Welcome to the world of UNIX

Subhasis Samantaray
 CONTENTS

Unix Operating System Searching and Archiving

Kernel Process management

Shell Job Scheduling

User login process Disk usage commands

Basic Unix commands Architecture of Unix File system

File management Mailing commands/Utilities

Directory management Networking commands

Permission Printing commands

File/Text processing commands Arithmetic operations

VI editor Some useful commands

Pattern searching Misc commands

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 Unix Operating System

Shell

Kernel

Hardware

In UNIX, the operating system is broken into three pieces: the kernel, the shell,
and the built-in utilities. The kernel is responsible for low level hardware
communication, the shell provides human users with a user-friendly interface, and
the built-in utilities provide basic tools for doing work.

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 Kernel

•Heart of The Unix OS.

•Collection of C programs directly communicating with hardware
•Part of Unix system loaded into memory when Unix is booted

Manages:-
1. System resources
2. Allocates time between user and processes
3. Decides process priorities

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Shell

•Human interface point for Unix

•Program layer – provides an environment for the user to enter commands to

get desired results.

•Korn Shell, Bourne Shell, C Shell are various shells used by Unix users

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6
 User login process

Unix booted.
Program Unix(kernel) is booted into main memory, and remains active till the
computer is shut down
Program init runs as a background task and remains running till shutdown

User attempts to log in.

Kernel calls program ‘init’.

‘init’ scans file /etc/inittab , which lists the ports with terminals and their
characteristics and returns an active open terminal to ‘init’.

‘init’ calls program ‘getty’, which issues a login prompt in the monitor

User enters login and password

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 User login process

‘getty’ calls program ‘login’ which scans file /etc/passwd to

match username and password

After validation, control passes to session startup program

/bin/sh , session startup program

Program /bin/sh reads file /etc/profile and .profile and sets up

system wide and user specific environment.

User gets a shell prompt

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 Basic Unix commands

-Login
-Change password ( Passwd )
-Check the date and time (date)
-Check the present working directory (pwd)
-Check the teminal ( tty & stty)
-Check the system uptime ( uptime)
-Check the user details (finger)
-Change the user details (chfn)
-Get the details of current loggedin users ( Who,Whoami,w )
-Get the identification details ( id )
-Check the name and flavour of the OS ( uname )
-Check the calendar ( Cal )
- Banner (banner)
-host name ( hostname )
-domain name (domainname,dnsdomainname,nisdomainname,ypdomainname )
-clear ( To clear screen )

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 passwd

passwd command is used to update/change user’s

authentication token(s).

Root user can change/reset the password for other users .

In production environment generally password expires in 90

days or after 1 year.

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 date
date command is used to print or set the system date and time

Syntax: date +”<options>”

Some useful options :

%b locales abbreviated month name (Jan..Dec)

%d day of month (01..31)
%D date (mm/dd/yy)
%F same as %Y-%m-%d
%H hour (00..23)
%I hour (01..12)
%m month (01..12)
%M minute (00..59)
%S second (00..60)
%T time, 24-hour (hh:mm:ss)
%y last two digits of year
%Y year (1970...)

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 Date - Example

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pwd,tty,stty,uptime,finger

pwd command is used to print name of current/working directory

tty command is used to print the file name of the terminal connected to
standard input

stty command is used to change and print terminal line settings

stty –a command is used to print all current settings in human-readable

form

uptime - Tell how long the system has been running.

finger command is used to check the user information

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Example : pwd,tty,stty,uptime,finger

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chfn,who

chfn - change your finger information

who - show who is logged on

Some useful options of who command :

-b time of last system boot

-i add idle time as HOURS:MINUTES
-r print current runlevel
-u list users logged in

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Run levels

The runlevels used by RHS are:

0 - halt (Do NOT set initdefault to this)
1 - Single user mode
2 - Multiuser, without NFS (The same as 3, if you do not have
networking)
3 - Full multiuser mode
4 - unused
5 - X11
6 - reboot (Do NOT set initdefault to this)

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Example : chfn,who

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whoami,w,id

whoami - print effective userid

w - Show who is logged on and what they are doing.

id - print real and effective UIDs and GIDs

Some useful options of id command :

-g print only the effective group ID

-G print all group IDs
-n print a name instead of a number

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Example : whoami,w,id

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uname,cal,clear
uname - print system information

Some useful options of uname comand :

-a print all information
-n print the network node hostname
-r print the kernel release
-v print the kernel version
-m print the machine hardware name
-p print the processor type

cal - displays a calendar

Cal displays a simple calendar. If arguments are not specified, the current month is
displayed.The options are as follows:
-1 Display single month output. (This is the default.)
-3 Display prev/current/next month output.
-s Display Sunday as the first day of the week. (This is the default.)
-m Display Monday as the first day of the week.

clear - clear the terminal screen

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Example : uname,cal,clear

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hostname, domainname , dnsdomainname , nisdomainname , ypdomainname

hostname - show or set the system’s host name

Some useful options of hostname command :

-s short host name

-a alias names
-i addresses for the hostname
-f long host name (FQDN)
-d DNS domain name
-y NIS/YP domainname

domainname - show or set the system’s NIS/YP domain name

dnsdomainname - show the system’s DNS domain name

nisdomainname - show or set system’s NIS/YP domain name

ypdomainname - show or set the system’s NIS/YP domain name

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 Questions ???
1) How to get the OS name ?
2) How to know since when the server is up ?
3) How to get the last boot time of server ?
4) How to get the details of user ?
5) How to know who all are currently logged in and which program they are executing
currently ?
6) How to get the current date and time ?
7) How to get yesterday’s date ?
8) How to get tomorrow’s date ?
9) How to print the date in the following format ?
Todays date is : YYYY-mm-dd:HH-MM-SS
10) How to change the users information ?
11) How to get the id of a particular user ?
12) How to know the present working directory ?
13) How to know which terminal is associated with your current session ?
14) How to get the current terminal settting details ?
15) How to see the calendar of March 1999 ?
16) How to see the calendar for the year 1992 ?
17) How to get the hostname ?
18)How to get the FQDN (Fully Qualified Domain Name) ?

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How to set arrow keys and backspace ?
Setting arrow keys :

Set the keys as per terminal types …

set -o emacs
case "$TERM" in
xterm*|dec-vt220|vt100)
alias __A=^P
alias __B=^N
alias __C=^F
alias __D=^B
;;
hpterm|hp|700*)
alias _A=^P
alias _B=^N
alias _C=^F
alias _D=^B
esac

Set backspace as erase character :

stty erase ^?

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 File management

- Create a file ( cat ,touch )

- Append contents to the file ( >> )
- Redirection
- Indirection
- Here document
- Nullify the contents
- List the file(s) ( ls )
- copy ( cp )
- Use indirection to copy the file contents .Eg cat >Destn <Source
- Rename ( mv )
- delete ( rm )
-Link (ln , link ,unlink)
tac - concatenate and print files in reverse

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 cat
cat - concatenate files and print on the standard output

To create a file :

cat >filename
After entering the text ,Press [ ctrl + d ] to save and exit

To append new contents to a existing file :

cat >>filename
After entering the text ,Press [ ctrl + d ] to save and exit

Redirection Example :

Let you want to redirect the output of cal command to cal.out file .

cal >cal.out

To see the contents of cal.out :

cat cal.out

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 cat
Indirection example :

Let Qwest.txt is a existing file .You want to cretate a new file WMAIP.txt which will have the same contents as
Qwest.txt .

cat > WMAIP.txt < Qwest.txt

( This is equivalent to : cp Qwest.txt WMAIP.txt)

Here document example :

cat >example.txt<<EOF
Enter test
.
.
EOF

( After specifying EOF at the last ,Hit enter )

Some useful options of cat command :

-b number nonblank output lines

-n number all output lines

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cat command

Commands Significance

cat >file1 Creates file file1 where a user enters text and presses <Ctrl-D> to end text editing

cat >>file1 Append lines to existing content of file : file1 and is ended when <Ctrl-D> is pressed

cat file1 Shows the contents of the file: file1

cat file1>file2 Copies the contents of file : file1 into new or existing file : file2

cat file1 file2 > Concatenates the content of file1 and file2 and places it into new or existing file
file3 file3

cat file1 >>file2 Appends the contents of file1 after the last line of file2. If file2 does not exist, new
file is created

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Example : cat ( create,append,redirection,indirection)

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Example : Here document

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touch
touch – create blank file ,change file timestamps( access time,modification time)

Some useful options :

-a change only the access time

-c do not create any files
-m change only the modification time
-t use [specified time] instead of current time

To create a blank file :

touch <filename>

To change the access time :

touch –at ‘YYYYMMDDHHMM’ <filename>

To change the modification time :

touch –mt ‘YYYYMMDDHHMM’ <filename>

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Example : touch

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Nullify the contents,Create blank file in different ways

To nullify the file use :

cat /dev/null >filename

>file name

To create a blank file you can use :

touch filename
cat /dev/null >filename
>filename
cat > filename [ Immediately press ctrl+d to save and exit ,it will create a blank file ]

To create a hidden file we need to specify . Before the file name

cat >.filename

touch .filename

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Example : Nullify the contents,Create blank file in different ways

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List the file(s) : ls
ls - list directory contents
List information about the FILEs (the current directory by default). Sort entries alphabetically if none of the
options specified

Some useful options of ls command :

-a do not hide entries starting with .

-C list entries by columns
-d list directory entries instead of contents, and do not dereference symbolic links
-F append indicator (one of */=@|) to entries
-g like -l, but do not list owner
-G inhibit display of group information
-h print sizes in human readable format (e.g., 1K 234M 2G)
-i print index number of each file
-l use a long listing format
-r reverse order while sorting
-R list subdirectories recursively
-s print size of each file, in blocks
-S sort by file size
-t sort by modification time
-u with -lt: sort by, and show, access time with -l: show access time and sort by name otherwise:
sort by access time
-1 list one file per line

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Output of ls -li
1) Inode : Physical location of file
2) Type :
The mode displayed with the -e and -l flags is interpreted as follows:
If the first character is:
d The entry is a directory.
b The entry is a block special file.
c The entry is a character special file.
l The entry is a symbolic link, and either the -N flag was specified or the symbolic link did not point to an existing file.
p The entry is a first-in,first-out (FIFO) special file.
s The entry is a local socket.
- The entry is an ordinary file.

3) Permission :

The next nine characters are divided into three sets of three characters each. The first set of three characters show the owner’s
permission. The next set of three characters show the permission of the other users in the group. The last set of three
characters shows the permission of anyone else with access to the file. The three characters in each set indicate, respectively,
read, write, and execute permission of the file. Execute permission of a directory lets you search a directory for a specified file.
Permissions are indicated as follows:

r Read
w Write (edit)
x Execute (search)
-Corresponding permission not granted

The group-execute permission character is s if the file has set-group-ID mode. The user-execute permission character is s if the
file has set-user-ID mode. The last character of the mode (usually x or -) is T if the 01000 (octal) bit of the mode is set (see the
chmod command for the meaning of this mode).

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Output of ls -li

4) Link count
5)Owner
6)Group
7)Size of the file
8)Time stamp ( Month day time or year month day )
9) File name

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Example : ls

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Copy (cp)

cp - copy files and directories

Some useful options :
-f if an existing destination file cannot be opened, remove it
and try again
-i prompt before overwrite
-l link files instead of copying
-p same as --preserve=mode,ownership,timestamps
-R copy directories recursively
-r copy directories recursively
-s make symbolic links instead of copying
-u copy only when the SOURCE file is newer than the
destination file or when the destination file is missing

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Example : Copy (cp)

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Rename : mv , Delete :rm
mv - move (rename) files

Rename SOURCE to DEST, or move SOURCE(s) to DIRECTORY.

mv [OPTION]... SOURCE DEST

mv [OPTION]... SOURCE... DIRECTORY

Useful options of mv command :

-f do not prompt before overwriting

-i prompt before overwrite
-u move only when the SOURCE file is newer than the destination file or when the destination file is missing

rm - remove files or directories

Useful options of rm command :

-f ignore nonexistent files, never prompt

-i prompt before any removal
-r remove the contents of directories recursively
-R remove the contents of directories recursively

To remove a file whose name starts with a - , for example -Qwest , use one of these commands:

rm -- -Qwest
rm ./-Qwest

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Example : Rename : mv , Delete :rm

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Links : Hard Link and Symbolic Link (Soft link )

ln - make links between files

Useful options of ln command :

-f remove existing destination files

-i prompt whether to remove destinations
-s make symbolic links instead of hard links

Hard Link :
A link file created with the Linux / Unix ln command that points to a file's inode.
- Childs are not dependant on parent.
-Inode numbers will be the same
-We cant create hard link to directories.
Symbolic Link:
Also known as a soft link or symlink, a symbolic link is a Linux / Unix file created with the ln
command that links to another file using the path. Unlike a hard link, a symbolic link can link to
any file on any computer.
- Childs are dependant on parent. If you will remove the the source/parent file ,the child file or
link will be dangled.
-Inode numbers are different
-We can create soft/symbolic link to directories.

