*Review well hehe kaya natin 2 ᕙ(`▿´)ᕗ -nogs

EARTH AND EARTH SUBSYSTEMS

(Week 1)

Earth: The Living Planet

 Of all the space objects rotating around the sun (terrestrial planets, jovian planets,
dwarf planets, moons, thousands of asteroids found in the Kuiper belt, and icy
particles including comets), it is only Earth which possesses, not only one, but
many conditions to support the flourishing life. Ever wondered how and why Earth
can support life? Below are the conditions that Earth has why it can support life.

1. Earth occupies a circumstellar habitable zone

 The circumstellar habitable zone around the sun is an orbital region which receives
the right range of radiant energy so that water in a planet stays in liquid form.
Astronomers estimate the region of habitable zone based on its stellar flux. Water
in liquid form is essential for the functioning of biological systems. The human
body, for example, is 72-75% water, 70% of Earth’s surface is covered with water.

2. Earth has a magnetic field

 Earth’s magnetic field protects the planet by
shielding it against the sun’s harmful
charged particles called solar wind.
Earth’s magnetic field is produced
by the rotation of the planet’s
core and the rotation of Earth
itself. Earth’s molten core is in
constant motion due to thermal
convection produced by heat.
This motion, combined with
Earth’s rotation, produces a
magnetic field.

3. Earth has an atmosphere rich in nitrogen and oxygen

 Earth’s atmosphere is unique among the planets, because it is made up of 78%
Nitrogen and 21% Oxygen, the rest are Argon, Carbon Dioxide, Methane and
trace elements of inert gases. No other planet in our solar system has an
atmosphere close to ours. Nitrogen and Oxygen, together with Hydrogen, Carbon
and Phosphorus, are constituent elements of biological molecules: carbohydrates,
protein, lipids and nucleic acid. The atmosphere also acts as the next layer of
protection against sun’s harmful radiation. Gas molecules and precipitates absorb
and deflect harmful UV-rays and X-rays, in particular, the ozone layer absorbs
most of the sun’s UV-B radiation. The atmosphere also scatters high frequency
light waves, reducing their intensity when they reach the Earth’s biosphere.

4. Earth’s climate and temperature are relatively stable

 Earth has a climate and temperature which are remarkably stable when compared
with those of other planets. Average temperature of Earth’s surface is 20 ˚C. The
relative stability of Earth’s climate and temperature is important for the formation
of biological molecules. For living things, it allows them to adopt and evolve
gradually. By way of comparison, Venus’s surface temperature is approximately
453 ˚C. Any trace of liquid water in this planet would have evaporated quickly.
Mars’s temperature, on the other hand, is a freezing -55 ˚C. Any aqueous solution
contained in a cell in this temperature would have frozen, destroying the cell’s
membrane, leading to the death of the cell itself.

SUBSYSTEMS OF THE EARTH

 Earth science is a collective term that studies all major parts of our planets,
namely land, sea, air, the interior structure of our planet, and distribution of living
 organisms. These parts lead to four major subdivisions of Earth’s systems:
atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere and biosphere. The four prefixes (atmos,
hydro, geo and bio) each means vapor/air, water, earth/land and life. (Yes, I
know what you are thinking of. It’s like the Avatar but disregard the life part!)
Let’s discuss first the atmosphere…

Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is a mixture of many gases and holds many suspended liquid
droplets and particulate matter. Interestingly, however, only two gaseous
elements make up 99% of Earth’s atmosphere. These are nitrogen (78%) and
oxygen (21%). The rest is a mix trace element: Ar, CO2, Ne, He, CH4, and water
vapor. As one goes up from bottom to top, temperature of the atmosphere shows
variations. These differences and other physical features in the vertical layering
of the atmosphere lead to its major subdivisions: troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, and thermosphere. In troposphere and mesosphere, as you go higher
the temperature decreases while in stratosphere and thermosphere, the
temperature increases.

Hydropshere
 The hydrosphere includes water on the planet’s surface, underground, and in the
air. It can take the form of liquid, vapor, or ice. On Earth’s surface, it is in liquid
form in oceans, lakes and rivers. In frozen form, it is found in glaciers, ice caps,
and icebergs. The frozen part of the hydrosphere is called cryosphere (cryo
means ice). Underground, it is found in aquifers and wells, and is generally called
groundwater. Up in the air, it is visible as clouds and fog.
Geosphere
 Generally speaking, geosphere refers to the solid part of Earth to distinguish it
from atmosphere (air) and hydrosphere (water). For us humans, it defines much
of environment we live in. It defines the shape of lands, distribution of mountain,
position of continents, shape of sea floor, shape and direction of rivers and
streams. It also controls distribution of rocks, minerals, soils, and other natural
resources. It also influences the type of living organisms that dwells on land.
Geosphere is the largest of the four spheres. It does not only cover land surface
which is easily visible to us. It also includes the interior of Earth all the way to its
core.

Biosphere
 Biosphere is the region of our planet inhabited by living things. These are land,
bodies of water, and air. Hence, we can subdivide the biosphere into the
lithosphere (land), hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Although there is no permanent
community of living things inhabiting the atmosphere, it is necessary
environment for insects and birds.
SPHERE INTERACTIONS
 The four spheres interact among themselves in such a way that matter and energy
are constantly exchanged between and among them. Carbon dioxide, for
example, is constantly exchanged between the atmopshere and biosphere when
plants take in CO2 to complete photosynthesis. When plants die and decompose,
CO2 returns to the atmosphere. With carbon dioxide and water, plants initiate
photosynthesis by converting the radiant energy of sunlight into glucose,
releasing oxygen to the atmopshere as a byproduct. Glucose is the storage form
of energy among plants. Herbivores consume plants and convert them into
glycogen, the energy storage form for animals. Animals use this energy
(chemical energy) for metabolism and to support many life sustaining processes.
The byproducts are carbon dioxide, water and heat. Heat is leached into the
atmosphere, and carbon dioxide mixes with air and gets absorbed again by plants
initiating a new cycle of photosynthesis.

