Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals

A M E R I CA N C O L L E G E O F LA B O RA T O RY
A N I MA L M E D I C I N E S E R I E S

Steven H. Weisbroth, Ronald E. Flatt, and Alan L. Kraus, eds.:

The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit, 1974
Joseph E. Wagner, and Patrick J. Manning, eds.:
The Biology of the Guinea Pig, 1976
Edwin J. Andrews, Billy C. Ward, and Norman H. Altman, eds.:
Spontaneous Animal Models of Human Disease, volume 1, 1979
Edwin J. Andrews, Billy C. Ward, and Norman H. Altman, eds.:
Spontaneous Animal Models of Human Disease, volume 2, 1980
Henry J. Baker, J. Russell Lindsey, and Steven H. Weisbroth, eds.:
The Laboratory Rat, Volume I: Biology and Diseases, 1979; Volume II: Research Applications, 1980
Henry L. Foster, J. David Small, and James G. Fox, eds.:
The Mouse in Biomedical Research, Volume I: History, Genetics and Wild Mice, 1981, Volume II: Diseases, 1982;
Vol. III: Normative Biology, Immunology and Husbandry, 1983; Vol. IV: Experimental Biology and Oncology, 1982
James G. Fox, Bennett J. Cohen, and Franklin M. Loew, eds.:
Laboratory Animal Medicine, 1984
G.L. Van Hoosier, Jr., and Charles W. McPherson, eds.:
Laboratory Hamsters, 1987
Patrick J. Manning, Daniel H. Ringler, and Christian E. Newcomer, eds.:
The Biology of the Laboratory Rabbit, second edition, 1994
B. Taylor Bennett, Christian R. Abee, Roy Henrickson, eds:
Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research, Biology and Management, 1995
Dennis F. Kohn, Sally K. Wixson, William J. White, and G. John Benson, eds.:
Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals, 1997
B. Taylor Bennett, Christian R. Abee, Roy Henrickson, eds:
Nonhuman Primates in Biomedical Research, Diseases, 1998
James G. Fox, Lynn C. Anderson, Franklin M. Loew, and Fred W. Quimby, eds.:
Laboratory Animal Medicine, second edition, 2002
Mark A. Suckow, Steven H. Weisbroth, and Craig L. Franklin, eds.:
The Laboratory Rat, second edition, 2006
James G. Fox, Stephen W. Barthold, Muriel T. Davisson, Christian E. Newcomer,
Fred W. Quimby, and Abigail L. Smith, eds.:
The Mouse in Biomedical Research, second edition, 2007 Volume I: History, Wild Mice,
and Genetics; Volume II: Diseases; Volume III: Normative Biology, Husbandry, and
Models; Volume IV: Immunology, 2007
Richard E. Fish, Peggy J. Danneman, Marilyn Brown, and Alicia Z. Karas, eds.:
Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals, second edition, 2008

In Preparation:
Jack R. Hessler, Noel Lehner, and Clifford R. Roberts, eds.:
Planning and Designing Research Animal Facilities
For more information on other titles in the ACLAM series, visit our website at
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ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN
LABORATORY ANIMALS
2ND EDITION
EDITED BY

Richard E. Fish Marilyn J. Brown Peggy J. Danneman Alicia Z. Karas

Laboratory Animal Resources Animal Welfare and Training Laboratory Animal Health Services Department of Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine Charles River Laboratories, Inc. The Jackson Laboratory Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University Wilmington, Massachusetts Bar Harbor, Maine Tufts University
Raleigh, North Carolina North Grafton, Massachusetts

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Contents

List of Contributors xi Chapter 3 Pharmacology of Inhalation

Preface xiii Anesthetics 83
List of Reviewers for Chapters in This Volume xv
Abbreviations xvii David B. Brunson

I. Introduction 83
Section I—Anatomy, Physiology, and II. Chemical and Physical Properties 84
III. Mode of Action 89
Pharmacology 1 IV. Uptake—Distribution—Elimination 89
V. Inhaled Anesthetics 90
Chapter 1 Anatomy, Physiology, and Effects VI. Measurement and Qualification of Anesthetic
of Pain 3 Concentration for Research 92
George J. DeMarco and VII. Summary 94
Peter J. Pascoe References 94

I. Definitions 3
II. Anatomy and Physiology of Nociception 5 Chapter 4 Pharmacology of Analgesics 97
III. Neuropharmacology of Nociception 8 James E. Heavner and Dale M. Cooper
IV. Neonatal Development and Pain 9
V. Physiologic Effects of Pain 10 I. Introduction 98
VI. Neuroplasticity and Pain: Peripheral and Central II. Analgesic-Antipyretic and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs 99
Sensitization 11 III. Opioids 109
VII. Pathophysiology of Chronic Pain 14 IV. α2 -Adrenergic Agonists 115
References 16 V. NMDA-Receptor Antagonists 117
VI. Analgesic Adjuvants 118
Chapter 2 Pharmacology of Injectable VII. Future Prospects 118
Anesthetics, Sedatives, and Acknowledgment 118
References 118
Tranquilizers 27
Robert E. Meyer and Richard E. Fish
Section II—Monitoring and Equipment 125
I. Introduction 28
II. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor Agonists 29
III. NMDA-Antagonists 47
Chapter 5 Anesthesia Delivery Systems 127
IV. Alpha2-Adrenoceptor Agonists 50 George A. Vogler
V. Dopaminergic Receptor Antagonists 54
VI. Miscellaneous Agents 56 I. Introduction 128
VII. Local Anesthetics 60 II. Compressed Gases 128
VIII. Anesthetic Combinations 64 III. Anesthetic Machine Components 130
References 67 IV. Breathing Circuits 141

v
vi CONTENTS

V. Anesthetic Machines 145 IV. Oversight, Planning, and Organization 224

VI. Ventilators 151 V. Monitoring and Intervention 226
VII. Induction Chambers and Masks 155 VI. Record Keeping 233
VIII. Injectable Anesthetic Delivery Systems 158 VII. Conclusions 233
IX. Equipment for Airway Access and Control 159 References 233
Additional Reading 167
References 167

Section III—Practical Anesthesia and Analgesia

Chapter 6 Monitoring of Anesthesia 171 of Traditional Laboratory Animal
Jennifer C. Smith and Species 237
Peggy J. Danneman
Chapter 10 Anesthesia and Analgesia for
I. Introduction 171
Laboratory Rodents 239
II. Monitoring of the Anesthetized Patient 172
III. Special Circumstances 180 Diane J. Gaertner, Troy M. Hallman,
IV. Summary and Conclusions 181 F. Claire Hankenson, and
Acknowledgement 181 Margaret A. Batchelder
References 181
I. Introduction 240
II. Considerations in selection of Anesthetics for
Chapter 7 Waste Anesthetic Gas Safety 183 Rodents 245
Jennifer C. Smith III. General Anesthetic Plan 249
IV. Recommended Anesthetic Methods for Routine Use
I. Introduction 183 in Rodents 250
II. Potential Health Effects 185 V. Drugs Used as Adjuvants to Primary Anesthetic
III. Sources of Waste Anesthetic Gas 187 Agents 261
IV. Evacuation of WAG 188 VI. Anesthetic Regimens Used for Special Purposes 265
V. Risk Assessment and Mitigation 189 VII. Other Anesthetics 266
VI. Summary and Conclusions 192 VIII. Use of Neuromuscular Blocking Agents and
References 192 Antagonists 266
IX. Analgesics for mice and rats 268
X. Anesthesia and Analgesia in Neonatal Mice
Chapter 8 Strategies for Assessing and and Rats 277
XI. Special Considerations for Postprocedural
Minimizing Pain 195 Monitoring of Rodents 278
Alicia Z. Karas, Peggy J. Danneman, XII. Other Rodents, Including Guinea Pigs, Hamsters,
and Joan Cadillac and Gerbils 279
References 282
I. Introduction 195
II. Why Prevent Pain? 196
III. Preprocedural Considerations: Predicting and Chapter 11 Anesthesia and Analgesia in
Preventing Pain 199 Rabbits 299
IV. Postprocedural Considerations: Recognizing and
Neil S. Lipman, Robert P. Marini,
Monitoring Pain 206
V. Summary 213 and Paul A. Flecknell
References 213
I. Introduction 300
II. Preoperative Considerations 300
Chapter 9 Postprocedural Care of Commonly III. Methods of Delivery/Administration 306
IV. Parenteral Techniques 310
Utilized Research Animal Subjects 219 V. Inhalation Anesthesia 317
Victoria A. Hampshire and VI. Regional Anesthesia 319
Judith A. Davis VII. Special Anesthetic Considerations 320
VIII. Intraoperative Support and Monitoring 321
I. Introduction 219 IX. Postoperative Considerations 323
II. Recruitment and Organization of Space 220 X. Analgesia 324
III. Staffing and Personnel 223 References 327
CONTENTS vii

Chapter 12 Anesthesia and Analgesia in Chapter 15 Anesthesia and Analgesia in Swine 413
Nonhuman Primates 335 Alison C. Smith and
Sulli J. Popilskis, Donald R. Lee, M. Michael Swindle
and David B. Elmore
I. Introduction 414
I. Introduction 336 II. Breed, Anatomic, and Physiologic Characteristics 414
II. Preanesthetic Considerations 336 III. Anesthetic Delivery 415
III. Anesthetic Delivery and Techniques 337 IV. Inhalational Anesthesia 417
IV. Anticholinergic Drugs 340 V. Injectable Anesthetics and Tranquilizers 419
V. Parenteral Anesthetics 340 VI. Regional Analgesia 422
VI. Inhalational Anesthesia 348 VII. Analgesia 423
VII. Intraoperative Monitoring 351 VIII. Intraoperative Monitoring and Support 423
VIII. Intraoperative Support 352 IX. Cardiac Arrhythmias 424
IX. Special Anesthetic Considerations 353 X. Support 424
X. Postoperative Care 357 XI. Postsurgical Care 425
XI. Analgesia 358 XII. Special Anesthetic Considerations 425
References 360 XIII. Cardiopulmonary Bypass 426
Personal Communications 363 XIV. Summary and Additional Reference Material 431
Appendix Tables 432
A1: Dissociative Anesthetics and Combinations 432
A2: Tranquilizers, Hypnotics, and Sedatives 433
Chapter 13 Anesthesia and Analgesia in A3: Miscellaneous Anesthetic and Perioperative Drugs 434
Dogs and Cats 365 A4: NSAID and Opioid Analgesics 434
Elizabeth Armitage-Chan A5: Protocol for Routine Surgery without Physiologic
Measurements 435
I. Introduction 366 A6: Protocol for Nonsurvival Teaching Laboratories 435
II. Preanesthetic Considerations 366 A7: Opioid Infusion Protocol for Cardiopulmonary
III. Anesthetic Techniques 368 Bypass with Cardiac Compromise 435
IV. Preanesthetic Medications 370 References 436
V. Induction of Anesthesia 372
VI. Anesthetic Maintenance 374 Section IV—Practical Anesthesia and Analgesia of
VII. Monitoring 375 Nontraditional Laboratory Animal
VIII. Supportive Care 376 Species 441
IX. Recovery 377
X. Analgesia 377 Chapter 16 Anesthesia and Analgesia
XI. Specific Considerations 380 in Ferrets 443
Suggested Additional Reading 383
References 383 Jeff Ko and Robert P. Marini

I. Introduction 443
II. Preanesthetic Considerations 444
Chapter 14 Anesthesia and Analgesia of III. Anesthetic Techniques 444
Ruminants 385 IV. Preanesthesia: Sedative and Analgesic Drugs in Ferrets 445
Alexander Valverde and V. Anesthetic Induction and Maintenance 449
VI. Monitoring Techniques 452
Thomas J. Doherty
VII. Recovery and Pain Management 453
VIII. Special Considerations 454
I. Introduction 386
IX. Authors’ Preferences 454
II. Physiological and Anatomical Considerations 386
References 455
III. Premedication 389
Additional Reading 456
IV. Induction 395
V. General Anesthesia 398 Chapter 17 Anesthesia and Analgesia in
VI. Local and Regional Anesthesia 401
VII. Anesthesia for Husbandry Procedures 404
Other Mammals 457
VIII. Monitoring the Anesthetized Patient 405 Jeff Wyatt
IX. Intraoperative Support 407
X. Analgesia 407 I. Marsupialia: Marsupials 458
References 408 II. Scandentia and Insectivora: Insectivores 459
viii CONTENTS

III. Rodentia: Nontraditional Species of Laboratory IV. Anesthetic Techniques 513

Rodents 462 V. Physical Restraint and Handling 514
IV. Lagamorpha: Pikas, Hares 470 VI. Routes of Drug Administration 514
V. Xenarthra: Edentates (Armadillos) 471 VII. Immersion Anesthesia 514
VI. Chiroptera: Bats 472 VIII. Volatile Anesthesia 515
VII. Carnivora: Bears, Hyena 473 IX. Injectable Anesthesia 516
VIII. Prosimii: Gray Mouse Lemur 475 X. Topical/Regional Anesthesia 516
References 475 XI. Preanesthesia/Anesthetic Induction 516
XII. Anesthetic Maintenance and Monitoring 516
XIII. Recovery 516
Chapter 18 Anesthesia and Analgesia in Birds 481 XIV. Pain Management/Analgesia 517
John W. Ludders XV. Field Anesthesia 517
XVI. Larval Anesthesia 517
I. Introduction 481 References 518
II. The Pulmonary System: Form, Function, and
Implications for Anesthetic Management 483
Chapter 21 Anesthesia and Restraint of
III. Specific Considerations for Anesthesia 489
IV. Euthanasia of Birds 496 Laboratory Fish 519
V. Recommended Reading 497 Michael Stoskopf and Lysa Pam Posner
References 497
I. Introduction 519
II. Fish and Pain 520
Chapter 19 Anesthesia and Analgesia in III. Physical Restraint of Fish 520
Reptiles 501 IV. Basic Principles and Application of Anesthesia in Fish 521
V. Monitoring 522
Dorcas P. O’Rourke and
VI. Anesthetic Agents 523
Audrey L. Jenkins VII. Analgesic Agents 531
VIII. Nonchemical Methods 531
I. Introduction 501 IX. Euthanasia in Fish 532
II. General Considerations 501 References 533
III. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Preparation 503
IV. Anesthetic Techniques 503
V. Physical Restraint and Handling 503 Chapter 22 Anesthesia and Analgesia of
VI. Anesthesia of Venomous Species 503 Invertebrates 535
VII. Routes of Drug Administration 505
VIII. Inhalant Anesthesia 505 Cornelia Gunkel and
IX. Injectable Anesthesia 506 Gregory A. Lewbart
X. Local/Regional Anesthesia 506
XI. Total Intravenous Anesthesia 506 I. Introduction 535
XII. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents 506 II. Anesthesia 536
XIII. Preanesthesia 506 III. Pain and Analgesia in Invertebrates 542
XIV. Anesthetic Induction 507 IV. Euthanasia 542
XV. Anesthetic Maintenance 507 References 543
XVI. Monitoring 508
XVII. Recovery 508
XVIII. Pain Management/Analgesia 508 Section V—Special Topics in Anesthesia and
XIX. Prolonged/Repeated Anesthesia 508 Analgesia of Laboratory Animals 547
References 509
Chapter 23 Pain Testing in the Laboratory
Mouse 549
Chapter 20 Anesthesia and Analgesia in
Dale J. Langford and Jeffrey S. Mogil
Amphibians 511
Dorcas P. O’Rourke and I. Introduction 549
Audrey L. Jenkins II. Experimental Models of Acute/Tonic Pain 550
III. Experimental Models of Chronic Pain 554
I. Introduction 511 IV. Modulating Factors 556
II. General Considerations 511 V. New Directions in Animal Pain Testing 557
III. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Preparation 512 References 557
CONTENTS ix

Chapter 24 Ethical Issues in Anesthesia and VIII. Prevention of Post-Operative Pre-Term Labour 601
Analgesia in Laboratory Animals 561 IX. Functional Maturity of Key Organ Systems in Newborn
Animals 601
Larry Carbone and Nelson Garnett X. Anaesthesia of Neonatal Animals 602
XI. Supportive Measures During Neonatal Anaesthesia 603
I. Introduction 561 XII. Post-Operative Period 604
II. Ethical Issues in Laboratory Animal Anesthesia, XIII. Neonatal Analgesia 604
Analgesia, and Pain Management 564 XIV. Concluding Comments 605
Additional Reading 567 References 606
References 567

Chapter 28 Novel Delivery Systems for

Chapter 25 Regulatory Issues 569
Analgesic Drugs in Laboratory
Laura A. Conour, Sonja T. Chou,
Animals 609
and Lynn C. Anderson
Lisa Krugner-Higby, Lesley J. Smith,
I. Introduction 569 and Timothy D. Heath
II. US Animal Welfare Regulations, Policies, and
Standards 570 I. Introduction 609
III. Drug Enforcement Regulations and Policies 573 II. Other Approaches to Analgesic Drug Delivery in
IV. Occupational Health and Safety Considerations 576 Laboratory Animals 611
V. International Considerations 577 III. Conclusion 616
References 579 References 616

Chapter 26 Management of Chronic Pain 581 Chapter 29 Nonpharmacologic Pain Control 619
George J. DeMarco Sara Savage

I. Introduction 581 I. Introduction 619

II. Diagnosis 583 II. Preventative Strategies 620
III. Treatment 585 III. Nonpharmacologic Interventions 622
References 588 IV. Summary and Future Scope 627
References 627

Chapter 27 Anaesthesia and Analgesia in the

Foetus and Neonate 593 Chapter 30 Anesthetic Considerations for
J.C. Murrell, D.J. Mellor, and In Vivo Imaging Studies 629
C.B. Johnson Anthony Nicholson and
Brenda Klaunberg
I. Introduction 594
II. Is the Foetus Conscious? 594 I. Introduction 629
III. Does Foetal Unconsciousness Persist During Noxious II. Imaging Modalities 630
Interventions? 596 III. Anesthetic Considerations 633
IV. Does Noxious Stimulation Activate the Foetal Stress IV. Imaging-Specific Considerations 636
Response? 597 V. Anesthesia 636
V. Might Noxious Stimulation of the Foetus Cause References 637
Long-Term Changes in Pain Processing? 597
VI. Anaesthesia of the Dam for Foetal Surgery 598
VII. Epidural Analgesia/Anaesthesia 600 Index 641
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List of Contributors

Number in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ contributions begin.

Lynn C. Anderson (569), Charles River Laboratories, Inc., Diane J. Gaertner (239), School of Veterinary Medicine,
Wilmington, MA 01887 University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104
Elizabeth Armitage-Chan (365), Department of Veterinary Nelson Garnett (561), Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore,
Clinical Sciences, Royal Veterinary College, Queen Mother MD 21205-1911
Hospital, North Mymms, Hatfield AL9 7TA, UK Cornelia Gunkel (535), Department of Clinical Sciences,
Margaret A. Batchelder (239), Bristol-Myers Squibb Phar- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University,
maceutical Research Institute, Wallingford, CT 06492-7660 Corvallis, OR 97331-4803
David B. Brunson (83), Department of Surgical Sciences, Troy M. Hallman (239), School of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Wisconsin, School of Veterinary Medicine, University Laboratory Animal Resources, Philadelphia, PA
Madison, WI 53706 19104
Joan Cadillac (195), LaboratoryAnimal Health Services, The Victoria A. Hampshire (219), US Food and Drug Administra-
Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609 tion, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Rockville,
Larry Carbone (561), Laboratory Animal Resource Center, MD 20855
University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA F. Claire Hankenson (239), Department of Pathobiology,
94143-0564 School of Veterinary Medicine, University Laboratory Ani-
Dale M. Cooper (97), Veterinary Resources, Eli Lilly and mal Resources, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA
Company, Greenfield, IN 46140 Timothy D. Heath (609), School of Pharmacy, Madison, WI
Laura A. Conour (569), Charles River Laboratories, Inc., 53706
Wilmington, MA 01887 James E. Heavner (97), Physiology Department of Anes-
Peggy J. Danneman (171, 195), Laboratory Animal Health thesiology, Health Sciences Center, Texas Tech University,
Services, The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME 04609 Lubbock, TX 79416
Judith A. Davis (219), Office of Laboratory Animal Science, Audrey L. Jenkins (501, 511), Department of Compara-
Division of Intramural Research (DIR), National Institute on tive Medicine, East Carolina University Brody School of
AlcoholAbuse andAlcoholism, National Institutes of Health, Medicine, Greenville, NC 27834
Bethesda, MD 20892 Craig B. Johnson (593), Institute of Veterinary, Animal and
George J. DeMarco (3, 581), Yale University School of Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North
Medicine, New Haven, CT 06520-8016 4410, New Zealand
Thomas J. Doherty (385), Department of Large Animal Clin- Alicia Z. Karas (195), Department of Clinical Sciences, Cum-
ical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of mings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University,
Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996-0001 North Grafton, MA 01536
David B. Elmore (335), Charles River Laboratories, Inc., Brenda Klaunberg (629), Mouse Imaging Facility, National
San Diego, CA 92107-3652 Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National
Richard E. Fish (27), College of Veterinary Medicine, NC Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892-1060
State University, Raleigh, NC 27606-1499 Jeff Ko (443), Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences,
Paul A. Flecknell (299), Medical School, Comparative School of Veterinary Medicine, Purdue University, West
Biology Centre, Newcastle NE2 4HH, UK Lafayette, IN 47907-2026

xi
xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Lisa Krugner-Higby (609), Research Animal Resources Lysa Pam Posner (519), College of Veterinary Medicine,
Center, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53705-4098 North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606
Dale J. Langford (549), Department of Psychology, McGill Peter J. Pascoe (3), Department of Surgical and Radiologi-
University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1B1 Canada cal Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of
Donald R. Lee (335), Charles River Laboratories, Inc., Alam- California, Davis, CA 95616
ogordo Primate Facility, Holloman Air Force Base, NM Sulli J. Popilskis (335), Barton’ West End Farm Facility,
88330 Oxford, NJ 07863
Gregory A. Lewbart (535), College of Veterinary Medicine, Sonja (Scout) Chou (569), Charles River Laboratories,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606 Wilmington, MA 01887
Neil S. Lipman (299), Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Sara Savage (619), Department of Comparative Medicine,
Center, New York, NY 10021 Genzyme Corporation, Framingham, MA 01701
John W. Ludders (481), Department of Clinical Sciences, Col- Michael Stoskopf (519), College of Veterinary Medicine,
lege of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27606
14853 Alison C. Smith (413), Department of Comparative Medicine,
Robert P. Marini (299, 443), MIT-DCM, Cambridge, MA Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425
02139 Jennifer C. Smith (171, 183), LA Consulting Services,
David J. Mellor (593), Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Newbury Park, CA 91320
Centre and Institute of Food, Nutrition and Human Health, Lesley J. Smith (609), Department of Surgical Sciences,
Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand School of Veterinary, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI
Robert E. Meyer (27), Department of Clinical Sciences, 53706
College of Veterinary Medicine, Mississippi State, MS M. Michael Swindle (413), Department of Comparative
39762-6100 Medicine, Medical University of South Carolina, Thur-
Jeffrey S. Mogil (549), Department of Psychology, McGill mond/Gazes Research Building, Charleston, SC 29425
University, Montreal, Quebec, H3A 1B1 Canada Alexander Valverde (385), Department of Clinical Studies,
Joanna C. Murrell (593), Department of Clinical Veteri- Ontario Veterinary College, University of Guelph, Guelph,
nary Science, University of Bristol Veterinary School, North Ontario, N1G 2W1 Canada
Somerset BS40 5DU, UK George A. Vogler (127), Department of Comparative
Anthony Nicholson (629), The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Medicine, St. Louis University Medical School, St. Louis,
Harbor, ME 04609 MO 63104
Dorcas P. O’Rourke (501, 511), The Brody School Jeff Wyatt (457), Department of Comparative Medicine,
of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC University of Rochester School of Medicine and Dentistry,
27834 Rochester, NY 14642
Preface

Like the first edition, this book presents a comprehensive recognizing and assessing pain in research animals, and sup-
review of anesthesia and analgesia as applied to animals used in porting those animals in the post-procedural period. Although
a research setting. It differs in approach from other veterinary the later species-specific chapters address some of these issues,
anesthesia texts in that it takes into account the research envi- this section provides useful discussions of essential topics that
ronment as well as a wide range of species, and will be useful to would be useful for all readers.
those engaged in biomedical research, including veterinarians, Sections III and IV include chapters that are oriented toward
investigators, technical staff, and institutional animal care and species-specific aspects of anesthesia and analgesia in tradi-
use committees. tional and non-traditional species, respectively. They provide the
In the biomedical research setting, it is important not only reader with a comprehensive discussion of agents, methods, and
to choose agents and methods that ensure the well-being of procedures from peer-reviewed reports as well as unpublished
the research animal, but also to select agents that allow sci- observations of the authors. Because the published data on many
entifically valid and reproducible observations to be obtained agents and species are quite limited, unpublished observations
with minimal or no effect on research outcomes. Wherever are included to give the reader a useful starting point. These
possible, background information and appropriate references observations are identified as such. To further aid those who
have been provided to alert the reader to important effects and have limited experience in anesthetizing a particular species,
interactions of various drugs on physiology and metabolism. the authors’ preferences for agents and dosages are noted. The
Where appropriate, authors have indicated key references in reader is encouraged to consult the extensive reference lists for
italic font. more detail on specific agents and their use in specific research
The second edition has been updated, expanded, and partially settings.
reorganized. There are five sections covering topics that range The final section, entitled Special Topics in Anesthesia and
from basic science, to practical applications and recommenda- Analgesia of Laboratory Animals, assembles chapters intended
tions for anesthesia and analgesia, to ethics, regulations, and to highlight current topics of both general relevance to all who
current topics in pain research and pain alleviation. are involved with the minimization of pain and distress in labora-
Section I provides the reader with detailed reviews of our tory animals (e.g., ethics and regulations) and more specialized
current understanding of the anatomy/physiology of pain and areas of current interest (i.e., pain models, chronic pain, pain
the pharmacology of the agents used to relieve pain. Each of in the fetus and neonate, imaging studies, and new frontiers in
these chapters has a lengthy bibliography, because the scope pain control).
of the reviews far exceeds that which can be dealt with in This volume is one of a series of texts that the Ameri-
subsequent chapters. Those who have limited experience in can College of Laboratory Animal Medicine has sponsored
administering anesthetics and analgesics to laboratory animals since 1974 as a means to nurture continuing education for its
should consult these chapters for the background information diplomates, trainees, and their colleagues who have respon-
required to understand the nature of these agents, including their sibilities for the care and use of laboratory animals. We are
mechanism of action. indebted to the chapter authors for the dedication and effort
Section II contains chapters that provide thorough discussions each extended during the development of this book, and to
of the practical aspects of providing and monitoring anesthesia, the authors and editors of the first edition, whose work in

xiii
xiv PREFACE

many cases provided the foundation for the current effort. texts are used to help support future continuing education
We thank the reviewers whose suggestions and comments programs.
were extremely helpful to the chapter authors and editors. Richard E. Fish
Finally, this book could not have been completed without the Marilyn J. Brown
support and resources of the authors’, editors’, and review- Peggy J. Danneman
ers’ parent institutions. Royalties from the ACLAM-sponsored Alicia Z. Karas
List of Reviewers for Chapters in This Volume

Andrutis, Karl A. Division of Teaching and Research Resources,

Tufts University, Cummings School of Veterinary
Medicine, North Grafton, MA
Baccanale, Cecile L. Marshall Bioresources, North Rose, NY
Bayne, Kathryn A. Pacific Rim Activities, AAALAC International, Waikoloa, HI
Brady, Alan G. Comparative Medicine, University South Alabama, Mobile, AL
Clemons, Donna J. Laboratory Animal Medicine, Covance Laboratories, Inc,
Madison, WI
Cooper, Dale Lilly Research Laboratories, Eli Lilly & Co, Greenfield, IN
Dennis, John U. SAIC – Frederick Lab Animal Science Program,
National Cancer Institute, Bethesda, MD
Flecknell, Paul A. Comparative Biology Centre, The Medical School,
Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, UK
Foley, Patricia L. Office of Animal Welfare, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA
Harper, James S. Brown University, Providence, RI
Heard, Darryl J. University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
Kraus, A. Lanny St. Helena, SC
Lee-Paritz, David E. Comparative Medicine, Genzyme Corporation, Farmingham, MA
Mook, Deborah Emory University, Atlanta, GA
Murphy, Stephanie J. Department of Anesthesiology and Peri-Operative Medicine,
Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
Myers, David D. Laboratory Animal Health Services, The Jackson Laboratory,
Bar Harbor, ME
Nicholson, Anthony I. Animal Husbandry and Performance, The Jackson Laboratory,
Bar Harbor, ME
Paster, Eden V. Department of Anesthesiology and Peri-Operative Medicine,
Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR
Perkins, Scott E. Division of Laboratory Animal Medicine, Tufts University,
Boston, MA
Portnoy, Lisa Warren G. Magnusen Clinical Center, National Institutes of Health,
Bethesda, MD
Prattis, Susan M. VIP Veterinary Hospital, PC, New York, NY
Reuter, Jon D. Animal Resources Department, The Salk Institute, La Jolla, CA
Schech, Joseph Mat National Institute of Child Health and Human Development,
Bethesda, MD
Senter, Lucy H. Laboratory Animal Resources, Mississippi State University,
Mississippi State, MS

xv
xvi LIST OF REVIEWERS FOR CHAPTERS IN THIS VOLUME

Turner, Patricia V. Department of Pathobiology, Ontario Veterinary College,

Guelph, ON, Canada
Underwood, Wendy J. Eli Lilly & Co, Greenfield, IN
Wilson, Ronald P. Comparative Medicine, Penn State University College of Medicine,
Hershey, PA
Abbreviations
μCT or microCT Micro-computed tomography AST Aspartate aminotransferase
μg microgram atm Atmospheres of pressure
μPET or microPET Micro-positron emission tomography AD Atopic dermatitis
18 F-FDG 2-deoxy-2-[18 F]fluoro-D-glucose ATP adenosine triphosphate
2-PE 2-phenoxyethanol AtrE Atropinesterase
3Rs Replacement, reduction, refinement AV Attending veterinarian
5-HT 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (serotonin) AVMA American Veterinary Medical Association
6-MAM 6-monoacetylmorphine AWA Animal Welfare Act
AAALAC Association for the Assessment and AWAR Animal Welfare Act regulations
Accreditation of Laboratory Animal AWIC Animal Welfare Information Center
Care – International AWR Animal Welfare Act regulations
AALAS American Association for Laboratory
BDNF Brain derived neurotrophic factor
Animal Science
BG Blood glucose
AANA American Association of Nurse
BIS Bispectral Index
Anesthetists
BP Blood pressure
ABG Arterial Blood Gases
BSC Biosafety cabinet
AC Animal Care (APHIS)
BUN Blood urea nitrogen
ACGIH American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists CBC Complete blood count
ACH Acetylcholinesterase CBF Cerebral blood flow
ACLAM American College of Laboratory CCAC Canadian Council on Animal Care
Animal Medicine CCD Charge-coupled device
ACTH Adrenocorticotrophic hormone CCI Chronic constriction injury
ACVA American College of Veterinary CFA Compete Freund’s adjuvant
Anesthesiologists CFR Code of Federal Regulations
ADH Antidiuretic hormone CGRP Calcitonin gene related product
AEP Auditory evoked potential CI Cardiac Index
AI Apneic index CIP Chronic inflammatory pain
ALT Alanine aminotransferase CK Creatine kinase
AMPA α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4- Cl− Chloride
isoxazolepropionic acid cm Centimeter
AP Action potential cm H2 O Centimeter of water
APHIS Animal and Plant Health Inspection CMS Composite measurement scale
Service CNS Central nervous system
APL Adjustable pressure limiting valve CO2 Carbon dioxide
APV Association of Primate Veterinarians COX 1, 2 and 3 Three different forms of
AQUI-S AQUI-S (2-methoxy-4 propenyl phenol) Cyclooxygenase
ASA American Society of Anesthesiologists CPB Cardiopulmonary bypass
ASIC Acid-sensing ion channels CREB CAMP responsive element-binding protein

xvii
xviii ABBREVIATIONS

CRF Corticotropin-releasing factor H-CFCs Halogenated chlorofluorocarbons (halothane,

CRH Corticotrophin releasing hormone enflurane, isoflurane)
CRI Constant rate infusions HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
CRT Capillary refill time HPA Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
CS Central sensitization HR Heart rate
CSA Controlled Substances Act HRV Heart rate variability
CVP Central venous pressure
CYP2D6 Cytochrome P2D6 I:E ratio Inspiratory-expiratory phase time
IACUC Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
D5W Dextrose 5% in Water IASP International Association for the Study of Pain
DEA Drug Enforcement Agency ICP Intracranial pressure
DEXA Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry ICS Intercostal space
DH Dorsal horn ID Inner diameter
DHPN Dorsal horn projection neurons IIN Inhibitory interneurons
DMSO Dimethyl sulfoxide IL-1 Interleukin-1
DPPC Dipalmatoyl phosphatidyl choline ILAR Institute for Laboratory Animal Research
DISS Diameter index safety system IM Intramuscular, intramuscularly
DP Prostaglandin receptor IO Institutional Official
DRG Dorsal root ganglion IP Intraperitoneal, intraperitoneally
IP Prostaglandin receptor
EAA Excitatory amino acids
IPC Intrapulmonary chemoreceptors
ECG Electrocardiogram, electrocardiography
IPPV Intermittent positive pressure ventilation
ED50 Effective dose when 50% of subjects
IRAC Interagency Research Animal Committee
are affected
IT Intrathecal
ED95 Effective dose when 95% of subjects
IV Intravenous, intravenously
are affected
IVBP Invasive blood pressure
EEG Electroencephalogram,
IVRA Intravenous regional anesthesia
electroencephalography
EMS Electrical muscle stimulation kg Kilogram
EP Prostaglandin receptor KLH Keyhole limpet hemocyanin
EP-1 Prostaglandin receptor kPa Kilopascal
EPSP Excitatory postsynaptic potential
ERK-CREB Extracellular signal-regulated L Liter
kinase-CREB LA Left arm
ET Embryo transfer LAWA Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of 1966
ETCO2 End-tidal carbon dioxide partial LDH Lactate dehydrogenase
pressure LDI Laser Doppler imaging
LED Light emitting diode
Fa Arterial gas LL Left leg
FASEB The Federation of American Societies LMA Laryngeal Mask Airway
for Experimental Biology LOX Lipoxygenase
FDA Food and Drug Administration lpm Liters per minute
FE CO2 Expired CO2 concentration LPS Lipopolysaccharide
FHCs Fluorinated Hydrocarbons LRS Lactated Ringer’s solution
(sevoflurane and desflurane) LTP Long term potentiation
Fi Inspired gas
fMRI Functional magnetic resonance imaging M1 1st metabolite
FP Prostaglandin receptor MAC Minimal Alveolar Concentration
MAP Mean arterial pressure
GABA Gamma-amino-butyric acid MAPK Mitogen activated protein kinase
gm gram MD Medical Doctor
GRAS Generally regarded as safe mg Milligrams
GTE Given to effect MgCl2 Magnesium chloride
Guide Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory mGlu5 Metabotropic glutamate receptor 5
Animals MH Malignant hyperthermia
ABBREVIATIONS xix

MHz Megahertz PEEP Positive end-expiratory pressure

ml Milliliter PELs Permissible exposure limits
mm Millimeter P E O2 Oxygen in end-parabronchial gas
mmHg Millimeters of mercury PET Positron-emission tomography
MOF Methoxyflurane PG Prostaglandin
MRI Magnetic resonance imaging PGD2, PGE2, Different prostaglandins
MRI/S Magnetic resonance imaging or PGG2, PGF2a,
spectroscopy PGH2, PGI2
mRNA Messenger RNA (ribonucleic acid) PC Phosphatidyl Choline
MS-222 Tricaine methanesulfonate PHS Public Health Service
PIMs Pulmonary intravascular
N2 Nitrogen macrophages
N2 O Nitrous oxide ppm Parts per million
NASA National Aeronautics and Space psi Pounds per square inch (pressure)
Administration psig Pounds per square inch gauge
NaV Voltage gated sodium ion channels PSL Partial sciatic nerve ligation
NE Norepinephrine PT Prothrombin Time
NHP Non-human primates PTT Partial Thromboplastin Time
NIBP Non-invasive blood pressure PVG Periventricular grey
NIH National Institutes of Health q30 min, q20–30 min, refers to “every
NIOSH National Institute of Occupational Safety etc 30 minutes”, or
and Health “every 20–30 min”
NK Natural killer (cell)
NK-1 Neurokinin-1 RA Right arm
NMB Neuromuscular blocker RBC Red blood cell
NMBD Neuromuscular blocking agent drug REL Recommended Exposure Limits
NMDA N -methyl-D-aspartic acid REM Rapid eye movement
NMES Neuromuscular electrical stimulation RVM Rostroventral medulla
N-NOC Non-nociceptive specific neurons
NO Nitric oxide SC Subcutaneous
NP Neuropathic pain SDS Simple descriptive scale
NRC National Research Council SHF Simian hemorrhagic fever
NRS Numeric rating scale SHR Spontaneously hypertensive rat
NS Nociceptive specific neurons SHT Spinohypothalamic tract
NSAID Non-steroidal antiinflammatory drug SIV Simian immunodeficiency virus
NWP New world primate SMT Spinomesencephalic tract
SNI Spared nerve injury
O2 Oxygen SNL Spinal nerve ligation
OD Outer diameter SNR Signal-to-noise ratio
OLAW Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare SNS Sympathetic nervous system
OSHA Occupational Safety and Health SP substance P
Administration SPECT Single-photon emission computed
tomography
P.L. Public Law SPF Specific Pathogen Free
PA Primary afferent SQ Subcutaneous
PA Pulmonary artery SRT Spinoreticular tract
PaCO2 Arterial partial pressure of carbon STT Spinothalamic tract
dioxide
PAG Periaqueductal grey TBE Tribromoethanol
PaO2 Arterial partial pressure of oxygen TENS Transcutaneous electrical nerve
PCO2 Partial pressure of carbon dioxide stimulation
PCV Packed cell volume TIVA Total intravenous anesthesia
PE CO2 Carbon dioxide in end-parabronchial TLV Threshold Limit Values
gas TNF Tumor necrosis factor
xx ABBREVIATIONS

TP Thromboxane receptor UN United Nations

trkB Tyrosine kinase B UOP Urinary output
TRPs Transient receptor potential ion channels US United States
TRPV1 Transient receptor potential, family V, USDA United States Department of Agriculture
member 1 V/Q Ventilation/perfusion
TTX Tetrodotoxin VAP Vascular access port
TWA Time weighted average VAS Visual analog scale
TxA2 Thromboxane A2 VBG Venous blood gases
VLF Ventrolateral funiculus
U.S. Government “U.S. Government Principles for the VPC Ventricular premature contractions
Principles Utilization and Care of Vertebrate
Animals Used in Testing, Research, WAG Waste anesthetic gases;
and Training” WDR Wide dynamic range neurons
UK Untied Kingdom WHO World Health Organization
 Section I

Anatomy, Physiology, and Pharmacology

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 Chapter 1

Anatomy, Physiology, and Effects of Pain

George J. DeMarco and Peter J. Pascoe

I. Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
A. Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
II. Anatomy and Physiology of Nociception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
A. Nociception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
III. Neuropharmacology of Nociception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
A. Excitatory Neurotransmitters and Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters and Receptors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
IV. Neonatal Development and Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. Pain in the Neonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Developmental Effects of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
V. Physiologic Effects of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
A. Neuroendocrine Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
B. Cardiovascular Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
C. Pulmonary Compromise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
D. Miscellaneous Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
VI. Neuroplasticity and Pain: Peripheral and Central Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
A. Peripheral Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
B. Central Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
VII. Pathophysiology of Chronic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
A. Role of Neuroplasticity and Sensitization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
B. Etiologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

I. DEFINITIONS
1994). The IASP has also added the following comments: “The
inability to communicate verbally does not negate the possi-
A. Pain bility that an individual is experiencing pain and is in need
of appropriate pain-relieving treatment,” and “pain is always
Pain has been defined by the International Association for the subjective.” Irrespective of statements regarding verbal com-
Study of Pain (IASP) as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional munication, this is a human description for pain, based on the
experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, experience of physicians. Molony and Kent have used the fol-
or described in terms of such damage” (Merskey and Bogduk, lowing for an animal-specific definition of pain: “an aversive

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

3
4 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

sensory, emotional experience representing an awareness by pain, clinical pain induces augmented or abnormal signal pro-
the animal of damage or threat to the integrity of its tissues cessing, may be spontaneous, and may be characterized by
(note, there may not be any damage); it changes the animal’s hypersensitivity, hyperalgesia, and allodynia (see definitions
physiology and behavior to reduce or avoid damage, reduce below), pain at the site of injury (primary allodynia and/or
the likelihood of recurrence, and to promote recovery; non- hyperalgesia), and pain in surrounding noninjured tissues (sec-
functional pain occurs when the intensity or duration of the ondary mechanical allodynia and/or hyperalgesia) (Merskey
experience is not appropriate for the damage sustained (espe- and Bogduk, 1994). The primary causes of clinical pain are
cially if none exists) and when physiological and behavioral tissue inflammation or damage to peripheral or central neurons
responses are unsuccessful in alleviating it.” This definition is (neuropathic); thus, the number and type of initiating condi-
predicated on animal pain having similar purpose and signif- tions or events (trauma, surgery, infection) are quite extensive.
icance but not in equivalence to human pain (Molony, 1997; In some cases, such as cancer-associated pain, amputations,
Molony and Kent, 1997). It puts pain in the context of an evo- or vertebral disk prolapse, both inflammatory and neuropathic
lutionary survival mechanism by which the animal recognizes mechanisms are at work. Clinical pain may serve a useful bio-
and learns to avoid injury. This definition also addresses forms logic function by coupling pain to tissue healing, thus, helping
of pain that serve no known function and situations where the limit further injury during the recovery process. However, in
animal has exhausted its ability to adapt or compensate and is many instances, excessive inflammation develops or damaged
condemned to suffer. nervous tissue functions abnormally, and clinical pain becomes
Although neither definition has been universally accepted for a disease, serving no benefit to the individual. Any potential ben-
animals, it is interesting that both human and animal defini- efits of clinical pain should not be taken as evidence that pain is
tions squarely cast pain as an experience. The scientific and an acceptable means of restraint or that it should be untreated.
philosophical arguments for or against animal pain are beyond Besides ethical considerations, it is generally accepted that
the scope of this work. Although the debate continues, the untreated pain significantly increases morbidity and mortality.
consensus among veterinarians and a growing number of neu-
roscientists is that animals do feel pain, and this volume is
predicated on this concept. 2. Chronic Pain
In human medicine, chronic pain has been defined as “pain
1. Acute Pain which persists past the normal time of healing” (Bonica, 1953).
This definition has significant shortcomings since healing may
Acute pain usually has a proximate cause and often serves an
never occur in chronic-pain-associated diseases like arthritis,
essential protective function by associating potentially damag-
may never be recognized, as in forms of NP, or may remit and
ing noxious stimuli with an unpleasant sensation (Woolf, 2004).
relapse over time. A more useful definition is that chronic pain
It can last from seconds to days, and perhaps longer; some
is said to be present when the pain continues beyond the stage
have suggested somewhat arbitrary time frames even up to 3
where it is useful to protect the region, or is persistent and may
months for humans. Acute pain can be further characterized as
not have a clearly identifiable cause. The IASP has adopted
physiologic or clinical. Physiologic pain, sometimes referred
temporal endpoints based on common medical experience to
to as nociceptive pain, is an early-warning system that aids
classify chronic pain. The IASP regards 3 months of pain as
in protecting the body from tissue damage by physical, ther-
the most expedient point at which the transition from acute
mal, or chemical threats (Woolf and Salter, 2000). This type of
to chronic nonmalignant pain can be defined (Merskey et al.,
pain is initiated by the activation of high-threshold nociceptive
1994). (See additional discussion in the chapter Management
neurons by noxious stimuli that produce minimal tissue dam-
of Chronic Pain.)
age, is highly localized to the site of nociceptor activation, and
is transient. Another important feature of physiologic pain is
that neurophysiologic and subjective responses are closely tied
3. Pain Threshold
and proportional to the intensity of the inciting stimulus (Casey
et al., 1996; Cervero and Laird, 1996; Granovsky et al., 2005). Pain threshold is the least experience of pain an individual
Nociceptive pain initiates physiologic and avoidance behaviors can recognize. It has also been incorrectly defined as the min-
accompanied by protective reflexes, all of which serve to pre- imum intensity or duration of a stimulus perceived as pain, an
vent or limit tissue damage. (Nociception is discussed in detail approach based on the external stimulus and not the experi-
below. Note that the term, nociceptive pain, is also commonly ence of the individual (Merskey and Bogduk, 1994). Thresholds
used to distinguish pain arising from nociceptors, from neu- for a given stimulus are relatively consistent across species if
ropathic pain (NP), i.e., some kind of centrally mediated pain applied in a similar fashion. This suggests that nociception
resulting from nerve injury or changes in central processing.) is evolutionarily conserved as a mechanism to prevent injury.
Clinical pain refers to prolonged unpleasant sensations aris- Interindividual, species, or strain variability does occur and can
ing from significant tissue damage. In contrast to physiologic result from several factors including skin thickness, perfusion,
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 5

rate of stimulus application, and the stress level of the indi- II. ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF
vidual. Recent evidence suggests that genetic factors play a NOCICEPTION
prominent role in pain threshold, as well. Polymorphisms in
genes coding for catechol-O-methyltransferase, opioid recep-
A. Nociception
tors, transient receptor potential A subtype 1 channels, and fatty
acid hydroxylase have been linked to a variation in pain thresh-
Nociception is the sensation of noxious stimuli. It involves
old (Diatchenko et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2006; Mogil et al.,
detection and quantitation of noxious stimuli (transduction), the
2005). Female gender is associated with lower pain thresholds
processes involved in modifying and conveying that informa-
in humans and, although unclear, the underlying mechanisms
tion to the brain (transmission, modulation, and projection),
seem to involve sociobiologic phenomena (Pool et al., 2007;
and recognition of the stimulus. Although some authors state
Shinal and Fillingim, 2007; Wiesenfeld-Hallin, 2005). Sex has
that nociception includes perception, most psychologists main-
not been conclusively demonstrated to influence pain thresholds
tain a distinction between sensation and perception, although
in animals.
unequivocally proving that the difference between the two
remains elusive (Chapman, 2005; Chapman et al., 2001). Sen-
sation can be thought of as a discriminative response to physical
4. Pain Tolerance stimulation of a sensor, nerve, or brain area. Perception is the
Pain tolerance is the greatest level of pain an individual is will- cognitive and emotive processing of sensation into a subjective
ing to tolerate. As with threshold, tolerance is properly defined experience. Thus, the important distinction between nociception
by an individual’s subjective experience of pain; it is not a and pain is that nociception includes the neurobiological pro-
measurement of external stimuli (Merskey and Bogduk, 1994). cesses by which noxious stimuli are encoded as neural impulses
Tolerance is primarily a human concept based on communica- and sent to the brain where the impulses are decoded into the
tion of a point at which an individual can no longer cope with stimuli’s physical properties (hot, cold, sharp, dull) (Chapman
pain. People exhibit significant variability for pain tolerance, and Nakamura, 1999), while pain is the cognitive and emotive
which is influenced by many factors including age, gender, eth- interpretation of the sensation as a hurtful or unpleasant expe-
nicity, genetics, anxiety, stress, distraction, sleep deprivation, rience. It should be noted that these differences account for the
and drugs (Forys and Dahlquist, 2007; George et al., 2007; fact that pain is not entirely dependent on nociception nor does
Magora et al., 2006; Miller and Newton, 2006; Onen et al., all encoding of noxious stimuli result in pain. Many investiga-
2001; Rahim-Williams et al., 2007; Thompson et al., 2007). tors believe that animals are only capable of nociception and
This concept similarly applies to animals and may help explain reserve the concept of “pain” exclusively for human beings.
variation in species and individual responses to noxious stimuli This is based on the notion that we do not actually know what
and clinical pain. animals “experience” and can only define pain in a species that
expresses recognition of the experience. Clearly, though, the
behavior and effect on animals in response to noxious stimuli
indicate that they do experience pain (Dubner and Ren, 1999).
5. Hyperalgesia
Hyperalgesia is an exaggerated response to a stimulus that
would normally be painful. 1. Transduction
Transduction is the process of converting noxious ther-
mal, mechanical, or chemical stimuli into an action potential
6. Hypersensitivity (AP). The transducers are high-threshold, nonselective cation
Hypersensitivity refers to reduced threshold to noxious or sodium ion channels gated by chemical ligands, temper-
stimuli. ature, or mechanical shearing forces. These transducers are
located on the distal terminus (nociceptor) of highly special-
ized primary afferent sensory neurons (C and Aδ fibers). When
activated, the channels open and inward-flowing ions produce
7. Allodynia “generator” potentials: small, sub-AP threshold current. When
Allodynia is the pain induced by a non-noxious stimulus. sufficient numbers of transducers are activated, enough cur-
rent is produced to trigger the opening of voltage-gated sodium
channels, initiating an AP (Bevan and Szolcsanyi, 1990). The
frequency and duration of the AP is proportional to the intensity
8. Analgesia
and duration of the stimulus. Through their gating and activa-
Analgesia is the absence of pain in response to stimulation tion, transducers qualitatively detect a stimulus, and quantitate
that would normally be painful. its intensity and duration. Transducer expression profiles also
6 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

define the receptive character of nociceptors. Most nociceptors other factors. For good overviews of nociceptor classifica-
are polymodal; they express various transducers and respond to tion, see Giordano (2005), Julius and Basbaum (2001), Millan
a wide variety of stimuli. Others are unimodal; they have limited (1999), and Raja et al. (1999).
expression patterns and only respond to thermal or mechanical All neurons express voltage-gated sodium ion channels (NaV )
stimuli. Lastly, some nociceptors are referred to as “silent”; and, of the nine known forms (NaV 1.1–1.9), DRG neurons
they express transducers with such high activation thresholds express five (NaV 1.1, 1.3, 1.7, 1.8, and 1.9) that play critical
that they are only activated when sensitized by tissue injury roles in both acute and chronic pain (Amir et al., 2006; Rush
(Millan, 1999; Schmidt et al., 1995). et al., 2007). Based on tetrodotoxin (TTX) susceptibility, NaV
The major transducer types identified (probably not all) can be subdivided into TTX-sensitive (TTXs) or TTX-resistant
include transient receptor potential ion channels (TRPs), ATP- (TTXr) forms, and C fibers tend to predominantly express TTXr
gated ion channels, and acid-sensing ion channels (ASIC). forms (Raja et al., 1999). TheTTXr isoforms NaV 1.9 and 1.8 are
The TRP family, which includes the capsaicin-sensitive vanil- selectively expressed in DRG nociceptive neurons, and TTXs
loid receptor, responds to thermal, chemical, and possibly NaV 1.7 is selectively expressed in nociceptive DRG neurons
mechanical stimuli [reviewed in Wang and Woolf (2005)]. The and sympathetic ganglia (Amaya et al., 2000; Black et al., 1996;
ATP-gated ion channels of the P2X family are activated by Dib-Hajj et al., 2002; Fang et al., 2002). The lack of any NaV -
extracellular ATP, released in response to mechanical forces, subtype-specific inhibitors has prevented elucidating the exact
inflammation, and nerve damage. Forms of P2X are involved role the subtypes play. It appears that NaV 1.9 current does not
in sensing bladder distension and appear important in mediat- contribute substantially to AP generation and has been postu-
ing neuropathic mechanical allodynia and inflammatory pain lated to amplify generator potentials (Dib-Hajj et al., 2002).
[reviewed in Khakh and North (2006)]. ASIC are subunits of NaV 1.8 contributes substantially to AP electrogenesis (Ren-
the degenerin–epithelial sodium channel group that transduce ganathan et al., 2001) and has specialized functions that appear
innocuous mechanical stimuli such as touch, yet to be proven to modulate nociception (Akopian et al., 1999; Cummins et al.,
as detectors of noxious mechanical stimuli (Garcia-Anoveros 1999; Patrick Harty and Waxman, 2007). NaV 1.7 has also
et al., 2001; Price et al., 2000). been hypothesized to contribute to AP initiation by amplify-
ing generator potentials and increasing excitability by shifting
the membrane potential toward the voltage gate of NaV 1.8
2. Transmission
(Cummins et al., 1998; Herzog et al., 2003). NaV 1.7 is upregu-
Transmission is the process by which primary afferent (PA) lated by inflammation and modulates inflammatory pain (Black
sensory neurons (first order) propagate APs to the spinal cord. et al., 2004a; Nassar et al., 2004). Activating mutations in NaV
Nociceptive neurons originate in the dorsal root ganglia (DRG) 1.7 are responsible for pain in the genetic human neuropathy ery-
or trigeminal ganglia, and their axons terminate in the various thromelalgia and reduce lidocaine sensitivity (Cummins et al.,
laminae of the spinal cord dorsal horn (DH). Nociceptive neu- 2004; Sheets et al., 2007), and deactivating mutations in NaV
rons are characterized by size, myelination, peptide content, 1.7 are linked to congenital inability to experience pain (Cox
receptive characteristics, and site of termination in the spinal et al., 2006).
cord. The principal peripheral nociceptive neurons are com-
prised of Aδ and C-type fibers. Aβ fibers, also found in the 3. Projection
periphery, transmit innocuous mechanical stimuli such as touch
a. Spinal Cord to Brainstem and Thalamus
and proprioceptive information. In visceral organs, noxious
and innocuous stimuli are transmitted by Aδ and C-type fibers Projection starts in the DH and is the process of conveying
[reviewed in Millan (1999)]. Aδ fibers are thinly myelinated, information through the spinal cord to the brain. The majority
have intermediate velocities (10–30 m/s), punctate receptive of PA nociceptive neurons enter the DH and synapse on pro-
fields, and respond to thermal and mechanical stimuli. C fibers, jection (second order) neurons originating in the DH gray. PA
which constitute the majority of peripheral nociceptive fibers, connect either directly (monosynaptic) or through polysynaptic
have small unmyelinated axons, slow conduction velocities connections with interneurons, primarily in lamina I, the sub-
(0.5–2 m/s), wide receptive fields, and respond to mechanical, stantia gelatinosa (II, IIa ), and lamina V of the dorsal spinal
thermal, and chemical stimuli or are polymodal. By contrast, Aβ cord (Willis and Coggeseshall, 1991). Although neuroanatomi-
fibers are large, myelinated, and have fast conduction velocities cal terminology and description varies in the literature, C fibers
(30–100 m/s). Aδ neurons propagate with short latency and high predominantly innervate laminae II, IIa , and V; Aδ primarily
intensity, producing sharp, rapid sensation and reflex initiation. innervate I, II, and IIa ; and Aβ innervate III−VI (Almeida et al.,
C fibers propagate much more slowly, often after Aδ activa- 2004; Millan, 1999). The organization of ascending spinal tracts
tion, and produce a dull, slower onset pain [Handwerker and and response patterns to nociceptive transmission depend on
Kobal, 1993; reviewed in Millan (1999)]. Multiple classes of dorsal horn projection neurons (DHPN) which are differen-
C and Aδ neurons exist, although designations are complicated tiated by the afferent information they receive and code into
by inconsistent terminology, tissue and species variation, and nociceptive-specific (NS), wide dynamic range (WDR), and
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 7

non-nociceptive (N-NOC) neurons. NS neurons are found in Fibers from the STT primarily connect to thalamic nuclei
laminae I, II, V, and VI; are innervated by high-threshold Aδ, (lateral, medial, and posterior groups), but also innervate the
heat, and polymodal C fibers; are somatotopically organized in parabrachial nucleus, which is involved in arousal and auto-
laminae I; and code localizing and qualitative information about nomic responses to pain, and areas of the rostroventral medulla,
noxious stimuli [Leem et al., 1994; Price et al., 1978; Sorkin caudal pons, and midbrain, which are involved with bulbospinal
et al., 1986; Woolf and Fitzgerald, 1983; reviewed in Almeida antinociception [reviewed in Almeida et al. (2004) and Millan
et al. (2004) and Dubner and Bennett (1983)]. WDR neurons are (1999)]. STT connections to various thalamic nuclei also show
innervated by C, Aδ, and Aβ fibers; are found in laminae I, II, IV, considerable variation across species (Boivie, 1979; Craig and
V, VI, and X; and function to convey the intensity of noxious and Dostrovsky, 1999; Giesler et al., 1981; Mantyh, 1983; Martin
innocuous mechanical, thermal, and chemical stimuli [Leem et al., 1990; Ralston and Ralston, 1992).
et al., 1994; Price et al., 1978; Sorkin et al., 1986; Woolf and The SRT and SMT are comprised primarily of NS and WDR
Fitzgerald, 1983; reviewed in Almeida et al. (2004) and Dubner neurons, the SHT by NS neurons, and all rise in the VLF. SRT
and Bennett (1983)]. Both NS and WDR neurons contribute neurons synapse in serotonergic raphe nuclei and noradrener-
to the temporal aspects of pain. N-NOC fibers code innocuous gic magnocellular nuclei of the rostroventral medulla and caudal
thermal and mechanical information from Aβ and Aδ fibers. pons, and the SMT to the midbrain periaqueductal gray (PAG)
The neuroanatomy and organization of ascending pain pro- and periventricular gray (PVG) [reviewed in Almeida et al.
jections is quite complex. Axons of NS and WDR neurons are (2004) and Millan (1999)]. The brainstem and midbrain connec-
components of seven parallel spinal tracts rising in the antero- tions of the SRT and SMT suggest they are important pathways
lateral, dorsolateral, and ventrolateral funiculi [reviewed in for modulating descending control of nociception and, through
Millan (1999)]. These tracts project nociceptive information to projections from target nuclei to the limbic system, appear to
numerous brainstem, midbrain, and forebrain areas involved in function in motivational–affective components of pain (Mancia
sensory-discriminative, affective-motivational, autonomic, and et al., 1987; Willis, 1991).
endocrine aspects of pain, as well as descending antinocicep- The SHT projects directly to the hypothalamus. From there,
tion. The laminar origin and relative contribution of each tract a substantial portion of the SHT fibers course as part of the
to nociception varies between species and may also be differ- supraoptic decussation to reach the ipsilateral hypothalamus,
entially involved in somatic versus visceral pain (Carstens and thalamus, basal forebrain, and limbic nuclei (Burstein et al.,
Trevino, 1978; Giesler et al., 1976; Jones et al., 1987; Klop 1996; Dado et al., 1994b; Kostarczyk et al., 1997; Malick et al.,
et al., 2005; Palecek, 2004; Willis et al., 1979). For clarity, the 2000; Zhang et al., 2002). By virtue of their connection and
salient features of four tracts that may be the most important will activity, SHT projections are believed to be important in visceral
be discussed: the spinothalamic tract (STT), spinoreticular tract and somatic pain, and autonomic and endocrine responses to
(SRT), spinomesencephalic tract (SMT), and spinohypothala- pain (Burstein et al., 1990; Dado et al., 1994a; Katter et al.,
mic tract (SHT). It is also worth pointing out that with the 1991; Palkovits, 1999; Zhang et al., 1999, 2002).
exception of the SHT, these tracts are not NS; they are also The propriospinal and dorsal columns may also contain noci-
comprised of N-NOC fibers. [For more detailed information ceptive afferents, the latter being particularly important in
on spinal nociceptive tracts, see Almeida et al. (2004), Millan projection of visceral pain, especially when visceral inflamma-
(1999), and Willis and Coggeseshall (1991)]. tion is present (Palecek, 2004). Recently, using transneuronal
Most NS and WDR neurons project as components of the tracing, it has been shown that the lamina II nonpeptidergic
STT, still considered the primary route by which nociceptive cells project via lamina V to the hypothalamus, amygdala, bed
information reaches the brain in most species. The STT rises nucleus of the stria terminalis, and the globus pallidus. These
for the most part in the ventrolateral funiculus (VLF) and also centers in the brain are associated with the affective dimension
has components in the dorsolateral funiculus of the spinal cord of pain.
(Apkarian and Hodge, 1989; Martin et al., 1990). In humans
and nonhuman primates, DHPN rise predominantly in the con-
b. Thalamus to Cortex
tralateral STT, which is uninterrupted in the spinal cord (De
Lahunta, 1977; Kerr, 1975). Domestic animals appear to have a The thalamus has long been considered the key relay for
larger percentage of projections entering the ipsilateral tract, and receiving and integrating spinal nociceptive input and projecting
there is indication that the STT has frequent synapses with gray that information to cortical and subcortical areas of the brain. As
matter neurons that rejoin the originating or contralateral STT. with the organization of the spinal cord, the neuroanatomy of the
In contrast to humans and nonhuman primates, other animals thalamus and its afferents and efferents is quite extensive. Unfor-
have a bilateral, diffuse and multisynaptic nociceptive pathway tunately the use of inconsistent and species-specific terminology
in the spinal cord (De Lahunta, 1977). The neuroanatomy of and absolute or legacy designations, which are derived from
the STT explains why total anterolateral cordotomy of the VLF less than conclusive studies, is confusing (Willis et al., 2002).
would be a less than effective procedure for controlling pain in Although across species structures described may be analogs
domestic animals. not homologs, the terminology generally used for primates will
8 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

be employed for clarity, and the salient features will be pre- b. Descending Inhibition
sented (for more detailed descriptions, seeAlmeida et al. (2004),
Although pain is modulated at the supraspinal level in the
Craig and Dostrovsky (1999), Lenz et al. (2004), and Millan
thalamus, cerebral cortex, and other brain areas, descend-
(1999)].
ing pathways may be the most important for antinociception
Nociceptive afferents (third-order neurons) to cortical and
(Sandkuhler, 1996; Yoshimura et al., 2004). Descending
subcortical regions arise from thalamic nuclei in the lateral,
antinociception was first demonstrated by Reynolds in 1969,
medial, and posterior groups. The thalamus is much more than
who produced surgical analgesia by electrical stimulation of the
a simple relay station; specific thalamic nuclei have distinct and
PAG in rats (Reynolds, 1969). Since then, descending antinoci-
complementary functional roles integrating nociceptive infor-
ceptive systems and the role of the rostroventral medulla (RVM)
mation for processing into the sensory-discriminative (intensity,
and PAG in descending antinociception have been firmly estab-
duration, quality, location) and affective–cognitive (emotion,
lished [reviewed in Sandkuhler (1996)]. Nuclei in the RVM are
perception, recognition, learning, attention, memory retrieval,
innervated by the STT and SRT (and possibly other tracts) and
action) aspects of pain (Craig and Dostrovsky, 1999; Sherman
send descending projections through the dorsal funiculus that
and Guillery, 1996, 2002). Nuclei of the lateral group project
synapse on DH IIN. When activated by nociceptive signals from
principally to the primary and secondary somatosensory cor-
the STT/SRT, RVM nuclei initiate the activation of DH IIN that
tices, important in sensory-discriminative aspects of pain, and
inhibit the presynaptic release of neurotransmitters from A and
to the prefrontal cortex, an area critical for affective–cognitive
C fibers and reduce the excitability of second-order projection
function. The ventroposterolateral (VPL) nuclei of this group
neurons [reviewed in Fields et al. (1991)]. Direct inhibition
are often referred to as the primary somatosensory relay. The
of PA fibers or inhibition of excitatory interneurons by RVM
posterior thalamic nuclei project to the insula and anterior cin-
projections is also possible [reviewed in Fields et al. (1991)].
gulate cortex, brain areas involved in the affective–cognitive
The PAG influences the DH almost exclusively through
dimensions of pain. The medial thalamic nuclei project to the
serotonergic and noradrenergic nuclei in the pons and RVM.
anterior cingulate cortex and areas of the basal ganglia involved
Although often described as simple monosynaptic pathways, the
in attention and motor control (Craig and Dostrovsky, 1999;
connections between the PAG and pons/RVM are more likely
Lenz et al., 2004). The cortical structures mentioned also have
through a polysynaptic pontobulbar network (Odeh and Antal,
complex patterns of interconnection (Cavada and Goldman-
2001). The PAG is activated by nociceptive input from spinal,
Rakic, 1989a, 1989b; Neal et al., 1990) and connectivity with
thalamic, and cortical projections, and its antinociceptive func-
the thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic and basal forebrain, includ-
tions might be mediated by the same descending pathways and
ing “reverberating” circuits between the thalamus and cortex
DH mechanisms as the RVM [Yu and Han, 1989; Zhao et al.,
that augment cortical and thalamic activation by noxious stim-
2006; reviewed in Cui et al. (1999)]. The PAG is also involved in
uli (Kuroda et al., 2004; Narikashvili, 1976; Nothias et al.,
mediating the antinociceptive effects of endogenous and exoge-
1988), and may be important in central and phantom-limb pain
nous opioids through several mechanisms including descending
(Canavero, 1994).
inhibition (Hirakawa et al., 1999; Morgan et al., 1991; Osaki
et al., 2003; Vaughan et al., 1997; Vazquez et al., 2005).
4. Modulation
Modulation is the process by which nociceptive information c. Facilitation
from PA is inhibited or augmented. It occurs primarily in the
Although not as well characterized as descending inhibition,
spinal DH as well as in supraspinal sites. PA nociceptive sig-
facilitation of inflammatory and NP can also occur through the
nals can undergo extensive modulation in the DH by segmental
same nuclei responsible for descending inhibition but involv-
spinal and/or descending mechanisms, which inhibit or facilitate
ing the action of different cell types (Heinricher et al., 1987;
neurotransmission (Sandkuhler, 1996). Teleologically, antinoci-
Neubert et al., 2004; Vanegas and Schaible, 2004). Facilitation is
ceptive systems are thought to be a part of the “flight or fight”
thought to occur by increased excitation of pre- and postsynaptic
response and allow escape and making rational judgments after
nociceptive neurons, which enhances DH nociceptive neuro-
severe injury.
transmission (Almeida et al., 1996; Morgan and Fields, 1994).

a. Intersegmental Inhibition
Most DH neurons are inhibitory interneurons (IIN), some of
III. NEUROPHARMACOLOGY OF
which synapse on A and C fibers and their projection neurons.
NOCICEPTION
Specific spatial and temporal firing patterns of PA activate IIN,
which decreases the excitation of PA and second-order neurons
inhibiting nociceptive neurotransmission in the DH (Giordano, The pharmacology of nociception involves a plethora of neu-
2005; Westlund, 2005). rotransmitters, excitatory and inhibitory amino acids, peptides,
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 9

enzymes, signaling molecules, lipids, and their receptors. The cell decreasing excitation, and GABAB activation reduces the
following discussion will focus on DH neuropharmacology, the release of glutamate, SP, and calcitonin gene related product
best characterized and of most clinical significance. (CGRP) (Melcangic and Bowery, 1996). GABA modulation of
nociception in Aδ and C fibers appears to be through GABAB
activation, and in projection neurons by GABAA activation (Lin
A. Excitatory Neurotransmitters and Receptors et al., 1994, 1996; Maeda et al., 2007; Melcangic and Bowery,
1996). Much less is known about glycine modulation of nocicep-
The primary excitatory neurotransmitter released by noci- tion. Glycine receptors are ligand-gated ion channels distributed
ceptive terminals is glutamate, which preferentially binds mostly in lamina II of the DH on postsynaptic sites (Harvey et al.,
to α-amino-3-hydroxyl-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid 2004). The distribution and function of these receptors suggests
(AMPA), kainate, and N -methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) recep- they modulate nociception by hyperpolarizing second-order
tors on postsynaptic membranes of second-order neurons. These neurons, decreasing their excitability (Harvey et al., 2004).
receptors are ligand-gated ion channels (AMPA/kainate-Na+ ,
K+ ; NMDA–Na+ , K+ , Ca++ ). AMPA receptor activation 2. Serotonin and Norepinephrine
produces fast, transient (several milliseconds) excitatory post-
synaptic potentials (EPSPs) (Bleakman et al., 2006). NMDA Serotonin (5-hydroxy-tryptamine, 5-HT) and norepinephrine
receptors are normally inhibited by a voltage-gated magnesium (NE) are the neurotransmitters most critical to descending
(Mg++ ) channel and produce slow sustained (>10 seconds) antinociception. The antinociceptive actions of 5-HT and NE
EPSPs (Petrenko et al., 2003). The role of kainate receptors also appear to be interdependent; depleting one reduces the
in nociception is not fully understood [reviewed in Wu et al. effects of the other (Fields et al., 1991). Descending antinoci-
(2007)]. Glutamate is released in response to brief- or low- ceptive fibers arise from serotonergic nuclei in the RVM and
intensity noxious stimuli, usually from Aδ fibers, activating adrenergic nuclei in the pons, releasing 5-HT and NE in the
AMPA/kainate receptors. Primary afferents also express kainate DH [reviewed in Fields et al. (1991), and Yoshimura and Furue
and AMPA receptors on the presynaptic membrane (autorecep- (2006)].
tors), which function in a feedback loop decreasing glutamate NE inhibits nociception by activating alpha-1 receptors on
release. Fast EPSPs encode onset, duration, intensity, and IIN, stimulating the release of GABA and glycine, and by reduc-
location of a noxious stimulus, and are responsible for the ing the excitation of excitatory interneurons through alpha-2
well-localized, transient, sharp, and stinging/stabbing quality receptors. NE also binds to alpha-2 receptors on PA presynaptic
of physiologic pain (Muir and Woolf, 2001; Woolf and Salter, and second-order postsynaptic membranes, mediating antinoci-
2000). Nociceptor activation from intense or sustained nox- ception by reducing the glutamate release from PA and reducing
ious stimuli (C-fiber intensity) results in the release of greater the excitation of projection neurons (Sonohata et al., 2004).
amounts of glutamate and metabotropic neuromodulators such 5-HT receptors of various subtypes are expressed on DH
as substance P (SP). The increased glutamate and SP release interneurons, PA presynaptic, and second-order postsynap-
initiates activation and recruitment of NMDA receptors, pro- tic membranes. The exact subtypes and mechanisms involved
ducing a greater, more sustained response. The details and in 5-HT-mediated antinociception are not firmly established.
significance of NMDA receptor activation will be addressed Electrophysiological studies suggest that 5-HT modulates noci-
in Section VI.B. ception in a similar fashion as NE [reviewed in Yoshimura and
Furue (2006)].
The neuropharmacology of pain facilitation appears to
B. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters and Receptors involve many of the same neurotransmitters as descending inhi-
bition, but is not nearly as well understood. It likely involves
1. GABA and Glycine the activation of NE and 5-HT receptor subtypes that facilitate
excitation (Yoshimura and Furue, 2006).
The principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous
system, including the spinal DH, is gamma-amino-butyric
acid (GABA), with glycine being the next most significant.
IV. NEONATAL DEVELOPMENT AND PAIN
GABA and glycine are primarily released from DH IIN in
response to segmental or descending activation. There also
exists a population of nonserotonergic neurons originating in Much study has focused on the developmental neurobiology
the RVM that likely release GABA and glycine in the DH of nociceptive systems in rats and humans but relatively little
(Cho and Basbaum, 1991; Kato et al., 2006). GABA’s action for other species. Mellor et al. suggest that a fetus is uncon-
in the DH is mediated by ionotropic GABAA (chloride chan- scious until birth, the implication being that a fetus does not feel
nel) and metabotropic GABAB (G protein coupled) receptor pain, because perception requires consciousness (Mellor and
subtypes present on presynaptic Aδ- and C-fibers and postsy- Gregory, 2003; Mellor et al., 2005). Neuorologic development
naptic projection fibers. GABAA activation hyperpolarizes the at birth varies significantly across species, making conclusions
10 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

about neonatal pain processing difficult. For an excellent review may significantly impact animal health and bias research results.
of the developmental biology of peripheral and spinal noci- Pain has significant effects on the cardiovascular, pulmonary,
ception, the reader is referred to Fitzgerald (2005) and the endocrine, and autonomic nervous systems that contribute to
Chapter ‘Anesthesia and Analgesia in the Fetus and Neonate’, increased morbidity and mortality (Kehlet, 1988, 1989; Yeager
later in this book. The reader is also referred to the website et al., 1987). The effects of pain may be clinical, as in an animal
http://www.translatingtime.net/ where there are data correlating that fails to groom, loses body condition, or exhibits autotomy,
the development of the CNS between a number of species. or subclinical, and only manifests after a research manipulation,
e.g., enhanced tumor promotion in response to surgical pain
A. Pain in the Neonate (Bar-Yosef et al., 2001; Page, 2003). Pain initiates integrated
neuroendocrine and autonomic nervous system responses which
In neonatal rats, A fibers evoke excitatory synaptic processes may represent a feedback mechanism for limiting inflammation
normally restricted to C-fiber input in adults, and low-threshold (Miao and Levine, 1999), as well as mechanisms for main-
input dominates the newborn DH (Fitzgerald and Jennings, taining homeostasis. The physiologic effects of these responses
1999). This is because the innervation of nociceptive-related may start out as beneficial and adaptive, but become pathologic
DH laminae (I and II) in neonatal rats is initially from A fibers, if activated for prolonged periods or if dysregulated. Counter
which regress over the first 3 weeks of life concurrent with C to Selye’s stress theory of a generalized response to any pertur-
fiber in-growth and development of physiologic activity (Baccei bation of homeostasis, specific stressors elicit a characteristic
and Fitzgerald, 2005; Beggs et al., 2002; Fitzgerald and Gibson, neuroendocrine and autonomic “signature”; thus, responses to
1984; Jennings and Fitzgerald, 1998). In atricial rats, inter- pain are not the mirror image of those elicited by restraint or
segmental reflexes are hyperresponsive, reflexive thresholds for other stressors (Pacak and Palkovits, 2001; Pacak et al., 1995;
noxious stimuli are much lower than in adults, and both nox- Pan et al., 1997), and visceral pain may not evoke the same
ious and non-noxious stimuli elicit the same type of unlocalized response as somatic (Mineta et al., 2004).
whole body responses (Fitzgerald, 2005). As the nervous system The primary system affecting the neuroendocrine response
develops, responses become more localized and discriminating to pain is the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis (HPA), with
between noxious and non-noxious stimuli. In rats, descending hypothalamic–pituitary control of other endocrine glands, fluid
inhibitory systems that help fine-tune responses are immature and electrolyte balance and appetite contributing as well. The
at birth and do not appear to be functional until 3 weeks after best-characterized physiologic responses to pain arise from the
birth (Boucher et al., 1998; van Praag and Frenk, 1991). activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS). The neu-
roendocrine and SNS responses to pain are initiated by neuronal
stimulation through direct (Almeida et al., 2004; Millan, 1999;
B. Developmental Effects of Pain Palkovits et al., 1999) or indirect connection with nociceptive
pathways (Van de Kar and Blair, 1999), or by interleukin-1
The concept of neonatal pain has led to active research on the (IL-1) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF) released from inflam-
long-term effects of exposing neonates to noxious stimuli. Stud- mation (Besedovsky and del Rey, 1996; DeKeyser et al.,
ies in rat and mouse have demonstrated that exposing neonates 2000).
to noxious stimuli results in altered behavior and nociception
in adulthood (Anand et al., 1999; Anseloni et al., 2005; Bhutta
et al., 2001). The type of noxious stimuli applied to a neonate A. Neuroendocrine Response
and the stage of development at which it is applied influence
the outcome in adulthood. Neonates exposed to noxious agents Acute pain activates the HPA axis resulting in the release
may have increased or decreased sensitivity to noxious stimuli of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) from the hypotha-
in adulthood, depending upon the type and duration of the stim- lamus, antidiuretic hormone (ADH), prolactin, adrenocorti-
ulus (Hohmann et al., 2005; Lin and Al-Chaer, 2003; Randich cotropic hormone (ACTH), and β-endorphin from the pituitary,
et al., 2006; Ruda et al., 2000; Shimada et al., 1990; Sternberg and glucocorticoids from the adrenal glands (Aloisi et al., 1995;
et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2004). It is likely that the extremely Bodnar et al., 2006; Culman et al., 1997; Mellor et al., 2002;
plastic nature of the neonatal nervous system is responsible for Pacak et al., 1995). From the known effects of glucocorti-
these effects (Nothias et al., 1988; Ren et al., 2005a; Ruda et al., coids and β-endorphin, it is reasonable to assume that pain
2000; Saab et al., 2004; Walker et al., 2003). could be immunosuppressant. Although often stated as fact, the
best evidence that pain is immunosuppressive is indirect and
comes from models and studies of surgical stress and trauma,
V. PHYSIOLOGIC EFFECTS OF PAIN
mostly in humans. A pain component likely contributes to
known immunologic effects of surgical stress: reduced neu-
In addition to the ethical considerations for relieving pain, rokinin cell activity, depressed cell-mediated immunity and
the physiologic consequences of untreated or undertreated pain lymphocyte proliferation, altered T-cell ratios, and production
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 11

of proinflammatory cytokines [Beilin et al., 2003a, 2003b; Toge VI. NEUROPLASTICITY AND PAIN: PERIPHERAL
et al., 1981; reviewed in Page (2003)]. AND CENTRAL SENSITIZATION
Pain may also play a role in tumor growth. Several studies,
mostly in rodents, have established that controlling pain reduces
In response to stimulation or activity, neurons can alter their
experimentally induced tumor burden (Page et al., 1993, 2001),
structure and/or function, a process referred to as neural plastic-
and that the effect is centrally mediated (Bar-Yosef et al., 2001).
ity. In nociceptive neurons, neuroplastic changes can increase
This concept is supported by preliminary data from human
the responsiveness of primary afferents (peripheral sensitiza-
breast cancer patients in which paravertebral analgesia was asso-
tion) and amplify and facilitate synaptic activity in the spinal DH
ciated with lower rates of cancer recurrence at 24 and 36 months
or spinal nucleus of the trigeminal (CS, central sensitization).
(Exadaktylos et al., 2006).
Since peripheral and central sensitization underlie the develop-
ment and maintenance of pain as disease, understanding and
controlling its initiation is a cornerstone of appropriate pain
B. Cardiovascular Effects management.