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Links : Hard Link and Symbolic Link (Soft link )
To create symbolic link to a file :

ln –s sourcefile newlink

To create symbolic link to a directory :

ln –s sourcedir newlink

To create hard link :

ln sourcefile newlink

You can use cp command with –l option to create a hardlink.

cp –l sourcefile newlink

You can use cp command with –s option to create a soft link/symbolic link.

cp –s sourcefile newlink

link, unlink - link and unlink files and directories

The link and unlink commands link and unlink files and directories. Only super-users can use these commands on directories.

$ link A.s A.s.1

$ ls -li A.s*
7800612 -rw-rw-r-- 2 linux1 linux1 79 Jul 20 18:30 A.s
7800612 -rw-rw-r-- 2 linux1 linux1 79 Jul 20 18:30 A.s.1
$ unlink A.s.1
$ ls -li A.s*
7800612 -rw-rw-r-- 1 linux1 linux1 79 Jul 20 18:30 A.s

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Example : Symbolic link or soft link

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Example : Symbolic link or soft link to directories

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Example : Hard Link

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 Questions ???
1) Cretate a file using cat command ? What is the difference ctrl+d and ctrl+c ( when you are using the ctrl
keys to save and exit )??
2) How to append contents to a existing file?
3) How to change the modification time of a file ?
4) Change the modification time of Qwest.ext file as 1999-Oct-10 23:25 if it exists !!
5) How many ways you can create a blank file ?
6) Cretate file “ My documents” ?
7) Create a file –filename . List ,rename and delete the same file .
8) What is the difference between hard link and soft link ?
9) How to get the inode number of the file ?
10) Explain the output of ls –li .
11) How to get the access time and modfication time of a file ?
12)How to get the file size in kb,mb,gb ??
13)How to list the contents of a directory in a single column ?
14)How to create a hidden file and how to list the file ?
15)How to copy a file with the existing time stamp of source file ? i.e : time stamp of source and destination
file should be the same ..
16)Explain indirection,Redirection,Here document .
17)Explain Link count field .( output of ls –l command ) ?
18) How to copy a file without using cp command ?
19) How to create a hard/soft link to a file without using ln command ?
20)What is link and unlink command ?

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 Directory management

- Create directory ( mkdir )

- Rename directory (mv)
- Remove/Delete the directory ( rmdir ,rm -f ,rm -rf )
- Change directory ( cd ,cd ~ ,cd $HOME ,cd / ,cd .. ,cd . ,cd -
,cd ../.. etc )
- copy file(s) from/to a directory
- Move file(s) from/to a directory
-Link (ln)

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Create directory ( mkdir )

mkdir - make directories

Create the DIRECTORY(ies), if they do not already exist.

Some useful options of mkdir comamnd :

-p no error if existing, make parent directories as needed.

-m set permission mode

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Create directory ( mkdir )

To create a directory :

mkdir DIR_NAME

To crete a directory including parent dir

mkdir –p /DIR/STRUCTURE/

To create a directory with specific permissions:

mkdir –m <***> DIRNAME

*** : Permission in octal equivalent ( eg: 700 ,770,777 )

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Example : Create directory ( mkdir )

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Rename (mv) , Remove/Delete ( rmdir ,rm -rf ) the directory

mv - move (rename)
Rename SOURCE to DEST, or move SOURCE(s) to DIRECTORY.

Some useful options of mv comand :

-i prompt before overwrite
-u move only when the SOURCE file is newer than the destination file or when the destination file is missing
-f do not prompt before overwriting

Syntax :
mv <SOURCE> <DEST>
mv </SOURCE/*.exm > </DEST/>

rm - remove files or directories

rm –rf : Remove the non empty directory ( recursively and forcefully ).

rmdir - remove empty directories

rmdir –p - remove DIRECTORY, then try to remove each directory component of that path name.

E.g., rmdir -p a/b/c is similar to rmdir a/b/c a/b

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Example : Rename (mv) , Remove/Delete ( rmdir ,rm -rf )
the directory

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Change directory ( cd ,cd ~ ,cd $HOME ,cd / ,cd .. ,cd . ,cd - ,cd
../.. etc )
cd – To change the directory

To go back to the home directory :

cd ~
cd $HOME
cd
cd ~user [ user : currently logged in user ]

To go to root ( / ) directory
cd /

To go to one directory back :

cd ..

To go to two directory back :

cd ../../

To go to three directory back:

cd ../../../

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Change directory ( cd ,cd ~ ,cd $HOME ,cd / ,cd .. ,cd . ,cd - ,cd
../.. etc )
To go back to the previous working directory :

cd –

To go to the any users home directory :

cd ~usename

Analyse the output of the following command :

echo $PWD
echo $OLDPWD

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Example : Change directory ( cd ,cd ~ ,cd $HOME ,cd / ,cd .. ,cd .
,cd - ,cd ../.. etc )

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Copy file(s) from/to a directory

Copy file(s) from/to a directory :

cp <filename> <Path of dir>

cp </Path/of/sourcefile> ./

Example :
cp Qwest.txt ./A/B/
cp *.txt ./A/B/

To copy the whole directory structure

cp –R </Path/of/Dir/*> </Path/of/Destn/>

Example :
cp –R ./Qwest/* ./Qwest_bkp/

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Move file(s) from/to a directory

Move file(s) to a directory :

mv <filename> <Path of dir>

mv </path/of/sourcefile/> ./

To rename a directory :
mv SOURCE_DIR DESTN_DIR

Example :
mv Qwest.txt ./A/B/
mv *.txt ./A/B/
mv ./A/B/*.txt ./
mv Qwest Qwest_bkp

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Example :

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Example : Symbolic link or soft link to directories
To create symbolic link to a directory :
ln –s sourcedir newlink

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- Observe the present working directory
- Create the above directory structure .Let you are in your home directory .Don’t use cd while
creating the directory structure.
- Create files india1 and india2 under india , delhi1 and delhi2 under delhi and likewise under all
other directories.
- Change the directory from home to bangalore.
- Copy file bangalore1 from bangalore to karachi.
- Change directory to india from bangalore.
- Move file delhi1 to mumbai.
- List the contents of mumbai from current directory which is india.
- Copy all files bangalore1 and bangalore2 from bangalore to lahore with a single command.
- View the contents of lahore from india.
- Go back to your home directory and try to open the file using absolute path .
- Change the directory to delhi ,Now try to list the pakistan directory using relative path and
absolute path .
- Try to access/read the files present under pakistan directory using relative path and absolute
path .

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 Questions ??
1) How to create a directory ?
2) Create the directory structure : A/B/C/D ?
3) Create directory “Qwest” with permission 700 ?
4) Rename the directory Qwest to Qwest_bkp ?
5) Create a directory WMAIP inside Qwest .
6) Copy the Whole Qwest directory to Qwest_bkp ?
7) Explain cd - ? How it works ?
8) How to go back to home directory ?
9) How to copy a directory recursively ?
10) How to remove a non empty directory ?
11) How to remove a empty directory ?
12) How to create a link to a directory ?
13) How to go to the root directory ?
14) How to go to other user’s home directory ?
15) Explain mkdir –p and rmdir –p ?
16) Explain about the following SHELL variables :
HOME ,PWD,OLDPWD
17) Create a directory –Qwest ?
18) Remove the directory –Qwest ?
19) How to create a hidden directory ?
20) What is absolute path and relative path ?
21) Try to create a directory under / ( root ) drectory .Notice the error message .

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 Permission

- Owner,group and others

- Octal/Numeric representation
- read,write,Execute permissions
- Default permission
- umask value
- change permission of file or directory ( chmod )
- Change group (chgrp)
- Change owner (chown)
- ACL

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The chmod command modifies the mode bits and the extended access control lists (ACLs) of the specified files or
directories. The mode can be defined symbolically or numerically.

Symbolic Mode :

To specify a mode in symbolic form, you must specify three sets of flags. Note: Do not separate flags with spaces.The first set of
flags specifies who is granted or denied the specified permissions, as follows:

u File owner.
g Group.
o All others.
a User, group, and all others. The a flag has the same effect as specifying the ugo flags together. If none of these flags are
specified, the default is the a flag and the file creation mask (umask) is applied.

The second set of flags specifies whether the permissions are to be removed, applied, or set:

- Removes specified permissions.

+ Applies specified permissions.
= Clears the selected permission field and sets it to the permission specified. If you do not specify a permission following =, the
chmod command removes all permissions from the selected field.

The third set of flags specifies the permissions that are to be removed, applied, or set:

r Read permission.
w Write permission.
x Execute permission for files; search permission for directories.
s Set-user-ID-on-execution permission if the u flag is specified or implied. Set-group-ID-on-execution permission if the g flag is
specified or implied.
t For directories, indicates that only file owners can link or unlink files in the specified directory. For files, sets the save-text attribute.

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Examples:
1. To add a type of permission to several files:

chmod g+w chap1 chap2

This adds write permission for group members to the files chap1 and chap2.

2. To make several permission changes at once:

chmod go-w+x mydir

This denies group members and others the permission to create or delete files in mydir (go-w) and allows
group members and others to search mydir or use it in a path name (go+x). This is equivalent to the
command sequence: chmod g-w mydir chmod o-w mydir chmod g+x mydir chmod o+x mydir

3. To permit only the owner to use a shell procedure as a command:

chmod u=rwx,go= cmd

This gives read, write, and execute permission to the user who owns the file (u=rwx). It also denies the
group and others the permission to access cmd in any way (go=). If you have permission to execute the
cmd shell command file, then you can run it by entering: cmd

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 Numeric representation of permissions

Value Significance
4 Read permission

2 Write permission

1 Execute permission

6(=4+2) Read and write permission

7(=4+2+1) Read,write and execute permission

5(=4+1) Read and execute permission

To recursively descend directories and change file and directory permissions use –R option .

Example : chmod –R 777 ./example/*

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chmod - change file access permissions

Syntax: chmod <val1><val2><val3> <filename(s)|directory name(s)>

val1 is for users
val2 is for group
val3 is for others
Any permission on a directory percolate down to the files and sub-directories under it.

Example Significance
chmod 744 file1 Grant all permissions to : User, and read permission to group and others

chmod 776 Grant all permission to user and group, read and write permission to
others
chmod 777 file1 Grant all permission to all

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Few more Examples:

chmod u+x myfile

Gives the user execute permission on myfile.

chmod +x myfile

Gives everyone execute permission on myfile.

chmod ugo+x myfile

Same as the above command, but specifically specifies user, group and other.

chmod 400 myfile

Gives the user read permission, and removes all other permission.
These permissions are specified in octal, the first char is for the user, second for the group and the third is for other.

chmod 764 myfile

Gives user full access, group read and write access, and other read access.

chmod 751 myfile

Gives user full access, group read and execute permission, and other, execute permission.

chmod +s myfile

Set the setuid bit.

chmod go=rx myfile

Remove read and execute permissions for the group and other.
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Default file/directory permission ,umask

Default permission for directory is 777 .

Default permission for file is 666 .

The default umask 0002 used for normal user. With this mask default directory permissions
are 775 and default file permissions are 664.

The default umask for the root user is 0022 result into default directory permissions are 755
and default file permissions are 644.

To check the umask value execute :

umask

70
Example :chmod ,umask

71
chgrp, chown, chgrp
chgrp - change group ownership

chown - change file owner and group

acl - Access Control Lists

Example :

chown subhasis test1

Changes the owner of the file test1 to the user subhasis.

chgrp subhasis test1

Changes the file test1 to belong to the group “subhasis".

Go through the man pages to get more information on chgrp ,chown,acl .

72
To use Set-ID Modes:

chmod ug+s cmd

When the cmd command is executed, the effective user and group IDs are set to those that own the cmd
file. Only the effective IDs associated with the child process that runs the cmd command are changed. The
effective IDs of the shell session remain unchanged. This feature allows you to permit access to restricted
files. Suppose that the cmd program has the Set-User-ID Mode enabled and is owned by a user called dbms.
The user dbms is not actually a person, but might be associated with a database management system. The
user betty does not have permission to access any of dbms’s data files. However, she does have permission
to execute the cmd command. When she does so, her effective user ID is temporarily changed to dbms, so
that the cmd program can access the data files owned by the user dbms. This way the user betty can use the
cmd command to access the data files, but she cannot accidentally damage them with the standard shell
commands.

When run Unix executables can use the effective rights of a different user or group. This is shown by
having an 's' rather than 'x'. For example:

ls -l /bin/su
-rwsr-xr-x 1 root root 60820 Oct 4 2006 /bin/su

When su is run it runs with the same rights as the user root.