“Earth is a perfect machine that enables life to exist but sometimes existence will turn the Earth
into extinction” - J. Celoso, 2019

Last week, you learned about the different conditions why Earth is the only planet known to
harbor life and its four unique subsystems. For this week, you shall be familiarizing yourself with
the different characteristics and properties of minerals and classification of rocks.
 MINERALS AND ROCKS
(Week 2)

Minerals: The building block of rocks

 A mineral is a homogeneous, naturally occurring, solid inorganic substance with a
definable chemical composition and an internal structure whose atoms, ions, or
molecules are orderly arranged in a lattice. Minerals are ingredients of rocks? or
Rocks are made up of minerals?

Below are the definable characteristics of minerals:

 Homogeneous – it is made up of components which are the same in structure and in
chemical and physical properties. When you pound a mineral with a hammer the mineral
breaks into tiny similar fragments.

 Naturally occurring - it is formed by processes found in nature (evaporation of dissolved

liquids from ocean/sea and from cooling of molten materials), but chemists do
manufacture minerals in laboratories. Manufacturers, for example, routinely make
diamonds by squeezing carbon under extreme pressure. They are called synthetic
minerals.

 Inorganic substance – this simply means that the chemical composition of minerals does
not contain hydrocarbon compounds (carbon bonded to hydrogen atoms also known as
organic compounds).

 Solid – its shape is definite and stays as it is unless physically deformed by force.

 Definable chemical composition – this means we can write a particular chemical formula
for a mineral like SiO2 (silicon dioxide), Fe3O4 (iron oxide), CaF2 (calcium fluoride),
etc.

 Orderly arranged in the form of a lattice – atoms, ions, or molecules do not come together
randomly. They have fixed and regular pattern that repeats at regular intervals. This
orderly arrangement is called crystal form/lattice.

Q1: What are the minerals that you know? Enumerate at least five.

(Minerals are formed from the cooling of molten materials and evaporation of dissolved stuff in
liquids/hot water)

Properties of Minerals
 Physical properties of minerals are used by mineralogists to help determine the
identity of a specimen. The following physical properties of minerals can be
easily used to identify a mineral:

 Color – the least useful property in identifying minerals. Minerals absorb certain
wavelengths of light. As a consequence, minerals reflect a particular range of colors.
  Streak – the color revealed by the mineral when it is in pulverized form.
 Luster – it refers to how the mineral surface scatters light.
 Hardness – it is a measure of the relative ability of a mineral to resist scratching.
Hardness is measured using Moh’s scale of Hardness.

Below is the scale used by Mineralogists to identify the relative hardness of a mineral:

Q2: If mineral A can scratch mineral B, what does that tell us about the relative hardness of
each mineral? Share your thoughts in the discussion board!

 Specific gravity – density of the material, measured as the ratio between the weight of a
volume of the mineral and the weight of an equal volume of water. If a mineral has a
specific gravity of 5 that means it is 5 times as dense as water.

 Crystal habit/form – the general shape or character of a crystal or cluster of crystals that
grew unimpeded.

 Cleavage - the way a mineral breaks. In particular, it refers to the tendency of a mineral
to break along planes of weakness in its atomic structure. When the break does not
happen along planes of weakness, the break is called a fracture.

Classifications of common rock-forming minerals

 Silicates – major rock-forming minerals composed primarily of silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons (SiO4). The most abundant rock-forming mineral.
 Examples: olivine ((Mg,Fe)2SiO4) and quartz (SiO2)

 Oxides – consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen anions (Metal + Oxygen anions).
 Examples: magnetite (Fe3O4) and hematite (Fe2O3)

 Sulfides – consist of metal cation bonded to sulfide (S2-). They are common ore minerals
with oxides.
 Examples: galena (PbS) and pyrite (FeS2)

 Sulfates – consist of metal cation bonded to the SO42- anionic group. They usually
precipitate out of water near Earth’s surface.
 Example: gypsum (CaSO4)
 Halides – composed of a halogen ion such as chlorine or fluorine which forms halite or
rock salt.
 Examples: halite (NaCl) and fluorite (CaF2)

 Carbonates – characterized by the presence of carbonic ion (CO3) which bonds elements
such as calcium or magnesium.
 Examples: calcite (CaCO3) and dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2)

 Native metals – consist of pure masses of a single metal.

 Examples: copper (Cu), gold (Au), and silver (Ag)
Rocks
 natural substances consisting of aggregate minerals clumped together with other
Earth materials through natural processes. Rocks, like some materials, are products
of a cyclic process.

Q3: What do you observe about the rocks above? Share your observation in the discussion
board!

Classification of Rocks
1. Igneous Rocks
 are formed from solidification of molten rock material. Since their constituent
minerals are crystallized from molten material, igneous rocks are formed at high
temperatures.

 Intrusive igneous rocks – crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow
cooling that occurs there allows large crystals to form. Examples of
intrusive igneous rocks are diorite, gabbro, granite, pegmatite and
peridotite.

