Module7 - Cellular Respiration

1/30/2021 Module7:Cellular Respiration
Module7:Cellular Respiration
Site: New Era University Printed by: Zuriel P. San Pedro

Course: GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 & 2 Date: Saturday, 30 January 2021, 10:05 AM
Book: Module7:Cellular Respiration
https://k-12.neu.edu.ph/mod/book/tool/print/index.php?id=7288 1/20
Description
This Module( after reading the past modules which gives you an idea about Energy like, how it is being created and transformed to be able to utilize by
every single organism) will give you an insight of the metabolic pathways each energy has to go through to be able to reach its aim to organism that is to
yield energy as a form of resource thing thus an organism will be able function accordingly.
Table of contents
1. Introduction/Overview
2. Learning Outcomes
3. Lesson I – Glycolysis
3.1. First Half of Glycolysis
3.2. Second Half of Glycolysis
3.3. Outcomes of Glycolysis
4. Lesson II – Krebs Cycle

4.1. Breakdown of Pyruvate
4.2. Acetyl CoA to CO2
4.3. Krebs Cycle
4.4. Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle
4.5. Products of the Citric Acid Cycle
5. Lesson III – Oxidative Phosphorylation
6. Lesson IV – Anaerobic Respiration

6.1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
6.2. Alcohol Fermentation
6.3. Quiz 7
1. Introduction/Overview
The electrical energy plant converts energy from one form to another form that can be more easily used. This type of generating plant starts with
underground thermal energy (heat) and transforms it into electrical energy hat will be transported to homes and factories. Like a generating plant, plants
and animals also must take in energy from the environment and convert it into a form that their cells can use.
Energy enters an organism’s body in one form and is converted into another form that can fuel organism’s life functions. In the process of
photosynthesis, plants and other photosynthetic producers take in energy in the form of light (solar energy) and convert it into chemical energy, glucose,
which stores this energy in its chemical bonds. Then, a series of metabolic pathways, collectively called cellular respiration, extracts the energy from the
bonds in glucose and converts it into a form that all living things can use – both producers, such as plants, and consumers, such as animals.
2. Learning Outcomes
1. Describe the major features and chemical events in the 3 stages of cellular respiration;
2. Describe anaerobic respiration and its significance in cellular respiration and differentiate from aerobic respiration; and
3. Give examples of practical uses of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.
3. Lesson I – Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. Nearly all living organisms carry out glycolysis as part of
their metabolism. The process does not use oxygen and is therefore anaerobic.
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Glucose enters heterotrophic cells in two ways. One method is through secondary active transport in which the transport takes place against the glucose
concentration gradient. The other mechanism uses a group of integral proteins called glucose transporter proteins, also known as GLUT proteins. These
transporters assist in the facilitated diffusion of glucose.
Glycolysis begins with the six carbon ring-shaped structure of a glucose molecule and ends with two molecules of a three-carbon sugar called pyruvate.
Glycolysis consists of two distinct phases. The first part of the glycolysis pathways traps the glucose molecule in the cell and uses energy to modify it so
that the six-carbon sugar molecule can be split evenly into the two three-carbon molecules. The second part of glycolysis extracts energy from the
molecules and stores it in the form of ATP and NADH, the reduced form of NAD.
3.1. First Half of Glycolysis
First Half of Glycolysis
(Energy-Requiring Steps)
Step 1. The first step in glycolysis is catalysed by hexokinase, an enzyme with broad specificity that catalyzes the phosphorylation of six-carbon
sugars. Hexokinase phosphorylates glucose using ATP as the source of the phosphate, producing glucose-6-phosphate, a more reactive form of
glucose. This reaction prevents the phosphorylated glucose molecule from continuing to interact with the GLUT proteins, and it can no longer leave the
cell because the negatively charged phosphate will not allow it to cross the hydrophobic interior of the plasma membrane.
Step 2. In the second step of glycolysis, an isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into one of its isomers, fructose-6-phosphate. An isomerase is
an enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of a molecule into one of its isomers. (This change from phosphoglucose to phosphofructose allows the