Pain-induced activation of the SNS increases plasma cat-

echolamines and has well-documented cardiovascular effects A. Peripheral Sensitization
including increases in heart rate, blood pressure, cardiac output,
and systemic vascular resistance (Brand et al., 1995; Culman Nociceptors express a constellation of receptors for bio-
et al., 1997; Hoar et al., 1976; Sjogren and Wright, 1972; chemicals released by inflammatory cells or injured/inflamed
Wang et al., 2005). Pain has also been shown to increase tissue, which produce pain (algogens) and/or increase nocicep-
SNS-mediated myocardial oxygen demand, coronary arterial tor responsiveness and excitability (sensitization). The principal
vasoconstriction, and fetal/neonatal pulmonary vasoconstric- inflammatory products (which may be synergistic) and their
tion (Debarge et al., 2007; Klassen et al., 1980; Vik-Mo et al., action are listed in Table 1-1. The initial mechanism by which
1978). It is also likely that activation of the SNS increases the these chemicals sensitize nociceptors is receptor-mediated acti-
circulating levels of angiotensin II and aldosterone, which, in vation of protein kinase A or C, which phosphorylate trans-
concert with ADH, increases retention of sodium and water ducers, receptors, and TTXr NaV , reducing their activation
(Cousins and Power, 1999). thresholds (McCleskey and Gold, 1999; Numazaki et al., 2002;
Obreja et al., 2005). Transducer phosphorylation increases noci-
ceptor responsiveness to stimuli (hypersensitivity and primary
allodynia), and likely increases the number of APs delivered
C. Pulmonary Compromise to the DH by activating silent nociceptors [reviewed in Mil-
lan (1999), Woolf and Salter (2000)]. The phosphorylation of
Pronounced pain can significantly compromise pulmonary TTXr NaV causes greater neuronal excitability, which increases
function through SNS activation, reductions in chest excursion the AP frequency initiated by stimuli (primary hyperalgesia)
and coughing, and possibly diaphragmatic dysfunction. In stud- [Gold et al., 1998; reviewed in Julius and Basbaum (2001)].
ies of human thoracic surgery patients, pain has been shown to The process is further amplified by nociceptor release of SP,
decrease tidal volume, functional residual capacity, and minute CGRP, and excitatory amino acids (EAA) that act on neighbor-
ventilation, and cause ventilation–perfusion mismatch, result- ing neurons, vasculature, and immune cells, and form a positive
ing in hypoxemia and hypercarbia (Erdogan et al., 2005; Lewis feedback loop on the initiating nociceptor. These neuronally
et al., 1994; Rawal, 2001; Roediger et al., 2006; Solak et al.,
2007). Pain is also associated with an increased prevalence of
pneumonia in postoperative patients (Cousins and Power, 1999; TABLE 1-1
Lewis et al., 1994). Although not well investigated, pain prob- Principle Inflammatory Products Responsible for Peripheral
ably elicits similar pulmonary effects in animals (Dhokarikar Sensitization
et al., 1996; Flecknell et al., 1991; Vesal et al., 1996). Inflamatory mediator Action

Bradykinin Algogen/sensitization
Prostagandin E2 Sensitization
D. Miscellaneous Effects Histamine Sensitization
Serotonin Algogen/sensitization
Hydrogen ions Algogen/sensitization
Other metabolic and physiologic effects attributed to pain ATP Algogen/sensitization
include glucose intolerance, ileus, induction of a “catabolic Nerve growth factor Sensitization
state,” decreased reproductive function, and sleep disturbance
(Cousins and Power, 1999). Note: Order in chart does not denote significance.
12 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

derived chemicals may activate or sensitize adjacent nocicep- high-frequency AP trains to the DH and the release of large
tors directly or indirectly, cause “neurogenic inflammation” amounts of glutamate and metabotropic neuromodulators, such
(vasodilatation, increased vascular permeability), and initi- as SP, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and others
ate or amplify inflammatory cell responses [Lin et al., 2000; with less well-characterized actions (CGRP and neurokinin A)
Szolcsanyi, 1988; reviewed in Willis (1999)]. Changes in gene (Duggan et al., 1990, 1995; Hope et al., 1990; Woolf and Salter,
transcription and translation further help in perpetuating the 2000). SP binds to receptors that mediate increased intracellu-
cycle. Neurotrophic factors and cytokines released by inflam- lar Ca++ levels and opening of voltage-gated Ca++ channels
matory cells or inflamed tissue initiate PA upregulation of NaV , that (like NMDA receptors) produce slow sustained EPSPs.
TRPs, SP, and other peptides and proteins involved in sensiti- Increased glutamate release intensifies AMPA-mediated post-
zation (Black et al., 2004a; Lai et al., 2004; Mamet et al., 2002, synaptic depolarization, generating sufficient current to recruit
2003; Michael and Priestley, 1999; Sachs et al., 2002; Tate NMDA receptors by releasing their Mg++ blockade and ini-
et al., 1998; Woolf, 1996). Through the aforementioned mech- tiating their activation (Petrenko et al., 2003). Activation of
anisms, peripheral sensitization contributes to clinical pain and metabotropic glutamate receptors and specific receptors for
the initiation of CS (Muir and Woolf, 2001; Woolf, 2004). BDNF and SP appear to increase postsynaptic neuron excitabil-
ity by triggering a host of interrelated signaling cascades and
protein kinases, many of which may be regulated by the mitogen-
B. Central Sensitization activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascade [reviewed in Ji and
Woolf (2001), Pezet et al. (2002), and Woolf and Costigan
1. Wind-up (1999)]. Activation of these pathways results in increased intra-
Throughout the literature on pain, the term “wind-up” is often cellular calcium and related signaling and phosphorylation of
cited as a mechanism for rapid acute pain augmentation and AMPA and NMDA receptors. Increased intracellular calcium
a predecessor to CS. In actuality, “wind-up” is a progressive also activates nitric oxide (NO) synthase and production of NO,
increase in AP frequency generated by closely repeated constant and activates phospholipase A2 and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-
pulses of electricity (Mendell and Wall, 1965). It is an exper- 2), leading to prostaglandin (PG) formation [reviewed in Yaksh
imental electrophysiologic demonstration of neural plasticity et al. (1999)]. NO and PG appear to facilitate CS through
and occurs within seconds of stimulation. Wind-up is neither increasing presynaptic SP and increasing postsynaptic mem-
necessary nor sufficient for CS to occur and, though it has per- brane excitability (Hingtgen and Vasko, 1994; Malmberg and
ceptual correlates in people and animals and is quite dependent Yaksh, 1993; Yaksh et al., 1999).
on NMDA receptor activity, its physiologic significance and role Although it is probable that other proteins contributing to
in pain is uncertain (Davies and Lodge, 1987; Dickenson and CS are modulated by phosphorylation, AMPA and NMDA are
Sullivan, 1987; Herrero et al., 2000; Price et al., 1977; Sarkar the best characterized. Phosphorylation increases the traffick-
et al., 2006; Woolf and Thompson, 1991). It has been proposed ing of AMPA to the cell membrane, may reduce the voltage
that “wind-up like” events may facilitate the development of gating of NMDA Mg++ blockade, and increases the ion con-
pathologic pain by contributing to the initiation of long-term ductance of both receptors (Chen and Huang, 1992; Hayashi
potentiation (discussed in Section VII.A.2) in C-fiber synapses and Huganir, 2004; Song and Huganir, 2002; Wang and Salter,
(Herrero et al., 2000; Sandkuhler, 2000; Sivilotti et al., 1993). 1994; Yu and Salter, 1998, 1999; Yu et al., 1997). The net effect
of these changes is increased responsiveness of second-order
DH neurons to synaptic glutamate release, which amplifies
2. Activity-dependent Neuronal Model
Aδ- and C-fiber transmission (hyperalgesia) and allows Aβ
CS contributes to primary hyperalgesia, and is the only transmission to activate nociceptive projections (mechanical
mechanism by which secondary hyperalgesia and secondary allodynia). Another effect is the expansion of DH receptive
allodynia occur (Woolf and Salter, 2000). It is initiated by fields to include areas outside the primary zone of injury,
activity (nociceptive transmission)-dependent posttranslational accounting for the secondary mechanical allodynia and sec-
modulation of neuronal function, and maintained by changes in ondary hyperalgesia that characterizes CS (Woolf and King,
gene transcription and translation (Woolf and Salter, 2000). 1990).
The acute phase of CS depends on the activation of intracellu-
lar signaling cascades and protein kinases initiated within min-
3. Activity-dependent Glial Model
utes of a barrage of C-fiber transmission (Woolf and Costigan,
1999). The “barrage” can occur through three basic mecha- An important advance in neurobiology has been the dis-
nisms: an intense stimulus such as traumatic injury or a surgical covery that many aspects of pain, in particular CS, are not
incision, stimulation of sensitized peripheral nociceptors, or completely neuronal events, and may depend upon glial cell
spontaneous activity from injured sensory neurons. As previ- (microglia and astrocytes) activation. Glial cells surround every
ously described in Section III.A, nociceptor activation from synapse in the central nervous system and, superimposed on
intense or sustained noxious stimuli results in transmission of the aforementioned classic neuronal model of CS initiation, is
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 13

(a) (b) Quiescent

glia

Incoming
NK-1 A-␦/C fiber “pain”
receptor Normal signals
substance P
release,
EAA release
AMPA
receptor
PTN

Pain message to brain

via PTNs
NMDA
receptor
Pain stimulus

(c) (d)
Viruses and bacteria
Non-existent
glia
PTN Primary afferent
Incoming
– NO, PGs, – Substance P,
NK-1 A-␦/C fiber “pain”
fractalkine EAAs, ATP
receptor Enhanced signals
substance P
release, Activated glia
AMPA EAA release
receptor
PTN
IL-1, TNF, IL-6, ROS, NO PGs, EAAs, ATP
cNOS
NMDA
L-arginine
NO receptor Enhance PTN excitability Enhance primary afferent,
substance P and EAA release

Fig. 1-1 Schematic of central sensitization (CS). Neuronal model of (a) pain signaling and (c) CS. (b) Glial model: Quiescent glia during physiologic pain.
(d) Role of glial activation in initiating and maintaining CS superimposed on neuronal-driven model. PTN, projection neuron; EAAs, excitatory amino acids; ROS,
reactive oxygen species; cNOS, nitric oxide synthase; NK-1, neurokinin–1, the receptor for SP. Not all events involved in neuronal models (a, b, c) are depicted.
See text for other abbreviations and description of events. Reprinted from Watkins et al. (2001) with permission from Elsevier.

the proposed role of microglia depicted in Figure 1-1. In the the contention that glial activation is necessary and sufficient for
glial model, intense C-fiber activity related SP and glutamate initiating and maintaining CS [Ledeboer et al., 2005; Zhuang
release (described in Section VI.A.2) activates DH microglial et al., 2005; reviewed in DeLeo et al. (2004) and Watkins et al.
cells [reviewed in DeLeo and Yezierski (2001), Watkins and (2001)]. The glial model suggests that central nervous system
Maier (2005), and Wieseler-Frank et al. (2005b)]. Microglial synapses have a tetrapartite structure, comprised of microglia,
cells are also activated by ATP, NO, PG, and fractalkine, a astrocytes, and the pre- and postsynaptic neurons (DeLeo et al.,
chemokine which may be released by DH neurons under similar 2006).
conditions (Inoue, 2006; Owolabi and Saab, 2006). Microglial
cells alone (not neurons or astrocytes) express fractalkine recep-
4. Transcription/translation Dependent
tors, lending further support to this model (Watkins et al., 2001).
When activated, microglia release a host of substances (Fig. Over a period of hours to days, CS switches from activity-
1-1) known to enhance SP and glutamate release from first- dependent processes to transcription- and translation-dependent
order fiber terminals, increase the excitability of second-order processes. The intracellular signaling pathways triggered in
neurons, and activate astrocytes (DeLeo and Yezierski, 2001; the acute phase of CS likely converge to activate the cAMP-
Inoue, 2006; Wieseler-Frank et al., 2005a). The role of astrocyte responsive element-binding protein (CREB), which regulates
activation will be discussed in Section VII.A.2. the transcription of numerous genes (Ji et al., 2003). This
A significant aspect of this model is that microglia can be includes upregulation of COX-2 and concomitant production
activated by viruses, bacteria, or proinflammatory cytokines of PG within hours (Beiche et al., 1996; Hay et al., 1997;
produced anywhere in the body by any means, explaining pain Samad et al., 2001), and upregulation of receptors for SP
and hyperalgesia in the absence of injury or during illness and BDNF [neurokinin-1 (NK-1) and tyrosine kinase B (trkB),
[Milligan et al., 2003; Watkins et al., 1994; reviewed in Watkins respectively] over 24 hours or more (Ji et al., 2002; Man-
and Maier (2005)]. Abundant experimental evidence supports nion et al., 1999). These changes, the activation of astrocytes,
14 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

and other events to be discussed allow for the maintenance of 1. Long-term Potentiation
CS independent of an afferent barrage, and appear to play an
Many of the signaling cascades involved in the acute phase
important role in the development of chronic pain (Cervero and
of CS converge on MAPK-dependent pathways that mediate
Laird, 1996).
late-onset transcription-dependent CS (Ji and Woolf, 2001;
Zhuang et al., 2005). This includes induction of the extra-
cellular signal-regulated kinase–CREB (ERK–CREB) pathway.
VII. PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CHRONIC PAIN ERK–CREB induction in nociceptive pathways bears striking
similarity to MAPK-pathway induction responsible for hip-
pocampal long-term potentiation (LTP) (Ji et al., 2003). LTP is
Unlike physiologic pain, chronic pain is maladaptive and
an activity-dependent increase in synaptic strength or efficiency
serves no known purpose. In animals, chronic pain likely arises
that can last for hours to years. Physiologically, this translates
from injury or inflammation-initiated cascades of neurobiologi-
into a larger postsynaptic output from a constant level of presy-
cal, immune, and endocrine processes that cause functional and
naptic stimulation and is generally believed to be a synaptic
morphologic changes in the nervous system. The physiologic
substrate for memory and learning (Sandkuhler, 2000). LTP
consequences of these modifications modulate and/or uncou-
in spinal nociceptive systems has been proposed as a mecha-
ple pain from noxious stimuli, or dissociate pain from healing
nism by which acute pain may become chronic (Ikeda et al.,
(Cervero and Laird, 1996). Although how and when the transi-
2006; Rygh et al., 2005; Sandkuhler and Liu, 1998; Suzuki
tion from acute to chronic pain occurs is unclear, the initiation
et al., 2005). Therefore, MAPK-dependent pathways represent
and maintenance of long-term pathologic alterations in neuronal
a novel target for the development of new therapeutic strategies
function, characteristic of chronic pain, undoubtedly involves
for pain management (Ji and Woolf, 2001).
neuroplasticity in the form of genotypic, phenotypic, and func-
tional changes across the nervous system, some of which may
be irreversible. 2. Glial Activation
Injury or inflammation initiates immune–neuronal processes
A. Role of Neuroplasticity and Sensitization that appear to influence the development of chronic pain. As
described in Section VI.B.3, activated microglia in turn acti-
Chronic pain models have demonstrated altered gene and pro- vate astrocytes, which may play a role in maintaining chronic
tein expression of a dizzying array of ion channels, receptors, pain by releasing cytokines and signaling molecules, perpetu-
peptides, lipids, enzymes, growth factors, and intracellular sig- ating CS (DeLeo et al., 2004; Narita et al., 2006; Raghavendra
naling molecules, some with distinct temporal and etiologic et al., 2004). Astrocyte activation occurs about 4 days after
signatures (Kunz et al., 2005; Shi et al., 2000; Urch et al., microglia are activated (Raghavendra et al., 2004), and brain
2003; Wang et al., 2002; Waxman et al., 2000; Wiesenfeld- astrocytes can activate in response to peripheral nerve injury
Hallin and Xu, 2001; Woolf and Costigan, 1999; Woolf and without prior microglial differentiation (Kuzumaki et al., 2007).
Salter, 2000; Zhuang et al., 2005). Also demonstrated in chronic Preventing microglial activation or blocking the action of their
pain paradigms are phenotypic switching in peripheral, DH, products (prior to astrocyte activation) inhibits the development
and brainstem neurons; topographic and somatotopic neuronal of hyperalgesia and allodynia (Ledeboer et al., 2005; Mika et al.,
reorganization; death of IIN in the DH; and astrocyte activation 2007; Milligan et al., 2005; Raghavendra et al., 2003). How-
(Chung et al., 1996; Hu et al., 2004; Ramer and Bisby, 1998; ever, once astrocytes are activated, inhibiting microglial cells
Ueda, 2006; Yen et al., 2006; Yoshimura et al., 2004). Together, has no effect on pain (Ledeboer et al., 2005; Owolabi and Saab,
these processes give rise to and maintain the cardinal signs of 2006; Raghavendra et al., 2003). Finally, the nonspecific glial
chronic pain: allodynia, hyperalgesia, and spontaneous pain. modulator, propentofylline, has been shown to reverse exist-
Both peripheral and central sensitization appear critical in the ing nerve-injury-induced mechanical allodynia 14 days after
genesis of chronic pain. As should be apparent from the descrip- its development (Tawfik et al., 2007). Taken together, these
tion of peripheral and central sensitization, this is a dynamic lines of evidence support the pivotal role of glial cells in the
process; mechanisms giving rise to sensitization-related clinical pathogenesis of acute and chronic pain.
signs transition over time and differ in acute and chronic pain.
Salient features of these processes that relate to clinical signs
3. Voltage-gated Sodium Channels
and treatment of chronic pain will be discussed later. For detailed
information on the pathophysiology of chronic pain, the reader NaV ion channels (NaV 1.3, 1.7, 1.8) have been impli-
is referred to some excellent reviews (Cervero and Laird, 1996; cated in the pathogenesis of both neuropathic and inflammatory
DeLeo and Yezierski, 2001; Ji and Woolf, 2001; Millan, 1999; chronic pain [Lai et al., 2002; reviewed in Lai et al. (2004) and
Sandkuhler, 2007; Ueda, 2006; Watkins and Maier, 2002; Waxman and Hains (2006)]. In response to injury and inflamma-
Waxman et al., 2000; Wieseler-Frank et al., 2004). tion, altered expression and distribution of sodium ion channels
1. ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND EFFECTS OF PAIN 15

occur in nociceptive afferents and DH neurons (Black et al., developed from toxins produced by marine cone snails, which
2004b; Devor et al., 1989; Gold et al., 2003; Hains et al., have been approved or are in clinical trials for treating severe
2004; Tanaka et al., 1998). These changes increase membrane chronic pain (McGivern, 2006).
excitability, which augments nociceptor and DH responsiveness
and leads to the generation of spontaneous (ectopic) impulses
5. Inhibitory Interneuron Apoptosis
in the absence of stimuli (Chu et al., 2004; Djouhri et al., 2006;
Hains et al., 2003, 2006; Lampert et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2002; Mechanical nerve-injury-induced ectopic activity leads to
Pertovaara et al., 2001; Sotgiu and Biella, 2000). Ectopic activ- apoptosis of cells in the superficial laminae of the DH, including
ity appears to be another significant factor in the initiation and GABAergic IIN (Moore et al., 2002; Whiteside and Munglani,
development of chronic pain, and may contribute to allody- 2001). Loss of these cells appears to be triggered by glutamater-
nia, hyperalgesia, and spontaneous pain (Abdulla and Smith, gic neurotransmission and mediated by metabotropic glutamate
2001; Liu et al., 2000; Nakamura and Atsuta, 2004; Pitcher receptor 5 (mGlu5) (de Novellis et al., 2004) and neuronal
and Henry, 2000). NaV channel blockade inhibits peripheral intercellular caspase-3 activity (Scholz et al., 2005). Nerve-
nerve-injury-induced spontaneous activity in A and C fibers injury-induced apoptosis in the DH exhibits slow onset, persists
and the development of NP (Araujo et al., 2003; Smith et al., for weeks, and results in substantial neuronal loss (Scholz et al.,
2002). However, the temporal relationship between injury, 2005). Although not well characterized, the possibility exists
activity blockade, and the development of pain is critical. To that inflammation induces apoptosis in spinal neurons as well
abolish the development of allodynia and hyperalgesia, nerve (Hassanzadeh and Ahmadiani, 2006). The loss of GABAergic
blockade must be initiated within the first 10 days after injury IIN is believed to dissociate the DH from descending antinoci-
and applied for—three to five consecutive days (Xie et al., ceptive signals and further increase CS (Moore et al., 2002;
2005). Whiteside and Munglani, 2001). Apoptosis of GABAergic IIN
The expression of NaV 1.3, 1.7, and 1.8 in DRG neurons is accounts in part for the efficacy of GABA agonists in treating
increased in inflammatory chronic pain models (Black et al., NP, and the mechanism suggests that mGlu5 and caspase-3 may
2004a; Tanaka, et al., 1998). In contrast, NaV 1.8 is downreg- be novel therapeutic targets.
ulated in mechanically injured neurons (Decosterd et al., 2002;
Dib-Hajj et al., 2002), but redistributed in neighboring unin-
6. Phenotypic Switching
jured neurons (Gold et al., 2003). Peripheral nerve injury also
produces a novel expression of NaV 1.3 in peripheral nociceptive Phenotypic switching is the induced expression of
and second-order DH neurons, and spinal cord injury increases nociceptive-related ion channels, molecules, and receptors not
NaV 1.3 in second-order DH neurons and likely increases it normally found in non-nociceptive sensory neurons, and novel
in VPL thalamic neurons (Hains et al., 2004, 2006). Induced up- or downregulation of similar molecules in nociceptive neu-
changes in NaV expression are important in the pathogenesis rons [reviewed in Malcangio et al. (2000), Ueda (2006), and
of acute and chronic pain; thus, the development of subtype- Zhou et al. (1999)]. In the periphery, this may result in a loss of
specific Na channel blocking agents could provide more specific input from C fibers and novel nociceptive input from A fibers
treatment for inflammatory and NP. to second-order DH neurons. This form of phenotype switching
is noted in nerve injury models and would account for allody-
nia and CS in the absence of C-fiber input (Neumann et al.,
4. Voltage-gated Calcium Channels
1996; Ueda, 2006). Phenotype switching has been proposed
Voltage-gated N-type calcium channels are almost exclu- as a mechanism for sympathetic nervous system modulation of
sively neuronal, densely expressed in laminae I and II of the DH, chronic pain conditions (Chen et al., 1996; Drummond et al.,
concentrated at presynaptic terminals, and appear to regulate 1996; Ren et al., 2005b; Treede, 1998) and may also account for
neurotransmitter release (Westenbroek et al., 1992; Zamponi, the differential effect of some analgesic drugs. For example, the
2003). Several studies demonstrate the role of N-type calcium analgesic effects of capsaicin cream in NP may be due to desen-
channels in nociception and the development of chronic pain. sitization of de novo vanilloid receptor 1 expressed on fibers that
Inflammation and peripheral nerve injury induce upregulation are normally capsaicin-insensitive (Rashid et al., 2003a, 2003b).
of the α1β and α2β subunits of N-type calcium channels, which Although a definitive role has not been ascribed, the diversity
may contribute to peripheral and central sensitization (Abe et al., of changes noted in a variety of induced chronic pain models
2002; Cizkova et al., 2002; Luo et al., 2001; Newton et al., supports the role of phenotypic switching in the pathogenesis
2001; Yokoyama et al., 2003). In neuropathic and inflammatory of chronic pain.
models, pharmacologic blockade or targeted deletion of the α1β
subunit suppresses the development of allodynia and hyperal-
7. Supraspinal Contributions
gesia [reviewed in McGivern (2006)]. An important step in pain
management is the recent development of novel drugs targeting Although recognized, investigation of supraspinal neurobiol-
N-type calcium channels. This includes synthetic ω-conotoxins, ogy contributing to chronic pain lags far behind what is known
16 GEORGE J. DEMARCO AND PETER J. PASCOE

about peripheral nerves and the spinal DH. Supraspinal changes, 2. Chronic Inflammatory Pain
including somatotopic reorganization, glial activation, altered
Chronic inflammatory pain (CIP) develops from chemi-
cortical and subcortical activation, changes in neurotransmitter
cals (algogens, sensitizers, immunomodulators) released by
release and receptor expression, and induction of COX-2,have
immunocytes infiltrating injured or diseased tissue, and gener-
been suggested to play roles in the pathobiology of chronic
ally refers to somatic or visceral inflammatory pain. With CIP,
pain (Casey et al., 2003; Hagelberg et al., 2004; Hansson and
the underlying disease process often causes long-term produc-
Ronnback, 2004; Karl et al., 2001, 2004; Laemmle et al., 2003;
tion of algogens and sensitizers, which may contribute to the
Morrow et al., 2000; Neto et al., 1999; Nystedt et al., 2004;
unique neurochemical signatures noted in models of inflamma-
Raghavendra et al., 2004; Samad et al., 2001; Tanga et al., 2004).
tory pain (Honore et al., 2000). Osteoarthritis, endometriosis,
feline lower urinary tract disease, hoof rot, and possibly ulcer-
8. Psychosocial Factors
ative dermatitis are examples of diseases associated with CIP.
The development of chronic pain in people is strongly depen-
dent on psychosocial factors, some of which arise from the 3. Cancer-associated Chronic Pain
cognitive and emotional responses to pain (Koleck et al., 2006;
Although neoplasia is an established cause, its place as an
Manchikanti et al., 2002). This lends support to the concept
etiology for chronic pain in laboratory animal medicine is some-
that pain involves interaction between nociceptive, antinoci-
what uncertain. Virtually all in vivo tumorigenicity studies are
ceptive, cognitive, and emotive systems. It also suggests that
done in rodents, many of which carry significant tumor burdens
functional disorder within these intertwined networks may be
without showing overt signs of pain. This seems particularly true
the physiologic substrate for the development of chronic pain
for immunocompromised mice used to propagate tumor lines.
and comorbid conditions (Apkarian et al., 2005; Ashkinazi and
With the exception of bone and neuropathic studies (almost all
Vershinina, 2000; Curatolo et al., 2004; Sud et al., 2006).
of which are acute), little is known about pain in animal cancer
How, or even if, cognitive and emotive factors influence the
models or pain associated with spontaneous tumors (other than
development of chronic pain in animals is unknown.
bone) in animals (Mantyh and Hunt, 2004; Peters et al., 2005;
Roughan et al., 2004).
B. Etiologies

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 Chapter 2

Pharmacology of Injectable Anesthetics,

Sedatives, and Tranquilizers
Robert E. Meyer and Richard E. Fish

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
II. Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid Receptor Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A. Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
B. Barbiturates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
C. Chloral Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
D. Alpha-Chloralose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
E. Metomidate and Etomidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
F. Propofol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
G. Tribromoethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
H. Steroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
I. Benzodiazepine Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
III. NMDA-Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
A. Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
B. Cyclohexamines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
IV. Alpha2-Adrenoceptor Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
A. Mechanism of Action and General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
B. Xylazine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
C. Medetomidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
D. Detomidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
E. Romifidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
F. Alpha2-Adrenoceptor Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
V. Dopaminergic Receptor Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
A. Mechanism of Action and General Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
B. Phenothiazine Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
C. Butyrophenone Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
VI. Miscellaneous Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
A. Urethane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
B. Eugenol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
VII. Local Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
A. Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
B. Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

27
28 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

C. Biodistribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
D. Pharmacologic Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
E. Tissue and Histopathology Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
F. Immune System Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
VIII. Anesthetic Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
A. Neuroleptanalgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
B. Ketamine Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
C. Tiletamine–Zolazepam (Telazol) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
D. Other Anesthetic Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

I. INTRODUCTION
administration to prevent autonomic or physiologic responses
to noxious stimulation; those subjected to extensive or invasive
The term “injectable anesthetic,” as applied to this chapter procedures will likely require postoperative analgesics for pain
covers a broad range of substances with varied effects. The use of control following return to consciousness.
injectable anesthetics in laboratory animals is preferred by many There is a need while evaluating research literature on anes-
for a variety of reasons: ease of administration, a widely avail- thetic agents, to consider the importance of recognizing: how
able database supporting the use in laboratory animals, fewer (if) the parameters of anesthetic duration are defined, and the
specialized equipment needs, avoidance of endotracheal intu- distinction between depth of anesthesia and antinociceptive
bation, and fewer potential occupational health concerns for potency (Antognini et al., 2005; Whelan and Flecknell, 1992;
laboratory workers (Fish, 1997). The use of continuous infu- Wixson et al., 1987a); shortcomings of control data such as
sion techniques has attracted attention in veterinary and human absence of nonmedicated animal data, and use of conscious ani-
medicine, not only to account for individual variation, but also mals which are restrained, not at rest, or are evaluated shortly
to improve anesthetic stability by approaching a steady-state after recovery from instrumentation surgery/anesthesia; and
blood concentration (Hedenqvist and Hellebrekers, 2003; Ilkiw failure to maintain normal body temperature and ventilation
and Pascoe, 2003; Ting et al., 2004; White, 1989). There has status. It should also be remembered that, although a pharma-
also been interest in developing injectable anesthetic agents that cologic effect may be attributed to a particular anesthetic agent,
may approach inhalants in speed of recovery or that have the many reported effects are a more generalized feature of the
potential for pharmacologic antagonism (Nunn et al., 1989). anesthetic state. For example, barbiturate anesthesia has been
By definition, an injectable anesthetic agent is a compound reported to reduce ionizing radiation effectiveness in killing
that by itself produces a state of general anesthesia; this can tumor cells. Although this effect has been attributed to a direct
be further characterized as pharmacologically induced central effect on cellular respiration (Aldridge and Parker, 1960), it is
nervous system (CNS) depression that permits invasive surgical instead due to anesthetic-mediated reduction and redistribution
or experimental procedures to be performed. The basic compo- of tumor blood flow in anesthetized animals (Meyer et al., 2002).
nents of general anesthesia include amnesia, unconsciousness, As a general rule, injectable anesthetics tend to produce drug-
and immobility in response to noxious stimulation. However, specific and dose-dependent circulatory, respiratory, and CNS
many of the agents discussed in this chapter, such as the ben- effects. The mechanisms by which anesthetics exert their sys-
zodiazepines, dopaminergic receptor antagonists, and alpha2 temic effects in the intact animal are modified by their direct
adrenergic agonists do not meet the above definition of general and indirect influence on myocardial contractility, peripheral
anesthetics and generally have adjunctive roles. smooth muscle tone, and autonomic nervous system activity.
Inclusion of analgesia as a necessary component of general These effects vary substantially among different anesthetics,
anesthesia is arguable (Antognini and Carstens, 2002). Analge- even at equivalent doses, and can greatly affect physiologic
sia is the absence of pain, and pain is defined as “an unpleasant processes as well as the uptake and distribution of concurrently
sensory and emotional experience associated with actual or administered pharmaceutics.
potential tissue damage, or described in terms of such damage” Determining an equivalent dose for injectable anesthetic
(IASP Task Force on Taxonomy, 1994). As such, pain is a con- agents can be quite difficult. In order to make meaningful com-
scious experience and analgesia is therefore not an absolutely parisons of anesthetic effect, including potency and safety, it
necessary component of general anesthesia because uncon- is essential that equally potent doses of anesthesia are admin-
scious animals (or humans) cannot experience pain (Antognini istered under well-defined conditions. Individual anesthetic
et al., 2005). Many injectable anesthetics, such as the GABAA dose-response curves tend to be quite steep and are not necessar-
agonist propofol, do not routinely produce analgesia (Frolich ily parallel. Higher doses of hypnotic agents, such as propofol
et al., 2005), yet can produce adequate general anesthesia in or the barbiturates, do not induce additional antinocicep-
humans and animals. Animals administered injectable anesthet- tion commensurate with increased CNS and cardiopulmonary
ics often require supplemental pre- or perioperative analgesic depression. For inhaled anesthetics, the minimum alveolar
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 29

concentration (MAC) provides a quantitative measure of CNS steroid anesthetics, and the benzodiazepines all exert sedative
potency based on movement in response to a standardized nox- and hypnotic effects through interactions with the inhibitory
ious stimulus; the equivalent for injectable anesthetics would γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmitter system (Im
be the free concentration of drug in plasma required to prevent et al., 1990; Krasowski and Harrison, 2000; Macdonald and
response to noxious stimulus in 50% of subjects, which is a McLean, 1986; Olsen, 1987; Saunders and Ho, 1990; Stoelt-
difficult measurement to make in real time. ing and Hillier, 2006; Suzdak et al., 1986; Turner et al., 1989).
Injectable anesthetic agents producing adequate anesthesia in Both the GABA and adrenergic neurotransmitter systems act
one strain or species may be insufficient or may provide different to counterbalance the action of excitatory neurotransmitters.
signs of anesthesia at similar doses in other strains or species. The GABA type A receptor (GABAA ) receptor is comprised of
There are several possible reasons for this. Anesthetic uptake, five glycoprotein subunits (ά, β, γ2 subunits). Transmembrane
distribution, and effect are governed by the pharmacokinetic chloride conductance increases when the GABAA receptor is
and pharmacodynamic properties of the anesthetic agent in that activated, resulting in postsynaptic cell membrane hyperpolar-
strain or species. As is true for other drugs, individual variation ization and postsynaptic neuron resistance to stimulation by
plays an important role in biodisposition and pharmacokinetics, excitatory transmitters. Barbiturates and propofol appear to
as well as in therapeutics. Components of this variation include decrease the rate of dissociation of GABA from its receptor,
genotype (breed, stock, strain), sex, age, body composition, and thus increasing the duration of the GABA-activated opening of
nutritional and disease status. chloride channels. Barbiturates also can mimic the action of
Allometric scaling is often applied when extrapolating drug GABA by activating the chloride channels directly. Etomidate
disposition across species. Allometric scaling is based on the augments GABA-gated chloride currents (indirect modulation),
empirical observation that certain physiological functions, such and produces chloride currents in the absence of GABA at
as renal glomerular filtration rate, oxygen consumption, cardiac higher concentrations (direct modulation). Although propo-
output, and basal metabolic rate, can be scaled across species fol, like the barbiturates, enhances GABA-activated chloride
as a function of body size or surface area according to a power channel activity, it also has ion-channel-blocking effects in cere-
function or its log-transformed linear equivalent: bral cortex and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, and inhibits
lysophosphatidate signaling in lipid mediator receptors. Thus,
Y = aW b
by acting on a single receptor via different mechanisms, quite
where Y is the parameter under study, a an allometric coefficient different anesthetic agents can act synergistically to increase
(intercept) that is constant for a drug, W the species average GABAA receptor-mediated inhibition of the CNS. The use
body weight, and b the allometric exponent, generally between of GABAA -targeted mutant knockout and knockin mice has
0.67 and 1.0 (Adolph, 1949). Although allometry applies well greatly assisted in determining the role of individual recep-
to antibiotics, it appears to be of limited use for most injectable tor subtypes to anesthetic action (Rudolph and Mohler, 2004;
anesthetic drugs. This may be due to factors such as species Wafford et al., 2004).
differences in protein binding, as well as species-dependent dif- The benzodiazepines are unusual, in that they do not directly
ferences in “flow-dependent” and “capacity-dependent” hepatic activate GABAA receptors, but rather enhance the affinity of
clearances (Riviere et al., 1997). the receptors for GABA (Mohler and Richards, 1988); in the
Abundant, detailed information on the pharmacology of absence of GABA, benzodiazepines have no effects on GABAA
injectable anesthetics is available in both human and veterinary receptor function. As a result, there is increased affinity of the
literature. While it is presumed that the cellular mechanisms GABA receptor for the inhibitory neurotransmitter, which facil-
underlying anesthetic effects are well conserved among species, itates opening of chloride-gated channels and increases chloride
it is clear that pharmacokinetics (or biodisposition) and clinical conductance. The subsequent resistance to excitation is pre-
effects differ markedly among species. The focus of this chapter, sumed to be the mechanism by which benzodiazepines produce
therefore, is on the pharmacologic aspects of injectable agents in anxiolysis, sedation, potentiation of other CNS drug effects,
experimental animals, with particular emphasis on nondomes- anterograde amnesia, and anticonvulsant and muscle relaxation
tic species, and the effects of these agents on the physiology and effects.
metabolism of the animal. The degree of benzodiazepine receptor modulation is limited
and may explain the CNS “ceiling effect” observed with these
drugs. Greatest binding capacity is found in alpha1 subunits of
II. GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID
the GABAA receptor present in the cerebral cortex, cerebellar
RECEPTOR AGONISTS
cortex, and thalamus (McKernan et al., 2000; Rall, 1990); this
is thought to produce sedation, while the less abundant alpha2
A. Mechanism of Action subunits present in the limbic system are associated with anx-
iolysis (Low et al., 2000). The overall pharmacologic effect is
The barbiturates, chloral hydrate, alpha-chloralose, modulation of release of excitatory neurotransmitters, such as
tribromoethanol (TBE), propofol, metomidate, etomidate, the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin (Muir et al., 1991).
30 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

It is important to realize that although GABAA -agonist Barbiturate administration is not associated with increased
injectable anesthetics can produce sedation, hypnosis, and, with sympathetic activity (Zimpfer et al., 1982). They selectively
the exception of the benzodiazepines, general anesthesia, they suppress transmission in sympathetic nervous system ganglia
are generally considered to be poor analgesics and therefore at concentrations that have no detectable effect on nerve con-
may be insufficient for extensive or highly invasive surgery. duction. This effect may contribute to decreased systemic blood
However, even large doses of opioids (covered elsewhere in pressure that is sometimes observed with intravenous (IV)
this text) or alpha2-adrenergic agonists (Section IV) induce an administration of barbiturates or associated with barbiturate
incomplete anesthetic state, and usually require the addition overdose. High doses of barbiturates decrease sensitivity of
of a hypnotic GABAA -agonist (or NMDA-antagonist) to cause postsynaptic membranes to acetylcholine at the neuromuscular
unconsciousness (Stoelting and Hillier, 2006). junction.
Barbiturates decrease cerebral blood flow (CBF) and thus
decrease intracranial pressure (ICP); cerebral vascular reac-
tivity to carbon dioxide is preserved (Ilkiw, 1992). Although
amelioration of neuronal damage through decreased cerebral
B. Barbiturates
metabolic rate is provided by barbiturates following a focal
ischemic event (Hall and Murdoch, 1990), the ability of barbitu-
1. Description
rates to improve brain survival after global cerebral ischemia is
Barbiturates are derived from barbituric acid, which itself is unlikely, as these drugs are only effective when the EEG remains
nondepressant, but appropriate side-chain substitutions result active and metabolic suppression is possible.
in CNS depressant activity that varies in potency and duration Tolerance to barbiturate effects, due to hepatic NADPH-
with carbon chain length, branching, and saturation. Oxybarbi- dependent cytochrome P450 enzyme induction, can be demon-
turates retain an oxygen atom on number 2-carbon atom of the strated following previous exposure to the same or different
barbituric acid ring. Thiobarbiturates replace this oxygen atom barbiturate drug. For example, rats treated with phenobarbital
with a sulfur atom, which confers greater lipid solubility. Gen- and later with hexobarbital were anesthetized only 5% as long as
erally speaking, a substitution such as sulfuration that increases untreated rats (Conney et al., 1960), and pentobarbital plasma
lipid solubility is associated with greater hypnotic potency and half-life following chronic pentobarbital pretreatment was only
more rapid onset, but shorter duration of action. Addition of a 12% that of control rats (Commissaris et al., 1982). Chronic
methyl group to the nitrogen atom of the barbituric acid ring, as exposure to barbiturates, particularly phenobarbital and pen-
with oxybarbiturate methohexital, also results in a compound tobarbital, has been associated with induction of cytochrome
with a short duration of action. P450 2B monooxygenase activity and implicated in hepatic
Classification of barbiturates as long, short, and ultrashort tumor carcinogenesis in male F344/NCr rats initiated with N -
acting is no longer recommended, as it suggests that drug action nitrosodiethylamine (Rice et al., 1994). In contrast to tolerance
ends abruptly after specified time periods; residual plasma con- phenomena, drugs which suppress hepatic microsomal enzyme
centrations and drug effects persist for several hours, even function may prolong barbiturate effect. The antibiotic chloram-
following anesthetic induction with “ultra-short acting” barbi- phenicol prolongs pentobarbital anesthesia in the rat, mouse,
turates (Stoelting and Hillier, 2006). Barbiturates in general dog, cat, and monkey (Adams, 1970; Adams and Dixit, 1970;
are readily absorbed by most sites, including the gastrointesti- Azadegan et al., 1980; Teske and Carter, 1971).
nal tract; however, the highly alkaline pH of some barbiturate Species differences in barbiturate response are directly related
solutions limits their administration via the intravenous route. to pharmacokinetics rather than differences in drug receptor sen-
As with other GABAA agonists, the barbiturates are gener- sitivity (Davis et al., 1973; Dos Santos and Bogan, 1974). For
ally considered to be good hypnotic agents, but relatively poor example, pentobarbital half-life is 38, 85, 100, and 200 min-
analgesics (Booth, 1988a; Tomemori et al., 1981). Barbiturates utes in the mouse, rabbit, rat, and dog, respectively (Thurmon,
at low doses may not provide reliable sedation in the presence of 1985), and thiopental elimination half-life and steady-state vol-
pain without supplemental analgesia, such that the barbiturates ume of distribution in the rabbit are markedly lower than those
may be classified as hypnotic sedatives, reflecting their dose- in the dog or sheep (Ilkiw et al., 1991). Differences in plasma
dependent ability to produce either sedation or a deeper hypnotic protein binding of barbiturates may contribute to both species
state (Heavner, 1986). Instead of sedation, paradoxical excite- and individual differences in drug disposition (Sharma et al.,
ment can occur, especially at low doses or with slow intravenous 1970; Thurmon, 1985).
administration, but this is likely due to barbiturate-induced Barbiturates selectively inhibit glucose transport by some,
depression of CNS inhibitory centers. Although hyperalgesic but not all, facilitative glucose transporter isoforms in cul-
properties have been attributed to the barbiturates, spinal cord tured mammalian cells, human erythrocytes, and across the
analgesic effects can be demonstrated (Jewett et al., 1992), as blood–brain barrier (Haspel et al., 1999); these effects are
well as peripheral antihyperalgesia effects in a rat intraplantar pharmacologically specific and isoform-specific. Barbiturate
formalin injection model (da Motta et al., 2004). inhibition of the glucose transporter can be antagonized by
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 31

thyroid-releasing hormone (Naftalin et al., 2004). On the other Regain of consciousness with these agents is due primarily
hand, glucose administration to animals recovering from barbi- to redistribution via blood flow away from CNS to other tissues.
turate anesthesia can result in reanesthetization. This “glucose With large or repeated doses, recovery becomes prolonged, as
effect” can also be induced by fructose, lactate, pyruvate, and drug initially sequestered in fat and skeletal muscle reenters
glutamate (Booth, 1988a; Lumb and Jones, 1984); a simi- the circulation due to equilibration between blood and tissues
lar reanesthetization effect may occur with the administration (Booth, 1988a). Thiobarbiturates are extensively protein-bound,
of adrenergic agents (Heavner and Bowen, 1968; Lamson mainly to albumin. Decreased protein binding due to hypopro-
et al., 1952). The glucose effect is of limited practical con- teinemia or displacement by other drugs, such as aspirin or
cern when these agents are administered properly (Hatch, phenylbutazone, can lead to enhanced thiobarbiturate effect.
1966). Distribution of thiobarbiturates between blood and tissues is
also influenced by the ionization state of the drug and subse-
quent binding to plasma proteins: such that acidosis increases
2. Thiopental, Thiamylal, and Methohexital
and alkalosis decreases thiobarbiturate effect. The duration of
Thiamylal, thiopental, and methohexital are generally admin- action is also affected by the speed of injection. Bolus admin-
istered intravenously to larger laboratory animals. These agents istration resulting in high plasma levels produces a relatively
are supplied as highly alkaline sodium salts that are soluble in greater fraction of unbound drug (Kurz and Fichtl, 1981).
water or saline (the pH of a 2.5% solution of thiopental is 10.5). Thiobarbiturates act preferentially in the reticular activating sys-
Commercial barbiturate preparations contain added anhydrous tem, suppressing polysynaptic pathways in higher brain centers
sodium carbonate to prevent precipitation of the insoluble acid (Muir et al., 1991). An excitement phase is commonly observed
form of the barbiturate by atmospheric carbon dioxide. These during a slow IV anesthetic induction, likely due to depression
alkaline solutions are incompatible with acidic drugs such as of CNS inhibitory centers, especially in large animals (Booth,
opioids, catecholamines, and neuromuscular blocking agents. 1988a).
The powder form of thiopental is stable at room temperature for Unlike return to consciousness, thiobarbiturate elimination
an indefinite period of time; reconstituted solutions of thiopen- depends almost entirely on metabolism. Thiobarbiturates are
tal are stable and sterile for at least 6 days at room temperature metabolized primarily in the (Booth, 1988a). These metabolites
(Haws et al., 1998); refrigerated solutions of thiobarbiturates are inactive and more water soluble, facilitating renal excretion.
are stable for up to 2 weeks while refrigerated solutions of The initial step in metabolism, which occurs within the hep-
methohexital are stable for up to 6 weeks. Thiobarbiturates atocyte endoplasmic reticulum, is side-chain oxidation at the
are commercially marketed as racemic mixtures and the S(−) number 5 carbon atom of the benzene ring, yielding carboxylic
isomers are twice as potent as the R(+) isomers. Similarly, acid. Hepatic reserve capacity for oxidation of barbiturates is
methohexital is a racemic mixture of the S(−) and R(+) isomers. quite large, such that hepatic dysfunction is extreme before
Although the S(−) isomer of methohexital is four to five times barbiturate activity is prolonged due to decreased metabolism.
more potent than the R(+) isomer, the S(−) isomer is responsi- Methohexital is metabolized three to four times more rapidly
ble for the excessive skeletal muscle activity that accompanies than the thiobarbiturates; its lower lipid solubility allows more
methohexital use. These agents rapidly pass the blood–brain bar- drug to remain within the circulation and thus be available for
rier due to their high lipid solubility and result in a rapid onset metabolism.
of action compared to less lipid-soluble barbiturates (Booth, The arrhythmogenic potential of thiobarbiturates is well
1988a). accepted (Booth, 1988a; Hayashi et al., 1989; Lumb and Jones,
Pharmacokinetics of thiamylal were determined after 1984), but there is little information on comparative aspects
13.2 mg/kg body weight was administered IV to cats. Dispo- of this effect in different species. Sinus tachycardia, bigeminy,
sition of thiamylal best conformed to two multicompartmental ventricular escape rhythm, ventricular tachycardia, and ventric-
models, a 2-compartment and a 3-compartment open pharma- ular fibrillation have all been observed following administration
cokinetic model. The first or rapid distribution half-life was 1.91 of small doses of epinephrine in both awake dogs and dogs
minutes and a second, or slower, distribution half-life was 26.5 anesthetized with thiamylal (Muir et al., 1975). Constantly cou-
minutes. The elimination half-life was 14.3 hours. The apparent pled ventricular bigeminy observed with thiobarbiturate bolus
volume of distribution was 3.61 L/kg, whereas the apparent vol- injection appears to be due to an autonomic imbalance between
ume of the central compartment was 0.46 L/kg; total clearance parasympathetic and sympathetic efferent activity (Muir, 1977).
was 0.135 L/kg/h (Wertz et al., 1988). Thiamylal anesthesia in the rabbit has little effect on the
Thiobarbiturates tend to cause dose-dependent suppression of cardiovascular response to bilateral carotid artery occlusion
ventilation. In dogs, thiopental decreases the hypercapnic and or mild hemorrhage (Yamazaki and Sagawa, 1984). Myocar-
hypoxic drive of respiration, and attenuates carbon dioxide aug- dial contractility is impaired with thiopental exposure in the
mentation of the hypoxic response (Hirshman et al., 1975). In paced, isolated guinea pig heart and isolated rabbit ventricu-
rabbits, thiopental results in hypercapnia with decreased minute lar myocardium preparation (Frankl and Poole-Wilson, 1981;
volume and respiratory rate (Bellman and Pleuvry, 1981). Stowe et al., 1992). Barbiturates alter the contractility of isolated
32 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

mesenteric lymphatics and vascular smooth muscle, apparently in contrast to significant increases following administration of
by interfering with calcium-dependent processes (Altura and fentanyl–fluanisone, urethane, and ether (Ramirez-Gonzalez
Altura, 1975; Altura et al., 1980; McHale and Thornbury, 1989). et al., 1991). IP administration of pentobarbital in rats is asso-
Thiopental inhibits rat atrial and portal vein contractions in vitro ciated with mild excitement both on induction and on recovery
(Bunting et al., 1989). (Wixson et al., 1987a).
Ischemic preconditioning, where brief ischemic episodes are Commercial preparations of pentobarbital are racemic mix-
followed by periods of reperfusion, increases resistance to fur- tures. The (+) isomer causes a transient period of hyperex-
ther ischemic tissue damage. Pharmacological preconditioning citability before CNS depression, while the (−) isomer produces
can be induced by volatile anesthetics and opioids. Anesthetic- relatively smooth and progressively deeper hypnosis (Huang and
induced preconditioning and ischemic preconditioning share Barker, 1980). At anesthetic doses, pentobarbital suppresses
many fundamental steps, including activation of G-protein- high-frequency neuronal firing by inhibiting voltage-dependent
coupled receptors, multiple protein kinases, and ATP-sensitive Na+ channels; higher doses reduce voltage-dependent K+ con-
potassium channels (KATP ); the opening of KATP channels ductances (Hardman et al., 1996). Pentobarbital is metabolized
ultimately elicits cytoprotection by decreasing cytosolic and primarily by hepatic cytochrome P450 microsomal enzymes and
mitochondrial Ca++ overload. In isolated rat hearts subjected to hydroxylation of the 3-carbon methylbutyl side chain (Freuden-
30 minutes of global no-flow ischemia followed by 60 minutes thal and Carroll, 1973). In sheep, excretion via routes other than
of reperfusion, recovery of left ventricular-developed pressure urine is negligible (Dos Santos and Bogan, 1974), in contrast
was improved by ischemic preconditioning compared with the to the rat, in which 28% of a dose is excreted in bile within 6
control group; this improvement of myocardial function was not hours (Klaassen, 1971).
altered by thiopental, implying that thiopental does not block
the cardioprotective effects of ischemic preconditioning (Mul-
a. Route of Administration and Cardiovascular Effects
lenheim et al., 2001a). On the other hand, in a cellular model of
simulated ischemia, diazoxide-induced cell protection of mito- Pentobarbital can be administered either intravenously or
chondrial KATP channel activity was reduced by thiopental and intraperitoneally. Reduced blood pressure, stroke volume,
pentobarbital (Zaugg et al., 2002). pulse pressure, and central venous pressure are common find-
ings in pentobarbital-anesthetized animals (Parker and Adams,
1978). Although pentobarbital is reported to produce prolonged
3. Thiobutabarbital
hypotension in the rat (Svendsen and Carter, 1985; Wixson
Although Inactin, the product name for ethyl-(1-methyl- et al., 1987c), other investigators have reported an increased
propyl) malonyl-thiourea (also referred to as thiobutabarbital, arterial pressure (Folle and Levesque, 1976). Cardiac output
or EMTU), is no longer available, it continues to be popular for in the rat is reduced (Gumbleton et al., 1990a; Kawaue and
its prolonged and stable anesthetic state in rats for renal studies Iriuchijima, 1984; Lee et al., 1985; Seyde et al., 1985), and
(Buelke-Sam et al., 1978; Cupples et al., 1982; Rieg et al., 2004; cardiovascular reflex responses are altered (Aisaka et al., 1991;
Turner and Howards, 1977). In rats, thiobutabarbital decreases Fluckiger et al., 1985; Wang et al., 1991). Kawaue and Iriuchi-
arterial pressure, renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate jima (1984) examined the effect of 30 mg/kg IV pentobarbital in
(Walker et al., 1983); renal and single nephron function dur- rats chronically implanted with electromagnetic flow probes. IV
ing thiobutabarbital and thiopental anesthesia were judged to be administration was initially associated with an acute decrease
similar (100 mg/kg intraperitoneal (IP) for each agent) (Haberle in blood pressure, from 105 to 75 mmHg, with recovery to
et al., 1993). In rabbits, however, thiobutabarbital is ineffective, 90 mmHg during the next 30 minutes. Cardiac output gradually
and results in both short periods of anesthesia and death (Hobbs decreased 30% by 30 minutes; hindquarter blood flow decreased
et al., 1991). Reagent-grade thiobutabarbital can be obtained 25%, and splanchnic blood flow initially increased 40% then
from chemical suppliers such as Sigma-Aldrich. recovered to baseline by 30 minutes. Myocardial contractility is
impaired following pentobarbital anesthesia in the dog (Vatner
et al., 1971), been demonstrated in vitro (Parker and Adams,
4. Pentobarbital
1978).
The oxybarbiturate pentobarbital continues to be used to pro- The cardiovascular effects of pentobarbital are less pro-
duce rodent anesthesia. The use of pentobarbital stems from its nounced following IP administration. Peak blood concentration
generalized availability, modest cost, widely available database is reached more slowly than with IV injection, and the por-
encompassing decades of use, rapid anesthetic onset, nonirri- tion of drug absorbed into the portal system is subject to
tant nature, and ease of IP injection to rodents of varying ages early metabolism in the liver. Tuma et al. (1985) examined
and body weights (Wixson and Smiler, 1997). Pentobarbital pro- the cardiovascular and tissue perfusion effects of 35 mg/kg IP
vides inadequate or inconsistent analgesia in mice (Erhardt et al., pentobarbital in 12-month-old female Fischer 344 rats. Com-
1984), rats (Wixson et al., 1987b), and rabbits (Borkowski et al., pared with awake controls, IP injection increased mean arterial
1990). It is not associated with a rise in plasma beta-endorphins, blood pressure to 130 mmHg (awake control 114 mmHg) while
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 33

cardiac output decreased nonsignificantly. Renal perfusion was 1985; Wixson et al., 1987c), mouse (Erhardt et al., 1984), rab-
maintained at awake levels; however, blood flow to most bit (Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell et al., 1983), and hamster
organs decreased from awake levels, with the exception of the (Reid et al., 1989). In the dog, pentobarbital decreases hyper-
liver. Skeletal muscle blood flow showed the greatest decrease, capnic and hypoxic drive of respiration, and attenuates carbon
with a four to sixfold reduction from the awake state (to dioxide augmentation of the hypoxic response (Hirshman et al.,
3 ml/min/100 g, awake control 18 ml/min/100 g). Similar results 1975). Wixson et al. (1987c) reported that 40 mg/kg pentobar-
were described by Skolleborg et al. (1990) for cardiac out- bital administered IP to male Sprague-Dawley rats decreased
put and organ blood flow following administration of 50 mg/kg pH by 1.2% or 0.09–0.10 pH units, and increased PaCO2 by
pentobarbital in Mol:WIST male rats. 46% (11 mmHg); 30 and 40 mg/kg pentobarbital decreased
Taie et al. (1999) reported stable mean arterial pressures cen- PaO2 by 19–20% (34 mmHg). Even at doses insufficient to pro-
tered around 100 mmHg during a 90 minute observation period duce antinociception, similar ventilatory effects were observed
in male Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with 40 mg/kg IP in mice (Erhardt et al., 1984): pentobarbital (50 mg/kg IP) in
pentobarbital; a dose of 80 mg/kg reduced mean arterial pres- male adult BALB/c mice decreased arterial pH almost 0.15
sure to around 90 mmHg, which was also stable during a 180 units, from 7.285 to 7.137, while arterial PCO2 increased
minute observation period. In contrast, Wixson et al. (1987c) from 26.5 to 38.8 mmHg and PaO2 dropped from 111.7 to
found that IP injections of 30 and 40 mg/kg pentobarbital in male 93.0 mmHg.
Sprague-Dawley rats resulted in sustained MAP decreases of In contrast, Skolleborg et al. (1990) reported arterial blood
about 20% (30 mmHg). The lower dose of pentobarbital showed gas values for pH, PCO2 and PO2 within the normal awake range
minimal effect on heart rate, while the 40 mg/kg dose decreased in male Mol:WIST rats following administration of 50 mg/kg IP
heart rate by 9.2% initially with mild tachycardia at later times. pentobarbital. Similar findings of minimal respiratory depres-
In SvEv/Tac mice, 50 mg/kg IP pentobarbital reduced heart sion have been reported for female Fischer 344 rats anesthetized
rate, from 658 beats/min (awake) to 377 beats/min, and with 50 mg/kg IP pentobarbital (Dewhirst et al., 1996) and for
reduced cardiac output, from 13 to 8.6 ml/min/g. In comparison, male Sprague-Dawley rats anesthetized with 40 mg/kg IP pen-
15/150 mg/kg xylazine/ketamine IP produced greater reduc- tobarbital (Taie et al., 1999). It has been speculated that these
tion in heart rate and cardiac output, to 293 beats/min and respiratory effects may have been due to maintenance of body
7.2 ml/min/g (Yang et al., 1999). At a dose of 50 mg/kg, which temperature (Collado et al., 1987; Heys et al., 1989).
was insufficient to induce surgical-level anesthesia, pentobar-
bital reduced MAP in male adult BALB/c mice from 129 to
c. Tolerance and Strain Differences
107 mmHg and reduced heart rate from 509 to 228 beats/min
(Erhardt et al., 1984). Respiratory rate was also depressed, Barbiturate sleep time in rats and mice has been used in
decreasing from 195 to 71 breaths/min. pharmacologic and toxicologic studies as a noninvasive mea-
Pentobarbital anesthesia in the dog typically increases heart sure of liver function. Although pentobarbital blood levels also
rate (Booth, 1988a; Manders and Vatner, 1976). Heart rate decrease, in part, due to redistribution (Thurmon, 1985), sleep
in pentobarbital-anesthetized rats (Wixson et al., 1987c) and time is inversely proportional to the rate of drug metabolism
rabbits (Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell et al., 1983) is not (Lovell, 1986b). A variety of factors affect sleep time, includ-
significantly altered, although tachycardia is seen in rabbits with ing age, sex, strain, feed and nutritional status, bedding material,
subanesthetic doses (Murthy et al., 1982). Increased heart rate and temperature (Collins and Lott, 1968; Cunliffe-Beamer et al.,
observed with barbiturates is not due to increased sympathetic 1981; Hall et al., 1976; Jondorff et al., 1958; Lovell, 1986a–c;
activity (Zimpfer et al., 1982). Quinn et al., 1958; Taber and Irwin, 1969; Vesell, 1968; Westen-
Pharmacologic activation of adenosine triphosphate-regulated berg and Bolam, 1981; Westfall et al., 1964). Sleep time can be
KATP channels mimics ischemic myocardial preconditioning, prolonged by administration of sulfonamides, salicylates, doxy-
and may decrease infarct size and improve functional recov- cycline, and phenylbutazone, each of which acts by displacing
ery of ischemic-reperfused stunned myocardium. Pentobarbi- barbiturates from serum protein-binding sites (Booth, 1988a;
tal inhibits the ischemic preconditioning-like cardioprotective Chaplin et al., 1973). At doses of 30–55 mg/kg, female rats take
effect of inhalational anesthetics (Kohro et al., 2001). In a three times longer to recover than males, and mortality is higher
cellular model of simulated myocardial ischemia, diazoxide- in the females (Holck et al., 1937).
induced cell protection of mitochondrial KATP channel activity There are large differences in pentobarbital dose-response
was blocked by pentobarbital (Zaugg et al., 2002). among strains of mice, such that underdosage or overdosage
frequently occurs. A dose of 50 mg/kg provided adequate seda-
tion, but insufficient analgesia in male adult BALB/c mice
b. Effect on Ventilation and Blood Gases
(Erhardt et al., 1984); some mortality was noted at doses of
Pentobarbital can be a potent dose-dependent ventilatory 60 mg/kg, indicating a narrow safety margin. Lovell stud-
depressant. Respiratory depression is reported in the rat (Folle ied the effects of 60 mg/kg pentobarbital administered IP to
and Levesque, 1976; Seyde et al., 1985; Svendsen and Carter, 23 strains of inbred mice (Lovell, 1986a–1986c). The variation
34 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

in sleep time among strains of mice is considerable, ranging rolling in postcapillary venules is not affected by pentobarbital
from 50 minutes for female NZW mice to 250 minutes for male (Janssen et al., 1997).
dibromoacetaldehyde (DBA) mice. Male mice generally sleep Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration to animals under
longer than female mice. C57BL/6 mice sleep longer than CBA anesthesia is often used to study proinflammatory cytokine
mice, which sleep longer than BALB/c mice. There are also release. Thiopental inhibits endotoxin-induced production of
within-strain differences for age, sex, litter size, and fasting tumor necrosis factor (TNFalpha), IL-1 and IL-8 and increases
prior to anesthesia. Environmental variables affecting sleep time IL-10 release in vitro (Taniguchi andYamamoto, 2005). In adult
include diet, environmental temperature, and bedding material, male HsdBrl:WH Wistar rats, pentobarbital enhances basal
with inbred strains showing greater variation than F1 hybrids. At expression of IL-1beta and IL-6 mRNA in rat spleen; TNFalpha
an environmental temperature of 18◦ C, sleep time in BALB/c mRNA is unaffected (Bette et al., 2004). In C57BL/6 mice anes-
mice administered 60 mg/kg pentobarbital IP is 195 minutes, thetized with 90 mg/kg pentobarbital IP, 40 mg/kg LPS causes
and raising environmental temperature to 26◦ C decreases sleep endotoxemia and results in hypoglycemia and increased serum
time to 100 minutes. However, at an environmental tempera- alanine aminotransferase, lipase, and creatinine levels, suggest-
ture of 18◦ C, C57BL/10ScSn mice sleep over 400 minutes. It is ing LPS damage to the liver, exocrine pancreas, and kidney
likely that strain and environmental factors have contributed to (Kazerani and Furman, 2006). Importantly, lung myeloperox-
the confusion surrounding anesthetic effect on tumor physiology idase activity, an indicator or neutrophil infiltration, is also
and radiotherapy outcome (Meyer et al., 2002). increased by LPS, implying that pentobarbital does not pro-
tect mice against LPS-mediated damage to the lung and is a
suitable anesthetic for studies of endotoxemia (Kazerani and
5. Immune System Effects
Furman, 2006). In contrast, Yang et al. (2007) report pentobar-
The in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of anesthetics have bital suppression of LPS-induced TNFalpha mRNA, possibly
been reviewed by Schneemilch et al. (2004). due to decreased nuclear factor kappaB and activator protein
Thiopental directly inhibits cell-mediated immune response 1 and reduced expression of p38 mitogen-activated protein
and has a strong anti-inflammatory effect. Long-term adminis- kinase; these authors conclude pentobarbital protects cells from
tration of high doses of thiopental is associated with increased death directly and indirectly induced by TNFalpha during the
nosocomial infection and mortality, possibly due to inhibi- LPS-induced inflammatory response.
tion of nuclear transcription factor kappaB, which is a central Pentobarbital enhances in vitro GABA-inhibition of anti-
regulator of the immune response (Loop et al., 2002). Bone CD3 and antigen-specific T cell proliferation in a dose-
marrow suppression and leukopenia are reported following dependent manner (Tian et al., 1999). Unlike halothane,
long-term thiopental administration to treat increased ICP in methoxyflurane, and ketamine/xylazine, pentobarbital decreases
human patients. At clinically used concentrations, thiopental has in vivo antibody levels in male Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats
been shown to inhibit the bactericidal functions of leukocytes as even 3 weeks after exposure; surgery does not produce larger
well as polarization, chemotaxis, adherence, phagocytosis, and changes in antibody levels than anesthesia itself (Lockwood
the respiratory burst of neutrophils and chemotaxis of mono- et al., 1993).
cytes, while at high concentrations, thiopental affects neutrophil
and monocyte phagocytosis.
6. Other Pharmacologic Effects
Thiopental impairs neutrophil function at clinically relevant
concentrations (Nishina et al., 1998). In normothermic Fischer Other reported pharmacologic effects of the barbiturates
344 rats, thiopental anesthesia (70 mg/kg IP) reduced natural include the following: progressive decrease in core tempera-
killer cell activity to 40% of the control value (Ben-Eliyahu ture in rats (Commissaris et al., 1982; Wixson et al., 1987d)
et al., 1999). These changes were not accompanied by alterations and mice (Johnson et al., 1976); decreased renal blood flow
in the numbers of circulating natural killer cells. Barbiturates and urine output, secondary to lowered blood pressure (Booth,
decrease leukocyte counts in dogs (Usenik and Cronkite, 1965), 1988a); increased sensitivity to barbiturate anesthesia in ure-
and cause profound and prolonged decrease of lymphocytes in mia, probably due to reduced protein binding (Booth, 1988a);
the sheep lymphocyte traffic model, where efferent and affer- reduced renal blood flow and glomerular filtration rate in rats
ent lymphatic vessels from a single peripheral lymph node (Gumbleton et al., 1990a; Walker et al., 1986), apparently
are cannulated for study of cells and substances (Hall and responsible for decreased elimination rate of aminoglycoside
Morris, 1962). Thiopental depresses lymphocyte proliferation antibiotics (Higashi et al., 1982); rapid increase in plasma
due to mitogen/antigen exposure and decreases the quantity of renin (Barrett et al., 1988); depressed antipyrine clearance,
cytokines released. Pentobarbital causes injury to lymphocytes an indicator of intrinsic hepatic clearance (Gumbleton and
and to hepatic Kupffer and endothelial cells in ICR mice within Benet, 1991); reduced in vivo rate of protein synthesis in
6 hours of administration, as indicated by elevated hepatic liver and lung (Heys et al., 1989); decreased packed cell vol-
aspartate transferase and alanine transaminase levels (Thomp- umes in dogs (Usenik and Cronkite, 1965), miniature swine
son et al., 2002). On the other hand, spontaneous leukocyte (Sawyer et al., 1971), and mice (Friedman, 1959); altered
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 35

gonadotropin secretion patterns in the rat (Chappel and Barra- and concerns over drug safety. Current human use of chloral
clough, 1976), baboon (Hagino, 1979), and rabbit (Mills et al., hydrate is limited largely to the short-term treatment of insom-
1981); increased level of plasma growth hormone (GH), and nia in adults, to aid in the performance of dental and diagnostic
accentuated GH response to GH-releasing hormone administra- procedures in children (Charney et al., 2006).
tion due, at least in part, to reduced somatostatin release from the Chloral hydrate has been used in veterinary medicine primar-
hypothalamus (Hosoi et al., 1988); elevated serum prolactin in ily as a premedication prior to general anesthesia in horses and
pentobarbital-anesthetized rats following decapitation (Nazian, cattle. It has also been used alone and in combination with mag-
1988); age-dependent changes in serum testosterone of rats nesium sulfate for surgical anesthesia in horses and cattle; the
decapitated after administration of pentobarbital, thiopental, products Chloropent and Equithesin, in which chloral hydrate
or thiamylal (Nazian, 1988); inhibition of normal masculin- was combined with magnesium sulfate and pentobarbital, are
ization in male hamsters given pentobarbital on postnatal days no longer commercially available (Branson, 2001). Current use
2–4 (Clemens et al., 1979); altered morphology of Type I hair of chloral hydrate in veterinary practice is limited, and generally
cells from the vestibular epithelium of the inner ear of guinea not recommended (Hall et al., 2001).
pigs after thiopental administration (Scarfone et al., 1991); In the research setting, chloral hydrate has been used
decreased intraocular pressure (Ilkiw, 1992); resting myopia to achieve medium-duration, light anesthesia, with minimal
in humans and nonhuman primates, due largely to changes in effects on cardiovascular function or reflexes. However, at doses
central parasympathetic neuronal tone (Crawford et al., 1990); required for surgical anesthesia, the safety margin is reduced
increased metastasis in rats (Agostino and Clifton, 1964); significantly and recovery is prolonged (Flecknell, 1996). There
increased lethality in mice when barbiturates are used concur- have been few, if any, controlled studies of the anesthetic or
rently with cyclophosphamide (Rose et al., 1973); altered prox- analgesic actions of chloral hydrate (Silverman and Muir, 1993).
imal tubule reabsorption in rats given thiobutabarbital (Inactin)
(Elmer et al., 1972); and hyperglycemia in hamsters, unrelated
2. Biodisposition
to duration of anesthesia or degree of surgical manipulation
(Turner and Howards, 1977), not seen in rats (Hinton, 1982). Chloral hydrate is readily absorbed from the GI tract, but
onset of full effect by this route is slow (Green, 1979). Rate
of metabolism varies with species but is generally rapid in
7. Barbiturate Antagonists mammals, and occurs predominately in the liver (Daniel et al.,
Although concurrent use of preanesthetic agents can substan- 1992). Most of the drug is reduced by hepatic alcohol dehydro-
tially reduce the dosage of barbiturate needed for anesthesia genase to trichloroethanol, an active metabolite that accounts
(Booth, 1988a; Muir et al., 1991), there are no clinically use- for most of its hypnotic action. Trichloroethanol is metabolized
ful specific barbiturate antagonists. Bicuculline and picrotoxin, primarily by hepatic conjugation with glucuronic acid to form
as GABAA -antagonists, are used experimentally for confirma- an inactive metabolite that is excreted in the urine; a small por-
tion of GABA-mediated effects (Bloom, 2006). Barbiturate tion of the drug is excreted unchanged (Branson and Booth,
sleep time in rats is decreased by the neurostimulatory neu- 1995; Charney et al., 2006). Although hypnotic action of chlo-
rosteroid pregnenolone sulfate, which is consistent with its ral hydrate is attributed to trichloroethanol, both chloral hydrate
antagonist action on the GABAA receptor (Akwa and Baulieu, and trichloroethanol enhance the response to submaximal con-
1999). Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) reduces pento- centrations of GABA on GABAA receptor subunits expressed
barbital sleep time in dogs (Hernandez et al., 1987), likely due in Xenopus laevis oocytes (Garrett and Gan, 1998) and human
to pharmacodynamic effects associated with sympathoadrenal embryonic kidney 239 cells (Krasowski and Harrison, 2000).
activation (Schaefer et al., 1989). Effects of thiopental anes- Trichloroacetic acid is a quantitatively lesser metabolite of
thesia are reduced in dogs and cats following administration of chloral hydrate without sedative effect. There are species-
nonspecific agents such as 4-aminopyridine, amphetamine, or specific differences in the predominant pathway of its formation,
yohimbine (Hatch, 1973; Hatch et al., 1984). by either oxidation of trichloroethanol or direct oxidation
of chloral hydrate. There are significant differences in the
rates of metabolism of chloral hydrate, trichloroethanol, and
trichloroacetic acid in rat, mouse, and humans (Daniel et al.,
C. Chloral Hydrate
1992; Lash et al., 2000; Lipscomb et al., 1996).
The metabolism of chloral hydrate has received increased
1. Description
attention in recent years, because of its place in the metabolism
Chloral hydrate (trichloroacetaldehyde monohydrate) is a of trichloroethylene, a common metal-degreasing solvent that
Schedule IV (Controlled Substances Act) sedative and hypnotic is a rodent carcinogen (Caldwell and Keshava, 2006; Lash
agent that has been in human clinical use since 1869, and in vet- et al., 2000). Hepatocarcinogenicity of trichloroethylene in the
erinary use since shortly thereafter (Branson, 2001). Its use has mouse is believed due primarily to trichloroacetic acid (Bronley-
declined steadily in recent years, the result of improved drugs DeLancey et al., 2006), which also may be responsible for the
36 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

cardiac effects of high doses of chloral hydrate (Laurent et al., spleen; TNFalpha mRNA is unaffected (Bette et al., 2004).
2006). Chloral hydrate decreases in vivo antibody levels in adult male
Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats even 3 weeks after exposure,
whereas halothane, methoxyflurane, and ketamine/xylazine do
3. Reported Pharmacologic Effects
not (Lockwood et al., 1993).
In hypnotic doses, the depressant effect of chloral hydrate is
limited to the cerebrum, with minimal effects on medullary cen-
ters. Motor and sensory nerves are not affected except at high D. Alpha-Chloralose
doses, and analgesia is minimal (Branson and Booth, 1995;
Flecknell, 1987). Cerebral depression occurs slowly, and use 1. Description
of chloral hydrate for euthanasia of small animals may be pre- Chloralose is the weakly water-soluble reaction product of
ceded by gasping, muscle spasms, and vocalization (AVMA, glucose with anhydrous chloral (trichloroacetaldehyde); the
2001). In the rat, the basal activity of nigrostriatal dopamine- reaction produces alpha and beta isomers. While hypnotic activ-
containing neurons is reduced compared with unanesthetized ity resides almost exclusively with alpha-chloralose, the beta
paralyzed controls (Kelland et al., 1990). The high-affinity states isomer is thought to be responsible for convulsions and toxicity
of dopamine D2 and D3 receptors, serotonin 5HT-2A receptors, (Branson and Booth, 1995). Alpha-chloralose is solubilized for
beta-2-adrenoceptors, alpha1 and alpha2 adrenoceptors, opiate administration by several routes, including oral, by heating to
receptors, and muscarinic receptors are inhibited in vitro by 60◦ C, or mixing with 25% urethane or other solubilizing agents
clinical concentrations of chloral hydrate (Seeman and Kapur, (Storer et al., 1997).
2003). Steward et al. (2005) reviewed the effect of several anes- Alpha-chloralose produces hypnosis of long duration (8–10
thetics, including chloral hydrate, on neurotransmitter systems hours), with minimal effect on reflexes. Analgesia generally has
in the context of the rat brain blood oxygen level-dependent been considered poor (Flecknell, 1987; Strobel and Wollman,
(BOLD) contrast pharmacological MRI. 1969), although it may be adequate for some procedures (Sil-
Hypnotic doses of chloral hydrate have minimal effects verman and Muir, 1993). The effectiveness of alpha-chloralose
on cardiorespiratory function (Branson and Booth, 1995), as an anesthetic appears to vary among species; it is probably
but anesthetic doses may be severely depressive (Field not effective in the dog (Holzgrefe et al., 1987). Chloralose use
et al., 1993; Rodrigues et al., 2006). In the dog, IV admin- alone in veterinary practice, or experimentally for survival pro-
istration results in respiratory depression and lowered blood cedures, is not recommended due to rough induction, prolonged
pressure, and sensitization of the heart to sudden vagal arrest recovery, and seizure-like activity in some species (Hall et al.,
or arrhythmias (Soma, 1983; Strobel and Wollman, 1969). Car- 2001; Silverman and Muir, 1993). It has been useful in avian
diac dysrhythmias are the main complication of acute chloral capture (Belant and Seamans, 1999; Hayes et al., 2003).
hydrate overdose in humans (Laurent et al., 2006). In a cellular Alpha-chloralose is still used in physiological studies to pre-
model of simulated myocardia ischemia, diazoxide-induced cell serve respiratory and cardiac reflexes (Branson and Booth,
protection of mitochondrial KATP channel activity was poten- 1995), in long-term neuroscience regimens (Storer et al.,
tiated by the chloral hydrate metabolite 2,2,2-trichloroethanol 1997), and for functional MRI studies in rats (Steward
(Zaugg et al., 2002). et al., 2005). Surgical manipulations should not be performed
Chloral hydrate solution is irritating to the stomach mucosa with chloralose alone, and physiological experiments typically
and causes severe inflammation and necrosis with perivascular involve induction with a short-acting anesthetic.
injection (Booth, 1988a; Ogino et al., 1990). Concentrated solu-
tions may produce hemolysis and hematuria, and hepatic and
2. Biodisposition
renal damage may follow large repeated doses (Soma, 1983;
Strobel and Wollman, 1969). Adynamic ileus, with morbidity Chloralose is metabolized to glucose and chloral which, in
and death, has been attributed to IP administration of high con- turn, is metabolized to trichloroethanol. Its metabolism and
centrations of chloral hydrate in the rat (Fleischman et al., 1977) action, therefore, should resemble those of chloral hydrate
and hamster (Dada et al., 1992); lower concentrations will min- (Branson and Booth, 1995). However, the duration of effect
imize this effect (Vachon et al., 2000). Transient adynamic ileus following a single dose is much longer with chloralose than
has also been observed following IP administration in the calf with chloral hydrate, and it has been reported in human toxic
and pig (Silverman and Muir, 1993); this route cannot be rec- exposures that alpha-chloralose, but not trichloroethanol, could
ommended for survival procedures. Chloral hydrate in relatively be detected in blood and urine (Kintz et al., 1996). Furthermore,
large and repeated doses is carcinogenic in the mouse (Caldwell alpha-chloralose directly enhances the response to submaxi-
and Keshava, 2006). Genotoxic effects have been demonstrated mal concentrations of GABA on GABAA receptor subunits
in a number of in vivo and in vitro studies (Ikbal et al., 2004). expressed in X. laevis oocytes (Garrett and Gan, 1998) and
In adult male HsdBrl:WH Wistar rats, chloral hydrate human embryonic kidney 239 cells (Krasowski and Harrison,
enhances basal expression of IL-1β and IL-6 mRNA in rat 2000).
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 37