 Extrusive igneous rocks - erupt onto the surface, where they cool
quickly to form small crystals. Some cool so quickly that they form an
amorphous glass. These rocks include andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian,
pumice, rhyolite, and tuff.

2. Sedimentary rocks
  are those that are deposited and lithified (compacted and cemented together) at the
Earth’s surface, with the assistance of running water, wind, ice, or living
organisms.

3. Metamorphic rocks
 have been modified by heat, pressure, and chemical processes, usually while
buried deep below Earth's surface. Exposure to these extreme conditions has
altered the mineralogy, texture, and chemical composition of the rocks.

 Foliated metamorphic rocks – such as gneiss, phyllite, schist, and

slatehave a layered or banded appearance that is produced by exposure to
heat and directed pressure.

 Non-foliated metamorphic rocks – such as hornfels, marble, quartzite,

and novaculite do not have a layered or banded appearance.
 THE ROCK CYCLE

“Even though you are the most beautiful person in the world it doesn’t mean that you are
precious.” - J. Celoso, 2019

"Hardness is a manifestation of being brittle." - J. Celoso, 2019

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
(Week 3)

Endogenic processes: The processes within

It is associated with the energy originating in the interior of the solid Earth. The ground
we live on is moving all the time and the forces within the Earth that cause the ground to move
are called endogenic forces. When ground moves, rock layers at the surface of the Earth are
broken, twisted, and shaken. Land is destroyed in many places and created in other places. The
endogenic processes on Earth are responsible for earthquakes, development of continents,
mountain building, volcanic activities, and other movements related to Earth’s crust. The driving
force is the thermal energy of the mantle. Most of the thermal energy originates from the decay
and disintegration of radioactive elements in Earth’s core. Here are some of the endogenic
processes that played a role in the evolution of land-forms on Earth:

1. MAGMATISM
 Magma is the original material that make up igneous rocks.
 Magmatism happens when a magma is generated and develops into igneous (magmatic)
rocks.
 The process can take place either under the surface or on the surface of the Earth.
2. VOLCANISM (PLUTONISM)
 Process that usually happens after the magma is formed.
 Magma tries to escape from the source through openings such as volcanoes or existing
cracks on the ground.
  As soon as magma reaches the surface of the Earth it is now called lava.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

1. Igneous rocks form from hot magma as it cools inside the crust, or as lava cools on the
surface.
2. When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals (minerals).
3. . Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze into a solid.

Q1: What is the difference between lava and magma? Write your answer in the discussion
board!

3. METAMORPHISM
 Process of changing the materials that make up a rock.
 Chemical components and geologic characteristics of the rock changed due to heat and
pressure that are increasing or decreasing.
 Rocks changing due to weathering and sedimentation are not considered to have
undergone metamorphism.
Below are the causes and consequences of metamorphism:

1. Heat and recrystallization –

  Heat energy is important for many chemical processes because it initiates
chemical reactions. Extreme heat affects the chemical composition of rocks
such as sedimentary or igneous rocks turn into metamorphic rocks. It causes
the atoms of mineral crystals to vibrate faster, weakening and eventually
breaking the chemical bonds that hold them together. When atoms detach from
their old crystalline formation, they migrate to nearby spaces, where they form
new bonds with other atoms, and thus recrystallization occurs.

2. Contact with hot groundwater

 The material beneath Earth’s surface is not completely solid. Gas and liquid
substances, like CO2 and H2O, are lodged in tiny cracks and crevices in rocks.
Underneath Earth’s surface, we can find the aquifer – a layer of permeable
rocks that contain or transmit groundwater. Hot water can easily dissolve
minerals into ions. When hot water passes through rocks, it carries dissolved
ions and mixes them with others. This changes the chemical composition of
rocks. Dissolved ions carried by flowing hot water precipitate elsewhere where
they leave traces of veins. Veins are made from silica.

3. Pressure
 Pressure exerts two types of stresses on rocks: normal stress and shear stress.
Under normal stress, the rock receives either compressional or tensional stress.
The result of either stresses is to change the shape of the rock without breaking
it. Below are the different types of geological stress:

Q2: How do rocks handle stress? Share your thoughts in the discussion board!

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

Exogenic process
The exogenic processes occur on or near the surface of Earth. They usually influenced or
driven by gravity, water, wind, and organisms. These could be destructive occurrences that leave
significant changes on the landscape and even in the ecosystem of an area. In extreme cases,
exogenous processes can wipe out majority of the organism inhabiting that area.

The following are the different types of exogenic processes:

1. Weathering
 it is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and minerals together with other materials
through contact with Earth’s subsystems. Weathering happens even without
movement or transportation (as opposed to erosion that involves movement).

Types of Weathering

a) Physical Weathering
 is the breakdown of rocks by mechanical forces concentrated along rock
fractures. This can occur due to changes, whether, sudden or not, in
temperature, pressure, etc.
For example: soil cracks because of extreme heat and drought. In some cases,
water, wind, or ice may abrade or scrape rocks or soil.

(Left: Drought, Right: Frost Wedging)

b) Biological Weathering
 The weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants,
animals, and microbes. Growing plant roots can exerts stress and
pressure on rock. Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by
altering the rock ‘s chemical composition, thus making it more
susceptible to weathering.
(Left: Roots, Right: Lichens)

c) Chemical Weathering
 The process by which rocks break down by chemical reactions. In the
process, new and secondary minerals develop and sometimes replace
the original properties of the minerals in the original rock or soil.

* Oxidation – the reaction of a substance with oxygen.