Any program which is suid or sgid must be written very carefully to make sure that it can not be abused by
malicious users to do things they shouldn't.

73
The sticky bit - /tmp directory

Normally (without 't') any user who has write permission to a directory can delete
any files in the directory regardless of who owns it, even if they can't read or write to
the file.

With 't' set, only the owner of a file can delete it.

This is used on /tmp

ls -ld /tmp
drwxrwxrwt 9 root root 4096 Jan 22 21:31 /tmp

To set the sticky bit on a directory :

chmod +t directory

To remove the sticky bit from a directory :

chmod -t directory

74
 Questions ??
1) What is the default directory permission ?
2) What is the default file permission ?
3) What is the default umask value ?
4) How to change the umask value ?
5) How umask value plays the role in changing the permission ?
6) Let I want to set the umask value as 0077 permanently .What are the steps to do it ? After the set up what will be the
directory and file permissions ?
7) How to change the group of a file/directory ?
8) How to change the owner of the file or directory ?
9) Set the following permission to Qwest.txt
user : read,write
group:read
others: none
Set the permission in 2 ways .
10) Explain the octal representation ?
11) What is set id mode ?
12) What is sticky bit ?How to set sticky bit ?
13) How to revoke sticky bit ?
14) Cretate a directory Qwest_EX with 600 permission ,then try to cd to that directory and analyse the error message .
15) Let you are the owner of a directory .The directory permission is 600 .Will you able to list the contetnts ?
16) How many ways we can grant read,write,execute permission to all on Qwest.txt ( Qwest.txt is text file ) ?
17) What is the default permission for symbolic link(s) ?Can we change the permission of symbolic links ?
18) What will happen if you change the permission of symbolic/soft link (s) ?
19) Let in a directory you have 30 regular text files and 5 symbolic/soft links and 10 directories . Recursively change the
permission of regular files and directories to 700 without any change to linked files .

75
Strange output : 

76
 File/Text processing commands

- head
- tail
- pg
- more
- less
- cut
- paste
- tr
- sort
- uniq
- comm
- cmp
- diff
- sdiff
- join
- col
- seq
- wc

77
head,tail

head - output the first part of files

By default it prints the first 10 lines of each FILE to standard output.

To print the first 30 lines of file Qwest.txt :

head -30 Qwest.txt

tail - output the last part of files

By default it prints the last 10 lines of each FILE to standard output.

tail –f : to check the run time growth of the file

78
Example : head,tail

79
pg

pg - files perusal filter for CRTs

The pg command is a filter that allows the examination of

filenames one screenful at a time on a CRT. If the user
types a RETURN, another page is displayed; other possibili-
ties are listed below.

This command is different from previous paginators in that

it allows you to back up and review something that has
already passed. The method for doing this is explained
below.

To determine terminal attributes, pg scans the terminfo(4)

data base for the terminal type specified by the environment
variable TERM. If TERM is not defined, the terminal type
dumb is assumed.

80
more,less

more - file perusal filter for crt viewing

more -p Do not scroll. Instead, clear the whole screen

and then display the text.
more -num This option specifies an integer which is the
screen size (in lines).
more -s Squeeze multiple blank lines into one.

less - opposite of more

less --help

81
cut

cut - remove sections from each line of files

Some useful options of cut command :

-c output only these characters

-d use DELIM instead of TAB for field delimiter
-f output only these fields; also print any line that contains
no delimiter character, unless the -s option is specified
-s do not print lines not containing delimiters

82
Example : cut
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt
1:Anil:SE:Qwest
2:Srikanth:LEAD:Qwest
3:Subhasis:SSE:Qwest
4:Sudipta:Manager:Qwest
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt|cut -c1
1
2
3
4
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt|cut -d":" -f2
Anil
Srikanth
Subhasis
Sudipta
[ [linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt|cut -d":" -f2-4
Anil:SE:Qwest
Srikanth:LEAD:Qwest
Subhasis:SSE:Qwest
Sudipta:Manager:Qwest
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt|cut -d":" -f1,3
1:SE
2:LEAD
3:SSE
4:Manager
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt|cut -d":" -f1,3,2
1:Anil:SE
2:Srikanth:LEAD
3:Subhasis:SSE
4:Sudipta:Manager

83
Example : cut

84
paste

paste - merge lines of files

Write lines consisting of the sequentially corresponding lines

from each FILE, separated by TABs, to standard output. With
no FILE, or when FILE is -, read standard input.

-d reuse characters from LIST instead of TABs

-s paste one file at a time instead of in parallel

85
Example : paste
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.txt
1:
Anil
2:
Srikanth
3:
Subhasis
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ paste -s -d' \n' <Qwest.txt >Qwest.out
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.out
1: Anil
2: Srikanth
3: Subhasis
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ cat Qwest.1.txt
:SE
:LEAD
:SSE
[linux1@HMLINUX1 WMAIP]$ paste Qwest.out Qwest.1.txt
1: Anil :SE
2: Srikanth :LEAD
3: Subhasis :SSE

86
Example : paste

87
tr
tr - translate or delete characters

Translate, squeeze, and/or delete characters from standard input, writing to standard output.

Syntax : tr [OPTION]... SET1 [SET2]

-d delete characters in SET1, do not translate

-s replace each input sequence of a repeated character that is listed in SET1 with a single occurrence of that character.

[:alnum:] all letters and digits

[:alpha:] all letters
[:blank:] all horizontal whitespace
[:cntrl:] all control characters
[:digit:] all digits
[:graph:] all printable characters, not including space
[:lower:] all lower case letters
[:print:] all printable characters, including space
[:punct:] all punctuation characters
[:space:] all horizontal or vertical whitespace
[:upper:] all upper case letters

Octal character 011 corresponds to the [TAB] character

Octal character 012 corresponds to the [LINEFEED] character.
The octal characters 40 through 176 correspond to the standard visible keyboard characters, beginning with the [Space]
character (octal 40) through the ~ character (octal 176)

88
 Examples: tr

$ cat Qwest.txt
Anil
Srikanth
To change all the lower case to upper case :

$ tr -s '[:lower:]' '[:upper:]' <Qwest.txt

ANIL
SRIKANTH
To change all the upper case to lower case :

$cat Qwest.txt|tr -s '[:upper:]' '[:lower:]'

anil
srikanth

To replace newline with space :

$ cat Qwest.txt |tr '\012' ' '

Anil Srikanth

To replace newline with tab :

$ cat Qwest.txt |tr '\012' '\011'

Anil Srikanth

To remove all new line /Line feed characters

$cat <filename> |tr –d ‘\012’

Or

$tr –d ‘\012’ <filename

To squeeze the spaces and tabs

$cat filename | tr –s ‘\011’ | tr –s ‘ ‘

89
Example : tr

90
 Questions??
1) Let source file(add.txt) is
Name:Anil
City:Bangalore
Phone:12345
Name:Nithin
City:mumbai
Phone:23456
The required output is :
Anil Bangalore 12345
Nithin Mumbai 23456

2) Remove character : from add.txt and save the output to add1.txt

3) Replace character : with | in add.txt and save the output to add3.txt

4) Contents of Testdata is :

<Name>Anil</Name>
<DEPTH>WMAIP</DEPT>
<LOC>BANGALORE</LOC>
<MOB>888-998-9076</MOB>
<Name>SHREY</Name>
<DEPTH>QBAIP</DEPT>
<LOC>NOIDA</LOC>
<MOB>888-998-9075</MOB>
The required output is :
Anil WMAIP BANGALORE 888-998-9076
SHREY QBAIP NOIDA 888-998-9075

Using the same input file ,How to get the following outut ?

Anil BANGALORE 888-998-9076

SHREY NOIDA 888-998-9075

91
Example :

92
sort

sort - sort lines of text files

Some useful options of sort command :

-n compare according to string numerical value

-r reverse the result of comparisons
-k --key=POS1[,POS2] ,start a key at POS1, end it at POS 2
(origin 1)
-t --field-separator=SEP use SEP instead of non-blank to blank
transition
-u Suppresses all but one line in each set of lines that sort
equally according to the sort keys and options.
-o to save the sorted output to a file

93
Changing the field delimiter

Unless you specify otherwise sort treats the one or more

space characters between words as field delimiters. You may
want to sort files where words are separated by another
character such as a colon (:). Use the -t option to specify
another character to act as the field delimiter. For example
-t: specifies the colon (:) character as the delimiter.
One specific delimiter followed by another indicates an empty
field. For example with a colon (: ) as a delimiter
field0:field1::field3:field4 field2 is taken to be empty.

94
Defining the sort field

The first field of each line starts at 0 (zero); the second is 1 (one) and so
on. To define which field to sort on you give the position of the field at which
to start the sort followed by the position at which to end the sort. The position
at which to start the sort is given as the number of fields to skip to get to this
position. For example
+2 tells sort to skip the first two fields.
The position at which to stop the sort is given as the number of the field at
the end of which the sort stops. For example
-3 tells sort to stop the sort at the end of field three.
To sort on the third field of a line use the definition:
+2 -3 To sort on the fields 5 and 6:
+4 -6

95
Sorting on a specific part of a field

To define which part of a field to sort on, give the position in the field at
which to start the sort followed by the position in the field at which to end the
sort.
The position at which to start the sort is given as the number of fields to
skip followed by the number of characters to skip. For example:
+2.3 tells sort to skip the first two fields and the first three characters of
field 3.
The position at which to stop the sort is given as the number of the field
followed by number of the character in that field at which the sort is to stop.
For example:
-3.6 tells sort to stop the sort at the 6th character in field three.
To sort on the fourth and fifth characters of field three:
+2.3 -3.6

96
Saving the results of a sort to a file

sort sends its results directly to your screen. To save them to a file use
the -o option. For example:
sort -o sort.out addresses

This saves the results of sorting the file addresses in the file sort.out.

Checking if a file has been sorted

You can check if a file has already been sorted with the -c option. For
example:
sort -c +2 -3 accounts

This checks to see if the file accounts has already been sorted on the third
field of each line. You will only get a message if the file is not sorted
according to this sequence.

97
Example : sort

98
Example: Sort

99
uniq

uniq - remove duplicate lines from a sorted file

Discard all but one of successive identical lines from INPUT

(or standard input), writing to OUTPUT (or standard output).

Some useful options of uniq command :

-c, --count prefix lines by the number of occurrences

-d, --repeated only print duplicate lines
-i, --ignore-case ignore differences in case when comparing
-u, --unique only print unique lines

100
Example : uniq

101
Example : uniq

102
Questions ??
1) How to get the list of unique records from a file ?
2) How to get the list of duplicate records from a file ?
3) How to get the count of each unique record present in a file ?
4) Let in a file we have the following contents .How to get the uniq records using sort ?
1
2
1
3
1
4
4

Required output is :
1
2
3
4
5) What is sort command and explain some useful options of sort command ?
6) How to perform numeric sort ?
7) How to get the list of 5 big size files, Which are present in your present working directory ?
8) Let Qwest.txt file contains 110 lines . Write an one liner which will print the lines 23 to 43 ?
9) What will be the output of
head Qwest.txt
10) What will be the output of
tail Qwest.txt
11) What is tail –f ? When it is required ?
12) What is the purpose of more command ?
13) Explain about less and pg ?

103
comm

comm - compare two sorted files line by line

Syntax : comm [OPTION]... FILE1 FILE2

Compare sorted files FILE1 and FILE2 line by line.

With no options, produce three-column output. Column one contains

lines unique to FILE1, column two contains lines unique to FILE2, and
column three contains lines common to both files.

-1 suppress lines unique to FILE1

-2 suppress lines unique to FILE2
-3 suppress lines that appear in both files

104
 Questions ???

Contents of Q1.txt is
Anil
Subhasis
Nithin
Contents of Q2.txt is
Anil
Subhasis
Srikanth

1) How to get the records which are present in Q1.txt but not in Q2.txt ?
2) How to get the records which are present in Q2.txt but not in Q1.txt ?
3) How to get the common records present in Q1.txt and Q2.txt ?
4) Explain comm command ?

105
Example : comm

106
cmp
cmp - compare two files

The cmp utility compares two files of any type and writes the results to the standard output.
By default, cmp is silent if the files are the same; If they differ, the byte and line number at which
the first difference occurred is reported.

-s Print nothing for differing files; return exit status only.

Exit status of cmp command :

0 The files are identical.

1 The files are different; this includes the case where one file is iden-
tical to the first part of the other. In the latter case, if the -s
option has not been specified, cmp writes to standard output that EOF
was reached in the shorter file (before any differences were found).

>1 An error occurred.