3. Reported Pharmacologic Effects used in a variety of animal species. It has strong central
muscle-relaxant effects, but little to no analgesic properties in
Alpha-chloralose is used especially for chemical restraint
larger animals; muscular tremors and involuntary movements
with minimal cardiac and respiratory depression (Flecknell,
may occur. Both metomidate and etomidate generally require
1987), although assisted respiration may be required at the
addition of an opioid for surgical anesthesia (Flecknell, 1987).
higher doses necessary when the agent is used alone (Holz-
(R)-metomidate hydrochloride is commercially available (ABX
grefe et al., 1987). Spinal reflexes may actually be increased,
GmbH, Germany) and is marketed as Aquacalm for use in
and strychnine-like convulsions have been reported in the dog
aquarium and non-food fish (Syndel Laboratories, Canada).
and cat. Spontaneous movements are common, and animals
Metomidate was previously available as Hypnodil for use in
may respond to tactile and auditory stimuli (Branson and Booth,
swine; however, it was banned in the European Union in 1997
1995; Soma, 1983). Alpha-chloralose, like barbiturates, induces
(Ungemach et al., 1997). These imidazole agents are potentially
a GABA-mimetic action on chloride currents in frog isolated
useful for long-term, continuous infusion anesthesia due to min-
sensory neurons (Ishizuka et al., 1989).
imal cumulative effect and good preservation of cardiovascular
Transient changes following chloralose administration in the
function.
dog include decreased mean arterial blood pressure and periph-
Despite the lack of analgesic properties in larger mammals,
eral resistance, and increased heart rate (Boucher et al., 1991;
Green et al. (1981) found that short-term, light surgical anesthe-
Cox, 1972). However, there appear to be relatively few main-
sia lasting 12–15 minutes could be produced in the mouse with
tained changes in cardiopulmonary variables when this agent
either metomidate (50 mg/kg) or etomidate (30 mg/kg) given
is used alone. Arterial pressure and heart rate of chloralose-
IP; side effects included jerking and twitching movements, but
anesthetized rats are similar (Wang et al., 1991) or elevated
cardiorespiratory depression was minimal. Anesthetic duration
(Folle and Levesque, 1976) compared with values in conscious
and depth were improved by a metomidate–fentanyl combina-
controls. In a cellular model of simulated myocardia ischemia,
tion (60 mg/kg:0.06 mg/kg) given subcutaneously (Green et al.,
diazoxide-induced cell protection of mitochondrial KATP chan-
1981). Adverse reactions, including marked bradycardia, were
nel activity was potentiated by the alpha-chloralose metabolite
observed in chickens using metomidate (Christiansen et al.,
2,2,2-trichloroethanol (Zaugg et al., 2002).
1987). Red-necked ostriches (Struthio camelus) darted with
Alpha-chloralose is commonly considered to preserve nor-
metomidate (18 mg/kg) showed no signs of sedation (Ostrowski
mal autonomic reflex activity, including baroreceptor and
and Ancrenaz, 1995).
chemoreceptor reflexes (see review by Holzgrefe et al., 1987).
Although not approved for use in food fish, metomidate
However, chloralose alters the baroreceptor reflex in lambs
immersion produces dose-dependent sedation and anesthe-
(Covert et al., 1988), rats (Fluckiger et al., 1985; Shimokawa
sia in hybrid striped bass (Morone chrysops × M. saxatilis),
et al., 1998; Wang et al., 1991), and rabbits (Ishikawa et al.,
channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and Chinook salmon
1984); the somato-sympathetic-adrenal reflex (Gaumann and
(Oncorhynchus tshawytscha). In channel catfish, 16 ppm meto-
Yaksh, 1990) and micturition reflex (Rudy et al., 1991) in
midate caused 65% mortality while 6 ppm was judged the mini-
cats; and the response to carotid chemoreceptor stimulation
mum concentration required for sedation and anesthesia (Small,
in the dog (Zimpfer et al., 1981). Myocardial contractil-
2003). In Chinook salmon, 6–10 ppm was judged effective, with
ity is impaired (Parker and Adams, 1978). Steward et al.
no change in cardiovascular parameters (Hill and Forster, 2004).
(2005) has reviewed the effect of several anesthetics, including
Cortisol levels were not increased in both hybrid striped bass
alpha-chloralose, on neurotransmitter systems in the context of
and channel catfish, implying that metomidate may be useful in
the rat brain blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) contrast
reducing fish stress (Davis and Griffen, 2003; Small, 2003). This
pharmacological MRI.
conclusion, however, may not hold true in light of the inhibiting
In the rat, subanesthetic doses of chloralose do not increase
effect of imidazole drugs on steroidogenesis (see below).
serum renin activity, in contrast to several other anesthetic
agents (Pettinger et al., 1975). IP administration of chloralose
to guinea pigs, rats, pigs, and calves leads to severe inflamma- 2. Biodisposition
tory responses, which may be related to the concentration used
Etomidate is lipophilic (octanol/water partition coefficient:
(Silverman and Muir, 1993).
1,000) and a weak base (pKa = 4.5; pH = 8.2, 99% unionized at
physiological pH). It is rapidly distributed following IV admin-
istration with peak brain levels reached in less than 1 minute,
E. Metomidate and Etomidate
and has a biologic half-life of about 40 minutes in rats. Eto-
midate is rapidly metabolized by ester hydrolysis in the liver
1. Description
(primarily) and plasma to inactive products that are excreted in
Etomidate is a hypnotic agent developed and used primarily the urine (Heykants et al., 1975; Lewi et al., 1976). The ther-
in humans. There is no analgesic effect, and cardiorespi- apeutic index in rats and mice is wide for loss of the righting
ratory effects are minimal. Metomidate is a hypnotic agent reflex (LD50:ED50 = 29:1) (Green et al., 1981).
38 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

Etomidate pharmacokinetics were determined in cats after of etomidate have little or no effect on heart rate, blood pres-
IV administration (3.0 mg/kg); disposition best conformed to sure, myocardial performance, or respiratory function (Muir
a 2- and a 3-compartment open pharmacokinetic model. The and Mason, 1989; Pascoe et al., 1992). In artificially ventilated
first and most rapid distribution half-life was 0.05 hours, rats, there is minimal effect on heart rate and blood pressure,
with a second distribution half-life of 0.35 hours. Other data but aortic flow is markedly decreased (De Wildt et al., 1983).
included elimination half-life (2.89 hours), apparent volume Rat atrial and portal vein contractions are inhibited by etomidate
of distribution (11.87 L/kg), apparent volume of distribution at addition in vitro (Bunting et al., 1989); however, direct nega-
steady state (4.88 L/kg), apparent volume of the central com- tive inotropic effects of etomidate are dose-dependent and may
partment (1.17 L/kg), and total clearance (2.47 L/kg/h) (Wertz not reflect concentrations encountered clinically (Stowe et al.,
et al., 1990). Hemorrhagic shock in swine produces mini- 1992). In a model of stunned myocardial ischemic precondition-
mal changes in etomidate pharmacokinetics and no change ing, etomidate has no effect on cardiac myocyte KATP channel
in pharmacodynamics (Johnson et al., 2003). Increased hyp- activity (Zaugg et al., 2002).
notic effect attributed to pharmacokinetic changes is observed Imidazole compounds, including etomidate and metomidate,
in hemorrhaged rats (De Paepe et al., 1999). inhibit adrenal steroidogenesis through inhibition of 11 beta-
The pharmacokinetics of IV (3 mg/kg), external bath treat- hydroxylase (CYP11B1, P450 11beta) (Mitterhauser et al.,
ment (9 mg/L), and oral administration of metomidate (7 mg/kg) 2003; Preziosi and Vacca, 1988). Compared with thiopental,
were described for halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus) and a single bolus injection of etomidate (2 mg/kg IV) suppresses
turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) (Hansen et al., 2003). Meto- adrenocortical function in dogs for 2–6 hours (Dodam et al.,
midate had shorter elimination half-life and higher plasma 1990). Compared with diazepam–ketamine, etomidate (2 mg/kg
concentrations in turbot compared with halibut, with both IV) suppresses adrenocortical function in cats for at least 5 hours
species displaying rapid uptake, distribution and excretion (Moon, 1997). In a metomidate (2.5 mg/kg/h) and ketamine
phases. Following IV administration, the volumes of distri- (3.0 mg/kg/h)-anesthetized swine model infused with live Pseu-
bution at steady-state were 0.21 L/kg (halibut) and 0.44 L/kg domonas aeruginosa, circulatory failure occurred at 4.3 hours
(turbot). Plasma clearance was 0.099 L/h/kg in halibut and of bacteremia; when supplemental cortisol was administered,
0.26 L/h/kg in turbot, and the elimination half-life was calcu- hemodynamics were stabilized, but death occurred after 11
lated to be 5.8 and 2.2 hours in halibut and turbot, respectively. hours due to bacteremia-induced pulmonary edema (Neumann
Mean residence time was 2.2 hours in halibut and 1.7 hours et al., 1989).
in turbot. Following oral administration, elimination half-life Side effects of etomidate use include pain on injection, nau-
was 3.5 hours in turbot. The maximum plasma concentra- sea, vomiting, and myoclonic movements during induction
tion was 7.8 mg/L in turbot 1 hour after administration. The (Booth, 1988a). These effects are reduced following IV admin-
oral bioavailability was calculated to be 100% in turbot. The istration of diazepam, acepromazine, or morphine immediately
maximum plasma concentration following 5 minutes external prior to etomidate (Muir and Mason, 1989).
bath treatment was 9.5 and 13.3 mg/L in halibut and turbot, Due to its formulation in propylene glycol, hemolysis may
respectively. occur following IV administration of etomidate (Doenicke
et al., 1997; Moon, 1994). An etomidate formulation in
aqueous sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin has been developed.
Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic parameters were not
3. Reported Pharmacologic Effects
statistically different for the two formulations in dogs (McIn-
The neurophysiologic actions of etomidate are similar in tosh et al., 2004). In vivo hemolysis after IV administration
many respects to the barbiturates and other injectable anesthetic of etomidate in propylene glycol was 10-fold higher than that
agents such as alphaxalone (Way and Trevor, 1986). Etomidate in the case of sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin enabled formula-
decreases cerebral metabolic rate and ICP, and has anticonvul- tion. Although etomidate in propylene glycol cannot be given
sant properties (Batjer, 1993; Milde et al., 1985; Robertson, subcutaneously because of the cosolvent in the formulation, a
1992; Wauquier, 1983). In rats, the pattern of metabolic depres- 12 mg/ml aqueous solution of etomidate in 20% (w/v) sulfobutyl
sion produced by etomidate differs markedly from that produced ether β-cyclodextrin was well tolerated by this route (McIntosh
by barbiturates, which affect all brain regions to a similar degree et al., 2004).
(Davis et al., 1986). Etomidate reduces glucose consumption the
most in the forebrain (telencephalon and diencephalon) (−25 to
F. Propofol
−35%) while the hindbrain is minimally affected. There is no
demonstrable dose dependency; 1 mg/kg suppressed regional
1. Description
cerebral glucose utilization as much as 12 mg/kg.
In contrast to other IV anesthetics, the depressive effects of Propofol is a substituted isopropylphenol (2,6-diisopropyl-
etomidate on myocardial contractility are minimal at concentra- phenol), chemically distinct from the barbiturates, steroids, and
tions necessary to produce anesthesia. In dogs, anesthetic doses imidazoles. Propofol is an oil at room temperature and insoluble
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 39

in aqueous solution. Unlike the thiobarbiturates, etomidate, and to inactive metabolites. Metabolism is sufficiently rapid that the
ketamine, propofol is not a chiral drug. speed of IV injection can affect both time to induction and the
The currently available 1% commercial preparation is an dose needed (Glen, 1980).
aqueous emulsion of 10% soybean oil, 2.25% glycerol, and Pharmacokinetic profiles following IV administration of the
1.2% purified egg phosphatide (Sebel and Lowdon, 1989; Cremophor preparation are similar in the rat, pig, rabbit, and
Stoelting and Hillier, 2006). Commercially available soybean cat. Plasma concentrations follow a biexponential curve, with a
emulsion preparations differ with respect to pH and the presence very short distribution half-life (1–6 minutes) and an elimination
of preservative, either disodium edentate (EDTA) or metabisul- half-life between 16 and 55 minutes; in each case, lowest values
fite (Marik, 2004; Stoelting and Hillier, 2006); these formu- are observed in the rat and rabbit. Total apparent volume of dis-
lations, however, are not considered antimicrobially preserved tribution is large, consistent with that for a lipophilic drug. The
products under USP standards (Sklar, 1997). The soybean emul- plasma concentration associated with awakening ranges from
sion supports bacterial growth such that strict asepsis must be 1 to 4 mg/ml in the pig, rat, and cat, but is 7 mg/ml in the
used during handling, administration, and storage; the manu- rabbit; in the latter, awakening occurs during the distribution
facturer of PropoFlo (Abbott Animal Health, North Chicago, phase of the drug (Adam et al., 1980). Cockshott et al. (1992)
IL) recommends discarding unused product within 6 hours of came to similar conclusions using bolus injection of the soy-
opening. bean emulsion formulation, although they also found that the
Propofol is degraded in the presence of oxygen and supplied data were better fitted by a triexponential function when the
in single-dose vials under nitrogen. Initial clinical formulations sampling period was adequate. Total body clearance was rapid
of the oil used the solubilizing agent Cremophor EL (poly- in the dog, rat, and pig (50–80 ml/min/kg) and even higher in
oxyethylated castor oil); however, Cremophor is known to result the rabbit (340 ml/min/kg). In hemorrhaged hypovolemic rats,
in histamine release in the dog, and has been associated with the propofol dose needed to reach the target electroencephalo-
pain on injection and anaphylactoid reactions in the rat and pig graphic end-point was reduced by 60%; this was attributed to
(Glen and Hunter, 1984). The currently available 1% soybean a decrease in propofol clearance and distribution volume (De
emulsion is also associated with pain on IV injection, but this Paepe et al., 2000).
can be reduced by selecting a larger vein or prior administra- The context-sensitive half-time describes the time required
tion of 1% lidocaine through the same vein. Mixing propofol for drug concentration to decrease by 50% after terminating
with other drugs is not recommended, as coalescence of oil infusion, and reflects both distribution and metabolism. In
droplets may pose a risk for pulmonary embolism. Hypertriglyc- humans, the context-sensitive half-time is less than 40 min-
eridemia and pancreatitis are uncommon complications with the utes for propofol infusions lasting up to 8 hours (Hughes et al.,
soybean emulsion preparation. Newer alternatives being investi- 1992). The duration of propofol infusion minimally influences
gated include 1% and 5% nanodroplet microemulsions (Boscan the context-sensitive half-time because rapid metabolic clear-
et al., 2006; Morey et al., 2006a, 2006b), the water-soluble ance of drug returning from tissue storage sites to the circulation
propofol prodrug propofol phosphate (Banaszczyk et al., 2002), does not slow the decrease in drug plasma concentration.
and an 80% propofol–propylene glycol transdermal preparation The clearance of propofol is slower in greyhounds com-
(Takahashi et al., 2005). pared with other dog breeds. At a substrate concentration of
20 μM, propofol hydroxylase activity was significantly lower
in greyhound microsomes (1.7 nmol/mg/min) compared with
2. Biodisposition
beagle dog microsomes (5.1 nmol/mg/min), but was not statis-
The anesthetic properties of propofol are similar in most tically different compared with mixed-breed dog microsomes
respects to those of the thiobarbiturates. Recovery from a sin- (3.1 nmol/mg/min). These results indicate breed-specific dif-
gle dose of propofol is more rapid, however, and there is ferences in propofol hydroxylase activity and that a lower
greater potential as a continuous infusion agent due to minimal level of hydroxylation of propofol by one or more hepatic
cumulative effect (Glen, 1980; Sebel and Lowdon, 1989). Pul- cytochrome P450 isoforms may contribute to slow pharma-
monary uptake of propofol is significant and can influence initial cokinetic clearance of propofol by greyhounds (Court et al.,
availability. Redistribution of propofol is extensive. Propo- 1999).
fol clearance from plasma exceeds hepatic blood flow, such Brain sensitivity to propofol is influenced by age and admin-
that tissue uptake, as well as hepatic oxidative metabolism by istration rate. In male Sprague-Dawley rats (MOL:SPDR:Han)
cytochrome P450 2B6 and 2C9, is an important factor (Court ranging in age from 23 to 776 days, younger animals require
et al., 2001). Hepatic metabolism results in inactive, water- higher induction doses of propofol and have higher serum con-
soluble sulfate and glucuronic acid metabolites that are excreted centrations than older animals. Older animals, however, have
by the kidneys. Propofol also undergoes ring hydroxylation higher brain concentrations of propofol at the EEG end-point
by cytochrome P450 to form 4-hydroxypropofol, which has than younger animals (Larsson and Wahlstrom, 1998). These
approximately one-third of the hypnotic activity of propofol; differences can be explained by pharmacokinetic rather than
4-hydroxypropofol is subsequently glucuronidated or sulfated pharmacodynamic differences.
40 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

Clear aqueous microemulsions of propofol are being devel- similar for the Cremophor and soybean emulsion formulations,
oped as alternatives with potentially fewer adverse side effects although the soybean formulation has slightly greater potency
than the turbid soybean macroemulsion preparation. A study in mice and male rats (Glen and Hunter, 1984).
in adult Sprague-Dawley rats of either sex demonstrated that Propofol is less effective in the rabbit than other species
significantly greater IV doses of propofol microemulsion were (Flecknell, 1996). Administration at relatively high doses
required to induce anesthesia, irrespective of surfactant concen- (≥10 mg/kg IV) results in sedation of very short duration
tration or type, than with the soybean macroemulsions (Morey with little reflex depression or antinociception, while higher
et al., 2006a). In dogs administered either a 24.5 nm microemul- doses or longer infusions produce respiratory arrest and death
sion or a commercial 1% soybean macroemulsion of propofol, (Aeschbacher and Webb, 1993a, 1993b; Banaszczyk et al.,
no differences were noted with respect to the administered dose 2002; Blake et al., 1988; Glen, 1980; Ko et al., 1992; Ypsilantis
(10.3 and 9.7 mg/kg, respectively), time to induction (1.0 and et al., 2006). In mice, induction time and time to recover
1.0 minutes), time to recovery (17.4 and 18.2 minutes), heart coordination are shorter with propofol than with thiopental;
rate, arterial blood pressure, respiratory rate, hemogram vari- “utilization rate” of propofol, the amount required to maintain
ables, prothrombin time, activated partial thromboplastin time, prolonged anesthesia, is greatest in mice compared with several
fibrinogen concentration, platelet concentration, or plasma other species (Glen, 1980). Apnea commonly occurs in mice,
propofol concentrations (Morey et al., 2006b). In horses, the rabbits, cats, and pigs, especially at higher doses; in rhesus
quality of induction was judged slightly better with either a 1 or monkeys it is seldom seen. In rabbits, there is a dose-dependent
5% high micellar 12 nm microemulsion propofol than with the decrease in minute volume (Bellman and Pleuvry, 1981); respi-
standard 1% soybean macroemulsion; recovery characteristics ratory arrest may follow the administration of doses high enough
were qualitatively and quantitatively indistinguishable among to prevent pain response (Glen, 1980). Apnea occurred in cats
treatment groups (time to stand after anesthesia was 34.3, 34.1, at 10 mg/kg propofol, but not in dogs at 6 mg/kg, administered
and 39.0 minutes in horses treated with the commercial formula- IV on three consecutive days (Matthews et al., 2004).
tion, 1% microemulsion, and 5% microemulsion, respectively) Propofol decreases cerebral oxygen consumption, reduces
(Boscan et al., 2006). No clinically relevant changes in hema- ICP, and has anticonvulsive activity (Marik, 2004); it is also a
tologic and serum biochemical analytes were detected during a potent antioxidant, has anti-inflammatory properties, and is a
3-day period following anesthesia. bronchodilator. Propofol is associated with excitatory motor
Propofol phosphate, a water-soluble propofol prodrug, has activity, such as myoclonic jerking and opisthotonus; how-
also been developed as an alternative to the 1% soybean ever, barbiturate-like EEG changes are observed in rats (Glen,
macroemulsion (Banaszczyk et al., 2002). It is enzymatically 1980). Propofol has anticonvulsive properties in mice and rats
converted by alkaline phosphatase to active propofol and an (Lee et al., 1998; Lowson et al., 1990), as well as in other
inorganic phosphate following IV injection. In 2-month-old species, presumably due to GABA-mediated presynaptic and
female CD-1 mice, the hypnotic dose (HD50 ), lethal dose postsynaptic inhibition of chloride channels. Steward et al.
(LD50 ), and safety index (defined as a ratio: LD50 /HD50 ) (2005) have reviewed the effect of several anesthetics, includ-
of propofol phosphate were 165.4 mg/kg, 600.6 mg/kg, and ing propofol, on brain neurotransmitter systems in the context
3.6 mg/kg, respectively. Active propofol was produced with of the rat brain blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) contrast
half-lives of 5.3 minutes in 8-week-old Sprague-Dawley rats, pharmacological MRI.
2.1 minutes in female New Zealand White rabbits, and 4.4 min- Hypotension associated with propofol administration has
utes in 8–12 week old male and female White Barrow and Duroc raised concerns regarding its use in patients with cardiovas-
pigs. Doses greater than 125 mg/kg were necessary to pro- cular disease, particularly volume depletion or endotoxemia;
duce ataxia and sedation in mice. Doses greater than 50 mg/kg changes other than hypotension are more variably reported
induced sedation in rats, with death occurring at 200 mg/kg. (Ilkiw et al., 1992). Heart rate is elevated following propo-
Rabbits injected with 150 mg/kg only became lethargic prior fol in rats (Rocchiccioli et al., 1989) and rabbits (Blake et al.,
to death at 158 minutes after injection. In pigs, 14 mg/kg 1988). Blood pressure is maintained during light propofol anes-
produced ataxia, and 72 and 84 mg/kg produced sedation; pro- thesia in the rabbit (Blake et al., 1988), but decreased at higher
longed apnea (125 minutes) and recovery (5 hours) occurred at doses; cardiac output may be elevated, reduced, or remain
144 mg/kg. The elimination half-life was 24 minutes in rats, 21 unchanged (Aeschbacher and Webb, 1993b; Blake et al., 1988;
minutes in rabbits, and 225 minutes in pigs. Glen, 1980; Van Leeuwen et al., 1990). Antinociceptive doses
of propofol in the rat result in lowered arterial pressure and
heart rate (Tan et al., 1993). Carmichael et al. (1993) con-
3. Reported Pharmacologic Effects
firmed a dose-dependent decrease in blood pressure in rats.
As with other GABAA agonists, propofol is generally con- There was no effect on cardiac output, or coronary or renal
sidered to be poorly analgesic, but spinal cord analgesic effects blood flows, and splanchnic hemodynamics and liver oxygena-
can be demonstrated (Frolich et al., 2005; Jewett et al., 1992). tion were not adversely affected. Propofol dose-dependently
Anesthetic properties and hemodynamic effects of propofol are antagonizes beta-adrenoceptors in rat myocardial membranes
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 41

(Zhou et al., 1999). Oxygen utilization is impaired and electron Propofol infusion syndrome is a real, albeit rare, entity. It
flow is inhibited in the guinea pig cardiomyocyte, and ven- is characterized by metabolic acidosis, acute cardiomyopathy
tricular performance is significantly depressed in the isolated and skeletal myopathy, is often lethal, and is strongly associated
perfused heart (Schenkman and Yan, 2000). In swine, propofol with propofol infusions rates of 5 mg/kg/h and greater for more
causes a dose-dependent decrease in myocardial contractility than 48 hours. There is evidence that the syndrome is caused
(Coetzee et al., 1989; Glen, 1980; Glen and Hunter, 1984). by the failure of free fatty acid metabolism due to inhibition of
A negative inotropic response has been demonstrated in vitro entry into the mitochondria and also specific sites in the mito-
along with marked attenuation of coronary flow autoregulation chondrial respiratory chain. The syndrome therefore mimics the
(Stowe et al., 1992). Rat atrial and portal vein contractions are mitochondrial myopathies (Short and Young, 2003).
inhibited in vitro by propofol addition (Bunting et al., 1989).
The baroreceptor-heart rate reflex is suppressed following
4. Immune System Effects
propofol administration in rats (Rocchiccioli et al., 1989)
and rabbits. The suppression is much less than with alphax- Propofol may produce an additional risk factor for peri-
alone/alphadolone (Blake et al., 1988), thiopentone, or operative infection (Sklar, 1997); this appears to be due to
ketamine (Blake et al., 1982; Van Leeuwen et al., 1990). In reticuloendothelial system dysfunction caused by the soybean
the rabbit and cat, carotid artery infusion of propofol sup- lipid emulsion rather than an effect of propofol itself. In a retro-
presses afferent impulses from single chemoreceptor fibers in spective study of 863 dogs and cats with clean surgical wounds,
response to hypoxia and hypercapnia (Ponte and Sadler, 1989). 6 out of 46 animals receiving propofol (13%) developed post-
Pharmacologic activation of adenosine triphosphate-regulated operative infections, compared with 33 of 817 (4%) animals
KATP channels mimics ischemic preconditioning and decreases not receiving propofol (Heldmann et al., 1999). Confounding
infarct size or improves functional recovery of ischemic- factors for this study include the sharing of propofol syringes
reperfused stunned myocardium; propofol does not affect car- between more than one patient following change of hypoder-
diac myocyte KATP channel activity (Zaugg et al., 2002), and mic needle, no handwashing or external vial disinfection, and
may inhibit the ischemic preconditioning-like cardioprotective retention of opened drug for >6 hours as recommended by the
effect of inhalational anesthetics (Kohro et al., 2001). manufacturer. In addition, intraoperative hypothermia, suture
In a sheep model, propofol crosses the placenta and reaches type, incision size and location, and duration of surgery and
the fetus within 2 minutes of administration (Andaluz et al., anesthesia were not controlled or considered in the analysis.
2003). Maternal levels are three times higher than fetal levels Staphylococcus aureus grows poorly in propofol at clinically
following a single bolus IV dose and six to nine times higher relevant temperatures (Langevin et al., 1999). In a rabbit bac-
following 1 hour continuous infusion, demonstrating a placental teremia model, both propofol and the soybean lipid emulsion
barrier effect. Mean residence times are similar for the mother alone increased accumulation of Escherichia coli in lung and
and fetus following a single IV bolus but increased in the fetus spleen compared to saline, thus reflecting lipid-induced reticu-
with continuous infusion. Fetal elimination is prolonged follow- loendothelial system dysfunction (Kelbel et al., 1999). Propofol
ing a single bolus or continuous infusion, with half-life times impairs several monocyte and neutrophil functions of the non-
more than twice that observed for the mother. Plasma protein specific immune system, including polarization, chemotaxis,
binding is higher in the mother than the fetus (Gin et al., 1991), oxidative burst, and phagocytosis; however, these changes are
which tends to limit placental transfer as only unbound drug thought to be due to the soybean emulsion rather than propofol
can pass. However, as propofol may bind less to fetal plasma itself (Schneemilch et al., 2004).
proteins than to maternal plasma proteins, Andaluz et al. (2003) On the other hand, propofol has been reported to attenu-
speculate that the free fraction of fetal drug may be higher and ate proinflammatory cytokine responses, alter expression of
is likely to be pharmacologically active. Hence, the use of con- nitric oxide, and decrease neutrophil activation in a rat model
tinuous infusion or multiple bolus injections of propofol are not of endotoxemia (Marik, 2005; Taniguchi et al., 2000, 2002).
recommended for cesarean section anesthesia. The molecular mechanism for these effects is not clear. Unlike
In cats, repetitive daily anesthesia with propofol is associ- thiopental, propofol does not inhibit the activation of nuclear
ated with Heinz body formation; this may be due to propofol factor kappaB (Loop et al., 2002). Propofol is also a potent
being a phenol compound. Heinz bodies developed following antioxidant. The added preservatives may have biologic activity:
three consecutive days of induction with 6 mg/kg IV propofol EDTA has anti-inflammatory properties, and metbisulfite may
combined with 30 minutes of maintenance anesthesia at a con- cause lipid peroxidation (Marik, 2005). In a swine model of aor-
stant rate infusion of 0.2–0.3 mg/kg/min; generalized malaise, tic reconstructive surgery, propofol anesthesia was associated
anorexia, and diarrhea were reported after five consecutive days with less neutrophil infiltration, lower plasma proinflammatory
of propofol anesthesia (Andress et al., 1995). On the other hand, cytokine levels, lower production of oxygen free radicals, less
clinically insignificant increases in the number of Heinz bodies lipid peroxidation, and reduced inducible nitric oxide synthase
were reported in cats anesthetized for three consecutive days activity compared with sevoflurane (Rodriguez-Lopez et al.,
with 10 mg/kg propofol (Matthews et al., 2004). 2006).
42 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

5. Propofol Antagonists peritoneal inflammation, fibrinous splenic serositis, visceral

adhesions, and death have been described in CD-1, OF-1,
Although concurrent use of preanesthetic agents can sub-
NMRI, ICR, and NCR (nu/nu) mice, as well as in Mongolian
stantially reduce the dosage of propofol needed for anesthesia
gerbils and Sprague-Dawley rats, following a single IP dose of
(Pablo et al., 1997; Watney and Pablo, 1992), there are no spe-
TBE (Buetow et al., 1999; Goelz, 1994; Lieggi et al., 2005a,
cific propofol antagonists that are clinically useful. Picrotoxin,
2005b; Norris and Turner, 1983; Reid et al., 1999; Zeller et al.,
a noncompetitive GABAA antagonist, and gabazine, a com-
1998). Even with freshly prepared solutions, high mortality has
petitive GABAA antagonist, both increase propofol ED50 in
been reported following a second TBE injection (Green, 1979;
male Sprague-Dawley [Crl:CD(SD)Br] rats by 379 and 362%,
Norris and Turner, 1983; Papaioannou and Fox, 1993). High
respectively (Sonner et al., 2003). TRH reduces propofol sleep
death losses in mice after recovery were associated with fluid
time in rats (Larsson et al., 1996), likely due to a pharma-
distension of the stomach and small intestine, suggesting intesti-
codynamic effects associated with sympathoadrenal activation
nal ileus as the cause of death (Tarin and Sturdee, 1972). Similar
(Schaefer et al., 1989).
results have been reported in Mongolian gerbils; these effects
could be reduced, but not eliminated, by dilution to 1.25% and
by reducing the dosage to 300 mg/kg or less (Norris and Turner,
G. Tribromoethanol
1983).
Recently, Lieggi et al. (2005b) showed that TBE toxicity is not
1. Description
caused by breakdown to DBA in solution, that the pH decrease
Tribromoethanol (TBE) solutions are often referred to as observed in stored TBE solutions does not necessarily indicate a
Avertin, which is a misnomer. Avertin was the trade name for reaction leading to toxic products, and that pH >5 does not indi-
Winthrop Laboratories proprietary TBE formulation, which is cate a safe TBE solution for administration. In an accompanying
no longer available. Pharmaceutical-grade TBE was marketed in vivo study, mortality occurred in 10 of 17 female ICR mice
under several proprietary names, including Avertin, Bromethol, receiving 400 mg/kg freshly made TBE (Lieggi et al., 2005a).
Ethobrom, Narcolan, and Narkolan, each as a 66.7% w/w solu- The pH of this lethal TBE solution was 6.5, as recommended,
tion of TBE in t-amyl alcohol where each milliliter contained the solution was found to be free of bacterial contamination and
1 g TBE (The Merck Index, 1976; Reynolds, 1982). Although endotoxins, and DBA levels were not increased. Compared with
this TBE formulation is not commercially available or routinely nonlethal stock or working TBE solutions, no new or additional
used for human or veterinary anesthesia for several decades, compounds were found by means of gas chromatography-mass
it has received widespread acceptance for use in the various spectroscopy. However, 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectra
manipulations required for the production of genetically engi- of the lethal working solution detected a broad, low-intensity
neered mice and rats (BVAAF/FRAME/RSPCA/UFAW Joint signal at 6.5 ppm, not seen in other tested solutions. Although
Working Group on Refinement, 2003; Hogan et al., 1986, 1996; the identification of this signal was not possible, it is speculated
Papaioannou and Fox 1993). Since TBE produces inflammation that toxicity was likely associated with the storage of the TBE
and peritonitis, it is recommended only for acute terminal stud- powder in the bottle and not with the storage of a TBE stock or
ies when administered IP to laboratory animals (Meyer and Fish, working solution.
2005).
3. Reported Pharmacological Effects
2. Biodisposition
TBE produces a generalized CNS depression, including both
TBE acts at the GABAA and glycine receptors (Krasowski the respiratory and cardiovascular centers. In cats, the anesthetic
and Harrison, 2000). The high-affinity states of dopamine dose by rectal administration is 300 mg/kg, but the margin of
D2 and D3 receptors, serotonin 5HT-2A receptors, beta2- safety between anesthetic and lethal dose is narrow. Depres-
adrenoceptors, alpha2-1 and alpha2-2 adrenoceptors, opiate sion of respiration and circulation, together with its general
receptors, and muscarinic receptors are inhibited in vitro by clin- unpredictability, eventually discouraged clinical use. In dogs,
ical concentrations of ethanol anesthetics (Seeman and Kapur, sedation occurs within 10–15 minutes after rectal administra-
2003). TBE is metabolized in the liver by conjugation with glu- tion and lasts for more than 1 hour, whereas in cats the depressant
curonic acid and is excreted in the urine as TBE glucuronate effects can last as long as 24 hours (Soma, 1971). In addition to
(Green, 1979). The pharmacokinetics of TBE have not been rectal use in cats and dogs, TBE has been administered orally
described yet. to mammals, reptiles, and birds (Mosby and Canter, 1956).
The concerns regarding the efficacy and safety of TBE, The duration of TBE anesthesia in mice varies considerably
combined with the availability of effective pharmaceutical- with strain and sex. Recommended TBE doses (IP) in mice
grade alternatives, have made the continued routine use of range from 125 to 500 mg/kg with 1.25–2.5% solution, with
TBE for rodent anesthesia controversial (Silverman, 2003). most authors recommending approximately 250 mg/kg (Buetow
Acute concentration-dependent abdominal muscle necrosis, et al., 1999; Hogan et al., 1986; Papaioannou and Fox, 1993;
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 43

Wixson and Smiler, 1997). At 250 mg/kg, surgical anesthesia A single dose of TBE before pregnancy results in impaired
lasting 16–20 minutes is produced, with good skeletal muscle fertility (Kaufman, 1977), and administration following ovula-
relaxation, moderate respiratory depression, and full recovery tion results in postimplantation parthenogenic development in
reported within 40–90 minutes. In contrast, others have indi- (C57BL × A2 G) F1 hybrid mice (Kaufman, 1975). In female
cated a highly variable response to TBE, even at relatively Crl:CD-1(ICR)BR, Icolbm:OF-1, and Hanlbm:NMRI mice,
high dosages. Koizumi et al. (2002) evaluated TBE sleep- xylazine (16 mg/kg) and ketamine (120 mg/kg), administered
time variation in outbred Jcl:ICR and MCH(ICR) mice; TBE IP at a volume of 10 ml/kg, produces embryo transfer success
was diluted to 2.5% and administered at 400 mg/kg IP. Sleep rate similar to that observed with TBE (82% surviving offspring
time ranged from 0 to 120 minutes, with a mean of 21.5 ± 2.2 with X/K compared with 85% with TBE) (Zeller et al., 1998). In
minutes (SEM). Susceptibility of Jcl:ICR mice to TBE anesthe- comparison, Papaioannou and Fox (1993) reported an embryo
sia was equivalent between experimental groups, but differed transfer success rate of 60% with TBE.
widely between male and female mice, with females show- Thompson et al. (2002) investigated the effects of anes-
ing more susceptibility (greater sleep time) than males. Sex thetic agents, including TBE, on hepatic and splenic injury in
differences were not observed in the inbred strains IAI, IQI, ICR mice. Injury to lymphocytes and to hepatic Kupffer and
or MCH(ICR). Gardner et al. (1995) administered 400 mg/kg endothelial cells occur within 3 hours, as indicated by marked
of 2.5% TBE IP to male Hsd:ICR mice. They reported a 3 increases in apoptosis in splenic follicles and hepatic Kupffer
minute onset of loss of righting reflex (range: 1–14.4 min- and endothelial cells; three to fourfold increases in serum aspar-
utes), and a mean time of adequate anesthesia (based on loss tate transaminase were noted, as well. In adult male HsdBrl:WH
of withdrawal reflex to toe pinch) of 6.9 minutes (range: 3.9– Wistar rats, TBE, but not chloral hydrate or pentobarbital,
15.2 minutes), with 5 of 12 mice not reaching a surgical plane reduced TNFά mRNA levels in spleen (Bette et al., 2004).
of anesthesia (retention of withdrawal response to interdigital
toe pinch). They concluded that TBE produced a high degree
of variability in induction times with a relatively short period
H. Steroids
of adequate anesthesia. Avila et al. (2001) administered TBE
(300 mg/kg IP) to black Swiss outbred mice of mixed sex and
1. Description
noted that, in contrast to ketamine (250 mg/kg IP), the dura-
tion of anesthesia with TBE was sometimes too brief to conduct Anesthetic effects of steroids have been recognized for more
experiments measuring intraocular pressure lasting 30 minutes than 60 years (Sutton, 1972). While a number of anesthetic
or less. Goelz (1994) concluded that TBE can produce an anes- steroids have been investigated, most work has focused on the
thetic state in CD-1 mice, but that it was inconsistent and often combination of alphaxalone and alphadolone, introduced into
variable. human clinical practice in 1970 as Althesin, and for veterinary
Generally speaking, cardiac performance is better in mice use as Saffan. Althesin is no longer available, and Saffan is not
during TBE anesthesia than with ketamine combinations, but available in the US; it is licensed in the UK for use in cats and
cardiac performance with TBE is not as repeatable over time nonhuman primates, and has been used safely in a number of
as with the inhaled anesthetic isoflurane (Hart et al., 2001; other species. Alphaxalone/alphadolone is characterized by a
Roth et al., 2002). Hart et al. (2001), using a combina- rapid induction of short-term anesthesia, with rapid recovery, a
tion of transthoracic echocardiography and closed chest car- wide safety margin, and minimal accumulation with repeated
diac catheterization, examined cardiac performance in male doses (Jones, 1985). It has also been used for sedation or light
Swiss Webster mice administered xylazine/ketamine anesthesia anesthesia when administered intramuscularly (Branson, 2001).
(4.1 mg/kg xylazine, 65 mg/kg ketamine) or TBE (375 mg/kg). Alphaxalone is insoluble in water, and alphadolone, a steroid
TBE produced less bradycardia, and less effect on cardiac load- with reduced anesthetic potency, has been added to increase
ing and ventricular function than xylazine/ketamine. In male solubility (Jones, 1985). The combination is poorly soluble in
C57BL/6N mice, Roth et al. (2002) reported that 300 mg/kg water, and requires dilution with an excipient (Saffan is prepared
TBE produced heart rates and echocardiographic fractional in 20% polyoxyethylated castor oil (Cremophor-EL)) for clini-
shortening values 15–20 minutes following IP administra- cal use. Historically, alphadolone was used solely to increase
tion similar to the inhaled anesthetic isoflurane. Midazo- solubility; recent studies have demonstrated antinociceptive
lam/ketamine produced trends similar to, but absolute values effects, without sedation, when administered IP (Nadeson and
lower than those of TBE, while xylazine/ketamine produced Goodchild, 2001).
significant cardiac depression as evidenced by low heart rate Most of the reported side effects of alphaxalone/alphadolone
and percent fractional shortening. Roth et al. concluded that have been attributed to Cremophor, which induces histamine
isoflurane was the most consistent anesthetic in repeat studies release and may result in major anaphylactic reactions. This
at 12 days and that the anesthetic agent, the timing of echocar- led to withdrawal of Althesin from the market, and its
diographic measurements, and the genetic background were all contraindication for use in dogs (Ferre et al., 2006). Allergic
critical variables during murine echocardiography. reactions are also commonly observed in cats (Branson,
44 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

2001). A new formulation of alphaxalone (Alfaxan), with- animals (Gumbleton et al., 1990a). There is an enhanced pres-
out alphadolone, uses 2-hydroxypropyl-beta cyclodextrin as sor response to administration of a nitric oxide inhibitor (Wang
a solubilizing agent. It has been approved for use in dogs et al., 1991).
and cats in Australia (Ferre et al., 2006) and is safe and In pigs, there are minimal changes in blood gas val-
effective in pigs (Keates, 2003). New steroid preparations ues following alphaxalone/alphadolone administration (Glen,
may provide improved alternatives to available products (Sear, 1980), although transient apnea occurs in some animals (Bran-
1996). son, 2001). Surgical anesthesia in squirrel monkeys results
in reduced body temperature and respiratory rate (Lögdberg,
1988); in cynomolgus monkeys, there is a rapid decrease in
2. Biodisposition
temperature without change in respiratory rate (Box and Ellis,
Induction is almost immediate following IV administration of 1973). Gentamicin clearance and glomerular filtration rate in
alphaxalone/alphadolone in the rat. Duration is dose-dependent, rats are similar to those in conscious controls (Gumbleton et al.,
but generally short, and recovery is rapid. Alphaxalone plasma 1990b).
half-life is approximately 7 minutes and serum protein binding Alphaxalone/alphadolone (4–6 mg/kg) has been recom-
about 40%. Excretion of the steroids is rapid, through both feces mended for use in cats undergoing cesarean section because
and urine. Following IV injection, 76.5% of a radiolabeled dose it undergoes rapid clearance from the circulation and pro-
can be recovered from bile within 3 hours of injection; fecal duces minimal respiratory depression (Seymour, 1999).
excretion continues for several days, suggesting enterohepatic Anecdotally, kittens delivered by cesarean section using
circulation of the steroid metabolites. The principal metabolite alphaxalone/alphadolone are reported to appear sleepy (Duke,
in rats apparently is a glucuronide of 2ά-hydroxyalphaxalone. A personal communication, 2005). There are currently no out-
similar plasma half-life is seen in the mouse and monkey (Child come studies evaluating the use of alphaxalone/alphadolone for
et al., 1972a). feline cesarean section.
Both alphaxalone and alphadolone have anesthetic activity Hormonal and reproductive effects of alphaxalone/
following IV administration, although alphadolone is only about alphadolone are minimal, although weak antiestrogenic activity
one-third as potent; both drugs act at the GABAA receptor can be demonstrated (Child et al., 1972b).
(Ferre et al., 2006; Nadeson and Goodchild, 2001). Alphax-
alone, but not alphadolone, is also active by IP administration.
Alphadolone (but not alphaxalone) has antinociceptive effects,
I. Benzodiazepine Derivatives
but only when administered IP or orally. This suggests pro-
duction of an active metabolite in the liver (Winter et al.,
1. Description
2003). Other groups have demonstrated analgesic effects of
alphaxalone (Gilron and Coderre, 1996), mediated in part via The term benzodiazepine refers to the portion of the
T-type Ca2+ channels (Pathirathna et al., 2005). Anxiolytic chemical structure composed of a benzene ring fused to a
effects also can be demonstrated, and may have a site of action seven-member diazepine ring. Because all clinically important
independent of the benzodiazepine site on the GABAA receptor benzodiazepines contain a 5-aryl substitution and a 1,4-
complex (Britton et al., 1991). diazepine ring, the term means the 5-aryl-1,4-benzodiazepine
structure. Midazolam is an imidazobenzodiazepine, as is the
benzodiazepine antagonist flumazenil. The triazolobenzodi-
3. Pharmacologic Effects
azepines, such as alprazolam, are less commonly used in
Alphaxalone–alphadolone has anticonvulsant effects in rat veterinary medicine.
epilepsy models, but only at hypnotic/anesthetic doses; this pat- Although benzodiazepines can produce marked sedation in
tern resembles that of pentobarbital (Peterson, 1989). In contrast rodents, pigs, and primates, they are not analgesic. Unlike
to anticonvulsant effects, a high incidence of myoclonic jerks most GABAA agonists, benzodiazepines do not produce a true
occurs in mice following alphaxalone/alphadolone administra- general anesthetic state, because awareness usually persists
tion (File and Simmonds, 1988). and relaxation sufficient to permit surgery cannot be achieved
In humans, induction with alphaxalone/alphadolone may even with high doses. A variety of benzodiazepines are used
result in hiccoughs, coughing, laryngospasm and involuntary in human medicine for their sedative, anxiolytic, spinal cord-
muscle movements (Sear, 1996). Transient hypotension may fol- mediated skeletal muscle relaxant, anticonvulsant, and antero-
low IV alphaxalone/alphadolone administration in cats, sheep, grade (acquisition or encoding of new information) amnestic
and pigs (Branson, 2001). In the rat, cardiac output is decreased properties. Although not capable alone of general anesthesia,
(Gumbleton et al., 1990a) and blood pressure is decreased uses include preanesthesia and anesthesia induction and they
(Wang et al., 1991) or unchanged (Faber, 1989). Renal and may be part of a balanced anesthesia regimen (Rall, 1990). Cur-
hepatosplanchnic blood flows were highest among five anes- rent veterinary use is limited largely to diazepam, midazolam,
thetic regimens evaluated and most nearly those in conscious and zolazepam, typically in combination with another agent
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 45

(e.g., a hypnotic or dissociative) for anesthesia or anesthetic metabolite in the dog and human hepatocytes, but was not
induction. detected in rat cultures. The principal metabolite in rat cells
Diazepam is insoluble in water; parenteral solutions for IV was 4 -hydroxy diazepam, which was further rapidly metabo-
injection include propylene glycol and ethanol. The solution is lized to its glucuronide. The drug-metabolizing activities of the
viscous, with a pH of 6.6–6.9. Dilution with water or saline hepatocyte cultures toward diazepam were comparable with the
produces cloudiness, but does not affect the drug potency. in vivo drug metabolism in each species (Seddon et al., 1989).
Thrombophlebitis is reported (Booth, 1988b; Hall and Clarke, Lacoste et al. (2000) reported the pharmacokinetics of mida-
1991a), and propylene glycol interferes with drug absorption zolam following intranasal administration in pigs. In pigs
following intramuscular (IM) administration. Diazepam is also weighing 18 kg, both 0.2 and 0.4 mg/kg intranasal midazolam
available in a soybean formulation, Diazemuls, for IV injec- caused equal and significant anxiolysis and sedation within 3–4
tion. Midazolam is chemically similar to diazepam, but has minutes. In 42 kg pigs administered 0.4 mg/kg, plasma concen-
a pK of 6.15 which permits the preparation of water-soluble trations attained a maximum (Cmax ) of 0.13 mg/L at 5 minutes
salts. Parenteral midazolam solution is buffered to pH 3.5; this (median Tmax ) and remained higher than 0.04 mg/L until 60 min-
is important because the lipid and water solubilities of mida- utes. The intranasal bioavailability factor (F) was F = 0.64. The
zolam are reversibly pH-dependent. At pH < 4.0, midazolam intranasal terminal half-life was comparable with the IV admin-
exists as a water-soluble open ring, but the ring closes and istration half-life. Midazolam is metabolized by cytochrome
midazolam becomes a lipid-soluble drug at pH > 4.0. Mida- P450 (CYP3A4) enzymes to active and inactive metabolites.
zolam is compatible with lactated Ringer’s solution and can be The active metabolite, 1-hydroxymidazolam, is conjugated
mixed with the acidic salts of other drugs, including opioids and to 1-hydroxymidazolam glucuronide and subsequently cleared
anticholinergics. Zolazepam is a water-soluble benzodiazepine through the kidneys.
that is combined with the dissociative agent tiletamine as the Plasma half-life of zolazepam in dogs, cats, rats, and mon-
veterinary product Telazol (Ilkiw, 1992; Lin, 1996). keys is 4–5 hours, 4.5 hours, 3 hours, and 1 hour, respectively.
In beagle dogs, about 2.9–8.7% of administered zolazepam
is detected in the urine and 1% is recovered in the feces.
2. Biodisposition
The major metabolite isolated from cat urine is 8-dimethyl-
Benzodiazepines are well-absorbed following intranasal or 1,6-hydroxy-zolazepam [metabolite 5]. Two other metabolites,
oral administration and rapidly enter the CNS and other highly 8-dimethyl-zolazepam [metabolite 1] and 1,8-dimethyl-
perfused organs following IV administration. Differences in zolazepam [metabolite 3], are also found in cat urine after a
the onset and duration of action reflect differences in receptor- single dose. In beagle dogs, 1-dimethyl-zolaepam [metabolite
binding affinity, lipid solubility, and pharmacokinetics. All 2] and a hydroxylated derivative of metabolite 2 [metabolite
benzodiazepines are highly lipid soluble and bound to plasma 6] are found in urine. Six-hydroxy-zolazepam [metabolite 4] is
proteins, particularly albumin. Benzodiazepine metabolism is found in both male and female rats, while metabolite 2 is found
prolonged in the presence of drugs that inhibit cytochrome only in female rats (Lin, 1996).
P450 (e.g., cimetidine, erythromycin, calcium channel blockers,
antifungal drugs, etc.).
3. Pharmacologic Effects
Rall (1990) provides a detailed discussion of benzodi-
azepine metabolism in humans. Diazepam shows a biexpo- There are considerable species-specific differences in the
nential decline in plasma following IV administration. There pharmacologic profile of the benzodiazepines (Rall, 1990).
are species-specific differences in elimination half-life from Tranquilizing effects of the benzodiazepines are species-
approximately 1 to 7 hours in the rat, guinea pig, rabbit, and variable, and excitation may follow administration (Booth,
dog; by comparison, the value in humans is 33 hours. In the 1988b; Hall, Clarke, and Trim, 2001; Rehm and Schatzman,
rat, rabbit, and dog, blood clearance rate exceeds liver blood 1986). In animal models of anxiety, benzodiazepines increase
flow, suggesting extrahepatic elimination (Klotz et al., 1976). locomotor, feeding, and drinking activity that is suppressed by
The major metabolite of diazepam is the active metabolite novel or aversive stimuli (Charney et al., 2006). In chickens,
N -desmethyl-diazepam (nordiazepam) (Booth, 1988b). diazepam alone has a slight tranquilizing effect (Christensen
Diazepam disappearance is monoexponential in rat, monkey et al., 1987). In cats, zolazepam does not induce anesthe-
and human hepatocytes, and best described by a 2-compartment sia or tranquilization when administered either IM or IV, and
process in dog hepatocytes. The hepatocytes of all studied when administered at high doses (10 mg/kg), produces fear,
species (Wistar rat, cynomolgus monkey, beagle dog, and continuous territorial exploration, and jumping–climbing reac-
humans) were found to produce nordiazepam and temezepam tions similar to those observed with high-dose midazolam (Lin,
as metabolites, with nordiazepam representing the principal 1996). In mice, zolazepam induces a delayed increase in ran-
metabolite in the dog, monkey and human cells. In the dog, dom motor activity, while in rats, zolazepam produces anxiolytic
temezepam was found only as a minor metabolite. Oxazepam effects only within the range of 0.63–10 mg/kg; anxiolysis is not
was a significant metabolite in the monkey and a minor prominent at lower doses, while higher doses mask anxiolysis
46 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

with excessive depression (Lin, 1996). Climazolam has been walls appear to take part in responses to trauma such as
used in several domestic species (Hall and Clarke, 1991a), and ischemia.
is reported to be an effective sedative in rats, although there is no Benzodiazepines decrease adenosine degradation by inhibit-
loss of righting reflex or analgesic effect. There are significant ing the nucleoside transporter, which is the principal mechanism
strain and age differences in response (West and Green, 1987). by which the effect of adenosine is terminated through re-uptake
The existence of multiple benzodiazepine receptors may explain into cells (Seubert et al., 2000). Adenosine is an important reg-
the diversity of pharmacological responses in different species. ulator of cardiac function. It reduces cardiac oxygen demand by
Benzodiazepines in general have minimal cardiovascular slowing heart rate, and increases oxygen delivery through coro-
effects and mild respiratory effects (Booth, 1988b). Diazepam nary artery vasodilation, thus providing cardioprotection during
in rabbits and mice leads to respiratory depression only at lethal myocardial ischemia. In a model of ischemic myocardial pre-
doses (Bradshaw and Pleuvry, 1971). In rabbits, the LD50 for conditioning, midazolam does not affect cardiac myocyte KATP
IV diazepam is 60 mg/kg (Thurmon et al., 1996). In swine, channel activity (Zaugg et al., 2002).
midazolam results in decreased respiratory rate, but blood gas Benzodiazepines should be used cautiously, if at all, in ani-
values are maintained (Smith et al., 1991). Information on car- mals presenting for cesarean section. Rapid placental transfer
diorespiratory effects of zolazepam is limited, but 10 mg/kg IM with significant fetal uptake occurs with these agents and elim-
is reported to increase heart rate and have minimal effects on ination from the newborn is quite slow. In human obstetrical
respiration in cats (Lin, 1996). practice, maternal benzodiazepine administration prior to or
Diazepam does not decrease blood pressure in guinea pigs during labor is associated with lower Apgar and neurobehavioral
(Flynn et al., 1988). In dogs, IV diazepam (0.5, 1.0, 2.5 mg/kg) scores and “floppy infant syndrome,” with symptoms rang-
does not alter heart rate or mean arterial pressure, but IV mida- ing from mild sedation, hypotonia, and reluctance to suck, to
zolam (0.25, 1.0, 10 mg/kg) increases heart rate and decreases apneic spells, cyanosis, and impaired metabolic responses to
mean arterial pressure at the highest tested doses (Jones et al., cold stress (Celleno et al., 1993; McElhatton, 1994). Simi-
1979). At the two higher doses, cardiac output increased 10– lar depression of neurological reflexes following midazolam–
12% with midazolam and left ventricular dP/dtmax (a measure of ketamine–enflurane anesthesia has been observed in puppies
contractility) decreased 13–16%. Diazepam (1.0 and 2.5 mg/kg) (Luna et al., 2004). Large IV doses of diazepam in pregnant mice
also produced a 17% decrease in left ventricular dP/dtmax , and results in high fetal losses (Rank and Jensen, 1989). Diazepam is
2.5 mg/kg produced a 10% increase in cardiac output. Neither also reported to produce hypothermia in aged squirrel monkeys
diazepam nor midazolam in any dosage altered regional coro- (Clark and Lipton, 1981).
nary blood flow, systemic or coronary vascular resistance, stroke
volume, or stroke work. Decreased myocardial contractility also
occurs in swine at higher doses of midazolam (Smith et al.,
4. Immune System Effects
1991). Direct negative inotropic effects have been demonstrated
in vitro, but are dose-dependent and may not reflect concentra- PBRs in blood cells appear to play roles in several aspects
tions encountered clinically (Stowe et al., 1992). In awake adult of the immune response, such as phagocytosis and the secre-
beagle dogs, 2 mg/kg IV zolazepam causes no changes in car- tion of interleukin-2, interleukin-3, and immunoglobulin A
diovascular function, while 10 and 50 mg/kg decreased systemic (IgA) (see review by Veenman and Gavish, 2006). In addi-
vascular resistance, decreased blood pressure, and produced a tion, the central benzodiazepine receptor may contribute to
reflex tachycardia (Lin, 1996). Increasing, cumulative doses of the regulation of T-cell function by modulating the activity of
midazolam in the pig result in a progressive decline in heart rate, the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical axis, the sympathoa-
but arterial pressure is increased and cardiac output maintained drenal system, or both, which, in turn, exert a significant effect
(Smith et al., 1991). on immune function (Zavala, 1997). Benzodiazepines bind to
Benzodiazepine receptors are present in the periphery (Booth, primary human microglial cells, the principal site of HIV-1
1988b). Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBRs) are abun- replication in the brain, and inhibit LPS-induced TNFalpha
dant in the cardiovascular system (see review by Veenman and production by these cells in a concentration-dependent man-
Gavish, 2006). In the cardiovascular lumen, PBRs are present in ner. Treatment of HIV-1-infected primary human microglial, as
platelets, erythrocytes, lymphocytes, and mononuclear cells. In well as mixed glial/neuronal, cell cultures with benzodiazepines
the walls of the cardiovascular system, PBR can be found in the inhibits the expression of HIV-1 p24 antigen (Lokensgard et al.,
endothelium, the striated cardiac muscle, the vascular smooth 1998). Benzodiazepine-induced inhibition of HIV-1 expression
muscles, and the mast cells. The subcellular location of PBR in chronically infected promonocytic (U1) cells has been found
is primarily in mitochondria. Putative PBR functions include to be associated with decreased activation of the nuclear tran-
regulation of steroidogenesis, apoptosis, cell proliferation, the scription factor kappa B (Lokensgard et al., 1998). Midazolam
mitochondrial membrane potential, the mitochondrial respi- impairs neutrophil function at clinically relevant concentrations
ratory chain, voltage-dependent calcium channels, responses (Nishina et al., 1998). Both the humoral and cell-mediated
to stress, and microglial activation. PBRs in blood vessel immune response of adult rats can be altered by administering
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 47

diazepam prenatally or in early postnatal life (Dostal et al., 1995; B. Cyclohexamines

Schlumpf et al., 1992).
1. Description
The cyclohexamine anesthetics, phencyclidine and its con-
5. Antagonists geners ketamine and tiletamine, have been categorized as dis-
Flumazenil is a specific benzodiazepine antagonist that atten- sociative anesthetics and sympathomimetic anesthetics (Soma,
uates the central effects of the benzodiazepines. In the absence 1983). “Dissociative” refers to the apparent dissociation of the
of an agonist for the benzodiazepine-binding site, flumazenil patient from its environment, believed to be caused by inter-
itself does not affect GABAA -receptor function. Studies of the ruption of CNS impulses as well as differential depression and
antagonistic effects of flumazenil in humans, rats, and mice activation of various areas of the brain (Muir, 1985; Reich and
have been reviewed (Brogden and Goa, 1991). The effective- Silvay, 1989). The anesthetic action of ketamine requires a func-
ness of flumazenil reversal appears to vary with species, as tioning cerebral cortex (Wright, 1982). There is depression or
Ilkiw et al. (2002) found that IV flumazenil (0.001, 0.005, disorganization of the associative areas of the brain, while sub-
0.01, and 0.1 mg/kg) did not shorten or improve recovery from cortical areas may be activated (Haskins, 1992; Oguchi et al.,
ketamine (3 mg/kg) and midazolam (0.05 mg/kg) anesthesia in 1982). The subject seems completely unaware of the environ-
cats. The behavioral and electrophysiological effects of the ment, and suggested mechanisms include electrophysiologic
benzodiazepines can also be reduced or prevented by prior treat- inhibition of the thalamocortical pathways and stimulation of the
ment with GABA-binding site antagonists, such as bicuculline. limbic system. Ocular and pharyngeal reflexes are retained, or
Physostigmine has been reported as a nonspecific antidote in attenuated less, with ketamine than with other anesthetic agents,
rats, rabbits, and cats (Nagy and Desci, 1978). which can make traditional monitoring of anesthetic depth using
observation of physical signs misleading. The pharmacology
of ketamine and tiletamine, as well their use in veterinary
medicine, has been reviewed (Lin, 1996; Lin et al., 1993).
III. N -METHYL-d-ASPARTATE (NMDA)
The wide veterinary use of ketamine stems from its low cost,
ANTAGONISTS
wide margin of safety, ease of administration, and initial intro-
duction as a Drug Enforcement Administration noncontrolled
A. Mechanism of Action anesthetic (presently DEA Class III). Tiletamine was initially
developed in an effort to find an agent with potency and duration
The neuropharmacology of the phencyclidine derivatives is intermediate between phencyclidine and ketamine. Its current
complex, with interactions at N -methyl d-aspartate (NMDA) use in veterinary medicine is primarily in a 1:1 combination with
and non-NMDA glutamate/nitric oxide/cGMP receptors, as well the benzodiazepine zolazepam, marketed as the product Telazol
as nicotinic and muscarinic cholinergic, and monoaminergic (see Anesthetic Combinations, Section VIII.B). One textbook
and opioid receptors (Kohrs and Durieux, 1998). Although of veterinary anesthesia lists more than 75 species under the
ketamine does weakly bind at GABA receptors, NMDA recep- index term “ketamine” and more than 105 species under the
tor antagonism accounts for most of its analgesic effects (Kohrs index term “Telazol” (Thurmon et al., 1996).
and Durieux, 1998; Pozzi et al., 2006). Glutamate and its ana- Ketamine is water-soluble and structurally resembles phency-
log, NMDA, are excitatory amino acids. Group 1 metabotropic clidine. The presence of an asymmetric carbon atom produces
glutamate receptors are reported to regulate NMDA recep- two optical isomers, R(−) and S(+); these isomers differ in
tor function (Sou et al., 2006). In addition, interactions with anesthetic potency and effect (Muir and Hubbell, 1988; Reich
voltage-dependent Na+ and L-type Ca++ channels have been and Silvay, 1989; Ryder et al., 1978). Commercial racemic
described. When glutamate occupies the binding site on the mixtures of ketamine consist of equal parts of the R(−) and
NMDA subtype of the glutamate receptor in the presence of S(+) isomers; however, S(+) ketamine is commercially avail-
glycine, the ligand-gated (ionotropic) channel opens, allowing able. S(+) ketamine produces more intense analgesia, more
Ca++ , Na+ , and K+ to either enter or leave the cell, which rapid metabolism and recovery, less salivation, and a lower
leads to postsynaptic neuronal depolarization. Ketamine binds incidence of emergence reactions than R(−) ketamine. S(+)
to the phencyclidine receptor in the NMDA channel and pre- ketamine has analgesic potency approximately twice that of
vents further ion flux, thus inhibiting glutamate activation of racemic ketamine and four times greater than R(−) ketamine.
the channel in a noncompetitive manner. The blockade is time-, Like cocaine, both ketamine isomers inhibit postganglionic
concentration-, and stimulation frequency-dependent. The sympathetic nerve re-uptake of catecholamines.
phencyclidine-binding site partly overlaps with a binding site Ketamine is generally considered to be a potent analgesic,
for Mg++ . In addition, ketamine can produce a mild local anes- blocking conduction of pain impulses to thalamic and cortical
thetic effect through neuronal Na+ channel inhibition, as well areas. Although analgesia is reportedly more effective for proce-
as cerebral vasodilation through Ca++ channel inhibition. dures involving the musculoskeletal system than the abdomen
48 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

(Wright, 1982), NMDA-antagonists have been shown to pro- Tiletamine produces excitation in mice and rats at low doses;
vide visceral analgesia in animals as well as humans (Olivar at higher doses, anesthesia may be produced in these species, but
and Laird, 1999; Strigo et al., 2005). Ketamine has recently re- not in rabbits or guinea pigs (Chen et al., 1969). Plasma half-life
emerged as an important drug for prevention and management of tiletamine in cats is 2–4 hours; in dogs, monkeys, and rats, it
of chronic pain, as spinal cord dorsal horn NMDA recep- is 1.2 hours, 1–1.5 hours, and 30–40 minutes, respectively (Lin,
tors are important mediators in the “wind-up” chronic pain 1996). Single IM injection of high doses of tiletamine in rabbits
phenomenon. results in significant elevations in BUN and creatinine. At lower
doses, there are no changes in serum chemistry values, but mild
nephrosis is evident histologically in most animals (Doerning
et al., 1992).
2. Biodisposition
Ketamine has high lipid solubility, a pK of 7.5 at physiologic
pH, and is associated with rapid induction and return to con- 3. Pharmacologic Effects
sciousness following redistribution from the CNS to other body
a. Route of Administration and Cardiovascular Effects
tissues (Thurmon, 1985). The 10% aqueous solution has a pH of
3.5, which may result in pain on injection and muscle necrosis in Ketamine can be administered intravenously, intramuscu-
small animals (Wright, 1982). It has high bioavailability follow- larly, or intraperitoneally. There is, however, concern that IM
ing IV or IM administration (Reich and Silvay, 1989), although injection of ketamine can cause discomfort and tissue reac-
IM injection may result in more variable peak plasma concen- tions in small rodents and, therefore, this route should be
trations (Löscher et al., 1990). It is not significantly bound to avoided (Flecknell, 1996; Wixson and Smiler, 1997). Ketamine
plasma proteins, leaves the blood rapidly following injection, potentiates stress-induced ulcers in the stomach of rats, pre-
and is initially distributed to highly perfused tissues, such as sumably due to splanchnic vasoconstriction (Cheney et al.,
the brain, where its high lipid solubility ensures rapid transfer 1974).
across the blood–brain barrier. It is subsequently redistributed The cardiovascular effects of ketamine are modified by con-
away from the brain to other less well-perfused tissues. current administration of other anesthetic agents. Ketamine in
Ketamine is metabolized by the liver in most species. The vitro causes direct myocardial depression (Schwartz and Hor-
most important pathway is N -demethylation by cytochrome witz, 1975). Because of its receptor profile, however, ketamine
P450 to norketamine (metabolite I), an active metabolite increases myocardial contractility through increased sympa-
with one-third to one-fifth the initial activity. Norketamine is thetic nervous system activity, and ketamine administration to
hydroxylated and conjugated to water-soluble products that are dogs and cats typically increases hemodynamic variables (Muir,
excreted by the kidney; reduced renal output can thus result 1985; Wright, 1982). The sympathetically mediated positive
in prolonged ketamine action. The cyclohexanone ring also inotropic and chronotropic effects of ketamine can be blocked
undergoes oxidative metabolism. The so-called metabolite II by inhaled anesthetics, ganglionic blockade, cervical epidural
is apparently not a naturally occurring in vivo metabolite, but a anesthesia, and spinal cord transection (Stanley, 1973; Traber
by-product of the chromatographic process (Reich and Silvay, et al., 1970). Baroreceptor reflex response is altered in ketamine-
1989). Ketamine pretreatment decreases the plasma half-life anesthetized rats (Wang et al., 1991) and rabbits (Blake et al.,
of intravenously administered ketamine by induction of hepatic 1982). The vasoconstrictor response to hemorrhage is sup-
microsomal enzyme activity (Marietta, 1977). Tolerance has pressed compared with conscious animals (Van Leeuwen et al.,
been demonstrated in rats (Livingston and Waterman, 1978) 1990). Cardiohemodynamics in the rhesus macaque have been
and is recognized in human clinical practice (Reich and Silvay, reported (Booker et al., 1982; Ochsner, 1977; Reutlinger et al.,
1989). 1980).
Peak brain levels of ketamine are reached within 1 minute fol- Decreased myocardial contractility with anesthetic doses of
lowing IV injection in the rat, and brain:plasma ratios remain at ketamine in vivo, and in isolated cardiac preparations (Dowdy
6.5:1 for more than 10 minutes (Cohen et al., 1973). Over half and Kaya, 1968; Parker andAdams, 1978), may explain negative
of an oral, IM, or IP dose of radiolabeled ketamine in the rat inotropic and chronotropic effects seen in pithed rat and rabbit
is recovered in urine and feces within 24 hours. By 72 hours, preparations (Clanachan et al., 1976). Conflicting data on the
53–75% is recovered in urine and 23–25% in feces. Ketamine in vitro inotropic effects of ketamine may be due to differences
is transferred readily across the placenta in dogs, monkeys, in species, tissue preparation, or temperature or calcium con-
and humans (Chang and Glazko, 1974). There are significant centration of the medium (Stowe et al., 1992). A direct negative
species differences in the relative amounts of free ketamine and inotropic effect is usually overshadowed in vivo by central sym-
ketamine metabolites in the urine (Chang and Glazko, 1974), pathetic stimulation. The arrhythmogenic potential of ketamine
and protein binding in serum (Wright, 1982). Löscher et al. remains controversial (Reich and Silvay, 1989).
(1990) present a detailed analysis of pharmacokinetic data in Ketamine alone results in a short vasodepression followed by
swine, compared with the data in other domestic species. a longer lasting strong pressor response (Altura et al., 1980).
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 49

Increases in heart rate and mean arterial pressure have been time decreases as young rats mature from 1 to 3 weeks. This
reported following ketamine administration in rats and rabbits decrease in sleeping time seemed to be associated with the
(Kumar and Kumar, 1984; Wang et al., 1991). Other studies increased production of the cyclohexanone oxidation metabolite
in rabbits have found an elevated heart rate (Dhasmana et al., of ketamine, norketamine. After 3 weeks, females sleep longer
1984), and decreased arterial pressure and cardiac output (Van in response to ketamine than males; again, which may be due
Leeuwen et al., 1990). The effect of ketamine on cardiac out- to a greater ability of the male to produce the cyclohexanone
put of the rat has been variable (Idvall et al., 1980; Miller oxidation metabolite.
et al., 1980). In nonhuman primates, ketamine administra-
tion has resulted in an unchanged heart rate, mean arterial
d. Effects on Blood Glucose Levels
pressure, and rectal temperature (Reutlinger et al., 1980), or
cardiodepression (Chimoskey et al., 1975; Ochsner, 1977). Blood glucose levels following an IV glucose challenge are
Ketamine has been reported to open arteriovenous shunts in increased by ketamine (Aynsley-Green et al., 1973; Hsu and
rats (Miller et al., 1980) and pregnant guinea pigs (Mårtens- Hembrough, 1982; Reyes Toso et al., 1995).
son and Carter, 1984), such that microsphere-based methods of
determining cardiac output and organ perfusion may be unre-
e. Nervous System
liable. Miller et al. (1980) reported that trapped microspheres
were released from muscle and skin in Wistar rats given 125 Ketamine is traditionally considered to increase CBF and
mg/kg ketamine IP, resulting in an apparent decrease in the dis- ICP (Wright, 1982), while CBF in the rabbit is increased with-
tribution of cardiac output to muscle and an apparent increase out elevated PCO2 (Dhasmana et al., 1984). However, direct
in flow to the lung. cerebral vasodilation has not been a consistent finding, likely
Pharmacologic activation of adenosine triphosphate-regulated because many early studies were performed on spontaneously
potassium (KATP ) channels mimics ischemic preconditioning breathing subjects (Reich and Silvay, 1989). When ventila-
and decreases infarct size or improves functional recovery of tion is not controlled, ICP may rise following vasodilation
ischemic-reperfused stunned myocardium. Racemic ketamine secondary to hypercapnia (Pfenninger et al., 1985; Schwedler
blocks KATP channels in isolated cardiac cells and abolishes et al., 1982; Tranquilli et al., 1983). Using nuclear magnetic res-
short-term cardioprotection against prolonged ischemia; this onance perfusion imaging and electron paramagnetic resonance
effect is due to the R(−) isomer but not the S(+) isomer (Molo- oximetry, Lei et al. (2001) found that in ventilated rats, ketamine
javyi et al., 2001; Mullenheim et al., 2001b). In a cellular model at a dose of 50 mg/kg does not induce significant changes in CBF
of simulated myocardial ischemia, diazoxide-induced cell pro- and increases cortical O2 partial pressure.
tection of mitochondrial KATP channel activity was mitigated In the human clinical setting, ketamine does not increase ICP
by R(−) ketamine, but not by S(+) ketamine (Zaugg et al., when used under conditions of controlled ventilation, coad-
2002). ministration of a GABAA agonist, and without nitrous oxide
(Himmelseher and Durieux, 2005). Compared with other anes-
thetics or sedatives, level II and III evidence (level II—evidence
b. Effect on Ventilation and Blood Gases
from at least one randomized clinical trial; level III—evidence
The respiratory effects of ketamine itself are relatively minor, from nonexperimental descriptive studies, such as comparative
although a dose-dependent suppression can be demonstrated. studies, correlation studies, and case control studies) indi-
A characteristic apneustic pattern of breathing is seen com- cates that hemodynamic stimulation induced by ketamine may
monly (Muir, 1985; Wright, 1982). In rhesus monkeys, normal improve cerebral perfusion; this could make the drug a preferred
respiratory variables are maintained, except for transient ele- choice after brain injury. In the laboratory, racemic ketamine has
vations in arterial PCO2 and venous PO2 (Reutlinger et al., neuroprotective, and S(+)-ketamine additional neuroregenera-
1980). Low doses of ketamine in the rabbit result in decreased tive effects, even when administered after onset of a cerebral
respiratory rate and PO2 (Dhasmana et al., 1984). Ketamine insult. However, improved outcomes were only reported in
sympathomimetic actions promote bronchial muscle relax- studies with brief recovery observation intervals. In developing
ation, and protective airway reflexes are generally maintained animals, and in certain areas of the brain in adult rats without
(Thurmon and Benson, 1987). Anesthetic agents concurrently cerebral injury, neurotoxic effects were noted after adminis-
administered with ketamine, however, may have a significant tration of large doses of ketamine; these were prevented by
effect on blood gases (see Anesthetic Combinations, Section coadministration of GABA receptor agonists (Himmelseher and
VIII.B). Durieux, 2005).
Although ketamine and tiletamine have been reported to
induce seizures in dogs and cats (Chen et al., 1969; Garmer,
c. Tolerance and Strain Differences
1969; Wright, 1982), these agents raise the threshold to chem-
There are age and sex differences in the response of rats to ically or electrically induced seizures in rats and mice (Chen
ketamine (Waterman and Livingston, 1978). Ketamine sleeping et al., 1969; Myslobodsky et al., 1981). Ketamine does not
50 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

alter seizure threshold in epilepsy (Celesia et al., 1975), and significant inhibition of nitrite release in mixed glial cells, astro-
induces excitatory activity in both the thalamus and limbic sys- cyte cultures and microglial cultures. Ketamine also inhibits
tems without evidence of spread to cortical areas (Ferrer-Allado LPS-induced production of prostaglandin E2 in astrocyte cul-
et al., 1973). Thus, ketamine is unlikely to precipitate general- tures (Shibakawa et al., 2005). It inhibits endotoxin-induced
ized convulsion even in the presence of pre-existing seizure dis- production of TNFalpha, IL-1, and IL-8 and increases IL-10
orders. Myoclonic- and seizure-like activities may be observed; release in vitro; it also prevents TNFalpha, IL-1, and IL-6
however, ketamine is considered to have anticonvulsant activity responses to endotoxemia in vivo (Taniguchi and Yamamoto,
because EEG evidence of cortical epileptic activity is absent 2005). The activation of nuclear factor-kappaB by endotoxin is
(Modica et al., 1990). also suppressed.
The classical stage 2 excitement phase, which occurs with
subanesthetic concentrations of ketamine, may be associated
4. Ketamine Antagonists
with general stimulation of a variety of G-protein-linked recep-
tors. The high-affinity states of dopamine D2 and D3 receptors, Ketamine anesthesia is antagonized in mice by agonist drugs
serotonin 5HT-2A receptors, beta2-adrenoceptors, alpha2-1 and specifically targeting the metabotropic glutamate receptors 1
alpha2-2 adrenoceptors, opiate receptors, and muscarinic recep- and 5 (Sou et al., 2006). Reich and Silvay (1989) discuss
tors are inhibited in vitro by clinical concentrations of ketamine; a number of agents which, based on the proposed mech-
subanesthetic ketamine concentrations stimulate the incorpora- anisms of action, should antagonize cyclohexamine effects.
tion of GTP into cloned dopamine D2 receptors (Seeman and These agents include metaphit (1-(1-(3-isothiocyanatophenyl)-
Kapur, 2003). cyclohexyl)-piperidine; acetylates NMDA receptors), naloxone
Other reported pharmacologic effects of ketamine include the (opioid antagonist), norepinephrine and serotonin receptor
following: bronchodilatory activity as effective as halothane or blockers, and anticholinesterase agents (e.g., 4-aminopyridine
enflurane in preventing experimentally induced bronchospasm or physostigmine) (Reich and Silvay, 1989; Wright, 1982).
in dogs (Hirshman et al., 1979); dose-dependent hypothermia
in rats (Lin et al., 1978); maintained thermal balance in rhe-
sus monkeys (Hunter et al., 1981); marked (normal) salivation
IV. ALPHA2-ADRENOCEPTOR AGONISTS
response to hyperthermia, in contrast to five other anesthetic
regimens (Furuyama et al., 1989); increased serum renin activ-
ity (Pettinger et al., 1975); altered serum follicle-stimulating A. Mechanism of Action and General Description
hormone, testosterone and androstenedione in rats following
decapitation (Nazian, 1988); resting myopia in humans and Alpha2-adrenoceptor-mediated sedation and antinocicep-
nonhuman primates, due largely to central parasympathetic tion has been reviewed (Maze and Regan, 1991; Maze
neuronal tone (Crawford et al., 1990); enhancement of neuro- and Tranquilli, 1991; Lamont and Tranquilli, 2002). The
muscular blockade in humans (Reich and Silvay, 1989), and in alpha2-agonists stimulate central alpha2-adrenoceptors; how-
rabbits (Bogdan et al., 1974) and monkeys (Tsai and Lee, 1989); ever, alpha2-adrenoceptor subtype expression and function
teratologic effects in rats (Kochhar et al., 1986); muscle necro- appears to be species-specific, making extrapolation between
sis following IM injection of ketamine–xylazine in hamsters species difficult (Ongioco et al., 2000). Three distinct human
(Gaertner et al., 1987) and rabbits (Beyers et al., 1991); autoam- alpha2-adrenoceptor subtype genes or complementary DNA
putation of digits following ketamine–acepromazine injections have been cloned and named alpha2-C10 (also known as
in guinea pigs (Latt and Echobichon, 1984). alpha2A in the earlier pharmacologic nomenclature), alpha2-
C4 (or alpha2B ), and alpha2-C2 (or alpha2C ) according to their
location on human chromosomes 10, 4, and 2 (Aanta et al.,
f. Immune System Effects
1995), respectively. Related alpha2-adrenoceptor subtypes have
Ketamine does not impair neutrophil function at clinically rel- been cloned from a variety of other species, including rat,
evant concentrations (Nishina et al., 1998). Ketamine inhibits mouse, pig, opossum, and fish, while partial cDNA sequences
platelet aggregation in baboons (Atkinson et al., 1985) and for bovine and avian alpha2-receptors have been identified. A
humans, possibly due to suppressed formation of inositol 1,4,5- fourth alpha2-adrenoceptor subtype has been proposed in the rat
triphosphate and subsequent inhibition of cytosolic free calcium (alpha2D ); however, this is thought to be a species homolog of
concentrations (Nakagawa et al., 2002). Small decreases in the rat alpha2A subtype (Aanta et al., 1995). Studies in rats and
hematocrit and plasma protein, with a larger decrease in mice have shown that the alpha2A subtype is predominant and
leukocyte (principally lymphocyte) count are observed, com- widely distributed in the brain. Both alpha2A and alpha2C sub-
pared with values in manually restrained animals (Loomis types have been identified in the rat spinal cord, with alpha2A
et al., 1980). widely distributed and alpha2C restricted mainly to the dorsal
In primary cultures of rat glial cells stimulated with LPS in the root ganglia. In human spinal cord, however, the alpha2A and
presence of ketamine, TNFalpha production is reduced without alpha2B subtypes predominate, with the alpha2C subtype only
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 51