* Hydrolysis – the chemical breakdown of a substance when combined
with water.
* Acid rain – may cause metals or stones to corrode or deteriorate and
change their properties because of the reaction to acids by some of the
minerals in soil and rocks that make them up.
 (Left to right: oxidation, hydrolysis and acid rain)

2. Erosion
 the process by which Earth’s surface is worn away by wind, water, or
ice. The process of erosion moves rock debris or soil from one place to
another. Erosion takes place when there is rainfall, surface runoff,
flowing rivers, seawater intrusion, flooding, freezing, and thawing,
hurricanes, wind, etc. Movement of land animals during migration or
stampede can also cause erosion. Human activities such as
deforestation, overgrazing, and mining also cause soil erosion. These
activities can cause massive deterioration and destruction of
infrastructure.

Q3: How can we minimize the impact of erosion? List at least three ways in the discussion
board!

3. Mass Wasting
 refers to the movement of large masses of materials (rock debris, soil,
and mud) down a slope or a steep-sided hill or mountain due to the pull
of gravity. This process is very destructive in areas with increased water
flow (such as rainfall or flash floods), steep slopes, scarce or no
vegetation, or vibrating or moving ground (from earthquakes or
industrial activities).
The following are the different forms of mass wasting:
a) Debris flow
 happens when a large amount of sediments, usually rocks of various
sizes, falls down the slope. Unlike landslide, debris flow does not need
water to flow down.
b) Mudflow
 happens when combined soil and water flow down a slope. This usually
happens near rivers or streams where soil or sand is always moist or has
been soaked in water for a long time. The weight of the
mudflow indicates the severity of risk when it flows down a
community.
c) Slump
 a slow movement of soil along a curved surface. In time, they are would
look curved because of the depression formed by the sinking land.

4. Sedimentation
 it is the accumulation of materials such as soil, rock fragments, and soil
particles settling on the ground. This usually occurs in streams and sea
erosion. Over time, the sediment load becomes thick and forms a new
layer of ground. In some small inland waters, this sediment layer will
eventually dry up the water and become part of the soil. In oceans, the
sediment layer can form the ocean basin. Because geologic processes
are constant, ocean basins change in size and depth. The change
depends on the rate of erosion in their surrounding continental masses
or by ocean ridges.
Q4: Now that you are familiar with the different processes, what environmental practices
can be done to minimize the threats of exogenic and endogenic processes to human safety?
Enumerate at least three practices each in the discussion board!

“Change is inevitable in this dynamic world, its either positive or a negative change.” - J. Celoso,
2019

DEFORMATION OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

(Week 4)

Continental Drift Theory

* The theory proposed that continents move and used to be one supercontinent. How can
that be? Alfred Wegener proposed the theory of continental drift, he was familiar with the shapes
of continents, and one which struck him the most was they seem to fit each other like pieces of a
puzzle. Even for ordinary people not trained in geology, the seeming fit between the continents of
South America and Africa is striking.

Continental Drift Theory states that all continents were once joined in a single massive landmass
and have since drifted apart. Pangaea is a supercontinent that existed between the late Paleozoic
and early Mesozoic eras. The pieces that composed the supercontinents began to drift some 175
million years ago, and over time came to be the continents that we see today.

What are the evidences then? Below are Wegener’s proof for continental drift theory:
1. Apparent fit of continents
 The eastern coastline of South America seemed to lock quite well with the western
coastline of South America.
 Mountain ranges of Buenos Aires, Argentina match the mountain ranges of South
Africa.
 The rock type and rock formation of the mountain ranges in Northern America and
Europe, in particular, the Appalachian Mountains in North America and the
Northwestern Highlands north of Scotland.

2. Fossil Correlation
 Cynognathus used to roam the connected land masses of South America and Africa.
But the continents separated long after they had died, resulting in their separated
fossil locations.
 Wegener pointed as additional evidence the fossil records from Glossopteris, a fern
whose fossils were found in five continents.

3. Rock and Mountain Correlation

 Similarity in rock strata – similar layers of rock were formed in South America and
Africa before Pangaea began to drift apart. Additionally, pieces of fossil evidence of
Glossopteris were found in the same strata of the rock.

4. Paleoclimate data
 Glacial striations – the distinct scratch patterns left on rocks by ice sheets as they slip
past to surface of rocks
  Presence of tillites – these are a mix of various sediments left by glacier movement.

Did you know………..

 That Wegener’s theory was rejected by scientists because he could not explain what force
pushes or pulls continents?
 That India was once in the Southern Hemisphere connected Antarctica?
 That North America was once surrounded by warm, tropical seas?
 That Africa was once covered by glaciers, which were kilometers in thickness?
 That the Sahara Desert was once a tropical rain forest?

Wegener’s Problem:
 He could not find the force that was causing the continents to drift.
 Because of this, he could not convince anyone that continents could move.
 He died in Greenland on an expedition.
 At the time of his death, no one believed his hypothesis.
 Technology developed during the 1940's changed all that!

Plate Tectonics
*The basis for the movement of continents progressed, geologists started to use a more
precise term to refer to the moving piece of crust as “plate” because it was believed that
continents are not the only ones moving (as explained by Wegener). A plate, geologically
speaking, refers to one of about twenty distinct pieces of the relatively rigid lithosphere. By the
way of analogy, it is one piece in a jig-saw puzzle composed of twenty matching pieces.
Tectonism the deformation of the lithosphere, and tectonics is the study of this deformation.
Together plate tectonics is the study of the interlocking plates of Earth’s lithosphere, their motion
relative to each other, and the consequences of this motion to seismism, volcanism, continental
drift, formation of folds and faults and formation of mountain ranges. Tectonic plates are
composed of oceanic lithosphere and a thicker but less dense lithosphere (land). Scientists were
able to identify eight major plates. Can you enumerate the eight major plates of the Earth?
Plate Boundaries
1. Convergent Boundary
 where plates meet.
 this happens when two tectonic plates move toward each other brought by mantle
convection.
 two possible land-forms can be created: trenches and mountains.