eventual split of the sugar into two three-carbon molecules.)
Step 3. The third step is the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme phosphofructokinase. A second ATP molecule donates a
high-energy phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, producing fructose-1, 6-biophosphate. In this pathway, phosphofructokinase is a rate limiting enzyme. It
is active when the concentration of ADP is high; it is less active when ADP levels are low and the concentration of ATP is high. Thus, if there is
“sufficient” ATP in the system, the pathway slows down. This is a type of end product inhibition, since ATP is the end product of glucose catabolism.
Step 4. The newly added high-energy phosphates further destabilize fructose-1, 6-biophosphate. The fourth step in glycolysis employs an enzyme,
aldolase, to cleave 1, 6-biophosphate into two three-carbon isomers: dihydroxyacetone-phosphate and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate.
Step 5. In the fifth step, an isomerase transforms the dihydroxyacetone-phosphate into its isomer, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate. Thus, the pathway will
continue with two molecules of a single isomer. At this point in the pathway, there is a net investment of energy from two ATP molecules in the
breakdown of one glucose molecule.
3.2. Second Half of Glycolysis
Second Half of Glycolysis
(Energy-Releasing Steps)
So far, glycolysis has cost the cell two ATP molecules and produced two small, three-carbon sugar molecules. Both of these molecules will proceed
through the second half of the pathway, and sufficient energy will be extracted to pay back the two ATP molecules used as an initial investment and
produce a profit for the cell of two additional ATP molecules and two even higher-energy NADH molecules.
Step 6. The sixth step in glycolysis oxidizes the sugar (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate), extracting high-energy electrons, which are picked up by the
electron carrier NAD+, producing NADH. The sugar is the phosphorylated by the addition of a second phosphate group, producing 1,3-
biophosphoglycerate. Note that the second phosphate group does not require another ATP molecule.
A potential limiting factor for this pathway is that the continuation of the reaction depends upon the availability of the oxidized form of the electron carrier,
NAD+. Thus, NADH must be continuously oxidized back into NAD+ in order to keep this step going. If NAD+ is not available, the second half glycolysis
slows down or stops. If oxygen is available in the system, the NADH will be oxidized readily, though indirectly, and the high-energy electrons from the
hydrogen released in this process will be used to produce ATP. In an environment without oxygen, an alternate pathway (fermentation) can provide the
oxidation of NADH to NAD+.
Step 7. Catalyzed by phosphoglycerate kinase (an enzyme named for the reverse reaction), 1,3-biophosphglycerate donates a high-energy phosphate to
ADP, forming one molecule of ATP. (this is an example of substrate-level phosphorylation.) A carbonyl group on the 1,3-biophosphoglycerate is oxidized
to a carboxyl group, and 3-phosphoglycerate is formed.
Step 8. The remaining phosphate group in 3-phosphoglycerate moves from the third carbon to the second carbon, producing 2-phosphoglycerate (an
isomer of 3-phosphoglycerate). The enzyme catalyzing this step is a mutase (isomerase).
Step 9. Enolase catalyzes the ninth step. This enzyme causes 2-phosphogycerate to lose water from its structure; this is a dehydration reaction, resulting
in the formation of a double bond that increases the potential energy in the remaining phosphate bond and produces phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
Step 10. The last step in glycolysis is catalyzed by the enzyme pyruvate kinase (the enzyme in this case is named for the reverse of pyruvate’s
conversion into PEP) and results in the production of a second ATP molecule by substrate-level phosphorylation and the compound pyruvic acid (or its
salt form, pyruvate). Many enzymes in the enzymatic pathways are named fr reverse reactions, since the enzymes can catalyze both forward and
reverse reactions (these may have been described initially by the reverse reaction that takes place invitro, under non-physiological conditions.)
3.3. Outcomes of Glycolysis
Glycolysis starts with glucose and ends with two pyruvate molecules, a total of four ATP molecules and two molecules of NADH. Two ATP molecules
were used in the first half of the pathway to prepare the six-carbon ring for cleavage, so the cell has a net gain of two ATP molecules and 2 NADH
molecules for its use. If the cell cannot catabolize the pyruvate molecules further, it will harvest only two ATP molecules from one molecule of glucose.