sparsely represented (Maze and Fujinaga, 2000). Lakhlani et al. comparison, the ratio for medetomidine, detomidine, and cloni-
(1997) have detailed the use of a mouse “hit and run” genetic dine is 1,620, 260, and 220 (Virtanen, 1989), respectively. The
model to describe alpha2 receptor subtypes; the two-part tech- alpha2-agonist clonidine, used primarily as an antihyperten-
nique consists of “hitting” cells with an inserted mutated gene sive in human medical practice, has been extensively studied
and allowing the recombination event to “run,” thus activating in animals.
the inserted gene. Absorption rate is similar for all clinically used alpha2-
Analgesia results from a combination of direct activa- agonists. At equipotent doses, differences between individual
tion of alpha2-adrenoceptors located within the spinal cord, agents exist mainly in length of action, sedative and analgesic
and sedative-hypnotic effects activated by supraspinal alpha2- properties, and in the extent and significance of side effects.
autoreceptors (alpha2-adrenoceptors on noradrenergic neurons) Common cardiovascular side effects include dose-dependent
within the brainstem (catecholaminergic nuclei of the pons A5, bradycardia (MacDonald and Virtanen, 1992; Ruskoaho and
A6—also called the locus ceruleus—and A7) (Stenberg, 1989). Leppäluoto, 1989; Venugopalan et al., 1994). The mecha-
Spinal antinociception occurs when presynaptic alpha2 non- nism involves central, sympathetic effects at lower doses and
noradrenergic neurons (heteroceptors) in the dorsal horn are peripheral vagal effects at higher doses (MacDonald and Vir-
activated by norepinephrine or an exogenous alpha2-agonist. tanen, 1992). Second-degree atrioventricular block has been
Antinociception involves both alpha2-autoreceptors throughout observed in dogs (Vainio, 1989). There is typically a transient
the CNS as well as alpha2-heteroceptors in the dorsal horn of increase in blood pressure following medetomidine adminis-
the spinal cord. When these heteroceptors are activated, Go pro- tration, attributed to peripheral alpha2 effects, and a subse-
teins mediate a reduction in calcium influx, leading to decreased quent decrease which is probably centrally mediated. This
release of neurotransmitters and/or neuropeptides (such as glu- pattern has been observed in dogs, chloralose-anesthetized cats,
tamate, vasoactive intestinal peptide, calcitonin gene-related pentobarbital-anesthetized rats, and conscious spontaneously
peptide, substance P, and neurotensin). Additionally, alpha2- hypertensive (SHR) rats (Savola, 1989; Vainio, 1990; Venu-
heteroceptors are located postsynaptically on wide-dynamic gopalan et al., 1994). Others have reported unchanged blood
range projection neurons targeted by primary afferent fibers pressure in cynomolgus monkeys at sedative doses (Mann et al.,
in the dorsal horn. Ligand binding at these receptors pro- 1991) and in SHR rats (Ruskoaho and Leppäluoto, 1989). Car-
duces neuronal hyperpolarization through Gi protein-coupled diac output is decreased due to increased systemic vascular
potassium channels and results in postsynaptically mediated resistance and decreased heart rate; this can be beneficial in the
spinal analgesia through dampened ascending nociceptive presence of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and left ventricular
transmission. There is also evidence that supraspinal alpha2- outflow tract obstruction (Lamont et al., 2002). Respiratory sup-
agonist binding may contribute indirectly to spinally medi- pression is variable and related to adjunctive anesthetic agents
ated alpha2-adrenoceptor-mediated antinociception (Pertovaara (see Anesthetic Combinations, Section VIII B). Hypoxemia is
et al., 1991). reported in sheep, but incidence is highly variable and depends
Alpha2-agonists are not anesthetics (although there may be on individual or breed-related factors (Kastner, 2006).
species differences in this regard), nor are they tranquiliz- Other common side effects include: decreased insulin release,
ers in the strictest sense. As sole sedative/analgesic agents, diuresis and polyuria (Greene and Thurmon, 1988; Hsu et al.,
alpha2-agonists have limited usefulness at any dose; effects are 1986); decreased gastrointestinal motility possibly due to local-
dose-dependent, such that administration of high doses prolongs ized inhibition of acetylcholine release (Greene and Thurmon,
sedation without increasing analgesia. They are commonly used 1988; Hsu, 1982); and thrombasthenia (Haskins, 1992; Venn
alone as sedative/analgesic agents, combined with other anes- et al., 2001); inhibition of antidiuretic hormone, antagonism
thetic agents, or administered as constant rate infusions at of renal tubular action, and increased glomerular filtration
very low dosages for anxiolysis/analgesia. The most commonly resulting in increased urine output (Maze et al., 1997; Miller
used alpha2-agonists, xylazine, detomidine, medetomidine, and et al., 2001; Saleh et al., 2005); hypothermia (MacDonald and
romifidine, are most effective when combined with opioids or Virtanen, 1992; MacDonald et al., 1989; Vainio, 1989); vom-
dissociative anesthetics (see Anesthetic Combinations, Section iting, especially in cats, and occasional muscle jerks (Vainio,
VIII.B) (Booth, 1988b; Kastner, 2006; Lamont and Tranquilli, 1989); suppressed gastric secretion in rats (Savola et al.,
2002). 1989); hormonal changes, including transient alterations in GH,
Marked variation in sensitivity is seen between species. Cat- testosterone, prolactin, and follicle-stimulating hormone levels.
tle are reported to be 10 times more sensitive to xylazine than Medetomidine, dexmedetomidine, and detomidine are all
horses or dogs, but as sensitive to medetomidine as dogs, and imidazole derivatives; inhibition of steroidogenesis by imi-
equally or less sensitive to detomidine as horses; swine are dazoles is well-described (see Section II.E). In dogs, basal
very resistant to all alpha2-agonists (England and Clarke, 1996; cortisol levels decrease and the cortisol response to ACTH is
Hall et al., 2001). Variation in specificity for alpha2 and alpha1 blunted 3 hours after dexmedetomidine administration (Maze
receptors may explain some of the clinical differences observed. et al., 1991). Medetomidine and detomidine inhibit aldosterone,
Xylazine has an alpha2/alpha1 receptor-binding ratio of 160; in corticosterone, and cortisol release in porcine adrenocortical
52 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

cells; medetomidine, dexmedetomidine, and atipamezole does not affect cardiac myocyte KATP channel activity in a model
inhibit mitochondrial cytochrome P450(11beta/18), unrelated of ischemic myocardial preconditioning (Zaugg et al., 2002).
to their alpha2-adrenoceptor actions (Jager et al., 1998). Other reported pharmacologic effects of xylazine include
On the other hand, adrenal steroidogenesis was not affected the following: decreased rectal temperature in rhesus monkeys
in horses sedated with detomidine (Raekallio et al., 1991), (Reutlinger et al., 1980); hyperglycemia due to reduced insulin
humans sedated with dexmedetomidine (Venn et al., 2001), secretion from pancreatic islets (Hsu and Hummel, 1981);
and ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) sedated with medetomidine decreased plasma insulin and increased plasma glucagon and
(Schoemaker et al., 2003). blood glucose (Greene and Thurmon, 1988), probably a gener-
alized alpha2 effect on the pancreas (MacDonald and Virtanen,
1992); increased GH and decreased serum antidiuretic hormone
B. Xylazine (Greene and Thurmon, 1988); increased serum prolactin and
altered serum testosterone levels in rats following decapitation
1. Description (Nazian, 1988); acute reversible corneal desiccation and lens
opacity in rats and mice (Calderone et al., 1986); increased
Xylazine is a thiazole drug (Salonen, 1992) that is used alone uterine pressure in dogs (Wheaton et al., 1989), goats (Perez
or with other agents for sedation, immobilization and anesthe- et al., 1997), horses (Schatzmann et al., 1994), and cattle
sia; it is an approved drug in the US for use in cats, dogs, and (Rodriguez-Martinez et al., 1987).
horses. A lot of information is available on the clinical use of
this agent in these (and other) domestic species (Benson and
Thurmon, 1987; Greene and Thurmon, 1988), including the
C. Medetomidine
considerable variation in response among species.
1. Description
2. Biodisposition Medetomidine is an imidazole derivative more potent than
Xylazine is rapidly absorbed following IM administration, xylazine (Salonen, 1992; Savola et al., 1986), with higher
and rapidly and extensively metabolized (Salonen, 1992); alpha2-adrenoceptor selectivity, greater lipophilicity, and faster
elimination is relatively rapid (Salonen, 1992). Radiolabeled elimination (Scheinin and Macdonald, 1989). Medetomidine
xylazine is rapidly distributed following IV injection in the rat, is an equal mixture of two optical enantiomers, dexmedeto-
and 70% of the radioactivity may be recovered in urine, only 8% midine and levomedetomidine. The hypnotic/analgesic actions
of which represents unchanged xylazine. The rapid metabolism are due to the d-enantiomer dexmedetomidine; levomedeto-
of xylazine yields about 20 different metabolic products (Duhm midine is considered to be pharmacologically inactive (Mac-
et al., 1969, discussed by Garcia-Villar et al., 1981). Hep- Donald and Virtanen, 1992). Dexmedetomidine has recently
atic metabolism includes oxidation of the aromatic moiety and been approved by the FDA for use in humans (Precedex) and
cleavage of the heterocyclic ring; no active metabolites have dogs (Dexdomitor; <http://www.fda.gov/cvm/Green_Book/
been reported (Salonen, 1992). 200702.pdf>http://www.fda.gov/cvm/Green_Book/200702.pdf,
accessed 24 July 2007). A comprehensive series of articles on
the veterinary use of medetomidine and dexmedetomidine have
3. Pharmacologic Effects been published (Daunt and Maze, 1992; Lammintausta et al.,
As in most species, xylazine alone in mice does not produce 1989; Murrell and Hellebrekers, 2005).
sleep or loss of the righting reflex (Hsu, 1992). Analgesia fol-
lowing xylazine has been demonstrated in a variety of species
2. Biodisposition
including the rat and mouse (Browning et al., 1982; Schmitt
et al., 1974). There is, in general, minimal effect of xylazine Racemic medetomidine is quickly absorbed after IM admin-
on the respiratory system (Greene and Thurmon, 1988). In istration, with peak plasma levels occurring in approximately
rhesus monkeys, xylazine does not affect respiratory rate or 30 minutes. Elimination from plasma is rapid, with reported
blood gas values (Reutlinger et al., 1980). Xylazine administra- half-lives varying between 0.96 and 1.28 hours (Kuusela et al.,
tion results in hypotension and bradycardia in conscious, SHR 2000; Salonen, 1992). In the rat, absorption of medetomi-
and urethane-anesthetized rats (Savola, 1986), and in rhesus dine following SQ administration is rapid, with peak plasma
monkeys (Reutlinger et al., 1980). Arterial pressure in guinea concentrations reached within 10 minutes. Peak levels in the
pigs is decreased at relatively low dosage (Flynn et al., 1988). brain are five times higher than those in the plasma and are
Cardiovascular effects in domestic species include significantly reached in 15–20 minutes. Approximately 85% of the drug in
reduced heart rate and a variety of arrhythmias, and effects on plasma is protein-bound. Excretion of 3 H-labeled medetomi-
cardiac output and blood pressure which vary with species and dine is mainly in the urine: 41% over 72 hours compared with
route of administration (Greene and Thurmon, 1988). Xylazine 18% in the feces. Five percent or less of the urine radioactivity
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 53

is unchanged medetomidine. Elimination half-life is 1.6 hours horse, and calf, approximately 90% of the drug in plasma is
(Salonen, 1989). protein-bound. Detomidine metabolism is similar to that of
Medetomidine and detomidine are metabolized similarly, by medetomidine. In rats, equal amounts of medetomidine glu-
hepatic monooxygenases. Hydroxylated products may be sub- curonide and medetomidine carboxylic acid are found in urine
sequently oxidized or conjugated with glucuronic acid. The (Salonen, 1992).
principal metabolite in rats is hydroxydetomidine glucuronide.
Simple hepatic hydroxylation can explain the rapid removal of 3. Pharmacologic Effects
the drug; metabolism is regulated primarily by hepatic blood
flow (Salonen, 1992). Detomidine prolongs barbiturate sleep time in mice in a dose-
dependent manner. Its effect on spontaneous activity of mice is
biphasic, with a decrease in activity at lower doses and vice
3. Pharmacologic Effects versa; righting reflex is not lost at any dose (Virtanen, 1986).
In mice, very low doses of medetomidine are anxiolytic Antinociceptive effects in rodents are similar to those of medeto-
without obvious signs of sedation (MacDonald et al., 1989). midine but much greater than the effects of xylazine. Blood
There is a dose-dependent decrease in spontaneous activity and pressure and heart rate changes with detomidine are similar to
prolongation of barbiturate sleep time, more than with either those seen with medetomidine, except that detomidine does not
detomidine or xylazine (Virtanen, 1986). In rats, there is a reduce the blood pressure of conscious SHR rats, except at high
dose-dependent sedation and loss of righting reflexes, but deep dosage (Savola, 1986). Low doses of detomidine in rats result
sedation is not produced in mice or rabbits. Both medetomi- in hypothermia which can be blocked by yohimbine. At higher
dine and detomidine can induce loss of the righting reflex in doses, an increased rectal temperature is observed (Virtanen,
young chicks (MacDonald andVirtanen, 1992). Antinociceptive 1986).
actions of medetomidine have been demonstrated in a variety
of assays and species (Vainio, 1992), including subcutaneous
E. Romifidine
formalin injection in rats (Pertovaara et al., 1990) and the acetic
acid-induced writhing test in mice (Virtanen, 1986). Antinoci-
Romifidine is an iminoimidazoline alpha2-adrenoceptor ago-
ceptive and sedative actions of medetomidine in rabbits, guinea
nist closely related to clonidine. It has typical alpha2-agonist
pigs, and hamsters are inconsistent (Vainio, 1992).
effects and is FDA approved for use in horses. When compared
in horses given equipotent doses of xylazine or detomidine,
D. Detomidine less ataxia and less head lowering is observed with similar
antinociception (Hall, Clarke, and Trim, 2001).
1. Description
Detomidine is an imidazole derivative closely related to F. Alpha2-Adrenoceptor Antagonists
medetomidine (Daunt et al., 1993; Salonen, 1986; Salonen,
1992; see series of articles edited by Lindberg, 1986.) The in Specific alpha2-adrenoceptor antagonists, such as yohim-
vitro alpha2-adrenoceptor interactions of detomidine are simi- bine, tolazoline, and idazoxan, have historically been used to
lar to those of medetomidine, although there are differences in reverse alpha2-agonist sedation (Thurmon et al., 1992; Sylvina
potency, both in vitro and in vivo, which are small relative to et al., 1990; Heaton and Brauth 1991). Yohimbine is the
xylazine. Detomidine is a sedative and potent analgesic in rats prototypical alpha2-antagonist. Tolazoline induces potent H2
and mice, but does not lead to loss of the righting reflex, even receptor-mediated effects and has been associated with gas-
at high doses (Virtanen, 1986). trointestinal bleeding, abdominal pain, nausea, diarrhea, and
exacerbation of gastric ulcer (Thurmon et al., 1999). Idazoxan
has also been used to characterize imidazoline receptors in
2. Biodisposition
synaptic plasma membranes (Dontenwill et al., 1999).
Absorption of detomidine following subcutaneous admin- Atipamezole is an imidazole alpha2-adrenoceptor antag-
istration in the rat is rapid, with peak plasma concentrations onist with higher affinity for alpha2-adrenoceptors and an
reached within 10 minutes. Peak levels in the brain are three alpha2/alpha1 selectivity ratio 200–300 times greater than that
times higher than those in the plasma. Excretion of 3 H-labeled for yohimbine. Atipamezole is not selective for subtypes of
detomidine is mainly in the urine: 62% over 72 hours com- alpha2-adrenoceptors, and unlike other alpha2-adrenoceptor
pared with 22% in the feces. Only a small amount of the urine antagonists, has negligible affinity for 5-HT1A and I2 binding
radioactivity is unchanged detomidine. Because the plasma sites. Atipamezole rapidly reverses sedation/anesthesia induced
elimination half-life is 12.7 hours (compared with a much by alpha2-adrenoceptor agonists (MacDonald et al., 1989; Per-
shorter duration of action), redistribution of drug must be rel- tovaara et al., 2005; Virtanen, 1989). Sedation as well as other
atively important in termination of clinical effect. In the dog, behavioral and physiologic effects of alpha2-agonists are readily
54 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

reversed, including bradycardia in cynomolgus monkeys (Mann aggressiveness are reduced. Sedation typically occurs at low
et al., 1991) and rats (MacDonald and Virtanen, 1992), and doses; as the dose is increased, the dose-response curve quickly
reduced gastric secretion (Savola et al., 1989). There is both reaches a plateau after which sedation is merely prolonged and
in vivo and in vitro evidence for significant species differences incidence of side effects is increased (Tobin and Ballard, 1979).
in the action of the alpha2-antagonists (Hsu, 1992). Reduced Overdose produces dystonic reactions.
alpha2-agonist sedation has also been reported using nonspe- Antagonism of D2 dopamine receptors in the basal gan-
cific CNS stimulants such as 4-aminopyridine, doxapram, or glia and limbic portions of the forebrain is thought to pro-
phentolamine (Stenberg, 1989). These agents may also facili- duce the calming and mood-altering effects. Similarly, the
tate recovery when xylazine is used in combination with other antiemetic action of these agents against opioid-induced vom-
agents such as ketamine (Greene and Thurmon, 1988). iting is associated with dopaminergic antagonism within the
Pertovaara et al. (2005) recently reviewed the actions and chemoreceptor trigger zone. Low-potency antipsychotics, such
effects of atipamezole. Atipamezole increases sexual activity as chlorpromazine, acepromazine, and promethazine, have
in rats and monkeys. In animals with sustained nociception, antagonistic actions at H1 histamine receptors that further
atipamezole increases pain-related responses by blocking the contribute to their sedative effects. Tolerance to sedation
noradrenergic feedback inhibition of pain. In tests assessing typically develops over time, although adverse autonomic
cognitive functions, atipamezole at low doses has beneficial and extrapyramidal effects make them unsuitable for long-
effects on alertness, selective attention, planning, learning, and term use. The mechanism of action of the antipsychotics
recall in experimental animals, but not necessarily on short- has been extensively reviewed by Baldessarini and Tarazi
term working memory. At higher doses atipamezole impairs (2006).
performance in tests of cognitive functions, probably due to Phenothiazines and butyrophenones undergo extensive first-
noradrenergic overactivity. Recent experimental animal stud- pass enteric metabolism. They are highly bound to plasma
ies suggest that atipamezole likely has beneficial effects in albumin. Hepatic metabolism is primarily through oxidative
the recovery from brain damage and might potentiate the hepatic cytochrome P450 isozymes, N -demethylation, and
anti-Parkinsonian effects of dopaminergic drugs. subsequent conjugation to glucuronic acid. The hydrophilic
metabolites are excreted into urine and to a lesser extent, bile.
The elimination half-life is highly variable among species, and
pharmacodynamic effects do not correlate with plasma con-
V. DOPAMINERGIC RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS
centration (Marroum et al., 1994). Chlorpromazine stimulates
hepatic microsomal enzyme activity in the rat (Aurori and
A. Mechanism of Action and General Description Vesell, 1974).
Hypotension may occur following administration of either
The phenothiazines and butyrophenone tranquilizers are phenothiazines or butyrophenones (Booth, 1988b; Hall et al.,
presently included in the dopaminergic antagonist group, a 2001; Soma, 1983); hypotension associated with general or
broad class of agents which produce a number of physiologic epidural anesthesia is potentiated, as well (Booth, 1988b). This
effects, including mental calming, decreased response to envi- has been variably attributed to alpha1-adrenergic antagonism,
ronmental stimuli and muscular relaxation. In general, these masking of endogenous catecholamine effects on vascular β2 -
agents do not produce sleep, analgesia, or anesthesia, even receptors, and depression of central pressor reflexes mediated
at increased dosage, and their effects can be reversed with by the hypothalamus and brainstem (Muir and Hubbell, 1985;
adequate stimulation (Soma, 1983). Previously, these agents Stepien et al., 1995). In the dog, acepromazine decreases arterial
were termed neuroleptics, ataractics, or psychotropic agents blood pressure, cardiac output, and left ventricular dP/dtmax ,
(Baldessarini and Tarazi, 2006; Booth, 1988b). In human but does not affect total systemic vascular resistance. Respi-
medicine, these agents are used widely in the treatment of ratory rate is decreased but effects on blood gas values are
various psychiatric disorders, where the distinction between minimal (Stepien et al., 1995). Similar effects are observed with
neuroleptic/antipsychotic agents (e.g., phenothiazines and buty- azaperone in swine (Hall et al., 2001). During hypotensive anes-
rophenones), and antianxiety/sedative agents (e.g., GABAA thesia, acepromazine preserves renal blood flow and glomerular
agonists) is perhaps more relevant than in animals (Baldessarini, filtration rate (Bostrom et al., 2003). Ventricular arrhythmias
1990). secondary to catecholamines are reduced with both phenoth-
Sedation is an unwanted side effect of antipsychotics in iazines and butyrophenones (Dyson and Pettifer, 1997; Maze
humans, but this is precisely why these agents continue to et al., 1985).
be used extensively in animals. The phenothiazines and buty- There is abundant information available on the use of phe-
rophenones produce a state characterized by suppression of nothiazines and butyrophenones in the veterinary medical lit-
spontaneous movements and complex behaviors while spinal erature, but very little on the pharmacology of these agents in
reflexes and unconditioned nociceptive-avoidance behaviors rodents and rabbits. Use of these agents either for calming effect
remain intact; psychomotor agitation, curiosity, and apparent or as preanesthetics has received relatively little attention in
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 55

laboratory animal medicine, greatest use has been as an adjunct C. Butyrophenone Derivatives
with other anesthetic agents, especially opioids and ketamine
(see Anesthetic Combinations, Section VIII). The butyrophenone (phenylbutylpiperidine) antipsychotic/
neuroleptic tranquilizers are heterocyclic compounds and
include droperidol (Inapsine), azaperone (Stresnil), and flu-
anisone. Although chemically dissimilar to the phenothiazines,
B. Phenothiazine Derivatives the butyrophenones share many functional properties. Their
antipsychotic effects are based on antidopaminergic actions
The sedative phenothiazines used in veterinary medicine are in the basal ganglia and limbic portions of the forebrain
limited primarily to chlorpromazine (Thorazine), promazine (Baldessarini and Terazi, 2006). As with the phenothiazines,
(Sparine), and acepromazine (Booth, 1988b). Acepromazine, no analgesic effects are produced.
the 2-acetyl derivative of promazine, is FDA approved for
use in dogs, cats, and horses. Propriopromazine is used in
some European countries (Hall et al., 2001). Promethazine is a 1. Droperidol (Inapsine)
phenothiazine used chiefly for its antihistaminic properties.
Droperidol is relatively short-acting compared with other
Phenothiazines have a tricyclic structure where two benzene
butyrophenones. It is an especially potent antiemetic and
rings are linked by a third central ring containing a sulfur and
antitraumatic shock agent, with potency greater than that of
a nitrogen atom. Unlike promazine, chlorpromazine and ace-
chlorpromazine in its tranquilizing effect and inhibition of
promazine both have an aliphatic side chain attached to the
learning behavior and amphetamine antagonism in rats (Booth,
benzene ring structure at carbon position 2. The addition of the
1988b). Although the neuroleptic agents have no direct anal-
aliphatic side chain confers low potency but pronounced seda-
gesic effects, there remains controversy about the effects of
tive effect. Substitution of piperidine or piperazine side chains
these agents on opioid-mediated antinociception; studies in
at this location changes potential for sedation, autonomic, and
sheep (Kyles et al., 1993) and mice (Greene, 1972) found that
extrapyridamidal effects (Baldessarini and Tarazi, 2006).
droperidol enhanced the antinociceptive activity of fentanyl.
There is little direct evidence that phenothiazines, partic-
The combination of droperidol with fentanyl (Innovar-Vet) is no
ularly acepromazine, cause or potentiate seizure activity in
longer commercially available (see Anesthetic Combinations,
animals. Of the common antipsychotic/neuroleptic agents, only
Section VIII).
high doses of the low-potency aliphatic phenothiazines, particu-
Droperidol inhibits cardiovascular Na+ , Ca++ , and K+ chan-
larly chlorpromazine, are linked in humans with reduced seizure
nels (Pacher and Kecskemeti, 2004); the FDA recently placed
threshold and EEG discharge patterns associated with epilep-
a black box warning on human droperidol use regarding the
tic seizure disorder; the butyrophenones rarely cause seizures
potential for QT prolongation leading to torsades de pointes and
(Baldessarini and Tarazi, 2006). As acepromazine is an aliphatic
sudden death (Kao et al., 2003). Droperidol is effective in reduc-
phenothiazine, similar recommendations have been uncriti-
ing epinephrine-induced arrhythmias (Yelnosky et al., 1964),
cally applied to animals. Although abnormal EEG spiking was
and, like other drugs in this class, increases plasma prolactin
observed in some individuals, no seizures were reported in bea-
(Booth, 1988b).
gle dogs with a familial history of epilepsy when high-dose
chlorpromazine was administered together with intermittent
light stimulation (Redman et al., 1973). Similarly, no seizures
2. Azaperone (Stresnil)
were reported in a retrospective study where acepromazine was
administered to seizuring dogs or dogs with prior history of Azaperone has been characterized as a sedative neuroleptic
seizures (Tobias et al., 2006). in the rat. Conditioned and exploratory behaviors are inhib-
Other reported effects of the phenothiazines vary with ited and there is a potent protective effect in traumatic shock
drug, dosage, and method of assessment. These include (Niemegeers et al., 1974); an analgesic effect is claimed (Olson
hyperglycemia, reduced hematocrit due to splenic sequestra- and Renchko, 1988). Similar sedative and behavioral effects are
tion, gastrointestinal antisecretory activity, and teratogenic seen in mice, besides a potent potentiating effect on pentobar-
effects in mice and rats. These drugs also may be antipyretic, bital hypnosis (Niemegeers et al., 1974). Azaperone reverses
hypometabolic, and antiemetic, and weakly anticholinergic, dominant–subordinate relationships in rats (Desmedt et al.,
antihistaminic, and antispasmodic (Booth, 1988b; Niemegeers 1975) and mice (Niemegeers et al., 1974), as well as swine
et al., 1974). Platelet function in the rat is decreased by acepro- (Porter and Slusser, 1985). It is FDA approved in the US and
mazine (Dwyer and Meyers, 1986); in dogs, however, the effect licensed in the EU for use in swine weighing less than 36 kg,
is transient and not associated with increased surgical blood to control aggressiveness and fighting when new animals are
loss (Barr et al., 1992). IM chlorpromazine in the rabbit is not introduced (Booth, 1988b; Hall et al., 2001).
recommended due to severe myositis and paralysis (Bree et al., In the rat, 90% of a radiolabeled azaperone dose is excreted
1971). within 48 hours. About 25% of the dose is recovered in the
56 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

urine and the remainder in feces; 13% is excreted unchanged. and thiopental) inhibit rather than enhance nACh function. This
Principal metabolic pathways are oxidative N -dearylation and spectrum of action is similar only to that of ethanol.
N -dealkylation (Heykants et al., 1971).
Azaperone administration to male mice and rats of both sexes
2. Description
results in transient elevation in respiratory rate; in female mice,
there is a progressive decline in respiration (Olson and Renchko, Urethane (ethyl carbamate) is the ethyl ester of carbamic acid.
1988). Increased respiratory rate has been reported in swine, It is readily soluble in water, alcohol and lipids. The frequent and
horses, and dogs. Azaperone displays a potent alpha-adrenolytic continued use of urethane in neurophysiologic studies derives
effect on rabbit spleen strips in vitro, and a less potent antihis- not only from its relatively minor effects on neurotransmission
tamine effect on guinea pig ileum. In the isolated guinea pig (Albrecht and Davidowa, 1989), but also from its ability to
atrium, azaperone does not decrease contractility, but does pro- produce relatively long, stable anesthesia following a single
duce a negative chronotropic effect (Niemegeers et al., 1974). administration (Flecknell, 1996). It is by no means an ideal
In swine, dose- and route-dependent hypotension is observed anesthetic, as indicated by the variety of reported pharmacologic
(Booth, 1988b). effects (below). Urethane differs from chloralose especially in
having analgesic properties sufficient to permit surgery in small
rodents (Field and Lang, 1988; Flecknell, 1996; Maggi and
3. Fluanisone Meli, 1986a). In discussing the pharmacologic effects of ure-
thane, Maggi and Meli (1986c) stress the importance of dose
Fluanisone is used most commonly in combination with fen-
and route of administration, and the need to distinguish between
tanyl as a neuroleptanalgesic (Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984;
normal resting function during anesthesia and the degree of
Flecknell et al., 1989) (Hypnorm; Anesthetic Combinations,
response to physiopharmacologic stimuli.
Section VIII).
“Urethane is a potent multisite carcinogen capable of induc-
ing tumors in various organs and animal species regardless of
the route of administration” (Ganayem, 2007), and has been
VI. MISCELLANEOUS AGENTS classified as “reasonably anticipated to be a human carcino-
gen” (National Toxicology Program (NTP), 2000). It is also
a potent mutagen (Field and Lang, 1988; Ganayem, 2007).
A. Urethane
Before using urethane, alternative anesthetics should be con-
sidered whenever possible. Precautions suitable for handling
1. Mechanism of Action
a moderate carcinogen should be utilized, including the use of
Relatively little is known about urethane’s mechanism of appropriate breathing masks, gloves, and fume hoods for prepar-
action, although it is apparent that it acts in ways unlike most ing solutions from the powdered drug. Given its carcinogenic
other anesthetics; effects on GABAergic neurotransmission are potential, urethane should not be used for recovery procedures
unclear (Hara and Harris, 2002). Urethane produces little or no (Flecknell, 1996).
enhancement (Maggi and Meli, 1986a; Shirasaka and Waster-
lain, 1995;), or inhibition (Accorsi-Mendonca et al., 2007),
3. Biodisposition
of GABAergic neurotransmission in the central and periph-
eral nervous systems. Sceniak and MacIver (2006) concluded Urethane has been administered by most routes, including
that urethane acts by reducing intrinsic excitability of neuronal topical application in frogs (Strobel and Wollman, 1969). Fol-
membranes, rather than affecting synaptic transmission. How- lowing IV administration, urethane has a wide margin of safety
ever, urethane reverses the antagonistic effect of bicuculline on and produces long-lasting narcosis (8–10 hours) with minimal
GABA-induced depolarization in the isolated rat superior cer- cardiovascular or respiratory depression and maintenance of
vical ganglion (Bowery and Dray, 1978), and Hara and Harris spinal reflexes (Buelke-Sam et al., 1978). It distributes evenly
(2002) found a variety of effects using recombinant neurotrans- to most body tissues, except fat (Nomeir et al., 1989).
mitter receptors expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Urethane, at Until recently, it was widely believed that the principal
presumed clinically effective concentrations, enhanced func- metabolic path for urethane was esterase-catalyzed hydroly-
tion of ά1 β2 γ2S GABAA and ά1 glycine receptors (23 and 33%, sis to carbon dioxide, ammonia, and ethanol (Nomeir et al.,
respectively), inhibited function of NR1a/NR2A NMDA and 1989; Skipper et al., 1951). However, recent work has shown
GluR1/GluR2 AMPA receptors (10 and 18%), and enhanced that more than 95% of urethane is metabolized via cytochrome
function of the nACh receptor (15%). These results are unusual, P450, specifically CYP2E1, to vinyl carbamate, vinyl car-
compared with other anesthetic agents, in that (1) most other bamate epoxide, and eventually CO2 and NH3 . Knockout
agents do not have primary effect at more than one receptor type; mice (Cyp2e1−/−) given 14 C-labeled urethane have a six-
(2) the magnitude of effect for urethane is less than that reported fold decrease in recovered 14 CO2 compared with wild-type
for other agents; and (3) other agents (e.g., isoflurane, ketamine, mice, and a marked increase in half-life (22 hours vs. 0.8
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 57

hours). Pretreatment of mice with 1-aminobenzotriazole (ABT), IP dose of 1.0 g/kg to reach a surgical level of anesthesia (Van
a universal P450 inhibitor, results in a similar metabolic pattern Der Meer et al., 1975).
in both genotypes. Using a pharmacokinetic model, production
of CO2 from urethane via esterase metabolism is negligible,
a. Nervous System Effects
accounting for less than 0.5% of an administered dose, com-
pared with 96% via CYP2E1 and 3.2% for cytochromes P450 Urethane has slight depressant effects on autonomic reflexes
other than CYP2E1. CO2 is a final end-product of urethane and the activity of subcortical structures of the CNS. Basal activ-
metabolism by each of these pathways, and 91–93% of admin- ity of nigrostriatal dopamine-containing neurons in the rat is
istered 14 C-urethane is recovered in expired CO2 within 6 hours reduced as compared with unanesthetized paralyzed controls
(Hoffler et al., 2003). In both rat and mouse given carbonyl-14 C- (Kelland et al., 1990). There is, in general, an activated sym-
labeled urethane, there is almost complete recovery of radiolabel pathetic outflow from the CNS to peripheral organs (Maggi
in expired CO2 , with small amounts found in feces or urine and Meli, 1986a). Cardiovascular stability with urethane is due
(Bryan et al., 1949). At low urethane doses, recovery of labeled in part to sustained sympathetic nervous system activity and
CO2 may approach 100% within 12 hours. In vitro metabolism is associated with high circulating catecholamine levels (Car-
to CO2 can be demonstrated in a variety of tissues, including ruba et al., 1987). Urethane attenuates expression of kindled
liver, plasma, brain, muscle, and kidney (Nomeir et al., 1989). seizures in rats, where brief, low-intensity, electrical stimulation
Because urethane is a known carcinogen, there has been is periodically applied to the amygdala, and may not be an appro-
particular interest in its metabolism. Metabolic activation of priate anesthetic for the study of epileptiform phenomena (Cain
the ethyl moiety is required for carcinogenic action, but the et al., 1989). Steward et al. (2005) reviewed the effect of several
metabolic pathways leading to activation or detoxication remain anesthetics, including urethane, on neurotransmitter systems
incompletely characterized (Kurata et al., 1991). Neoplastic in the context of the rat brain blood oxygen level-dependent
lesions are significantly reduced following 6-week urethane dos- (BOLD) contrast pharmacological MRI.
ing in Cyp2e1-/- mice, indicating a central role of the CYP2E1
pathway, presumably via formation of vinyl carbamate epoxide
b. Route of Administration and Cardiovascular Effects
(Ganayem, 2007).
Blood pressure effects of urethane are dependent on the route
of administration. IP injection of 1.2 g/kg in female Wistar
4. Pharmacologic Effects
rats decreases mean blood pressure to 95 mmHg, compared
As with other anesthetics, there are strain and sex differ- to 125 mmHg in unanesthetized animals, which persisted for
ences in the dose of urethane needed to induce surgical levels of at least 1 hour after injection (Hillebrand et al., 1971); in
anesthesia. The threshold blood urethane concentration for nar- some individual animals, pressure dropped below 80 mmHg.
cosis in rats was determined by Boyland and Rhoden (1949) by In contrast, IP injection of 1.2 g/kg urethane to male Wistar and
injecting rats SQ with 1.0 g/kg urethane and measuring blood Sprague-Dawley rats caused no change in mean arterial blood
levels of urethane at various times. Rats with blood concen- pressure and heart rate (Carruba et al., 1987). The fall in blood
trations below 60 mg/100 ml are not anesthetized, while those pressure after IP injection of 25% urethane at 1 g/kg can report-
with concentrations of at least 80 mg/100 ml (10 mM) are anes- edly be reduced by slow injection, and is absent if the dose is
thetized for 8–12 hours. A SQ dose of 1.6 g/kg urethane is given rapidly intraarterially (Van Der Meer et al., 1975).
required to surgically anesthetize male Sprague-Dawley rats When urethane was injected IV to male Wistar rats at a dose
(Braun et al., 1997), while female WU (WI) rats require a of 1.3 g/kg, blood pressure transiently dropped, but recovered to
SQ urethane dose of 1.8 g/kg (Van Der Meer et al., 1975). In near baseline by 5 minutes after the infusion (Volicer and Loew,
male Wistar Morini rats, 1.0 g/kg urethane SQ produces surgical 1971); this was accompanied by a transient rise in heart rate,
levels of anesthesia in only 30% of the rats after 3 hours and 90% which also recovered. IV injection of 0.2–0.8 g/kg urethane also
after 6 hours. In contrast, a dose of 1.2 g/kg SQ resulted in surgi- resulted in a 5–10 minute drop in arterial pressure, followed by
cal anesthesia in 100% of the same rats after 3 hours, with anes- a progressive increase in pressure (Reinert, 1964).
thetic effect lasting at least 6 hours (Maggi and Meli, 1986a). Arterial pressure, cardiac output, and renal, hepatosplanch-
The necessary IP urethane dose ranges from 0.8 to 1.2 g/kg. nic, and brain blood flows in rats were lowest with IP urethane
In male Wistar rats, a surgical level of anesthesia is achieved anesthesia compared with four other anesthetic regimens, and
with 0.8 g/kg urethane IP (Pettinger et al., 1975). In female CD lower than published values for the conscious rat (Gumbleton,
(Sprague-Dawley) rats, a surgical level of anesthesia is achieved 1989, 1990a). Similar depressant effects on cardiac dynam-
with 0.8–1.0 g/kg urethane IP, although 1.2 g/kg is required to ics of the rat have been reported (Maggi et al., 1984; Wang
ensure anesthesia of all animals (Hamstra et al., 1984). Lincoln et al., 1991), although others have found cardiorespiratory
et al. (1973) reported that 1.1 g/kg IP provided anesthesia levels effects to be minimal (De Wildt et al., 1983; Folle and Levesque,
suitable for sterotaxic manipulation and neurosurgery for at least 1976), especially when the IP route of administration is avoided
8 hours in female Wistar rats. Female WU (WI) rats require an and doses are kept to the minimum required (Maggi and Meli,
58 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

1986b). Heart rate and systolic pressure in rats are stable dur- “marked hemoconcentration” after 8 hours (Spriggs and Stock-
ing prolonged (3 hour) anesthesia, although pulse pressure ham, 1964). In a study investigating the effect of administration
is consistently elevated (due to decreased diastolic pressures) route on urethane-induced hemoconcentration, urethane was
(Buelke-Sam et al., 1978). The baroreceptor reflex in rats is administered at doses sufficient to induce stage 4–5 anes-
altered (Fluckiger et al., 1985; Wang et al., 1991). In a cellu- thesia via four different routes: IP, SQ, PO, and IA. After
lar model of simulated myocardia ischemia, diazoxide-induced 60 minutes the hematocrit in the rats changed by the fol-
cell protection of mitochondrial KATP channel activity was lowing respective amounts: +21.7%, +8.0%, −2.8%, and
potentiated by urethane anesthesia (Zaugg et al., 2002). +1.5%. The large increase in hematocrit following IP injec-
tion was attributed to plasma loss to the peritoneal cavity. An
c. Effect on Ventilation approximately linear relationship between dose of IP-injected
urethane and relative increase in hematocrit was also found,
Respiratory effects of urethane anesthesia are minimal
with a slope of 2.1% increase in hematocrit for every 0.1 g/kg
(Maggi and Meli, 1986c), although changes in blood gas val-
increase in urethane dose (Van Der Meer et al., 1975). Severs
ues have been reported in the rabbit (Collado et al., 1987) and
et al. (1981) showed that IP urethane causes peritoneal fluid
rat (Buelke-Sam et al., 1978; Folle and Levesque, 1976). Sig-
accumulation, hyperosmolality of body fluids, osmotic toxic-
nificant hypercapnia and hypoxia occur in the hamster (Reid
ity to the mesenteric vasculature, and increased plasma renin
et al., 1989). In contrast, Field et al. (1993) found that rats anes- activity and aldosterone levels.
thetized with urethane had a severely depressed arterial pH, Urethane also has a profound effect on blood glucose lev-
with an increased PaO2 and decreased PaCO2 suggestive of els. Blood glucose level of fasting rats increases from 58 to
hyperventilation.
168 mg/dl 1 hour after IP injection of urethane at a dose of
In decerebrate male Wistar rats, 750 mg/kg IV urethane has no
1.25 g/kg (Reinert, 1964); similar findings were reported by Van
effect on respiratory frequency or tidal volume, although blood
Der Meer et al. (1975) and Braun et al. (1997). Van Der Meer
pressure and heart rate decrease (Sapru and Krieger, 1979).
et al. (1975) speculated that urethane induced hyperglycemia
In male Sprague-Dawley and Wistar rats, 1.2 g/kg urethane IP
through “stimuli arising in the damaged tissues” at the injec-
has minimal effects on blood gas parameters until 4 hours after
tion site, although increased peripheral sympathetic activity and
anesthesia (Carruba et al., 1987). There is a tendency for pH to
increased circulating catecholamine levels is a more plausible
decrease and arterial PO2 and PCO2 to rise during the anesthe-
explanation (Carruba et al., 1987; Pettinger et al., 1975; Spriggs
sia. After 3–4 hours under anesthesia, PCO2 rises significantly
and Stockham, 1964). Elevated blood glucose also occurs in
from a baseline value of 40–49 mmHg, and PO2 increases from
the rabbit (Collado et al., 1987) and rat, due at least in part to
80 to 105 mmHg.
elevated catecholamine levels (Hinton, 1982; Maggi and Meli,
In Sprague-Dawley rats, where 1.2 and 1.5 g/kg IP provided
1986a).
sleep time in excess of 24 hours, anesthesia was characterized
by progressive acidosis, hypocapnea, hyperoxia, hypotension,
and bradycardia (Field et al., 1993). In another study, male e. Immune System Effects
Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with 1.5 g/kg urethane IP
Urethane is immunosuppressive and has demonstrated anti-
and blood gas parameters were measured under normothermic
neoplastic effect. It is, however, more commonly recognized
and hypothermic conditions (Alfaro and Palacios, 1992). If the
for its carcinogenic and mutagenic properties (Field and Lang,
rats were maintained at normal body temperature, changes in
1988; Iversen, 1991; Inai et al., 1991; Leithauser et al., 1990;
blood values were minimal. Arterial PO2 and PCO2 remained
Sotomayor and Collins, 1990).
unchanged, while arterial pH dropped from 7.48 to 7.42. Bicar-
In adult male HsdBrl:WH Wistar rats, urethane reduces
bonate levels decreased from 21.8 to 18.9 mmol/L, and arterial
splenic IL-1beta mRNA expression while ketamine/xylazine,
lactate increased from 0.89 to 2.78 mmol/L. If the rats were
chloral hydrate, and pentobarbital all enhance the basal expres-
not warmed, body temperature dropped from 37 to 30◦ C by
sion of IL-1beta and IL-6 mRNA. Urethane, ketamine/xylazine,
2 hours. The hypothermic rats showed a progressive increase
and TBE reduce basal TNFalpha mRNA levels, whereas TNFal-
in PaO2 over time, with an increase of 20–30 mmHg after
pha mRNA expression is unaffected by chloral hydrate and
2 hours. The changes in arterial bicarbonate, lactate, and pH
pentobarbital (Bette et al., 2004).
in the hypothermic group were similar to those seen in the nor-
mothermic animals. It is suggested that the increase in arterial
PO2 seen in an earlier study (Carruba et al., 1987) might have f. Pathologic Effects
been caused by hypothermia.
Pathologic effects following IP administration of urethane
have been reported in the rat (Gumbleton et al., 1988; Severs
d. Effect on Hematocrit and Blood Glucose Levels
et al., 1981; Van der Meer et al., 1975). A toxic effect on the
Urethane is known to affect hematocrit in rats. Rats injected mesenteric vasculature results in peritoneal effusion and sec-
with 1.5 g/kg urethane using a 50 wt% urethane solution show ondary impairment of renal function. The resulting hypovolemia
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 59

may explain observed increases in serum renin (Severs et al., neurologic depression and coma when used in high concen-
1981). Hypertonic urethane administration in the rabbit, by trations in rats (Taylor et al., 1964). The local analgesic effects
either IV or IP routes, causes hemolysis, increased serum of eugenol are well accepted in human dentistry. Isoeugenol
potassium, and prolonged clotting time (Bree and Cohen, 1965). has been used as a fish anesthetic in New Zealand, to aid fish
Other reported pharmacologic effects of urethane include harvesting in Australia, and fish vaccination in Norway (Keene
the following: depressed xenobiotic renal clearance in the rat et al., 1998; Sladky et al., 2001; Soto and Burhanuddin, 1995).
(Gumbleton et al., 1990b); depressed antipyrine clearance, an The National Toxicology Program (NTP), Department of
indicator of intrinsic hepatic clearance, in the rat (Gumbleton Health and Human Services, conducts studies on nominated
and Benet, 1991); blunted plasma GH response to GH-releasing drugs and chemicals to determine their potential to cause cancer.
hormone, due in part to enhanced somatostatin release from The NTP has assessed that eugenol is an equivocal carcino-
the hypothalamus (Hosoi et al., 1988); lowered basal gas- gen and methyleugenol is carcinogenic to rodents. Despite in
tric acid secretion, due in part to increased synthesis and vivo studies conducted on isoeugenol, the NTP has not yet
release of endogenous (gastric) somatostatin (Yang et al., 1990); reached a conclusion regarding its carcinogenicity. The sta-
and rise in plasma beta endorphin activity (Ramirez-Gonzalez tus of toxicology studies conducted on these compounds can
et al., 1991). be found on the NTP website (http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/,
accessed 20 June 2007). Currently, neither clove oil nor any
of its components are the subject of an approved new ani-
B. Eugenol mal drug application and, because of safety concerns, should
not be used as an anesthetic in fish in the United States
1. Mechanism of Action (http://www.fda.gov/cvm/Guidance/guide150.pdf, accessed
20 June 2007).
The chemical structure of eugenol is similar to that of cap-
saicin. Like capsaicin, the mechanism of action is thought to be
through vanilloid receptor 1 (VR1) antagonism; however, affin- 3. Biodistribution
ity toward the GABAA and the NMDA glutamate receptor has The pharmacokinetics of eugenol and isoeugenol have been
also been demonstrated. described (Badger et al., 2002; Guenette et al., 2006). Eugenol
An important consideration is possible species and dose- administered IV to male Sprague-Dawley rats produces dose-
response differences in eugenol derivative inhibition of noci- dependent reduction of pedal withdrawal reflex lasting 167
ception (analgesic or anesthetic effect) and the specific blockade seconds at the highest dose tested (60 mg/kg) (Guenette et al.,
of nicotinic receptors (paralytic effect). Guenette et al. (2006) 2006). Mean systemic clearance in plasma and blood were
demonstrated dose-dependent reduction of pedal withdrawal 157 and 204 ml/min/kg, respectively, and glucuronide and sul-
reflex of 167 seconds following administration of 60 mg/kg fate conjugates were identified in urine. Isoeugenol is rapidly
eugenol IV to isoflurane-anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley metabolized and excreted predominantly in the urine as phase II
rats. Eugenol and isoeugenol, however, have nondepolariz- conjugates of the parent compound. Following a single oral dose
ing neuromuscular blocking effects (Brodin and Roed, 1984; of [14C]isoeugenol (156 mg/kg, 50 microCi/kg) to male Fischer
Ingvast-Larsson et al., 2003); reduced pedal withdrawal reflex 344 rats, greater than 85% of the administered dose is excreted
observed with eugenols may, therefore, not be entirely due to in the urine, predominantly as sulfate or glucuronide metabo-
antinociception (Meyer, 2007). Neuromuscular blockade has lites, by 72 hours (Badger et al., 2002). Approximately 10% is
not been explicitly demonstrated in fish with topical exposure recovered in the feces, and less than 0.1% is recovered as CO2
to eugenol derivatives; however, mechanisms of neuromuscu- or expired organics. Following IV administration (15.6 mg/kg,
lar transmission are similar for all vertebrates (Ingvast-Larsson 100 microCi/kg), isoeugenol disappears rapidly from the blood.
et al., 2003). Eugenol derivatives should be used cautiously as The plasma half-life is 12 minutes and the systemic clearance
general anesthetics in any species until it can be determined is 1.9 l/min/kg. Excretion characteristics of IV isoeugenol were
that exposure results in sedation or unconsciousness rather than similar to those following oral administration.
paralysis.

4. Pharmacologic Effects
2. Description
Eugenol derivatives have been used IV to induce general anes-
Eugenol [2-methoxy-4-(2-propenyl) phenol], the principal thesia in humans (Dundee and Clarke, 1964), and isoeugenol
constituent of clove oil (a mixture of 85–95% eugenol and is reported to induce general anesthetic properties in mice (Sell
5–15% isoeugenol and methyleugenol), is derived from the and Carlini, 1976) and rats (Guenette et al., 2006). Compared
clove tree Eugenia aromatica and the nutmeg Myristica fra- with tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222), eugenol anesthe-
grans. Eugenol, isoeugenol, guaiacol, and vanilin are all sia in red pacu fish (Piaractus brachypomus) was associated
derivatives of hydroxymethoxybenzine, and each can cause with more rapid onset and more prolonged recovery times
60 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

(Sladky et al., 2001). Both tricaine methanesulfonate and states, local anesthetics stabilize these channels and prevent
eugenol immersion produce hypoxemia, hypercapnea, res- their change to the rested-closed and activated-open states
piratory acidosis, and hyperglycemia. However, eugenol- in response to nerve impulses; subsequent propagated action
anesthetized pacu fish require more resuscitation for ventilatory potentials can not occur. Repeated stimulation (frequency-
failure, and are more likely to react to a hypodermic needle dependent block) increases the probability that Na+ chan-
puncture, implying a narrow margin of safety and question- nels will exist in the open-inactive form; a stimulated nerve
able analgesia (Sladky et al., 2001). In leopard frogs, eugenol thus becomes more sensitive to local anesthetic block than
immersion at 310–318 mg/L for 15 minutes results in anesthesia a resting nerve. Frequency-dependent block also plays an
lasting up to 65 minutes, while immersion in a similar concen- important role in the cardiac antiarrhythmic activity of local
tration of propofol failed to induce anesthesia (Lafortune et al., anesthetics.
2001). In the African clawed frog (X. laevis), eugenol immer- The potency of a local anesthetic is determined mainly
sion at 350 mg/L results in surgical anesthesia lasting at least by lipid solubility, the time of onset by the pKa, and the
30 minutes (Guenette et al., 2007). duration of action by protein binding. Increasing lipid solu-
bility enhances drug partitioning to sites of action and reduces
metabolism; both Na+ channel receptor affinity and toxicity
VII. LOCAL ANESTHETICS are increased. Although higher lipid solubility enhances neu-
ral membrane penetration, onset of blockade is delayed due to
A. Mechanism of Action sequestration in myelin and other lipid-soluble compartments;
similarly, sequestration in myelin slows recovery and prolongs
Local anesthetics block nerve conduction by decreasing or effect by acting as a slow release substrate. Decreasing pKa,
preventing the large transient increase in permeability to Na+ for a given tissue pH, will increase the amount of the lipid-
that is normally produced by depolarization of excitable mem- soluble active base and speed neural membrane penetration and
branes. Studies in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats indicate that onset of action. The pKa for commonly used local anesthet-
neural evoked action potential must be reduced at least 50% ics ranges from 7.6 (mepivacaine—61% ionized at pH 7.4) to
before a measurable loss of peripheral nerve function occurs 8.9 (procaine—97% ionized at pH 7.4) (Liu and Joseph, 2006).
(Popitz-Berger et al., 1995). Molecular mechanisms of local Protein binding affects activity, as only the unbound, nonion-
anesthesia have been extensively reviewed (Butterworth and ized active base crosses the lipid membranes; in general, the
Strichartz, 1990; Catterall and Mackie, 2006; Liu and Joseph, more lipid-soluble and longer-lasting agents increase protein
2006). binding.
Local anesthetics are weak bases with pKa values some- In addition to Na+ channels, local anesthetics can inter-
what above physiologic pH; local anesthetics thus exist in both act with K+ and L-type voltage-dependent Ca++ ion channels
charged (RNH+) and uncharged (RN) forms, the proportion of (Sugiyama and Mutecki, 1994). It is important to note that
which varies with drug pKa and local tissue pH. As a result, multiple types of Na+ channels exist (e.g., Na+ channels in
<50% of a local anesthetic exists in a lipid-soluble nonionized the brain, axons, and heart are not identical), and a vari-
form (RN) at pH 7.4. ety of Na+ channels may be present in tissues, such that
some local anesthetic effects (e.g., CNS toxicity) may be
RNH+ Cl− ↔ Cl− + RNH+ ↔ RN + H+ mediated by actions other than interference with Na+ channel
HCl salt cation active base function.
Neuraxial administration of local anesthetics may produce
The nonionized active base (RN) formed from the dissocia- spinal dorsal horn antinociception through mechanisms other
tion of the HCl salt in normally slightly alkaline tissue diffuses than Na+ blockade (Liu and Joseph, 2006). Tachykinins (sub-
most easily across lipid barriers. The cation (RNH+ ) is sub- stance P) are neurotransmitters which modulate antinociception
sequently reformed and interacts with the interior of the Na+ from C fibers; epidural or spinal-administered local anesthet-
channel from the intracellular side. ics at clinically relevant concentrations inhibit postsynaptic
The voltage-gated Na+ channel is a specific receptor for depolarizations caused by substance P. Other neurotransmit-
local anesthetics. Binding affinities of local anesthetics to the ters present in the dorsal horn, such as acetylcholine, GABA,
Na+ channel are stereospecific and depend on the confor- and NMDA, can all be affected pre or postsynaptically by local
mational state (Lee-Son et al., 1992). In the resting nerve anesthetics.
membrane, Na+ channels are distributed in equilibrium between Tachyphylaxis occurs when blockade effectiveness decreases
the rested-closed and inactivated-closed states. The cationic following repeated neuraxial or peripheral nerve blocks, and is
RNH+ form gains binding site access from the intracellular not limited to any particular agent. Dosing interval appears to
side only when the Na+ channel is in the activated-open state. play a key role; if dosing intervals are short enough that pain
By selectively binding to Na+ channels in inactivated-closed does not occur, tachyphylaxis does not develop. Interestingly,
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 61

pretreatment with NMDA agonists or nitric oxide synthetase Coadminstration with local anesthetics results in synergistic
inhibitors prevents tachyphylaxis in rats (Lee et al., 1994; Wilder analgesia (Grubb et al., 1992; Kona-Boun et al., 2006).
et al., 1996).

C. Biodistribution
B. Description
All currently available local anesthetics are racemic mixtures,
A variety of chemical types ranging from alcohols, to cocaine, with the exception of lidocaine (achiral), levo-bupivacaine
to complex toxins such as tetrodotoxin may have local anes- (l = S), and ropivacaine (S). S-isomers appear to have nearly
thetic effect (Åkerman, 1988; Lee-Son et al., 1992). The effects equal clinical efficacy, but less potential for systemic toxicity.
of clinically relevant concentrations are reversible, with com- The comparative pharmacokinetics of local anesthetics in sev-
plete recovery of the nerve function and no evidence of damage eral laboratory and domestic species have been reviewed by
to the nerve fibers or the cells in most applications. Clinical Craigmill et al. (1994). The biodisposition of the various local
use does not require absolute suppression of nerve transmis- anesthetics and the pharmacologic and toxic effects in humans
sion; disruption of information coding in the form of nerve and domestic animals have been discussed (Booth, 1988c; Cat-
discharges may be sufficient to produce effective analgesia (Liu terall and Mackie, 2006; Hall and Clarke, 1991b; Liu and
and Joseph, 2006). Numerous techniques have been described Joseph, 2006; Ritchie and Greene, 1990).
(Booth, 1988c; Gaynor and Mama, 2002; Skarda, 1996). The Most clinically useful local anesthetics possess an aromatic
adjunctive use of local anesthetics has been proposed to reduce lipophilic end, an intermediate ester or amide linkage, and a
the side effects of general anesthetics (Raman et al., 1989). hydrophilic amine group. The hydrophilic group is usually a
Routes of administration include: topical application to the tertiary or quartenary amine; the hydrophobic moiety must be
mucous membranes (nose, mouth, throat, tracheobronchial tree, aromatic and is usually a substituted benzene ring. Thus, local
esophagus, genitourinary tract), infiltration directly into tis- anesthetics can be either aminoesters or aminoamides.
sues without taking into consideration the course of cutaneous The aminoesters (e.g., tetracaine, procaine, chloroprocaine,
nerves (infiltration block), infiltration directly into tissues con- benzocaine) are readily hydrolyzed by plasma esterases within
sidering the course of cutaneous nerves to produce anesthesia the liver to produce the weakly active diethylaminoethanol and
distally (field block), injection in the direct vicinity of individual para-aminobenzoic acid; the action of sulfonamides is sub-
peripheral nerves or nerve plexuses (conduction block), and IV sequently inhibited. Following hydrolysis, these products are
regional anesthesia (Bier block). Neuraxial anesthesia includes renally excreted; excretion can be enhanced by lowering urine
both epidural and intrathecal (spinal) drug administration. The pH. Specificity of plasma esterases to hydrolyze local anes-
spinal nerve roots are the primary site of action for local anes- thetics varies considerably among species; plasma procaine
thetics; however, the spinal cord and paravertebral nerves may esterase in the dog is negligible compared to humans or the
also be affected. These agents also have been used for immersion horse (Craigmill et al., 1994).
anesthesia of fish and amphibians, ocular topical anesthesia, and The aminoamides (e.g., lidocaine, bupivacaine, mepivacaine,
skin topical anesthesia (more below). prilocaine) are metabolized by hepatic cytochrome P450s with
Agents that interact with spinal cord opioid (e.g., morphine), the initial reaction involving N -dealkylation and subsequent
phencyclidine (e.g., ketamine), or alpha2-adrenergic recep- hydrolysis. Lidocaine is dealkylated to monoethylglycine xyli-
tors (e.g., xylazine) have also been administered, separately dide and glycine xylidide, both of which retain anesthetic
or together with local anesthetics, through the neuraxial route activity; they are subsequently hydrolyzed or conjugated to sul-
(Gaynor and Mama, 2002; Klide, 1992; Schug et al., 2006; fate prior to urinary excretion. With prilocaine, a component
Skarda, 1996; Takano and Yaksh, 1992). As with local anesthet- of EMLA cream (eutectic mixture of local anesthetics), the
ics, neuraxial analgesia with these agents is generally confined initial hydrolysis forms o-toluidine metabolites which increase
to sensory nerves that enter the spinal cord dorsal horn in the the risk of methemoglobinemia. Aminoamides are extensively
region of the injection. Unlike local anesthetics, conduction (55–95%) bound to plasma proteins, chiefly alpha1-acid glyco-
in autonomic, sensory, and motor nerves is not affected, such protein. Concurrent disease and/or drug therapy can influence
that blood pressure, motor function, and non-nociceptive sen- alpha1-acid glycoprotein levels, thereby changing the amount
sory perception typically are not affected. It must be noted that of aminoamide delivered to the liver for metabolism and influ-
neuraxially administered opioids, phencyclidines, or alpha2- encing systemic toxicity. Reduced cardiac output, as occurs
adrenergic agonists do not by themselves provide satisfactory during general anesthesia, also prolongs plasma half-life of
anesthesia for surgical procedures. On the other hand, neuraxial aminoamide local anesthetics by reducing hepatic delivery
analgesia with opioids, phencyclidines, or alpha2-adrenergic (Catterall and Mackie, 2006; Liu and Joseph, 2006).
agonists generally requires much less agent than necessary The efficacy of local anesthetics may be increased by the addi-
to produce similar analgesia through systemic administration. tion of epinephrine. Reported benefits include prolongation,
62 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

increased block intensity, and decreased systemic absorption Prokopiou, 1988). Differential ionization was identified as the
following local and neuraxial local anesthetic administration. cause of reduced mepivacaine performance in vitro.
Epinephrine antagonizes the inherent vasodilating effect of local Decreased systemic absorption of local anesthetics results in
anesthetics and decreases systemic absorption and intraneural greater clinical safety. In general, higher doses will result in
clearance. The smallest possible dose should be used to reduce higher systemic absorption and peak blood levels; highly vas-
toxic effects on the tissues, the cardiovascular system, and the cular areas will have faster uptake than areas with more fat. Use
peripheral and spinal nerves (generally ≤ 1:200,000) (Liu and of more potent agents with greater lipid solubility and protein
Joseph, 2006). binding will result in lower systemic absorption. Addition of
The pH of commercially available local anesthetics ranges vasoconstrictors will be most effective at reducing Cmax for less
from 3.9 to 6.5; the addition of epinephrine to commercial solu- lipid-soluble, less potent local anesthetics (Stoelting and Hillier,
tions further reduces pH. The addition of sodium bicarbonate 2006).
has been proposed to raise the pH closer to the pKa in order Generalized CNS toxicity may occur from systemic absorp-
to increase the amount of uncharged lipid-soluble active base tion or direct vascular injection. Local anesthetics readily cross
of local anesthetic. However, clinically used local anesthetics the blood–brain barrier. Low doses produce CNS depression,
cannot be alkalinized beyond a pH of 6.05–8 before precip- while higher doses result in CNS excitation and seizures. Cor-
itation occurs; the increase in active base in this pH range tical inhibitory neurons may be more sensitive to impulse
will only be about 10% (Ikuta et al., 1989). In rats, addition blocking effects. In general, CNS toxicity increases with the
of sodium bicarbonate to 1% commercial lidocaine without same factors which increase local anesthetic potency; decreases
epinephrine decreased the degree and duration of block, but in protein binding and drug clearance increase CNS toxicity, as
addition of sodium bicarbonate to solutions with epinephrine well. Addition of epinephrine is advocated to increase the clin-
hastened onset of blockade without affecting the degree or dura- ical safety margin of local anesthetics by reducing systemic
tion (Sinnott et al., 2000). In horses, carbonated 2% lidocaine absorption and peak blood levels. However, the convulsive
produced no differences in onset time, duration, or sensory threshold for IV lidocaine in Wistar rats is reduced 42% when
blockade for caudal epidural block over 2% lidocaine (Schelling epinephrine, norepinephrine, or phenylephrine is added; acute
and Klein, 1985). In a double-blind study in human volunteers, hypertension secondary to vasoconstriction may be responsible
pain scores were lower with buffered lidocaine–epinephrine, (Yokoyama et al., 1995).
but not statistically different from lidocaine with freshly added In general, much greater doses of local anesthetics are neces-
epinephrine (Burns et al., 2006). sary to produce acute cardiovascular toxicity than CNS toxicity.
The dose of lidocaine, etidocaine, tetracaine, and bupivacaine
required to produce irreversible cardiovascular depression in
D. Pharmacologic Effects dogs is 3.5–6.7 times greater than that necessary to produce con-
vulsions (Liu et al., 1983). Like CNS toxicity, cardiovascular
In general, increasing nerve diameter and myelination leads toxicity is a function of the potency of the local anesthetic, with
to increased conduction velocity and reduced sensitivity to bupivacaine being the most cardiotoxic; the amino ethylamide
local anesthetics. Autonomic fibers (preganglionic sympathetic ropivacaine was developed as a less cardiotoxic alternative to
nervous system B fibers), small unmyelinated C fibers (pain sen- bupivacaine (Catterall and Mackie, 2006).
sation), and small myelinated Aδ (pain and temperature) fibers IV lidocaine infusion is preferred in the horse as a proki-
are blocked with local anesthetics before the larger myelinated netic agent to enhance gastrointestinal motility by reducing
Aγ, Aβ, and Aα fibers (posture, touch, pressure, and motor postoperative intestinal ileus (Brianceau et al., 2002; Dart and
information). Although fiber size per se does not seem to deter- Hodgson, 1998; Malone et al., 2006). The most likely mech-
mine sensitivity to local anesthetic block, smaller nerves do have anism is reduction of excessive sympathetic nervous system
more closely spaced nodes of Ranvier. Because a fixed number activity. Local anesthetics suppress contractions in the intact
of nodes must be blocked to prevent impulse conduction (critical bowel and isolated intestine. Neuraxial local anesthesia and
length), small fibers with closely spaced nodes may be blocked instillation of local anesthetics into the peritoneal cavity produce
more rapidly than larger fibers (differential sensory blockade). similar reduction of sympathetic nervous system activity and
The relative in vitro potencies for local anesthetics vary improved gastrointestinal tone (Catterall and Mackie, 2006).
depending on nerve fiber type, frequency of stimulation, and Methemoglobinemia following topical use of benzocaine has
increasing lipid solubility. However, in vitro studies on isolated been well described (Davis et al., 1993; Severinghaus et al.,
nerves can be poor guides to in vivo efficacy. Comparing onset 1991); it has also been associated with prilocaine, procaine, and
of action and suppression of evoked action potential in vitro, lidocaine. The development of methemoglobinemia is depen-
mepivacaine was less effective than lidocaine or prilocaine. On dent on the dose, and is more common in neonates due to
the other hand, mepivacaine was more potent, with a longer decreased resistance of fetal hemoglobin to oxidative stress
duration of action and comparable onset time, in parallel stud- and immature erythrocyte methemoglobin reductase activity
ies on the sciatic nerve of live animals (Pateromichelakis and (Stoelting and Hillier, 2006).
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 63

Local anesthetic immersion is used for fish anesthesia. Tri- One hour periorbital exposure to EMLA cream produced no
caine methanesulfonate (MS-222; tricaine; metacaine; ethyl adverse effects on the external lid or anterior segment of rabbit
m-aminobenzoate; 3-aminobenzoic acid ethyl ester; used as the eyes (Cohen et al., 1996). Rat, but not guinea pig, tympanic
methanesulfonate salt) is a soluble local anesthetic agent chem- membranes when exposed to EMLA showed minor changes in
ically related to procaine, used for sedation, immobilization, thickness, submucosal edema, and epithelial reactions, com-
and anesthesia of fish and amphibians; it is the only FDA- pared with lidocaine, phenol, and Bonain’s solution (Schmidt
approved anesthetic for use in food fish. It can be delivered et al., 1988).
via the ambient water or in the respiratory stream, and produces
both central effects, following absorption, and a local anes-
thetic effect. Because MS-222 is an acid, the chemical should E. Tissue and Histopathology Effects
be buffered (2 parts sodium bicarbonate by weight to 1 part MS-
222). Sedation can generally be achieved with concentrations Local anesthetics can cause local tissue injury (Hall and
between 50 and 100 mg/L, although species-specific sensitivi- Clarke, 1991b). All local anesthetic agents are myotoxic,
ties should be expected. Onset and recovery are generally rapid, with procaine producing the least and bupivacaine the most
although recovery time increases with increasing concentrations severe muscle injury. Histopathologically, diffuse myonecrosis
of the agent or prolonged exposure (Lemm, 1993; Spath and is observed, which is both reversible and clinically impercep-
Schweickert, 1977). MS-222 produces hypoxemia, hypercap- tible; regeneration occurs within 3–4 weeks (Zink and Graf,
nea, respiratory acidosis, and hyperglycemia in red pacu fish (P. 2004).
brachypomus) (Sladky et al., 2001). Benzocaine immersion is Although all clinically used local anesthetics can cause nerve
also used as a fish anesthetic, although toxicity may occur when fiber damage at high concentrations, use at clinical concentra-
used for cardiac function studies. In rainbow trout (O. mykiss), tions is considered safe for peripheral nerves. The spinal cord
heart rate variability was four times higher under benzocaine and nerve roots, however, may be more susceptible to damage.
(108 ppm) than under clove oil (25 ppm) or MS-222 (60 ppm); Histopathologic and neurologic deficits and increased levels of
benzocaine also produced longer QRS complexes (Cotter and the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate were reported in rab-
Rodnick, 2006). bits following intrathecal 2% bupivacaine, 8% lidocaine, and
Although local anesthetics are usually not effective when top- 1% tetracaine (Yamashita et al., 2003). It must be noted these
ically applied to unbroken skin, a number of methods are being concentrations are much higher than those typically used in the
developed to produce cutaneous analgesia without injection. clinical setting. Long-term neurologic injury incidence rate was
The efficacy of transdermal delivery is dependent on the barrier reported to be 0–0.02% in a prospective survey of over 80,000
properties of the skin of the targeted species, as well as the ratio humans undergoing spinal anesthesia, implying safe clinical
of the area of the transdermal patch to the species total body usage by this route (Liu and Joseph, 2006).
mass needed to achieve effective systemic drug concentrations. Local anesthetics inhibit collagen synthesis, but wound heal-
The primary challenge lies in the wide species differences in ing strength is variably affected. Lidocaine and bupivacaine
skin structure and function. Drug must have sufficient lipid sol- inhibit collagen synthesis in rat 3T3 and W1-38 fibroblasts by
ubility to traverse the epidermal barrier to be considered for causing a reduction in mucopolysaccharide synthesis (Chva-
delivery for this route (Riviere and Papich, 2001). pil et al., 1979), and surgical wound healing in rats is slowed
Eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA) is a topically by high procaine concentration (Morris and Appbly, 1980).
applied emulsion containing 25 mg lidocaine and 25 mg prilo- Both lidocaine and articaine lower histologic grade and wound
caine per gram; occlusive contact with skin for 30–60 minutes breaking strength in healing rats (Dogan et al., 2003). In
is required for effective use. The use of EMLA cream in vet- contrast, Vasseur et al. (1984) examined the histopathologic
erinary medicine has been reviewed by Erkert and MacAllister appearance and breaking strength of healing midline abdom-
(2005). Flecknell et al. (1990) have suggested that the use of inal wounds in rabbits following saline, 0.5% lidocaine, 2%
topical agents to reduce the discomfort of venipuncture may lidocaine, and 0.5% bupivacaine infiltration. Healing wound
be a useful refinement, especially with inexperienced staff. breaking strength, as well as histopathologic appearance of local
In placement of jugular catheters in cats, pretreatment with anesthetic-infiltrated tissues, did not vary consistently from the
EMLA resulted in less struggling, but the difference between control group. There were similar findings in male guinea pigs,
treated and untreated cats did not reach statistical significance infiltrated with 1% lidocaine, in relation to collagenization,
(Wagner et al., 2006). Liposome-encapsulated lidocaine and edema, or acute or chronic inflammatory processes (Drucker
5% lidocaine transdermal patches have been similarly used in et al., 1998). In mice, EMLA cream applied twice daily to
animals (Fransson et al., 2002; Weiland et al., 2006). A sys- full-thickness abdominal wall incisions improved wound ten-
tematic review of topical anesthesia for dermal instrumentation sile strength and increased 5-hydroxyproline levels (Eroglu
in humans concluded that tetracaine, liposome-encapsulated et al., 2001).
tetracaine, and liposome-encapsulated lidocaine were all at Durham et al. (1992) provide an excellent general review
least as effective as EMLA cream (Eidelman et al., 2005). of topical ocular anesthetics. Both proparacaine and tetracaine
64 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

are commonly used for this purpose. Similar to other aminoester VIII. ANESTHETIC COMBINATIONS
local anesthetics, proparacaine has little antigenic effect and can
thus be used in sensitized individuals. In a rabbit study, anterior
Most of the individual drugs discussed above lack one or more
chamber injection of 0.75% bupivacaine, unpreserved 4% lido-
of the properties of a practical and safe surgical anesthetic, such
caine, or 0.5% proparacaine produced corneal thickening and
as hypnosis, analgesia, or muscle relaxation. This has resulted in
opacification that was judged clinically and statistically signif-
attempts to improve the overall quality of injectable anesthesia
icant. Tetracaine (0.5%) injection produced corneal thickening
by combination of two or more drugs. Such balanced anesthesia
and opacification that was clinically apparent in some eyes,
also improves safety by reducing the dosage, and corresponding
but judged to be statistically insignificant (Judge et al., 1997).
side effects, of each component. This concept has been integral
Corneal sensation, toxicity, and healing time were determined
to human anesthesiology, in which inhalant agents are typically
in rabbits for topically applied bupivacaine, lidocaine, procaine,
supplemented with opioids and, often, muscle relaxants. The
and benzocaine. Onset time was within 1 minute, bupivacaine
same goal may be achieved by total IV anesthesia, e.g., with
and lidocaine lasted longer than procaine or benzocaine, and
propofol and an opioid (Bailey et al., 2000).
buffered bupivacaine and lidocaine had longer effect than non-
Following are general comments about the types of anesthetic
buffered solutions; no effect was noted on corneal epithelial
combinations that have been used. The reader is referred to the
healing time or corneal toxicity (Sun et al., 1999). Topical
sections on individual agents in this chapter, the species-specific
local anesthetics have been proposed for use in ocular irritancy
chapters in this edition, as well the first edition of this text for
testing, but their use would require continuous administra-
practical information about their use. There is little information
tion to be efficacious; long-term use may produce irreversible
available on the biodisposition of anesthetic drugs when used
damage to the cornea (Grant and Acosta, 1994; Moreira
in combination.
et al., 1999).