2. Divergent Boundary
 Where plates move away from each other.
 Plates move apart because of the magma that is being pushed upward in boundaries of the
plates.
 When this happens, the slowly moving plates transport newly formed crust away from the
ridge as it spreads in both directions where the plates go.
 3. Transform Boundary
 where plates slide past one another.
 neither plate gets subducted.
 it creates friction which results in earthquakes.
 e.g. The Philippine Fault System and the Verde Passage – Sibuyan Sea Fault.

Crustal Movement
 Folding – the horizontal movement of the Earth’s crust.
 Folds mountains occur where the crust is pushed up as plates collide which causes the
crust to rise up in folds. (e.g. Himalayan Mountains)

 Faulting – the vertical movement of the Earth’s crust involves uplift or subsidence of
crust along the lines of weakness. The cracks or fractures formed is called fault lines.
This event can form mountains and valleys.
 HISTORY OF THE EARTH
(Week 5)

Stratification of Rocks
*A stratum (plural, strata), a layer of sedimentary rock or soil with internally consistent
characteristics which distinguish it from other layers, a stratum is also called a bed.
Stratification(or bedding),the general layout of the strata of a rock.
Formation of strata
*Each stratum of a rock is a layer of compacted and cemented sediments (pertains to
sedimentary rocks). The question of interest though is, how come it is composed of many layers,
and why are those layers sometimes convoluted. To answer these questions, we have to trace the
formation of sedimentary rocks.

Deformation of rock strata

*Compressional stresses on rocks over long periods of time cause them to fold. Intrusion of
new rock forms, such as intrusive igneous rocks, breaks its uniform layering. The movement of
plates beneath causes a column of sedimentary rocks to rise, descend, or tilt from its original
form.

Law of Uniformitarianism– states that geological processes that take place today operated in the
same manner in the past. Simply means that the geological processes that we observe today also
operated in the same way in the past and were responsible for the formation of geological features
around us. It is equivalent to saying, “the present is the key to the past.”
*The methodology that marks the birth of geology as modern science was the invention
of methods to obtain the are of rocks. Below are the methods to determine the age of rocks:

Relative dating– a method used to determine the relative order of geologic events. Stratigraphy
(succession of rocks), topmost layer suggests the most recent and the oldest rocks are understood
to be at the bottom (law of superimposition). This method does not provide actual numerical
dates, but all are just estimates based on the profile of the strata which includes chemical
composition, rock type, and the presence of organisms (fossils).
Absolute dating– can tell which sediments were deposited first and also the approximate age of
specimen. Radioactive decay dating, most used and accepted form of absolute dating.

Carbon-14 dating– carbon 14 refers to the isotope of the element carbon with an atomic mass of
14. The number 14 gives the combined number of neutrons and protons in an atom of
carbon. Since we know carbon to always have 6 protons, the rest of that number gives the number
of neutrons, which is 8. Carbon-dating method is often used to date human artifacts.

Radiometric dating of rocks – carbon-14 dating is not the preferred method of dating geological
objects and events, because specimen formed 50,000 years ago or earlier contains
trace amounts of carbon-14, too small to be measured. As a result, scientists turn to other
radioisotopes with longer half-lives.
Radioactive decay the spontaneous breakdown of nucleus of an atom to release matter and
energy. Parent atom is the atom before it will undergo decay while daughter atom is the atom that
has undergone decay.

Half-life is the amount of time it takes for the half of the parent atoms to decay into daughter
atoms.
C-14 will decay to N-14 (1 half-life is equivalent to 5, 700 years)
K-40 will decay to Ar-40/Ca-40 (1 half-life is equivalent to 1.3 billion years)
U-238 will decay to Pb-206 (1 half-life is equivalent to 4.6 billion years)
Discussion Board.

Sample problem:
If the original mass of a radioactive element was 50 grams, how much would be left in the parent
atom after 2 half-lives?
Rationale: Let’s say that the parent atom is C-14, so 50g of C-14, when an organism was alive it
absorbed those 50g of C-14 somehow. When it was died and fossilized, that C-14 began to
breakdown because its radioactive (means unstable atom). After 1 half-life, half of the C-14 has
broken down into N-14 (25g of C-14 and 25g of N-14) and it takes 5, 700 years for one half-life
of C-14 to take place.

Answer: 12.5g of C-14

Interpretation: The age of the fossil/rock is dated as 11, 400 years old.

Fossil correlation – the age of rock stratum correlates with age of the fossils embedded in it, and
at the same time, the age of the fossils correlates with the age of the rock stratum.

Estimating the age of Earth

A team of geologists collected samples of very old rocks from different parts of the world,
namely, Wyoming, China, Greenland, and China. They obtained the average quantities of
potassium-40 and argon-40 contained per 1 gram of these rocks and recorded them. Using the age
of these rocks as estimate for the age of our planet, how old is the Earth?
The sample of rock suggests Earth is at least 3.9 billion years old. Geologists, however,
place the age of our planet at around 4.6 billion years. Between 3.9 and 4.6 billion years ago,
Earth was an ocean of magma, but after 600 million years, the planet had cooled enough to allow
the magma ocean to forma surface layer of solid rigid plate of rock. This rigid plate of rock was
Earth’s first crust.

