit of resolution, (c) Two unre-
solvable images. Note that the
central maximum of one coin-
cides with the first minimum of
the other.
projected onto a screen. As we discussed in the topic of single-slit diffraction, the
image of each on the screen will show a distribution around a central maximum
(Figure 23.11). The centers of these two images become unresolvable if their
central maximums overlap.
The limit of resolution is accepted as the limit at which the central maximum of
one of the images coincides with the first minimum of the other image (Figure 23.11b).
We obtain the minimum angle θ at this limit using Eq. (23.8), which we obtained
for single-slit diffraction. The expression giving the first minimum was found to
be the following:
λ
sin θ =
a
We can take the angle (in radian) instead of the sine for small angles. Accordingly,
the smallest angle θmin that can be resolved by the optical instrument is:
λ
θmin = (for rectangular slit) (23.11)
a
This formula is valid for a rectangular slit. The formula changes slightly when
calculated for the circular objective lenses of optical instruments:
λ
θmin = 1.22 (For circular slit) (23.12)
a
a is the diameter of the circle here.
The smaller the value of θm , the higher resolution of the instrument. Accord-
ingly, to increase resolution, we should either use light with a smaller wavelength
or increase the diameter of the objective lens.
Example 23.8
The angle θmin here should be equal to the angle covered by
A camera is required to resolve two points separated by 1 cm at the width of 1 cm located 100 meters away:
a distance of 100 m in the photo that it shoots. As the average θmin = 0.01/100 = 0.0001 radians
wavelength is 500 nm within the visible light range, what is We use these values to calculate the diameter a of the circular
the minimum value of the diameter of the objective lens? objective lens:
Answer λ 500 × 10−9
a = 1.22 = 1.22 ×
We use Eq. (23.12) given for circular slits: θmin 0.0001
θmin = 1.22λ/a a = 0, 006 m = 6 mm
Problems
23.1 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment
(a) What is the distance between two bright fringes? (b) What
23.1 In a Young’s experiment conducted with a ruby laser is the distance between the 3rd bright fringe and the 5th dark
using red light with a wavelength of 700 nm , the distance be- fringe? [A: (a) 3.5 mm , (b) 8.8 mm .]
tween the slits is 0.1 mm and the screen is placed 5 m away.
PROBLEMS 399
23.2 In a Young’s experiment conducted with a He-Cd laser thickness of the oil slick such that red light with a wave-
using red light with a wavelength of 450 nm , the distance be- length of 700 nm within the white light coming from air is
tween the slits is 0.1 mm . (a) What is the angular difference not reflected? [A: 250 nm .]
between the fringes? (b) How many bright fringes are there
in an angular area of ±1◦ from the center? 23.7 A coat of thin film with refractive index n=1.3 is ap-
plied to an objective lens with a refractive index of 1.6 . The
[A: (a) 0.27◦ , (b) 7.8 ≈ 8 fringes.]
thickness of the film should be multiples of which value such
23.3 In a Young’s experiment, sources generating two lights that the reflected light does not contain blue)? (Take the
with wavelengths λ1 = 600 nm and λ2 = 650 nm are used. wavelength of blue light as 400 nm .) [A: 77 nm .]
The distance between the slits is 0.1 mm and the distance
from the screen is 3 m . What is the distance between the 5th
23.3 Diffraction from a Single Slit
bright fringes of both types of light? [A: 7.5 mm .] 23.8 A light with a wavelength of 600 nm is sent through a
0.1 mm wide slit. (a) On a screen 4 m away, what is the width
23.4 A Young’s experiment is designed with a light with a of the central area at the center? (b) What is the position of
700 nm wavelength such that the angle between the bright the 7th dark fringe? [A:(a) 4.8 cm , (b) 17 cm .]
fringes is 0.01◦ . What should the distance between the two
slits be? [A: 4 mm .] 23.9 Two lights with wavelengths λ1 =500 nm and
λ2 =600 nm are simultaneously sent through a slit. On a
23.5 The angle between the bright fringes is 2◦ in a Young’s screen that is 3 m away, the distance between the 7th bright
experiment. What will the angle be when this experimental fringe of the first light and the 5th dark fringe of the second
setup is placed under water with refractive index n = 1.33 ? light is observed to be 3 mm . Determine the width of the slit.
(Hint: Take the ratios and work with the wavelength in water.) [A: 2 mm .]
[A: 1.5◦ .]
23.10 A telescope is required to resolve two points at a dis-
tance of 100 km and separated by 1 cm . As the average
23.2 Interference in Thin Films
wavelength is 500 nm within the visible light range, what is
23.6 An oil slick with a refractive index of 1.4 is located the minimum value of the diameter of the telescope?
on a puddle of water (n = 1.33) . What is the minimum [A: 6.1 m .]
APPENDIX A. PHYSICAL CONSTANTS
Quantity Symbol Value
Speed of light in vacuum c 2.997 92 × 108 m/s
Charge of electron e 1.602 19 × 10−19 C
Gravitational constant G 6.6726 × 10−11 N m2 /kg2
Avogadro’s number NA 6.022 05 × 1023
8.31451 J/(mol K)
Universal gas constant
R
0.0820578 litre atm/(mol K)
C. TRIGONOMETRIC TABLE
For angles greater than 45°, use the right-hand column together with the bottom labels.