A. Neuroleptanalgesia

F. Immune System Effects Neuroleptanalgesia refers to a combination of an opioid

analgesic and a tranquilizer, typically a phenothiazine or buty-
The effects of local anesthetics on immune function are rophenone dopaminergic receptor antagonist. The combination
complex. Local anesthetics are anti-inflammatory and inhibit has synergistic effects on sedation of the animal, and may be
neutrophil, leukocyte, and lymphocyte function; antimicrobial sufficient for surgical procedures. Additional drug(s) may be
properties, however, are also reported. Lidocaine and bupiva- used to produce neuroleptanesthesia or balanced anesthesia,
caine inhibit metabolic activation of human polymorphonuclear including anticholinergic premedication (Short, 1987).
leukocytes and inhibit leukotriene B4 and interleukin IL-1 pro- Fentanyl–fluanisone (Hypnorm) is available in the UK, but
duction (Sinclair et al., 1993). Phagocytosis and bactericidal not in the US. It has proven to be a valuable injectable drug
activity of neutrophils are enhanced by exposure to bacterial combination for rodent and rabbit procedures, often combined
components such as LPS; this process is called priming. Local with a benzodiazepine (Carter, 1983; Flecknell, 1996; Fleck-
anesthetics inhibit priming of neutrophils by disparate mecha- nell and Mitchell, 1984; Flecknell et al., 1989). Compared
nisms, but all impair upregulation of cytochrome b558 and all with pentobarbital, systemic blood pressure is 25% lower in
impair priming of NADPH oxidase by LPS (Jinnouchi et al., Hypnorm-anesthetized Fisher 344 rats; however, skeletal mus-
2005). Neutrophil adhesion, phagocytosis, and the production cle blood flow is fivefold greater and cardiac output is nearly
of superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide are inhibited by doubled (Skolleborg et al., 1990). Compared with urethane–
exposure to high (1 mg/ml) levels of lidocaine, procaine, mepi- alpha-chloralose and TBE anesthesia, midazolam–fentanyl–
vacaine, prilocaine, and tetracaine. At low levels (0.01 mg/ml), fluanisone produced more stable hemodynamics in mice, as
only tetracaine inhibits superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide judged by stable mean arterial blood pressure and heart rate
production (Azuma et al., 2000). In sheep, both lidocaine infil- (Jong et al., 2002). On the other hand, using the same hemody-
tration above a lymph node and distant IV injection of lidocaine namic parameters, midazolam–fentanyl–fluanisone was judged
sharply reduce numbers of small recirculating and blast lympho- inferior to ketamine–medetomidine–atropine and isoflurane for
cytes (Moore and Khan, 1986). Lidocaine dose-dependently use in Swiss, CD-1, BALB/c, and C57BL/6 mice (Zuurbier
impairs leukocyte metabolism and random mobility (Ham- et al., 2002). Hypnorm significantly increases the level of leuko-
mer et al., 1985), and decreases the number of leukocytes cyte rolling in skin venules; this effect seems to be caused
observed in surgically created healing wounds (Eriksson et al., mainly by fentanyl (Janssen et al., 1997). Unlike pentobarbi-
1992). On the other hand, in a guinea pig wound infection tal, Hypnorm produces hyperglycemia in fed, but not fasted,
model, infiltration with lidocaine prior to S. aureus inocu- rats (Johansen et al., 1993).
lation decreases bacterial counts more than 70% (Stratford Other neuroleptanalgesic combinations include fentanyl–
et al., 2002). midazolam (Heys et al., 1989); fentanyl–diazepam (Brown et al.,
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 65

1989); fentanyl–etomidate (De Wildt et al., 1983); etorphine– SvEv/Tac mice from 658 to 293 beats/min and cardiac output
methotrimeprazine (Small Animal Immobilon) (Flecknell from 13.0 to 7.2 ml/min/g (Yang et al., 1999). Hemodynamic
et al., 1983); etorphine–acepromazine–atropine (Svendsen and effects of ketamine/xylazine anesthesia were fully antagonized
Carter, 1985); and midazolam–xylazine–alfentanil (Borkowski by administration of the alpha2-antagonist atipamezole in CD-1,
et al., 1990). One neuroleptanalgesic combination formerly in Swiss, and C57BL6 mice (Janssen et al., 2004).
wide use is no longer available: fentanyl–droperidol (Innovar- In male Sprague-Dawley rats, IP ketamine/xylazine doses
Vet) (Wixson et al., 1987a–d). of 40/5 and 60/7.5 mg/kg decreased arterial pH by about
The combination of azaperone with metomidate was reported 0.1 pH units with slow recovery back to preanesthetic levels
to produce anesthesia lasting approximately 2 hours, with min- (Wixson et al., 1987c). These same doses of ketamine/xylazine
imal depression of piglets following cesarean section (Dimigen increased PaCO2 by 35% and decreased PaO2 by 23–24% or
and Reetz, 1970). about 18 mmHg. Both PaCO2 and PaO2 recovered by 60 min-
utes after the injection. In contrast, ketamine/xylazine doses of
50/5 mg/kg IM in male Sprague-Dawley rats maintained arterial
B. Ketamine Combinations blood gas values within the physiologically normal range (Taie
et al., 1999)
The goals of ketamine combinations include improved anal- Ketamine/xylazine mixtures also affect blood gas val-
gesia, muscle relaxation and sedation, prolonged duration, and ues in mice. IM injection of a 100/5 mg/kg mixture of
decreased side effects (Muir, 1985). Use of adjunctive agents ketamine/xylazine into BALB/c mice decreased arterial blood
alters the pharmacokinetics of ketamine, in general leading pH from 7.285 to 7.122, or 0.16 pH units (Erhardt et al., 1984).
to a potentiated and prolonged effect (Pascoe, 1992; Water- Arterial PCO2 increased from 26.5 to 41.0 mmHg (55%), while
man, 1983, 1984). Ketamine has been combined with xylazine PaO2 decreased from 111.7 to 97.3 mmHg or about 13%.
(Dittmar et al., 2004; Schwenke and Cragg, 2004; Wixson Ketamine combined with xylazine can increase blood glu-
et al., 1987a–d), diazepam (Wixson et al., 1987a–d), midazo- cose levels. Blood glucose levels in male Sprague-Dawley rats
lam (Gumbleton, 1989), azaperone (Olson and Renchko, 1988), injected with 50/10 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine mixture IP rose
guaifenesin (Olson et al., 1987), pentobarbital (Svensen and to 256 mg/dl, compared to 131 mg/dl in pentobarbital-injected
Carter, 1985), chlorpromazine (Barzago et al., 1992), medeto- rats (Kawai et al., 1997). In the 9L rat glioma, xylazine alone
midine (DiFilippo et al., 2004; Nevalainen et al., 1989; Taylor or in combination with ketamine resulted in hyperglycemia and
et al., 2000), and xylazine–acepromazine (Arras et al., 2001; intratumor pH acidification (Pavlovic et al., 1996). Erhardt et al.
Welberg et al., 2006). (1984) reported no effect of ketamine/xylazine (100/5 mg/kg)
on hematocrit when injected IM into mice, implying lack
of hemoconcentration due to osmotic diuresis secondary to
1. Ketamine–xylazine
hyperglycemia.
Ketamine–xylazine mixtures have variable effects on blood Using nuclear magnetic resonance perfusion imaging and
pressure and cardiac output in rats and mice. In male Sprague- electron paramagnetic resonance oximetry, Lei et al. (2001)
Dawley rats, an IP injection of 40/5 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine found that in ventilated rats, ketamine at a dose of 50 mg/kg
resulted in a 32.3% decrease in MAP (Wixson et al., 1987c). does not induce significant changes in CBF. Ketamine–xylazine
A dose of 60/7.5 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine decreased MAP by in combination, however, causes 25–65% reductions in fore-
26.7% or 30–35 mmHg. MAP remained decreased until recov- brain CBF in a region-dependent manner. Addition of xylazine
ery, which was more than 2 hours at the high dose. IP injection to isoflurane anesthesia results in similar regional reductions
of 40/5 and 60/7.5 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine decreased heart in CBF. Ketamine increases while xylazine decreases cortical
rate by 6 and 27%, respectively. Compared to awake rats, MAP oxygen partial pressure.
decreased 11% and DS carcinosarcoma blood flow decreased In anesthetized adult male Holtzman Sprague-Dawley rats,
15.5% in Sprague-Dawley rats given xylazine 1 mg/kg SQ ketamine/xylazine does not reduce in vivo antibody levels even
with ketamine 50 mg/kg IP (Menke and Vaupel, 1988). In 3 weeks after exposure, whereas pentobarbital and chloral
contrast, 50/5 mg/kg and 100/10 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine IM hydrate do. Ketamine/xylazine produce moderate but not sig-
maintained mean arterial pressure around 110 mmHg for nificant decreases in antibody levels when there is a time lag of
90 minutes, and between 85 and 100 mmHg for 150 minutes, 1 week between exposure and antigen administration, but not
respectively in male Sprague-Dawley rats (Taie et al., 1999). when it is 3 weeks. Surgery does not produce larger changes in
An IM injection of 100/5 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine in antibody levels than anesthesia itself (Lockwood et al., 1993).
BALB/c mice resulted in a decrease in MAP from 129 to Thompson et al. (2002) investigated the effects of anesthetic
100 mmHg, a decrease of 22.5% (Erhardt et al., 1984). Heart agents, including ketamine/xylazine, on hepatic and splenic
rate decreased from 509 to 159 beats/min, and the respira- injury in ICR mice. Injury to lymphocytes and to hepatic Kupf-
tory rate dropped from 195 to 109 breaths/min. In compari- fer and endothelial cells occurs within 3 hours, as indicated by
son, 150/15 mg/kg ketamine/xylazine IP reduced heart rate in marked increases in apoptosis in splenic follicles and in hepatic
66 ROBERT E. MEYER AND RICHARD E. FISH

Kupffer and endothelial cells, as well as by three to fourfold or medetomidine (Buchanan et al., 1998), and ketamine and
increase in serum aspartate transaminase. Ketamine/xylazine xylazine (Ko et al., 1995).
anesthesia enhances the basal expression of IL-1β and IL-6 Marked species differences in analgesic effectiveness, drug
mRNA, and reduces basal TNFalpha mRNA in male Wistar rat response, and rate of elimination, as well as substantial inter-
spleen (Bette et al., 2004). animal pharmacokinetic variability, are reported (Chen et al.,
In ex vivo rat studies, Elfving et al. (2003) investi- 1969; Kumar et al., 2006). Although useful for surgical anes-
gated the interference of ketamine/xylazine with the serotonin thesia in rats (Silverman et al., 1983), ferrets (Payton and
re-uptake site, the serotonin(2A) receptor and the dopamine Pick, 1989), gerbils (Hrapkiewicz et al., 1989), dogs and cats
re-uptake site by use of [3 H]-(S)-citalopram, [18 F]altanserin (Tracy et al., 1988), nociception is not eliminated in mice, ham-
and [125 I]PE2I, respectively. Ketamine/xylazine decreases the sters (Silverman et al., 1983), guinea pigs, and rabbits (Ward
target-to-background ratio of [3 H]-(S)-citalopram, but does not et al., 1974), even at relatively high dosages associated with
affect the ratio of [18 F]altanserin. The [125 I]PE2I target-to- prolonged recumbency. Telazol does not produce analgesia in
background ratio decreases with ketamine/xylazine. New Zealand White rabbits and is nephrotoxic at both 32 and
64 mg/kg (Brammer et al., 1991).
The pharmacology of Telazol has been reviewed (Lin
2. Ketamine–diazepam et al., 1993). In domestic pigs, tiletamine level decreases
In chickens, the combination of ketamine/diazepam does not faster than that of zolazepam (terminal elimination rate con-
result in the depth of anesthesia required for major surgical stant of 0.26/h for tiletamine versus 0.11/h for zolazepam),
procedures (Christensen et al., 1987). with half-lives for tiletamine and zolazepam in the terminal
IP injections of mixtures of ketamine/diazepam result in elimination period phase of 3.7 and 8.4 hours, respectively
modest decreases in MAP in rats. A dose of 40/5 mg/kg (Kumar et al., 2006). Semple et al. (2000) reported half-lives
ketamine/diazepam decreased MAP by 12%. A higher dose of of 1.8 hours for tiletamine and 1.2 hours for zolazepam in
60/7.5 mg/kg resulted in a transient decrease of 31%, but the the polar bear Ursus maritimus, with total clearance values of
MAP was back to baseline value by 30–45 minutes after the 2.1 and 1.1 L/h/kg for tiletamine and zolazepam, respectively.
injection (Wixson et al., 1987). Neither mixture had significant A 1-compartment model with first-order absorption and elimi-
effects on heart rate, with heart rate decreases of 9 and 12% at nation best fits the time-series data for the drugs in serum during
the two doses. the immobilization period.
Ketamine/diazepam mixtures also affect blood gas values in In ex vivo rat studies, Elfving et al. (2003) investi-
rats (Wixson et al., 1987c). IP doses of 40/5 and 60/7.5 mg/kg gated the interference of Telazol anesthesia with the serotonin
decrease arterial pH in male Sprague-Dawley rats by about re-uptake site, the serotonin(2A) receptor and the dopamine
0.05 and 0.08 pH units, respectively. The lower dose of re-uptake site by use of [3 H]-(S)-citalopram, [18 F]altanserin
ketamine/diazepam (40/5 mg/kg) results in a PaCO2 increase of and [125 I]PE2I, respectively. The target-to-background ratios
20–30%. The higher dose (60/7.5 mg/kg) transiently increases of [3 H]-(S)-citalopram and [125 I]PE2I remain unaltered with
PaCO2 by 4.9% (about 3–4 mmHg). The 40/5 and 60/7.5 mg/kg Telazol.
doses of ketamine/diazepam result in PaO2 decreases of 23%
and 11.5% (8–9 mmHg), respectively.
D. Other Anesthetic Combinations
3. Ketamine–alpha-chloralose
Urethane increases the solubility of alpha-chloralose, and
Male CD-1 mice anesthetized with alpha-chloralose complements some of its shortcomings; analgesia is provided,
(120 mg/kg IP) plus ketamine (100 mg/kg IM) have similar heart excess muscle activity is reduced, and exaggerated spinal reflex
rates and blood pressures as mice anesthetized with thiobutabar- activity and CNS stimulation are suppressed (Green, 1979).
bital (100 mg/kg IP); renal reabsorption was judged to be more Kazerani and Furman (2006) examined the effect of 40 mg/kg
stable with alpha-chloralose (Rieg et al., 2004). LPS in C57BL/6 mice anesthetized with 1000 mg/kg ure-
thane combined with 50 mg/kg chloralose. Hypoglycemia and
increased serum alanine aminotransferase levels were observed
C. Tiletamine–Zolazepam (Telazol) during endotoxemia, but the expected LPS-induced increases in
lipase and lung myeloperoxidase activity (an indicator of neu-
Telazol, a 1:1 combination of zolazepam (Section II.I) trophil infiltration) were absent, leading to the conclusion that
and tiletamine (Section III.B), is indicated for inducing and chloralose/urethane anesthesia seemingly protects mice against
maintaining anesthesia for short (about 30 minutes) surgical LPS-mediated damage in the exocrine pancreas and lung, and
procedures. In an effort to improve effectiveness and reduce that this combination should not be used in murine endotoxemia
adverse side effects, Telazol has been combined with xylazine studies.
2. PHARMACOLOGY OF INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS, SEDATIVES, AND TRANQUILIZERS 67

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 Chapter 3

Pharmacology of Inhalation Anesthetics

David B. Brunson

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
II. Chemical and Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
A. Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
B. Molecular Weight and Vapor Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
C. Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
D. Boiling Point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
E. Partition Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
F. Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
III. Mode of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
IV. Uptake—Distribution—Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
V. Inhaled Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
A. Nitrous Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
B. Ether . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
C. Methoxyflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
D. Halothane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
E. Isoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
F. Enflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
G. Sevoflurane and Desflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
VI. Measurement and Qualification of Anesthetic Concentration for Research . 92
A. Nonspecific Methods of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
B. Specific Methods of Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
VII. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94

I. INTRODUCTION
both ether and chloroform could be minimized. Although these
drugs provided improvements over previous gas anesthetics,
Originally, our knowledge of inhalation anesthetics was based their clinical profiles were still associated with tissue toxicity.
on studies of ether, nitrous oxide (N2 O), and chloroform in ani- As the understanding of pharmacologic and physiologic effects
mals. In the early 1960s, methoxyflurane (MOF) and halothane of gas anesthetics increased, it became apparent that toxicity
were introduced in the hope that side effects associated with and safety fell short of the target of an ideal anesthetic. The

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

83
84 DAVID B. BRUNSON

lower solubility and lessened depression of myocardial contrac- offers important advantages and hence proves to be the most
tility lead to the introduction of both isoflurane and sevoflurane. appropriate method for general anesthesia. From a research
Despite being useful in laboratory animal anesthesia, the use and standpoint, it is important that all animals are maintained at
hence the production of halothane and MOF was discontinued reproducible levels of anesthesia, which can be accurately
in the United States. measured, and the effects of the anesthetic determined when
Currently, three potent inhalant anesthetics are routinely comparing data.
being used to anesthetize people. These are isoflurane, sevoflu- The most important advantage of inhaled anesthetics for
rane, and desflurane. N2 O is still administered as an adjunct to research is that the concentrations can be measured on a contin-
both inhalant and injectable anesthetics. Although an ideal gas ual basis, which ensures that all animals are at a similar anes-
anesthetic has not yet been discovered, the new potent inhalant thetic depth. This is important because anesthetic effects vary
anesthetics provide excellent options for a wide range of sit- with the depth of anesthesia. Since gas anesthetics are delivered
uations. Following are the characteristics of an ideal inhalant continuously via the lungs, during normal ventilation/perfusion
anesthetic (Jones, 1990). exchange states, alveolar anesthetic concentrations will closely
approximate the arterial blood concentrations. Tissues such as
1. Stable molecular structure: The compound should not be
the brain, which have high blood flows, equilibrate rapidly with
degradable on exposure to light, or reaction with alkali or
the arterial blood. By measuring the end tidal gas anesthetic con-
soda lime. It should not require preservatives and should
centration, the depth of anesthesia can be compared throughout
have a long shelf life.
the anesthetic period. A number of animals can thus be studied
2. Nonflammable and nonexplosive: It should be non-
under the same anesthetic conditions.
flammable when mixed with air, oxygen, or N2 O.
In contrast, injectable anesthetic concentrations are diffi-
3. High potency: It should be easily delivered so that high
cult to measure and stable blood concentrations are not easily
concentrations of oxygen can be administered simultane-
confirmed. Absorption, distribution, and elimination of drugs
ously during anesthesia.
injected intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, and
4. Low solubility in blood: Blood/gas solubility should be
intraperitoneally result in comparisons of the anesthetic depth
low in order that induction and emergence from anesthe-
based on subjective observations that do not correlate with
sia are rapid. This enables rapid and precise control of
the actual drug concentrations in blood (Morris et al., 1979).
anesthetic depth.
Injectable anesthetic techniques may be preferred when waste
5. Nonirritating: It should not cause irritation to the respira-
gas elimination is not practical, gas anesthetic delivery is not
tory system, bronchospasm, or breath holding. Inductions
possible, and precise control of the anesthetic level is not
should be smooth and rapid.
needed.
6. Not metabolized: High molecular stability is desired to
eliminate toxic metabolites and effect of disease on drug
elimination.
7. Cardiovascular and respiratory systems unaffected: The II. CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
anesthetic should not cause depression of myocardial con-
tractility or induce arrhythmias. It should not induce
The physical and chemical properties of the major inhaled
sensitization to catecholamines, and ventilatory rate and
anesthetics are shown in Table 3-1. Although no longer rec-
tidal volume should remain unchanged.
ommended as an anesthetic for research, ether is included for
8. Central nervous system (CNS) effects reversible and non-
comparison with the modern potent inhaled anesthetics. Desflu-
stimulatory: Cerebral blood flow should either remain
rane and sevoflurane are new potent inhalant anesthetics, which
unchanged or decrease during the inhaled anesthesia.
have unique chemical and physical properties.
9. Compatible with other drugs: The ideal inhalant anes-
thetic should be compatible with all other medications,
especially other cardiovascular supportive drugs.
A. Vapor Pressure
10. Easily delivered: Vaporization and potency should be such
that it facilitates delivery of effective concentrations with-
The vapor pressure is a measure of the volatility of the drug
out limiting the inspired oxygen concentrations. Delivery
and is defined as the maximum pressure that can be produced
through open systems or precision vaporizers should be
by the anesthetic at a given temperature and pressure. Vapor
possible.
pressure divided by the atmospheric pressure gives the maximal
11. Affordable: The cost of manufacturing the drug and appro-
fraction of anesthetic vapor that can be produced. In the case of
priate delivery systems must allow a low cost per hour of
isoflurane, the vapor pressure is 239.5 at 20◦ C. If used at sea
anesthesia.
level where the barometric pressure is 760 mmHg, the maximal
Although injectable anesthetic techniques have been developed concentration that can be produced would be 0.3186 or 31.86%.
and widely used for all animal species, inhalation anesthesia Thus, in the presence of liquid anesthetic in a container (bottle,
3. PHARMACOLOGY OF INHALATION ANESTHETICS 85

TABLE 3-1
Chemical and Physical Properties of Inhalant Anesthetics

Nitrous
Property Ether Methoxyflurane Halothane Isoflurane Enflurane Desflurane Sevoflurane oxide

Formula CH3 OCH3 CHCl2 CF2 OCH3 CHClBrCF3 CF3 CHClOCF2 H CHFCF2 OCHF2 CH2 HOCFHCF3 CFH2 OCH(CF3 )2 N2 O
Molecular 74 165.0 197.4 184.5 184.5 168.0 200.1 44
weight
Specific gravity 0.71 1.65 1.87 1.50 1.52 1.46 1.52 1.23
Boiling point 36.5 104.7 0.2 48.5 56.5 23.5 58.5 −89
Vapor pressure 450 22.8 244.1 239.5 171.8 664 159.9 39,500
at 20◦ C
Maximum 49 3% 32.53 31.86 22.93 88.53 21.33 100
percent
concentration
MAC (dog) 3.04% 0.23% 0.87% 1.28% 2.2% 7.2% 2.36% 188%
Odor Etheral Fruity Organic solvent Pungent Etheral Pungent Mild Sweet
etheral etheral
Stability >50% 20% 0.2% 20% <0.2% ∼2.0%
Explosive >1.8% in air No No No No No No
>2.1% in O2
Preservatives Yes, 3% ethanol Yes, 0.01% Yes, thymol None None None None None
hydrylated
hydrotoluene

vaporizer, anesthetic chamber), this indicates that the partial TABLE 3-2
pressure (concentration) of the anesthetic is at the maximum Milliliters of Gas Anesthetic Formed from
level (i.e. the vapor pressure). Since isoflurane and sevoflurane Vaporization of 1 ML of Liquid Anesthetic
are highly potent and have low blood:gas solubility, delivery of
Methoxyflurane 191.4 ml
uncontrolled inspired concentrations is unsafe. Isoflurane 182.1 ml
Precision vaporizers are designed to mix the correct volume Sevoflurane 170.0 ml
of dilution gas and anesthetic vapor to produce a clinically use-
able concentration (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1998). Oxygen alone or Calculated at standard temperature (273 K) and
combined with N2 O is mixed with anesthetic vapors to deliver pressure (760 mmHg).
a concentration that is high enough to anesthetize the animal
but low enough to prevent rapid anesthetic overdose. Anesthet- (Table 3-2). The volume of gaseous anesthetic formed from 1 ml
ics such as halothane and isoflurane, which have nearly similar of liquid anesthetic can be calculated using the gas laws (Linde,
boiling points and vapor pressures, can be used in identically 1971):
manufactured vaporizers (Steffey et al., 1983). However, the
practice of using an anesthetic in a vaporizer, which is not PV = nRT
designed for that particular anesthetic, is not recommended. V = nRT /P
Extreme care must be taken to prevent mixing of volatile where the volume of gas formed from 1 ml of liquid
anesthetics in the same vaporizer. Accidental cross filling of is equal to the number of moles of the liquid (density
vaporizers can result in unknown delivered concentrations of divided by the molecular weight) times the gas constant
both gases. The practice of changing anesthetic drugs in vapor- (R = 0.082 ml × atm/K × mole)) times the temperature in K
izers can easily result in misidentification of the contents of the divided by number of atmospheres of pressure (atm). Direct
vaporizer. Vaporizers should always be clearly labeled and only injection of liquid anesthetic into closed delivery systems can be
contain the designated anesthetic (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1998). successfully performed using volatile anesthetic, by calculating
the volume of anesthetic required to produce a desired concen-
B. Molecular Weight and Vapor Pressure tration in the anesthetic system. Similarly, anesthetic chambers
can be used without precision vaporizers if the volume of the
All the inhaled anesthetics have molecular weights between system is known and the volume of liquid anesthetic needed to
165.0 and 200.1, with the exception of N2 O and ether produce the desired concentration is calculated. Table 3-3a–c
(Table 3-1). Because of this fact the amount of vapor pro- provide the number of milliliters of liquid anesthetic needed
duced (in milliliters) by 1 ml of liquid anesthetic is also similar to produce anesthetic concentrations in the clinically useable
86 DAVID B. BRUNSON

TABLE 3-3 value of 0.23%. Once equilibration has occurred, very little
The Following Calculated Volumes of Liquid Isoflurane, MOF is required for the maintenance of the anesthetic level.
Sevoflurane, and Methoxyflurane Injected into Containers of Unlike ether, MOF has a low volatility that limits the maximum
Corresponding Volumes will Produce a Final Gas Concentration in
the Clinical Useable Range. Include Descriptive Title
concentration that can be produced at room temperature to 3%.
The slow equilibration and the low volatility balance the high
Internal volume of anesthetic chamber (ml) potency to make MOF useable without precise control of the
inspired concentration.
Percent 1,000 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
All of the remaining potent inhaled anesthetics require control
(a) isoflurane of the inspired concentration to be used safely. They possess high
1 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.26 volatility, low blood/gas solubility, and relatively high potency.
2 0.10 0.20 0.31 0.41 0.51 Together these factors result in rapid equilibration and greater
3 0.15 0.31 0.46 0.61 0.77
4 0.20 0.41 0.61 0.82 1.02
potential for overdose.
5 0.26 0.51 0.77 1.02 1.28
(b) Sevoflurane
1 0.05 0.11 0.16 0.22 0.27 C. Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC)
2 0.11 0.22 0.33 0.44 0.55
3 0.16 0.33 0.49 0.66 0.82 The MAC is the concentration at 1 atm that produces immo-
4 0.22 0.44 0.66 0.88 1.10
bility in 50% of animals exposed to a noxious stimulus (Eger,
5 0.27 0.55 0.82 1.10 1.37
6 0.33 0.66 0.99 1.32 1.65 1974). Thus, MAC is synonymous with the effective dose or
(c) Methoxyflurane
ED50 and is a measure of the potency of inhaled anesthetics.
1 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.19 0.24 MAC values can be determined as the concentration at which
2 0.10 0.19 0.29 0.39 0.49 either 50% of a group of animals respond, or an individual
3 0.15 0.29 0.44 0.58 0.73 animal responds 50% of the time, to a standardized noxious
stimulus.
Calculations at 20◦ C and 760 mmHg. MAC is important for three reasons. First, it is a measure
of the effectiveness of inhalation anesthetics in the context of
clinical use. General anesthesia is defined as the loss of pain per-
range. This facilitate the use of anesthetic concentrations that ception, reflex, and spontaneous muscle activity. To be properly
produce safe anesthesia with even highly volatile anesthet- anesthetized, an animal must be immobile and unaware of nox-
ics such as isoflurane and sevoflurane. However, uncontrolled ious (painful) stimuli. These factors are the end points used to
delivery of volatile anesthetic gases is not recommended it is determine MAC. Second, MAC can be applied to all inhalation
unsafe and there are chances of errors in calculations. A pre- anesthetics. MAC is important because it allows direct compar-
cision vaporizer should be used to accurately deliver a known isons for a number of animals or sequential anesthetic episodes,
anesthetic concentration to the animal whenever possible. ensuring that they are performed at the same depth of anesthe-
Laboratory animals are frequently anesthetized in bell jars sia. The ability to measure end tidal anesthetic concentrations
or anesthetic chambers. For many years, ether was used in on a breath-to-breath basis ensures that each animal is at approx-
this manner without any concern for the inspired concentration. imately the same magnitude of anesthetic compromise. Third,
The high vapor pressure of ether produces maximum anesthetic MAC is important because continuous monitoring of alveolar
partial pressures of 450 mmHg, which is equal to an inspired concentrations helps in maintaining the animal at a known and
concentration of 59% (Price, 1975). Ether can be delivered stable depth of anesthesia.
without the need for controlling the inspired concentration for
two reasons. First, the effective dose to produce anesthesia in
1. Determination of MAC
half of the animals [minimum alveolar concentration (MAC)]
is 1.9%; because of the low potency, a high inspired concentra- The standard bracketing procedures for MAC determination
tion is desirable. Second, ether has a high blood/gas solubility are as follows. When possible the animals should be anes-
and thus the equilibration is relatively slow, providing a longer thetized, via a mask or chamber, with only the inhalational
time period when overdosage can be prevented by removing the anesthetic. Sedatives and injectable anesthetics can affect the
animal from the chamber. required inhalational anesthetic concentration needed to cause
Although currently it is not commercially available in North immobility. The concentration of the anesthetic is measured
America, MOF was frequently used for chamber inductions, and held constant for at least 15 minutes to ensure equilibra-
but without precise control of the inspired concentration for tion between the alveoli and the brain. Measurements done at
similar reasons as in the case of ether. Like ether, it has a high the end of expiration provide the most accurate estimate of the
blood/gas solubility that results in a long equilibration time. anesthetic concentration in the blood leaving the lungs. A nox-
However, MOF is a very potent inhalant anesthetic with a MAC ious stimulus is then applied and the animal is monitored for
3. PHARMACOLOGY OF INHALATION ANESTHETICS 87

gross purposeful movement or the absence of movement. Dur- a procedure. There is no sex-related difference in the potency
ing MAC determinations, stretching, increased ventilation, or of inhalational anesthetics (Quasha et al., 1980).
spontaneous movement are not considered as an indicator of A change in acid–base status has little effect on MAC val-
movement. Classically, either a large hemostat is clamped to the ues. Infusions of sodium bicarbonate and hydrochloric acid
animal’s tail or digits (usually for 1 minute) or the passage of an to produce base excess of +7 and −20 mEq, respectively,
electrical current through subcutaneous tissue is used as the nox- does not alter MAC (Eger, 1974). Furthermore, when carbon
ious stimulus (Quasha et al., 1980). If no response is observed, dioxide (CO2 ) is greater than 10 mmHg but below 90 mmHg,
the alveolar concentration is reduced by 20% of the previous MAC is not changed. Hypoventilation resulting in CO2 greater
setting, and after a lapse of 15 minutes for equilibration, the than 90 mmHg increased the anesthetic effect of halothane. It
stimulus is repeated. The step-down procedure is continued until is believed that this effect is related to an increase in cere-
gross purposeful movement is observed in response to the nox- brospinal fluid hydrogen ion concentration. Complete CO2
ious stimulus. The alveolar concentration is then increased by narcosis occurs at a CSF pH of 6.8–6.9 (Eger, 1974).
10% until the animal fails to respond to the noxious stimulus. MAC is not affected by changes in arterial oxygen partial
The MAC (ED50) is the concentration half way between the pressures above 40 mmHg. When arterial partial pressure of
concentrations where the animal responds and does not respond. oxygen (Pa O2 ) drops below 40 mmHg, MAC decreases. Simi-
The use of alveolar anesthetic concentration as a measure- larly when arterial oxygen content decreased below 5 ml/100 ml
ment of the animal’s anesthetic level is based on the assumption of blood due to anemia, MAC decreased to 1/3 of the original
that gases within the alveoli are in equilibrium with the blood value. This is most likely related to the development of cerebral
exiting the lung. Arterial blood is assumed to be in equili- lactic acidosis during hypoxemia (Quasha et al., 1980).
bration with tissues with high blood flow, such as the brain. Changes in blood pressure have no effect on the MAC
These assumptions are true as long as ventilation and perfusion values of inhalational anesthetics. Hypertension induced by
are closely matched and sufficient time has elapsed to allow phenylephrine did not alter MAC; however, severe hypotension
equilibration between the alveolar gases and the pulmonary secondary to hemorrhage did reduce halothane MAC. This was
blood. Alveolar concentrations are assumed to represent the thought to be related to the concomitant hypoxia that occurred
anesthetic concentration in the animal’s brain. The anesthetic (Eger, 1974).
concentrations in the gases at the end of expiration (end tidal
concentrations) are from the deepest areas of the pulmonary
3. Factors that Alter MAC
system (i.e. the alveoli). Normally ventilation and perfusion are
equally matched in the lung, and alveolar gas is fully equili- MAC is affected by several factors. Small changes in MAC
brated with the blood. Ventilation/perfusion mismatching and have been observed due to circadian rhythms in rats. Anesthesia
shunting of blood past alveoli result in discrepancies between during high-activity time periods results in higher MAC require-
the alveolar anesthetic concentrations and the anesthetic con- ments than anesthesia during low-activity periods. Although
centrations in the blood and brain (Eger, 1974). This problem is there is only a 5–10% difference, anesthesia should be per-
uncommon in healthy mammals that weigh less than 50 kg, but formed during similar-activity time periods to reduce variability
occurs frequently in larger animals such as horses. (Quasha et al., 1980).
MAC has been shown to be remarkably consistent among a Anesthetic requirements decrease directly with decreases in
wide variety of animal species (Table 3-5), although Dohm and the animal’s body temperature. Halothane and MOF require-
Brunson (1993) determined an isoflurane ED50 for a reptilian ments decrease by 5% for each degree centigrade decrease;
species (desert iguana) that was markedly higher than that for thus, animals allowed to cool during anesthesia will require less
other species. inhalational anesthetics than normothermic animals. Cooling
of anesthetized animals occurs for numerous reasons. Animals
lose heat due to moisture evaporation through the respiratory
2. Factors that do not Alter MAC
system during surgery and convective heat loss to the surgical
There is less biological variability in MAC within an ani- table. In order to compare data from similar anesthetic prepara-
mal species, with all animals being affected within a narrow tions, animals must be maintained at a known temperature and
range. In a group of research dogs, the deviation from the group the gas anesthetic concentration monitored. Decreased MAC
mean equaled 10–20% (Eger, 1974). Variation within individual is probably not due to altered metabolic rate, since increased
animals is even less. metabolic rate associated with hyperthyroidism only slightly
MAC is not affected by the type or the intensity of the stimulus increased MAC requirements, but is associated with direct CNS
(Jones, 1990). Suppression of movement during skin incision, depression associated with hypothermia (Eger, 1974; Quasha
tail clamp, and passage of electrical current all require the et al., 1980).
same alveolar concentrations (Eger, 1974). The duration of Age has been shown to affect the MAC requirements of ani-
anesthesia does not alter MAC; the concentration required to mals (Quasha et al., 1980). Very old animals have lower MAC
suppress movement is constant from the beginning to the end of values. This may be due to lower neuronal density or a lower
88 DAVID B. BRUNSON

cerebral metabolic rate. The highest MAC requirements occur TABLE 3-4
in neonates. Animals of similar age should be used to minimize Blood/Gas and Oil/Blood Partition Coefficients
variations in sensitivity to inhalational anesthetics.
Anesthetic Blood/gas coefficient Olive oil/blood
Synergistic effects are common between CNS depressant
drugs and inhalational anesthetics. Opioids have been shown Ether 2.8 58.0
to reduce MAC (Curro et al., 1994; Eger, 1974). Even drugs Methoxyflurane 12.0 970.0
such as diazepam reduce MAC in people even though the ben- Halothane 2.54 224.0
Isoflurane 1.46 91.0
zodiazepine drugs have no analgesic properties (Mathews et al., Enflurane 2.0 96.0
1990). Desflurane 0.42 19.0
Inhalational anesthetics have been shown to be additive and Sevoflurane 0.69 53.0
thus can be used in combinations to produce general anesthe- Nitrous oxide 0.47 1.4
sia. N2 O is frequently used in animal anesthetic protocols to
simulate human anesthetic techniques. Although highly volatile From Eger (1974); Jones (1990).
and highly potent anesthetics have been used together, they are
usually administered as sole agents or in combination with N2 O. the greater the solubility of the anesthetic gas in blood the longer
CNS catecholamines and drugs which affect their release, the equilibration time. Although solubility varies among tis-
can alter the MAC of inhalant anesthetics. Alpha methyl dopa sues, tissue components, temperature, and species (Table 3-4),
and reserpine decrease MAC. D-amphetamine releases CNS partition coefficients provide a consistent guideline for predict-
catecholamines and increases MAC. Chronic administration can ing how uptake and elimination will occur when comparing
result in depletion of central catecholamines and a decreased anesthetics (Wollman and Smith, 1975).
MAC (Quasha et al., 1980). The primary objective of inhalant anesthesia is to produce a
constant and sufficient partial pressure of the anesthetic in the
brain to produce analgesia and unconsciousness. The vessel-
D. Boiling Point rich group of tissues, which includes the brain (approximately
9% of the body weight), receives approximately 75% of the
At room temperature all of the currently used inhalant anes- cardiac output (Eger, 1964). Because of the large blood flow to
thetics are liquids with the exception of N2 O. N2 O is supplied in this small compartment, equilibration rapidly occurs between
cylinders that contain both liquid and gas; at pressures greater the anesthetic concentration in the blood and the brain. N2 O,
than 800 psi, N2 O is a liquid. Pressure gauges on N2 O cylinders desflurane, and sevoflurane have exceptionally low blood/gas
will indicate a pressure of approximately 700 psi until all of the solubilities and are associated with rapid uptake and elimination
liquid N2 O has vaporized. The pressure will then progressively (Eger, 1992; Jones, 1990).
decrease until the cylinder is empty (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1998). Rapid effects of insoluble anesthetics are further accentuated
Desflurane has a unique physical–chemical property that in very small animals. Smaller animals have correspondingly
causes it to boil at 23.5◦ C (room temperature) (Jones, 1990). small lung, blood, and tissue volumes, which equilibrate very
Even small changes in temperature during vaporization pro- rapidly. In comparison to small-sized animals, large animals
duce uncontrollable changes in output; thus, the delivery of a reach equilibrium at a slow rate even when insoluble anesthetics
constant known volume or concentration of desflurane becomes are administered (Steffey, 1978).
difficult. For this reason, desflurane requires a special vaporizer Tissue/blood partition coefficients also influence the anes-
which can precisely control the vaporization temperature (Jones, thetic uptake. However, tissue solubility is more important
1990). Standard “Tec-type” or plenum vaporizers should not be during elimination of the inhaled anesthetics. Anesthetics with
used for desflurane. high lipid solubilities accumulate in fat tissue during anesthe-
sia. Upon recovery, the anesthetic leaves the fat tissue and slows
the animal’s return to consciousness (Table 3-4). Lipid solubil-
E. Partition Coefficients ity and potency seemingly have a reciprocal relationship, which
has led to the theory (“Unitary Theory”) that the mode of action
Solubility of inhaled anesthetics in blood and tissue provides of gas anesthetics is related to a relatively constant number of
an indication of the capacity of these compartments to hold anes- anesthetic molecules dissolved in a hydrophobic phase (Kauf-
thetic (Eger, 1985). These partition coefficients are expressed man, 1977). (See below for additional discussion of inhalant
as ratios of the amounts of the anesthetic in the two compart- anesthetic mechanism of action.)
ments at equilibrium. The most important partition coefficient The solubility of anesthetic gases in the delivery apparatus
for inhaled anesthetics is the blood/gas partition coefficient also can affect uptake and elimination. Absorption of anesthetic
(Table 3-4). Since blood is the first compartment to equilibrate into rubber or plastic components of the anesthetic delivery
with alveolar anesthetic gases, the blood/gas coefficient is an apparatus slows the inhalation process and hence induction.
indication of the speed of onset. All other factors being equal, Uptake of anesthetic molecules by the anesthetic device also
3. PHARMACOLOGY OF INHALATION ANESTHETICS 89

affects recovery. Animals breathing from the anesthetic device the addition of preservatives to prevent spontaneous oxidative
continue to receive anesthetic released from rubber and/or plas- decomposition.
tic components even after the vaporizer has been turned off
(Eger, 1974). Because isoflurane and sevoflurane have low rub-
ber and plastic solubilities, uptake by the machine components III. MODE OF ACTION
is insignificant during induction and recovery from anesthesia.
The primary target sites of general anesthetics are not known.
F. Stability One hypothesis is that the ultimate target sites are ion chan-
nels in nerve membranes, influenced by proteins and/or lipids
Molecular stability is closely correlated with the lack of tissue (Franks and Lieb, 1991; Jones, 1990). Changes in conductance
toxicity. Inhalant anesthetics are not considered to be directly through an ionophore may be related to the binding of the anes-
toxic to the body tissues. It is the metabolites of the anesthet- thetic within the transmembrane of the nerve cell. It is unknown
ics that cause tissue injury. Much of the effort to identify new whether gas anesthetics have a direct action on the lipid mem-
inhalant anesthetics has been motivated by the need for less brane to disrupt ion flow or whether a second messenger is
toxic anesthetics. Substitution of fluoride and bromide for chlo- involved.
rine has resulted in greater molecular stability and less toxic Studies of halothane, isoflurane, and enflurane suggest that
anesthetics. The level of biodegradation for various anesthet- the major depressant effect involves the enhancement of the
ics is as follows: isoflurane, 0.2% (Holaday and Smith, 1981) inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA)
of the administered dose; sevoflurane, approximately 2.0%; (Moody et al., 1988). GABA effects are believed to be medi-
halothane, 20%; and MOF, more than 50% (Carpenter et al., ated through the release of intracellular calcium. In particular,
1986). The low rate of biodegradation of isoflurane, sevoflu- volatile anesthetics are associated with the ligand-gated ion
rane, and desflurane has resulted in decreased potential for renal channel termed GABAa. When activated this channel causes
and hepatic injury in the animals anesthetized, as well as in the an increase in the chloride permeability of neurons (Tanelian
personnel exposed to trace anesthetic levels (Njoku et al., 1997) et al., 1993).
(Table 3-5). A solution to the mechanisms of general anesthesia has not
Molecular stability is also important as it relates to the need yet been found that fits the physical, chemical, and physiological
for preservatives. Ether, MOF, and halothane require addition factors associated with anesthetics. This is most likely due to the
of preservatives to prevent degradation during storage. Thy- complexity of the neuronal networks involved in general anes-
mol was added to halothane as a preservative since it did thesia. By definition, general anesthesia includes analgesia, loss
not vaporize; it accumulated in the vaporizer and caused the of muscle function, amnesia, and unconsciousness. Gas anes-
turnstiles to stick. The accuracy of the vaporizer may be affected, thetics are capable of producing multiple effects simultaneously.
which requires periodic servicing (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1998). How this is accomplished has yet to be unraveled. A review of
Isoflurane, enflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane do not require the history and current research is covered in other publications
(Roy, 2005; Urban, 2002).
TABLE 3-5
Isoflurane Minimum Alveolar Concentrations (MAC) for Different
IV. UPTAKE—DISTRIBUTION—ELIMINATION
Species

Species MAC (ED50) values Reference

As previously discussed, alveolar anesthetic concentration is
Man 1.28+/−0.04 Stevens et al., 1975 usually a close approximation to brain anesthetic concentra-
Monkey 1.28+/−0.18 Tinker et al., 1977 tions. The aim during induction and maintenance is to raise the
Pig 1.75+/−0.1 Tranquilli et al., 1983
alveolar (brain) anesthetic concentration to the level that causes
Sheep 1.58+/−0.17 Palahniuk et al., 1974
Goat 1.5+/−0.3 Antognini and Eisele, 1993 anesthesia. Three factors determine when alveolar equilibration
Dog 1.28+/−0.06 Steffey and Howland, 1977 occurs: ventilation, uptake into the animal, and the inspired
Cat 1.63+/−0.06 Steffey and Howland, 1977 anesthetic concentration. [The reader is referred to Eger (1974)
Rabbit 2.05+/− Patel and Mutch, 1990 and current anesthesia texts for additional discussion.]
Guinea pig 1.15+/−0.5 Seifen et al., 1989
If unopposed by uptake, the alveolar concentration would
Rat 1.38+/−0.06 White et al., 1974
Mouse 1.41+/−0.03 Deady et al., 1980 rapidly equal the inspired concentration. Increasing ventila-
Cockatoo 1.44+/−0.07 Curro et al., 1994 tion increases the alveolar anesthetic concentration. Likewise,
Iguana 3.14+/−0.16 Dohm and Brunson, 1993 factors that decrease ventilation slow the equilibration time.
(Diposaurus dorsalis) Uptake of anesthetic into blood and tissue opposes or limits
Dumeril’s monitor 1.54+/−0.17 Bertelsen et al., 2005
the rise in alveolar concentration. If more anesthetic is removed
Iguana iguana 2.0+/−0.6 Mosely et al., 2003
into the animal (uptake), the alveolar concentration will be lower
90 DAVID B. BRUNSON

relative to the inspired concentration. Anesthetics with high second gas effect to occur, N2 O must be inhaled when the other
blood or tissue solubilities (see Section II.E) thus take longer inhaled anesthetic is already present in the alveoli of the lung.
for the alveolar concentration to increase to the level required N2 O is the least potent of the inhaled anesthetics. The human
for anesthesia. MAC is close to 105% whereas the estimated MAC for dogs is
Conditions that increase cardiac output increase the quantity calculated to be 188+/−35% (Eger, 1974). The low potency in
of blood passing through the alveolar membrane per unit time. dogs means that even inspired concentrations of 60–70% will
The higher the cardiac output the larger the quantity of anes- reduce the requirements for other anesthetics by only one-third.
thetic removed from the lungs and thus the lower the alveolar Because of its minimal depressive effects, N2 O is frequently
concentration. If lower cardiac output results in lower cerebral used as an adjunct to other more potent and depressive anes-
blood flow and thus slower equilibration of the brain with the thetics. Care must be taken to ensure that adequate oxygen is
arterial anesthetic concentration, faster anesthetic equilibration delivered to the patient because the low potency requires high
of the brain is not achieved. However, cerebral blood flow is delivered N2 O concentrations. The oxygen in N2 O is not avail-
often preserved even when cardiac output decreases. This poten- able for cellular metabolism. In all cases, a minimum of 20% of
tially can result in rapid, deep anesthesia. If ventilation is held the inspired gases must be oxygen (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1998).
constant, low cardiac output will result in faster increases in Oxygen flow rates should be set based on the needs of the animal,
alveolar anesthetic concentrations. In patients with low cardiac with N2 O added to this base flow.
output and high cerebral blood flow, delivery of high inspired The high flow rates using N2 O result in increased heat loss
concentrations must be avoided to prevent rapid and potentially from the animal. Warm, moist exhaled air is either diluted or
excessive anesthetic depression. washed away from the animal. The high total gas flow also
The concentration gradient between the alveolus and the increases the cost associated with anesthesia. Because N2 O and
blood entering the lungs affects the uptake of the anesthetic: oxygen become carrier gases for the volatile anesthetics, such as
the greater the difference the greater the anesthetic uptake. As isoflurane and sevoflurane, the amount of anesthetic vaporized
equilibration occurs, tissue uptake decreases and the concen- increases proportionally to the increase in flow. Additional costs
tration of the anesthetic in the blood returning to the lung is of using N2 O include the need for N2 O flow meters and cylinder
nearly equal to the alveolar concentration. In general, ventila- regulators.
tion facilitates whereas tissue uptake and cardiac output oppose N2 O rapidly diffuses into gas-filled spaces such as intesti-
equilibration of the alveolar anesthetic concentration with the nal segments or pneumothoraces (Steffey et al., 1979). For this
inspired concentration. reason, N2 O is not recommended for use in ruminants. Once
The metabolism of highly soluble inhaled anesthetics may the use of N2 O is discontinued, oxygen should be administered
have an effect on anesthetic uptake. The majority of anesthetic for approximately 5 minutes to ensure that the animal does not
metabolism occurs after clinical anesthesia has been discontin- become hypoxic during the rapid exhalation of N2 O.
ued. Anesthetics with high lipid solubilities have the slowest Human health risks are associated with both the chronic expo-
elimination from the lungs and the highest levels of hepatic sure to trace concentrations of N2 O and drug abuse (Dorsch
metabolism. The importance of metabolism is not related to and Dorsch, 1998). Effective scavenging systems must always
anesthesia recovery but the potential for production of toxic be used when delivering N2 O. Monitoring of anesthetic use and
metabolites. adequate security should be employed to minimize the inappro-
priate use of N2 O. N2 O has been associated with atmospheric
ozone damage (Schmeltekopf et al., 1975).
V. INHALED ANESTHETICS
In summary, N2 O is a weak anesthetic gas, which should
be used only where small reductions in other anesthetics are
A. Nitrous Oxide critical. The use of N2 O in animals does not produce the effects
seen in people and should not be included in research protocols
N2 O is included in animal research protocols for the sole for the sole reason of simulating human anesthetic protocols.
reason that it is commonly used in human anesthesia. However,
N2 O is a very weak anesthetic for nonprimate species. The prin-
cipal advantage of N2 O is that it has minimal cardiovascular B. Ether
and respiratory depressive effects. The low blood/gas solubility
facilitates rapid equilibration and elimination. The rapid uptake Ether was the principal inhaled anesthetic in research prior
of the high inspired concentration can be used to accelerate the to the development of nonflammable and more potent gas anes-
uptake of other inhaled anesthetics (Eger, 1974). This is known thetics. Ether is not recommended as an anesthetic because it
as the second gas effect and is most useful during induction of is explosive at concentrations above 1.8% in air and 2.1% in
mammalian species that are larger than 2 kg. Animals smaller oxygen (Wollman and Smith, 1975). These concentrations are
than 2 kg equilibrate rapidly and hence the second gas effect within the range required to produce anesthesia and are fre-
is of no use. It is important to remember that in order for the quently present during recovery. Even the bodies of animals that
3. PHARMACOLOGY OF INHALATION ANESTHETICS 91

have been euthanized continue to release ether and have been Halothane causes respiratory depression which is dose depen-
responsible for explosions when placed in refrigerators prior to dent. At deep anesthetic levels, ventilation becomes inadequate.
disposal. In addition to the hazard of explosion or fire, ether is Respiratory depression is not adequate to prevent overdosage
highly irritating to the respiratory system. Increased production and cardiovascular failure.
of respiratory secretions and increased broncoconstriction are Halothane causes a direct depression of myocardial muscle
common. The use of an anticholinergic, like atropine, was com- and relaxation of vascular smooth muscle. Myocardial contrac-
monly advocated to decrease the signs of respiratory irritation tility, cardiac output, and total peripheral resistance decrease on
(Wollman and Smith, 1975). exposure to halothane. Systemic arterial blood pressure pro-
gressively decreases as anesthetic depth deepens. Halothane
also sensitizes the myocardium to endogenous or exogenously
C. Methoxyflurane
administered catecholamine.
Halothane increases cerebral blood flow due to direct vasodi-
The low volatility and high blood solubility of MOF made
latation of vascular smooth muscle. This increased blood flow is
it safe for use in nonprecision systems. MOF is the most
not prevented by preanesthetic hyperventilation. Contraindica-
potent of inhaled anesthetics with an ED50 of less than 0.25%.
tions for halothane include patients with increased intracranial
Although the anesthetic equipment for MOF is relatively inex-
pressure or intracranial hemorrhage.
pensive, the cost of the drug has increased due to the lack of
The availability of alternate gas anesthetics with lower
its use in human anesthesiology and the limited use in clini-
metabolism and thus lower risk of toxicity for both animals
cal veterinary medicine. Inexperienced researchers with limited
and humans minimized the demand for this drug.
anesthesia training preferred MOF because of the perceived
safety associated with slow changes in anesthetic depth.
MOF is extensively metabolized and renal toxicity was a sig-
E. Isoflurane
nificant complication associated with its use in people. Human
exposure should be avoided. Metabolites include inorganic flu-
Isoflurane maintains cardiovascular functions better than
oride, oxalates, and trifluoroacetic acid, which are nephrotoxic
previous generations of gas anesthetics. Like other inhaled anes-
(Brunson et al., 1979). MOF should only be used with a func-
thetics, isoflurane causes a dose-related depression of systemic
tioning scavenging system or inside a nonrecirculating hood.
arterial blood pressure (Merin, 1993). The decreased blood
MOF is a respiratory depressant. During spontaneous ven-
pressure is due to a combination of myocardial depression and
tilation, animals are hypercarbic. The character of respiration
decreased systemic vascular resistance. Isoflurane has less of a
serves as an indicator of anesthetic depth. Apnea will occur at
depressant effect on myocardial contractility, but causes greater
deep anesthetic levels. MOF is nonirritating and does not stim-
vasodilatory effects when compared to halothane. Isoflurane,
ulate tracheobronchial secretions or cause bronchoconstriction
like MOF, desflurane, and sevoflurane, does not sensitize the
(Wollman and Smith, 1975).
heart to the arrhythmogenic effects of exogenously administered
The effects of MOF on the circulatory system are char-
epinephrine (Eger, 1992).
acterized by mild-to-moderate hypotension with or without
In keeping with the lower myocardial depression and sensitiv-
bradycardia. Arterial hypotension is due to reduced myocardial
ity to catecholamines, isoflurane has a greater safety margin than
contractility and cardiac output. MOF causes less sensitization
halothane in rats. Among avian species, waterfowl are known
of the myocardium to catecholamines than halothane.
to have a high incidence of arrhythmias, and the incidence of
In general, MOF is an excellent anesthetic, but is no longer
cardiac arrhythmias has been shown to be lower with isoflu-
available in North America. Clinical usage has also declined due
rane. The ratio of the concentration to produce cardiovascular
to the slow onset and recovery and the potential for toxicity due
collapse with the anesthetic dose (MAC) is called the cardiac
to metabolism. MOF is available from Medical Developments
anesthetic index. Wolfson et al. (1978) determined that the car-
International Limited in Australia.
diac anesthetic index for isoflurane and halothane was 5.7 and
3.0, respectively.
D. Halothane Isoflurane has other vasodilatory effects which are impor-
tant. Isoflurane is frequently used in coronary perfusion studies
Halothane is an inhaled anesthetic which has good potency, because it has been shown to be a more potent coronary vasodila-
low blood/gas solubility, and high volatility. It produces anes- tor than halothane or enflurane (Merin, 1993). Like other
thesia rapidly. The high vapor pressure of halothane enables inhalant anesthetics, isoflurane causes an increase in cerebral
concentrations as high as 33% to be produced, which, combined blood flow. However, unlike halothane, enflurane, or MOF,
with rapid equilibration, can lead to lethal levels of anesthesia. increases in cerebral blood flow can be prevented if hyperven-
Delivery of a controlled anesthetic concentration is necessary tilation is instituted prior to the administration of isoflurane
for safe anesthesia. Stable anesthetic levels are easily produced (Boarini, 1984). For this reason, isoflurane is preferred in
within 10 minutes of the start of anesthesia. situations where cerebral blood flow must not increase.
92 DAVID B. BRUNSON

Isoflurane is a ventilatory depressant. Increasing concen- if hyperventilation is instituted prior to onset of desflurane
trations produce a progressive decrease in tidal volume and delivery (Young, 1992).
response to rising arterial CO2 concentrations (Merin, 1993). Sevoflurane is only metabolized to a small amount, approx-
Respiratory rate may increase as tidal volume decreases. CO2 imately 2%. Degradation in the presence of soda lime and
or spirometry should be used to determine the adequacy of baralyme raised concerns relating to potential toxicity of the
ventilation during isoflurane anesthesia. metabolites. Two degradation products have been identified
The high molecular stability of isoflurane results in as CF2 –C(CF3 )–O–CH2 F (an olefin called compound A) and
metabolism of less than 0.2% of the inspired dose. This reduces CH3 –O–CF2 CH(CF3 )–O–CH2 F (compound B). Only com-
the potential for renal and hepatic injury (Fugita et al., 1991). pound A is produced in significant quantities. Baralyme, which
Human exposure to trace amounts of isoflurane is less haz- is composed of more potassium hydroxide than soda lime, pro-
ardous than exposure to MOF, halothane, or sevoflurane (Njoku duces significantly higher concentrations of compound A (Bito
et al., 1997). Low-flow delivery techniques are recommended to and Ikeda, 1994). The greatest concern is associated with low-
reduce environmental pollution and the associated cost of using flow delivery techniques where an increase in contact time and
isoflurane. Calculated volumes for induction chambers (Sec- temperature of the CO2 absorbent results in greater degradation.
tion II.B) and precision vaporizers should be used to minimize Studies have shown that clinically detectable nephrotoxicity or
wastage and increase the control of delivered concentrations. hepatotoxicity does not occur with normal anesthetic delivery
(Bito and Ikeda, 1994; Frink et al., 1994). The author recom-
mends flow rates in excess of 20 ml/kg/min when administering
F. Enflurane
sevoflurane.
Unlike desflurane, sevoflurane can be used with conventional
Enflurane, like isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane, is a
methods of vaporization. The mild odor and rapid onset of
chemical isomer of MOF. Biotransformation of the delivered
sevoflurane are associated with less struggling in some animals
dose is between 2 and 10%. Cardiovascular and respiratory
during mask or chamber inductions. Agent-specific vaporizers
characteristics are similar to those of isoflurane. However,
must be used to deliver sevoflurane because of its unique vapor
unlike other inhalant anesthetics, enflurane was associated
pressure.
with seizure-like muscle contractions at deep surgical anes-
Desflurane, like isoflurane, has a high molecular stabil-
thetic levels and hyperventilation. Enflurane’s effects on the
ity and low toxicity. The low boiling point of desflurane
CNS are similar to those of halothane, and include cere-
requires a special heated vaporizer to control delivered concen-
brovascular vasodilation, increased blood flow, and increased
trations. The high cost of specialized equipment and the limited
intracranial pressure. The availability of isoflurane and sevoflu-
need for faster anesthetic inductions or recoveries in animal
rane resulted in the discontinuation of enflurane in veterinary
research limit the use of desflurane in both animal clinical and
medicine (Steffey, 2001).
research environments (Jones, 1990). Although desflurane may
approach the characteristics of an ideal anesthetic, it still
G. Sevoflurane and Desflurane has undesirable cardiovascular side effects. Better anesthet-
ics will undoubtedly be identified when we understand how
Sevoflurane and desflurane are two additional potent gas anes- inhaled anesthetics work at the molecular level. The develop-
thetics that are available for animal anesthesia. Like isoflurane, ment of anesthetics without unwanted side effects must await
they are derivatives of MOF and share common attributes with identification of those sites.
isoflurane; however, sevoflurane and desflurane are pharma-
cokinetically different from isoflurane, halothane, or MOF,
VI. MEASUREMENT AND QUALIFICATION
because of their lower solubility in blood (Table 3-1). This
OF ANESTHETIC CONCENTRATION
results in very rapid equilibration, enabling precise and rapid
FOR RESEARCH
changes in anesthetic depth (Eger, 1992; Yashuda et al., 1990).
The principal advantage of these two new inhalant anesthetics is
their rapid induction and recovery. The faster equilibration and Measurement of the alveolar anesthetic concentration is
elimination is useful in animal research when rapid full recovery essential when goals of the research project include evaluation
from anesthesia is imperative. In comparison to isoflurane, the of the effects of inhaled anesthetics or when background levels
rapidity of effects will be most noticeable in large-sized animals, of anesthesia must be similar in a number of animals. Various
such as adult swine, cattle, and horses. methods for measuring anesthetic gas concentrations have been
Cardiovascular and respiratory effects are similar to those developed and are available for research. Monitors that measure
of isoflurane (Weiskopf et al., 1989). Increasing anesthetic the concentration of gaseous anesthetics are noninvasive and
depth causes a progressive reduction in blood pressure and tidal cause minimal interference with research procedures. They are
volume (Merin, 1993). Cerebral blood flow can be reduced either incorporated into the anesthetic delivery apparatus or
3. PHARMACOLOGY OF INHALATION ANESTHETICS 93

designed to aspirate a gas sample from the apparatus. In order to than two gases. Examples of these methods include infrared
assess alveolar anesthetic concentrations, the monitor must be spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and gas chromatography.
placed either on the expiratory side of the anesthetic machine Infrared spectroscopy is probably the most widely used tech-
or between the junction of the delivery system and the animal’s nique for measuring volatile anesthetics (Nielsen et al., 1993).
airway. If the animal is intubated, samples are withdrawn from All gases either absorb or emit electromagnetic radiation in
the endotracheal tube connector. the infrared visible or ultraviolet light ranges (Payne, 1971).
Estimations of the depth of anesthesia based on either the Since all polyatomic gases are excited by specific infrared wave-
vaporizer setting or the calculated concentration in an anesthetic lengths, they have characteristic absorption patterns in the range
chamber will result in wide variability among animals. Monitor- of 1–15 μm. (Payne, 1971). The accuracy of infrared analyzers
ing the expired anesthetic concentrations eliminates the problem is affected by the presence of water vapor, presence of other
of estimating the complex dynamic relationship between deliv- gases with absorption spectra which overlap the anesthetic of
ered and alveolar anesthetic concentrations (Morris et al., 1979). interest, and the size of the sample. Interference of exhaled
Additionally, direct measurement of the anesthetic concentra- methane by animals has been shown to affect halothane mea-
tion enables determination of the time point when equilibration surements by infrared analyzers (Jantzen, 1990). Ethyl alcohol
of the animal has occurred with the inspired anesthetic con- in expired air caused an infrared anesthetic analyzer to register
centration. Other procedures used to ensure a stable anesthetic a vapor concentration as though it were measuring halothane
plane, such as initially using high anesthetic concentrations and (Foley et al., 1990). Guyton and Gravenstein (1990) evaluated
flow rates, are simplified by actually measuring the anesthetic the Datex Capnomac PB254B infrared analyzer. Alcohol had a
concentration (Morris et al., 1979). slight but clinically insignificant effect on isoflurane and enflu-
rane, but the effect was greater with halothane. Mixtures of
volatile anesthetics resulted in measurements that were additive
A. Nonspecific Methods of Measurement (Guyton and Gravenstein, 1990).
The peak absorptions of infrared for halothane and methane
Anesthetic gas concentrations have been measured with a are similar and often interfere with each other. Erroneous mea-
variety of techniques that are based on some physical property surements were common when attempting to measure halothane
of the gas whereby the components can be identified and the expired concentrations from large herbivores such as horses,
quantity of each determined. Numerous nonspecific techniques cattle, sheep, and goats. The influence of methane is about seven
have been used including molecular density, thermal conductiv- times less when measuring isoflurane compared to halothane.
ity, refractive index, and alterations in the transmission of sound. Absorption characteristics of anesthetics and the amplification
These techniques require rigid control of the composition of the characteristics of the analyzer are the factors determining inter-
analyzed gases where only two gases can be present. Addition- ference of methane with gas anesthetics (Mortier et al., 1998).
ally nonspecific methods often require larger sample sizes and Effective water traps are essential when working with large
have a longer response time than other methods (Payne, 1971). animals, as the accumulation of water in the analyzer will
The concentration of volatile anesthetic agents can be moni- also interfere with accurate readings of the anesthetic vapors.
tored by a piezoelectric crystal technique. The natural resonance Methane interference with isoflurane measurement at short
frequency of a lipophilic-coated piezoelectric quartz crys- wavelength is significant at low flow rates but independent of
tal changes proportionally with the anesthetic concentration the isoflurane concentration (Dujardin et al., 2005).
(Humphrey et al., 1991; Westenskow and Silva, 1991). Early Gas sample lines for infrared analyzers come in a variety of
piezoelectric analyzers had a relatively slow response times and lengths. Calibration of the analyzer should be done with the
were sensitive to water vapor. Improvements in design have sample line used for the study. Additionally, agent monitors
resulted in a piezoelectric analyzer which compares favorably designed for clinical use may have an accuracy of +/−10%,
with other techniques (Westenskow and Silva, 1991). The piezo- which must be considered for evaluation of study results.
electric crystal has a short 2-minute warm-up time and a rapid Mass spectrometry separates and distributes the actual com-
response time of less than 0.05 seconds. Interferences by other ponents of a mixture (Gillbe et al., 1981). The components
lipophilic gases, water vapor, and N2 O must be considered when and their quantities can then be calculated based on their
using this technique. (Parbrook et al., 1990; Westenskow and mass/charge ratio and the proportions of molecular weight
Silva, 1991). (Jantzen, 1990). The rapid response time (<0.05 seconds)
enables the mass spectrometer to follow changes within the
respiratory cycle. Additionally mass spectrometry can analyze
B. Specific Methods of Measurement very small samples (Larach et al., 1988). Larach et al. (1988)
measured simultaneously CO2 , halothane, and other respiratory
Methods that specifically identify anesthetics are used when gases in rats that were as small as 250 g. Continuous sampling
gas mixtures have varying composition and contain more does not distort end tidal CO2 or arterial oxygen measurements.
94 DAVID B. BRUNSON

These advantages are generally outweighed by the mass spec- Carpenter, R.L., Eger, E.I., Johnson, B.H., Unadkat, J.D., and Sheiner
trometers large size, complexity, and high cost (Parbrook et al., L.B. (1986). The extent of metabolism of inhaled anesthetics in humans.
Anesthesiology 65, 201–205.
1990; Payne, 1971).
Curro, T.G., Brunson, D.B., and Paul-Murphy, J. (1994). Determination of
Gas chromatography is a technique that can be used to the ED50 of isoflurane and evaluation of the isoflurane sparing effect of
measure volatile anesthetics in liquids or gases; it allows iden- butorphanol in cockatoos,Cacatua spp. Vet. Surg. 23, 429–433.
tification and measurement of very low concentrations of gas Deady, J.E., Koblin, D.D., and Eger, E.I. (1980). Anesthetic potencies and the
mixtures. Response time is dependent on the passage of the theories of narcosis. Anesth. Analg. 59, 535.
Dohm, L., and Brunson, D.B. (1993). Effective dose of isoflurane for the desert
sample through a silica gel column and only provides serial
iguana Diposaurus dorsalis and the effect of hypothermia on effective dose.
measurements rather than continuous measurements (Parbrook Vet. Surg. 22, 547.
et al., 1990; Payne, 1971). An additional disadvantage is that Dorsch, J.A., and Dorsch, S.E. (1998). “Understanding Anesthesia Equipment,”
measurements of volatile anesthetics in tissue or fluid require 4th ed., pp 121–182. Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD.
extraction by organic solvents, which is time-consuming and Dujardin, C.L.L., Gootjes, P., and Moens, Y. (2005). Isoflurane measurement
error using short wavelength infrared techniques in horses: Influence of
costly. Janicki et al. (1990) describe an alternate method for
fresh gas flow and pre-anesthetic food deprivation. Vet. Anesth. Analg. 32,
analyzing fluid samples by using a high-performance liquid 101–106.
chromatographic (HPLC) method. Eger, E.I. (1964). Respiratory and circulatory factors in uptake and distribution
of volatile anaesthetic agents. Br. J. Anaesth. 36, 155–171.
Eger, E.I. (1974). MAC. U. “Anesthetic Uptake and Action” (E.I. Eger, ed.),
pp 1–25, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, MD.
Eger, E.I. (1985). “Isoflurane (Forane), A Compendium and Reference,”
VII. SUMMARY pp 1–160. Anaquest, Inc., Madison, WI.
Eger, E.I. (1992). Desflurane animal and human pharmacology: aspects of
kinetics, safety, and MAC. Anesth. Analg. 75, 53–59.
In summary, each inhalant anesthetic discussed in this chapter Foley, M.A., Wood, P.R., Peel, G.M., and Lawler, P.G. (1990). The effect of
has been used successfully for animal anesthesia. The deter- exhaled alcohol on the performance of the datex capnomac. Anaesthesia 45,
232–234.
mining factors for selection of an appropriate gas anesthetic for
Franks, N.P., and Lieb, W.R. (1991). Stereospecific effects of inhalational
laboratory animals must include the primary reason for anes- general anesthetic optical isomers on nerve ion channels. Science 254,
thesia, the physiological effects under study, and the availability 427–430.
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isoflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane can result in rapid deep Brown, B.R., Jr. (1994). Sevoflurane degradation product concentrations
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anesthesia. In the research environment, isoflurane and sevoflu-
Fugita, Y., Kimura, K., Hamada, H., and Takaori, M. (1991). Comparative
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with adequate training of individuals delivering the anesthetic artery ligation in the beagle. Anesthesiology 75, 313–318.
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Thompson, T.L., Fehenfeld, F.C., Schiff, H.I., Crutzen, P.J., Isaksen, I.S.A., Analg. 75, S32–S37.
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 Chapter 4

Pharmacology of Analgesics
James E. Heavner and Dale M. Cooper

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
II. Analgesic-Antipyretic and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
B. Salicylates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
C. Pycazolon Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
D. p-Aminophenol Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
E. Acetic Acid Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
F. Fenamates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
G. Propionic Acid Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
H. Oxicams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
I. Nicotinic Acid Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
J. Alkanones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
K. Selective COX-2 Inhibitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
L. Dual Inhibitors of COX and LOX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
III. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
B. Morphine and Related Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
C. Meperidine and Congeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
D. Methadone and Congeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
E. Synthetic Opioid Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
F. Opioids with Mixed Actions: Agonist–Antagonists and Partial Agonists 114
G. Opioid Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
IV. α2 -Adrenergic Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
A. Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
B. α2 -Adrenergic Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
V. NMDA-Receptor Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
A. History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
B. Mechanism of Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
C. Preparation and Routes of Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
VI. Analgesic Adjuvants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
VII. Future Prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

97
98 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

I. INTRODUCTION they obviously are used in pain management, especially in the

perioperative period. Nor will the use of corticosteroids be dis-
cussed, but it is acknowledged that epidural steroid injection in
Pain has been defined by the International Association for
humans to treat low back pain, with or without radiculopathy,
the Study of Pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional
is a common practice. Analgesic adjuvants will be mentioned
experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage
here, though briefly.
or described in terms of such damage. It is always subjective”
The chapter cites a significant amount of data regarding the
(Merskey and Bogduk, 1994).
pharmacology of analgesics in humans because this informa-
A variety of terms are used to describe certain characteristics
tion is well documented and readily available. Likewise, it
of pain, e.g., acute pain, persistent pain, chronic pain, neuro-
emphasizes data from well-studied drugs that represent partic-
pathic pain, nociceptive pain, inflammatory pain, visceral pain,
ular pharmacologically distinct drug classes. The data provide a
and somatic pain. These groupings support the concept that dif-
solid base for illustrating important pharmacological properties
ferent anatomical and neurobiological substrates for pain exist.
that must be considered when selecting and using analgesics
The concept provides a foundation for targeted pain therapy
in laboratory animals. The amount of scientifically valid data
(Woolf et al., 1998) and explains why the effectiveness of anal-
regarding the use of analgesics in laboratory animals is increas-
gesics varies depending upon the characteristics of pain. For
ing, which has facilitated the presentation of similarities or
example, analgesic drugs effective against nociceptive pain may
differences with the class-representative drugs. The pharma-
have limited effectiveness against neuropathic pain.
codynamic effects of analgesics vary between animals and
Pain is a well-recognized stressor in animals. Maladaptive
humans, and among animal species and even strains, but the
behavior is one sign of distress and, sometimes, the only one
greatest differences are in pharmacokinetic factors. The pro-
(Quimby, 1991). As shown in Figure 4-1, a relationship exists
cesses of absorption, biotransformation, and elimination vary
among pain, fear, anxiety, and sleep, the awareness for which is
remarkably. Detailed information about species-specific fea-
important to the understanding of why some approaches to pain
tures of analgesics is discussed elsewhere in this volume in
treatment are used. Pharmacological approaches to managing
chapters describing the clinical use of analgesics in different
pain (preventing or stopping) may include the administration
species.
of analgesics and drugs to treat the consequences of pain
The term “potency” is used to compare analgesics in this
(e.g., anxiolytics). This chapter deals with five groups of drugs
chapter and throughout the literature to convey two different
used in pain management: (1) analgesic–antipyretic and anti-
meanings. One is the relative doses of analgesics required to
inflammatory drugs, (2) opioids, (3) α2 -adrenergic agonists,
achieve a pain reduction goal (e.g., to achieve equal anal-
(4) NMDA-receptor antagonists, and (5) analgesic adjuvants.
gesia with meperidine and morphine, a meperidine dose 10
General and local anesthetics will not be discussed here, but
times the morphine dose may be required). The other meaning
implies a “ceiling” effect; i.e., no matter how large the dose of
buprenorphine, analgesia cannot be achieved equal to the anal-
gesia achieved with morphine, or that less potent analgesics
Fear
are effective only against mild-to-moderate pain. Obviously,
helplessness
knowing that 10 times as much of one drug is required to
reach the same analgesic endpoint achieved with another is
important when determining the doses to be given. On the
other hand, information about the ceiling effect is important
when considering which analgesic to use for a specific analgesic
Pain endpoint.
An important factor to consider when evaluating efficacy
is the analgesiometric method used. Analgesiometric assays
involve applying a putatively painful stimulus (e.g., heat, cold,
Sleep pressure, irritating chemical, incision, and organ distension),
Anxiety inflammation, or nerve damage and measuring a response (e.g.,
deprivation
escape behavior, neurochemical response). A variation on clas-
sic analgesiometry is to perform a potentially painful procedure
on an animal and measure behavioral or physiological changes,
such as motor activity, food and water consumption, licking,
Fig. 4-1 The pain cycle. In humans, a sense of helplessness and fear add
rearing, change in body weight, heart rate, or blood pressure.
to the total suffering of the patient and exacerbate the pain, as does anxiety
and sleep loss. It is reasonable to assume that the same thing happens in ani- In order to attribute these changes to pain, it is necessary to use
mals. Therefore, drugs that aid sleep, reduce anxiety, and produce a sense of appropriate positive and negative controls, as anesthesia and
well-being play a role in pain management. certain analgesics in the absence of a painful stimulus can also
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 99

cause some of these changes (Cooper et al., 2005; Liles and II. ANALGESIC–ANTIPYRETIC AND
Flecknell, 1992). Depending on the stimulus that is applied and ANTI-INFLAMMATORY DRUGS
the response being measured, the same drug at the same dose can
provide different potency results. For example, opioid agonists
A. Overview
tend to demonstrate higher potency than do nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in assays that measure acute,
Drugs in this group are the most commonly used analgesics
deep, or visceral pain (e.g., heat stimulus and tail or foot with-
in humans; their advantages include high oral bioavailability,
drawal). However, in an assay that creates inflammation (e.g.,
long duration of effect, lack of sedation, and minimal potential
carageenan injection into a footpad prior to application of heat),
for abuse and development of tolerance.
because of their mechanism of action, NSAID potency is sub-
These drugs are generally grouped according to their chem-
stantially improved. When evaluating the behavioral changes
ical structures, e.g., p-aminophenol derivatives, oxicam, sal-
following a surgery, opioids may have effects on activity, reac-
icylates, fenamates, propionic acids, pycazolon, acetic acids,
tivity, and feeding behavior that complicate the interpretation
and nicotinic acid derivatives. More recently, another group-
of the data.
ing or subgrouping of these drugs is based on COX enzyme
One concern with administering analgesics to laboratory ani-
inhibitory activity. They share the ability to inhibit the COX
mals is what influence an analgesic will have on experimental
enzyme. Various forms of the COX enzymes exist (e.g., COX-
outcomes. On the one hand, responses may be influenced by the
1 and COX-2), and NSAIDs of clinical interest are classified
intended pharmacological action (analgesia) of the drug. On the
as nonselective inhibitors of COX-1 and COX-2 or selective
other hand, responses may be modified because of side effects,
inhibitors of COX-2 (Table 4-1). One example of a dual COX
e.g., reduced renal blood flow caused by analgesic-antipyretic
and lipoxygenase (LOX) inhibitor is also discussed. Analgesic-
and anti-inflammatory drugs. Predominant side effects of anal-
antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs are, for the most part,
gesics will be mentioned, but a comprehensive discussion of
human drugs, but have become increasingly important in the
these effects is beyond the scope of this chapter.
clinical practice of laboratory animal medicine.
Much of the information presented in the chapter on anal-
The details regarding the safety and efficacy of analgesic–
gesics in the first edition of this book appears in this chapter,
antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs in laboratory animals,
although significant new information has been added. Undoubt-
from a clinical perspective, are becoming increasingly avail-
edly, the biggest advance has been in the understanding of the
able. The drugs must certainly have been investigated in
effects of analgesic-antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs on
animals as part of the process to obtain approval to mar-
the enzyme cyclooxgenase (COX) and the biological conse-
ket them for human use, but the conditions of these studies
quences, and the appearance of COX-2-selective drugs on the
are different from those encountered in the clinical practice
market.
of laboratory animal medicine. In addition, this information

TABLE 4-1
Classes of Analgesic–Antipyretic and Anti-inflammatory Drugs

Class Generic names

Non-selective COX inhibitors

Salicylic acid derivatives Aspirin, diflunisal, choline magnesium, trisalicylate, sodium salicylate,
salsalate, sulfasalazine, olsalazine
Pycazolon Phenylbutazone
p-Aminophenol derivatives Acetaminophen
Acetic acids Indomethacin, tolmetin, sulindac, suprofen, diclofenac, ketorolac
Fenamates Mefenamic acid, meclofenamic acid
Aryl propionic acids Ibuprofen, naproxen, naproxen sodium, fenoprofen, ketoprofen,
flurbiprofen, carprofen
Enolic acids Oxicam, piroxicam, meloxicam
Nicotinic acid derivatives Flunixin
Alkanones Nabumetone
Selective COX-2 inhibitors
Diaryl-substituted furanones Rofecoxib
Deracoxib
Firocoxib
Diaryl-substituted pyrazoles Celecoxib
Indole acetic acids Etodolac
Sulfonanilides Nimesulide
100 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

is not readily available in texts or the peer-reviewed litera- and COX-2 are constitutively expressed in some tissues, e.g.,
ture. Some analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs dorsal root ganglion, spinal dorsal and ventral gray matter.
have been used in veterinary medicine for many years (e.g., Products of COX-1 regulate rapid physiological responses such
phenylbutazone, flunixin, aspirin). as vascular hemostasis, gastric function, platelet activity, and
renal function (Power, 2005). In general, the analgesic action
of analgesic-antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs is due to
1. History
COX-2 inhibition, and the side effects are due to COX-1 inhi-
Recognition of the antipyretic effects of willow bark led to bition. This prompted the search for COX-2-selective drugs.
the search for the active component. Leroux isolated salicin, A slightly larger active site in the COX-2 enzyme than in the
which was found to be antipyretic, from willow bark in 1829. COX-1 enzyme allows the development of COX-2-selective
Hydrolysis of salicin yields glucose and salic alcohol. The lat- drugs that fit into the larger site (Power, 2005). The relative
ter can be converted to salic acid. In 1875, sodium salicylate selectivity of drugs as inhibitors of COX-1 and COX-2 ranges
was first used for the treatment of rheumatic fever and as an from predominately selective for COX-1 (ketorolac) to purely
antipyretic. Acetylsalicylic acid was synthesized by Hoffman selective for COX-2 (lumiracoxib) (Warner and Mitchell, 2004;
and introduced into medicine in 1899 under the name aspirin, Fig. 4-3). The relative roles of COX-1 and COX-2 are still debat-
after the demonstration of its anti-inflammatory effects. able and not completely understood. Some researchers feel that
The development of newer aspirin-type drugs began nearly the effects of COX-1 on analgesia are as important as those
60 years later and included drugs such as phenylbutazone, of COX-2, and selective COX-2 inhibitors can cause some side
indomethacin, ibuprofen, tolectin, naproxen, fenoprofen, and effects similar to those of COX-1 inhibitors (Clark, 2006; Shan-
sulindac. non, 2007). There is also variability in the relative degree of
COX selectivity among species, which may be due to the differ-
ences in methodology used to measure COX selectivity (Streppa
2. Mechanism of Action
et al., 2002).
Aspirin is the prototype drug for this group. It has analgesic, COX-3 has been described, but its importance and status rel-
antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory activities. The precise mech- ative to COX-1 and COX-2 are yet to be determined. COX-3
anism of action of drugs in this class is unknown, but inhibition was first identified in canine cortical tissue as a splice variant
of the COX enzyme is thought to be important for the intended of COX-1, which was selectively inhibited by acetaminophen,
pharmacologic effect. phenacetin, antipyrine, and dipyrone (Chandrasekharan et al.,
In 1971, Vane and associates and Smith and Willis demon- 2002). It has also been identified in the brain of patients suf-
strated (Insel, 1990) that low concentrations of aspirin fering from Alzheimers disease, as well as in mice and rats
and indomethacin inhibit the enzymatic production of (Ayoub et al., 2004; Cui et al., 2004; Snipes et al., 2005). How-
prostaglandins (PG). PG are among a number of chemicals that ever, its role in clinical mediation of pain and fever is debated
are released following tissue damage, and affect nociceptors. based on dissimilarities in gene homology with COX-1 and
PG increase the sensitivity of nociceptors to other chemicals, COX-2 enzymes, low expression level, and kinetic data (Kis
and mechanical or thermal stimuli. et al., 2005).
Inhibition of the conversion of arachidonic acid to the unsta- PGE2 , a product of COX-2 enzymatic action, plays a role
ble endoperoxide intermediate, prostaglandin G (PGG2 ), a in the perception of pain in the periphery and within the cen-
reaction that is catalyzed by COX, is thought to be the pri- tral nervous system (CNS) (Fig. 4-4). Thus, the effectiveness of
mary mechanism of action of analgesic–antipyretic and anti- analgesic-antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs in acute pain
inflammatory drugs. Two forms of COX, i.e., COX-1 and conditions may be explained by their effects either at central sites
COX-2, catalyze the transformation of arachidonic acid to or at peripheral sites (Warner and Mitchell, 2004). It is now
PGG2 . Arachidonic acid is liberated from membrane-bound understood that analgesic-antipyretic and anti-inflammatory
phospholipids, usually by the action of phospholipase enzymes drug effects such as analgesia and fluid retention are largely
(Warner and Mitchell, 2004). Both COX-1 and COX-2 form explained by the inhibition of both constitutively expressed and
PGG2 via identical enzymatic processes. PGG2 is converted inducible COX-2, while the role of COX-1 on these still remains
to prostaglandin H2 (PGH2 ), which can be biotransformed debatable (Clark, 2006; Shannon, 2007).
by different enzymatic pathways to a range of products with Rofecoxib and celecoxib were the first two COX-2-selective
potential biological effects (Fig. 4-2). Some of the products drugs developed and marketed specifically for this action. Rofe-
participate in the inflammatory process [e.g., prostaglandin coxib has been removed from the market because of unwanted
E2 (PGE2 )] and others participate in physiological processes cardiovascular side effects. Drugs already available that exhibit
such as the maintenance of the integrity of the gastrointestinal some COX-2 selectivity include etodolac, meloxicam, carpro-
(GI) mucosa. COX-1 generally resides in tissues (constitutive), fen, and nimesulide. Other COX-2-selective inhibitors avail-
whereas COX-2 production is induced by stimuli (inducible) able or under development include valdecoxib, etoricoxib,
that initiate the inflammatory response. However, both COX-1 lumiracoxib, deracoxib, and firocoxib. Noteworthy is that, as
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 101

membrane
phospholipids

phospholipase
A2

arachidonic
acid

COX-3
COX-1 COX-2

PGG2

PGH2

PGD PGF PGE PGI Tx

synthase synthase synthase synthase synthase

PGD2 PGF2␣ PGE2 PGI2 TxA2

DP FP EP1-4 IP TP

Fig. 4-2 Schematic pathway of prostanoid formation and actions. [From Warner and Mitchell (2004 Fig. 1, p. 791).]

with nonselective COX inhibitors, there are a number of chem- acetylates a serine residue at or near the active site of COX (Roth
ically different structural classes of COX-2-selective inhibitors and Siok, 1978). The effect of aspirin on platelet function lasts
(Table 4-1). throughout the lifetime of platelets (8–11 days).
Some agents are competitive inhibitors of COX, whereas oth- Some analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs also
ers permanently modify the enzyme. Aspirin, e.g., irreversibly reversibly regulate neutrophil phagocytosis and secretion of
102 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

2 Increasing
COX-1
selectivity

log (IC80 ratio, COX-2/1)

1

niflumic
zomepirac
fenoprofen
ampryrone
ibuprofen
tolmetin
naproxen
aspirin
indomethacin
ketoprofen
suprofen
flurbiprofen
ketorolac
sodium salicylate
diflunisal
piroxicam
tomoxiprol
meclofenamate
sulindac
⫺1

diclofenac
celecoxib
nimesulide
Increasing

meloxicam
COX-2

etodolac
⫺2 selectivity
valdecoxib
⫺3
etoricoxib
rofecoxib

⫺4
lumiracoxib

⫺5

Fig. 4-3 Relative selectivity of agents as inhibitors of human COX-1 and COX-2 displayed as the ratio of IC80 concentrations. Inhibitor curves for compounds
against COX-1 and COX-2 were constructed in a human-modified whole blood assay and used to calculate IC80 concentration. The IC80 ratios are expressed
logarithmically so that 0 represents the line of unity, i.e., compounds on this line are equiactive against COX-1 and COX-2. Compounds appearing above the line
are COX-1 selective; those below the line COX-2 selective. [From Warner and Mitchell (2004 Fig. 2, p. 193).]

lysosomal enzymes (beta glucuronidase and acid protease), celecoxib, rofecoxib) (Brune and Zeilhofer, 1999). The
which could also contribute to their anti-inflammatory prop- nonacidic drugs lack anti-inflammatory activity, and the anti-
erties and particular benefits in the treatment of osteoarthritis inflammatory activity of the acidic drugs has been attributed
(Smith, 1978). This may be a COX-mediated effect through to their concentration in inflamed, acidic tissue (Graf et al.,
stabilization of lysosomal membranes. Certain agents have 1975). This demonstrates that pharmacokinetic as well as
also been shown to inhibit activation of nuclear factor kappa pharmacodynamic factors determine the clinical response to
B, a proinflammatory transcription factor, through the nitric analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs.
oxide pathway, suggesting an additional mechanism for NASID All analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs are
anti-inflammatory activity (Bryant et al., 2003). antipyretic, presumably via preventing PGE2 production in the
hypothalamus, which regulates the set point at which the body
temperature is maintained (Saper and Breder, 1994). Inhibition
3. Therapeutic Activities and Side Effects of
of PGE2 production returns the set point to normal (Dascombe,
Analgesic-Antipyretic and Anti-Inflammatory Drugs
1985).
Analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs have var- Common side effects of analgesic–antipyretic and anti-
ied effects on pain, body temperature, and inflammation. For inflammatory drugs are shown in Table 4-2. All these effects
instance, acetaminophen is antipyretic and analgesic but is only are generally thought to be mediated via the inhibition of COX.
weakly anti-inflammatory (Capetola et al., 1983). Although gastric ulceration may be caused by the local irritant
As a class, these drugs are considered to be effective against effect of an orally administered drug, parenteral administration
pain of low-to-moderate intensity. However, it is important to of analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory substances can
consider the type and intensity of pain in assessing analgesic also cause gastric and intestinal ulceration. PG inhibit acid
efficacy. These drugs are particularly effective in controlling the secretion by the stomach and promote the secretion of cyto-
pain related to nociceptors that have been sensitized to normally protective mucus in the intestine. This protective function
painless mechanical, thermal, or chemical stimuli. According to is blocked if PG synthesis is inhibited (Roberts and Mor-
Insel (1990), analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs row, 2001). Certain analgesic-antipyretic and anti-inflammatory
can be superior to the opioid analgesics in some forms of post- drugs have also been shown to cause neutrophil adhesion in
operative pain. Although it is generally believed that the pain mesenteric blood vessels (Kirchner et al., 1997). It is possible
arising from the hollow viscera is usually not relieved by aspirin- that there is diapedesis of these cells into the tissues, resulting
like drugs, future studies in this exceptionally active and intense in inflammation and hence ulceration.
area of investigation may modify this belief (Strigo et al., 2005). Synthesis in platelets of thromboxane A2 (TxA2 ), a platelet-
Pharmacokinetic parameters of analgesic–antipyretic and aggregating agent, is inhibited by analgesic–antipyretic and
anti-inflammatory drugs are influenced by whether they are anti-inflammatory drugs, resulting in increased bleeding times.
acidic (most NSAIDs) or nonacidic (phenazone, acetaminophen, Skin phototoxicity is a described family effect, but appears to
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 103

Periphery CNS TABLE 4-2

Side Effects of Analgesic-Antipyretic and Anti-inflammatory Drugs

COX-2 COX-2 Gastric or intestinal ulceration

Disturbance of platelet function
Prolongation of gestation or spontaneous labor
Changes in renal function
Decrease renal blood flow and glomerular filtration
PGG2 PGG2 Promote action of antidiuretic hormone
Increase absorption of chloride
Enhance K+ reabsorption
Suppress renin secretion

PGH2 PGH2

effects may occur in patients with congestive heart failure, hep-

atic cirrhosis with ascites, and chronic renal disease, or in those
who are hypovolemic for any reason. In these conditions, renal
PGE PGE perfusion is dependent on PG-induced vasodilation that opposes
synthase synthase
the norepinephrine- and angiotensin-II-mediated vasoconstric-
tion resulting from the activation of pressor reflexes. Chronic
abuse of any analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drug
or analgesic mixture may cause renal injury in susceptible indi-
PGE2 PGE2 viduals, although nephropathy is not commonly associated with
the use of these drugs.