Mature mammalian red blood cells are not capable of aerobic respiration – the process in which organisms convert energy in the presence of oxygen –
and glycolysis is their sole source of ATP. If glycolysis is interrupted, these cells lose their ability to maintain their sodium-potassium pumps, and
eventually, they die.
The last step in glycolysis will not occur if pyruvate kinase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of pyruvate, is not available in sufficient quantities. In
this situation, the entire glycolysis pathway will proceed, but only two ATP molecules will be made in the second half. Thus, pyruvate kinase is a rate-
limiting enzyme for glycolysis.
4. Lesson II – Krebs Cycle
If oxygen is available, aerobic respiration will go forward. In eukaryotic cells, the pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis are transported
into mitochondria, which are the sites of cellular respiration. There, pyruvate will be transformed into an acetyl group that will be picked up and activated
by a carrier compound called coenzyme A (CoA). The resulting compound is called acetyl CoA. CoA is made from vitamin B5, pantothenic acid. Acetyl
CoA can be used in a variety of ways by the cell, but its major function is to deliver the acetyl group derived from pyruvate to the next stage of the
pathway in glucose catabolism.
4.1. Breakdown of Pyruvate
In order for the pyruvate from glycolysis to enter the next pathway, the Krebs Cycle, it must undergo several changes. The conversion is a three-step
process.
Step 1. A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate, releasing a molecule of carbon dioxide into the surrounding medium. The result of this step is a two-
carbon hydroxyethyl group bound to the enzyme (pyruvate dehydrogenase). This is the first of the six carbons from the original glucose molecule to be
removed. This step proceeds twice (remember: there are two pyruvate molecules produced at the end of glycolysis) for every molecule of glucose
metabolized; thus, two of the six carbons will have been removed at the end of both steps.
Step 2. The hydroxyethyl group is oxidized to an acetyl group, and the electrons are picked up by NAD+, forming NADH. The high-energy electrons from
NADH will be used later to generate ATP.
Step 3. The enzyme-bound acetyl group is transferred to CoA, producing a molecule of acetyl CoA.
Note that during the second stage of glucose metabolism, whenever a carbon atom is removed, it is bound to two oxygen atoms, producing carbo
dioxide, one of the major end products of cellular respiration.
4.2. Acetyl CoA to CO2
In the presence of oxygen, acetyl CoA delivers its acetyl group to a four-carbon, molecule, oxaloacetate, to form citrate, a six-carbon molecule with three
carboxyl groups; this pathway will harvest the remainder of the extractable energy from what began as a glucose molecule. This single pathway is called
by different names: the citric acid cycle (for the first intermediate formed – citric acid, or citrate – when acetate joins to the oxaloacetate), the tricarboxylic
acid cycle (since citric acid or citrate and isocitrate are tricarboxylic acids), and the Krebs cycle (after Hans Krebs, who first identified the steps in the
pathway in the 1930s in pigeon flight muscles).
4.3. Krebs Cycle
Like the conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA, the citric acid cycle takes place in the matrix of mitochondria.
Almost all of the enzymes of the citric acid cycle are soluble, with the single exception of the enzyme succinate dehydrogenase, which is embedded in
the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Unlike glycolysis, the citric acid cycle is a closed loop: The last part of the pathway regenerates the compound
used in the first step.
The eight steps of the cycle are a series of redox, dehydration, hydration, and decarboxylation reactions that produce two carbon dioxide molecules, one
GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH and FADH2 produced must transfer their electrons to the next pathway in the system, which will use oxygen.
If this transfer does not occur, the oxidation steps of the citric acid cycle also do not occur. note that the citric acid cycle produces very little ATP directly
and does not directly consume oxygen.
4.4. Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle
Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle
Step 1. Prior to the start of the first step, a transitional phase occurs during which pyruvic acid is converted to acetyl CoA. Then, the first step of the cycle
begins: This is a condensation step, combining the two-carbon acetyl group with a four-carbon oxaloacetate molecule to group (-SH) and diffuses away