3 Li 4 Be 5 B 6 C 7 N 8 O 9 F 10 Ne
6.94 9.01 10.81 12.01 14.01 16.00 19.00 20.18
0.534 1.85 2.34 2.267 0.0013 0.0014 0.0017 0.0009
19 K 20 Ca 21 Sc 22 Ti 23 V 24 Cr 25 Mn 26 Fe 27 Co 28 Ni 29 Cu 30 Zn 31 Ga 32 Ge 33 As 34 Se 35 Br 36 Kr
39.10 40.08 44.96 47.90 50.94 52.00 54.94 55.85 58.93 58.70 63.55 65.38 69.72 72.59 74.92 78.96 79.90 83.80
0.862 1.54 2.989 4.54 6.11 7.15 7.44 7.874 8.86 8.912 8.96 7.134 5.907 5.323 5.776 4.809 3.122 0.0037
37 Rb 38 Sr 39 Y 40 Zr 41 Nb 42 Mo 43 Tc 44 Ru 45 Rh 46 Pd 47 Ag 48 Cd 49 In 50 Sn 51 Sb 52 Te 52 I 54 Xe
85.47 87.62 88.91 91.22 92.91 95.94 98 101.07 102.91 106.04 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.90 131.30
1.532 2.64 4.469 6.506 8.57 10.22 11.5 12.37 12.41 12.02 10.501 8.69 7.31 7.287 6.685 6.232 4.93 0.0059
55 Cs 56 Ba 57 La 72 Hf 73 Ta 74 W 75 Re 76 Os 77 Ir 78 Pt 79 Au 80 Hg 81 Tl 82 Pb 83 Bi 84 Po 85 At 86 Rn
132.91 137.33 138.91 178.49 180.95 183.85 186.21 190.2 192.22 195.09 196.97 200.59 204.37 207.2 208.98 209 210 222
1.873 3.594 6.145 13.31 16.654 19.25 21.02 22.61 22.56 21.46 19.282 13.534 11.85 11.342 9.807 9.32 7 0.0097
87 Fr 88 Ra 89 Ac
58 Ce 59 Pr 60 Nd 61 Pm 62 Sm 63 Eu 64 Gd 65 Tb 66 Dy 67 Ho 68 Er 69 Tm 70 Yb 71 Lu
403
223 226.03 227.03
1.87 5.5 10.07 140.12 140.91 144.24 145 150.4 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
6.77 6.773 7.007 7.26 7.52 5.243 7.895 8.229 8.55 8.795 9.066 9.321 6.965 9.84
PICTURE CREDITS
Chapter and picture numbers are indicated below in boldface.
Chapter 1: Header picture: NASA, 1.1: US Navy Imagery and Bureau International des
Poids et des Mésures.
Chapter 2: Header picture: Potiyama, 2.5: Michael Maggs.
Chapter 3: Header picture: Geraint Otis Warlow.
Chapter 4: Header picture: European Space Agency (ESA), 4.1: jon oropeza.
Chapter 5: Header picture: Coasterman1234, 5.13: Olliver Mallich.
Chapter 6: Header picture: Dave Jackson, 6.4: Alsterdrache, 6.5: Brady Holt, 6.12:
Erik Forsberg.
Chapter 7: Header picture: NOAA.
Chapter 8: Header picture: Fer.filol.
Chapter 9: Header picture: Dan Pancamo, 9.12: Leonard G., 9.15: BrokenSphere.
Chapter 10: Header picture: Shalom Jacobovitz, 10.17: TaitaFkm.
Chapter 11: Header picture: Saffron Blaze, 11.1: Pia von Lützau and Stefan-XP, 11.7:
fleecetraveler, pGordon and Aranya Sen, 11.10: Jose Olgon, 11.11: Orhan Kamer, 11.13:
kurtsik, 11.16: Rob Bulmahn, 11.19: WikipedianProlific, Mvapdevila and neepster,
11.22: Joao Miranda, 11.23: Michael Belisle.
Chapter 12: Header picture: Andries Oudshoorn, 12.2: Andres Rueda and makerbot,
12.4: Markus Schweiss, 12.6: CrazyD, 12.8: IMPRESS Education, 12.10: NASA, 12.12:
Jens Buurgard Nielsen, 12.13: Linda Hermans Killam (IPAC).
Chapter 13: Header picture: Christoph Ehlen, 13.15: Timitrius.
Chapter 14: Header picture: Angela Yuriko Smith, 14.1: Didier Desouens, 14.4:
Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, 14.8: Peo, 14.9: ElBibliomata.
Chapter 15: Header picture: Beverly and Pack.
Chapter 16: Header picture: Jon ’ShakataGaNai’ Davis.
Chapter 17: Header picture: Courtesy-Sandia National Laboratories, 17.1: Eric Schrader,
17.2: Steve Jurvetson, Pilaf, and Arnold Reinhold, 17.11: CommScope, Jom and Hellisp,
17.12: Bert Hickman, 17.14: 2Tales, 17.15: Anynobody.
Chapter 18: Header picture: Intel Corp. 18.6: Yury Masloboev, 18.8: Ralf Roletschek,
18.12: timlewisnm, 18.19: André Karwath.
Chapter 19: Header picture: ITER, 19.10: Hatsukari715.
Chapter 20: Header picture: CERN, 20.9: Richard Steiner (NIST), 20.16: Gorchy.
Chapter 21: Header picture: NASA, 21.9: wdwd.
Chapter 22: Header picture: NASA, 22.2: Inductiveload, NASA 22.7: Brews ohare,
22.10: Velual, 22.12: BigRiz, 22.19: NASA, 22.21: Johan, 22.27: Holly Fischer, 22.33:
NASA.
Chapter 23: Header picture: Doug Hodel, 23.5: John, 23.6: Lecture Demonstration
Services-Harvard Science Center, 23.9: Gisling, 23.10: Magnus Manske.
Index