B. Salicylates
EP EP
Despite the introduction of many new drugs, aspirin is still
being widely used in humans for its antipyretic, analgesic, and
anti-inflammatory action. Salicylates are derivatives of salic
acid that are either esters of salicyclic acid obtained by sub-
nerve ending pathway stitution in the carboxyl group or salicylate esters of organic
sensitization reinforcement
acids in which the carboxyl group of salic acid is retained and
substitution is made in the OH group. Aspirin is an ester of
acetic acid.
In high doses, salicylates stimulate the CNS (including the
production of seizures) followed by depression. Confusion,
increased pain dizziness, tinnitus, high-tone deafness, delirium, psychosis,
perception stupor, and coma may also occur (Roberts and Morrow, 2001).
Salicylates stimulate respiration both directly and indirectly.
Therapeutic doses increase CO2 production and O2 consump-
Fig. 4-4 Schematic pathway of roles of COX-2 in pain perception in the tion by uncoupling oxidative phosphorylation. The increased
periphery and within the CNS. [From Warner and Mitchell (2004 Fig. 3, p. 194).] CO2 production stimulates respiration. Salicylates also directly
stimulate the respiratory center in the medulla. Both rate and
depth of respiration increase, producing marked hyperventila-
be seen only at high doses and does not occur with all classes of tion. In human adults, salicylates produce a respiratory alkalosis
analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs. A beneficial with resultant renal compensation. This includes increased renal
side effect of PG synthesis inhibition, demonstrated experi- excretion of bicarbonate, accompanied by Na+ and K+ , which
mentally for some of these drugs, is the prevention of colon restores blood pH via lowered plasma bicarbonate. After high
carcinogenesis (Ota et al., 2002). doses of salicylates or after prolonged exposure, medullary
Caution should be exercised in giving analgesic–antipyretic depression occurs, producing circulatory collapse secondary
and anti-inflammatory drugs to debilitated animals as these to vasomotor depression and respiratory depression. Respi-
drugs may affect their renal function. In normal human subjects, ratory acidosis results not only from the respiratory depres-
these drugs have little effect on renal function. However, renal sion, but also from enhanced CO2 production. No important
104 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

cardiovascular changes are seen following ordinary therapeutic ingested drug may be eliminated as free salicylate in alkaline
doses (Roberts and Morrow, 2001). urine, but as low as only 2% may be excreted in acidic urine.
Salicylates may also induce nausea and vomiting, proba- In humans, salicylate elimination is dose dependent because
bly via an effect on the medullary chemoreceptor trigger zone. of the limited ability of the liver to form salicyluric acid and
Epigastric distress, nausea, and vomiting may be produced by the phenolic glucuronide. The plasma half-life for salicylate is
ingestion of salicylates. High-dose therapy may cause gastric 2–3 hours at low dose and about 12 hours in higher doses; the
ulceration, GI hemorrhage, and erosive gastritis (Roberts and half-life for aspirin is about 2–3 hours. The rates of elimina-
Morrow, 2001). tion of sodium salicylate following IV injection of 44 mg/kg to
Salicylates may produce a dose-dependent hepatotoxicity, goats, ponies, swine, dogs, and cats were measured by Davis
most commonly in humans with connective tissue disorders. and Westfall (1972). Clearance was fastest in ponies and goats
There are usually no symptoms, and elevated serum transam- and slowest in cats (∼30 times slower). The clearance rate in
inases are the principal laboratory findings. Hepatomegaly, dogs and pigs was about midway between cats and ponies and
anorexia, and nausea may be present in about 5% of humans goats. Differences in rates of biotransformation The given text
with salicylate-induced hepatotoxicity (Roberts and Morrow, has been rephrased for clarity of thought. Please check whether
2001). the intended meaning is retained: ‘Although . . . was urine pH.’,
The renal effects of salicylates were discussed earlier. Low as well as urine pH, were important. The high clearance rate in
doses of salicylates may decrease urate excretion and increase ponies was due to rapid excretion in the alkaline urine of the
plasma urate concentrations. Moderate doses usually do not species. The higher clearance rate in goats was associated with
affect urate excretion, but higher doses may induce uricosuria. rapid biotransformation plus rapid clearance in alkaline urine.
As discussed earlier, aspirin interferes with platelet aggrega- According to Davis (1983), the half-life of IV sodium sali-
tion, thereby prolonging the bleeding time. Hyperglycemia, cylate (44 mg/kg) is 37.6 hours in cats, 8.6 hours in dogs, 5.9
glycosuria, and depletion of muscle and liver glycogen may hours in swine, 1.03 hours in ponies, and 0.78 hours in goats. If
be produced by large doses of salicylates. Toxic doses cause a the dosing interval is too short relative to the half-life of aspirin,
significant negative nitrogen balance. Salicylates reduce lipoge- toxicity will result. Dogs may be given aspirin twice daily, and
nesis, inhibit epinephrine-stimulated lipolysis in fat cells, and cats twice weekly. However, it may take 2 weeks to obtain effec-
displace long-chain fatty acids from binding sites on human tive blood levels in the cat (Baggot, 1992; Hughes and Lang,
plasma protein (Roberts and Morrow, 2001). 1983).

2. Preparations and Routes of Administration

1. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism
Aspirin and sodium salicylate are the two most commonly
a. Absorption used preparations of salicylate for systemic effects. They are
When administered orally to humans, salicylates are absorbed usually administered orally. Sodium salicylate is available for
rapidly, partly by the stomach but mainly by the upper small parenteral use. Because aspirin is poorly soluble and has many
intestine. Absorption varies among animal species. Davis and chemical incompatibilities, it should only be administered in
Westfall (1972) demonstrated that orally administered sodium dry form.
salicylate is rapidly absorbed in dogs and swine, less so in Diflunisal appears to be a competitive inhibitor of COX, and
ponies, and slowly absorbed in goats. is more potent than aspirin in anti-inflammatory tests in animals
(Insel, 1990). It is primarily used as an analgesic in the treatment
of osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal strains or sprains. The drug
b. Distribution and Fate does not produce auditory side effects and has limited, if any,
Salicylates are distributed throughout the body, primarily by antipyretic activity. It is available as an oral preparation.
pH-dependent passive processes. They readily cross the pla-
centa and are actively transported into the cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) across the choroid plexus by a low-capacity process. Up C. Pycazolon Derivatives
to 80–90% of salicylate is bound to plasma proteins, especially
albumin. A number of drugs in this group have analgesic activity
Salicylate is biotransformed in many tissues, but especially (e.g., antipyrine, oxyphenylbutazone, aminopyrine, dipyrone,
in the hepatic endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria. In apazone), but phenylbutazone is the most important from a
humans, there are three primary metabolic products: salicyluric therapeutic point of view.
acid (the glycine conjugate), the ether or phenolic glucuronide, Phenylbutazone has anti-inflammatory effects similar to
and the ester or acyl glucuronide. Salicylates are excreted in the those of salicylates. Its analgesic activity for pain of nonrheuma-
urine as free salicylic acid, salicyluric acid, salicylic phenolic, toid origin is inferior to that of salicylates. Phenylbutazone
acyl glucuronides, and gentisic acid. More than 30% of the causes agranulocytosis, has a mild uricosuric effect, and causes
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 105

significant retention of Na+ and Cl− accompanied by a reduc- have no effect on the cardiovascular and respiratory system and
tion in urine volume. It displaces other drugs bound to plasma produce no acid–base changes. Acetaminophen has no effects
protein. on platelets, bleeding time, or excretion of uric acid, and does
not produce gastric irritation, erosion, or bleeding.
The fact that acetaminophen has analgesic and antipyretic
1. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism
activity, but only weak anti-inflammatory action, indicates that
Phenylbutazone is rapidly and completely absorbed from the anti-inflammatory activity is not essential for the analgesic
GI tract or the rectum. More than 98% of the drug is bound to action of aspirin-like drugs. The inflammatory process involves
plasma proteins. In humans, phenylbutazone undergoes exten- a series of events that can be elicited by numerous stimuli, and
sive biotransformation. Hydroxylation of the phenyl rings or many mediators of the inflammatory process have been iden-
the butyl side chain and glucuronidation are the most signif- tified. A central as well as peripheral mechanism for analgesic
icant primary reactions. Active metabolites with long plasma activity has been recognized. Malmberg and Yaksh (1993) have
half-lives are formed. Half-lives of phenylbutazone in several demonstrated that analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory
species are shown in Table 4-3. This drug, unlike salicylate, drugs modulate neuropathic pain at the spinal cord level.
is slowly eliminated from ruminants. The reason for this is
not known (Davis, 1983). As previously mentioned, dosing 1. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism
intervals must be adjusted relative to the half-life of the drug:
the longer the half-life, the greater the dosing interval. In Acetaminophen is rapidly and almost completely absorbed
turn, the time taken to reach therapeutic blood concentration is from the GI tract. Binding of the drug to plasma protein is vari-
lengthened. able. It is excreted in the urine as a conjugate of glucuronic acid
or cysteine; small amounts of hydroxylated and deacetylated
metabolites have also been detected. Up to 80–90% of the ther-
2. Preparations and Route of Administration apeutic dose may be recovered in the urine within 24 hours of
Phenylbutazone is available as tablets, capsules, paste, gel, administration.
or a powder for oral administration, and as a parenteral product
for injection. 2. Toxic Effects
Therapeutic doses of acetaminophen are usually well toler-
D. p-Aminophenol Derivatives ated. Skin rash and other allergic reactions occur occasionally.
A dose-dependent potentially fatal hepatic necrosis is the most
Acetaminophen is a drug in this class that is of therapeutic serious adverse effect of acetaminophen overdose. Acute hypo-
interest. Its analgesic and antipyretic effects do not differ signif- glycemia and renal tubular necrosis may also occur. The use
icantly from those of aspirin. Its weak anti-inflammatory effect of acetaminophen in cats is contraindicated. Cats lack the abil-
has been noted earlier in this chapter. Acetaminophen is an active ity to metabolize acetaminophen through glucuronidation, and
metabolite of phenacetin. Therapeutic doses of acetaminophen methemoglobinemia will occur at dosages safe in other species.

TABLE 4-3 3. Preparations and Routes of Administration

Half-Lives of Phenylbutazone in Several Acetaminophen is available commercially in the form of
Species
tablets, capsules, suppositories, chewable tablets, wafers,
Species t1/2 (hour) elixirs, and solutions, in combination with other drugs (e.g.,
opioids). Children’s elixirs and suspensions have been used
Human 72
clinically in nonhuman primates, added to the drinking water of
Ox 55
42 rodents with variable efficacy (Bauer et al., 2003; Cooper et al.,
Goat 1997; Mickley et al., 2006; Speth et al., 2001).
Female 19
Male 14.5
Cat 18 E. Acetic Acid Derivatives
Rat 6
Dog 6 Indomethacin and sulindac are representative drugs of this
Swine 4 class. Indomethacin is widely used and is effective, but tox-
Baboon 5
Horse 3.5
icity often limits its use. Its antipyretic, analgesic, and anti-
Rabbit 3 inflammatory activities are similar to those of salicylates. This
is also true for sulindac, which is less than half as potent as
Source: From Davis (1983 Table 2, p. 172). indomethacin.
106 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

Diclofenac is another drug in this family and has a phar- for inducing closure of patent ductus arteriosus). Sulindac is
macologic profile similar to that of others. It is available in available in tablet form. Tolmetin is supplied in the form of oral
enteric-coated tablet form for oral administration. A topical tablets and is approved in the United States for the treatment of
cream is marketed for use in horses. Tolmetin is a similar drug osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and the juvenile form of the
that appears to be approximately equal in efficacy to aspirin, but disease in humans. Ketorolac tromethamine is available in the
usually better tolerated. It causes gastric erosion and prolongs form of solution for parenteral injection and as tablets for oral
bleeding time. In humans, it is rapidly absorbed following oral administration. Etodolac is available in tablet form for oral use
administration and is highly protein bound (99%) in plasma. in dogs.
Ketorolac is pharmacologically similar to aspirin except that
it does not irreversibly interfere with the platelet function. In
patients suffering from chronic pain, the incidence of adverse F. Fenamates
GI side effects is slightly higher with ketorolac than with aspirin.
Ketorolac is readily absorbed following oral or intramuscu- The only drugs in this family available in the United States are
lar (IM) administration and is highly bound to plasma protein mefenamic acid and meclofenamate. Meclofenamate is used in
(99%). In humans, the majority of ketorolac is excreted in the the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis, but is
urine and may be accompanied by renal toxicity with repeated not recommended as initial therapy. Meclofenamate has a higher
doses. Ketorolac has been shown to reduce prostaglandin E2 degree of COX-2 selectivity in dogs than many other NSAIDs,
and provide postoperative pain relief for at least 6 hours in rats but is still less COX-2 selective than carprofen (Streppa et al.,
(Kroin et al., 2006). 2002). Mefenamic acid is used for relief from symptoms of
Etodolac is similar to ketorolac. It is approved for use in primary dysmenorrhea and for analgesia. The fenamates fre-
dogs and is available in tablets. Etodolac is thought to be a dual quently cause side effects, especially diarrhea. They have no
COX inhibitor with selectivity for COX-2. However, the data clear advantage over other aspirin-like drugs.
are inconsistent among studies (Clark, 2006). It may have more
COX-2 selectivity in humans, but in dogs it appears to be slightly
selective for COX-1 (Streppa et al., 2002). Because of this, G. Propionic Acid Derivatives
etodolac may have a narrower safety margin than other NSAIDs
labeled for use in dogs, such as carprofen and meloxicam (Clark, Drugs in this family include ibuprofen, fenoprofen, flur-
2006). The manufacturer’s information indicates that etodolac biprofen, flunoxaprofen, ketoprofen, naproxen, and carprofen.
also inhibits macrophage chemotaxis. Carprofen and ketoprofen are important drugs in clinical labo-
ratory animal medicine, because they are available as veterinary
pharmaceuticals with labeling for companion and agricultural
1. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism species that may be used in research, and because there are data
Indomethacin, sulindac, and etodolac are rapidly and almost available on laboratory rodents. Carprofen and ketoprofen have
completely absorbed from the GI tract after oral administration. also been studied in birds. Ibuprofen and ketoprofen are impor-
Indomethacin is 90% bound to plasma proteins. It is converted to tant drugs in human medicine and therefore have a large body
inactive metabolites; 10–20% of the drug is excreted unchanged of literature relating to them. Most of these drugs are available
in the urine. Free and conjugated metabolites are eliminated in in tablet form for oral administration, and also as parenteral
urine, bile, and feces. The metabolism and pharmacokinetics of formulations. Rectal administration of carprofen and ketopro-
sulindac are complex and vary enormously among species. It fen has been investigated in dogs and horses, and may be viable
is a prodrug that must be metabolically changed to the active when oral administration is not possible (Corveleyn et al., 1996;
form (sulfide). About 90% of sulindac is absorbed in humans Schmitt and Gentert, 1990a, 1990b).
following oral administration.
Etodolac has a half-life of 7–12 hours in dogs and is labeled
1. Pharmacology
for once daily use to treat pain. In rats, etodolac undergoes
enterohepatic circulation and has a half-life of 18 hours (Ogiso Ketoprofen and ibuprofen inhibit both COX-1 and COX-2,
et al., 1997; Shi et al., 2004). It was effective in treating with ketoprofen having a higher selectivity for COX-1 than
inflammation and neuropathic pain in rats (Suyama et al., 2004; ibuprofen in dogs (Streppa et al., 2002). Carprofen is claimed
Tachibana et al., 2003). to be predominately a COX-2-selective drug, but it does inhibit
COX-1 slightly. Carprofen demonstrates less COX-2 selectivity
in cats than in dogs (Clark, 2006; Streppa et al., 2002). Carpro-
2. Preparations and Route of Administration
fen may also directly stimulate glycosoaminoglycan synthesis
Oral dosage forms of indomethacin include regular and by chondrocytes (Benton et al., 1997). Metabolites of keto-
sustained-release capsules. It is also available as a supposi- profen have also been shown to have activity against COX-1
tory, as an oral suspension, and as an IV injection (the latter and COX-2, and the selectivity of the metabolites is higher
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 107

for COX-2 than the parent drug (Levoin et al., 2004). There occur with ketoprofen from R to S in many species, and with
may be activity that is not mediated by COX inhibition. The flunoxaprofen in rats (Arifah et al., 2003; Iwakawa et al., 1991;
R-enantiomer of ketoprofen does not have any COX inhibitory Mauleon et al., 1994; Montoya et al., 2004; Yasui et al., 1996).
activity, but has been shown to have antinociceptive activity Chiral inversion does not appear to occur with carprofen in
in humans (Cooper et al., 1998). Some analgesic effects of dogs, cats, or rats, or with naproxen in rats (Cheng et al., 2003;
ketoprofen may be mediated by serotonergic and noradrenergic Iwakawa et al., 1991; Taylor et al., 1996). Sex hormones also
mechanisms at the supraspinal and spinal levels (Diaz-Reval affect metabolism of ketoprofen, with testosterone apparently
et al., 2004; Pinardi et al., 2001). decreasing urinary excretion of glucuronidated S-ketoprofen in
rats (Palylyk-Colwell and Jamali, 2004). The presence of arthri-
tis affected metabolism of ketoprofen in rats, probably due to
2. Effects and Toxicity
changes in serum albumin that increased the unbound frac-
The propionic acid derivatives are usually better tolerated by tion (Meunier and Verbeeck, 1999). Because of all of these
humans and animals than are aspirin, indomethacin, and pyca- factors, the plasma half-life of these drugs varies consider-
zolon derivatives. The similarities between drugs in this class ably among species. Despite this, the clinical effect appears
are more striking than are the differences. The compounds vary to be prolonged in all species, even where the half-life is not
in their potency, but the difference is not of obvious clinical sig- (Table 4-4). This anomalous finding may be due to the pres-
nificance. Their efficacy against orthopedic and postoperative ence of active metabolites of ketoprofen or prolonged effects
pain compares favorably in clinical studies with some opioids, on prostaglandin synthesis.
such as buprenorphine, butorphanol, pethidine, and codeine.
All have anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic activity.
They can cause GI erosions in experimental animals and pro- H. Oxicams
duce GI side effects in humans and animals. This includes an
increase in intestinal permeability (Davies et al., 1996). Most Piroxicam and meloxicam are available in the United States
of these drugs can alter platelet function and prolong bleed- for human use. Piroxicam is similar to aspirin and most of the
ing time. This effect in humans subsides within 24–36 hours other aspirin-like drugs in many respects. Its distinguishing fea-
with ketoprofen. Ketoprofen did not affect bleeding time in ture is a relatively long half-life, which permits administration
dogs in one study (Forsyth et al., 2000). Carprofen has been once a day. It is usually considered to be contraindicated in cats.
shown to affect platelet aggregation and increase activated par- Compounds are available for oral administration.
tial thromboplastin time (APTT), but not bleeding time in dogs Meloxicam is available in parenteral, tablet, and oral sus-
(Hickford et al., 2001). Carprofen can rarely cause elevation pension forms and is labeled for treatment of osteoarthritis in
in liver enzymes and hepatic insufficiency in dogs. Increases in dogs and postoperative pain in dogs and cats. It is at least as
BUN and creatinine with ketoprofen administration have been effective an analgesic as buprenorphine and more effective than
reported in humans. Carprofen has been reported to cause minor butorphanol for postoperative pain resulting from soft-tissue
changes in certain renal parameters, but most studies have not surgery in dogs and cats (Clark, 2006). Meloxicam is a selec-
observed significant risk to renal function (Clark, 2006; Lobetti tive inhibitor of COX-2 in dogs and humans (selectivity for
and Joubert, 2000). Carprofen and ketoprofen were not found to COX-2 ranging from 3 to 10 times that of COX-1, respectively),
cause reproductive toxicity in rats at clinical dosages (McClain but is nonselective in cats (Clark, 2006; Streppa et al., 2002).
and Hoar, 1980). Naproxen is particularly potent in inhibiting Meloxicam does not affect bleeding time or clotting in dogs
migration and other functions of leukocytes. (Clark, 2006); it has a wide safety margin in dogs, particularly
for prolonged use. However, GI side effects and other typical
3. Pharmacokinetics NSAID toxicities have been reported by the manufacturer. In
cats, meloxicam should only be used as a single dose for post-
Generally, propionic acid derivatives are rapidly absorbed operative pain, because longer use will result in GI side effects,
and highly bound to plasma protein. They generally undergo as would be expected from the higher COX-1 activity in this
biotransformation in the liver by glucuronidation, and the species (Clark, 2006). Meloxicam has an elimination half-life
metabolites are excreted in the urine. However, in rats, bil- of 12–24 hours in dogs and is labeled for once daily dosing
iary excretion of ketoprofen and flunoxaprofen metabolites is (Montoya et al., 2004). It has a half-life of 3.2 hours when
important, and significant enterohepatic recirculation occurs administered IV to chickens (Baert and De Backer, 2002).
(Iwakawa et al., 1991; Meunier and Verbeeck, 1999; Yasui et al.,
1996). Enterohepatic recirculation of carprofen also occurs in
dogs. Metabolism and kinetics are stereoselective with vari- I. Nicotinic Acid Derivatives
ability between species (Maire-Gauthier et al., 1998). It is
the S-enantiomer of carprofen and ketoprofen that are consid- Flunixin is an anti-inflammatory analgesic approved for use
ered active against COX. Chiral inversion has been shown to in horses and cattle in the United States and also for use in dogs
108 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

TABLE 4-4
Serum Half-Life and Duration of Activity of Selected Propionic Acid Derivative NSAIDs

Pharmacologic activity/clinical
Species Half-life (hours) efficacy (hours) References

Carprofen
Dogs 4.5–9.8 24 Clark et al. (2006), Laredo et al. (2004), Pfizer Rimadyl®
US Prescribing Information
Horses 8–24 47.5 Armstrong et al. (1999), Lees et al. (2002)
Cats 15–20 7–24 Taylor et al. (1996)
Sheep 26–33 32 Cheng et al. (2003), Welsh et al. (1992)
Cattle 30–64 36 Delatour et al. (1996), Lohuis et al. (1991),
Ludwig et al. (1989)
Ketoprofen
Dogs 1.65 12–20 Montoya et al. (2004)
Cats 24–72 Lees et al. (2003)
Cynomolgus 1.6–2.3 Mauleon et al. (1994)
Horses 1.89 24 Armstrong et al. (1999)
Cattle 0.26–1.5 24 Igarza et al. (2004), Landoni et al. (1995)
Sheep 0.63 12 Arifah et al. (2001)
Goats 1.8 24 Arifah et al. (2003)
Ducks 12 Machin et al. (2001)
Quail 6.5–7.4 minutes Graham et al. (2005)
Rats 10–12 12 Cooper et al. (2005), Satterwhite and Boudinot (1992)
Flunoxaprofen
Rats 69 AHFS (2007)
Naproxen
Human 10–20 AHFS (2007)

in other countries. It demonstrates COX-1 selectivity in dog and 4 hours in goats, 3–5 hours in chickens, 6.6 hours in cats, 7.7
horse blood (Brideau et al., 2001). It is usually formulated as hours in swine, and 8.1 hours in cattle (Baert and De Backer,
fluxinin meglumine. It is available in powder, pellet, and tablet 2002; Buur et al., 2006; Cheng et al., 1998; Elmas et al., 2006;
form for oral administration and in liquid form for parenteral Hardie et al., 1985; Horii et al., 2004; Konigsson et al., 2003;
injection. It is used primarily in horses and agricultural animals Ogino et al., 2005). It is labeled for once daily dosing in cat-
for its antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activity. Of particular tle and horses, twice daily divided doses in cattle, and single
note is that it is labeled for use in lactating dairy cattle. Accord- injection only in swine. Flunixin does not reach blood levels in
ing to Ciofalo et al. (1977), flunixin meglumine is a potent donkeys as high as in horses or mules (Coakley et al., 1999).
analgesic agent after parenteral administration in mice, rats, and
monkeys and has historically been used in dogs and other labora-
tory animals. However, its use in these species has largely been
replaced by newer, safer drugs. The kinetics and pharmacology J. Alkanones
have been described in ducks (Machin et al., 2001). It is signifi-
cantly more potent than pentazocine, meperidine, and codeine in Nabumetone is an NSAID effective in treating fever, pain,
the rat yeast paw test after subcutaneous administration in saline, and inflammation. It is available for human use as an oral
and demonstrates potency similar to that of other NSAIDs such tablet. It is a weak inhibitor of COX in vitro, but it is an active
as ketoprofen and carprofen. Vonderhaar and Salisbury (1993) anti-inflammatory drug that possesses antipyretic and analgesic
presented the reports of cases involving administration of flu- activities mediated via an active metabolite (Warner et al.,
nixin meglumine (1.1–2.3 mg/kg) to dogs via various routes and 1999). The primary metabolite, 6-methoxy-2-naphthylacetic
for various durations associated with gastroduodenal ulcera- acid, is a potent nonselective inhibitor of cyclooxygenase and
tion and perforation. They concluded that the use of flunixin has an elimination half-life of about 24 hours in man. Accord-
meglumine is appropriate in the management of many condi- ing to Roberts et al. (2001), nambumetone appears to cause less
tions in dogs, but clinicians must be aware of potential adverse gastric damage than do other anti-inflammatory agents. After
effects. rapid gastric absorption, it is converted in the liver to one or
Serum half-life of flunixin is 1.2 hours in rabbits, 1.6 hours more active metabolites. Its side effects are similar to those of
in horses, 2.5 hours in sheep, between 1.2 and 3.7 hours in dogs, salicylates.
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 109

K. Selective COX-2 Inhibitors TABLE 4-5

Opioids
As shown in Table 4-1, COX-2 inhibitors are placed in four
“Weak” opioids: Morphine-like agonists
groups based on chemical structure (keep in mind that selective Codeine
vs. nonselective COX inhibition is a relative term; see carprofen Oxycodone
above). Propoxyphene hydrochloride
Celecoxib is the only selective COX-2 inhibitor of the diaryl- Hydrocodone
substituted furanones available for human use in the United Agonist–antagonists
Pentazocine
States. Two other drugs in this chemical class, deracoxib and Nalbuphine
firocoxib, are marketed in the United States for use in dogs Butorphanol
to control pain and inflammation associated with osteoarthri- “Strong” opioids: Morphine and morphine-like agonists
tis. Celecoxib and deracoxib are diaryl-substituted pyrazole Morphine
derivatives. Firocoxib is a furanone derivative labeled for use Etorphine
Hydromorphone
in dogs, which is similar to rofecoxib, which was marketed Oxymorphone
for human use but was subsequently withdrawn from the mar- Meperidine
ket because of unacceptable cardiovascular side effects. These Heroin
drugs are supplied as tablets for oral administration. Drugs Levorphanol
in the group are highly protein bound. Peak blood concentra- Methadone
Sufentanil
tions of deracoxib occur 2 hours after oral administration; the Fentanyl
elimination half-life at clinical dosages is 2–3 hours in dogs Remifentanil
but the labeled dosing interval is once daily. In premarketing Alfentanil
testing, adverse reactions were comparable in dogs receiving Partial agonist
active drug and placebo. Deracoxib kinetics has been investi- Buprenorphine
gated in cats, and half-life is nearly 8 hours (Clark, 2006). The
time taken for absorption of orally administered firocoxib is
highly variable, with time to reach maximum blood concentra- does not cause neutrophil adhesion in mesenteric blood vessels
tion being 1–5 hours. Bioavailability is lower than with many as seen with other NSAIDs (Kirchner et al., 1997).
analgesic–antipyretic and anti-inflammatory drugs. Serum half-
life of firacoxib is 7.8 hours in dogs, and it is labeled for once
III. OPIOIDS
daily use. In premarketing tolerance testing of firocoxib in dogs,
small intestinal erosion and ulceration were observed. The mar-
gin of safety is thought to be extremely narrow in young dogs A. Overview
(Clark, 2006).
The opioids are classified as morphine and related opioids,
meperidine and congeners, methadone and congeners, opi-
L. Dual Inhibitors of COX and LOX oids with mixed actions such as agonist-antagonists and partial
agonists, and opioid antagonists. Opioid analgesics may be
Tepoxalin is an NSAID marketed for treatment of pain and classified in a number of different ways, each providing useful
inflammation in dogs that inhibits both COX enzymes, and distinguishing characteristics of the drugs. Table 4-5 provides a
enzymes in the LOX pathway. This additional activity is thought listing of opioids grouped according to their relative analgesic
to increase the efficacy of the drug against inflammation, but potential. In this chapter, opioids are classified by molecu-
also increases the scope of research models that may be affected lar structure. The structures of morphine, meperidine, and
by the administration of these drugs over those that affect COX methadone, the prototypic drugs for the different groups, are
alone. In addition to the normal effects of COX inhibition, shown in Figure 4-5.
inhibition of thromboxane and prostaglandin E2 also decreases Abuse of opioids and addiction to them is of major con-
leukotriene concentrations in the blood and gastric mucosa. The cern. This concern in laboratory animal medicine primarily
manufacturer indicates that the drug is COX-1 selective for relates to diversion of drugs intended for patient administra-
sheep COX, but it has not been tested against canine COX. tion to personnel having access to the drugs. Substantial effort
This drug is available in a unique, rapidly disintegrating tablet in the development of opioids is aimed at reducing the abuse
form for dogs. Blood levels peak within 2 hours, and the half- and addiction potential of opioids, as well as reducing the side
life is only 2 hours. However, the metabolite is active and has a effects such as respiratory depression and constipation.
half-life of approximately 13 hours. The recommended dosing The abuse potential of opioids, the required permits to
interval is once daily. The safety margin is considered wide. purchase and administer opioids, and the storage and record-
Tepoxalin does not affect the bleeding time in dogs. Also, it keeping requirements imposed by federal and state governments
110 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

2 example, there are opioid patches (fentanyl) for transcutaneous

HO 3
1 delivery, injectable forms for IV, subcutaneous, im, epidural,
4 and intrathecal administration and a formulation for opioid
11 CH3
12 10 delivery through the oral mucosa. Opioids are administered
O CH3CH2 — C — C — CH2 — CH — N
13 9 17 CH3
to relieve acute, chronic, and cancer pain, as an immobilizing
14
5 N — CH3 O CH3 agent (etorphine), and as part of balanced anesthetic techniques
15 16 that include administration, e.g., of an opioid, a hypnotic, and
8
HO
6 an amnesic agent. Usually, drugs with short half-lives (e.g.,
7
fentanyl, remifentanyl) are used for the balanced anesthetic
Morphine Methadone
technique. With increasing frequency, opioids are being admin-
CH3 istered alone or with local anesthetics for perioperative and
N intraoperative pain management.
Opioids produce their effects by binding to receptors. It is
now generally accepted that there are at least three different
C6H5 COOC6H5
receptors for opioids: mu, delta, and kappa (μ, δ, κ). As shown
in Table 4-6, the receptors differ in varying degrees in their
Meperidine
anatomic location and in the effect elicited when stimulated by
Fig. 4-5 Chemical structures of morphine, methadone, and meperidine. an agonist. Also shown in Table 4-5 are examples of agonists that
bind to the different receptors. A given opioid may interact with
all of the receptor subtypes (Table 4-7). Analgesia is thought to
often influence the decision of whether to administer these drugs involve the activation of μ receptors (largely at supraspinal sites)
to laboratory animals. Most opioids are classified as Sched- and κ receptors (mainly in the spinal cord), while δ receptors
ule II Narcotics according to U.S. Drug Enforcement Agency may also be involved.
documents (DEA Form 225a). Details of federal and state classi- Considerable interest exists in opioid receptors located on
fications and regulations of narcotics will not be discussed here. or near peripheral nerve endings and the action of opioids
The term “narcotic” as used in a legal sense includes opioids on these receptors to produce analgesia. Evidence favors an
(as well as nonopioids, e.g., barbiturates), and the term gener- analgesic effect of opioids mediated by these receptors, but
ally has been used to refer to opioids. Thus, narcotic is derived the effect appears to depend on the presence of inflammation
from the word “narcosis” which refers to stupor or insensibility, (Czlonkowski et al., 1993). With increasing frequency, opioids
obviously not usually the primary endpoint of opioid adminis- are injected alone or with local anesthetics into the epidural or
tration in most cases. The term narcotic is no longer a useful subarachnoid space to provide analgesia in animals. The ratio-
name for opioid analgesics in a pharmacological context. Opi- nale for using this route obviously is to place the opioid as close
ate is a term once used to designate drugs derived from opium. as possible to the spinal cord opioid receptors, thereby reduc-
Opioid is now used to designate those drugs plus all other drugs ing the effective analgesic dose as well as the systemic side
with morphine-like action. effects.
Repeated use of opioids may induce tolerance in some
1. History species. The development of tolerance will require adjust-
The analgesic properties of poppy juice (opium) were recog- ment of dosing to maintain efficacy. Tolerance develops at
nized early in the history of mankind. Papaver somniferum is different rates to different pharmacologic effects. For example,
the plant from which poppy juice is extracted. Important to the tolerance to analgesic effects develops more rapidly than to res-
modern developments in opioid pharmacology was the isolation piratory effects, while tolerance to constipation develops very
of morphine from opium in 1806 by Sertürner and the more slowly, if at all. Therefore, if dosage is increased to compensate
recent characterization and isolation of endogenous opioid sub- for the development of analgesic tolerance, this may increase
stances and opioid receptors. Many semisynthetic derivatives of the risk of respiratory depression or constipation (Shannon,
morphine are obtained by relatively minor modifications of mor- 2007).
phine. The important properties of opioids that can be altered
by structural modification are affinity for various subtypes of
opioid receptors, agonistic versus antagonistic activity, lipid B. Morphine and Related Opioids
solubility, and resistance to metabolic breakdown.
Morphine is the standard by which new analgesics are mea-
sured. Since it is relatively difficult to synthesize, it is obtained
2. Mechanism of Action
from opium or extracted from poppy straw. Related drugs impor-
Opioids are formulated in a number of different ways, and tant in laboratory animals and biomedical research are codeine,
administered for a variety of purposes by various routes. For hydromorphone, hydrocodone, and oxymorphone.
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 111

TABLE 4-6
Opioid Receptors

Receptor Location Action Drug

Mu (μ) Cerebral cortex (lamina IV), thalamus, Mu-1: analgesia, Mu-2: respiratory depression, Morphine, fentanyl,
periaqueductal gray physical dependence codeine, naloxone
Delta (δ) Frontal cortex limbic system, olfactory tubercule Analgesia, respiratory depression, dependence Enkephalin
Kappa (κ) Spinal cord Spinal analgesia sedation, low physical dependence Dynorphin, mixed agonist/antagonists,
(e.g., butorphanol nalbuphine),
phencyclidine

TABLE 4-7 advantageous than morphine and methadone in certain circum-

Actions and Selectivities of Some Opioids at the Various Opioid stances. It appeared to be more effective than buprenorphine
Receptor Classes at reducing behavioral changes following intestinal resection in
Receptor types
rats (Gillingham et al., 2001).
This group of drugs relieves continuous dull pain more effec-
μ δ κ tively than sharp intermittent pain (Jaffe and Martin, 1990).
There are reports on patients stating that pain is still present
Drugs
Morphine +++ +
after receiving an opioid but they are no longer uncomfortable.
Methadone +++ This is attributed, in part, to the fact that there is the sensory
Etorphine +++ +++ +++ experience (nociception) as well as the reaction to the sensa-
Levorphanol +++ tion that produces pain. Patients may report pain in the absence
Fentanyl +++ of nociception and vice versa. Pain evoked secondary to nerve
Sufentanil +++ + +
Butorphanol P +++
damage (i.e., neuropathic pain) is poorly controlled by morphine
Buprenorphine P −− and related drugs.
Naloxone −−− − −− Species, strain, and gender differences in potency for some
Naltrexone −−− − −−− opioids, including morphine, hydromorphone, hydrocodone,
Diprenorphine −−− −− −−− and oxymorphone, have been reported in rats, with higher
Nalorphine −−− +
Pentazocine P ++
potency observed in males. (Bulka et al., 2004; Peckham and
Nalbuphine −− ++ Traynor, 2006; Shannon, 2007; Terner et al., 2003). Gender dif-
ferences in potency were not seen with codeine and oxycodone
Source: Adapted from Gutstein and Akil (2001 Table 23-3). (Peckham and Traynor, 2006). Morphine does not appear to
Note: Activities of drugs are given at the receptors for which the agent has affect ruminant animals, the reason for which is still unknown
reasonable affinity. +, agonist: −, antagonist: P, partial agonist: DAMGO, (Davis, 1983).
CTOP, DPDPE, DSLET; see Table 4-6. The number of symbols is an indication
of potency: the ratio for a given drug denotes selectivity. These values were
Opioids may increase locomotor activity, while large doses
obtained primarily from animal studies and should be extrapolated to human may produce seizures in animals. Opioids are predominantly
beings with caution. Both β-funaltrexamine and naloxonazine are irreversible stimulatory in mice, cats, and horses, but produce behavioral
μ antagonists, but β-funaltrexamine also has reversible κ agonist activity. depression in other species. Tolerance to the depressant effects
can develop, unmasking behavioral stimulation in some species
(Shannon, 2007). Buprenorphine, nalbuphine, and butorphanol
1. Pharmacological Properties
cause an increase in activity in normal rats (Liles and Flecknell,
Morphine and chemically related opioid agonists produce 1992).
their predominate analgesic action via μ receptors. However, Morphine and oxymorphone can cause excitatory behavior in
they have notable affinity for the δ and κ receptors. In addition dogs (Robinson et al., 1988). Relatively large doses of morphine
to analgesia, the effects include drowsiness, alteration of mood, will cause a rage reaction in cats but lower doses can provide
respiratory depression, decreased GI motility, nausea, vomiting, satisfactory analgesia. Morphine and related opioids suppress
and alterations of the endocrine and autonomic nervous sys- respiration via a direct effect on the brain stem respiratory cen-
tems. In humans, even large doses of morphine usually do not ters primarily by reducing responsiveness to carbon dioxide.
produce loss of consciousness, slurred speech, emotional labil- These drugs also suppress the cough reflex by a direct effect on
ity, or significant motor incoordination. Oxymorphone is about the cough center in the medulla and may induce nausea and vom-
10 times as potent as morphine. According to Davis (1983), it iting by direct stimulation of the chemoreceptor trigger zone in
has slight depressant effects on the CNS, and hence is more the area postrema of the medulla.
112 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

Morphine and morphine-like analgesics produce vasodila- opioids such as codeine, heroin, and methadone, morphine
tion, reduce peripheral resistance, inhibit baroreceptor reflexes, crosses the blood–brain barrier at a slow rate; only small quan-
and blunt the reflex vasoconstriction caused by increased PCO2 . tities pass the blood–brain barrier in adults. The major pathway
These drugs may induce histamine release, but their cardio- for the metabolism of morphine is conjugation with glucuronide
vascular effects are not dependent on histamine, although the to form active as well as inactive products. Morphine-6-
effects are enhanced by histamine. In one study, morphine glucuronide is more potent than morphine, and morphine-3-
caused histamine release in dogs, but oxymorphone did not glucuronide has antianalgesic activity. Morphine is eliminated
(Robinson et al., 1988). Codeine produces marked histamine from the body primarily via glomerular filtration. There are con-
release and hypotension when administered intravenously, and siderable species differences in the elimination of morphine.
is contraindicated by this route (Shannon, 2007). The elimination half-life of morphine is about 75 minutes in
Morphine and other μ agonists usually decrease hydrochloric dogs and about 3 hours in cats (Davis, 1983). Morphine pro-
acid secretion in the stomach. Relatively low doses of morphine vides 3–4 hours of analgesia in rats and mice when administered
decrease gastric motility, thereby prolonging gastric emptying subcutaneously (Gades et al., 2000). Hydromorphone has 4–4.5
time. This drug decreases biliary, pancreatic, and intestinal hours of activity in dogs and nearly 6 hours in cats (Lascelles
secretions. The amplitude of nonpropulsive rhythmic, segmen- and Roberstson, 2004; Machado et al., 2006). Oxymorphone
tal contractions of the small and large intestines is usually demonstrates 1.5–2 hours of activity in dogs (Machado et al.,
enhanced, but propulsive contractions are markedly decreased 2006). In rats, oxymorphone has a half-life of 1.5 hours when
in the small and large intestine. The tone of the anal sphincter is administered intravenously, and 1.3 hours when administered
greatly augmented, and the reflex relaxation response to rectal intranasally (Hussain and Aungst, 1997). Liposome encapsu-
distention is reduced. These actions, together with the central lation of oxymorphone for parenteral administration has been
actions of morphine, contribute to morphine-induced consti- shown to significantly extend the duration of activity for up to 2
pation. Morphine causes constriction of the sphincter of Oddi, days in dogs, 3–5 days in parrots, 5 days in mice, and 2–7 days
and pressure in the common bile duct may increase more than in rats (Clark et al., 2004; Krugner-Higby et al., 2003; Sladky
10-fold. The fluid pressure in the gallbladder may also increase, et al., 2006; Smith et al., 2003, 2004).
producing signs that may vary from epigastric distress to biliary In this group of drugs, the ratio of the oral to IM effective
colic. Morphine inhibits the urinary voiding reflex, and both the dose of codeine, levorphanol, and oxycodone is substantially
tone of the external sphincter and the volume of the bladder are higher than is the ratio for morphine. The reason is that the
increased. Opioid-induced urinary retention and constipation former drugs undergo less first-pass metabolism in the liver.
do not appear to be clinically significant in rodents and rabbits The analgesic effect of codeine is due to its conversion
(Flecknell, 1991). to morphine. Only a small fraction of codeine undergoes
Short-term (<120 hours) morphine administration has been this conversion. Heroin readily crosses the blood–brain bar-
shown to reduce natural killer (NK) activity (Bayer et al., rier, where it is rapidly hydrolyzed to 6-monoacetylmorphine
1990; Shavit et al., 1984), impair immunoglobulin production (6-MAM), which is further metabolized to morphine. 6-MAM
(Bussiere et al., 1992; Pruett et al., 1992), suppress phagocytic and morphine produce the pharmacologic actions of heroin.
activity (Levier et al., 1993; Szabo et al., 1993), and induce
thymic hypoplasia (Fuchs and Pruett, 1993). In monkeys and
4. Side Effects
humans, use of chronic morphine is known to suppress NK
activity (Carr and France, 1993; Novick et al., 1989). Morphine and morphine-related opioids produce respira-
tory depression, nausea, vomiting, dizziness, mental clouding,
increased pressure in the biliary tract, urinary retention, and
2. Absorption
hypotension. Allergic reactions to opioids may occur but they
Generally, the opioids are readily absorbed from the GI are not common. Morphine may cause increased locomotor
tract. However, due to high first-pass removal by the liver, oral activity and produce mania in cats. Pruritis, especially in
bioavailability is poor. The more lipophilic opioids are read- facial areas, is a common sequela to epidurally or intrathecally
ily absorbed through the nasal or buccal mucosa, while those administered opioids.
with the greatest lipid solubility can be absorbed transdermally.
Opioids are readily absorbed after subcutaneous or IM injection
5. Preparation and Route of Administration
and can enter the spinal cord following epidural or intrathecal
administration. Solutions of morphine sulfate are available for oral use and for
injection. Tablets, controlled-release tablets, and rectal supposi-
tories are also available. Preservative-free solutions are intended
3. Distribution and Fate
for IV, epidural, or intrathecal injection.
About one-third of the morphine in the blood is bound Codeine sulfate and codeine phosphate are available in tablet
to plasma proteins. Compared with other more lipid-soluble form for oral administration. Codeine phosphate is available for
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 113

injection. Codeine is contained in numerous analgesic combi- When administered intravenously to rats, fentanyl concen-
nations (liquids, tablets, and capsules) and in various antitussive trations in brain, heart, and lung equilibrated rapidly with that
combinations (liquid and capsules). Codeine has no advantage in plasma, redistributed quickly into the muscle, more slowly
over morphine when used parenterally. However, it is more into fat, and equilibrated with plasma levels in these tissues
advantageous when administered orally because of the high by 120 minutes after administration. Fentanyl was extensively
oral-to-IM effective dose ratio. metabolized in the liver and excreted in urine (Hug and Murphy,
Oxymorphone is available for parenteral administration. 1981).
Hydromorphone hydrochloride is available in tablets, rec- Fentanyl has a half-life in dogs of only 45 minutes when
tal suppositories, and solution for IV injection. Oxycodone administered IV, around 3 hours in the rhesus macaque, and
hydrochloride is available in tablets, as a solution for injection, 7.2 hours in the goat (Carroll et al., 1999; Sano et al., 2006;
and in combination with other analgesics. It is nearly equipo- Valverde et al., 2000). The half-life in cats is between 2.3 and 6
tent ‘Nearly’ seems to be a better option here. Please check hours, but it only provided analgesia against a thermal stimulus
and confirm.to morphine. Hydrocodone bitartrate is used in for <2 hours (Lee et al., 2000; Robertson et al., 2005). A blood
combination with other ingredients in antitussive and analgesic– level of >1.07 ng/mL was required to provide analgesia in cats
antipyretic mixtures. Heroin is not available for therapeutic use (Robertson et al., 2005). Hypothermia decreased the efficacy
in the United States. Levorphanol is available as levorphanol of fentanyl in dogs, while hepatic insufficiency decreased the
tartrate in tablets and as a solution for injection. Its clinical clearance of fentanyl in swine (Kostopanagiotou et al., 2006;
effectiveness in animals has not been established. Wilson et al., 2006).
In horses, therapeutic blood levels of transdermal fentanyl
were reached within 1 hour of application, while it took 12–24
C. Meperidine and Congeners hours to reach the therapeutic levels in dogs (Egger et al., 1998;
Gilberto et al., 2003; Maxwell et al., 2003). These levels were
Other drugs in this group are fentanyl, sufentanil, remifen- sustained in horses for up to 32 hours following a single patch,
tanil, and alfentanil. Chemically, meperidine is classified as and a steady state was maintained at 48- or 72-hour patch appli-
a piperidine. Its pharmacological activity is similar to, but cation intervals (Maxwell et al., 2003). In dogs, the therapeutic
not identical to, that of morphine. When given parenterally, levels lasted at least 72 hours, while in cats they were sustained
meperidine is about one-tenth as potent as morphine. The for 5 days using a transdermal patch (Egger et al., 1998; Gilberto
oral-to-parenteral potency of meperidine is considerably higher et al., 2003; Lee et al., 2000). In goats, blood levels from a trans-
than that of morphine. Meperidine has notable local anesthetic dermal patch were variable, but provided peak levels of up to
activity and anticholinergic effects. 18 hours (Carroll et al., 1999).
Meperidine differs from morphine in that toxic doses cause Remifentanil is unique among drugs in this class as biotrans-
CNS excitation, characterized by tremors, muscle twitching, formation is mediated by plasma esterases.
and seizures. The meperidine metabolite normeperidine is
mainly responsible for these effects. The effects of meperi- 2. Preparations and Routes of Administration
dine on smooth muscle are less intense relative to its analgesic
Meperidine hydrochloride is available for oral use in the form
actions, as compared to morphine, and meperidine does not
of tablets and as a syrup and in solution for parenteral admin-
cause as much constipation.
istration. Fentanyl citrate is available as a solution for injection
Fentanyl is approximately 80 times as potent as morphine.
and is supplied as a fixed-dose combination with droperidol
Higher doses produce marked muscular rigidity. It is usually
for injection. Fentanyl patches for transcutaneous delivery are
used in combination with other drugs for anesthesia, but is also
available for human use and are also being used to provide pain
used for postoperative analgesia. Remifentanil and alfentanil
relief to animals. An oral form of fentanyl is available for trans-
were developed with the goal to have opioids with rapid onset
mucosal delivery. This has been used in Great Apes with varying
and predictable termination of opioid effect. They are primarily
levels of efficacy (Hunter et al., 2004). Intratracheal administra-
used as part of a balanced anesthetic technique.
tion to rabbits resulted in a kinetic profile nearly identical to that
for IV administration (Irazuzta et al., 1996). Sufentanil citrate
1. Absorption and Fate and alfentanil hydrochloride are also very potent and relatively
selective μ receptor agonists. They are used, usually in combi-
Meperidine is absorbed by all routes but absorption may be
nations with other drugs, for general anesthesia. They are also
erratic following IM injection. About 60% of the meperidine in
injected intrathecally and epidurally for postoperative analgesia.
blood is bound to the plasma protein. It is metabolized in the liver
with only a small amount excreted unchanged. The duration of
3. Side Effects
analgesia provided by Meperidine in the cat and dog is about 45
minutes (Davis, 1983). The half-life of meperidine in the cat is The side effects of meperidine are similar to those of mor-
0.7 hours because of rapid demethylation to normeperidine. phine, except that a meperidine metabolite may produce CNS
114 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

stimulation. Fentanyl causes respiratory depression in rats in a nalbuphine). Pentazocine is either a weak antagonist or a par-
dose-related manner (Dahan et al., 2005). tial agonist of μ receptors and a relatively powerful κ receptor
agonist. Buprenorphine is a partial μ agonist and κ antagonist.
Pentazocine differs from typical μ agonists, in that high doses
D. Methadone and Congeners cause an increase in blood pressure and heart rate. It does
not antagonize respiratory depression produced by morphine,
Methadone is primarily a μ receptor agonist with pharmaco- but it may produce withdrawal symptoms in patients who have
logic properties similar to those of morphine. Notable properties been receiving μ-opioid receptor agonists. Pentazocine lactate
of methadone include its oral efficacy, extended duration of is available as a solution for injection. Tablets containing penta-
action in suppressing withdrawal symptoms in physically depen- zocine hydrochloride and naloxone hydrochloride are available
dent humans, and tendency to show persistent effects with for oral use. Naloxone is included to discourage the use of tablets
repeated administration. About 90% of methadone is bound to as a source of injectable pentazocine. The naloxone absorbed
plasma proteins. It undergoes extensive biotransformation in the after oral administration is rapidly removed by the liver.
liver. Methadone has a long plasma half-life (about 1–5 days in Tablets containing pentazocine and aspirin or acetaminophen
humans). are also available. When given parenterally, three to six times as
Propoxyphene binds to μ receptors with slightly less selec- much pentazocine is required to equal the analgesic effect of a
tivity than morphine. As an analgesic, it is about one-half to dose of morphine. Pentazocine is only slightly more potent than
two-thirds as potent as codeine given orally. The only recog- codeine when given orally. Ordinarily, there is a “ceiling” on
nized use of propoxyphene is for the treatment of pain that is the respiratory depressant effects of pentazocine (i.e., beyond a
not adequately relieved by aspirin. certain dose, respiratory depression increases little if at all).
Nalbuphine is an agonist–antagonist with a spectrum of
1. Preparations and Routes of Administration effects similar to those of pentazocine except that nalbuphine is
a more potent μ receptor agonist. Equal doses of nalbuphine and
Methadone hydrochloride is available in the form of tablets morphine given intramuscularly produce approximately equal
and in solutions for oral use and as a solution for par- analgesia. Nalbuphine has considerably less effect on the car-
enteral administration. Propoxyphene hydrochloride is available diovascular system than does pentazocine or butorphanol. Like
in the form of capsules, while propoxyphene napsylate as pentazocine, there is a ceiling on the respiratory depressant
tablets or suspension for oral administration. Combinations of effect of nalbuphine.
propoxyphene with aspirin or acetaminophen are marketed in Butorphanol tartrate is available in solution for parenteral
the form of tablets and capsules. injection, and as tablets. Butorphanol has a pharmacologic pro-
file similar to that of pentazocine. On a milligram-for-milligram
basis, butorphanol is about three to five times as potent as mor-
E. Synthetic Opioid Agonists
phine when given parenterally. However, analgesic efficacy has
been reported to be less than that of morphine, oxymorphone,
Tramadol is a synthetic opioid agonist that is sometimes used
buprenorphine, ketorolac, or ketoprofen (Gades et al., 2000;
in dogs for postoperative analgesia. Drug activity has been
Mathews et al., 1996; Pibarot et al., 1997; Robertson et al.,
shown to be primarily due to the first metabolite (M1), which
2003). When administered intravneously, the serum half-life
appears to be formed via CYP2D6 enzyme activity (Garrido
is 82 minutes in cattle, 1.6 hours in rabbits and cats, and 3.2
et al., 2003). However, the parent drug also has some opioid
hours in rabbits when administered subcutaneously (Court et al.,
activity, and it may also mediate pain relief by inhibition of
1992; Hosgood, 1990; Portnoy and Hustead, 1992). Analgesic
norepinephrine and serotonin re-uptake. In rabbits, the half-life
efficacy lasted 2–6 hours in cats, and 1–2 hours in rats and mice
following IV administration is approximately 2 hours, (Kucuk
(Gades et al., 2000; Lascelles and Robertson, 2004). Antitus-
et al., 2005). In dogs, the half-life is 0.9 and 1.7 hours, for IV and
sive effect in cats lasted 8 hours longer than analgesic activity
oral administration, respectively, while that for M1 it is 1.7 and
(Hosgood, 1990). In parrots, butorphanol provided 24 hours of
2.2 hours. A 4–6 hour dosing interval in dogs produced plasma
analgesia administered intramuscularly, but when prepared in a
concentrations of tramadol and M1 consistent with analgesic
liposome-encapsulated formulation, effects were seen for 3–5
levels in humans (KuKanich and Papich, 2004).
days (Sladky et al., 1996).
Buprenorphine is widely used in laboratory animal medicine
F. Opioids with Mixed Actions: Agonist–Antagonists as (1) it has lower abuse potential than opioid agonists such
and Partial Agonists as morphine and a relatively long duration of action, and
(b) considerable data is available on its dosage and efficacy.
Some opioids are competitive antagonists at the μ receptor, Buprenorphine is a partial μ agonist. Buprenorphine has an
but exert partial agonistic actions at other receptors, includ- inverted “U” dose–response curve for analgesia. Increasing
ing the δ and κ receptors (e.g., nalorphine, cyclazine, and dose increases efficacy up to a ceiling, the point at which the
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 115

antagonist properties predominate and begin to decrease anal- 6–8 hours in rats, 6–7 hours in dogs, and 12–18 hours in cats
gesic activity (Heel et al., 1977). It produces analgesia and (Dum and Herz, 1981; Gades et al., 2000; Robertson et al.,
other CNS side effects that are similar to those produced by 2003; Roughan and Flecknell, 2002). When administered orally,
morphine. It causes increased motor activity in rats, and has there is a significant first-pass liver effect, with at least a 5–10-
been associated with abnormal eating behavior (pica) that could fold increase in dose needed for oral administration (Cooper
result in serious GI complications (Heel et al., 1977; Jablonski et al., 1997; Heel et al., 1977; Roughan and Flecknell, 2002;
et al., 2000; Roughan and Flecknell, 2002; Stewart and Mar- Slingsby et al., 2006).
tin, 2003). Respiratory depression is seen with buprenorphine
administration, but there is a ceiling effect above 3 mg/kg in rats G. Opioid Antagonists
(Dahan et al., 2005); decreased intestinal activity, decreased
heart rate, and sedation are also reported. It can cause catalepsy Naloxone usually causes no effect unless opioids with agonis-
in guinea The text has been rephrased to put together related tic action have been given. Small IM or IV doses of naloxone
findings. Please check and confirm.pigs (Heel et al., 1977). It prevent or promptly reverse the effects of μ-opioid agonists.
has been shown to have no significant effects on pregnancy in In dogs, naloxone reversed the effects of oxymorphone for
rats (Hutchings et al., 1995). 20–40 minutes following IV administration and for 40–70
In recommended therapeutic doses, buprenorphine is about minutes following IM administration (Copland et al., 1989).
25 times as potent as morphine when given intramuscularly, but Naloxone hydrochloride is available in solution for parenteral
only 6–10 times as potent when administered orally (Roughan injection. Other opioid antagonists are available, but naloxone
and Flecknell, 2002). However, the maximum analgesic effect is the most commonly used.
of buprenorphine is less than that of morphine and oxymor-
phone, but greater than that of butorphanol in nociceptive
analgesiometric assays (Gades et al., 2000; Gillingham et al., IV. α2 -ADRENERGIC AGONISTS
2001). In cats, buprenorphine was reported to be more effec-
tive than oxymorphone or ketoprofen in cats for onychec-
A. Overview
tomy (Dobbins et al., 2002). In a model of incisional pain,
buprenorphine showed greater efficacy than fentanyl, flunixin,
α2 -Adrenergic agonists can have diverse biological effects
or acetaminophen; various studies in cats and dogs have indi-
including sedation and loss of vigilance, and are discussed in
cated analgesic efficacy following surgery to be similar to or
Chapter 2 (MacDonald and Virtanen, 1992a; Table 4-8). Of
better than that of other opioids, including morphine (Roughan
particular relevance to this chapter is that these agents produce
and Flecknell, 2002; St. A. Stewart and Martin, 2003). However,
analgesia. Xylazine was introduced into veterinary medicine
studies in rats have not shown significant differences in analgesic
for sedation in the 1960s, but its mechanism of action was
efficacy following abdominal surgery between buprenorphine
unknown. Later, it was concluded that it was a rather specific
and NSAIDs like ketoprofen and carprofen (Cooper et al., 2005;
α2 -adrenoreceptor agonist. α2 -adrenoreceptor agonists used to
Roughan and Flecknell, 2004; Sharp et al., 2003). Buprenor-
modify animal pain include clonidine, xylazine, detomidine,
phine can produce withdrawal symptoms in patients who have
medetomidine, and romifidine (Lemke, 2004). Detomidine and
been receiving μ receptor agonists (Heel et al., 1977). It antag-
medetomidine are closely related imidazole derivatives; cloni-
onizes the respiratory depressant effects of some μ receptor
dine and romifidine are imidazoline derivatives, and xylazine is
agonists without completely preventing opioid pain relief.
a thiazole.
About 96% of the drug in the plasma is protein bound and
is mostly excreted unchanged in the feces in humans (Heel
1. History
et al., 1977). In rats, buprenorphine is conjugated with glu-
curonide, excreted via the bile, and significant enterohepatic α2 -Adrenergic agonists were originally developed as antihy-
recirculation occurs. An active metabolite, norbuprenorphine, pertensives and are currently being developed for IV admin-
is also formed. The serum half-life of buprenorphine in rats is istration for general anesthesia. Discovery of the role of a
2.8 hours while that of norbuprenorphine is 0.9 hours (Ohtani noradrenergic inhibitory system in nociception modulation at
et al., 1994). Similar half-lives have been reported in mice, rab- the spinal cord level provided a basis for the development
bits, and guinea pigs, except around 6 hours in cats and 19.5 of α2 -adrenoreceptor agonists as receptor-specific analgesics,
hours in dogs, with another report listing a half-life of 7.7 hours although the receptor-specific α2 -receptor agonists developed
in rats (Garrett and Chandran, 1985; Taylor et al., 2001; Yu to date are not effect-specific. Clonidine was synthesized in
et al., 2006). In rats, strain and gender differences in efficacy are the early 1960s; about the same time xylazine was introduced
known to occur, which may be accounted for by the differences into veterinary medicine. The α2 -adrenergic agonist activity
in metabolism (Roughan and Flecknell, 2002). of xylazine was recognized in 1977 (Berthelsen and Pettinger,
Buprenorphine is available in solution for parenteral injec- 1977; Hsu, 1981) and, shortly thereafter, Farmos Gropu Ltd.
tion. It has a long duration of action: 3–5 hours in mice, (Turku, Finland) produced detomidine and medetomidine.
116 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

TABLE 4-8
Results of α2 -Adrenoreceptor Stimulation

System or characteristic Effect

CNS Sedation, analgesia, hypotension, bradycardia

CVS Peripheral vasoconstriction → initial hypertension, central
bradycardia, and vasomotor depression → hypotension
Gut Relaxation, decreased motility
Salivation Decreased
Gastric secretion Reduced
Uterus Stimulation
Eyes Mydriasis, decreased intraocular pressure
Hormones Reduced release of insulin, renin, and
antidiuretic hormone
Platelets Aggregation

Source: From Hall and Clarke (1991 Table 4-1, p. 58).

2. Mechanism of Action Decrease in

spontaneous Loss of Recovery
righting reflex from sedation
The α2 -adrenergic receptors are located in tissues through- locomotor activity
out the body. They exist presynaptically and postsynaptically
in neuronal and non-neuronal tissues, and extrasynaptically in
the vasculature as the endogenous ligand for these receptors is
norepinephrine. In general, sedation and anxiolysis induced by Analgesia Max
α2 -adrenergic agonists occur by actions in a small group of neu- Anxiolysis hypothermia sedation Death
rons in the brain stem, the locus coeruleus (Lemke, 2004). The
analgesic effects are mediated by the activation of receptors in
the spinal cord dorsal horn. Descending modulation of nocicep-
tive input due to α2 -receptor activation in the pons also plays 1 3 10 30 100 300 1000 10,000
a prominent role. The α2 -adrenergic agonists appear to have a Subcutaneous dose of dexmedetomidine (␮g/kg)
combined effect of presynaptic inhibition of afferent transmit-
ter release from C fibers and a postsynaptic inhibition of spinal Fig. 4-6 Central actions of dexmedetomidine in rats after subcutaneous
cord dorsal horn transmission neurons. treatment. Dexmedetomidine is the dextro(+)isomer of medetomidine and is
the active component of the racemic mixture. [From MacDonald and Virtnen
(1992a Fig. 9-4, p. 186).]
3. Therapeutic Activities and Side Effects
The α2 -adrenergic agonists are used in laboratory animal
medicine not only for their analgesic action but also for their
sedative action. Used at low doses, these agents dramatically The analgesic action of α2 -adrenergic agonists is most clearly
reduce the amount of general anesthetic required to induce demonstrated following epidural or intrathecal injection. When
and maintain anesthesia. α2 -Adrenergic agonists are used in administered systemically, they also have analgesic activity
relatively large doses to induce sedation, analgesia, and immo- (e.g., inhibit acetic-acid-induced writhing or tail-flick responses
bilization. Their action is rapidly reversed by α2 -antagonists. to heat), but there is difficulty in distinguishing true analgesia
As shown in Figure 4-6 and Table 4-8, systemically adminis- from the inability to respond to painful stimuli. In rats, medeto-
tered α2 -adrenergic agonists produce a spectrum of behavioral midine was shown to reduce allodynia and mechanical and
effects, the most readily apparent being sedation and loss of thermal hyperalgesia in a dose-dependent manner. This effect
vigilance. There is great variability in (1) the extent of seda- was more pronounced in animals with intact cerebral–spinal
tion produced by different drugs and (2) responses of different pathways than in animals that were spinalized (Molina and
animal species to the drugs. For example, detomidine and Herrero, 2006). Clinically, the α2 -adrenergic agonists appear
medetomidine can induce loss of the righting reflex in young to have limited analgesic activity when used alone.
chicks (Savola et al., 1986), but only medetomidine does so Common side effects of α2 -adrenergic agonists include inhi-
in rats. Medetomidine does not produce such deep sedation in bition of insulin secretion and, hence, production of hyper-
mice and rabbits. The dose response for this drug in rabbits glycemia. Low doses of these drugs decrease arterial blood
is poor, and there are differences in responses between strains pressure and heart rate, and may produce atrioventricular con-
(Avsaroglu et al., 2003). duction block. Heart rate continues to slow down as the dose
4. PHARMACOLOGY OF ANALGESICS 117

increases, but blood pressure may increase. The effects on b. Distribution and Fate
heart rate persist in dogs for approximately 6 hours follow-
The α2 -adrenergic agonists are lipophilic and hence are read-
ing administration (Väisänen et al., 2005). Similar cardiac
ily distributed into tissues. Approximately 85% of detomidine
effects are seen in the rhesus macaque (Capuano et al., 1999).
and medetomidine and about 70% of xylazine and clonidine are
In cats, medetomidine decreased cardiac index, stroke index,
bound to plasma protein.
rate-pressure product, and right and left ventricular stroke
Generally, detomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine are elim-
work index, while systemic vascular resistance and central
inated relatively rapidly in all animal species. The half-life of
venous pressure increased. Arterial pressures, pH, oxygen,
elimination varies between 0.5 hours (xylazine in dogs, and
and carbon dioxide tensions were not affected (Lamont et al.,
medetomidine in sheep and goats) and 1.5 hours (medetomidine
2001). In horses, medetomidine, detomidine, and xylazine
and detomidine in horses and dogs) (Kastner et al., 2003, 2006).
caused atrioventricular block, slightly decreased heart rate, and
The effects on allodynia and hyperalgesia in rats were greatly
significant decreases in cardiac index and stroke volume. Hyper-
reduced within 1 hour of administration (Molina and Herrero,
tension was seen initially, but then blood pressure decreased
2006). In goats, recumbency is seen within 1.5 minutes of IV
with most treatments (Yamashita et al., 2000). Anticholinergic
administration and persisted for at least 2 hours (Carroll et al.,
premedication has been recommended to reduce cardiovascu-
2005). Medetomidine sedation in rabbits lasts up to 30 minutes
lar side effects; however, the benefits of this are not clear
longer than xylazine when used in combination with ketamine
(Sinclair, 2003).
and buprenorphine (Difilippo et al., 2004).
The α2 -adrenergic agonists produce hypothermia and respira-
All four of the agonists are biotransformed primarily by the
tory depression. They also produce emesis in a number of animal
liver and then the metabolites are excreted in the urine. With the
species (e.g., dog, cat). Other reported side effects of medeto-
exception of clonidine, renal clearance of the unchanged drug
midine include mydriasis, increased urine volume, changes to
is insignificant.
endocrine function and uterine activity, decreased intestinal
motility, decreased intraocular pressure, and muscle twitch-
ing (Hsu et al., 1981; Sinclair, 2003). Medetomidine increased 5. Preparations and Routes of Administration
the low-frequency EEG activity in dogs and decreased high- Xylazine is available commercially as a 2 or 10% solution
frequency activity (Itamoto et al., 2001). In rats, xylazine was for IV or IM injection. Detomidine is available in injectable
shown to decrease seizure threshold and increase the length and form (1% solution) for use in horses, and injectable medeto-
severity of seizures at lower doses, but had anticonvulsant activ- midine is approved for use in dogs and cats. Romifidine
ity at higher doses (Joy et al., 1983). In ferrets, medetomidine (1% solution) is approved for use in horses. It has a slower
did not cause the elevations in pituitary and adrenocortical hor- onset of action and a much longer duration of action than
mones normally seen with isoflurane anesthesia (Schoemaker does either xylazine or medotomidine. No formulations are
et al., 2003). prescribed for epidural or intrathecal administration by veteri-
Because of the wide range of effects of α2 -adrenergic ago- narians. Agents marketed for IV or IM administration contain
nists, there is potential for them to interact with many other preservatives that may be unsuitable for epidural or intrathecal
drugs. The doses of barbiturates, inhalational anesthetics, and administration.
dissociative anesthetics should be reduced when given along
with α2 -adrenergic agonists. It is common to administer α2 -
adrenergic agonists with other drugs to take advantage of B. α2 -Adrenergic Antagonists
synergistic interactions (e.g., along with local anesthetic via
epidural or subarachnoid route, or with ketamine or opioid via The α2 -adrenergic antagonists in clinical use today include
IV or IM route). yohimbine, tolazoline, idazoxan, and atipamezole. Yohimbine,
tolazoline, and atipamezole are approved for veterinary use in
the United States. The obvious value of antagonists is to reverse
4. Pharmacokinetics and Metabolism overdose or hasten recovery from the sedative effects of α2 -
a. Absorption adrenergic agonists.

In general, clonidine is well absorbed after oral administra-

tion, and bioavailability is nearly 100%. However, the systemic
V. NMDA-RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS
availability of detomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine by
the oral route is low. Few studies on the bioavailability of
detomidine, medetomidine, and xylazine following IM admin- The discovery of the N -methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor
istration reveal species variability (e.g., bioavailability good for and its role in pain perception increased interest in NMDA-
detomidine in cattle and horses, good for xylazine in dogs but not receptor antagonists as potential analgesic agents. Commer-
horses). cially available NMDA-receptor antagonists include ketamine,
118 JAMES E. HEAVNER AND DALE M. COOPER

dextromethorphan, and ketobemidone. They have significant TABLE 4-9

impact on the development of tolerance to opioid analgesics Analgesic Adjuvants
and are thought to interfere with the conversion of acute pain
Tricyclic antidepressants
to chronic pain. NMDA-receptor antagonists are also discussed Anticonvulsants
in Chapter 2 because some are used to produce “dissociative” Antihistamines
anesthesia, which may be caused by pharmacological activity Benzodiazepines
other than or in addition to NMDA-receptor antagonism. Sedative hypnotics
Steroids
Caffeine
Dextroamphetamines
A. History Phenothiazines

Ketamine was developed in 1962 as a fast-acting general

anesthetic. It was classified as a dissociative anesthetic because
conditions that produce pain such as bacterial infection may be
it produces a state wherein the patient appears to be conscious
classed as analgesic adjuvants. There is evidence that sedative
but detached from what is happening. It was noted to have
hypnotics may have antianalgesic activity at low doses (Archer
analgesic action, especially against pain of somatic origin. Dex-
et al., 1994).
tromorphan has been marketed for its antitussive action for
many years.
VII. FUTURE PROSPECTS
B. Mechanism of Action
Efforts in four areas of research will strongly influence the
NMDA receptors are distributed widely in the body. NMDA management of pain in laboratory animals in the future. These
receptors are involved in normal synaptic transmission but are areas are (1) understanding of pain mechanisms; (2) advances
primarily involved with the induction of various forms of synap- in optimization of alternative routes of drug administration,
tic plasticity, including the medium- and long-term changes especially transmucosal, transcutaneous, epidural, and spinal;
observed in the transition from acute to chronic pain. Examples (3) improved methods for pain assessment; and (4) improved
of these include “wind-up” facilitation, central sensitization, methods for assuring optimal dosing regimens, e.g., simple,
changes in peripheral receptive fields, induction of oncogenes, rapid measurement of drug concentration in blood. The reader
and long-term potentiation (Cousins and Power, 1999). Thus, it is referred to other chapters in this book that address several of
appears that NMDA antagonists can attenuate these responses these areas.
and thus have a role in the treatment of acute pain and the Of particular interest at this time are drugs that affect
prevention of chronic pain states. NMDA receptors at the spinal level. Activation of these
receptors produces “wind-up” in dorsal horn neurons, a phe-
nomenon linked to secondary algesia. NMDA-receptor antag-
C. Preparation and Routes of Administration onists are viewed as being particularly useful as preemptive
agents (i.e., administered in anticipation of injury instead of
Dextromorphan is a common ingredient in various antitus- afterward).
sive formulations. Ketamine is marketed in injectable form
in various concentrations. Drugs in this category are by no
means selective analgesics. However, because of the unique ACKNOWLEDGMENT
analgesic action of NMDA-receptor antagonists, there is con-
siderable interest in developing selective drugs that might be
The authors thank Lela Shook Paksoy for technical assistance
used specifically for pain control.
with the production of this chapter, and Dr. Harlan Shannon for
scientific review of the manuscript.