107
Example : cmp

108
diff

diff - find differences between two files

-a Treat all files as text and compare them line-by-line,

even if they do not seem to be text.
-b Ignore changes in amount of white space.
-B Ignore changes that just insert or delete blank lines.
-i Ignore changes in case; consider upper- and lower-
case letters equivalent.
-w Ignore white space when comparing lines.

109
Example : diff

110
Sdiff,col,seq
sdiff - find differences between two files and merge interactively

col - filter reverse line feeds from input

Col filters out reverse (and half reverse) line feeds so the output is in the correct order with only forward and half forward line
feeds, and replaces white-space characters with tabs where possible.
-b Do not output any backspaces, printing only the last character written to each column position.
-f Forward half line feeds are permitted (ââfineââ mode). Normally characters printed on a half line boundary are printed on the
following line.
-p Force unknown control sequences to be passed through unchanged. Normally, col will filter out any control sequences from
the input other
than those recognized and interpreted by itself, which are listed below.
-x Output multiple spaces instead of tabs.

seq - print a sequence of numbers

-s use STRING to separate numbers (default: \n)

Example :

$ seq -s " " 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

If you are using bash shell ( Version 3.0 onwards ) you can use the following command to generate the sequence of numbers .

$ echo {1..10}
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

111
wc
wc - print the number of newlines, words, and bytes in files

-c print the byte counts

-m print the character counts
-l print the newline counts
-w print the word counts

Example:

$ cat qwest.txt
Qwest Software services
Srikanth

Anil Nithin

Subhasis
$ wc -l qwest.txt
6 qwest.txt
$ cat qwest.txt|wc -l
6
$ cat qwest.txt|wc -c
56
$ cat qwest.txt|wc -m
56
$ cat qwest.txt|wc -w
7

112
 Questions ??
1) What is cmp command ?
2) What is the purpose of diff command ?
3) What is the purpose of sdiff command ?
4) How to generate the sequence of numbers ?
5) What is the exit status of cmp command ?
6) What is the exit status of diff command ?
7) How to get the exit status of the following command ?
diff Q1.txt Q2.txt
8) How to get the exit status of the following command ?
cmp Q1.txt Q2.txt
9) What is the purpose of col –p ?
10) How to get the following output using seq command ?
1:2:3:4:5:6:7:8:9:10
11)How to get the record/line count of a file ?
12)How to know how many lines are present in a file ?
13)How to know how many words are present in a file ?
14)How to know how many characters are present in a file ?
15)How to know how many alpha numeric characters are present in a file ?

113
 EDITOR

vi
vim
emac

114
 VI EDITOR

115
 Modes of Operation Ex mode

First session with vi Environmental variables

Append mode .exrc & EXINIT variable

Command mode view

116
 Mode of Operation

Command mode : Default mode when a file is opened using vi. All the
keys pressed by the user are interpreted as user commands

Append Mode : Permits insertion of new text, editing existing texts.

Ex mode : Permits commands at the command line(last line of the

screen)

117
 Command Mode

R,R,I,I,c,C,o,O,
s,S,a,A
Enter :
Esc

Append Mode Ex Mode

118
 Vim Tips and Tricks

119
 First Session with vi

120
Step 1 : Create a new file by typing the following command from the OS
Prompt : vi newfile

•vi clears the screen and display a

window.
•The ‘_’ on the top line indicates
that the cursor is waiting for
commands
•Every other line starts with ‘~’,
symbol for empty line.

121 - Confidential Use Only –

Disclose and distribute only to Qwest employees
Step 2 : Press ‘i’ to enter into Append mode. Add text to the file

Step 3 : Press <Esc> key to return to command mode

122
Step 3 : Press ‘:’. The cursor takes to the ‘ex’ mode at the command line.
Enter ‘wq’ and press enter.

123 - Confidential Use Only –

Disclose and distribute only to Qwest employees
 Append Mode

Inserting Texts

Cmd Significance
i Appends text from the left of the current cursor position
I Appends text at the start of the current line.
a Appends text from the right of the current cursor position

A Appends text at the end of the current line.

o Opens a line immediately below the current line in input mode

O Opens a line immediately before the current line in input mode

124
Changing Texts
Cmd Significance
<n>r Replaces <n> characters from current cursor posn. with inserted text
R Replaces text from cursor to right
<n>s Replaces <n> characters from cursor with entered text

<n>S Replaces <n> lines from the current cursor line with entered text

c0 Changes from cursor to beginning of line with the text entered

c$ Changes from cursor to end of line with the text entered

C Change from current cursor posn. to end of line with the text entered

<n>cw Changes <n> words from the current cursor position with text entered

<n>cc Replaces <n> lines from the current cursor line with entered text

cG Changes from current cursor position to end of the file with entered text.

125
 Command Mode

Saving work in a file and quit

Cmd Significance
ZZ Saves the work done in the file and quits editing by vi editor

Deleting texts/lines
Cmd Significance
<n>x Deletes <n> characters from current cursor position
<n>dd or <n>D Deletes <n> lines counting from current cursor line to below
d$ Deletes from current cursor position to end of line
dG Deletes from current cursot position to end of file
d<n>G Deletes from current line to line no <n>
df<char> Deletes from current cursor position to first occurrence of character <char>
d/<pattern> Deletes from cursor upto the first occurrence of string <pattern> in forward
direction
d?<pattern> Deletes from cursor upto the first occurrence of string <pattern> in backward
direction

126
Moving/Copying Texts
Cmd Significance
<n>yy or <n>Y Yank <n> lines starting from current line onwards into undo buffer
<n>yw Yank <n> words starting from current cursor position onwards into undo buffer
y$ Yank from current cursor position to end of the line in undo buffer
yG Yank from current cursor position to end of the file in undo buffer

“a<n>yy Yank <n> lines starting from current line onwards into buffer named a
p Paste the contents of undo buffer( as a result of deleting or yanking) after the cursor
position
P Paste the contents of undo buffer( as a result of deleting or yanking) before the cursor
position

“ap Paste the contents of buffer a after the cursor position

“bd Delete text into named buffer b

127
Navigation in same line
Cmd Significance
<n>h Moves cursor left to nth previous character w.r.t. the current cursor position
<n>l Moves cursor right to nth next character w.r.t. the current cursor position
<n>b Moves cursor left to start of nth previous word w.r.t the current cursor position. Punctuation
marks are taken into account.
<n>w Moves cursor right to start of nth next word w.r.t the current cursor position. Punctuation
marks are taken into account.
<n>e Moves cursor right to end of nth next word w.r.t the current cursor position. Punctuation marks
are taken into account.
f<ch> Move the character to the next character <ch> on same line
F<ch> Move the character to the prv. character <ch> on same line
t<ch> Move the character to one column before the next character <ch> on same line
T<ch> Move the character to one column after the next character <ch> on same line
; Repeats search in the same direction along which the prv. Search was made using f/t

128
Cmd Significance
, Repeats search in the opposite direction along which the prv. Search was made using f/t

<n>| Moves the cursor to specified column <n>

0 or ( Moves to 1st character of the current line
$ or ) Moves to last character of current line
^ Moves to 1st non-space character of the line
<n>B Moves cursor left to start of nth previous word w.r.t the current cursor position.Punctuation
marks are ignored

<n>W Moves cursor right to start of nth next word w.r.t the current cursor position. Punctuation
marks are ignored
<n>E Moves cursor right to end of nth next word w.r.t the current cursor position. Punctuation marks
are ignored

129
Navigation across lines

Cmd Significance
<n>j or Move the cursor down to the <n>th next line in the same column
<n>^n
<n>k or Move the cursor up to the <n>th prv line in the same column
<n>^p
H Moves the cursor to the top line of the screen
L Moves the cursor to the last line of the screen
M Moves the cursor to the middle line of the screen
<n>G Moves to line number <n>
+ Moves the cursor to next line’s first non-blank character
- Moves the cursor to previous line’s first non-blank character

130
Redraw screen

Cmd Significance
z- Makes the current line the last line of the screenand redraws the screen
z+ Makes the current line the first line of the screenand redraws the screen
z. Makes the current line the middle line of the screenand redraws the screen

Ctrl-l Redraws the screen

/pattern/z- Find the next occurrence of <pattern> and make that last line of the screen

131
Scrolling across pages

Cmd Significance
<n>^f Move forward by <n> screens
<n>^b Move backward by <n> screens
<n>^d Move forward by <n> number of half screens
<n>^u Move backward by <n> number of half screens
<n>^e Scroll window down by <n> lines
<n>^y Scroll window up by <n> lines

132
Pattern searching

Cmd Significance
/pattern Searches for specified <pattern> forward. IF end of file is reached, search wraps
around.
?pattern Searches for specified <pattern> backward.
n Repeat the last search in the same direction as was specified in the last search
N Repeat the last search in the opposite direction as was specified in the last search
/pattern/+<n> Positions the cursor <n> number of lines after the line where the specified <pattern>
is found
/pattern/-<n> Positions the cursor <n> number of lines before the line where the specified
<pattern> is found
% Find the matching braces or parenthesis

133
 Joining lines

Cmd Significance
<n>J Joins current line and <n> lines below it together to form a single line

Undo changes
Cmd Significance
u Undo last change
U Undo all the changes in the current line

Marking text
Cmd Significance
m<char> Marks position of the file with mark <char>
‘<char> Moves to portion of the file marked with <char>
“ Toggle to most recently marked location

134
Restoring previously deleted line

Cmd Significance
“<n>p Paste the content of <n>th last delete ( n<=9)
“1pu.u.u… Till the last change is found

Filtering texts
Cmd Significance
!<n>G sort Sort from current line to line no. <n>
!<n>G tr ‘[a-z]’ ‘[A-Z]’ Translates all the characters from current line to line <n> to uppercase
!! tr ‘[a-z]’ ‘[A-Z]’ Translates all the characters of current line to uppercase

Repeat factor
Cmd Significance
<n>i<ch> Inserts <ch> character <n> number of times in input mode at a stretch

135
Miscellaneous in command mode

Cmd Significance
~ Change the character under cursor from lowercase to uppercase and vice versa
. Repeat the last change
<n>. Repeat the last action ‘n’ times
<< Shift current line to shift width character left
>> Shift current line to shift width character right

136
Options available with vi command

Cmd Significance
vi –r <filename> Recover the file <filename> as much as possible after system crash and
open it
vi –R <filename> Open the file <filename> in read-only mode
vi +<n> <filename> Opens the file <filename> with cursor positioned in line number <n>
vi + <filename> Opens the file <filename> with cursor at the last line
vi –w<n> <filename> Opens file <filename> in vi mode with window size of <n> number of lines
vi +/<pattern> <filename> Opens file <filename> in vi editor and places the cursor at first occurrence
of pattern <pattern>
vi –x <filename> Opens encrypted file <filename> in vi mode and asks for the password
before opening that

137
 Ex Mode

Saving work in a file

Cmd Significance
:w Save the changes made to the file
:w <filename> Same as “Save As..” in windows. Saves the contents to the
specified file <filename> . If it does not exist previously, a new file
is created
:w! <filename> Save the changes to file <filename>, if the file already exists
:w >> <file1> Append the contents of the opened file after the last line of the
file <file1>. File <file1> should exist previously
:<n1>,<n2>w <newfile> Copies the contents of lines <n1> to <n2> into a new file <newfile>
:<n1>,<n2>w! <newfile> Moves the contents of lines <n1> to <n2> into an existing file
<newfile> , overwriting its previous contents

138
 Cmd Significance
:.,.+<n>w <newfile> Appends from current line to <n> number of lines below it into
file <newfile>
:.,.+<n>w >> <nextfile> Appends from current line to <n> number of lines below it after the last
line of the file <nextfile>
:q Quits the file editing in vi, provided no unsaved change remains
:q! Quits vi neglecting all the unsaved changes made to the file
:wq or :x Save the unsaved changes in the opened file and quit vi editor

Temporary exit to shell

Cmd Significance
:sh Temporarily allows the user to come out of the vi file and use the shell. After the
job of the user is done and command : exit is triggered from OS prompt, control
returns to vi editor again

139
 Navigating to desired line

Cmd Significance
:<n> Custor moves to line number <n>

Search and replace texts in ex mode

Syntax :- :<line address>s/<old pattern>/<new pattern>/g

Line address Significance

% All lines where matching pattern is found
. Current line
<n1>,<n2> Refers from line <n1> to <n2>
$ Last line
1,$ First to last line
.,.+<n> From current cursor line to <n> number of lines downwards

140
Examples of Search and Replace

Example Significance
:%s/ex/vi/c Substitutes 1st occurrence of string ‘ex’ with ‘vi’ by showing them and
asking for confirmation. When each string will be shown with pause in
cursor, press ‘y’ for substitution
:%s /<amaze \ >\/delight/g Replaces ‘amaze’ , where available as a full word, with ‘delight’. Note,
any word like ‘amazed’ will not be replaced