to eventually combine with another acetyl group. This step is irreversible because it is highly exergonic. The rate of this reaction is controlled by negative
feedback and the amount of ATP available. If ATP levels increase, the rate of this reaction decreases. If ATP is in short supply, the rate increases.
Step 2. In step two, citrate loses one water molecule and gains another as citrate is converted into its isomer, isocitrate.
Step 3. In step three, isocitrate is oxidized, producing a five-carbon molecule, α-ketoglutarate, together with a molecule of CO2 and two electrons, which
reduce NAD+ to NADH. This step is also regulated by negative feedback from ATP and NADH, and a positive effect of ADP.
Step 3 and 4. Steps three and four are both oxidation and decarboxylation steps, which release electrons that reduce NAD+ to NADH and release
carboxyl groups that form CO2 molecules. α-Ketoglutarate is the product of step three, and a succinyl CoA. The enzyme that catalyzes step four is
regulated by feedback inhibition of ATP, succinyl CoA, and NADH.
Step 5. In step five, a phosphate group is substituted for coenzyme A, and a high-energy bond is formed. This energy is used in substrate-level
phosphorylation (during the conversion of the succinyl group to succinate) to form either guanine triphosphate (GTP) or ATP.
There are two forms of the enzyme, called isoenzymes, for this step, depending upon the type of animal tissue in which they are found. One form is
found in tissues that use large amounts of ATP, such as heart and skeletal muscle. This form produces ATP.
The second form of the enzyme is found in tissues that have a high number of anabolic pathways, such as liver. This form produces
GTP. GTP is energetically equivalent to ATP; however, its use is more restricted. In particular, protein synthesis primarily uses GTP.
Step 6. Step six is a dehydration process that converts succinate into fumarate. Two hydrogen atoms are transferred to FAD, producing FADH2.
The energy contained in the electrons of these atoms is insufficient to reduce NAD+ but adequate to reduce FAD. Unlike NADH, this carrier remains
attached to the enzyme and transfer the electrons to the electron transport chain directly. This process is made possible by the localization of the
enzyme catalyzing this step inside the inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
Step 7. Water is added to fumarate during step seven, and malate is produced. The last step in the citric acid cycle regenerates oxaloacetate
by oxidizing malate. Another molecule of NADH is produced in the process.
4.5. Products of the Citric Acid Cycle
Products of the Citric Acid Cycle
Two carbon atoms come into the citric acid cycle from each acetyl group, representing four out of the six carbons of one glucose molecule.
Two carbon dioxide molecules are released on each turn of the cycle; however, these do not necessarily contain the most recently added carbon
atoms.
The two acetyl carbon atoms will eventually be released on later turns of the cycle; thus, all six carbon atoms from the original glucose molecule are
eventually incorporated into carbon dioxide.
Each turn of the cycle forms three NADH molecules and one FADH molecule. These carriers will connect with the last portion of aerobic respiration to
produce ATP molecules. One GTP or ATP is also made in each cycle.
Several of the intermediate compounds I the citric acid cycle can be used in synthesizing non-essential amino acids; therefore, the cycle is amphibolic
(both catabolic and anabolic).
5. Lesson III – Oxidative Phosphorylation
The electron transport chain is the portion of aerobic respiration that uses free oxygen as the final electron acceptor of the electrons removed from the
intermediate compounds in glucose catabolism.
The electron transport chain is composed of four large, multiprotein complexes embedded in the inner mitochondrial membrane two small diffusible
electron carriers shuttling electrons between them.
The electrons are passed through a series of redox reactions, with a small amount of free energy used at three points to transport hydrogen ions across
a membrane. This process contributes to the gradient used in chemiosmosis.
The electrons passing through the electron transport chain gradually lose energy. High-energy electrons donated to the chain by either NADH or
FADH+ complete the chain, as low-energy electrons reduce oxygen molecules and form water.
The level of free energy off the electrons drops from about 60kcal/mol in NADH or 45kcal/mol in FADH+ to about 0kcal/mol in water. The end products of
the electron transport chain are water and ATP.
A number of intermediate compounds the citric acid cycle can be diverted into the anabolism other biochemical molecules, such as nonessential amino