VI. ANALGESIC ADJUVANTS

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Pharmacogenetic analysis of sex differences in opioid antinociception in rats. based classification of pain? Pain 77, 227–229.
Pain 106, 381–391. Yamashita, K., Tsubakishita, S., Futaok, S., Ueda, I., Hamaguchi, H., Seno, T.,
Väisänen, M.A.M., Vainio, O.M., Raekallio, M.R., Hietanen, H., and Huikuri, Katoh, S., Izumisawa, Y., Kotani, T., and Muir, W.W. (2000). Cardiovascular
H.V. (2005). Results of 24-hour ambulatory electrocardiography in dogs effects of medetomidine, detomidine and xylazine in horses. J. Vet. Med. Sci.
undergoing ovariohysterectomy following premedication with medetomidine 62, 1025–1032.
or acepromazine. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 226, 738–745. Yasui, H., Yamaoka, K., and Nakagawa, T. (1996). Moment analysis of stere-
Valverde, C.R., Mama, K.R., Kollias-Baker, C., Steffey, E.P., and Baggot, oselective enterohepatic circulation and unidirectional chiral inversion of
J.D. (2000). Pharmacokinetics and cardiopulmonary effects of fentanyl in ketoprofen enantiomers in rat. J. Pharm. Sci. 85, 580–585.
isoflurane-anesthetized rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta). Am. J. Vet. Res. Yu, S., Zhang, X., Sun, Y., Peng, Y., Johnson, J., Mandrell, T., Shukla, A.J., and
61, 931–934. Laizure, S.C. (2006). Pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine after intravenous
Vonderhaar, M.A., and Salisbury, S.K. (1993). Gastroduodenal ulceration asso- administration in the mouse. J. Am. Assoc. Lab. Anim. Sci. 45(3), 12–16.
ciated with flunixin meglumine administration in three dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med.
Assoc. 203, 92–95.
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 Section II

Monitoring and Equipment

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 Chapter 5

Anesthesia Delivery Systems

George A. Vogler

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
II. Compressed Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
A. Cylinders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
B. Medical Gas Piping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
III. Anesthetic Machine Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
B. Yoke Assemblies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
C. Central Supply Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
D. Pressure Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
E. Gas Supply Pressure Gauges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
F. Flowmeters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
G. Oxygen Fail-Safe and Proportioning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
H. Oxygen Flush Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
I. Common Gas Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
J. Absorber Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
K. Unidirectional Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
L. Adjustable Pressure-Limiting Valve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
M. Reservoir Bag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
N. Breathing System Manometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
O. Vaporizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
P. Scavenging Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
IV. Breathing Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
B. Dead Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
C. Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
D. Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
E. Rebreathing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
F. Nonrebreathing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
V. Anesthetic Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
B. Rodent Anesthesia Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
C. Veterinary Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
D. Human Anesthesia Machines and Workstations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

127
128 GEORGE A. VOGLER

E. Used Anesthesia Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

F. Maintenance and Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
VI. Ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
B. Bellows Ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
C. Piston Ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
D. Pneumatic Ventilators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
E. Jet Ventilation and High-Frequency Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
VII. Induction Chambers and Masks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
A. Induction Chambers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
B. Face Masks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
VIII. Injectable Anesthetic Delivery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
IX. Equipment for Airway Access and Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A. Laryngoscopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
B. Endotracheal Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
C. Stylets, Guides, and Tube Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

I. INTRODUCTION be encountered in large or specialized surgical facilities. Less

commonly, special mixtures of oxygen with carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, nitrous oxide, or helium may be used for a variety of
With careful drug and dose selection, anesthesia can be
therapeutic or research purposes.
obtained using virtually any route of administration. To gain
The manufacture of compressed gases, cylinders, and associ-
responsive and consistent control of onset, depth, and dura-
ated delivery equipment is regulated by governmental agencies.
tion of general anesthesia, however, inhalational or intravenous
However, national compressed gas industrial associations, such
methods are usually selected. The delivery equipment associ-
as the Compressed Gas Association in the United States and
ated with these two techniques is the subject of this chapter.
Canada, and the European Industrial Gas Association cooperate
Since the first edition of this text, the needs of researchers
closely with their respective national authorities to set manufac-
and clinicians working with small laboratory rodents have been
turing and safety standards. Medical gases are treated as drugs,
addressed with specially designed and often innovative anesthe-
and their composition, manufacture, and identification are fur-
sia machines. Concurrently, improvements have been made in
ther regulated by appropriate national entities. Gases and gas
small and large animal clinical veterinary anesthesia machines.
mixtures intended for industrial use may contain toxic contam-
Machines made for human clinical anesthesia have continued
inants and hence should not be used for medical purposes.
further down the path of increasing complexity: larger units,
Even in facilities that have a central gas supply system,
with integrated ventilators, extensive use of microprocessors for
compressed gas cylinders are common in the operating room.
controls and alarms, and in many cases, integrated physiological
Representative examples of medical gas cylinders are discussed
and safety monitors are now the rule.
below.
The equipment and methods used for patient monitoring and
for waste gas monitoring have assumed increasing importance
and are described in Chapters 7 and 8. A. Cylinders

1. E Tanks
E cylinders are small tanks mounted on the anesthetic
II. COMPRESSED GASES
machine or attached to a separate regulator by means of a yoke
assembly. The cylinder valve port forms a flush connection with
The compressed gases most commonly used in laboratory the yoke, using the Pin Index Safety System, a safety standard
animal anesthesia are oxygen, nitrous oxide, and medical air. intended to avoid misconnection. The yoke is fitted with two
Despite not being a component of general anesthesia, carbon steel pins corresponding to holes in the cylinder valve assem-
dioxide is often used for euthanasia of small rodents, and bly. The spacing of the yoke pins and tank holes is specific to a
when mixed with oxygen is sometimes used for momentary particular gas preventing the wrong gas from being connected
restraint of rodents. It is also routinely used for insufflation dur- to the yoke. Damaged missing pins defeat the safety system,
ing laparoscopic procedures. Cylinders of carbon dioxide are and care should be taken to inspect the yoke each time a fresh
ubiquitous in most laboratory animal facilities. Nitrogen, at rel- cylinder is mounted to assure that the pins are intact and the
atively high delivery pressures, is often used as the power source yoke is in good condition. No attempt should be made to bypass
for pneumatically powered surgical instruments, and may well this safety system (Petty and Sosis, 1997a).
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 129

A gasket is used to assure a gas-tight seal between the cylinder the tank contents at unsafe levels of pressure or temperature,
and the yoke. E cylinders are usually supplied with a fresh gasket or both.
fitted over the port and covered by a plastic seal. The gasket
should be replaced each time a fresh tank is mounted. If both 2. Large Tanks
the cylinder port and the yoke are in good repair, only a single
gasket is needed. Multiple gaskets should not be used in an The nomenclature for these tanks varies with local custom
attempt to seal a leaky connection. Instead, the yoke should be and supplier. In Table 5-1, they are identified by the typical
repaired if needed, or the cylinder labeled and returned to the volume of gas held at normal service pressure, the maximum
supplier. pressure to which they are normally filled. These tanks are used
Special cylinder wrenches, or handles are made to fit small to supply small central piping systems, or to directly supply gas
tank valves. A common design is a flat metal or plastic to an anesthetic machine, a common practice in laboratories.
wrench with two slots at one end, arranged at 90◦ from each The valve assembly includes a hand wheel, so a wrench is not
other to simplify engaging the valve stem. One style, seen in needed to open or close the valve. The threaded protective cap
Fig. 5-1, also has a larger hexagonal slot at the opposite end, used that covers the valve assembly during shipping should remain in
for tightening the valve packing nut. Since this design serves place until the tank is in use. Tank valves are not pressure regu-
equally well for loosening the packing nut, it is probably best lators. For safe use, a pressure regulator is necessary, either for
avoided for safety reasons. individual tanks, or as part of a manifold supply system. Large
Small tank valves incorporate a pressure relief device oppo- tank outlet ports use specific styles and patterns of threaded
site the outlet port and below the conical depression for the yoke connections to minimize the risk of unsafe connections with
retaining screw. The pressure relief device is designed to release regulators or manifolds. As with small cylinders, a safety relief
device is incorporated into the valve assembly.

3. Identification and Markings

Cylinders are identified by a series of numbers and symbols
stamped into the metal near the neck. These markings specify the
type and manufacturing standard for the cylinder, the maximum
service pressure, the maker or owner, the serial number, and the
test date and inspector’s identification. If the cylinder has been
in use for more than 10 years, the date of retesting also appears
(Compressed Gas Association, Inc., 1996).
A label is used to indicate the cylinder contents. The user
should ensure that the label clearly and legibly describes the
contents, and provides information concerning the hazard clas-
sification. Cylinders with missing or defaced labels should be
Fig. 5-1 Small Tank Wrench. Notice the two slots for the tank valve and the returned to the vendor, and should not be used. Medical gas
larger hexagonal opening for the valve-packing nut. cylinders are also color-coded. Table 5-1 lists the colors used in

TABLE 5-1
Common Medical Gas Cylinders

Pressure
At 15◦ C At 70◦ F
Style dimensions (OD×H) (cm) (in kPa) (psig) Air (L) Carbon dioxide (L) Nitrogen (L) Nitrous oxide (L) Oxygen (L)

E (10.8×66) 13890 2015 650 1590 640 1590 1590

110* (17.8×109) 13890 2015 2970 7570 2920 7570 3160
200* (21.6×130) 13890 2015 5260 13800 5160 13800 5590
225* (23.5×130) 13890 2015 5900 15800 5800 15800 6270
250* (23.5×130) 15620 2265 6590 — 6460 — 7060
Color USA Yellow Gray Black Blue Green
Canada Black & White Gray Black Blue White
European Union Black & White Gray Black Blue White

Note: Approval for publication received from Compressed Gas Association. Nomenclature varies. Except for E tanks, the first number indicates typical volume
in cubic feet at normal service pressure.
Source: Compressed Gas Association, Inc. (1996) and British Compressed Gases Association (2005).
130 GEORGE A. VOGLER

the United States, Canada, and the European Union for single configurations, such systems supply medical gases, medical
gases. Color combinations may be used to indicate gas mixtures, vacuum and, in most cases, central waste anesthetic scavenging
and are further described in the relevant publications (British connections to surgical and medical support sites. For facil-
Compressed Gas Association, 2005; Compressed Gas Associa- ities that make regular use of pneumatically powered surgical
tion, Inc., 1996). Although color codes are helpful in identifying instruments, special high-pressure control stations are available,
cylinder contents, the label should always be read to ensure the limiting the need for cylinders in the surgical suite.
correct gas is being used. Outlets for central gas piping systems are configured as wall
connections, ceiling drops, or more elaborate fixed or retractable
4. Safety Precautions utility drops incorporating the required gases, vacuum and scav-
enging services, as well as electrical outlets. The reduction in
Compressed gas cylinders are potentially hazardous; all those the need to routinely transport cylinders to and from the surgical
who handle, connect, or use cylinders should be aware of the areas greatly enhances the safety, sanitation, and convenience of
danger and be trained in safe handling practices. Texts deal- surgical and procedural areas. As well, the additional floor space
ing exclusively with anesthesia equipment and publications of gained by eliminating cylinders in surgical suites is a significant
industry associations list several pages of warnings and pre- advantage in space already crowded with anesthesia machines
cautions detailing the safe use of compressed gas cylinders and and patient support and monitoring equipment.
connections in anesthesia (Bland, 2005a; Dorsch and Dorsch, In planning a central supply system, it is important to work
1999a). Such detail is well beyond the scope of this chap- with architects and mechanical engineers experienced in oper-
ter, but a few elements of safe practice are summarized below ating room design, and it is essential that the end users are
(Compressed Gas Association, Inc., 1996). included in decisions concerning the location, number and types
1. Cylinders should be stored in a manner that prevents expo- of services required for research animal facilities.
sure to extremes of temperature, weather, and chemicals There are several common styles of outlets, including several
or fumes that can cause corrosion of valves and caps. proprietary “quick disconnect” designs, all intended to pre-
2. Cylinders should never be subjected to rough or careless vent misconnections. If a connection style is already in use
handling. Cylinder carriers or carts should always be used in the facility, it is best to maintain the style in new construc-
for moving cylinders. Cylinders in use or in storage should tion or renovation in order to maintain flexibility in relocating
be properly secured. equipment.
3. Cylinders should be inspected before use. Damaged cylin-
ders or valve components should be tagged and the
cylinder returned to the filler. No attempt to repair a III. ANESTHETIC MACHINE COMPONENTS
cylinder should be made by the user.
4. Cylinder labels should be legible and the contents clearly
identified. Regardless of color code, the cylinder should A. Introduction
not be used if the label is illegible.
5. Cylinder valves should be opened slowly to avoid damage In its simplest form, an anesthetic machine must control fresh
or explosion caused by sudden temperature and pressure gas flow, provide a means of delivering the fresh gas to the
increases. Before connecting cylinders to yokes, mani- patient, and control the concentration of anesthetic vapor deliv-
folds or regulators, the valve should be slightly opened to ered. A method of disposing of waste anesthetic gas may be
clear dust and debris from the port. incorporated into the machine, or may be added as a separate
6. Cylinder valves, connections, and regulators must be kept component. Additional components include provisions to assist
free of foreign materials. Never attempt to lubricate a gas ventilation, such as adjustable pressure limiting (APL) valves
fitting and avoid exposing any fitting to oils, greases or and reservoir bags, absorber systems to remove exhaled carbon
any other flammable substance. dioxide and minimize fresh gas and anesthetic agent use, and
7. Connection to regulators, manifolds, and yokes should connections for both small and large tanks or central gas sup-
never be forced. Connection hardware is designed to plies. More complex machines and workstations often include
prevent connection of incompatible gases and equip- integrated ventilators and controls, multiple gas flowmeters,
ment. Failure to connect easily indicates incompatible or auxiliary gas outlets, monitors, etc. The basic components are
damaged fittings, and represents a potential safety hazard. discussed below.
Human anesthesia equipment is subject to various national
and, in some cases international, standards. This is not always
B. Medical Gas Piping Systems the case for veterinary equipment, although some veterinary
equipment makers do conform to selected standards. In this
Central medical gas supply systems offer considerable and subsequent sections the term “current standards” generally
advantages in terms of safety and convenience. In various refers to human anesthesia machines.
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 131

Fig. 5-2 Small Tank Yoke. The flush-type port, Pin Index System pins and retaining screw are seen on the left. The right yoke is not in use, and is protected by
a yoke plug.

B. Yoke Assemblies The small cylinder yoke should conform to the Pin Index
Safety System. If it does not, or if the index pins are damaged,
Oxygen and other gases enter the anesthetic machine either the assembly should be replaced or repaired to conform to this
from a small tank yoke (Fig. 5-2) or from a connection to a minimal safety standard. In the absence of a cylinder, yoke plugs
large tank or central supply system. The cylinder yoke assembly are used to protect the port from dirt and damage and to further
includes a flush-type port, a filter to remove debris from the gas, limit the escape of gas from the machine. On new machines,
and a retaining screw to secure and support the cylinder. On the yoke plug is usually chained to the yoke assembly. Missing
some machines, including all current human models, a single plugs should be replaced.
stage regulator with a check valve is a part of the yoke assembly.
The check valve prevents loss of gas from the machine when C. Central Supply Connections
small cylinders are not mounted and also prevents cross-filling
of cylinders when both centrally piped supply lines and small Noninterchangeable threaded connections are used to con-
cylinders are connected (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999a; Petty and nect the machine to large cylinder or central piped gas supplies
Sosis, 1997b). (Fig. 5-3). In the United States, the inlet is a male fitting con-
Small tanks are supported in the cylinder yoke by a retain- forming to Diameter Index Safety System (DISS) designed to
ing screw that mates with a conical depression on the valve prevent misconnections (Fig. 5-3). The inlets include a check
assembly of the cylinder. Two types of seals are used. Some valve to prevent gas from the machine entering the central pip-
manufacturers use a metal-bound washer with a soft synthetic ing system, as well as gas escaping from the machine if it is not
rubber center. This style is reusable. The second style is a plas- connected to the piping system. International standards are sim-
tic washer, also called a crush gasket, usually supplied with the ilar, but require a female connection on the machine in order to
cylinder. Crush gaskets are intended only for single use and, in eliminate leakage if the gas line is disconnected at the machine
comparison to reusable sealing washers, require greater force while still attached to the central piping system (LaChappell,
to attain a tight seal. Only a single gasket should be needed: if 2006). Pipeline pressures are usually regulated to 45–55 pounds
a gas-tight seal cannot be made with a single new crush gasket, per square inch gauge (psig) (272–375 kPa) for breathing gases
either the tank or the yoke is faulty. The tank should be removed (Bland, 2005b; Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999a).
from service, or the yoke repaired. A recent FDA-NIOH
safety notification illustrates and describes the dangers asso- D. Pressure Regulation
ciated with improper use of crush gaskets (U.S. Food and Drug
Administration, Center for Devices and Radiological Health, Gas pressure in anesthetic machines is conventionally divided
2006). into three zones: high, intermediate, and low pressure systems.
132 GEORGE A. VOGLER

E. Gas Supply Pressure Gauges

On veterinary machines, pressure gauges for small cylin-

ders are typically located at the yoke. On human machines, the
gauges may be located at the yoke, but are more commonly
grouped with pipeline pressure gauges below the flowmeter
assembly.
Pipeline pressure gauges are rare on veterinary equipment,
but common on newer human machines. These usually indicate
the pressure at the pipeline side of the central gas inlet, and
are located on the front of the machine, below the flowmeters.
This is not true for some older human machines, in which the
gauge reads pressure on the machine side of the pipeline inlet
connection. In the latter instance, if the small cylinder supply
valves are open, the gauges will give no warning of central sup-
ply failure. A means for determining the location of the central
supply sensor is described by Dorsch and Dorsch (1999b), who
also recommend that small cylinder valves be closed when the
machine is connected to a central gas piping system.
When connected to a cylinder, pressure gauges give an accu-
rate estimation of the amount remaining for gases such as
oxygen and nitrogen, which remain in the gas phase at normal
temperatures and cylinder working pressures. As gas is with-
drawn, gauge pressure decreases proportionately. However, for
some gases, such as carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide, most of
the contents of the tank are in liquid form at room temperature,
Fig. 5-3 Central Supply Connection. DISS central supply connections for so that gauge pressure is an unreliable indicator until the cylin-
oxygen (top hose) and nitrous oxide (lower hose). The chromed elbow fitting at
der contents are nearly exhausted. Pressure will drop as gas is
the bottom of the photograph is the common gas outlet.
used, but when use is discontinued, any remaining liquid will
convert to the gas phase and the pressure will again rise to a
limit determined by the ambient temperature. Once the liquid
contents are exhausted, gauge pressure will drop abruptly as
The high-pressure system refers to those components connected the remaining gaseous tank contents are removed (Davis and
directly to gas cylinders. Cylinder pressure is too high for Kenny, 2003a; Heavner et al., 1989a). Small cylinders of car-
patient safety, difficult to regulate at the relatively low flows bon dioxide and nitrous oxide are commonly labeled with gross
required, and variable, dropping as the cylinder contents are and net weights and can be weighed to determine the amount of
used. The regulator acts to lower the pressure to a safer, con- gas remaining.
stant, and more easily controlled level (Dorsch and Dorsch,
1999b; Hartsfield, 1996a). As noted above, single-stage pres-
F. Flowmeters
sure regulators and check valves are standard on all but the oldest
human equipment. Small cylinder yokes are often optional
1. Variable-area Flowmeters
on veterinary machines and depend upon external pressure
regulators mounted on the cylinder to accomplish the same The most common flowmeter used on anesthetic machines
end. For machines supplied by large tanks, a tank regulator is a clear glass or plastic tube, having a gradually tapered bore
is used to reduce the pressure to the manufacturer’s suggested narrower at the bottom and wider at the top. The bore contains
level. a float that is driven up the tube by the force of the gas flow, and
The intermediate pressure zone comprises gases entering the stops when the weight of the float equals the force of the gas.
machine at reduced pressure from central pipelines or from Because the space between the walls of the bore and the float
cylinders equipped with pressure regulators. This system sup- increases toward the top, the height of the float increases with
plies gas to flowmeter assembly, flush valve, ventilator drive, increasing flow. This design is called a variable-area or variable-
and auxiliary gas power outlets. orifice flowmeter or, in older references, a Thorpe tube. The tube
Pressure is further reduced as breathing gases pass through is usually etched with a scale, indicating the flow rate in liters per
the flowmeters and to the patient breathing circuit, forming the minute (lpm). In some cases, the scale may be located adjacent
low pressure zone of the machine. to the tube. Stops are used at the bottom and top of the tube
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 133

to limit the excursion of the float at both extremes. Veterinary to wear, and require periodic adjustment, or replacement. Valve
machines commonly use a ball float; the flow is read at the center replacement does not require replacement of the flowmeter tube.
of the float. Alternatively, a cylindrical float, called a bobbin,
is used on most human equipment. Bobbins vary somewhat in 2. Flow Restrictors
design, but characteristically have a flat top, cylindrical body,
and a conical base. If the top of the bobbin is machined with Flow restrictors are often used for mobile emergency medical
small vanes, it will rotate when gas is flowing, a style often oxygen supplies (Fig. 5-4). Essentially, a small orifice is inter-
referred to as a rotameter. In contrast to ball floats, bobbins are posed between the pressure regulator and the gas outlet; constant
read at the top. pressure produces constant flow. In this application, flow restric-
Two common approaches are used to gain greater precision tors usually employ a rotating cylinder with a sequence of
at low flows. On most human equipment and many veterinary orifices of increasing size, allowing the user to select a suit-
machines, two tubes are connected in series, such that gas enters able flow rate from a range of discrete settings. Flow restrictors
the first tube, usually calibrated up to 1 lpm, and then, enters the will function in any orientation making them well suited for
second tube, calibrated for higher flows. Each tube contains a emergency and field applications.
float; flows up to 1 lpm are read on the first tube, and higher flows Flow restrictors are used in a new class of machines designed
on the second. Dual flowmeters are available for oxygen and, on specifically to support multiple patient circuits for rodent proce-
many new anesthesia machines, for nitrous oxide and medical dures. Because these machines are intended for relatively brief,
air as well. This arrangement is especially useful for low-flow repetitive procedures on small rodents, a predetermined fixed
anesthesia techniques. On some machines, a single tube with flow rate can be used for each patient circuit. Pressure regulators
a dual taper is used. A narrow initial taper indicates flow up in the machine maintain constant pressure so that each patient
to 1 lpm, and widens as flow exceeds 1 lpm. Current standards circuit can be switched on or off independently of the others.
require a single flow controller for each separate gas, so that a
single knob control operates dual tube assemblies (Diba, 2005a; 3. Electronic Flow Control
Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999b). Some older machines use a sepa-
rate valve for each tube, requiring the user to read both tubes Gas flow can be sensed and controlled by electronic means.
and add the indicated flows to determine the total flow. Several current human anesthesia machines take advantage of
Flow is controlled by a needle valve. On new equipment, this and of extensive use of microprocessors to detect and con-
the valves are usually equipped with positive stops to prevent trol flow, and to prevent the use of hypoxic mixtures. Some
damage to the needle and seat due to over tightening on clo-
sure. Valves without positive stops remain common on older
veterinary machines, and care is needed not to over tighten
and damage the valves. Current standards require the oxygen
control knob to have a distinctive fluted design. Some human
anesthetic machines do not permit oxygen flow to be turned off
completely; rather, a continuous minimum flow of oxygen is
established once the machine is connected to the pipeline supply
or when the small tanks are opened. This should not be mis-
taken for a faulty valve: it is a safety feature intended to prevent
hypoxia.
The arrangement of flowmeters is not standard internation-
ally. In the United States, oxygen is situated to the right of all
other flowmeters whereas in the United Kingdom and elsewhere
it is located on the left of the flowmeter bank (Diba, 2005a).
Variable-area flowmeters are deceptively simple in appear-
ance and use, but are subject to a number of problems and
limitations. Flowmeter tubes are individually calibrated for
a specific gas. Thus, tubes will not read correctly for other
gases, and the tubes and floats are not interchangeable. Dam-
aged tubes should be replaced as a unit (Dorsch and Dorsch,
1999b; Hartsfield, 1996a). Unless specifically designed other- Fig. 5-4 Flotec Oxygen Flowmeter. In this flowmeter, a rotating cylinder
wise, flowmeters must be vertical to operate correctly; if the is used to select the flow rate from a series of fixed flows. The selector dial
is seen at the top, and the window below and to the left indicates the selected
float contacts the side of the tube, friction will cause erroneous flow. A hose barb connection is at lower left, and the central supply connection
readings. Dirt, debris, and static electricity can also interfere at the lower right. Supply connections are available in many styles. A DISS
with the free movement of the float. Needle valves are subject connection is seen here. Credit: Courtesy of Flotec, Inc.
134 GEORGE A. VOGLER

machines may depend entirely upon electronic detection and the absorber assembly and breathing tubing usually acts to buffer
control, displaying only “virtual” flowmeters on a monitor. pressure changes, a dangerous increase in breathing circuit pres-
Other models, bowing to convention and familiarity, include sure may still occur. The adjustable pressure limiting (APL)
a single variable-area flowmeter to indicate the total flow of valve or “pop-off ” valve should be fully open when the flush
gas to the breathing circuit. Solenoids can be used to control valve is activated. Circuits that do not make use of the absorber
fresh gas supplies by opening valves to release fresh gases to system, such as Bain circuits, have a limited ability to buffer
the vaporizer and breathing system. The amount of gas is deter- abrupt pressure changes. Because of the risk of barotrauma, the
mined by the frequency and duration of valve opening, yielding flush valve should not be used with these or other nonrebreath-
an accurate average flow. The specific arrangements used vary ing circuits. Instead, anesthetic agent levels in the circuits can
with manufacturer and model of machine. In general, such elec- be rapidly altered by changing the concentration at the vaporizer
tronic control systems provide better accuracy than conventional and briefly increasing fresh gas flows using the flowmeter.
variable-area flowmeters, as well as the opportunity to include
additional sophisticated safety and control functions. At least
I. Common Gas Outlet
one veterinary small animal machine uses a combination of
flow restrictors, solenoids, and microprocessors to deliver the
The common gas outlet (Fig. 5-3) is the point at which the
desired flow rate and agent concentration which are entered by
mixture of breathing gas and anesthetic agent exit the machine
the anesthetist using a touch-sensitive screen.
and, by means of a connecting hose, enter the breathing circuit.
Older machines and most veterinary machines use a 15 mm
G. Oxygen Fail-Safe and Proportioning Systems female tapered connection. In addition to the 15 mm female
connections, newer equipment used in humans may include a
Failure of the oxygen supply can be catastrophic. Most human coaxial 22 mm male connection. The 15 mm connection is the
anesthesia machines are equipped with alarms to warn the same size as an endotracheal tube connector. Current standards
anesthetist of oxygen supply failure. Such devices are rare on for human anesthesia machines require a retaining mechanism
veterinary equipment, placing the responsibility to monitor the to limit accidental disconnection. Depending upon the manu-
supply status on the user. The specific means used to warn of low facturer, model, and intended use, veterinary equipment may
oxygen supply varies with the make and model of the machine, vary considerably from the description given above.
but all monitor supply pressure and sound an alarm when pres-
sure falls below a predetermined minimum pressure (Dorsch
J. Absorber Systems
and Dorsch, 1999b; Petty and Sosis, 1997c).
Proportioning systems are intended to prevent hypoxic oxy-
Absorber systems are used with circle breathing circuits to
gen:nitrous oxide ratios. These systems may use mechanical
remove carbon dioxide from exhaled breathing gases so that they
linkages, pneumatic systems, or more recently, electronic
may be reused, reducing fresh gas requirements, and conserv-
sensors. They operate to prevent the oxygen content of the mix-
ing volatile anesthetic agents, moisture, and heat. Absorbents
ture falling below a safe level, usually about 25%. On some
are granular materials, typically comprised of calcium hydrox-
machines, loss of normal oxygen pressures will interrupt or
ide and water, with small amounts of potassium, sodium or
proportionately reduce nitrous oxide flow.
barium hydroxide to speed up the uptake of carbon dioxide.
Most research facilities employ used or reconditioned human
A certain amount of water is essential for the absorbent to func-
machines. Because of the diversity of safety features, and their
tion properly. Carbon dioxide is removed by an exothermic
increase in number and complexity over time, it is essential
chemical reaction with the formation of calcium carbonate.
that the user clearly understand the function, operation, and
A color change, indicated by pH-sensitive dyes, signals that
limitations of the machine.
the absorbent is exhausted.
Sevoflurane is known to degrade in the presence of absorbents
H. Oxygen Flush Valve to produce a product called Compound A. At low levels, Com-
pound A has not proven to be clinically significant in humans,
The oxygen flush valve is usually located on the front of the although it has been shown to be nephrotoxic at high levels in rats
machine and is provided with some form of protection against (Kharasch et al., 2002). However, absorbents containing sodium
accidental activation. When the valve is activated, fresh oxygen or potassium hydroxide can also degrade desflurane, isoflurane,
is delivered to the common gas outlet at the rate of 35–75 lpm, and sevoflurane with the formation of carbon monoxide. Dorsch
bypassing the flowmeters and vaporizer. Flush valves are usually and Dorsch (1999c) summarized the conditions leading to the
spring-loaded and close as soon as pressure on the button is greatest degradation and identified desiccated absorbents as the
released. most important factor, absorbents containing barium hydroxide
Activating the flush valve will result in rapid dilution of the being the most commonly implicated. Baralyme® is no longer
anesthetic gases in the patient circuit. Although the volume of available in the United States and Europe, and most absorbents
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 135

have been reformulated to reduce or eliminate the use of potas- the patient inhales, pressure is reduced in the dome and the valve
sium and sodium hydroxide (Kharasch et al., 2002; Olympio, rises allowing gas to flow. At the same time, lower pressure in the
2005). General recommendations emphasize measures to avoid expiratory valve port causes the disc to seal the port, stopping
drying absorbents, such as turning off gas flow completely when the flow. Upon exhalation, pressures in the circuit are reversed,
the machine is not in use, changing all absorbent when the indi- sealing the inhalation valve and opening the exhalation valve.
cator changes color, and changing absorbent regardless of color Clear plastic domes cover the valves, to allow inspection dur-
indicator if it has not been used for some time (Coppens et al., ing anesthesia and testing. The domes are removable to permit
2006). cleaning and disc replacement. Current standards require the
Absorber assemblies are usually located in the inspiratory valves to be clearly labeled to indicate their proper connection
limb of the breathing circuit, with the inspiratory valve located to the breathing hoses. Valve housings have standard 22 mm
on or adjacent to the absorber assembly. The absorber frequently diameter male connections for breathing hoses.
is integrated into a block containing the unidirectional valves, Breathing valves are subject to accumulated moisture and
adjustable pressure relief valve, and circuit manometer. The debris and should be cleaned regularly to prevent valves from
absorbent is contained in a transparent or translucent hous- sticking. Care is needed during reassembly to assure that the
ing. On some machines, the housing will accept either loose discs, cages, and gaskets are correctly seated. Correct valve
or prefilled canisters, and may include a dust and moisture trap. function should be observed when the machine is checked and
Dual canister absorbers are used on some human and veterinary tested before use, as well as during anesthesia.
machines to extend the interval before the absorbent change
is needed. The configuration of absorber assemblies varies in
L. Adjustable Pressure-Limiting Valve
detail, but in all designs, exhaled gas is directed through the
assembly by way of unidirectional valves. The fresh gas inlet
The pressure in the circle breathing system is controlled by the
for the circle system is located near or on the assembly, usually
APL valve or “pop-off ” valve (Fig. 5-5). The APL valve is ordi-
adjacent to the outflow side.
narily located on or adjacent to the absorber assembly between
Disposable absorber systems are used on some veterinary and
the absorber and the expiratory unidirectional valve. On most
human machines. They are available in a number of configura-
veterinary and older human machines, the reservoir bag connec-
tions, including complete assemblies with integrated circuits,
tion is often incorporated into theAPL valve assembly. Although
unidirectional valves, and pressure relief valves. If equipped
the specific design varies with the manufacturer, all APL valves
with filters, complete assemblies are sometimes used to protect
can be gradually adjusted from fully open to fully closed, impos-
the machine from contamination when patients with infectious
ing progressive resistance to gas escape. Some APL valves are
diseases are anesthetized.
equipped with a safety relief feature to protect against either
Absorbents are sold in sealed packages designed for one
negative pressure in the breathing circuit, or abnormally high
filling, prefilled canister inserts to fit many common absorber
pressure. Even when the APL valve is fully open, a slight degree
canisters, and in bulk containers. While the bulk supplies are
of opening pressure is maintained to prevent constant loss of
less expensive per unit weight, they are more difficult to seal
breathing gases. This slight positive pressure is enough to fill the
and are best used in facilities with relatively high workloads.
reservoir bag, without adverse consequences. Loss of the speci-
Absorbers should be cleaned when they are refilled to remove
fied opening pressure through damage or corrosion can result in
dust and caked absorbent. In order to minimize leaks, absorbent
uncontrolled loss of gas from the breathing circuit and difficulty
granules and dust should be removed from the canister rim and
in regulating the scavenging system (Hallowell, 2006). Gas exits
seals before closing the canister.
the valve via a 19 or 30 mm fitting leading to the scavenger inter-
face. During spontaneous breathing, the APL valve is normally
fully open except when manually assisting ventilation patients.
K. Unidirectional Valves
The scavenging port connections are sized to prevent con-
nection to 22 mm breathing hoses. Nineteen or 30 mm tubing
Unidirectional valves direct the flow of gases in circle sys-
is inexpensive and readily available, so there is little reason to
tems to prevent rebreathing of expired gases (Fig. 5-5). In
attempt to circumvent this safety feature with 22 mm tubing and
most human and veterinary machines, the valves are thin discs
ad hoc connections.
arranged horizontally on carefully machined ports, in metal or
hard polymer housings. Discs may be made of several materials
but are, in any case, light to reduce resistance to breathing, and M. Reservoir Bag
flat to ensure a tight seal with the port. In many designs, a cage
is used to confine the disc and prevent displacement. Gases The reservoir, or breathing bag, attaches to the bag port, usu-
entering the valve force the disc up, permitting flow through ally close to, or part of, theAPL valve assembly. At the beginning
the port. Flow in the opposite direction forces the disc onto of inspiration, very high momentary flows are needed; for larger
the seat, sealing the port. Thus, for the inspiratory valve, when patients, the flows required could exceed the flowmeter limits of
136 GEORGE A. VOGLER

Fig. 5-5 Breathing System Manometer. The gauge is located between the inspiratory valve and the absorber assembly on the left and the expiratory valve and
APL valve on the right.

the machines. The bag serves as a volume reservoir to meet the but also to detect or avoid dangerously high pressures due to
demands of ventilation, allowing lower, and more economical, operator error or mechanical malfunction. The manometer indi-
fresh flows to be used. Most reservoir bags are elastic. There cates negative as well as positive pressure, i.e., it indicates
is a limit at which the volume will continue to increase, but pressure below ambient, as when a patient attempts to inspire
with no further increase in pressure (Davis and Kenny, 2003b). in the presence of an empty reservoir bag, or independently
This feature provides a degree of protection against high breath- of a mechanical ventilator, or a malfunction in certain active
ing circuit pressures. The maximum pressure reached for small waste gas scavenging systems. Circuit manometers register rel-
breathing bags of up to1.5 liters is 50 cm H2 O at four times the ative, not absolute, pressure. The indicator needle should move
nominal volume; for bags greater than 1.5 liters, the pressure smoothly in response to pressure changes, and should indicate
limit is 60 cm H2 O, but these pressures may be exceeded if non- zero pressure when the breathing circuit is not in use. Time and
compliant bags are used (Davey, 2005a; Dorsch and Dorsch, exposure to pressure extremes can result in loss of calibration
1999d). While the reservoir bag must at least accommodate which should be corrected before continued use.
the demands of a single tidal breath, in practice larger bags
are used. For veterinary patients, Lerche et al. (2000a) recom-
mended using reservoir bags of 3–5 times the tidal volume of O. Vaporizers
the patient.
Both reusable and disposable reservoir bags are available in Vaporizers convert volatile liquid anesthetics into gases,
a variety of sizes. Disposable bags are thinner, lighter than which are then added to the breathing gas mixture. A num-
reusable bags, reasonably durable and hence preferred. With ber of classification schemes are used for vaporizers including
time, reservoir bags deteriorate; they rank high on the list of the method of output regulation, method of vaporization, location
usual suspects when the machine fails a pressure test. Typically in the breathing circuit, agent specificity, and temperature and
cracks or holes occur at the neck of the bag where it joins the pressure compensation. In the following section, vaporizers that
bag port adaptor. permit accurate selection of the final concentration of vapor in
the breathing circuit are called precision vaporizers. Neither
nonprecision vaporizers nor measured flow vaporizers (with
N. Breathing System Manometer two exceptions) are discussed in detail. While older nonpreci-
sion vaporizers and measured flow vaporizers remain in use for
The pressure in the breathing circuit is usually expressed some veterinary and selected human applications, in general
in centimeters of water, measured by an aneroid manometer they require different and greater skills for safe use than pre-
located in the breathing circuit (Fig. 5-5). The manometer is an cision variable bypass vaporizers. Readers interested in these
important safety component, used not only to assure appropri- vaporizers should consult the anesthesia equipment references
ate inflation pressures during assisted or controlled ventilation, listed in “Additional Reading” section. The vaporizers discussed
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 137

below are all located out of the breathing circuit, and are, with varying flow rates, and is available from the manufacturer and
the exception of electronic designs, variable bypass precision in anesthesia equipment texts and papers. Many older vapor-
vaporizers. izers, still in common use in veterinary and research facilities,
are not linear below flow rates of 0.5 lpm. With the increasing
popularity of low-flow techniques, new vaporizers are designed
1. Variable Bypass Vaporizers
for greater precision at low flows. The carrier gas composition,
Variable bypass vaporizers are the most likely to be encoun- when nitrous oxide is used, has an effect on the output, but is
tered. All of the fresh gas exiting the flowmeter block is directed not ordinarily clinically significant (Davey, 2005a).
into the vaporizer where the flow is divided: a small portion In addition to the control wheel, vaporizers have a filling port,
diverted into the vaporizer chamber, while the greater portion a sight glass to indicate fill level, a drain port, and a means of
bypasses the chamber. Wicks are used to maximize the surface connecting to the gas supply and breathing circuit. Many older
area for evaporation of the anesthetic agent in the chamber, so vaporizers used funnel-filling ports. This style of filling port
that the fresh gas becomes saturated with the agent. The diverted is more prone to spillage and personnel exposure to volatile
gas, now saturated with vapor, leaves the chamber and joins the agents, and allows filling with the wrong agent. In this event,
main flow before exiting the vaporizer. The ratio of diverted the vaporizer must be drained and cleaned, and may require
gas to total flow is determined by the vapor pressure of the service before further use. If funnel-style filling ports are used,
agent and the desired concentration of the agent in the fresh a pouring adaptor for the agent bottle will increase control and
gas. Thus, the vaporizer is agent specific. A dial or hand wheel reduce spillage during filling (Fig. 5-6). Before opening the fill-
is used to select the desired concentration, and output is indi- ing port, the funnel should be cleaned to avoid carrying debris
cated in volume percent. Most modern vaporizers are equipped into the vaporizer chamber. Keyed filling adaptors use a tube
with a positive On/Off mechanical lock, usually a button, which with an agent-specific connector for the vaporizer and bottle,
must be activated before the vaporizer can be turned on. As with greatly reducing the chance of misfilling, environmental con-
variable-area flowmeters, the first concentration on the dial is tamination, and foreign material in the chamber (Fig. 5-7). The
the first reliable reading. Some vaporizers will not deliver the sight glass is a window or a tube marked to show the maximum
agent below the first indicated value. permissible filling level. Vaporizers should not be over filled as
The output is affected by a number of physical factors includ- this can result in delivery of dangerously high anesthetic agent
ing temperature, pressure, fresh gas flow rate, and carrier gas levels. In most cases, the vaporizer must be turned off and fresh
composition. As fresh gas passes through the vaporizer chamber gas flow discontinued during filling. Because this is an inconve-
and removes the volatile agent, the temperature in the chamber nient process during anesthesia, the agent level should always
drops. The vapor pressure of volatile anesthetic agents varies be checked before the onset of a case. Failure to secure the fill-
directly with temperature, so the output is affected. Modern ing port cap before the carrier gas is turned on will result in a
vaporizers have mechanical or, in some cases electronic, means gas pressure forcing liquid agent out of the filling port, resulting
of compensating for the effects of temperature. Mechanical in personnel hazard and wasting agent.
methods generally depend upon thermal expansion or contrac- The drain port is used to empty the vaporizer chamber for
tion of fluid-filled pistons, bimetallic strips, or mated metal storage and service. Few vaporizers are completely vapor tight,
surfaces to proportionately vary the resistance of the chamber and a small amount of agent will be lost over time. The vaporizer
outlet, to maintain a constant output. A notable feature of most should be drained before storage, transport, or extended periods
vaporizers is their weight. Many vaporizers enclose the vapor- of disuse. By design, vaporizers are mounted and used in a ver-
izing chamber with a relatively large mass of metal to act as a tical position. While some newer designs are relatively tolerant
heat sink and an additional buffer against temperature changes.
Some older vaporizers instead included a thermometer in the
vaporizing chamber and provided a table of vapor pressure ver-
sus temperature chart to allow for manual adjustment of the
concentration.
Pressure variations in the breathing circuit, as with mechan-
ical ventilation, affect vaporizer output. This is also addressed
in modern vaporizers by several methods to minimize the effect
of backpressure. Flow dependency, the variation in output at
different fresh gas flow rates, also alters the delivered vapor con-
centration. The relationship between the concentration set on the
dial and the actual concentration at any given flow is referred
Fig. 5-6 Pouring Adaptor. A pouring adaptor replaces the original bottle
to as linearity. The linearity varies among vaporizer models. cap. The adaptor minimizes spills during filling of vaporizers with funnel filling
This information is provided with new vaporizers, usually pre- ports. The adaptor is color-coded and will fit only the correct bottle of anesthetic
sented as a chart showing measured vs. dial concentration at agent.
138 GEORGE A. VOGLER

Fig. 5-8 Tec 3 Style Vaporizer. A Pentec 2-methoxyflurane vaporizer. The

exterior appearance of this older Cyprane vaporizer is the same as current Tec 3
vaporizers. The filling port at the lower right is a funnel fill; the cap is reversed to
fit the drain port. While this model is no longer in production, Tec 3 vaporizers
for halothane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane remain popular and are produced by
Fig. 5-7 Keyed FillingAdaptor. The keyed filling adaptor has keyed stainless several manufacturers.
steel fittings to fit the vaporizer and the anesthetic agent bottle, and provides
a path for air to escape as the vaporizer is filled. Credit: Courtesy of Sharn
Anesthesia.

of tipping, many older designs are not, and will deliver high,
uncontrolled levels of anesthetic vapor if the control mechanism
is wetted with the liquid agent.
Several different mounting arrangements are used to attach
the vaporizer to the anesthetic machine. Most veterinary
machines use the cage mount system (Fig. 5-8). In order to
assure a compatible mounting connection to the machine it is
best to seek advice from the vaporizer or machine vendor or
a qualified service technician. When two or more vaporizers
are mounted on the same machine, lockout mechanisms should
be used to prevent simultaneous use. Vaporizers should not be
linked in series without a positive lockout mechanism. While
the design of the lockout system varies with the machine maker,
such arrangements have been used on human equipment for
many years, and are now available on some veterinary machines
as well. Vaporizers should be placed between the flowmeters
and the oxygen flush valve. The practice of connecting a vapor-
izer between the common gas outlet and the breathing system
is dangerous because activation of the flush valve will direct
high gas flows through the vaporizer, leading to uncontrollable
increases in agent levels (Andrews, 1990). Typical examples
of variable bypass vaporizers are seen in Figs 5-8, 5-9, and 5-
10. Tec 3 style vaporizers achieved widespread popularity when Fig. 5-9 Dräger Vapor 19.1 Vaporizer. The 19.1 series precision vaporizer
is no longer produced, but is still widely used. The 19.n series was noted for
they were first produced. The patent has long expired, but these its linearity over a wide range of flows and for its durability. The funnel filling
vaporizers continue to be made, with some design changes, by port is at the center lower right, with the drain port below it. Credit: Courtesy
several manufacturers. of DREVeterinary (www.dreveterinary.com).
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 139

output can occur gradually, emphasizing the importance of reg-

ular validation. Output validation is not the same as vaporizer
service, which involves disassembly, repair and replacement of
worn or defective components, as well as calibration. Anesthetic
vaporizers are not user serviceable. Service recommendations
are specified by the manufacturer, and vary from annually to
“as needed,” depending upon the specific model. While the
vaporizer is being serviced, many vendors provide replacement
vaporizers, minimizing the inconvenience. Properly calibrated
anesthetic agent monitors are especially useful to monitor
vaporizer performance.

2. Measured Flow Vaporizers

The original models of measured flow vaporizers have long
been out of production. Newer versions made primarily for mili-
tary field anesthesia are in use, but neither these nor older models
are discussed at length here. Readers interested in these vapor-
izers should consult the texts listed under “Additional Reading.”
The earlier editions of these texts contain extensive information
about older equipment.
In measured flow vaporizers, gas exiting the vaporizer is fully
saturated with the volatile agent. Separate flowmeters are used
Fig. 5-10 Penlon Sigma Delta Vaporizer. This new vaporizer is made of for the vaporizer and gas flow to the patient breathing circuit.
aluminum, and is unusually light. It has improved linearity and, except for The operator regulates the required flow to the vaporizer, and
halothane models, a recommended 10-year service interval. Credit: Courtesy the fresh gas flowmeters, so that the combination of the vapor-
of DREVeterinary (www.dreveterinary.com). izer output and the main flowmeter output corresponds to the
desired concentration of agent in the breathing circuit. In older
machines, the calculations required were accomplished with
a circular slide rule which took into account total desired flow,
An unusual variant of the variable bypass vaporizer is found final concentration of agent, and temperature (hence vapor pres-
on the Datex-Ohmeda ADU workstation, which uses the Aladin sure of the agent) in the vaporizer, thereby yielding the correct
vaporizer. In this electronically controlled machine, the vapor- flowmeter rates for the vaporizer and the main flowmeters. With
izer control unit is located above the pressure gauges on the front experience, those adept at mental mathematics can dispense
of the machine above the work shelf. The vaporizer chamber, or with the calculator. With the increasing application of micro-
cassette, is removable from the vaporizer control system. Cas- processors and electronic sensors in medicine, measured flow
settes are agent specific and coded so that the vaporizer control vaporizers have reappeared in new form.
module recognizes the agent being used. Cassettes are avail- Because desflurane has an unusually high vapor pressure,
able for all currently used agents, and can be stored on the boiling at 22.8◦ C, a conventional vaporizer cannot be used
machine. The system uses electronic pressure sensors and con- (Eger et al., 2002). Users of Tec 6 desflurane vaporizer will
trol valves in the vaporizer chamber and the bypass circuit to find thorough descriptions of it in Davey (2005a) and Dorsch
detect and control carrier gas flow and uses that information in and Dorsch (1999e). That these texts differ in their classifi-
conjunction with temperature sensors to calculate the delivered cation of the vaporizer is an indication of the novel design.
agent concentration (Davey, 2005b; Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999e; Briefly, the vaporizer is heated to a constant temperature to
Hendrickx et al., 2000). vaporize the agent. Electromechanical sensors and controls in
Vaporizers are not maintenance-free. A qualified service the chamber and in the fresh gas flow paths act, in concert with
technician should check vaporizer performance at least annu- the concentration dial, to proportionally alter the flow of agent
ally. While a calibrated agent analyzer can be used, most field vapor into the fresh gas pathway. A series of light emitting diode
service personnel use a specialized refractometer and large (LED) lights and a bar graph display vaporizer functional status
organizations may find it convenient to purchase the necessary and agent level in the vaporizer chamber. A specialized fill-
equipment. A vaporizer not performing as expected should be ing port is used to connect the agent bottle to the vaporizer
withdrawn from use and serviced. The degradation of vaporizer chamber.
140 GEORGE A. VOGLER

vaporizer and breathing circuit, this machine appears to use an

electronically controlled measured flow vaporizer.

P. Scavenging Systems

Waste gas scavenging and monitoring are discussed in more

detail in the following two chapters. In this section, only the
arrangements commonly found on anesthesia machines are
briefly described and illustrated. Scavenging systems comprise
collection devices, interfaces, and disposal systems. The most
common collection device is the APL valve, used for circle sys-
tems, and some types of nonrebreathing circuit adaptors. Other
nonrebreathing circuits, such as Mapleson-E and F circuits, dis-
cussed in a following section, do not use an APL valve. In this
case, waste gas is conducted directly from the circuit or reservoir
bag to the interface.
Two types of scavenging are used. Active scavenging makes
use of a fan or vacuum pump to provide continuous low pres-
sure at the scavenging interface, drawing the waste gas into the
Fig. 5-11 MK-1-IS Veterinary Anesthesia Machine. The vaporizer and disposal system. Vacuum systems use narrow gauge tubing to
flowmeter module is seen at the left. Note the touch-sensitive control panel.
In the center is a clear plastic absorber assembly with integrated unidirectional
conduct gas to a central suction system, and generate a large
valves, APL valve with scavenging connection (top), and reservoir bag port. The pressure differential. Fan-driven duct systems operate at much
breathing system manometer is seen at the top right, as well as the breathing lower pressure differences and employ wide gauge tubing and
circuit connections. Credit: Courtesy of Mark Kenny Products Company, LLC. ducts to remove a high volume of gas. Passive scavenging uses
the pressure generated in the breathing circuit to drive gas to the
interface.
A novel veterinary anesthesia machine has recently been The interface may be closed or open. In either case, some
introduced which makes use of electronic and electromechan- means to avoid transferring either high or negative pressure to
ical controls to deliver gas to the breathing circuit over a the APL valve is needed. If the conduit to the disposal site is
range of discrete combinations suitable for clinical anesthe- blocked, high pressures may occur in the interface. If active
sia. The MK-1-IS Veterinary Anesthesia Machine (Mark Kenny scavenging is used, there is the potential to transfer negative
Products Company, LLC, Newtown, CT) employs an agent pressure to the APL valve. In a closed interface, seen in Fig.
bubble-through chamber with a temperature sensor (Fig. 5-11). 5-12, unidirectional spring-loaded valves are used to isolate the
A solenoid-actuated valve controls the gas flow to the chamber; interface from the room. A breathing bag serves to accept brief
the larger fresh gas flow bypassing the chamber is controlled by high flows of gas from the APL valve. If passive scavenging is
a second valve. The frequency and duration of valve opening is used, a valve opens when the pressure in the system rises to a
determined by a microprocessor, using an algorithm that takes preset level, venting gas into the room. With active scaveng-
into account the vapor pressure of the agent at the temperature ing, two valves are used to protect the breathing system. One
of the vaporizing chamber and the desired patient circuit gas valve opens in the event of high pressure, while the second valve
flow, to determine the flow through the vaporizer chamber. The opens if the pressure in the interface drops below ambient, to
flow thus occurs in multiple bursts whose frequency and dura- avoid emptying the breathing system. Active scavenging sys-
tion determine the average minute flow to the breathing circuit. tems ordinarily have an additional valve to regulate the suction
The user selects the agent concentration and total gas flow by from the vacuum or duct system.
means of pressure-sensitive arrows on the front panel of the Open interface systems, seen in Figs 5-13 and 5-14, are open
machine. The control panel also allows the user to set altitude, to the room, although the location of the opening varies among
or barometric pressure, to compensate for output variations if models. In this case, no valves are required and the safety of the
the machine is used at higher altitudes. The oxygen flush, as system depends on uninterrupted suction, so these systems must
well as alarm settings signaling high and low agent concentra- have a visible flow indicator. In most cases, this is an integral
tions, is also controlled using the control panel. The machine flowmeter and valve to regulate the suction at the interface.
can use isoflurane or sevoflurane, by selecting the agent on the Charcoal canisters are sometimes used in situations where no
control panel. A purging procedure is used to clean the vapor- other means of scavenging is available. Their advantages and
izer when changing agents. In assessing the control of gas to the limitations are discussed in Chapter 7.
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 141

Fig. 5-12 Closed interface active scavenging system. The 19 mm corru-

gated hose on the right is connected to the APL valve scavenging port. The
hose at the left is connected to the ventilator relief valve. Positive and negative Fig. 5-14 Open Interface Scavenging System. This interface has a vacuum
pressure relief valves are located in the cross bar assembly immediately above control flowmeter and needle valve and may be mounted on the anesthesia
the corrugated hose connections. The small diameter clear tubing is connected machine, or directly on the central vacuum scavenging port as shown. The
to the central scavenging vacuum system. Opposite it is the vacuum adjustment black corrugated hose is connected to the scavenging port of the APL valve.
needle valve. The scavenging reservoir bag is seen at the bottom. A second connection is available at the top of the reservoir bag, and is capped
when not in use. The open connection to room air leads through a charcoal
canister that serves as a backup in the event of vacuum failure. Credit: Courtesy
of Hallowell EMC.

Scavenging interfaces require periodic cleaning to remove

accumulated dust, hair, and other debris, a particular concern
with closed scavenging interfaces.

IV. BREATHING CIRCUITS

A. Introduction

Breathing circuits provide oxygen to the patient and remove

waste products. If volatile anesthetics or gases such as nitrous
oxide are used, provisions for scavenging are essential. The
design and fabrication of breathing circuits and the study of
their characteristics and performance remain active areas of
research, offering considerable scope for the inventive mind.
The number of circuits, valves, adaptors, and related devices
that are commercially available is so great that even experi-
Fig. 5-13 Open Interface Scavenging System. This example is designed for enced anesthesiologists are unlikely to be familiar with all of
a central vacuum system. The vacuum adjust needle and flowmeter are seen them. The principles of circuit design and function are well cov-
at the top. The white hose connects to the central vacuum scavenging system,
and the two corrugated hoses are connected to the APL valve scavenging port,
ered in standard texts, continuously supplemented by a large and
and the ventilator relief valve. The cylinder is a rigid reservoir. The openings to growing literature. Those tempted to design or modify breath-
the room are not visible in this photograph. ing circuits should carefully consult the literature; the subject
142 GEORGE A. VOGLER

is considerably more complex and subtle than is apparent, and Volatile anesthetic agents are absorbed by many polymers
there are numerous pitfalls for the unwary. Fortunately, only a used in breathing circuits, the extent varying with the volatile
few types of breathing circuits are needed to accomplish a wide agent and the specific polymer. In general, the least soluble
range of anesthetic tasks. agent is desflurane, followed by sevoflurane, isoflurane, and
halothane, a ranking consistent with their oil:blood partition
coefficients (Targ et al., 1989). In terms of materials, rub-
B. Dead Space ber and polyvinylchloride absorb considerably more agent than
polyethylene or polypropylene (Smith et al., 2002; Targ et al.,
The inspired air that enters the respiratory passages but does 1989).
not reach the alveoli or reaches poorly perfused alveoli does not While leakage of gas through the walls of tubing is of minor
participate in oxygen–carbon dioxide exchange. In the patient, significance in terms of pollution, absorption of volatile agents
the total volume occupied by the gas that is not losing oxygen can affect uptake and washout studies, as well as the precautions
or gaining carbon dioxide is called physiologic dead space. The needed to prepare an anesthetic machine for patients at risk for
volume accounted for by upper respiratory structures—the nose, malignant hyperthermia (Smith et al., 2002). However, a major
pharynx, trachea, and bronchi—is called anatomic dead space. part of the pollution from breathing circuits is caused by leaks,
The volume occupying under- or unperfused alveoli is called such as ill-fitting masks and endotracheal tubes, and the failure
alveolar dead space. Anesthesia equipment can add mechanical to thoroughly flush the breathing system with oxygen before
dead space. The mechanical dead space should be minimized. disconnecting the patient. Turning off the vaporizer and dou-
For example, an endotracheal tube trimmed to the proper length bling or tripling the oxygen flows while periodically empting
does not increase dead space and, usually, decreases it. How- the breathing bag through the APL scavenging connection sub-
ever, if the tube extends far beyond the mouth of the patient, stantially reduces the pollution (Cornick-Seahorn et al., 1996).
dead space is increased. If an airway filter, elbow connection,
or gas sampling connector is added between the endotracheal
D. Classification
tube and the breathing circuit, mechanical dead space is further
increased. For small patients, a low–dead space endotracheal
Terms such as open, closed, semi-open, and semi-closed,
tube connector is especially useful (Fig. 5-48). Lerche et al.
among others, have been used in a variety of classification
(2000a) give a useful estimation of the dead space of commonly
schemes. Various authors understand these terms differently and
used connectors. Circle systems with competent unidirectional
the result is a confusing array of classification schemes. This
valves and properly functioning absorbers contribute relatively
situation has recently been worsened with the advent of newer
little dead space (Gravenstein et al., 1989).
human workstations in which the rebreathing systems have been
further modified to improve the performance and safety of their
integrated ventilators. Only a few types of circuits are commonly
C. Materials
used and their conventional configurations are described below.
Anesthesia circuits are made of synthetic rubber or plas-
tic. Although the heavy conductive rubber components remain E. Rebreathing Systems
available, they are less commonly used. Instead, lightweight,
translucent, plastic circuits are generally preferred. Silicone cir- Although it is not the simplest breathing system, the conven-
cuits, although heavier and more expensive than their lighter tional circle system, using the unidirectional valves and carbon
counterparts, have the unique advantage of being autoclavable. dioxide absorber systems described earlier, remains the most
Complete disposable circuit assemblies can be purchased to commonly used breathing circuit for larger patients (Fig. 5-15).
meet almost any need, or circuits can be assembled using com- Removal of carbon dioxide and recirculation of the remaining
mon connectors and bulk tubing. Standard breathing tubing has gases reduce the consumption of volatile anesthetic agents and
an internal diameter of 22 mm. fresh gas. With moderate flows, some heat and moisture are
Breathing circuit tubing is typically corrugated, providing also retained and, with appropriate monitoring, the same cir-
flexibility and resistance to kinking or collapse. The corruga- cuit is suitable for low-flow techniques. Correct function of the
tions also make the tubing more compliant or distensible. Circuit absorber system and unidirectional valves is essential in order
compliance is important because the gas lost in distending the for the circle system to perform as expected.
circuit does not reach the patient. With mechanical ventilation Circle systems have a high internal volume, including the
in smaller patients, the proportion preset tidal volume that is reservoir bag, unidirectional valves, absorber canister(s), and
lost due to circuit distention can be considerable, leading to breathing tubes. With a precision vaporizer located out of the
hypoventilation despite apparently adequate volume settings. circuit, the agent concentration in the circuit will be very slow
The compliance and the resistance to breathing increase with to change when moderate and, especially, low fresh gas flows
the circuit length; the circuits should be no longer than needed. are used. If rapid changes in agent concentration are needed,
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 143

A addition of inexpensive Y-connectors, a circuit of any desired

C B length is easily constructed.
Pediatric circle systems are available with the internal diam-
eter tubing reduced to 15 mm. The reduction in circuit volume
helps to retain heat and moisture, a particular concern with
E smaller patients. These circuits are recommended for use with
D animals weighing less than 7 kg (Bednarski, 1993). If ventila-
G tion is closely monitored and supported, the adverse effects of
increased resistance to breathing attributable to the absorber and
unidirectional valves are minimal. The smaller diameter circuit
is less compliant than larger circuits, reducing volume losses
with mechanical ventilation.
F Coaxial versions of circle systems are available. In these cir-
cuits, the inspiratory limb enters the expiratory limb just beyond
I
the unidirectional valves to form a single coaxial tube leading
to the patient, reducing to some degree the clutter of lines and
tubes that tend to accumulate at the head of the operating table
H (Fig. 5-16).

Fig. 5-15 Circle System. Circle breathing system with the vaporizer outside F. Nonrebreathing Systems
the circle. (A) Scavenging tubing connection at the APL valve. (B) APL valve.
(C) Circuit manometer. (D) Reservoir bag. (E) Unidirectional expiratory valve.
(F) Unidirectional inspiratory valve. (G) Carbon dioxide absorber canister. (H) In its current form, Mapleson’s description and analysis
Vaporizer. (I) Flowmeter. Arrows indicate the direction of gas flow. The patient of nonrebreathing systems now includes types A through F
Y-connection is at the right. (Mapleson, 1954). Although called nonrebreathing systems, the
amount of rebreathing that occurs is largely dependent upon the
fresh gas flow. While these circuits differ somewhat in their
characteristics, in general, the higher the fresh gas flow, the less
fresh gas flow rates must be increased in addition to changing rebreathing is liable to occur.
the vaporizer setting. As mentioned previously, if the APL valve Four types, Mapleson-A, -D, -E, and -F, are the most likely to
is fully open, activating the flush valve will rapidly reduce agent be encountered in the research setting (Fig. 5-17). The Mapleson
concentration in the circuit; if it is not fully open, the result will systems are useful for many small patients and, in one form,
be a precipitous and possibly dangerous rise in breathing circuit
pressure.
In human anesthesia practice, considerations of labor and lia-
bility have dictated the use of new disposable breathing circuits
with each patient. These individually packaged circuits include
the needed connectors, tubing, and reservoir bags and often
bacterial filters. They are commercially available in virtually
any combination of components likely to be needed. In veteri-
nary clinical and research use, disposable circuits are frequently
cleaned and reused. With the exception of silicone tubing, men-
tioned previously, few of the components are likely to withstand
an autoclave; if sterilization is the goal, alternative sterilization
methods must be used. In any event, it is essential to avoid irri-
tating or toxic residues left by the cleaning method. A thorough
rinsing of all components to eliminate cleaning agent and disin-
fectant residues is needed, in addition to the compliance with the
sterilization guidelines for the method used. Plastic circuits are
generally more durable than disposable breathing bags, which
require more frequent replacement. An economical alternative
Fig. 5-16 Universal F Circuit. In this coaxial circle system the connection
to preassembled circuits is the use of bulk 22 mm breathing hose. to the inspiratory unidirectional valve is seen at the top right and the short hose
This is usually supplied with noncorrugated connectors at reg- below it connects to the expiratory valve. Credit: Courtesy of King Systems
ular intervals to facilitate connection to the machine. With the Corporation.
144 GEORGE A. VOGLER

A breathing, because alveolar gas is eliminated early during

expiration (Conway, 1985). It is less efficient for assisted or con-
trolled ventilation, and should not be used with some mechanical
ventilators (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999f). The circuit is somewhat
clumsy in use because of the location of the relief valve and the
D scavenging tubing near the patient.
The Lack system is another variation of the Mapleson-A sys-
tem, in which the relief valve is located adjacent to the fresh
gas entry point, improving convenience and scavenging con-
E nections. Originally presented as a coaxial circuit, the design
has undergone further modifications. It is now available in both
coaxial and parallel versions. The performance is similar to
that of the Magill system. Walsh and Taylor (2004) compared
a miniature parallel Lack circuit to a Jackson-Reese modified
F Mapleson-F circuit for use in cats, and found the miniature Lack
circuit to be more efficient, requiring a markedly lower fresh gas
Fig. 5-17 Mapleson Circuits A, D, E, and F. Redrawn with permission of flow to prevent rebreathing. The Lack circuit is popular in the
the British Journal of Anaesthesia and Dr. W. Mapleson. United Kingdom and elsewhere, but appears to be unavailable
in the United States.
are extensively used for rodent anesthesia. Many of the circuits
described below are available as preassembled disposable units. 2. Mapleson-D Circuits
Most of these circuits deliver fresh gas close to endotracheal Both coaxial and parallel forms of the circuit are available
tube or mask connection. In the Bain modification the flow is (Fig. 5-17D). The coaxial version, or Bain circuit, is perhaps
directly in line with the patient connection. In contrast to circle the most common configuration used in research institutions.
systems, changes in vaporizer settings are rapidly reflected in In this version, fresh gas enters at the end of the circuit distal
these breathing circuits. If a rapid change in inhaled concentra- from the patient and is conducted to the patient end by a small-
tion is needed, altering the vaporizer setting and increasing the diameter tube contained within the large-diameter exhalation
fresh gas flow at the flowmeter will suffice. Activating the oxy- limb. The parallel circuit is similar, except that the fresh gas
gen flush valve will deliver 35–75 lpm of oxygen into the circuit, supply tube is outside the exhalation limb, entering the circuit
presenting a serious risk of barotrauma. The flush valve should near the patient connection. The circuit can be used by attaching
not be used. Mapleson breathing systems also have a limited vol- a bag with a pressure relief valve and scavenger connection to
ume compared with circle systems, so pressure in the breathing the distal end, resulting in a somewhat cumbersome assembly.
circuit can rise rapidly when the APL valve is closed, as it is It is much more convenient to use a Mapleson-D control arm, or
when manually assisting ventilation. The anesthetist must be universal control arm (Fig. 5-18). The control arm incorporates a
scrupulous in returning the APL valve to the open position after
delivering a breath. A distracted or inattentive anesthetist can
be unpleasantly surprised at the speed with which the breathing
circuit pressure rises to dangerous levels.
A unique modification of the APL valve, the Humphrey valve,
allows greater efficiency in the use of Mapleson-A, -E, and -D
circuits in terms of convenience and fresh gas flow requirements.
The circuit used is selected with a single lever on the valve
(Davey, 2005b; Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999f; Humphrey et al.,
1986a, 1986b).

1. Mapleson-A Circuits
Figure 5-17A depicts a configuration called a Magill circuit.
The fresh gas enters near the reservoir bag, flows toward the
patient through a corrugated tube, and exits via a relief valve
Fig. 5-18 Mapleson-D or Bain Adaptor. The circuit manometer, APL valve,
adjacent to the mask or endotracheal tube. The direction of gas circuit connection, and reservoir bag mount are arranged counterclockwise from
flow, which forces expired gas out of the circuit very close to the top in this photograph. The slotted chromed cap covers a mounting port for
the patient connection, makes it very efficient for spontaneous an optional ventilator/bag selector valve.
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 145

Fig. 5-19 Modified Mapleson-D Arm. In this photo, the Mapleson-D arm
Fig. 5-20 Jackson-Rees Circuit. Bickford Nonrebreathing System. The
has been modified by the addition of a positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP)
patient connection with fresh gas inlet and corrugated hose are at the top of
valve located below and between the APL valve and the circuit manometer. The
photo. The hose is connected to reservoir bag, seen below the hose and patient
PEEP valve provides an adjustable safety pressure release to the system. Credit:
connection. Waste gas exits the bag at the side using a rubber membrane to
Courtesy of David S. Hodgson, D.V.M., DACVA.
enclose the exit path. Normally, the path is open, but when the membrane
is pressed, it seals the exit port and permits single-handed ventilation. Addi-
tional connectors and adaptors are seen at the bottom. Credit: Courtesy of A.M.
manometer, an APL valve and scavenging port, and a mount for Bickford, Inc.
the reservoir bag. With Mapleson-D control arms, the problem
of inadvertent barotrauma due to a failure to open the APL valve
after delivering a breath has been addressed by McMurphy et al.
(1995). They describe the addition of an adjustable positive end 4. Mapleson-F Circuits
expiratory pressure (PEEP) valve to the control arm to limit The Ayre’s T-tube (Fig. 5-17F) is the classic example but,
attainable circuit pressure (Fig. 5-19). in its simplest form, is seldom used for inhalation anesthesia.
Functionally, coaxial and parallel systems have similar per- The Jackson-Rees modification is commonly used. The modi-
formance. In terms of the fresh gas flow needed to limit rebreath- fied circuit is similar to the Mapleson-E, but a reservoir bag is
ing, Mapleson-D circuits are less efficient than Mapleson-A added with provisions for scavenging at the bag tail (Fig. 5-20),
circuits during spontaneous breathing. During assisted or con- besides an adjustable pressure relief valve. Darma and Pua
trolled ventilation, it is generally considered that moderate fresh (2000) describe a modification of the Jackson-Rees circuit to
gas flows in conjunction with adequate minute ventilation will avoid occlusion of the circuit caused by twisting at the reservoir
avoid hypercarbia (Davey, 2005b; Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999f; bag connections and the addition of a lightweight APL valve.
Lerche et al., 2000b). Fresh gas flows of 100–130 cm3 /kg/min,
with a minimum flow of 0.5 lpm, have been recommended for
small animals, although higher flows may be needed in patients
with increased carbon dioxide production (Hartsfield, 1996a;
V. ANESTHETIC MACHINES
Manley and McDonell, 1979).

A. Introduction
3. Mapleson-E Circuits
Mapleson-E circuits (Fig. 5-17E) perform much like This section covers examples of anesthetic machines, com-
Mapleson-D circuits, but lack a reservoir bag. The expiratory mon or likely to become common in research facilities, that
end of the circuit is open or, if inhalant anesthesia is used, con- clearly illustrate the major features of the class to which they
nected to a scavenging interface. Without a reservoir bag, the belong. A full description of many specialized rodent anesthesia
circuit is not well suited to assisted ventilation. Some rodent machines, and of older and current veterinary and human anes-
anesthesia machines use a parallel or coaxial Mapleson-D cir- thesia machines is beyond the scope of this chapter. For similar
cuit, omitting the reservoir bag and APL valve. In this form, it reasons, large animal veterinary machines are not described.
is a Mapleson-E circuit. Several masks using active scaveng- Readers interested in a more thorough discussion of these top-
ing have been proposed for use in rodents, and are described in ics should consult the current and older editions of the texts
Section VII. listed in “Additional Reading.”
146 GEORGE A. VOGLER

B. Rodent Anesthesia Machines

In addition to the machines described below, three variant

designs are discussed in Sections VI.B–D (Ventilators), and
VII. (Induction Chambers and Masks), based either on the use
of an integrated ventilator or on the use of coaxial scavenging
masks.

1. Single Circuit Designs

It is possible to satisfactorily induce and maintain anes-
thesia in rodents and other small animals using virtually any
machine equipped with a nonrebreathing circuit. However, the
term “rodent anesthesia machine” is usually understood to
mean an anesthesia machine lacking all the components of a
circle system, and intended for use with a Mapleson-E cir-
cuit, or functionally similar design, without a reservoir bag or
APL valve. Additional features, such as multiple breathing cir-
cuits and provision for one or more induction chambers, are
Fig. 5-21 Summit Portable Anesthesia Machine. The flowmeter, oxygen
common. flush valve, and a Tec 3 vaporizer are arranged left to right on the frame, with
In the simplest form, a delivery system adequate for many a carrying handle projecting over the vaporizer. Silicone tubing is used for the
rodent procedures consists of little more than a flowmeter, a vaporizer connections. Credit: Courtesy of Molecular Imaging Products.
vaporizer, a breathing circuit and mask, and some means of
scavenging waste gas. A means of delivering and controlling 2. Multicircuit Designs
the pressure of fresh gas, either a central supply system or a
a. Variable-area Flowmeters
tank and pressure regulator, is also needed. Without a frame
to arrange the components and to maintain the flowmeter and Many rodent procedures are relatively brief and must be per-
vaporizer upright and immobile when the controls are oper- formed on groups of animals in a short time period, so multiple
ated, such a “machine” will be inconvenient to use. Many small patient circuits are frequently needed. With the exception of a
rodent machines are commercially available, usually equipped few machines, it is assumed that all of the patients can be ade-
with gas supply connections to meet the user’s needs, and often quately and safely anesthetized using the same fresh gas flow
with an oxygen flush valve. The oxygen flush valve is intended to and agent concentration. Several approaches are used to divide
flush the induction chamber, in order to reduce pollution when the vaporizer output.
the chamber is opened. For reasons previously discussed, the A simple, but cumbersome, method is to subdivide the flow
oxygen flush valve should never be used when an animal is con- from the vaporizer using a sufficient number of sequential Y-
nected to a nonrebreathing circuit. In these smaller machines, connectors and tubing runs to form the needed number of patient
the fresh gas supply to the breathing circuit(s) is frequently, circuits. Typically, tubing and connectors with an internal diam-
but not always, connected directly to the vaporizer outlet. An eter of about 6.4 mm (0.25 inches) or somewhat greater are used.
example of a small machine is seen in Fig. 5-21. Simple on/off valves can be used to open or close individual
Inhalation anesthesia is often used for both induction and patient circuits. The resistance to flow is directly proportional
maintenance of laboratory rodents. The output of the vapor- to the length and inversely proportional to the diameter of the
izer is frequently split in order to allow the use of an induction tubing and connectors. For every patient to receive the same
chamber as well as a breathing circuit, eliminating the need to fresh gas flow, each leg of the assembly, measured from the
disconnect one in order to use the other. Some machines use a vaporizer outlet to the patient mask, should be of equal length.
Y-connection attached to the vaporizer output port and a two- The fresh gas flow to the vaporizer must be adjusted to take
way valve to divert the flow to the chamber or vaporizer leg, as into account the number of open circuits. If, for example, six
desired, with a similar arrangement for the mask and chamber circuits are in use and the desired flow to each is 0.5 lpm, the
scavenging lines. Machines of this type are often adequate for total flow would be 3.0 lpm. As the procedures are completed, if
laboratory or central facility use when only a few animals are five of the circuits are closed without proportionately decreasing
to undergo a procedure or when the procedures are relatively the total flow, the remaining animal would receive 3.0 lpm, an
long. Because of their simplicity and easily accessible compo- excessively high flow that might impede breathing. Leaving an
nents, further modifications for use with other equipment, such unoccupied circuit open avoids the need to adjust the flowmeter,
as ventilators, are usually straightforward. but further contributes to pollution with anesthetic gas and hence
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 147

is not an acceptable practice. Each patient circuit also requires

appropriate scavenging connections, which ordinarily requires
wide-diameter tubing, 19 mm inner diameter (ID) or greater,
to avoid back pressure, resistance to breathing, and leakage
at the patient mask. Several commercial machines using this
basic system are available. Alternatively, this type of multicir-
cuit design is easily assembled on site. However, as more circuits
are added, the proliferation of tubing, connectors, and valves
becomes difficult to keep track of, and promotes operator error.
Multicircuit rodent machines are available that provide
adjustable flowmeters to control the flow rate to each breathing
circuit. One such design is the Summit Anesthesia Solutions™
Multiplex Delivery System (Bend, OR). In this arrangement, the
individual flowmeters are placed downstream of the vaporizer
output, to separately control the flow to each mask. The total
fresh gas to the vaporizer must be sufficient to allow further divi-
sion of the vaporizer output for each individual patient circuit.
Once this condition is met, individual circuits may be controlled
by their respective flowmeters without further adjustment of the
master flowmeter. An overpressure relief valve or a secondary
low-pressure regulator is used to prevent excessive pressure and Fig. 5-22 SurgiVet Multi-Station Anesthesia Machine. The master flowme-
damage to the vaporizer and master flowmeter should the circuit ter is seen at the top left. No vaporizer is mounted, but the vaporizer connections
flowmeters be turned off without turning off the master flowme- are at the top right. Six independent oxygen flowmeters are mounted below and
in front of the master flowmeter, each controlling a connection to a Mapleson-D
ter. A version of this machine is available that uses flow restric- circuit (CPRAM). The fresh gas supply for each circuit is connected to the pol-
tors, discussed below, instead of variable-area flowmeters. ished metal fitting on the base immediately below the corresponding flowmeter.
With all current multicircuit rodent anesthesia machines, the Credit: Courtesy of Smiths Medical PM, Inc.
concentration of the anesthetic agent is set at the vaporizer and is
the same for all patients. An exception is the SurgiVet™ Multi- offer multiple patient circuits controlled by simple pneumatic
Station (Fig. 5-22), which supports up to six patient circuits and switches; the circuit is either on or off. The fresh gas flow rate
allows the anesthetic agent concentration to be independently is typically on the order of 0.5 lpm for each circuit. An internal
adjusted for each circuit. This is accomplished by selecting the pressure regulator is used to maintain a constant pressure, which
desired flow and anesthetic concentration at the master flowme- varies little with the number of circuits in use, so that a con-
ter and vaporizer, respectively. Fresh gas flow from the vaporizer stant fixed flow is generated in the circuit. In operation, the user
is equally divided between the patient stations in use, so that the selects the agent concentration on the vaporizer, and turns on the
flow set at the master flowmeter is the sum of the desired flows requisite number of circuits as needed. In addition to the Sum-
to each of the stations in use. To meet the linearity specifica- mit Anesthesia Solutions Mulitplex Delivery System described
tions for the vaporizer, a minimum total flow of 0.5 lpm on the above, a series of distinct machines made by VetEquip™
master flowmeter is necessary. Each patient station has a sec- (Pleasanton, CA) use flow restrictors to simplify the work-
ondary, or auxiliary oxygen flowmeter, which can be used to flow. Various models are offered, some with integrated induction
dilute the fresh gas flow from the vaporizer to a lower agent chambers and scavenging provisions. In each case, the vapor-
concentration determined by the user. Thus, in this design, the izer is customized to operate at the internal pressure used in the
maximum agent concentration is set at the vaporizer, but lower machine and is not interchangeable with other Tec 3 vaporizers.
concentrations can be obtained at each station, at the discretion The Compac5, seen in Fig. 5-23, has five circuits, including
of the operator. The fresh gas connection to the coaxial cir- three chambers for induction or recovery, and two coaxial cir-
cuits is located beneath the auxiliary flowmeters, using tubing cuits for anesthesia maintenance. The flow to the induction
to connect to the fresh gas inlet of the coaxial breathing circuit. chambers is set at 1 lpm, and to the breathing circuits at 0.5 lpm.
Nineteen millimeter scavenging tubing is used to connect the The scavenging connections are on the machine. A fan-driven
expiratory end of the circuits to the scavenging interface, which scavenging system directs the waste gas to the disposal interface.
may be purchased from the vendor or provided locally.