:g/subhendu/s/majumdar/mazumder/ Replaces every occurrence of string ‘majumdar’ with ‘mazumder’ on

g all lines containing the pattern ‘subhendu’
:g/.\ {9\ }9/s/0/*/g Replaces ‘0’ with ‘*’ at all lines having ‘9’ after 9th position
:g/^$/d Delete all blank lines

:g!/complete/s/$/To be done/ Append the string ‘To be done’ at the end of all lines not containing
the string ‘complete’

141
Example Significance
:g/vi/s/^/editor/ Append the string ‘editor’ at the first of all lines containing the
string ‘vi’
:%s/$/ : see my note/g Appends the string ‘: see my note’ at the end of all lines
:g/^….$/d Deletes all lines containing 4 letters
:g/^..o/d Deletes all lines with ‘o’ as 3rd character
:%s/…$//g Delete the last three character of every line

Reading below the current line in the vi editor

Command Significance
:r <nextfile> Reads the contents of the file <nextfile> below current line
:r! <command> Places the output of the command <command> below the current
line

142 - Confidential Use Only –

Disclose and distribute only to Qwest employees
 Editing another file
Command Significance
:e <nextfile> Stops editing the current file; leaves the current file and starts editing file
<nextfile>; provided there are no unsaved changes in the current file
:e! <nextfile> Edits file <nextfile> abandoning all the changes done to the current file
:e! Loads last saved version of current file

:n Edits next file mentioned in the vi queue

:rew Edits first file in the command line
:e +<n> <nextfile> Edit starts at line <n> of file <nextfile>

143 - Confidential Use Only –

Disclose and distribute only to Qwest employees
 Abbreviating texts
Command Significance
:ab <short_string> When the user writes the string <short_string> in input mode, the
<long_string> <long_string> is written

Mapping
Command Significance
:map g :w^M Pressing ‘g’, one wants to save the file(:w is for saving, and ^M is for
pressing Enter key. While writing it in the command line, write ^V^M)
:map z i^M^[ When you position your cursor to any character in a line and press ‘z’ , the
line will be broken from that point and two lines will be formed. The control
will remain in command mode
(^[ represents <Escape> key)
:map z :w^M:!%^M Pressing ‘z’ in command mode saves the file and executes it in one shot

To unmap a key, write at the command line :unmap <key>

144
Miscellaneous
Command Significance
:! <command> Executes the command <command> remaining in vi editor

:f Shows the name of the current file and line

^g Same as :f

145
 Setting environmental variables for vi

Works in ex mode.
To set an environment variable to customize vi, the following syntax needs to
be followed:-
:set <env.variable> [= <value>]

146
Environment Significance
variables
autoindent(ai) Newly inserted lines of text are indented to the same distance from left margin as
the preceding line. Opposite of this option is noautoindent(noai)
autowrite(aw) Automatically saves the unsaved changes in a file before opening the next file with :n
or using a shell command with :! <command>. The opposite to this option is
noautowrite(noaw)
errorbells(eb) Sounds the bell when error occurs. Opposite is ‘noeb’

exrc(ex) Allows an .exrc file in the current directory to override the .exrc file in user’s home
directory. Opposite is ‘noex’

list Displays special characters in the screen: tabs are shown as ^I, end of line are
marked with ‘$’. Opposite is ‘nolist’

mesg System messages allowed when vi is running. Opposite is ‘nomesg’

number( nu ) Displays line numbers. Opposite is ‘nonu’

147
Environment variables Significance
report=<val> When any operation affects more lines than this settings, message is
displayed
scroll=<val> Number of screen lines to scroll

shiftwidth(sw)=<val> Number of spaces to be used for backtabs/<</>>

showmatch(sm) Shows match for ) or } . Opposite is ‘nosm’

showmode Indicates type of mode

tabstop=<val> No. of spaces the tab character moves over

ignorecase(ic) Ignores case when searches patterns. Opposite is ‘noic’

wrapmargin(wrm)=<val> When set to a value >0 , carriage returns are inserted automatically when
the cursor gets to within that number of spaces from the right edge of
the screen

148
One can store all the values for environment variables, all the key
mappings and all the abbreviations in a file ‘.exrc’ under the home
directory for the user.VI looks for this file on startup and executes the
instructions as ex mode commands.

Besides, there is also a system variable , ‘EXINIT’ which can also be

used to save the settings.
EXINIT=“set report=5 ignorecase ai”; export EXINIT

149
 view
Syntax : view <filename>

Description :Shows the file <filename> in vi mode. File remains read-only. No

changes done to the file cannot be saved.

150
 Questions ??
1) How to view a file ?
2) Suppose you opened a file with view command and did some modification .How to save the
modifications ?
3) How to save a file ?
4) Suppose 2 users opened the same file .one of the user modified some contents .The other user wants to
see the content without exiting from the vi editor .What is the command to refresh/ see the modified
contents of the file ?
5) How to insert a text to a file ?
6) What is the command to come back to the shell temporarily ?
7) What is the command to save and exit from vi editor ?
8) What is the command to exit without save ?
9) What is wq! ?
10) What is q! ?
11) How to go to the last line of a file ?
12) How to go the end of the current line ?
13) How to add a line below and above the current cursor position ?
14) How to go to a specific line ? Let line 10 ?
15) How to append text to the end of a line and in between ?
16) How to join two lines ?
17) How to set the line numbers ?
18) How to unset the line number ?
19) How to move up ,down ,left and right from the cursor position ?
20) How to delete a word ?

151
 Questions ??

1) How to delete 3 words from current cursor position ?

2) How to delete 3 characters from current cursor position ?
3) How to replace a character ?
4) How to delete a single line ?
5) How to delete multiple lines ?
6) How to undo ?
7) How to copy line # 15 to # 20 after line number 36 ?
8) How to move line # 15 to # 20 after line number 36 ?
9) How to copy 5 lines from the current position and paste it as per requirement ?
10) What is w ?
11) How many modes are present in vi ?
12) Suppose in a file Qwest pattern is present . How will you replace Qwest with IBM ?
13) Suppose in a file Qwest pattern is present . How will you replace Qwest with IBM from line number 3 to
9?
14) What is . And $ ?
15) Suppose in a file Qwest pattern is present . How will you replace Qwest with IBM from line number 1 to
current cursor position?
16) Suppose in a file Qwest pattern is present . How will you replace Qwest with IBM from line number
current cursor position to last line?
17) How to edit multiple files ?What is ‘n’ and ‘rew’ ?
18) Suppose I want edit the line 10 of a file .When the file will be opened ,I want the cursor should be
present in the very beginning of line # 10 ?
19) How to copy the contents from a file and paste the same copied content in the current file .

152
Pattern searching

- grep
- egrep
- fgrep

153
grep, egrep, fgrep
grep, egrep, fgrep - print lines matching a pattern.

Grep searches the named input FILEs (or standard input if no files are named, or the file name - is given) for
lines containing a match to the given PATTERN. By default, grep prints the matching lines.

In addition, two variant programs egrep and fgrep are available. Egrep is the same as grep -E. Fgrep is the
same as grep -F.

-c Prints only a count of the lines that contain the pattern.

-e pattern_list
Specifies one or more patterns to be used ring the search for input.
Patterns in pattern_list must be separated by a NEWLINE character.

-F Interpret PATTERN as a list of fixed strings, separated by newlines, any of

which is to be matched.

-h Suppress the prefixing of filenames on output when multiple files are

searched.

-i Ignore case distinctions in both the PATTERN and the input files.

154
Useful options of grep:
-L --files-without-match , Suppress normal output; instead print the name of
each input file from which no output would normally have been printed.
The scanning will stop on the first match.

-l --files-with-matches Suppress normal output; instead print the name of

each input file from which output would normally have been printed. The
scanning will stop on the first match.

-n --line-number,Prefix each line of output with the line number within its
input file.
-o --only-matching,Show only the part of a matching line that matches
PATTERN.
-R, -r --recursive,Read all files under each directory, recursively; this is
equivalent to the -d recurse option.
-s Suppresses error messages about nonexistent or unreadable files.

-w Select only those lines containing matches that form whole words.
The test is that the matching substring must either be at the beginning of
the line, or preceded by a non-word constituent character.

Similarly, it must be either at the end of the line or followed by a

non-word constituent character. Word-constituent characters are letters,
digits, and the underscore.

155
REGULAR EXPRESSION

^ (Caret) match expression at the start of a line, as in ^A.

$(Dollar) match expression at the end of a line, as in A$.

\ (BackSlash) turn off the special meaning of the next character, as in \^.

[ ] (Brackets) match any one of the enclosed characters, as in [aeiou]. Use Hyphen "-" for a
range, as in [0-9].
[^ ] match any one character except those enclosed in [ ], as in [^0-9].

. (Period) match a single character of any value, except end of line.

* (Asterisk) match zero or more of the preceding character or expression.

\{x,y\} match x to y occurrences of the preceding.

\{x\} match exactly x occurrences of the preceding.
\{x,\} match x or more occurrences of the preceding.

156
Example

grep Qwest files {search files for lines with 'Qwest'}

grep '^Qwest' files {'Qwest' at the start of a line}
grep 'Qwest$' files {'Qwest' at the end of a line}
grep '^Qwest$' files {lines containing only 'Qwest'}
grep '\^s' files {lines starting with '^s', "\" escapes the ^}
grep '[Qq]west' files {search for 'Qwest' or ‘qwest'}
grep 'B[oO][bB]' files {search for BOB, Bob, BOb or BoB }
grep '^$' files {search for blank lines}
grep '[0-9][0-9]' file {search for pairs of numeric digits}

157
Example

grep '^From: ' /usr/mail/$USER {list your mail}

grep '[a-zA-Z]' {any line with at least one letter}

grep '[^a-zA-Z0-9] {anything not a letter or number}

grep '[0-9]\{3\}-[0-9]\{4\}' {999-9999, like phone numbers}

grep '^.$' {lines with exactly one character}

grep '“Qwest"' {‘Qwest' within double quotes}

grep '"*Qwest"*' {'Qwest', with or without quotes}

grep '^\.' {any line that starts with a Period "."}

grep '^\.[a-z][a-z]' {line start with "." and 2 lower case letters}

158
Example:
1)Search /etc/passwd for linux1 user:
$ grep linux1 /etc/passwd

2)You can force grep to ignore word case i.e match linux1, Linux1, LINUX1 and all other combination with -i option:

$ grep -i "linux1" /etc/passwd

3)Use grep recursively

You can search recursively i.e. read all files under each directory for a string "10.140.7.1"

$ grep -r "10.140.7.1" /etc/

4)Use grep to search words only

When you search for linux1, grep will match TRNlinux1, Linux123, etc.
You can force grep to select only those lines containing matches that form whole words i.e. match only linux1 word:

$ grep -w "linux1" /path/of/file

5) Use grep to search 2 different words

use egrep as follows:
$ egrep -w 'word1|word2' /path/of/file

159
Example:
6)Count lines when words has been matched
grep can report the number of times that the pattern has been matched for each file using -c (count) option:

$ grep -c 'word' /path/to/file

7) you can use -n option, which causes grep to precede each line of output with the number of the line in the text file from which it was obtained:

$ grep -n 'word' /path/to/file

8)Grep invert match

You can use -v option to print inverts the match; that is, it matches only those lines that do not contain the given word. For example print all line that do not
contain the word Qwest:

$ grep -v Qwest /path/to/file

9) grep command often used with pipes. For example print name of hard disk devices:
# dmesg | egrep '(s|h)d[a-z]'

10)Display cpu model name:

# cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep -i 'Model'

However, above command can be also used as follows without shell pipe:
# grep -i 'Model' /proc/cpuinfo

11)Use the -l option to list file name whose contents mention main():
$ grep -l 'main' *.c

12)you can force grep to display output in colors:

$ grep --color linux1 /etc/passwd

160
 Questions ??
1)How to get the password file entry for linux1 user?

2)Let the user name is unknown .It may be linux1, Linux1, LINUX1 .In that scenarion how to get the password file entry for linux1 user ?

3)How to search recursively /etc/ directory ,To get the list of files containing string "10.140.7.1" ?

4)When you search for linux1, grep will match TRNlinux1, Linux123, etc.How to force grep to select only those lines containing matches that form whole
words i.e. match only linux1 word: ?

5) How to use grep to search 2 different words in a file Qwest.txt .The words are : Anil and srikanth ?

6)How to count lines when words has been matched ?

7) What is the use of -n option ( grep -n) ?

8)How to print the line that does not contain Qwest string ?

9)How to get the name of files which conains the string "Nithin" ?