acids, sugars, and lipids. These same molecules can serve as energy sources for the glucose pathways.
6. Lesson IV – Anaerobic Respiration
In aerobic respiration, the final acceptor is an accident molecule, O2. If aerobic respiration occurs, then ATP will be produced using the energy of high
energy electrons carried by NADH or FADH+ to the electron transport chain. If aerobic respiration does not occur, NADH must be reoxidized to
NAD+ for reuse as an electron carrier for the glycolytic pathway to continue.
Some living systems use an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor. Processes that use an organic molecule to regenerate NAD+ from NADH
are collectively referred to as fermentation. In contrast, some living systems use an organic molecule as a final electron acceptor. Both methods are
called anaerobic cellular respiration in which organisms convert energy in the absence of oxygen.
Certain prokaryotes, including some species Alpha bacteria and Archaea, use anaerobic respiration. For example, the group of Archaea called the
methanogens reduces carbon dioxide to methane to oxidize NADH. These microorganisms are found in soil and in the digestive tracts of ruminants,
such as cows and sheep. Similarly, sulfate-reducing bacteria and Archaea, most of which are anaerobic, reduce sulfate to
hydrogen sulfide to regenerate NAD from NADH.
6.1. Lactic Acid Fermentation
Lactic Acid Fermentation
The fermentation method used by animals and certain bacteria, like those in yogurt, is lactic acid fermentation. This type of fermentation is used routinely
in mammalian red blood cells and in skeletal muscle that has an insufficient oxygen supply that is, in muscles used to the point of fatigue to allow aerobic
respiration to continue. On muscles, lactic acid accumulation must be removed by the blood circulation and the lactate brought to the liver for further
metabolism. The chemical reactions of lactic acid fermentation are the following:
Pyruvic acid + NADH >>> lactic acid + NAD+
The enzyme used in this reaction is lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). The reaction can proceed in either direction, but the reaction from left to right is
inhibited by acidic conditions. Such lactic acid accumulation was once believed to cause muscle stiffness, fatigue, and soreness although more recent
research disputes this hypothesis. Once the lactic acid has been removed from the muscle and circulated to the liver, it can be reconverted into pyruvic
acid and further catabolized for energy.
6.2. Alcohol Fermentation
Alcohol Fermentation
Another Familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation that produces ethanol, an alcohol. The first chemical reaction of alcohol fermentation is the
following (CO2 does not participate in the second reaction):
Pyruvic acid >>> CO2 + acetaldehyde +NADH >>> ethanol +NAD+
The first reaction catalyzed by pyruvate decarboxylase, a cytoplasmic enzyme, with a coenzyme of thiamine pyrophosphate. (TPP, derived from vitamin
B and also called thiamine). A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvic acid, releasing carbon dioxide as a gas. The loss of carbon dioxide reduces the
size of the molecule by ne carbon, making acetaldehyde. The second reaction is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase to oxidize NADH to NAD+ and
reduce acetaldehyde to ethanol. The fermentation of pyruvic acid by yeast produces the ethanol found in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol tolerance of yeast
is variable, ranging from about 5 percent to 21 percent, depending on the yeast strain and environmental conditions.
6.3. Quiz 7
https://k-12.neu.edu.ph/mod/quiz/view.php?id=33283

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1/30/2021 Module7:Cellular Respiration

Site: New Era University Printed by: Zuriel P. San Pedro

4. Lesson II – Krebs Cycle

5. Lesson III – Oxidative Phosphorylation

6. Lesson IV – Anaerobic Respiration

3. Give examples of practical uses of aerobic and anaerobic cellular respiration.

Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

3.1. First Half of Glycolysis

First Half of Glycolysis

3.2. Second Half of Glycolysis

Second Half of Glycolysis

3.3. Outcomes of Glycolysis

4. Lesson II – Krebs Cycle

4.1. Breakdown of Pyruvate

4.2. Acetyl CoA to CO2

4.3. Krebs Cycle

4.4. Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle

Steps in the Citric Acid Cycle

4.5. Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

5. Lesson III – Oxidative Phosphorylation

6. Lesson IV – Anaerobic Respiration

6.1. Lactic Acid Fermentation

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Pyruvic acid + NADH >>> lactic acid + NAD+

6.2. Alcohol Fermentation

Pyruvic acid >>> CO2 + acetaldehyde +NADH >>> ethanol +NAD+

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