Earth is approximately 4.6 billion years old.

How geologic time is subdivided

*Geologic time is not divided into equal time intervals. Some span billions of years, other
millions, and still others span only a few hundred thousand years. The marker which helps
geologists set the subdivisions of geologic time is the occurrence of significant events. Events
which are recorded in rock strata. These events become the boundaries for the subdivisions of the
geologic time scale.

Below are the criteria for the significant events in the geologic history:
1. Formation of the earliest rocks
2. Emergence of life or new species of organisms
3. Extinction of specific organisms

Major subdivisions of Geologic Time

The subdivisions of geologic time are based on the geologic time scale (GTS). This
system relates geological strata with time. Geologists use this system to describe when and what
events occurred in Earth’s geologic history.
Major Subdivisions of Earth’s history
  Eons – the largest subdivision in time intervals of Earth’s history. They measured in
million of years. The earliest eon in the Hadean Eon, and the latest is Phanerozoic Eon.
The emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens is part of Phanerozoic Eon.
 Eras – the Phanerozoic Eon is subdivided into Eras. Very significant events are used to
set the boundaries of ears: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.
 Periods – eras are subdivided into periods.
 Epoch – the Cenozoic period is subdivided into 7 epochs.

We are living in the Holocene Epoch, Quaternary Period, Cenozoic Era and Phanerozoic Eon.

GEOLOGIC PROCESSES AND HAZARDS

(Week 6)

*Natural Hazards are events that occur as part of the natural cycles of Earth and may
cause potential damage to a community. An event that causes widespread losses (human,
economic, and environmental) and disrupts the normal functioning of a community is called a
disaster.
*Vulnerability, as defined by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction,
refers to the “characteristics and circumstances of a community, system, or asset that make it
susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.” The Philippines, by nature of its geographic
location, is vulnerable to many natural hazards.

Hazards caused by Geologic processes

*As discussed in the previous lessons, the plate tectonics explains the dynamism of Earth.
You learned that Earth is made up of tectonic plates that move because they float on a liquid
mantle that also moves due to thermal energy that escapes from Earth’s core. The ground motion
itself is a hazard. However, there are other numerous hazards associated with or resulting from
ground movement. Some of these are earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and landslides.

Below are the common geologic hazards:

 Earthquakes – the sudden slip on a fault, and the resulting shaking of the ground and
seismic energy radiated by that slip. The ground shaking caused by volcanic or magmatic
 activity. The Philippines is geographically located near the boundaries of active tectonic
plates. This explains the frequent earthquakes experienced throughout the country.
Areas that are risk to earthquakes may also experience other hazards associated with earthquakes.
These include the following:

 Ground shaking – the vibration of the ground due to plate movement or seismic waves
during an earthquake. Living things may be disturbed by this
movement. Buildings and infrastructures can be damaged by the effect of ground
shaking. These structures can also be damaged when ground beneath
them sinks (subsidence) after ground shaking.

 Surface faulting – the tearing of the ground when the movement of the faut deep within
Earth breaks through ground surface. Buildings, roads, railroads,
tunnels, and pipelines are susceptible to the surface faulting damage. Also, animal
habitats may be destroyed, or worse, lost due to the breaking of the
ground.

 Tsunamis – very high, large waves or seismic sea waves caused by the sudden
movement of the ocean floor due to earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, man-
made explosions, and on some occasions, landslides.

 Collapse – small earthquakes in underground caverns and mines due to seismic waves
produced by explosion of rock on the surface.

 Explosion (man-made) – earthquakes as a result of the detonation of nuclear/atomic

bomb.

FOCUS VS. EPICENTER

 The point within Earth where rock under stress breaks is called the focus(the origin of
seismic waves).
 The point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter.

What can seismic waves tell us?

 Studies of the different types of seismic waves can tell us much about the nature of the
Earth’s structure.
 P-waves– also known as primary
waves or pressure waves, travel at
the greatest
velocity through the Earth.
Because of its speed, P-waves are
the first
waves to be recorded by the
seismograph during an
earthquake.
 S-waves– also known as
secondary waves, shear waves or
shaking waves, are
transverse waves that travel
slower than P-waves.
 Surface waves– similar in nature to
water waves and travel just under
the
Earth’s surface. Surface waves
travel more slowly than S-waves,
they can be
the most destructive type of
seismic waves. There are two
basic kinds of
surface waves:
 Rayleigh waves– also called
ground roll, travel as ripples similar to those on the
surface water.
 Love waves– cause horizontal shearing of the ground. They usually
travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves.
 *The risks of possible earthquakes in various areas in the Philippines based on geologic
profile and history of seismic events are shown below. According to Philippine Institute of
Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), the top 10 provinces that are at risk to earthquakes
are Surigao del Sur, La Union, Benguet, Pangasinan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Ifugao, Davao Oriental,
Nueva Vizcaya, and Nueva Ecija.
 Volcanic Eruptions– the process in which volcanic materials, such as molten or hot

fragmented rocks and gaseous substances are ejected from a volcano. The Philippines is
especially exposed to the hazards of volcanic eruption because the country is located
along the Pacific Ring of Fire. There are 23 active volcanoes in the country being
monitored by the PHIVOLCS. Volcanic activities may also be followed by other related
hazards such as lahar flow, ash fall, pyroclastic flow, ballistic projectiles, emission of
volcanic gases, and lava flow. These hazards prompt the evacuation of affected
communities because of the significant changes in the physical and biological profile of
the environment.
  Landslides– the slipping mass of land from a higher to a lower level. Usually, if the soil
is not compact and devoid of vegetation, gravity can drive soil and rocks to slide. There
are many natural factors that can induce a landslide such as wind and water. Landslide
can also be triggered by rainfall or earthquake.