10) grep command often used with pipes. For example print name of hard disk devices:
# dmesg | egrep '(s|h)d[a-z]'

11)Display cpu model name:

# cat /proc/cpuinfo | grep -i 'Model'

However, above command can be also used as follows without shell pipe:
# grep -i 'Model' /proc/cpuinfo

12)you can force grep to display output in colors:

$ grep --color linux1 /etc/passwd

161
Searching and Archiving

Searching files :
find
Archiving commands
- tar
- cpio
- zip
- unzip
- gzip
- gunzip
- compress
- uncompress
- zcat and gzcat

162
find
find - search for files in a directory hierarchy

-type <c>
File is of type c:

b block (buffered) special

c character (unbuffered) special
d directory
p named pipe (FIFO)
f regular file
l symbolic link
s socket

-perm mode File's permission bits are exactly mode (octal or symbolic).
Symbolic modes use mode 0 as a point of departure.
-perm -mode All of the permission bits mode are set for the file.
-perm +mode Any of the permission bits mode are set for the file.

163
find

-newer file
File was modified more recently than file. -newer is affected
by -follow only if -follow comes before -newer on the command
-name pattern
Base of file name (the path with the leading directories
removed) matches shell pattern pattern. The metacharacters
(`*', `?', and `[]') do not match a `.' at the start of the base name.
To ignore a directory and the files under it, use -prune; see an
example in the description of -path.

164
find

+n for greater than n,

-n for less than n,
n for exactly n.

-amin n File was last accessed n minutes ago.

-atime n File was last accessed n*24 hours ago.
-mmin n Fileâs data was last modified n minutes ago.
-mtime n Fileâs data was last modified n*24 hours ago.

-size n[cwbk] File uses n units of space. The following suffixes can be
used:

b for 512-byte blocks (this is the default if no suffix isused)

c for bytes
w for two-byte words
k for Kilobytes (units of 1024 bytes)

165
find

-user uname File is owned by user uname (numeric user ID allowed).

-uid n File's numeric user ID is n.
-links n File has n links.
-inum n File has inode number n.
-gid n Files numeric group ID is n.
-group gname File belongs to group gname (numeric group ID allowed).

-maxdepth levels

Descend at most levels (a non-negative integer) levels of directo-

ries below the command line arguments. -maxdepth 0 means only
apply the tests and actions to the command line arguments.

166
Example:find
1) Search the file Qwest.txt from current directory downwards and print it ?

find . -name "Qwest.txt" -print

2) Find all files which begin with 'S' or 'N' from current directory downwards and print them ?

find . -name “[SN]*” -print

3)Search directories called backup from /opt/proj directory downwards and print them ?

find /opt/proj -type d -name backup -print

4)Search normal files called test.log /opt/proj directory downwards and print them ?

find /opt/proj -type f -name test.log -print

5) Search character special files called test.log /opt/proj directory downwards and print them ?

find /opt/proj -type c -name test.log -print

167
Example:find
6) Search block special files called test.log /opt/proj directory downwards and print them ?

find /opt/proj -type b -name test.log -print

7) Search all directories from /opt/proj directory downwards for files whose inode number is 3456 ?

find /opt/proj -inum 3456 -print

8) Search root directory downwards for files which have exact link count 2 ?

find / -links 2 -print

9) Search root directory downwards for files which have less than 2 links ?

find / -links -2 -print

10) Search root directory downwards for files which have more than 2 links ?

find / -links +2 -print

168
Example:find
11) Search current directory downwards for all files whose owner is Qwest and group is default ?

find . \( -user Qwest -a -group default \) -print

12)Search current directory downwards for all files whose owner is Qwest or name is Qwest.txt ?

find . \( -user Qwest -o -name Qwest.txt \) -print

13)Search in current directory downwards for all files which have permissions 777?

find . -perm 777 -print

14)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose size is 10 blocks?

find . -size 10 -print

15)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose size is 10 bytes (characters)?

find . -size 10c -print

16)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose size is greater than 10 bytes?

find . -size +10c -print

169
Example:find
17)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose size is less than 10 bytes?

find . -size -10c -print

18)Search in current directory downwards for all files which were accessed exactly 7 days back
?

find ./ -atime 7 -print

19)Search in current directory downwards for all files which were accessed more than 7 days
ago ?

find ./ -atime +7 -print

20)Search in current directory downwards for all files which were modified more than 7 days
ago ?

find . -mtime +7 -print

170
Example:find
21)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose name is core and remove the files
?

find . -name "core" -type f -exec rm {} \;

{} -- > Means files returned by find command would become arguments for rm.

find . -name "core" -type f -print | xargs rm

find . -name "core" -type f -print | xargs -t rm

find . -name "core" -type f -print | xargs -t rm -f

22)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose name is core and remove the files
? If confirmation is required before removing the files use -ok

find . -name "core" -type f -ok rm {} \;

171
Example:find

23) Search in current directory downwards for all files which are
modified after /tmp/Qwest.txt ( newer than /tmp/Qwest.txt) ?

find . –newer /tmp/Qwest.txt -print

24) Search only in current directory ( not in sub directories ) for

all files which are modified after /tmp/Qwest.txt ( newer than
/tmp/Qwest.txt) ?

find . –maxdepth 1 –newer /tmp/Qwest.txt -print

find . ! –name . –prune –newer /tmp/Qwest.txt -print

172
Find : -prune Example
$ find . -type f -print
./C/c.txt
./F/F.txt
./E/E.txt
./A/a.xtx
./D/d.txt
./B/b.txt
./ttt.txt
$ find . -path ./B -prune -o -path ./C -prune -o -type f -print
./F/F.txt
./E/E.txt
./A/a.xtx
./D/d.txt
./ttt.txt
$ find . -path ./B -prune -o -path ./C -prune -o -path ./D -prune -o -type f -print
./F/F.txt
./E/E.txt
./A/a.xtx
./ttt.txt

173
Example : find ( -newer , – maxdepth , -prune )

174
 Questions ??
1) How to search the file Qwest.txt from current directory downwards?
2) How to find all files which begin with 'S' or 'N' from current directory downwards ?
3) How to search directories called backup from /opt/proj directory downwards ?
4) How to search all directories from /opt/proj directory downwards for files whose inode number is 1234 ?
5) How to search root directory downwards for files which have less than 2 links ?
6) How to search current directory downwards for all files whose owner is Qwest and group is default ?
7) How to search in current directory downwards for all files whose size is greater than 3mb?
8) How to search in current directory downwards for all files which were accessed more than 2 months ago ?
9) How to search in current directory downwards for all files which were modified more than 1 year ago ?
10)How to search in current directory downwards for all files which were modified in last 10 hours ?
11)How to search in current directory downwards for all files which were modified more than 5 hours ago ?
12)Search in current directory downwards for all files whose name is core and remove the files ?
13) What is the difference between xargs and exec ?
14)Search in current directory downwards for all files which are modified after /tmp/Qwest.txt ( newer than
/tmp/Qwest.txt) ?
15)Search only in current directory ( not in sub directories ) for all files which are modified after /tmp/Qwest.txt
( newer than /tmp/Qwest.txt) ?
16)What is the equivalent option for -maxdepth 1 ?
17)Which one of the following command is better and safe ?
find ./ -name "Qwest.txt" -type f -ls
find ./ -name "Qwest.txt" -type f -print |xargs ls -l

175
tar
tar - create tape archives and add or extract files

tar –cvf Create an archive

tar –tvf To See the contents of exhisting archive
tar rf To add a file to the exhisting archive
tar --delete --file= To delete a file from the archive
tar –xvf To Extract file/specific file from the archive
tar --remove Remove the source once archived

Create an archive: ( tar –cvf )

$ ls -C1
1.txt
Alignment.ksh
Alignment_printf.ksh
mytest
test.data

$ tar -cvf test.tar ./*

./1.txt
./Alignment.ksh
./Alignment_printf.ksh
./mytest
./test.data

176
tar
To See the contents of exhisting archive : ( tar –tvf )
$ tar -tvf test.tar
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 68 2008-09-05 13:52:48 ./1.txt
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 949 2008-09-08 18:46:20 ./Alignment.ksh
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 867 2008-09-05 14:36:04 ./Alignment_printf.ksh
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 5 2008-09-10 16:33:53 ./mytest
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 240 2008-09-05 14:42:57 ./test.data

To delete a file from the archive (tar --delete --file= )

$ tar --delete --file=test.tar ./mytest
$ tar -tvf test.tar
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 68 2008-09-05 13:52:48 ./1.txt
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 949 2008-09-08 18:46:20 ./Alignment.ksh
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 867 2008-09-05 14:36:04 ./Alignment_printf.ksh
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 240 2008-09-05 14:42:57 ./test.data
To add a file to the exhisting archive (tar rf )
$ tar rf test.tar ./mytest
$ tar -tvf test.tar
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 68 2008-09-05 13:52:48 ./1.txt
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 949 2008-09-08 18:46:20 ./Alignment.ksh
-rwxrwxr-x linux1/linux1 867 2008-09-05 14:36:04 ./Alignment_printf.ksh
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 240 2008-09-05 14:42:57 ./test.data
-rw-rw-r-- linux1/linux1 5 2008-09-10 16:33:53 ./mytest

177
tar,cpio

To Extract file from the archive ( tar –xvf )

$ tar -xvf test.tar
./1.txt
./Alignment.ksh
./Alignment_printf.ksh
./test.data
./mytest

Extracting a specific file from the archive ( tar –xvf )

$ tar -xvf test.tar ./test.data
./test.data

Remove the source once archived (tar --remove )

$tar --remove -cvf target.tar ./Source/*

cpio - copy files to and from archives

178
Example :

179
Example :

180
zip and unzip
zip is a compression and file packaging utility

When given the name of an existing zip archive, zip will replace identically named entries in the zip archive or add entries for new names. For example, if foo.zip
exists and contains foo/file1 and foo/file2, and the directory foo contains the files foo/file1 and foo/file3, then:

zip -r foo foo

will replace foo/file1 in foo.zip and add foo/file3 to foo.zip. After this, foo.zip contains foo/file1, foo/file2 and foo/file3, with foo/file2 unchanged from before.

Another example :

find . -name "*.[ch]" -print | zip source -@

zip also accepts a single dash ("-") as the name of a file to be compressed, in which case it will read the file from standard input, allowing zip to take
input from another program. For example:

tar cf - . | zip backup –

-b path Use the specified path for the temporary zip archive. For example:

zip -b /tmp stuff *

-d Remove (delete) entries from a zip archive. For example:

zip -d foo foo/tom/junk foo/harry/\* \*.o

181
zip and unzip

To extract all members of Qwest.zip into the current directory only:

unzip Qwest.zip

To test Qwest.zip, printing only a summary message indicating whether the

archive is OK or not:

unzip -j Qwest

To extract all FORTRAN and C source files--*.f, *.c, *.h, and Makefile--into
the /tmp directory:

unzip Qwest.zip "*.[fch]" Makefile -d /tmp

182
Example:

183
gzip and gunzip

gzip – To compress the file

Compressed files can be restored to their original form using gzip -d or

gunzip or zcat.

-r --recursive operate recursively on directories

-1 --fast compress faster
-9 --best compress better
-h --help help
-d decompress
-f --force force overwrite of output file and compress links

184
gzip and gunzip

gunzip – To uncompress the file

Compressed files can be restored to their original form using gunzip.

-r --recursive operate recursively on directories

-1 --fast uncompress faster
-9 --best uncompress better
-h --help help
-d decompress

185
compress / uncompress ,gzcat ,zcat

compress, uncompress, zcat - compress and expand data

compress -v Qwest.exe - Would compress Qwest.exe and rename that file

to Qwest.exe.Z

uncompress Qwest.txt.z - would uncompress the file Qwest.txt.Z

zcat Qwest.txt.z - To view the contents of Qwest.txt.z file

gzip Qwest.txt - To compress the file using gzip

gzcat Qwest.txt.gz - To view the contets of Qwest.txt.gz
gunzip Qwest.txt.gz -To uncompress the file Qwest.txt.gz

NB : zcat and gzcat both are same .Most of the recent OS contains zcat only
.

186
Example:

187
 Questions ??

1) How to create a tar archive ?

2) How to extract a tar archive ?
3) How to see the contents of a tar archive ?
4) How to add a new file to a existing tar archive ?
5) How to remove a file from a existing tar archive ?
6) How to tar and gzip at the same time ?
7) How to gzip a file ?
8) How to gzip all files present in a directory ?
9) How to unzip a .gz file ?
10) How to zip a directory ?
11) How to unzip zip archive ?
12) How to view the contents of .gz file ?
13) How to compress a file and and how to view the contetnts of a
compressed file ?
14) How to uncompress a compressed file ?

188
 Process management

- ps
- kill
- nice
- jobs
- fg
- bg
- nohup
- vmstat
- prstat
- iostat
- top
- nmon
- sar
- glance
- pgrep
- pkill
- pwdx
- time

189
ps

ps - report a snapshot of the current processes.

-A Select all processes. Identical to -e.