1. Rainfall-induced landslides– in sloping areas, the gravitational descent of loosened soil

makes it possible for landslides to occur. This is common phenomenon on places with
tropical climates after very intense and long rains during the wet season. Landslides could
especially be serious in densely populated areas where weak and heavy structures are
built on slopes. A steep slope with structures has a high vulnerability to landslides. It
increases the chances of structures to slide by gravitational descent. Heavy rains can
saturate and loosen the topsoil which eventually make the foundation of structures weak.
2. Earthquake-induced landslides– this type of landslide happens during or after an
earthquake when a piece of weakened landslides off primarily due to gravity. The
development of frail rock or soil foundation may be due to the natural makeup of the soil
consisting of a softer layer beneath solid bedrock.

Landslides bring about long-term effects not only on communities but also on the environment.
This hazard can lead to a number of fatalities especially if no disaster reduction plans are in place.

Human causes of landslides

 Removal of vegetation
 Leaking pipe and sewer reticulation
 Modification of slopes due to constructions of roads, building and pavements.
  Overloading slopes
 Mining and quarrying activities
 Vibrations from blasting, operations of big machine, traffic, etc.
 Excavation or displacement of rocks.

“Risks must be taken because the greatest hazard in life is to risk nothing.” - Leo Buscaglia

HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL PHENOMENA AND HAZARDS

(Week 7)

Hazards caused by Hydro-meteorological Phenomena

*The geographical location of the Philippine does not only make it prone to geological
hazards but also to extreme weather. The area that encircles Earth near the equator where trade
winds meet is known as the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). The convergence of trade
winds results in the rising of hot air, which intensifies the movement of winds in this area. The
Philippines is in the Northern Hemisphere near the equator; hence, it is affected by the ITCZ.
Sometimes, the ITCZ enhances the passing of a typhoon, producing stronger and more
devastating winds.

Hydro-meteorological Hazards– any process/phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological, or

oceanographic nature that may cause loss of life, injury or health impacts, property damage,
impact to livelihood and social services, social and economic disruption, and environmental
damage. The United Nations (UN) under the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
Program lists 38 of such hazards. In this lesson, we will focus only on hazards that often affect
our country.

1. Tropical Cyclones – is a weather disturbance characterized by rapidly spiraling storms,

low-pressure center, and intense strong winds. Typically, they begin over warm tropical
waters. They derive their energy from the evaporation of water from warm ocean surface,
which ultimately recondenses into clouds and rain while the moist air rises and cools at
the atmosphere. The rotating spiraling winds are a result of the conservation of angular
momentum which is manifested in Earth’s rotation on its axis. The direction of cyclones
depends on its location on Earth. The Northern Hemisphere, where the Philippines is
located, would have counterclockwise direction of cyclones. Cyclones can have increased
strength of wind. When this happen, they can develop into tropical depressions. As the
strength of the wind increases, the tropical depression (45 to 62 km/h) develops into
storm (63 to 117 km/h), then into typhoon (118 to 239 km/h), and finally into super
typhoon (240 km/h or higher). On the average, the Philippines experiences almost 20
typhoons annually. Some of hazards associated with typhoons are:

a. Strong winds – the strength of winds can destroy lightweight structures and
uproot plants and trees. Super typhoons can even wipe out an entire community,
leaving families homeless.
b. Heavy rainfall leading to flooding – some typhoons associated with continuous
and heavy rains. The identified primary causes of immediate flooding stem from
either clogged drainage or low elevation of affected areas. Flooding can eve
worsen in places with high density of population and narrow spaces. During
rainy season, rainwater may not subside for days if the drainage systems are
clogged, or there are obstructions in the pathways of water. This can lead to more
problems such as:
a. disruptions of commercial and industrial operations, leading to loss of
income;
b. displacement of affected families;
c. damaged properties resulting from corrosion and water intrusion; and
d. health diseases including leptospirosis and pathological diseases caused
by waterborne agents.

Typhoons usually lose their energy when they make landfall. They also weaken when they enter a
cooler and drier environment because they come from warm, moist tropical air.

2. Monsoons – seasonal winds, the Philippines experiences two monsoons every year:
a. Amihan (Northeast Monsoon) – characterized by cold gusty wind with little or no
precipitation. It begins in early September up to May or June. The cool wind is from
Northern China and Siberia gradually moving southward as it reaches the
Philippines. Hazards associated with amihan are thunderstorm, lighting, heavy
rainfall, and flooding, all of which may lead to property damage and health risks.
b. Habagat (Southwest Monsoon) – characterized by hot and humid atmosphere with
frequent heavy rainfall. It begins in June and ends in August or September.
In some cases, habagat may bring about problems and hazards during extreme heat
and drought. Here water shortage challenges all sector of the society,
most especially the agricultural industries. Lack of water for irrigation can decrease
crop yield.

Changes in season are indicated by reversing winds. Amihan blows to the east while habagat
blows to the west.
 3. Tornadoes (ipo-ipo) – a rapidly swirling condensation funnel whose narrow end comes
in contact with the ground. Usually, the violent swirling air column carries debris and
other objects that it can pick up from the ground. Tornadoes occur anywhere in the
Philippines at an average of 12 to 24 times in a year (PAGASA, 2011). Among the
immediate hazards of tornadoes are:

a. Strong whirling winds – as the winds move toward the center (centripetal force), the
impact breaks objects along its path. Depending on the strength, the whirling wind
can also pick up objects as heavy as vehicles. From midair going down, these objects
can smash other objects or hit people as they fall to the ground.
b. Flying debris and dust – fragments of destroyed objects are hurled away, and soil
particles scatter around the area, potentially hitting or slamming onto a
structure or person.
c. Fire – tornadoes can destroy power lines and cause fire. At night, sparks seen from a
tornado site can mean snapping power lines that have been damaged by the passing
tornado.

Prevention and Management of Hydro-meteorological Hazards

*Hydrometeorological hazards can be predicted more precisely as they follow a cyclic
pattern because they are influenced by seasons. They occur at a particular period or season, as
compared with other natural hazards
that may occur unpredictably.
PAGASA has installed various weather
stations all over the country to
accurately detect, observe, measure,
and forecast any of possible
meteorological hazards. It is then
important to be aware and be prepared
at the onset of the season for the
specific hazards so that disasters may
be minimized if not totally prevented.

As soon as PAGASA issues a

warning for any
hydrometeorological hazard:
 Check your emergency kit. See
if there is food and water
supply for at least three days
(or up to 10 days), first-aid kit,
cellular phone with fully
charged battery, flashlights and
extra batteries, and battery-
operated transistor radio. The
intensity of the hazard may
prompt brownouts or
blackouts, most stores or shops
may
not be open, and roadways may be impassable.
  Make plans for evacuation to higher or safer ground especially if you live in a coastal
area.
 Participate in cleanup activities to clear pathways of rainwaters to avoid flooding.
Examples of these activities include dredging of canals or canals or creeks and removing
dried leaves or debris along water pathways.
 Cut dead or rotting trees and trim tree branches that could otherwise fall off from the
force of winds and cause injury or damage.
 Reinforce supports or foundations in your house to withstand strong winds or water.
 Transfer valuables and other furniture to higher ground especially if your place
is flood-prone.
 Secure objects found outside that could be blown away or cause damage to properties or
bring harm to people.
 Unplug any electronic equipment.

MARINE AND COASTAL PROCESSES AND THEIR EFFECTS

Hazards caused by Coastal Processes
*Coastal areas are transition places between land and sea. These areas are considered low-
lying. Coastal environment is very dynamic. It interacts with all-natural systems and processes
that happen on land, in the marine environment, and in the atmosphere. Because of this,
continuous changes occur within its environment. Most of the changes are caused by natural
coastal processes such as waves, tides, sea-level changes, and wind.
Coastal environments pose numerous hazards to human habitation. Climate change has
also increased the degree of hazards in coastal areas since most oceanographic patterns and
meteorological variations have caught humans off guard to disasters that could otherwise be
managed and planned for.

Common Coastal Hazards

1. Coastal Erosion – the seawater through wave actions, tidal currents, strong winds, or a
combination of all of these loosens the soil on the shore, which eventually destroys the
integrity of land. Structures that are built in coastal areas are prone to coastal erosion.
Seawater that comes in contact with the structures can abrade and corrode their material
composition. When structures reach a critical point of instability, they may easily torn
down by coastal winds or wave action.

2. Submersion – as global atmospheric temperatures rise, oceans and seas become warm
and expand. Rising global temperatures also speed the melting of glaciers and ice caps.
These changes cause sea level to rise and seawater to extend to the land. Structures and
communities near the coast may be waterlogged for a long time. As such, communities
are forced to abandon their place.

3. Storm surges – occur in coastal areas when typhoons make landfall. The strong winds of
the cyclone push the waters towards the shore, sometimes generating huge waves capable
of destroying sea walls and structures facing the sea. Storm surges may instantly flood
coastal areas. They can also be aggravated by the occurrence of high tide. During high
tide, surge height is higher and can thus wipe out more structures and objects on the
shore.

4. Saltwater intrusion – the movement of minerals and salts from coastal seas to
freshwater aquifers. This occurs because of the hydraulic connection between
groundwater and seawater. The problem arises when abstraction rate (water extraction)
exceeds the recharge rate of groundwater. When you pump water from the ground,
underground pressure forces water to move upward. Excessive abstraction puts a strain in
the groundwater system, depleting the aquifer with water and eventually pressuring
saltwater to enter the groundwater system. In effect, not only is the groundwater
receiving more minerals and salt, users may also be affected with water rich in minerals.

Prevention and Management of Marine and Coastal Hazards

*Coastal hazard management in the Philippines has become increasingly significant after
the recurring devastations caused by several super typhoons in the recent years such as Typhoon
Sendong (2011), Typhoon Pablo (2012), Typhoon Yolanda (2013), and Typhoon Hagupit (2014).
Coastal planning is now given more consideration to improve the resilience of communities
living in coastal areas.
If you live in a coastal area that is prone to hazards, make sure to do the following as soon as a
typhoon is forecast:
1. Prepare an emergency survival kit. Remember that survival kit should contain food and
water (that can last 3 to 10 days), first-aid kit, flashlight and extra batteries, cellular
phone with fully charged batteries and extra fully charged battery, battery-powered radio
with spare and new batteries, and a solar-powered chargers if available. Store your
survival kits in a tool box or waterproof box that is easy to carry.

2. Create an evacuation plan with all of your household members. Make sure that all of the
members know the evacuation plan by heart. Practice the plan so each of you can
memorize it even if the other members are not around when the typhoon makes a landfall.

3. Know where the evacuation center is and how to get there.

4. Listen to the radio for the advisories or specific instructions from your local government.
The cooperation of everyone can make disaster plans work effectively.