-a Select all processes except session leaders and processes not associated
with a terminal.
-e Select all processes. Identical to -A.
-p Select by PID.This selects the processes whose process ID numbers
appear in pidlist. Identical to p and --pid.
-u Select by effective user ID (EUID) or name.
-f does full-format listing.
-l long format
-w Wide output. Use this option twice for unlimited width.
-L Show threads, possibly with LWP and NLWP columns
-T Show threads, possibly with SPID column
-m Show threads after processes

190
PROCESS STATE CODES

Here are the different values that the s, stat and state output specifiers (header
"STAT" or "S") will display to describe the state of a process.

D Uninterruptible sleep (usually IO)

R Running or runnable (on run queue)
S Interruptible sleep (waiting for an event to complete)
T Stopped, either by a job control signal or because it is being traced.
W paging (not valid since the 2.6.xx kernel)
X dead (should never be seen)
Z Defunct ("zombie") process, terminated but not reaped by its parent.

191
Description : ( Some of the useful fields )
S The state of the process or kernel thread.
UID Owner/user of the process
PID The process ID of the process.
PPID The process ID of the parent process.
PRI The priority of the process or kernel thread; higher numbers
mean lower priority
STIME The starting time of the process.
TIME The total execution time for the process.
SZ The size in 1KB units of the core image of the process.
TTY The controlling workstation for the process:
- The process is not associated with a workstation.
? Unknown.
WCHAN The event for which the process or kernel thread is waiting or
sleeping.
NI Nice value
ADDR Contains the segment number of the process stack, if normal; if
a kernel process, the address of the preprocess data area.
CMD Contains the command name

192
Example:

193
kill
kill - terminate a process

-l Print a list of signal names.

1. To stop a given process, enter:

kill 1095

This stops process 1095 by sending it the default SIGTERM signal.

Note that process 1095 might not actually stop if it has made special arrangements to ignore or override the SIGTERM signal.

2. To stop several processes that ignore the default signal, enter:

kill -kill 2098 1569

This sends signal 9, the SIGKILL signal, to processes 2098 and 1569.
The SIGKILL signal is a special signal that normally cannot be ignored or overridden.

3. To stop all of your processes and log yourself off, enter:

kill -kill 0

This sends signal 9, the SIGKILL signal, to all processes having a process group ID equal to the senders process group ID.
Because the shell cannot ignore the SIGKILL signal, this also stops the login shell and logs you off.

194
kill
4. To stop all processes that you own, enter:

kill -9 -1

This sends signal 9, the SIGKILL signal, to all processes owned by the effective user, even those started
at other work stations and that belong to other process groups. If a listing that you requested is being printed,
it is also stopped.

5. To send a different signal code to a process, enter:

kill -USR1 1103

The name of the kill command is misleading because many signals, including SIGUSR1, do not stop
processes. The action taken on SIGUSR1 is defined by the particular application you are running.

6. To force kill a process use:

kill -9 PID

Note: To send signal 15, the SIGTERM signal with this form of the kill command, you must explicitly
specify -15 or TERM.

195
 Questions ??
1)How to list all process of the user Qwest ?
2)How to list all processes ?
3) Which one is the 1st process ?
4)How to get the current state of the process ?
5)How to identify a zombie process ?
6)How to get the startup time of the process ?
7)How to get the nice value of the process ?
8)How to get the priority of a process ?
9)How to get the current kernel operation of a process ?
10)How to get the pid and ppid of a process ?
11) How to get the owner details of a process ?
12)How to stop a given process ?
13)How to kill a process forcefully ?
14)How to terminate a process ?
15) How to stop several processes that ignore the default signal ?
16) Which command will stop all of your processes and log yourself off ?
17)How to stop all processes that you own ?
18)How to get the list of signals ?
19) How to kill the last back ground job ?
20)How to get the PID of current shell ?

196
nice

nice - run a program with modified scheduling priority

Usage: nice [OPTION] [COMMAND [ARG]...]

Run COMMAND with an adjusted scheduling priority.
ADJUST is 10 by default. Range goes from -20 (highest
priority) to 19 (lowest).

-n, --adjustment=ADJUST increment priority by ADJUST first

197
Jobs,fg,bg
Jobs - Displays status of jobs in the current session.

-l List process IDs, in addition to the normal information.

fg - to fore ground a job .

fg [jobspec/jobid]
Resume jobspec/jobid in the foreground, and make it the current job.

bg – Resume the suspended job in the background

bg [jobspec/jobid]
Resume the suspended job [ jobspec/jobid ] in the background, as if it had
been started with &.

% or + for the current job

- for the previous job

198
Example:

199
nohup,vmstat,iostat,prstat,top,sar,glance,nmon,time

nohup - run a command immune to hangups, with output to a non-tty

Syntax : nohup COMMAND

vmstat - Report virtual memory statistics

vmstat reports information about processes, memory, paging, block IO, traps, and cpu activity.

prstat - report active process statistics

iostat - Report Central Processing Unit (CPU) statistics and input/output statistics for devices and partitions.

top -The top program provides a dynamic real-time view of a running system. It can display system summary information as well as a list of tasks
currently being managed by the kernel.

sar - system activity reporter

glance - GlancePlus system performance monitor for HP-UX

nmon - nmon is used by system admins and performance analyst to check the system health

time - time a simple command or give resource usage

Example : time ls

Another example :

$ time date
Tue Jan 26 18:27:58 IST 2010

real 0m0.002s
user 0m0.000s
sys 0m0.001s

200
pgrep,pkill ,pwdx
pgrep, pkill - look up or signal processes based on name and other attributes

Example :

pgrep -u root sshd

will only list the processes called sshd AND owned by root.

pgrep -u root,daemon

will list the processes owned by root OR daemon.

To kill all the processes of a user :

pkill -u username

To obtainthe process ID of sendmail:

pgrep -x -u root sendmail

pwdx: Prints process working directory

201
Example:

202
 Questions ??
1)How to modify the scheduling priority ?
2)What is the default nice value ?
3)What is the highest priority value ?
4)What is the lowest priority value ?
5)How to get the process details of user Qwest using pgrep ?
6)How to kill all the processes of user Qwest using pkill ?
7)How to get the virtual memory statistics information ?
8)How to get the IO statistics information ?
9) What is the equivalent command for top ?
10) How to get the top n processes ?
11)How to get the working directory of a process ?
12) How many ways we can back ground a job ?
13) How to fore ground a job ?
14) How to get the pid of background jobs ?
15)Why nohup is required ?
16) What is the default output file for nohup ?
17)Syntax of nohup command ?
18) How to run a script in back ground ?
19) Suppose one job ( fore ground job) is running on your console. Now you want to make the job to run in
back ground .What are the steps ?
20) What is the use of & ?
21) Will you able to kill a process owned by root ?

203
 Job Scheduling

at
atq
atrm
batch
crontab
anacron

job schedulers
Control M
autosys

204
at,atq,atrm,batch

at executes commands at a specified time.

atq lists the userâs pending jobs, unless the user is the superuser;
in that case, everybodyâs jobs are listed. The format of the output
lines (one for each job) is: Job number, date, hour, job class.
atrm deletes jobs, identified by their job number.
batch executes commands when system load levels permit; in other
words, when the load average drops below 0.8, or the value
specified in the invocation of atrun.
Runs jobs when the system load level permits.
To run a job when the system load permits, enter:
batch <<EOF
JOBNAME
EOF

This example shows the use of a ″Here Document″ to send

standard input to the batch command.

205
Example
1. To schedule the command from the terminal, enter a command similar to one of the following: If uuclean is in your current directory, enter:

at 5 pm Friday uuclean
<Ctrl-D>

at now next week uuclean

<Ctrl-D>

If uuclean is in $HOME/bin/uuclean, enter:

at now + 2 days $HOME/bin/uuclean

<Ctrl-D>

Note: When entering a command name as the last item on the command line, a full path name must be given if the command is not in the current directory, and the at command will not accept
any arguments.

2. To run the uuclean command at 3:00 in the afternoon on the 24th of January, enter any one of the following commands:

echo uuclean | at 3:00 pm January 24

echo uuclean | at 3 pm Jan 24

echo uuclean | at 1500 jan 24

3. To have a job reschedule itself, invoke the at command from within the shell procedure by including code similar to the following within the shell file:

echo "ksh shellfile" | at now tomorrow

4. To list the jobs you have sent to be run later, enter:

at -l

5. To cancel a job, enter:

at -r ctw.635677200.a

This cancels job ctw.635677200.a. Use the at -l command to list the job numbers assigned to your jobs.

206
Example

207
crontab
crontab Submits, edits, lists, or removes cron jobs.

-l option causes the current crontab to be displayed on standard output.

-r option causes the current crontab to be removed.
-e option is used to edit the current crontab

The crontab File Entry Format:

A crontab file contains entries for each cron job.

Entries are separated by newline characters.
Each crontab file entry contains six fields separated by spaces or tabs in the following form:

minute hour day_of_month month weekday command

These fields accept the following values:

minute 0 through 59
hour 0 through 23
day_of_month 1 through 31
month 1 through 12
weekday 0 through 6 for Sunday through Saturday
command shell command(s)

208
Examples:

1. To copy a file called mycronjobs into the /var/spool/cron/crontabs directory, enter the following:

crontab mycronjobs

The file will be copied as: /var/spool/cron/crontabs/<username> where <username> is your current user name.

2. To write the time to the console every hour on the hour, enter:

0 * * * * echo The hour is `date` . >/dev/console

3. To run the calendar command at 6:30 a.m. every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday, enter:

30 6 * * 1,3,5 /usr/bin/calendar

4. To run the calendar command every day of the year at 6:30, enter the following:

30 6 * * * /usr/bin/calendar

5. To run a script called maintenance every day at midnight in August, enter the following:

0 0 * 8 * /u/harry/bin/maintenance

6. To define text for the standard input to a command, enter:

0 16 * 12 5 /usr/sbin/wall%HAPPY HOLIDAY!%Remember to
turn in your time card.

The text following the % (percent sign) defines the standard input to the wall command as: HAPPY HOLIDAY! Remember to turn in your time card.

209
 Questions ??

1) Schedule to a job which will run only once at 22:00 ?

2) How to check the jobs present in “at queue” ?
3) How to remove a job from “at queue” ?
4) How to schedule a job using batch ?
5) Schedule a job “Clean” which will run every Sunday at 3:45 AM ?
6) Schedule a job “Clean” which will run every day at 12 :45:35 ?
7) Schedule a job “Clean” which will run on last day of every month ?
8) Schedule a job “Clean” which will run on last Sunday of every month ?
9) Schedule a job “Clean” which will run on 2nd Tuesday of every month ?
10)Schedule a job “Clean” which will run at 5:45 AM from every Mon-Fri ?
11)Schedule a job “Clean” which will run in every 30 minutes on sundays.
12)Schedule a job which will run on 1st of every month on 2010 and 2011 ?
13)How to check whether cron job is executed or not ?
14)If job did not run as per cron then what are the actions need to be taken ?
15)Will the schedule jobs run when the password for the user expired ?
16)Shcedule a job which will run only on Jan 3rd every year ?

210
Disk usage commands

df
du
bdf
quota
mount
umount
eject

211
Architecture of Unix File system

Formatted Disk

Partition1 Partition2 Partition3

File system

Directory1 Directory2 Directory3 Directory4

SubDir SubDir

File1 File2 File3

212
df,bdf

df - report filesystem disk space usage

-a include filesystems having 0 blocks

-h print sizes in human readable format (e.g., 1K 234M 2G)
-k like --block-size=1K
-T print filesystem type
-i list inode information instead of block usage

bdf - report number of free disk blocks (Berkeley version)

-b Display information regarding file system swapping.

-i Report the number of used and free inodes.
-l Display information for local file systems only(HFS,CDFS etc).
-t type Report on the file systems of a given type (for example, nfs or hfs).

213
du,quota,mount,umount,eject
du - estimate file space usage

-a write counts for all files, not just directories

-b equivalent to --apparent-size --block-size=1
-h print sizes in human readable format (e.g., 1K 234M 2G)
-S do not include size of subdirectories
-s display only a total for each argument
-k like --block-size=1K

quota - display disk usage and limits

mount - mount a file system

any user can mount the iso9660 file system found on his CDROM using the command

mount /dev/cdrom or mount /cd

umount - unmount file systems

eject - eject removable media

eject –t With this option the drive is given a CD-ROM tray close command. Not all devices
support this command.

214
 Questions ??

1) How to check the file system use ?

2) How to check the disk use for a specific directory ?
3) How to check the file system use in kb/mb/gb ?
4) How to identify a local file system and a NFS file system ?
5) How to check the quota information for a specific user ?
6) What is bdf ?
7) How to get the mount points ?
8) How to get the details of “inodes used” and “inodes free” ?

215
 Mailing commands/Utilities

- mail
- mailx
- uuencode
- sendmail
- pine

216
mail
mail - send and receive mail

-s Specify subject on command line (only the first argument after the -s flag is used
as a subject; be careful to quote subjects containing spaces.)
-c Send carbon copies to list of users.
-b Send blind carbon copies to list. List should be a comma-separated list of
names.

Example: To send mail to subhasis@Qwest.com

$echo “This is the body of the email” |mail –s “This is a test email”
subhasis@Qwest.com

$cat mailbody.txt|mail –s “This is a test email” subhasis@Qwest.com

To send an attachment . Let the file is /tmp/sendit.doc

$uuencode /tmp/sendit.doc sendit.doc |mail –s “Document is aatched”

subhasis@Qwest.com

217
mailx
mailx - mailx - interactive message processing system

-s subject Set the Subject header field to subject. subject should be enclosed in quotes if it
contains embedded white space.
-b bcc Set the blind carbon copy list to bcc. Bcc should be enclosed in quotes if it contains
more than one name.
-c cc Set the carbon copy list to cc. cc should be enclosed in quotes if it contains more than
one name.

Example: To send mail to subhasis@Qwest.com

$echo “This is the body of the email” |mailx –s “This is a test email” subhasis@Qwest.com
$cat mailbody.txt|mailx –s “This is a test email” subhasis@Qwest.com

To send an attachment . Let the file is /tmp/sendit.doc

$uuencode /tmp/sendit.doc sendit.doc |mailx –s “Document is aatched” subhasis@Qwest.com

To send mail with attachment and message body :

( cat body.txt
uuencode pic.jpg pic.jpg
) | mailx -s "subject" subhasis@Qwest.com

218
sendmail

MAILTO="subhasis@Qwest.com"
MAILFROM=" subhasis@Qwest.com "
echo 'Subject: *** DirB Statistics ***
From: '$MAILFROM'
To: '$MAILTO'
Daily Processing Details
-------------------------------------------------------
Eastern Reads :$Eastern
Western Reads :$Western
Central Reads :$Central
Total Reads :$TOTAL
-------------------------------------------------------
Thanks ,
Subhasis
'| /usr/sbin/sendmail $MAILTO

219
 Questions ??

1) How to send an email using mail ?

2) How send an email using mailx ?
3) How to send an email using sendmail ?
4) How to send an email with attachment ?
5) How to send an email with attachment and message body ?

220
Networking commands

ifconfig
netstat
ping
ipcs
ipcrm

221
Ifconfig,netstat,ping,ipcs,ipcrm
ifconfig - configure a network interface / to check the ip address for interfaces

netstat - Print network connections, routing tables, interface statistics, masquerade connections, and multicast memberships
-a, --all Show both listening and non-listening sockets.

ping - This command is used to check the network resources (hosts) are alive or not ?

ipcs - provide information on ipc facilities

-m shared memory segments

-q message queues
-s semaphore arrays
-a all (this is the default)

ipcrm - remove a message queue, semaphore set or shared memory id

-M shmkey removes the shared memory segment created with shmkey after the last detach is
performed.
-m shmid removes the shared memory segment identified by shmid after the last detach is performed.
-Q msgkey removes the message queue created with msgkey.
-q msgid removes the message queue identified by msgid.
-S semkey removes the semaphore created with semkey.
-s semid removes the semaphore identified by semid.

222
Example:

223
 Questions ??

1) How to check the IP addresses of system ?

2) How to get the IP address using lanscan ?
3) How to check whether a port is listening or not ?
4) What is the purpose of ipcs command ?
5) What is the purpose of ipcrm command ?
6) How to check whether a server is available in net work or
not ?

224
Printing commands

lp/lpr - submit a print job

lpstat/lpq - check the status of a print job
cancel/lprm - cancel a print job
pr - prepare files for printing

225
lp/lpr - submit a print job
lp and lpr submit the specified file, or standard input, to the printer daemon to be printed. Each
job is
given a unique request-id that can be used to follow or cancel the job while it’s in the queue.
Syntax
lp [options] filename
lpr [options] filename
Common Options:

lp lpr function
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-n number -#number number of copies
-t title -Ttitle title for job
-d destination -Pprinter printer name
-c (default) copy file to queue before
printing
(default) -s don’t copy file to queue
before printing
-o option additional options, e.g. nobanner

226
lpstat/lpq - check the status of a print job

You can check the status of your print job with lpstat or lpq.
Syntax
lpstat [options]
lpq [options] [job#] [username]

Common Options
lpstat lpq function
-d (defaults to lp) list system default
destination
-s summarize print status
-t print all status information
-u [login-ID-list] user list
-v list printers known to the
system
-p printer_dest -Pprinter_dest list status of printer, printer_dest
227
cancel/lprm - cancel a print job

Any user can cancel only heir own print jobs.

Syntax
cancel [request-ID] [printer]
lprm [options] [job#] [username]
Common Options
cancel lprm function
-Pprinter specify printer
- all jobs for user
-u [login-ID-list] user list

228
pr - prepare files for printing

pr prints header and trailer information surrounding the formatted file. You can
specify the number of pages, lines per page, columns, line spacing, page width, etc.
to print, along with header and trailer information and how to treat <tab> characters.

Syntax
pr [options] file
Common Options :
+page_number start printing with page page_number of the formatted input file
-column number of columns
-a modify -column option to fill columns in round-robin order
-d double spacing
-e[char][gap] tab spacing
-h header_string header for each page
-l lines lines per page
-t don’t print the header and trailer on each page
-w width width of page

229
 Questions ??

1) How to submit a job to a printer ?

2) How to check the status of print jobs ?
3) How to check how many jobs are present in the printer queue ?
4) How to remove or cancel a job from printer queue ?

230
Arithmetic operations

bc
expr
(( ))

231
Scale:-
By default, bc performs truncated division.One have to set scale to the
number of digits of precision before performing any division.

$bc
If answer to division is greater than the value as
scale=2
dictated by the scale variable, then the value dictated
10/4 by the scale is ignored and the real value is shown.
2.50
^d
$

233
ibase and obase:-
By default, the input and output are interpreted as decimal values.But, if the
demand required input and/or output in different number system(binary,
hexadecimal), variables ibase and obase are set.
To convert binary input to decimal output:-
ibase=2
To convert decimal input(default) into binary output:-
obase=2
For hexadecimal systems, value ’16’ is used in ibase/obase variable.

234
Handling Variables:-
Variables can be used in bc mode and values can be assigned to them.

$bc
X=12 ; y=19
Z=x+y
Z
31

Conditional logics(if) ,loops(for,while), arrays, functions are supported by

‘bc’

235
Square Root of a Number
Syntax : sqrt ( x )
Example :
$bc
Sqrt ( 4 )
2
Length of a Number
Syntax : length ( x )
Example :
$bc
length ( 1234.5678 )
8

236
Trigonometric Functions
To use trigonometric functions of bc, one have to include math library.
For that , issue the following command from Os prompt:-
$ bc –l
Various trigonometric functions available with ‘bc’ are:-
s(x) sine
c(x) cosine
e(x) exponential
l(x) log

237
String handling

To find length of a string:-

expr “<string>” : ‘.*’
Example : $ expr “Unix” : ‘.*’
4
To extract a substring from a string:-
$ expr “Qwest” : ‘… (\..\)’
st # Shows 4th to 5th character
To locate first position of a character in a string:-
$expr “Nithin” : ‘[^d]*h’
4 # Shows ‘h’ is at 4th position

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 factor

Finds out factor of the integer provided

Syntax : factor <number>

$factor 15 $factor 18

15 18
2
3
3
5
3
$
$

240
 primes

Shows all prime numbers between integers <lower value> and <upper value>.
If upper value is not provided, it is considered to be 2,147,483,647.

Syntax : primes <lower value> <upper value>

$primes 0 10
2
3
5
7
$
241
 units

Converts quantities expressed in various standard scales to their

equivalents in other scales. Acts interactively as follows:-
System Prompt User Response
You have: inch
You want: cm
The system responds with two factors; one used if multiplying
(preceded by *), the other if dividing (preceded by /):
* 2.540000e+00
/ 3.937008e-01
For a complete list of units, examine the file:
/usr/share/lib/unittab

242
Use (( ))
$ A=5;B=12
$ echo $(( A + B ))
17
$ echo $(( $A + $B ))
17
$ ( echo scale=3 ;echo 5 / 2 )|bc
2.500
$ echo "2.3 + 4.5" |bc
6.8
$ echo "5.0 / 2.1" |bc
2
$ ( echo scale=3 ;echo 5.0 / 2.1 )|bc
2.380
$ expr 2.3 + 4.5
expr: non-numeric argument
$ expr 2 + 4
6

243
 Questions ??

1) How to perform arithmetic operations using bc ? Give some

examples ?
2) How to perform arithmetic operations using expr ?
3) How to perform arithmetic operations using (( )) ?
4) How to add 2 floating point numbers ?

244
Useful commands:

- telnet
- ssh
- scp
- sftp
- ftp
- Automate SSH login using public key .
- rlogin
- remsh
- sum
- cksum

245
Useful commands:

telnet - user interface to the TELNET protocol

ssh - OpenSSH SSH client (remote login program)

scp - secure copy (remote file copy program)

sftp - secure file transfer program

ftp - file transfer program

- Automate SSH login using public key .

rlogin - remote login

remsh, rexec - execute from a remote shell

sum - checksum and count the blocks in a file

Example : sum filename

cksum - checksum and count the bytes in a file

Example : cksum filename

246
 Questions ???

1) How confirm that file transfer is successful ?

2) Explain the use of cksum command ?
3) What is the difference between sum and cksum ?
4) How to tranfer a file in ascii mode ?
5) What is the syntax of scp command ?
6) How to automate ssh login to different server ?
7) What is remsh ?

247
Misc commands :

-getent
-useradd
-userdel
-usermod
-groupadd
-groupdel
-groupmod
-chage
-basename
-which
-whatis
-whereis
-alias
-man
-info
-history
-file
-type
-script
-tee
-pstree
-shutdown
-poweroff
-reboot

248
Misc commands :

getent - get entries from administrative database

database is the name of the database to be examined. This can be passwd, group, hosts,
ipnodes, services, protocols, ethers, project, networks, or netmasks.

Example : getent passwd username

useradd - Create a new user or update default new user information

Example : useradd subhasis

userdel - Delete a user account and related files

Example : userdel subhasis

usermod - Modify a user account

groupadd - Create a new group

groupdel - Delete a group

groupmod - Modify a group

249
Misc commands :
chage - change user password expiry information

Example: chage –l linux1

basename - strip directory and suffix from filenames-which

Example : echo “/A/B/C/D” |xargs basename

whatis - search the whatis database for complete words.

Example : whatis ls

whereis - locate the binary, source, and manual page files for a command

Example : whereis ifconfig

which - shows the full path of (shell) commands.

Example : which ls

alias - To create alias

Example : alias prg=“cd /home/user/projects/prg”

250
Misc commands :

man - To check the man page

info - read Info documents

history – To check the previous comands executed in the console

file - determine file type

Example : file Qwest.gz

type - write a description of command type

Example : type ls

251
Misc commands :
script - make typescript of terminal session

After starting the scripting, user continues with his job. All the commands he uses, their output and error
messages are stored for later view.

When the user exits from the scripting(writing : exit from OS prompt), the script file is saved and a message is
shown:-

Script done, file is typescript

script -a Append the output to file

tee - replicate the standard output

Example : ls –l |tee ls.out

pstree - display a tree of processes

shutdown - bring the system down

halt, reboot, poweroff - stop the system.

252
tput : Controls screen display

Options Significance
tput clear Clears the screen
tput cup <r> <c> Moves cursor to row <r> and column <c>
tput bold Bold display
tput blink Blink display
tput rev Reverse display

tput cols Shows number of columns in the screen

tput bel Echo bell character

tput lines Shows number of lines in the screen

tput smso Starts reverse display

tput rmso Ends reverse display

253
 Commands Significance
ls –t Sorts files by modification time – the file modified most recently comes at
the top
ls –ut Sorts files by access time
ls –r Sorts file in reverse order

ls –ltr Shows long listing of files with their attributes, sorted in reverse order by
access time(most recently edited file comes last in the list)
ls –i Shows inode number of a file

ls *.ksh Shows the name of all files with ‘.ksh’ at the end of their name

ls [aeiou]* Shows the files with name starting with vowels

ls d*.sh Lists all files starting with ‘d’ and ending with ‘.sh’ in their name

ls d?l* Lists all files with first letter as ‘d’ and third letter as ‘l’

ls [!aeiou]* Shows the files with names not starting with vowels

254
 Thank You !!!!
Any Questions Mail me 

Subhasis.samantaray@centurylink.com
subhasis.samantaray@gmail.com