C. Veterinary Machines
b. Flow Restrictors
A relatively new class of rodent anesthesia machines uses flow Small animal veterinary machines are familiar to most read-
restrictors in place of variable-area flowmeters. These machines ers. While compact versions are the most common, larger
148 GEORGE A. VOGLER

Fig. 5-23 VetEquip Compac5. Two coaxial breathing circuits are seen on
each side of the machine. A customized Tec 3 vaporizer is at the right. The
control panel has five switches to independently control each of the breathing
circuits and the three heated induction chambers. The large gauge indicates
scavenging exhaust system pressure. Credit: Courtesy of VetEquip, Inc.

console or cabinet models, as well as wall-mounted versions,

are also available. A generic description of a representative
machine might include a pole stand, absorber assembly, uni-
directional valves, APL valve, oxygen flush valve, breathing
system manometer, and a mounting points for one, or possi-
bly two, vaporizers and flowmeters. The details of design and
assembly vary widely among manufacturers. In some machines, Fig. 5-24 Matrx VMS. This anesthesia machine is a pole-mounted compact
the flowmeter(s), vaporizer, APL valve and other components machine. The APL valve is seen on the left mounted on the expiratory valve.
The fitting on the right, atop the inspiratory valve, is a negative pressure relief
are arranged on the stand and connected by flexible or rigid valve or air intake valve, used to entrain room air if the oxygen supply fails. The
tubing. Other designs use a manifold block that also serves as breathing system manometer is placed on the absorber system. The vaporizer,
a mounting base for the circle breathing system components, not shown, is mounted below the absorber assembly. Credit: Courtesy of Matrx
usually including the unidirectional valves, absorber assembly, by Midmark.
oxygen flush valve, and breathing system manometer. Five-
point caster bases are common on smaller machines, but for
Compared with human anesthesia machines, veterinary
greater stability, some manufacturers use an H configuration,
machines are smaller, easier to move, and considerably less
similar to larger machines. Machines equipped only for nonre-
complex. They are also less expensive to purchase and maintain.
breathing circuits are also available. Almost all manufacturers
However, in more demanding circumstances, these advantages
will equip their machines with yoke assemblies and large tank or
may be offset by their limited breathing gas choices, safety fea-
central gas services, to meet the needs of the purchaser. A small
tures and alarms, lack of integrated ventilators and monitors,
“monitor shelf ” is often present as well, although the available
and lack of additional storage space characteristic of human
space may be minimal. One example of a compact machine is
machines.
the Matrx VMS (Fig. 5-24). Larger models often include mount-
ing points for at least two vaporizers, three flowmeters, and a
larger and more stable stand, with one or more shelves, and D. Human Anesthesia Machines and Workstations
drawers, as seen in the Dispomed Optimax Elite (Fig. 5-25).
Pole-mounted or compact machines are often chosen for anes- The recent trend toward building electronically controlled
thesia induction and preoperative preparation areas because machines with integrated monitors, ventilators, and safety
of their mobility and small footprint. Wall-mounted versions systems has resulted in a new class of anesthesia machines,
may provide an additional option for areas where space is at a often called anesthesia workstations. At the same time modern,
premium. In surgical suits, larger machines offer greater conve- but simpler, anesthesia machines are being produced for use
nience in terms of additional workspace, monitor shelves, and in locations and specialties that do not require sophisticated
storage for frequently used accessories and supplies. workstations. Simple or advanced, the cost of new human
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 149

Fig. 5-25 Dispomed Optimax Elite. This model has a large workspace, a
monitor shelf, and mounts for three flowmeters. Lockout mounts for two vapor-
izers are located to the right of the flowmeters. To the left, on the angled panel
below the flowmeter assembly, is a breathing system manometer adjacent to
two pipeline pressure gauges. The unidirectional valves are mounted on the
Fig. 5-26 North American Drager 2A. The large work and storage space,
workspace in front of the breathing system manometer. Breathing circuit con-
multiple flowmeters, central supply and small tank pressure gauges, mounts for
nections and the oxygen flush valve are mounted on the face of the workspace
three vaporizers, and dual canister absorber system, are typical for machines of
and the absorber assembly is mounted below, as are two drawers in the base.
this series. Adjustable alarms for the breathing circuit are also common. Credit:
Credit: Courtesy of Dipomed Ltd.
Courtesy of DREVeterinary (www.dreveterinary.com).

anesthesia machines usually exceeds the budget of research may be included, to facilitate changing from spontaneous or
facilities. Even so, human machines are used and frequently manually assisted ventilation to mechanical ventilation. Alarm
obtained either by donation or purchase of used equipment. warning of fresh gas supply failure, high breathing circuit pres-
Human anesthesia machines, produced in the last genera- sure, and ventilator function are also common. Most or all
tion before the development of workstations, are often used in of these features are present on the North American Dräger
research. They are larger than their veterinary counterparts, and 2A (Fig. 5-26), and the Ohmeda Excel 210 (Fig. 5-27), and
are usually more robustly constructed, to withstand heavy hospi- many other machines of this generation. Although fitted with
tal workloads. In most cases, human anesthesia machines have more convenience and safety features than typical veterinary
larger workspaces, with monitor shelves and storage capacity. machines, with some training and experience they are relatively
Multiple flowmeters are the rule, including dual tube oxygen easy to understand and use. Anesthetic machines of this type
flowmeters, as well as nitrous oxide, an oxygen proportioning can be satisfactorily used for a wide range of research animals.
system and, often, medical air. In most cases, two or more vapor- New human anesthesia machines, usually intended for use in
izers can be used with a lockout mechanism. Pressure gauges outpatient surgery, diagnostic and specialty procedural areas,
for small tank yoke assemblies and often for the central gas are available with similar, but updated, features.
supply system, are located below the flowmeter block. In antic- The most sophisticated anesthetic machines available are
ipation of a higher surgical caseload and lengthy procedures, found in the current generation of anesthesia workstations. They
dual canister absorber systems are frequently used. Many of are designed to consolidate many of the functions performed by
these machines also include a mounting point for a nonrebreath- the anesthetist into a single, integrated machine. Ventilators,
ing system adapter. Most have mechanical ventilators, made by fresh gas composition and flow, and patient physiological infor-
or for the machine manufacturer. A ventilator selector switch mation are all monitored and controlled through the extensive
150 GEORGE A. VOGLER

E. Used Anesthesia Machines

Hospital and institutional storage facilities often accumulate

older anesthesia equipment, removed from service as newer
machines are acquired. For philanthropic reasons, or in an
effort to create space and recoup expenses, used machines are
sometimes donated, or offered for sale. Often, components and
operating manuals are missing, and the condition of the equip-
ment is uncertain, despite claims to the contrary. The same
degree of caution and skepticism employed in buying a used
car should be applied. At the least, a qualified service techni-
cian should inspect the machine and assure the potential owner
that it is fully functional or can be economically restored to full
function.
The age of the machine is an issue. Machines long out
of production may lack essential safety features and employ
nonstandard fittings and controls that result in operator error.
Further, it becomes increasingly difficult to find repair parts
for these machines. More recent equipment is often still in use
in smaller hospitals, and is frequently reconditioned and sold
to less affluent markets worldwide. Service and repair parts
are more likely to remain available. Newer, and more com-
plex machines, such as workstations are correspondingly more
expensive to maintain, require greater training to use, and are
not clearly superior in terms of patient outcome.
There is a robust market for used anesthesia equipment. In
many cases, purchasing reconditioned equipment from a rep-
utable company, willing to guarantee the machine and to provide
Fig. 5-27 Ohmeda Excel 210. Roughly contemporary with the Drager service for it, is a safer and more economical alternative to get-
machine in Fig. 5-25, the features of this machine are similar. In this photograph, ting a “free” machine that does not work as designed and cannot
a multifunctional monitor is placed on the monitor shelf. Credit: Courtesy of
DREVeterinary (www.dreveterinary.com).
be repaired.

use of microprocessors. Flat panel displays and touch-controlled F. Maintenance and Testing
screens allow the anesthetist to operate the machine and arrange
and display critical patient and machine status information. A Maintenance of anesthetic machines is essential to assure
tiered system of alarms, warnings, and advisories is used to safety and performance. Some aspects of anesthesia machine
keep the operator aware of patient and machine status. The use component maintenance are addressed in Section III of this
of increasingly sophisticated ventilators has led to extensive chapter. While the operator’s manual is usually the best source
modification of the breathing system, with additional gas path- for information concerning user maintenance, cleanliness is a
ways and valves. Most of the familiar working components of universal recommendation. Operating rooms are not a friendly
the machine are concealed from the user, and the complexity environment for anesthesia machines. Many cleaning agents,
of these machines is belied by a deceptively simple appear- intravenous fluids, and disinfectants attack metal surfaces, espe-
ance. Except for emergency oxygen, anesthesia workstations are cially on prolonged contact. Dust and hair accumulate on all
dependent upon a steady power supply, and are often equipped exposed surfaces; if allowed to infiltrate the control mechanisms
with backup batteries. When the machine is turned on, it con- of flowmeters, vaporizers, andAPL valves, debris can cause pre-
ducts a series of self-tests and checks, including prompts for mature failure. Stands, frame components and especially casters
needed corrective actions by the operator. Extensive training also profit from regular cleaning.
and familiarization is needed to operate workstations, and the The anesthesia machine should be tested before use. The rec-
procedures vary with each new model. Workstations require ommended steps vary with the machine and type of circuits to
regular maintenance and service by a trained technician. be used. Anesthesia equipment texts contain extensive descrip-
It seems unlikely that most research facilities need, or could tions of checkout procedures. The sources listed in “Additional
afford to own an anesthetic workstation. Despite that, these Reading” and the recommendations of the machine manufac-
machines provide a glimpse of the future. turer should be used to develop a standard check procedure for
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 151

each anesthesia machine. With consistent use, the procedures long-term respiratory support or intensive care, the differences
can be accomplished in a reasonably short time and are an essen- are less clear in ventilators on new human anesthesia machines.
tial method of assuring patient and personnel safety. A few basic In terms of both physiology and technology, the subject of
elements of checkout procedures are described below. Modifi- mechanical ventilation is complex. Readers unfamiliar with the
cation of the procedures may be needed for specific machines subject should consult anesthesia and respiratory therapy texts
(Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999g). for thorough discussions. For veterinary and some older human
The machine should be inspected to assure that breathing gas ventilators, Hartsfield (1996b) provides a well-illustrated and
oxygen supplies are adequate, properly connected, and func- detailed description of many human and veterinary ventilators
tioning. The flowmeters are turned on and off, while observing that may be encountered in research facilities. The following is a
the float. It should move smoothly as the flow is increased, and greatly simplified overview of the terminology and technology
decreased, and should indicate zero flow in the off position. used in mechanical ventilation. There are substantial differences
With no fresh gas flow, the vaporizer is checked for ade- in ventilator designs; a careful reading of the operating manual
quate fill level, ensuring that the filling port is closed and that for the ventilator is essential to understand the controls, abili-
the vaporizer is turned off. The low-pressure circuits are now ties, and limitations of each specific model. Consultation with a
checked using a suction bulb fitted with a valve and tubing ter- veterinary or human anesthesiologist, as well as the equipment
minating with a 15 mm connector to the common gas outlet. manufacturer is often invaluable.
The bulb is compressed until it is empty, and observed for 10 It is useful to define a few of the terms used in describing
seconds. If the bulb remains empty, the low-pressure circuitry is ventilator functions and controls before discussing individual
not significantly leaking. Again, with no gas flowing, the vapor- examples. The minute volume is the total amount of gas deliv-
izer is turned on and the test is repeated to check for leaks in ered to the patient in 1 minute. The tidal volume is the amount
the vaporizer. For machines with multiple vaporizers, each is delivered in a single breath. Thus, minute volume equals the
tested in turn. The fresh gas hose is reconnected to the fresh gas tidal volume multiplied by the respiratory rate. The inspiratory
outlet. flow rate is rate at which the gas enters the airways and is, in
The patient breathing circuit and reservoir bag are connected effect, the speed at which a tidal volume is delivered. The inspi-
and the APL valve is closed. The patient connector is occluded ratory flow phase is the time from the beginning of inspiratory
by hand or, more conveniently, an appropriately sized rubber flow to the beginning to expiratory flow, including an inspira-
stopper. Using the flowmeters or oxygen flush valve, the bag tory pause, if present. The period from the end of the inspiratory
is filled to a pressure of 30–40 cm H2 O on the breathing sys- flow phase until the beginning to the next inspiratory flow phase
tem manometer. The pressure should not drop over a 10 second is the expiratory phase time. The inspiratory–expiratory phase
period (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1990g). Mason (1993) describes time ratio, or I:E ratio, is fixed at about 1:2 on some ventilators,
a similar test, but specifies a drop of less than 5 cm H2 O over but can be altered on others. Because these variables are interre-
a 30 second period. The pressure is released using the APL lated, they may be set directly or indirectly, using a combination
valve, allowing assessment of the valve and preventing dust of controls, and vary with the design of the ventilator.
from the absorber being forced into the breathing circuit by Maximum inspiratory pressure, or maximum working pres-
sudden decompression. If a universal control arm is used, the sure, is the highest pressure that can be generated during the
Mapleson circuits can be similarly assessed. However, coaxial breathing cycle and can be preset by the user on some ven-
versions of these systems, such as Bain circuits, must also be tilators. When the maximum inspiratory pressure is reached,
tested to assure that the inner fresh tube has not become dis- inspiratory flow stops, regardless of other settings.
connected. A disposable syringe plunger is used to occlude the Compliance describes the unit change in volume per unit
inner fresh gas tube while the fresh gas is flowing. Suggested change in pressure. Thus, a patient with high compliance will
flow rates vary from 0.05 lpm (Mason, 1993) to 2 lpm (Dorsch have a greater increase in lung volume at the same airway pres-
and Dorsch, 1999g). When the fresh gas supply tube is occluded, sure than a patient with low compliance. Animals with thin
the flowmeter indicator should fall. Disconnection of the fresh chest walls, such as rabbits, may be over distended and suffer
gas tube can convert the entire circuit into apparatus dead space. lung damage at pressures safe, or even necessary, for a larger
and less compliant patient, such as a pig. Patients are not the
only source of compliance; equipment compliance due to dis-
tensible circuits and other machine components can reduce the
VI. VENTILATORS
volume the patient receives from the ventilator. Although this is
not ordinarily a problem with large tidal volumes, it should be
A. Introduction taken into account when small tidal volumes are used.
Positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP) maintains a con-
Mechanical ventilators are used to free the anesthetist from trolled minimum pressure in the airways at the end of expira-
the task of manually assisting ventilation. While ventilators used tion, preventing complete collapse of the small airways during
during anesthesia are ordinarily simpler than those used for mechanical ventilation. A discussion of the indications for using
152 GEORGE A. VOGLER

PEEP is beyond the scope of this chapter, but it is mentioned which prevents the interaction between the ventilator, oxygen
because many newer human anesthesia machines have an inte- flush valve, and fresh gas flow. Excess gas in the patient circuit
grated PEEP valve. PEEP can also be applied by interposing a is exhausted by a relief valve, or spill valve, after the bellows
PEEP valve in the expiratory limb of the breathing circuit, usu- is refilled. A spill valve is needed because, in most cases, the
ally attached to the expiratory unidirectional valve. Reusable APL valve is closed or isolated from the breathing circuit during
PEEP valves are sold individually or in sets including a range mechanical ventilation. Tidal volume, peak inspiratory pressure
of pressures indicated in centimeters of water. and rate are adjusted to achieve the desired ventilation pat-
The basic ventilation mode for most anesthesia ventilators tern. In many ventilators, a maximum working pressure can
is intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV). The ven- be set as a safety measure. It is usually set somewhat above the
tilator delivers a breath at the frequency determined directly peak inspiratory pressure determined by the user settings. The
or indirectly by the control settings, and exhalation is passive. breathing system manometer indicates pressure in the breathing
However, the patient can also breathe independently of the ven- system.
tilator. The inspiratory phase can be terminated based on time, If the bellows rises upon expiration, it is called a standing or
pressure, volume, or flow rate. Most anesthesia ventilators are ascending bellows; if it falls, it is called a hanging or descend-
time cycled, and most have a control to limit the maximum ing bellows. Standing bellows are used in most new ventilators,
working pressure. The mode of ventilation refers to the breath- but both types remain in use. The standing bellows is thought
ing pattern, usually based on delivered volume or pressure. New to provide an advantage because a leak or disconnection in the
anesthesia ventilators may offer the user a choice of ventila- breathing circuit is visually obvious; the bellows will not refill
tion modes. For example, the ventilator may be able to monitor and return to its normal starting position. A hanging bellows
spontaneous breathing and match it to deliver a desired tidal vol- is weighted and may return to the start position and appear
ume. A number of different ventilation modes are used and are to be working normally despite a leak or disconnection. For
described differently by different manufacturers (Davey, 2005c; many ventilators, interchangeable pediatric bellows assemblies
Banner and Lampotang, 1992). are available. An example of a standing bellows is seen in Fig.
Ventilators suitable for use with magnetic resonance imaging 5-28. The ventilator is a Hallowell 2002IE veterinary ventilator;
(MRI) equipment are available in models suitable for patients it may be mounted on the anesthesia machine or on a separate
ranging in size from adult humans to mice. stand. It is a time-cycled minute-volume divider, with controls
Positive pressure anesthesia ventilators require a source of
compressed gas. A bellows, piston, or valves directly controlling
the high-pressure gas are used to direct the tidal volume to the
patient. In the following section, they are referred to as bellows,
piston, and pneumatic ventilators, although the latter description
is not strictly accurate.

B. Bellows Ventilators

The most common design for an anesthesia ventilator uses

bellows housed in a transparent housing. The bellows is inter-
mittently compressed by high-pressure gas admitted into the
surrounding housing. This design, which separates the drive
gas in the housing from the breathing gas in the bellows, is
called dual circuit. The tidal volume can be controlled by lim-
iting the excursion of the bellows with a mechanical stop; in
that case the bellows is completely emptied with each breath.
Alternatively, the tidal volume may be determined by precisely
limiting the volume of drive gas entering the housing. Because
the bellows is emptied proportionately to the amount of drive
gas entering the housing, the bellows may not be completely
emptied. A ventilator exhaust valve releases the drive gas in the
housing during exhalation.
The pressure generated in the breathing circuit is primarily a Fig. 5-28 Standing Bellows. The controls for this standing bellows anes-
thesia ventilator include, from left to right, the power switch, respiratory rate
function of the volume of gas delivered by the bellows. However, adjustment, fine and coarse inspiratory flow, adjustable I:E ratio, and the max-
the fresh gas flow can also affect delivered pressure and volume. imum working pressure control. Interchangeable bellows and housings can
In new ventilators, this is addressed by fresh gas decoupling, accommodate tidal volumes up to 3,000 ml. Credit: Hallowell EMC.
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 153

for fine and coarse inspiratory flow, respiration rate, maximum occurs in the patient circuit, and high pressure, when the max-
working pressure limit, and I:E ratio. The product of inspiratory imum working pressure is reached or exceeded. A variety of
flow, labeled “Volume” on the control panel, and rate determines other ventilator and circuit status alarms may also be present,
minute volume. If only the breathing rate is changed, without depending upon the age and model of ventilator and anesthe-
altering the inspiratory flow, the tidal volume will increase or sia machine. MRI-compatible ventilators are available in sizes
decrease accordingly to maintain the minute volume. In order to suitable for a range of species from humans to mice.
change minute volume, the inspiratory flow must be changed. An unusual hybrid of anesthesia machine and ventilator is
Several sizes of interchangeable bellows are available to meet the Hallowell Veterinary Anesthesia Workstation (Fig. 5-30).
the needs of a wide variety of patients. Intended for use with rats and larger animals with up to a
A hanging bellows is seen in Fig. 5-29, used with an older 200 ml tidal volume, the ventilator replaces the bellows with a
North American Dräger AV-E ventilator. A mechanical stop, or light graphite “puck” contained in a clear housing, and includes
footplate, is used to set tidal volume indicated on the housing. In a complete miniature circle system with unidirectional valves
addition to tidal volume, the ventilator has controls to directly and carbon dioxide absorber. The breathing system chamber
set inspiratory flow and respiratory rate. I:E ratios can be set is heated to maintain warmth and humidity in the circuit. The
incrementally from 1:1 to 1:4.5. Newer models also have an ventilator controls include tidal volume, respiratory rate, and
adjustable maximum pressure limit control. adjustable maximum working pressure. With the exception
If the ventilator is integrated into the anesthesia machine, a of an additional flowmeter for the anesthetic vaporizer, the
selector switch is used to isolate the APL valve and reservoir bag ventilator is essentially a miniature anesthetic machine which
and open a connection between the ventilator and the breathing requires a compressed oxygen source and has connections for
circuit. Otherwise, the APL valve is closed, and the reservoir the vaporizer and waste gas scavenging.
bag is removed and replaced with the ventilator hose. Alarms are
usually present to indicate low pressure, when a disconnection

Fig. 5-30 Hallowell EMC Anesthesia Workstation. At the base of the venti-
lator from left to right, are the controls for power, tidal volume, and respiratory
rate. The controls at the right include a standby switch and alarms. Airway
pressure is indicated by an illuminated bar display at the top right, and the max-
imum working pressure is set using the adjacent dial. The oxygen flowmeter is
Fig. 5-29 Hanging Bellows. In this design, the bellows is forced upwards seen below. The clear housing encloses the “bellows” seen to the left, and the
to deliver a breath. A mechanical stop is used to adjust the tidal volume, and a absorbent canister and unidirectional valves, seen to the right. Credit: Courtesy
weight returns the bellows to the starting position during exhalation. of Hallowell EMC.
154 GEORGE A. VOGLER

C. Piston Ventilators

Piston ventilators use an electrically driven piston to deliver

a preset volume to the breathing circuit. The volume is deter-
mined by the diameter of the cylinder and the stroke of the
piston. In many models, interchangeable cylinder assemblies
are available to provide a range of tidal volumes. The stroke is
controlled either by electronic or, more typically a mechanical
linkage to alter the swept volume of the cylinder. In most cur-
rent designs, the stroke can be altered while the ventilator is
working. In all but the oldest piston ventilators, a control varies
motor speed to select the rate. In some cases, the I:E ratio can
be altered. Piston ventilators are available in sizes to accommo-
date animals ranging from dogs to neonatal mice. Until recently,
piston ventilators were not used in clinical anesthesia machines,
Fig. 5-31 Harvard 683 Small Animal Ventilator. This type of ventilator is
but an extremely sophisticated, microprocessor-controlled pis- commonly used for rodents and, in larger models, for many other research
ton ventilator is now integrated into new Dräger anesthesia animals. Respiratory rate and tidal volume are set using the two dials seen to
workstations. the right. Respiratory rate is indicated in the digital screen at the top right. The
A valve system is used to direct the fresh gas first to the breathing circuit and fresh gas connections are housed in the valve tower seen at
cylinder, then to the animal, and finally to an exhaust port. the lower right, with the waste gas connection on the opposite (top right) side of
the valve tower. The piston assembly is to the lower left side of the valve tower.
Relatively noncompliant tubing is used to minimize volume loss Credit: Courtesy of Harvard Apparatus.
in the patient tubing. Piston ventilators were originally designed
to use room air at ambient pressure, but anesthetic gas mixtures
can often be used. The connection to the anesthetic gas supply components. The recommendations provided by the ventila-
usually requires a reservoir at ambient pressure for the ventilator tor maker should be followed if the ventilator is to perform
to draw upon, and scavenging provisions for waste gas. If gas as designed.
is delivered under pressure directly to the cylinder intake, the
delivered volume will be higher than indicated. The ventilator
manufacturer should always be consulted for advice regarding
the suitability and the connections needed for anesthetic gases. D. Pneumatic Ventilators
The selection of tidal volume is usually based upon the patient
weight, taken from a nomogram or chart, or derived from expe- If the gas delivery pressure is known, a selected volume of
rience. The assumption is that all patients are typical or normal. gas can be delivered by timing the opening and closing of a valve
In piston ventilators, all of the tidal volume is delivered to the controlling the inspiratory flow. Alternatively, the pressure in
patient regardless of the airway pressure. With no provisions for the breathing circuit can be measured and the inspiratory valve
setting a maximum working pressure, and often in the absence closed at a predetermined pressure setting. Both of these means
of an airway manometer, the potential for barotrauma is real. are used to regulate tidal volumes in some of the ventilators pre-
It is simple to insert a manometer, or other pressure sensor, viously described. Rodent ventilators are available which allow
into the breathing circuit which can help to prevent, or at least for volume- or pressure-limited modes using valves connected
diagnose, the problem. Conversely, if an oral endotracheal tube directly to the patient breathing circuit. An example is the CWE
is used in rodents, the lack of a cuff will result in a variable SAR-830/P, seen in Fig. 5-32. The ventilator may be set to cycle
amount of leakage around the tube. In this case, the selected in pressure or volume mode. The controls on this model include
tidal volume represents the total of the desired tidal volume and inspiratory time, respiratory rate, fresh gas flow rate, and an
the additional volume needed to compensate for the leak, which adjustable maximum working pressure limit. The respiratory
may account for some of the diverse ventilator settings reported rate is set directly, as is the flow rate. Tidal volume is indirectly
in the literature. determined using the inspiratory time control and the flow rate.
An example of a piston ventilator is the Harvard Apparatus The I:E ratio can be determined by altering the inspiratory time
683 Small Animal Ventilator (Fig. 5-31). This ventilator uses and adjusting the flow rate using the flowmeter to maintain a
interchangeable pistons to provide a range of tidal volumes. constant tidal volume. A switch is used to select volume or
The dials control tidal volume and rate, and there is a digital pressure mode. In the pressure mode, the adjustable maximum
rate display. working pressure limit control stops inspiration when the set
Piston ventilators are generally rugged and reliable, but they pressure limit is reached. The respiration rate is displayed on a
do require maintenance. Cleaning and proper lubrication are screen on the front of the ventilator. A “hold” switch is used to
essential for proper performance, as is replacement of worn manually control a sigh. The ventilator can be used with current
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 155

this chapter. High-frequency oscillatory ventilators are occa-

sionally used in human critical care settings, but one model, the
Hallowell MicroVent1, is marketed for use in rodents and some
larger species. The ventilator can operate in either intermittent
positive-pressure or high-frequency mode, and connections are
provided for a vaporizer. During high-frequency oscillatory ven-
tilation, normal respiratory excursions cease and only a slight
vibration is seen. While initially disconcerting, the lack of gross
movement may be an advantage in some surgical procedures.

VII. INDUCTION CHAMBERS AND MASKS

A. Induction Chambers
Fig. 5-32 CWE SAR-830/P Ventilator. From the top left, the display for
ventilation rate, the rate control, the inspiratory time control, and a circuit
pressure display are seen. The fresh gas flowmeter is at the far right. The second Induction chambers are used as a means to induce anesthesia
tier of controls and indicators include the power switch, adjustable maximum and avoid manual restraint. They are among the most common
working pressure limit, a volume/pressure mode selector switch, an inspiratory methods used to induce anesthesia in rodents, but are also used
hold control, and cycle mode indicators lights. The bottom tier includes pump for aggressive or fearful larger animals. With suitable precau-
and breathing circuit connections. Credit: Courtesy of CWE, Inc.
tions, a liquid volatile anesthetic agent can be placed directly in
the chamber as described in Chapter 3, but usually the cham-
ber is simply connected to an anesthetic machine. Almost every
inhalation anesthetics, and an MRI-compatible volume-cycled
imaginable type of container has been used, including shoe-
model is available.
box cages, plastic bags, food storage containers, aquariums,
chemical desiccators, and various jars, cans, and beakers. The
chamber should allow enough space for the animal to assume
E. Jet Ventilation and High-Frequency Ventilation a normal extended position as anesthesia is induced. A cham-
ber may appear to be adequate for a conscious animal, but
Briefly, a jet ventilator is a small-diameter tube inserted into might result in anatomical distortion and airway compromise
the trachea through which oxygen is supplied at relatively high as consciousness is lost.
pressures. The technique, also called transtracheal ventilation, Colorless, transparent chambers are preferred because they
is used in situations where an endotracheal tube cannot be used permit the anesthetist to observe the animal during induction.
and a tracheotomy is not desired, such as some head and neck Most commercially available chambers are plastic and meet
procedures, during bronchoscopy, or in emergencies when an these requirements. In facilities with access to a shop, cus-
airway cannot be secured. In a situation where the patient cannot tom plastic induction chambers are easily fabricated. However,
be intubated and cannot be ventilated by mask, a catheter is inhalation agents are powerful solvents, and aggressively attack
inserted percutaneously into the trachea and connected to the most plastics. If a liquid agent is used, contact with the plastic
common gas outlet of the anesthesia machine using a Luer-lock chamber should be avoided by placing it in a secondary con-
for the catheter and a 15 mm endotracheal tube adaptor for the tainer. With time, even chambers used only with an anesthetic
common gas outlet. The techniques and equipment are described machine may begin to develop small surface cracks, or crazing.
by Benumof et al. (1992) and Davey (2005c). The lid should fit tightly enough to prevent leaking and to foil
High-frequency ventilation is characterized by very high res- escape attempts; many commercial designs use a gasket and
piration rates and very small tidal volumes. The technique is locking mechanism to ensure a tight seal.
used to maintain perfusion and oxygenation in a collapsed lung While the chamber inlet diameter may vary, the diameter
during surgery, or to ventilate patients with some types of of the outlet should accommodate 19–30 mm tubing without
lung disease. It may also be used with jet ventilation. High- significant restriction, in order to avoid resistance to flow and
frequency positive-pressure ventilation is possible with some increased pressure in the chamber.
current anesthesia ventilators, and special ventilators are made Connection to an anesthetic machine provides the ability to
for high-frequency jet ventilation. High-frequency oscillatory introduce oxygen and control the concentration of the anesthetic
ventilation uses a constant gas flow to establish the mean air- agent. The location of entry and exit ports for the gas vary
way pressure and imposes very high-frequency oscillations by widely, but in a study of carbon dioxide euthanasia Golledge
means of what is essentially a loudspeaker. The mechanisms (2006) reported that introducing the fresh gas at the top of the
of gas exchange are complex, and well beyond the scope of chamber ensured better mixing.
156 GEORGE A. VOGLER

There is a relationship between the chamber volume and the

fresh gas flow needed to achieve an anesthetic level in a given
time. Using the time constant, tau, it is simple to predict the
time needed to reach the desired anesthetic concentration in a
chamber. Equation 5-1 is a simplified version an exponential
function used to describe “. . . a change in which the rate of
change of the variable is proportional to the magnitude of the
variable or inversely proportional to magnitude of the variable”
(Healy et al., 1991).
Volume (liters)
(Eq. 5-1) Tau =
Flow (liters per minute)
The time constant, tau, is expressed in minutes. To reach
95% of the concentration set on the vaporizer requires three
time constants. The remaining 5% is negligible and well within
the accuracy limits of vaporizers. At a fresh gas flow of 1 lpm
into a 2 liter chamber, tau is 2 minutes and 3 tau is 6 minutes. Fig. 5-34 VetEquip 2 l Vented Chamber. The sliding, inclined lid is seen at
the left, opening into the chamber. A hood partially enclosing the evacuation
In this example, doubling the fresh gas to 2 liters, halves the connection is visible at the upper right. Anesthetic gases are introduced through
required time, and illustrates a convenient relationship. If the a port located beneath the evacuation port in the wall of the chamber. As the
fresh gas flow and the chamber volume are equivalent, 3 min- lid is opened, the evacuation flow entrains gas from the chamber, conducting it
utes are needed to reach the concentration set on the vaporizer. away from the work area via a fan-driven high flow evacuation system. Credit:
Because the calculations do not take into account the volume Courtesy of VetEquip, Inc.
of the patient, the required time may be somewhat less. Thus,
within the constraints mentioned previously, chambers should
be no larger than necessary. Anesthesia induction chambers are major sources of pol-
It is also obvious that very large chambers will require con- lution with waste gas, discussed elsewhere in this text.
siderably more time, oxygen, and anesthetic agent. Anesthesia Actively scavenged chambers for rodents have become available
flowmeters do not ordinarily exceed 10 lpm, and vaporizer out- (Fig. 5-34). These chambers require very high exhaust flows in
put tends to drop off at high flows, so attempting to match the order to work as designed. Flows of this magnitude can be gen-
flow to the chamber volume is unrealistic in larger chambers. erated by fan-driven blower systems, such as those used with
If very large induction chambers must be used, an alternative ventilated cage racks or similar arrangements, but cannot be
is to introduce liquid agent in a volume calculated to reach the attained with conventional central vacuum systems.
desired level. A convenient device intended for this purpose is
the Vapor Wand (Fig. 5-33). The design and use of the delivery
system is described by Hodgson (2007). B. Face Masks

Face masks are used to provide oxygen and to deliver anes-

thetic breathing mixtures. They are used for induction and
maintenance of anesthesia for short procedures, and when endo-
tracheal intubation is not possible or desirable. Face masks are
also the most common means of maintaining inhalational anes-
thesia in rodents. To work efficiently and safely, a conventional
mask must have a tight seal to the patient and minimal dead
space (Smith and Bolon, 2006). A seal is usually attained with a
gasket or a fenestrated diaphragm, which must be replaced when
damaged or deteriorated. Dead space depends on the degree to
which the mask conforms to the anatomy of the patient, a notable
difficulty given the range of species used in research.
Face masks, or nosecones, used in small animal clinical prac-
tice are, with some exceptions, useful for dogs, cats, and species
of similar size and conformation. The larger sizes are also suit-
Fig. 5-33 Vapor Wand. A calculated amount of liquid volatile anesthetic
able for domestic swine. Masks intended for use with human
is drawn into the syringe and delivered into the induction chamber via the pediatric and neonatal patients are sometimes useful for nonhu-
perforated steel tube. Credit: Courtesy of David S. Hodgson, D.V.M., DACVA. man primates. For small animals, masks are often connected to
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 157

Fig. 5-36 Universal Nosecone Nonrebreathing System. The small fresh gas
tube enters near the mask connection using a 15 mm adaptor to connect to the
Fig. 5-35 Rodent Face Masks. These small masks have an easily replaceable anesthetic vaporizer. Nineteen mm scavenging tubing is attached to the end
diaphragm. The user cuts the mask opening to the desired size. Credit: Courtesy opposite the mask adaptor and serves as a reservoir tube and waste gas conduit
of Molecular Imaging Products. to the disposal site. Credit: Courtesy of Molecular Imaging Products.

a Mapleson-D circuit; for larger animals a circle system usually diaphragm. The animal’s head is placed in the inner tube, which
is used. is connected to the fresh gas outlet of the anesthesia machine.
For some species, it may be necessary to fabricate a mask The inner tube is surrounded by a larger outer tube connected to
from available containers, such as plastic bottles or jugs, using a suction source. Hunter et al. (1984) emphasize that adequate
sufficient padding to achieve a close, comfortable fit with min- scavenging requires that the inner tube not extend beyond the
imal dead space. Achieving a durable tight connection to the outer scavenging tube. The scavenging flow is generated by an
breathing circuit is usually difficult, but can be accomplished exhaust fan or by connection to a vacuum line. In either case,
with the help of good selection of spare connectors and some the scavenging flow needed is high in comparison with fresh
ingenuity. gas flow. The animal’s nose must remain in the inner tube of the
A variety of masks is available for rodents, with or with- mask, but as no diaphragm is used, the mask is less sensitive
out diaphragms. Some are sold as separate components, with a to minor movement than conventional designs. With adequate
15 mm connector breathing circuit connector. Other masks have exhaust flows, the SurgiVet Multi-Station can be used in this
connections for Mapleson-E adaptors. Examples of both types fashion. The Fluovac™ Gas Scavenger (Fig. 5-37) described by
are seen in Figs 5-35 and 5-36. As for larger animals, designs Hunter et al. (1984) uses the same concept, as does the Multista-
using a diaphragm are preferred because the cross-sectional tion Rodent Anesthesia Delivery and Scavenging System (Fig.
anatomy of the nose and mouth is rarely circular and a diaphragm 5-38), distributed by BioTex™ (Houston). The Fluovac has two
provides a more reliable seal (Smith and Bolon, 2006). delivery circuits and employs a fan-driven scavenging system
As an expedient, a simple syringe case and a cotton pledget, to draw the waste gas through a large activated carbon canister.
wetted with liquid volatile agent, can be used for rodents, but It is connected to the fresh gas outlet of the anesthesia machine
some means of exhausting the resulting waste gas without recir- or to a compressed gas source using a flowmeter and vaporizer.
culation is necessary. The control of anesthesia depends on close The BioTex machine is a compact design with two nosecones
observation, regulating the depth of anesthesia by changing the and provision for an induction chamber. It also employs a fan to
position of the animal’s head in the mask to alter the mixture of produce exhaust flow at the masks and to direct the waste gas to
air and agent. Anesthetic agent consumption is high compared a scavenging interface. The machine was designed for induction
to using a vaporizer, oxygen is not provided during anesthesia, and maintenance of anesthesia prior to transferring the animal
and close observation of the patient competes with procedural to another maintenance system during imaging studies.
demands. Masks are available for use with stereotaxic stands. The mask
Coaxial, actively scavenged masks for rodents have been is usually mounted on the incisor bar, replacing the nose clamp
described by several authors (Glen et al., 1980; Henry and (Fig. 5-39). Connections are provided to pass a constant flow of
Casto, 1989; Hunter et al., 1984; Levy et al., 1980; Li et al., gas across the mask which functions like a T-tube. Various sizes
2001; McGarrick and Thexton, 1979). These masks do not use a and configurations are available from suppliers of stereotaxic
158 GEORGE A. VOGLER

Fig. 5-39 Mouse Gas Anesthesia Mask Stoelting. The mask is seen mounted
Fig. 5-37 Fluovac Gas Scavenger. The two coaxial patient circuits originate
on a stereotaxic frame. In this design, the nose clamp is used to secure the mask
at the top and end in actively scavenged coaxial masks. Waste gas is drawn
over the incisor bar. The two tubes on either side of the mask are connected to
through the large charcoal canister by a fan housed in the base. Connections to
the fresh gas source and scavenging interface, respectively. Credit: Courtesy of
fresh gas are at the rear of the unit. Credit: Courtesy of Stoelting Co.
Stoelting Co.

Simple fixed-rate syringe drivers can be used for this purpose,

but they place a considerable demand on the user to calculate
and prepare drug dilutions and to closely monitor their opera-
tion. Instead, variable-rate, microprocessor-controlled syringe
pumps are preferred. Such pumps are available from human and
some veterinary medical suppliers as well as vendors of scien-
tific equipment for biomedical research. For anesthesia use, the
pump software should recognize the volume and concentration
units used for drugs, and display infusion rates based on the
selected units. The ability to deliver a user programmable bolus
of drug is essential, as are alarms to warn of delivery line occlu-
sion and an impending empty syringe. A display screen should
indicate the infusion rate in appropriate units, the delivered and
remaining volume, and the operating status of the pump. Pumps
having these features are usually intended and labeled for use
Fig. 5-38 Multistation RodentAnesthesia Delivery and Scavenging System.
in anesthesia.
This compact machine is shown with a vaporizer at the top of the case. Two
coaxial delivery cones are at the bottom corners. An induction chamber is seen There is an increasing interest in human and veterinary
at the right and the waste gas transfer hose at the top right, near the vaporizer. medicine in total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA) and analgesia,
Credit: Courtesy of BioTex. although in many cases, inhalation agents are used concurrently.
For human use, control algorithms have been developed based
equipment, including models with special restraint devices for on the known pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic proper-
use with neonatal rodents. ties of some widely used intravenous anesthetic agents. These
target-controlled infusion schemes are computer controlled to
vary the rate of administration over time, producing a more
VIII. INJECTABLE ANESTHETIC DELIVERY
stable plane of anesthesia (Diba, 2005b). For animals, the infor-
SYSTEMS
mation needed is not available for many species, nor is the
market sufficiently great to support development of the requi-
Syringe pumps, or drivers, are used for controlled infu- site control algorithms. The features and controls of anesthesia
sion of anesthetics, analgesics, or other high-potency drugs. syringe pumps change with each new model and often with
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 159

software updates. Those unfamiliar with these devices should

research currently available models and seek advice from col-
leagues experienced in their use before purchasing them. For
intravenous anesthesia, modern syringe pumps are the equiva-
lent to a precision vaporizer, with more complex user controls.
Used equipment should be purchased with the same precautions
discussed for used anesthesia machines.

IX. EQUIPMENT FOR AIRWAY ACCESS AND

CONTROL

A. Laryngoscopes

In anesthesia, laryngoscopes are used to visualize the laryn- Fig. 5-40 Straight Laryngoscope Blades. From top to bottom, Phillips,
Robertshaw, modified Miller, and Wisconsin blades are shown. The Miller blade
geal opening during endotracheal intubation. In addition to
has been modified by removing the flange and placing the light on the right side.
conventional instruments, flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopes,
and endoscopes with or without video displays are also used.
Equipment used for airway access in rodents is based on blades is available, designed for specific applications in human
methods and designs similar to those used for larger animals. anesthesia and critical care. A much more limited selection
of blades is available for use in larger veterinary patients,
including domestic swine and small ruminants. Laryngoscope
1. Conventional Laryngoscopes
blades are typically divided into straight or curved styles, each
The classic instrument consists of a cylindrical handle hous- style requiring a somewhat different technique in use. Typi-
ing one or more batteries with a connection for a detachable cal straight blades include the Miller and Wisconsin patterns
blade. A standard hook-on connection is used, and with some (Fig. 5-40). Smaller Phillips and Robertshaw blades, some-
exceptions, the blades are interchangeable among handles. Han- times used in smaller patients, are also shown. While straight
dles are available in several styles, ranging from small penlight blades are frequently preferred by veterinary clinicians, curved
styles to heavy, stubby handles designed for use in humans blades have significant advantages in some cases. The Macin-
with limited oral access. Small handles are convenient for small tosh blade (Fig. 5-41) is one of the most popular blades used for
blades, which tend to be overbalanced on larger handles. For the humans, and works equally well in many nonhuman primates
same reason, larger blades are more easily controlled when an and other species with similar oral anatomy. On many laryngo-
appropriately large handle is used. Handles are relatively inex- scope blades, a flange is used to control and deflect the tongue.
pensive compared to laryngoscope blades. Reusable handles However, for use in patients with a restricted mouth opening,
are available for conventional blades, with a light bulb mounted and for many veterinary applications, blades in which the flange
on the blade, and for blades employing fiberoptic bundles. For
fiberoptic blades, the light is usually located in the handle. A
green stripe is used to indicate a fiberoptic handle, with a cor-
responding green marking on the blade. In this system, handles
and blades from different manufacturers are interchangeable.
For both handles and blades, specifications for replacement
lamps vary with the manufacturer, and are not reliably inter-
changeable among brands. With prolonged use, the hook on
connection of the laryngoscope handle is subject to wear and
becomes unreliable in holding the blade and in maintaining the
electrical connection to the light. In most cases, replacement is
less expensive than repair. Disposable plastic laryngoscopes are
available in blade styles and lengths commonly used in humans.
A disposable laryngoscope may be preferred when sterilization
of the intubation equipment is essential, as with use in biohazard
facilities. Fig. 5-41 Curved Laryngoscope Blades. A Macintosh blade is seen at the
Blades for laryngoscopes are usually made of chrome-plated top, and a Choi double-angle blade at the bottom. Note the absence of a flange
brass, stainless steel, or plastic. A bewildering array of specialty on the Choi blade.
160 GEORGE A. VOGLER

is reduced or absent are preferred. The Wisconsin, Robertshaw, intubation differ from those needed for conventional laryngo-
and Macintosh blades seen in Figs 5-40 and 5-41 are flanged. scope blades; training and experience are needed for consistent
The flange is reduced or absent in the Miller, Phillips, and Choi success.
blades depicted in the same figures. For some blades, either ver-
sion may be purchased. Alternatively, a flange can sometimes
3. Intubation Equipment for Rodents
be removed from an otherwise satisfactory design. For some
designs, laryngoscope blades are available equipped with a port Methods and equipment for endotracheal intubation of mice
to supply oxygen during intubation, a useful feature for criti- and rats have been described by numerous authors, largely since
cally ill patients, or when a difficult and prolonged intubation is 1970. Most of the methods were originally described for rats,
anticipated. and have since been adapted to mice. With few exceptions, they
A limited number of human blades are available with a are similar to methods that have been used in human medicine.
reversed light position. When the blade is held with the hook-on Reported methods and equipment include blind intubation using
connector facing up, the light is ordinarily on the left side. For rigid stylets (Jaffe and Free, 1973; Stark et al., 1981). Spe-
left-handed human anesthetists, and for right-handed veterinar- cial mouth gags (Gross, 1958; Jou et al., 2000), and modified
ians whose patients are in sternal recumbency, the light is more or custom-made laryngoscopes (Costa et al., 1986; Hey and
conveniently placed on the right of the blade. Pleuvry, 1973; Linden et al., 2000; Medd and Heywood, 1970;
Curved blades are designed to lift the epiglottis indirectly, Morgan, 1982; Proctor and Fernando, 1973; Schaefer et al.,
by advancing the tip into the vallecula, the depression formed 1984; Tran and Lawson, 1986; Weksler et al., 1994) have often
at the base of the tongue and epiglottis. Gently depressing the been advocated. Also reported are methods using direct lighting
base of the tongue with the blade, in combination with slight with or without mouth gags (Alpert et al., 1982; Boersma and
retraction, will further lower the epiglottis and improve the view Wieringa, 1982; Hranicka et al., 1977; Pena and Cabrera, 1980;
of the laryngeal opening. This technique avoids the potential for Thet, 1983). For rats, the use of transillumination was described
damaging the epiglottis by direct contact and pressure. Straight by Yasaki and Dyck (1991), Cambron et al. (1995) and again by
blades can be placed over the epiglottis, to depress it directly, Rivard et al. (2006). Clary et al. (2003) reported use of an arthro-
but may also be used in the same manner as a curved blade. scope and video camera for intubation of rats. The design of a
Although the laryngoscope is deceptively simple in appear- modified illuminated laryngoscope blade for rats was described
ance, facility in its use is an acquired skill, requiring training by Molthen (2006). The use of an inclined stand was reported
and practice. Intubation of animals such as cats and dogs can by Cambron et al. (1995), and again by Lizio et al. (2001), Kastl
be accomplished relatively easily without a laryngoscope. In et al. (2004), and Theodorsson et al. (2005). Intubation guides
other species, including swine, small ruminants and often, or guide wires were used by Weksler et al. (1994), Linden et al.
nonhuman primates, a laryngoscope is essential for rapid and (2000), and Kastl et al. (2004). Brown et al. (1999) described
minimally traumatic intubation. A firm practical knowledge of an inclined stand and the use of transillumination for mice, as
airway anatomy, careful preparation of the patient and equip- did Bivas-Benmita et al. (2005). Rivera et al. (2005) described
ment, attention to patient positioning, and gentle technique are an inclined stand and the use of a fiberoptic stylet, or guide, for
required for consistent minimally traumatic intubation. intubation of mice and rats.
In summary, the methods involve blind intubation, intuba-
tion using direct light, and intubation using indirect light. Blind
2. Flexible Fiberoptic Laryngoscopes
intubation is feasible, but difficult to learn and prone to result in
Although similar to flexible fiberoptic endoscopes, flexible trauma in inexperienced hands. Direct illumination alone, or in
fiberoptic laryngoscopes are adapted to the needs of the anes- combination with laryngoscopes, lighted stylets, or mouth gags
thetist. They are used when airway access is anticipated to be is a common approach to endotracheal intubation in rodents.
difficult or complicated by anatomical or pathological condi- These methods vary in their equipment requirements, and the
tions. These devices are usually configured for direct viewing ease with which they can be learned varies with the educational
by the operator via a lens or small screen. A working chan- background and experience of the operator. Transillumination
nel is incorporated into the fiberoptic bundle for suction or is simple in terms of equipment, and relatively easy to perform,
injection, as needed. The fiberoptic bundle can be controlled but positioning the light to gain the best view is sometimes dif-
by the operator. They can be used in a variety of ways, but ficult. Rigid stylets, or guides, are problematic and likely to
often, the endotracheal tube is placed over the fiberoptic bun- cause trauma if not used with care. Flexible intubation guides,
dle, which is directed into the trachea. The endotracheal tube such as guide wires, avoid the problem of the endotracheal tube
is then advanced, using the fiberoptic bundle as a guide. The blocking the view as the laryngeal entrance is approached, and
fiberoptic bundles are somewhat delicate and should be han- are less likely to cause trauma than rigid stylets. However, their
dled with care, especially to protect the bundle from being bitten flexibility can make them more difficult to control. Positioning
by the patient. Other small diagnostic endoscopes can be used aids, such as intubation stands, make the process much more
similarly. The techniques for using these instruments to assist comfortable for the user but, because most depend upon intact
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 161

Fig. 5-44 Rat Intubation Speculum. The intubation speculum is similar

to that described by Tran and Lawson (1986) and is molded of hard, auto-
clavable plastic for use with an operating head otoscope. Credit: Courtesy of
Fig. 5-42 Hallowell Rodent WorkStand. The stand is seen tilted to the 45◦ Hallowell EMC.
angle used during intubation. The adjustable lateral positioning aides are in the
center, rotated to accommodate mice. The holes at the base and the depressions
at the top are for a tube of 1/8 inch umbilical tape, used to secure the endotracheal two sizes for rats and mice. The anesthetized animal is placed
tube in rats, and lidocaine gel used for mice, respectively. Credit: Courtesy of supine on the level stand, and the upper incisors are secured
Hallowell EMC. using a rounded rubber loop affixed to hook and loop tape. The
tape is then secured to a corresponding strip on the underside
upper incisors, they cannot be used in animals with abnormal of the stand. The stand is rotated to a 45◦ angle and the operator
dentition. There are no perfect methods. uses a cotton swab, or the shaft of the swab for smaller rodents,
Two systems are available commercially. The Hallowell EMC to roll the tongue out of the mouth and to elevate the mandible.
Rodent WorkStand and other components incorporate elements The speculum is inserted and advanced until a clear view of
of the techniques described by Weksler et al. (1994), Cam- the epiglottis and vocal cords is obtained. Following applica-
bron (1995), and Tran and Lawson (1986) among others. The tion of lidocaine, the intubation guide wire is introduced from
procedure is very similar to that used with a conventional laryn- the side of the mouth using the slot in the speculum and, under
goscope and intubation guide. The intubation work stand is seen direct vision, is advanced a short distance into the trachea. The
in Fig. 5-42. It can be rotated from a level position to a 45◦ angle endotracheal tube is then advanced over the guide wire. The
and has adjustable lateral stabilizers used to help maintain the endotracheal tube is held in place and the guide wire is immedi-
correct position for intubation. The stabilizers are reversible for ately withdrawn. Intubation is confirmed by observing fogging
use with mice or rats. The endotracheal tube is mounted on the of the tube, or a mirror, or by brief occlusion of the tube while
guide wire/syringe assembly seen in Fig. 5-43. A molded oto- observing the alteration in thoracic respiratory movements. The
scope speculum (Fig. 5-44), modified after Tran and Lawson stand and the intubation specula are autoclavable.
(1986), acts as a miniature laryngoscope blade. It is used with
a standard otoscope equipped with an operating head, to pro-
vide illumination and magnification. Specula are available in

Fig. 5-45 BioLITE System. The fixed 60◦ angled stand is seen to the left.
Three sets of holes, two on the front and an additional set on the level top of
the stand, correspond to pegs holding the incisor wire. The illuminated flexible
Fig. 5-43 Intubation Guides. The guide wires are attached to the syringe optical fiber intubation stylet and light source are seen at the right. An adjustable
plunger. The top guide wire is used for rats and animals of similar size. The Luer fitting is used to secure the tube during intubation. Credit: Courtesy of
lower guide wire is used for mice. Credit: Courtesy of Hallowell EMC. BioTex.
162 GEORGE A. VOGLER

The BioLITE system (Fig. 5-45) uses a modified flashlight The tubes most commonly encountered are made of polyvinyl
in which the lens and reflector assembly have been replaced chloride (PVC), but polyurethane, silicone rubber, and red
with a specially designed optical assembly. With this system, rubber tubes are also available. In general, PVC tubes are less
the intubation procedure is similar to that used in larger animals expensive and suitable for most uses. They are lighter than sili-
and humans with a flexible lighted stylet under direct vision. cone or red rubber tubes, transparent, and offer a good balance
The light guide is equipped with an adjustable Luer-lock to of wall thickness to internal diameter. While PVC tubes are
secure the endotracheal tube during intubation. The position somewhat rigid at room temperature, they soften as they warm
of the endotracheal tube is adjusted to allow the end of the to body temperature. Polyurethane tubes are softer than PVC
optical fiber to extend slightly beyond the end of the tube, acting tubes, but offer many of the same advantages, although at a
as an illuminated guide. The intubation stand has a fixed 60◦ higher price. Silicone tubes are soft and are translucent rather
angle, with three mounting positions to adjust the animal to than transparent. They are thick walled in comparison with PVC
a convenient height. The anesthetized mouse or rat is placed tubes. However, silicone tubes are relatively resistant to kink-
supine on the stand and secured using an incisor wire to hold ing, and can be autoclaved. The use of red rubber tubes has
the upper incisors. Lidocaine may be applied with a swab to decreased because they are opaque, subject to deterioration,
further desensitize the larynx. The tongue is retracted and the and are allergenic for those with latex allergies.
fiberoptic illuminated stylet and attached endotracheal tube is Endotracheal tubes may be cuffed or uncuffed. A cuff is used
advanced under direct vision into the trachea. The endotracheal to seal the tube to prevent leakage of anesthetic gases and during
tube is held in place, and the stylet is immediately removed. positive pressure ventilation, and to prevent aspiration of oral
Intubation is confirmed using brief manual occlusion of the tube, secretions or gastric contents. Cuffed tubes have a channel lead-
as previously described, or by a lung inflation bulb. In the latter ing from the cuff to an inflation line and pilot balloon. Cuffs can
case, a small bulb attached to a male Luer fitting is inserted into be described in terms of the pressure needed to inflate them, or
the corresponding female fitting of the endotracheal tube. As the their volume at any given pressure, or both. Low-volume, high-
bulb is squeezed, the thorax is observed to confirm synchronous pressure cuffs require a higher inflation pressure, and provide
motion. Unitary construction of the stand facilitates cleaning a narrow seal at the tracheal wall. High-volume, low-pressure
and disinfection. Three sizes of fiberoptic stylets are available cuffs have a greater area of tracheal contact, but may require less
for mice, small rats, and larger rats. pressure to attain it. Frequently, the balloon has a short exten-
sion terminating in a one-way valve fitted with a female Luer
connection. If a one-way valve is not present, or is incompetent,
B. Endotracheal Tubes a three-way stopcock is often used, to provide for easy inflation
and adjustment.
Endotracheal tubes reduce anatomical dead space, secure the The amount of air needed to adequately inflate the cuff
airway, and facilitate assisted or mechanical ventilation. For depends on the diameter of the trachea and the endotracheal
animals in which human endotracheal tubes can be used, an tube, as well as the type of cuff. While the size of the tube
enormous selection is possible though, in practice, only a few is known, tracheal diameter can vary during anesthesia, as the
types are commonly used. Laryngeal mask airways are not, trachea relaxes. Cuff pressure can change during anesthesia
strictly speaking, endotracheal tubes but are included here. For and should be periodically reassessed. Gradual increases in
rodents, intravenous catheters or small gauge laboratory tubing cuff pressure often accompany the use of nitrous oxide, as it
are usually used. equilibrates with the gas in the cuff. By contrast, silicone is
especially permeable to gases, and may slowly lose pressure
during extended anesthesia. For this reason, when silicone endo-
1. Conventional Endotracheal Tubes
tracheal tubes are used, it has been suggested that the cuff be
Endotracheal tubes designed for human use have a standard filled with saline, rather than air (Harper, 2007).
15-mm connector to the breathing circuit. The tubes are marked Excessive cuff pressure can impede blood flow to the tra-
in millimeters with their internal diameter and in centimeters cheal mucosa. The resulting damage becomes apparent in the
for their length. Smaller tubes are also marked with the outer postanesthesia period, ranging from transient partial airway
diameter (OD) in millimeters. Most endotracheal tubes have a obstruction and dyspnea to persistent severe airway stricture.
preformed curve. The curve increases visualization of the laryn- Cuff pressure needs only to be sufficient to minimize leakage
geal opening when intubation is performed using a conventional during manual or mechanical ventilation, and to limit aspiration
laryngoscope, and may reduce pressure on the tracheal wall once of oral secretions or gastric contents. However, inadequate cuff
the tube is in place. The distal end is beveled, and may have a pressure obviates the advantage of having a cuff at all. Espe-
small opening opposite the bevel called a Murphy eye, intended cially with high-volume low-pressure cuffs, palpating the pilot
to provide an additional path for gas if the bevel is occluded. A balloon to determine cuff pressure is insensitive and unreliable
radiopaque marker is often present, to help with the radiographic (Hoffman et al., 2006). With these cuffs, pressure is best mea-
assessment of the tube position. sured using a cuff manometer made for the purpose (Fig. 5-46).
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 163

Fig. 5-47 Conventional Cole Tube. Notice the reduced distal end, wider
intraoral segment and standard connector.
Fig. 5-46 Cuff Manometer. For low-pressure high-volume cuffs, a cuff
manometer is used to inflate the endotracheal tube cuff and simultaneously
measure the inflation pressure. Credit: Courtesy of Moses Goddard, M.D.

The manometer will not work with high-pressure low-volume

designs because the pressure needed to expand the cuff to any
degree is considerable and does not indicate contact with the
tracheal wall. A less convenient, but effective alternative is to
use the breathing circuit manometer to establish a minimal leak;
the cuff is slowly inflated until a barely perceptible leak is estab-
lished at the desired pressure. Because the cuff pressure needed
to prevent leakage depends to a large degree on peak airway
pressure, large patients generally require a higher pressure than
do small patients, for which lower ventilation pressures are com-
monly used. Devices to limit cuff pressure, such as the Lanz® Fig. 5-48 T-Wall Cole Tube. The longer intratracheal span and metal tape
endotracheal tube, are available at increased cost, and have been reinforcement in the intratracheal portion (George: there is a missing word or
words here) can be seen. Credit: Courtesy of Vital Signs, Inc.
shown in dogs to maintain a constant cuff pressure and to limit
tracheal mucosal damage (Abud et al., 2005). Low-volume,
high-pressure cuffs are usually somewhat easier to insert than the upper airway, not to be wedged against the larynx. Two
high-volume, low-pressure cuffs, but may be somewhat more types are available. The first (Fig. 5-47) is a conventional PVC
prone to cause tracheal damage. tube. The second tube (Fig. 5-48), is a polyurethane tube in
In general, the largest endotracheal tube that can be inserted which the distal, intratracheal portion is reinforced with a spi-
without trauma should be used. The interior diameter of the ral of shape-memory alloy tape that resists deformation. The
tube is usually the greatest constriction in the pathway between T-Wall™ endotracheal tube has a relatively thin wall and
the patient’s lungs and the breathing system, and resistance to a longer intratracheal segment. It provides a larger ID compared
flow is determined more by the diameter of the tube than by its to conventional Cole tubes of the same OD. As with conven-
length. For this, and other reasons, uncuffed tubes have often tional Cole tubes, the extra-tracheal portion of the tube can be
been advocated for smaller animals, such as rabbits, cats, and trimmed to reduce equipment dead space. It is available in tubes
ferrets. Cuffed tubes can safely be used in these animals pro- with OD’s of 3.6, 4.3, and 4.9 mm.
vided sufficient care is taken to monitor cuff pressure. However, Spiral wire or nylon reinforced tubes are useful where there
the length of the tube extending beyond the patient’s mouth does is a particular risk of kinking the endotracheal tube, when the
add to equipment dead space, and may contribute significantly head and neck must be sharply flexed. The spiral reinforcement
to rebreathing in small patients; tubes should be cut to fit. may run the entire length of the tube, or may be only in the
For small patients, when a cuffed tube cannot be used, intratracheal segment, as with the T-Wall tube. Full-length wire
uncuffed tubes are available in very small sizes for human reinforced tubes are difficult to trim.
neonates. In the event that even these are too large, Cole tubes The correct placement of the endotracheal tube should always
can be used. These tubes have relatively short intratracheal be confirmed. Condensation on the tube can be deceiving
segment, sharply reduced in diameter from the body to the because it can also occur with esophageal placement. Excur-
tube. They are intended to seal at the narrowest diameter of sions of the reservoir bag in synchrony with respiration can
164 GEORGE A. VOGLER

occur with esophageal intubation, albeit usually in smaller mag-

nitude than with intratracheal placement. Auscultation of the
lungs and stomach while briskly compressing the reservoir bag
to deliver short small breaths is more certain and simple, requir-
ing only a stethoscope. Observation of a normal capnographic
waveform is usually considered the most reliable means of
confirming proper placement.
Many modified and specialty endotracheal tubes are available
for nasal intubation, endobronchial intubation, laser surgery,
respiratory gas sampling, and other special applications. They
are well described, illustrated, and discussed in current anesthe-
sia equipment texts, and in numerous published papers (Dorsch
and Dorsch, 1999h).
Endotracheal tube connectors are usually supplied with the
Fig. 5-50 Right-Angle Endotracheal Tube Adaptors or Elbows. (Top right)
tubes, and are usually hard plastic. With the exception of tubes Elbow with endoscope port. (Top left) Swiveling elbow with endoscope port.
sold for large domestic animals, such as cattle and horses, the (Bottom right) Conventional elbow. (Bottom left) Elbow with gas sampling
connection is a standard 15 mm taper. Metal connectors are port. The sampling port is fitted with a sealing cap.
available, as well as connectors made from polysulfone for use
with autoclavable tubes. Connectors are sized according to the
endotracheal tube ID. For very small patients, low–dead space
connectors are especially useful (Fig. 5-49). The smallest sizes
will fit the Luer connection of an intravenous catheter, frequently
used as an endotracheal tube in rodents. Low–dead space con-
nectors may be incompatible with some coaxial nonrebreathing
circuits, because the location of the fresh gas tube does not
allow sufficient space for expiration (Sinclair and Van Bergen,
1992). Swiveling straight adaptors are used to relieve torque in
the connection between the endotracheal tube and the breathing
circuit.
Right-angle adaptors, or elbows, are often used to aid in posi-
tioning the breathing circuit. They are made with small ports for
sampling and analysis of airway gases and with larger ports to
facilitate bronchoscopy. Some examples of these are seen in Fig.
Fig. 5-51 LMA™ Classic Larygeal Mask Airways. The silicone masks
5-50.
are shown from right to left in sizes 1, 1½, 2, 2½, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Size 1 is
recommended for human neonates or infants weighing less than 5 kg, and size
6 for human adults weighing over 100 kg. Credit: Courtesy of LMA North
America, Inc.

2. Laryngeal Mask Airways

Laryngeal mask airways are designed for use in humans as
an alternative to endotracheal intubation. The device is a short
tube with a standard 15 mm breathing circuit connector, termi-
nating in a cuffed, concave silicone mask to fit over the laryngeal
entry to the trachea (Fig. 5-51). Laryngeal masks can be inserted
blindly or under direct vision using a laryngoscope. Currently,
laryngeal masks are available in a range of sizes, no. 1 being the
smallest. The mask can be inserted blindly, with the concave side
facing the tongue, and the position adjusted to assure optimum
ventilation. The balloon is inflated to attain a seal. Cuff infla-
Fig. 5-49 Low Dead Space Adaptors. These endotracheal tube connectors
greatly reduce the dead space compared with a standard 15 mm connector. The
tion pressures of 60 cm H2 O or less are suggested for humans.
adaptors seen include a sampling port for side stream respiratory gas monitoring. Stridor or audible leaks indicate improper position, corrected
Credit: Courtesy of Hallowell, EMC. by repositioning.
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 165

The perceived difficulty of endotracheal intubation in rab- using size 2 laryngeal masks in cats weighting less than 2.5 kg.
bits has prompted assessment of laryngeal mask airways and Cassu et al., in their study of 32 cats, premedicated their animals
laryngeal tubes. In most reports, size 1 masks were used. and maintained anesthesia with halothane at about 0.5 MAC.
Long et al. (2003) studied three rabbits, weighing 3–5 kg, and Pancuronium was used during controlled ventilation. In con-
reported easy insertion and positioning of the laryngeal mask. trast to Asai et al., they observed no differences in heart rate in
In their study, the mask seal was inflated to 20 cm H2 O, and response to insertion of endotracheal tubes and laryngeal masks,
the rabbits were mechanically ventilated. End-tidal CO2 and possibly attributable to differences in premedication and anes-
SpO2 remained within normal limits for the duration of the 60- thetic maintenance protocols between the two studies. Gastric
minute test period, but one animal developed cyanosis of the reflux was noted during controlled ventilation in both groups,
tongue, attributed to obstruction of venous outflow. Smith et al. with a somewhat higher incidence in the laryngeal mask group,
(2004) examined the ease of insertion and personnel exposure but not during spontaneous ventilation in either group. Respi-
to isoflurane levels in eight rabbits using uncuffed and cuffed ratory and arterial blood gas values were similar in all groups,
endotracheal tubes, and laryngeal mask airways without cuff with moderately higher end-tidal CO2 and PaCO2 values seen
inflation. They concluded that laryngeal masks were easier to with the use of laryngeal masks during spontaneous ventila-
insert for personnel at all levels of training and experience, tion and controlled ventilation. These differences may reflect
and that leakage from the masks was comparable to that from the higher dead space of laryngeal masks compared to conven-
the endotracheal tubes. Using 16 rabbits in 3 groups, Bateman tional endotracheal tubes. In summary, it appears that laryngeal
et al. (2005) compared conventional facemasks during sponta- mask airways may be used successfully in cats.
neous ventilation with laryngeal masks during both spontaneous Braz et al. (1999) assessed the use of size 4 laryngeal masks
and controlled ventilation. In their study, the mask cuffs were in dogs, and concluded that they were satisfactory for mainte-
not inflated. They encountered airway obstruction in all ani- nance of a patent airway. Wiederstein et al. (2006) compared
mals when conventional masks were used during preparation. the dose of propofol needed for insertion of laryngeal masks
In three of the animals, obstruction could not be relieved by and conventional cuffed endotracheal tubes in 60 dogs. Pairs
repositioning the head or swabbing the oropharynx, but was of dogs were matched based on breed or skull anatomy, age,
alleviated when a laryngeal mask was used. During controlled and weight. Either laryngeal masks ranging in size from 1 to
ventilation, four of six animals developed gastric tympany. They 6, or appropriately sized endotracheal tubes were used. Follow-
concluded that laryngeal mask airways were superior to con- ing a standard premedication, an attempt was made to insert
ventional masks in terms of airway maintenance. Kazakos et al. either an endotracheal tube or a laryngeal mask by direct laryn-
(2007) examined the performance of laryngeal masks in a series goscopy. If the attempt failed due to inadequate anesthetic
of 50 rabbits undergoing surgery. The animals ranged in size depth, propofol was administered, and a second attempt was
from 3.1 to 4.3 kg, and a size 1 mask was found to be satisfactory. made. In 30 dogs, the laryngeal mask was inserted without
In smaller rabbits, the mask cuff was not inflated. The authors propofol, with the remaining 16 requiring a single dose. In the
suggest that 2.5 kg may be the lower limit for size 1 laryngeal endotracheal tube group, intubation was possible in a single
masks in rabbits, and that size 1.5 masks may be appropriate animal without the use of one or two doses of propofol. The
for some rabbits weighing over 4.0 kg. Tongue cyanosis was mean dose of propofol needed for insertion of a laryngeal mask
encountered in four of the animals, attributed to compression of was approximately one-third of that needed for insertion of an
the lingual artery. It was successfully alleviated by deflating the endotracheal tube.
cuff, repositioning the airway, and in a single instance replacing Wemyss-Holden et al. (1999) examined the use of size 4
a size 1.5 airway with a size 1 airway. Leakage was assessed laryngeal masks in 10 pigs weighing from 24 to 33 kg. In
by placing an agent monitor sampling line in the mouth, and no spontaneously breathing pigs premedicated with ketamine and
volatile agent was detected. The authors concluded that, while xylazine and maintained with halothane, they found the masks
the airway must be inserted carefully to avoid damage to the to be a satisfactory and simple alternative to endotracheal intu-
cuff, insertion was easy with proper technique and the device bation. A laryngeal mask with an accessory port for insertion
functioned well to maintain anesthesia and to support manual of a gastric drainage tube, the LMA-ProSeal™ was assessed
ventilation during surgery. for use in pigs by Goldmann et al. (2005). They rated ease of
Similar studies have been performed with cats (Asai et al., insertion, adequacy of seal during controlled ventilation, and
1988; Cassu et al., 2004). In both studies, size 2 laryngeal masks access for insertion of a gastric drainage tube in 12 pigs weigh-
were found to be easy to insert and in most instances, maintained ing 25–62 kg. The weight of the pigs increased in approximately
a patent airway with no further intervention. Asai et al., studied 5 kg increments, and the appropriate size laryngeal mask was
60 cats, using sevoflurane to induce and maintain anesthesia, determined at each interval. Laryngeal mask sizes were size 3
with no premedication. Vecuronium was used during controlled at 25 kg, 4 from 30 to 43 kg, and 5 from 47 to 62 kg, although
ventilation. They noted greater increases in heart rate with endo- the authors caution that these are only preliminary estimates.
tracheal intubation than with insertion of the laryngeal mask, The LMA-ProSeal was found to be easy to insert under direct
and encountered some difficulty maintaining a patent airway laryngoscopy, provided easy access for placement of a gastric
166 GEORGE A. VOGLER

drain tube, and attained an adequate seal to maintain normal of the larynx adjacent to the tracheal opening. The tip of the
arterial blood gas values using controlled ventilation. catheter may be trimmed to create a bevel of approximately
The design and dimensions of laryngeal mask airways are 40◦ to facilitate passage into the trachea. When trimming a
based on molds of the adult human larynx, proportionately tube or catheter to create a bevel, it is essential that the tip
scaled to create a range of sizes (Diba, 2005c). It is surprising is left rounded, and does not come to a sharp point. A new
that they work as well as they do in animals. However, experi- razor blade or scalpel will yield the best results. Intravenous
ence with their use is limited and, especially in smaller animals, catheters offer some advantages over laboratory tubing. They
not entirely satisfactory (Bateman et al., 2005; Brietzke and are designed with materials known to be compatible with tissues,
Mair, 2001). As seen in some of the previous studies, laryn- and tend to become softer as they are warmed to body tempera-
geal masks may render animals more prone to reflux of gastric ture. Polyurethane catheters are softer at body temperature than
contents and gastric dilatation than conventional endotracheal many other materials. Catheters also have thin walls and a favor-
tubes. If high ventilation pressure is required, the mask may able ratio of inner to outer diameter, offering the least resistance
not provide a sufficient seal. Even so, in some applications, to breathing. Finally, the female Luer fitting is easily connected
laryngeal masks offer a reasonable alternative to conventional to breathing circuits. Some intravenous catheters have a notch
endotracheal intubation. Phaneuf et al. (2006) suggest that on the hub of the Luer fitting to facilitate suturing the catheter
rabbits may be predisposed to tracheal injury associated with in place, and equally useful for tying the tube over the nose with
conventional endotracheal tubes. This is a cause for concern, umbilical tape or, in mice, suture. In mice, 20G catheters are
although the frequency of clinically significant complications often used. Brown et al. (1999) used PE-90 polyethylene tubing
is unclear, and may be expected to vary widely with the pro- to make an endotracheal tube for mice weighing 20–25 g. The
tocols and practices used. Clearly, however, a safe and simpler tubing has an OD of 1.27 mm, about 20% larger than a 20G
alternative to endotracheal intubation would be welcome. catheter. Ideally, the rule of using the largest endotracheal tube
The laryngeal tube is similar in function to a laryngeal mask that can be placed without causing trauma should also apply
airway. It differs in design by having a distal, esophageal bal- to rodents, but a more limited selection of catheter and tubing
loon to occlude the esophagus, and a more proximal, larger sizes complicates the issue.
balloon to seal the pharynx. A fenestration between the cuffs Rodent endotracheal tubes are not, for obvious reasons, avail-
is centered over the laryngeal aditus, providing a pathway for able with inflatable cuffs. It has been suggested that a small piece
ventilation. Yamamoto et al. (2007) used a size 0 tube in six of tubing placed over the catheter can be used to limit the dis-
rabbits, weighing 3.2–3.9 kg, to maintain isoflurane anesthesia tance it is introduced into the trachea and to limit leaking around
and to assess ventilation during neuromuscular blockade. Intu- the tube. As with Cole tubes, however, it seems inadvisable to
bation was successful on the first attempt in four of six animals, rest the stop against the larynx in animals intended to recover
and on the second attempt in the remaining animals after com- from anesthesia.
plete deflation of the cuffs. Based on capnography, ventilation
was well supported with, or without, neuromuscular blockade.
Leakage of volatile anesthetic was not assessed. C. Stylets, Guides, and Tube Exchangers
Imai et al. (2004) report the design of a novel device intended
for use in small laboratory animals. The device shares some sim- The term “stylet” is somewhat elastic. It can refer to rigid
ilarities with the laryngeal mask airway and with the laryngeal or malleable rods or wires used to adjust the curve of an endo-
tube, with the balloon placed distally, to act as an esophageal tracheal tube in order to make insertion easier. Used this way,
obturator. The device was designed based on molds taken from in order to avoid airway trauma, the stylet should not extend
rabbits, ferrets, rats, and mice, and tested using rabbits. Blind beyond the tip of the tube. Many types of stylets are sold for this
insertion was relatively easy, and the device was effective and purpose, usually coated with smooth plastic to make withdrawal
equivalent in performance to a conventional endotracheal tube from the tube easier, and often having an adjustable stop mech-
for both spontaneous and controlled ventilation. Mild pharyn- anism to limit their working length (Fig. 5-52). Alternatively,
geal redness and localized swelling were seen in three of the six the malleable stylet can be bent sharply at the tube connec-
rabbits following extubation. The device was not commercially tor to accomplish the same end. Lighted malleable stylets are
available and remained in development at the time this chapter available.
was written. Endotracheal tube introducers, intubation guides, intubation
stylets, and bougies, all refer to flexible tubes inserted into the
trachea and used to guide an endotracheal tube threaded over
3. Rodent Endotracheal Tubes
them into the correct position. They are sufficiently rigid to
Intravenous catheters or laboratory tubing are commonly used pass into the trachea, but smooth and flexible enough to avoid
in rodents. In adult rats, 14G or 16G catheters are usually injury. Intubation guides are used when vision is limited and
suitable, although a smaller catheter may be needed for juve- the endotracheal tube would obscure the tracheal opening as
nile animals. As with other animals, the tube size is limited it is advanced. They can be used several ways. If the view of
not by tracheal diameter, but rather by the smaller diameter the tracheal opening is very limited, or if the tracheal opening
5. ANESTHESIA DELIVERY SYSTEMS 167

In addition to the current edition, previous editions are espe-

cially useful for information regarding older machines and
equipment.
“Ward’s Anaesthetic Equipment,” 5th ed. (Andrew J. Davey
and Ali Diba, eds.). Elsevier Saunders, Amsterdam. (2005).
ISBN 1 4160 2558 8.
“Lumb & Jones’ Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia,” 4th
ed. (William Tranquilli, John Thurmon, and Kurt Grimm, eds.).
Blackwell Publishing. (2007). ISBN 978078175471.
“Basic Physics and Measurement in Anaesthesia,” 5th ed.
(Paul D. Davis and Gavin C. Kenny, eds.). Butterworth
Heinemann, Philadelphia, PA. (2003). ISBN 0 7506 4828 7.

Fig. 5-52 Commercial Endotracheal Tube Stylets. The top three are smooth
plastic coated malleable wires with stops that can be adjusted to prevent the stylet REFERENCES
from extending beyond the tip of the endotracheal tube. The bottom stylet is a
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 Chapter 6

Monitoring of Anesthesia
Jennifer C. Smith and Peggy J. Danneman

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
II. Monitoring of the Anesthetized Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
A. Core Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
B. Monitoring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
III. Special Circumstances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
A. Unique Challenges of Laboratory Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
B. Monitoring of Neuromuscular Blockade in Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
IV. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Acknowledgement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

I. INTRODUCTION
monitoring to be successful, three basic processes should
occur: early recognition of homeostatic disturbances, the correct
Anesthesia can have unpredictable effects on the patient’s interpretation of changes, and appropriate intervention.
normal homeostasis. Thus, it is safe to assume that any ani- The first principle of anesthetic monitoring is to assure that
mal undergoing an anesthetic procedure will have its normal the level of surgical anesthesia is consistent with the welfare
physiologic compensating mechanisms impaired in some way. of the animal. This requires monitoring anesthetic influence on
These impairments register as changes in the body’s normal the central nervous system (CNS), more commonly referred to
physiologic states and provide the basis of anesthetic monitor- as the depth of anesthesia. In addition to the danger of exces-
ing. Anesthetic monitoring allows one to recognize the extent sive depth of anesthesia, an animal in an adequate plane of
of compromise to each body system during the course of a pro- anesthesia may become significantly compromised because of
cedure and to make adjustments in the anesthetic protocol to the direct depressant effects of particular anesthetic drugs on
prevent untoward short- and long-term effects on the animal. the cardiovascular or respiratory system. Many anesthetic-
Many variations can be expected in the way a patient will induced changes in the CNS, cardiovascular, or pulmonary
respond to anesthetic agents. These variations are affected by the system are gradually progressive over time rather than sudden
patient’s health/pathology, metabolism, and uptake/distribution events (with the exception of anesthetic induction); therefore,
of the anesthetic agents being delivered. In order for anesthetic monitoring the appropriate parameters should allow for early

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

171
172 JENNIFER C. SMITH AND PEGGY J. DANNEMAN

recognition of negative trends while physiologic disturbances sophisticated equipment and these become especially impor-
are still reversible. tant in high-risk patients or procedures. This equipment can
The second principle of anesthetic monitoring involves the also provide numerical data which may be necessary for the
correct interpretation of complications. When an animal is interpretation of research results. Despite all the advantages of
anesthetized its physiologic processes are altered by the anes- such sophisticated equipment, it is crucial that anesthetists not
thetic itself, the surgery being performed, and/or the research neglect their senses as well as clinical observations. The senses
manipulations required by the study. If an animal appears com- are simple and reliable, rarely malfunction or require calibra-
promised during a procedure, one must be able to determine tion, and do not need an emergency backup power generator.
quickly the likely cause of the problem in order to choose the The importance of the use of the senses is a theme throughout
appropriate steps to correct it. A thorough knowledge of the the discussion of anesthetic monitoring.
anticipated effects of different anesthetic drugs on each phys- In addition, the efficacy of anesthetic monitoring depends
iological parameter will make this interpretation of cause and on the choice of physiologic variables that are studied. Cer-
effect much easier. The reader is referred to other chapters in tain parameters, such as withdrawal response to a toe pinch,
this text in which the specific pharmacology and expected phys- are not very sensitive indicators of patient status. While the
iological effects of each anesthetic agent are discussed in detail. presence of a withdrawal in response to toe pinch would indi-
In addition to pharmacologically induced complications, phys- cate that an animal is too light under anesthesia, the absence
iologic status may be further compromised by complications of withdrawal could be seen in an adequately anesthetized ani-
related to procedural manipulations (i.e., severe blood loss and mal or one that is dangerously over-anesthetized. Alternatively,
nerve injury). quantitative variables like blood pressure (BP) give numerical
The third principle of anesthetic monitoring involves inter- information that can be easily compared to previous readings,
vention. Because regular anesthetic monitoring indicates dete- to indicate trends in patient status. It is also important that an
rioration of the patient before it becomes irreversible, the anesthetist never rely on just one single parameter to monitor
anesthetist is able to make adjustments in the anesthetic level, patient status. A single parameter, such as respiratory rate, may
provide supportive therapy, or institute drug therapy that can allow one to recognize trends during anesthesia; however, it can
positively affect outcome. The appropriate intervention is based often be misleading when it comes to correct interpretation of
on interpretation of the cause of the underlying problem. cause and effect, therefore resulting in inappropriate treatment
measures.

2. Vital Signs
II. MONITORING OF THE ANESTHETIZED
PATIENT In the anesthetized patient, vital signs are considered as those
basic elements that can be easily monitored by the anesthetist’s
senses. Although specialized equipment can serve as an adjunct
A. Core Components to monitoring vital signs, a trained anesthetist should be able
to rely on their own senses (touch, sight, and hearing) to assess
The American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists the anesthetized patient. The vital signs that should be mon-
(ACVA) has developed a set of guidelines for anesthetic moni- itored during anesthesia of larger laboratory animals include:
toring in veterinary patients (ACVA, 1995). These guidelines heart rate (HR) and rhythm, pulse pressure, capillary refill time
include monitoring of circulation, oxygenation, and ventila- (CRT), mucus membrane color, blood loss, respiratory rate, and
tion, as well as the use of an anesthetic record and appropriate temperature (McKelvey and Hollingshead, 2003). For smaller
personnel training. Although not applicable to all laboratory laboratory animals (like rodents), adaptation of these techniques
animals, these guidelines are a good suggested starting point for may be necessary.
building monitoring paradigms. A summary of these suggested
guidelines can be found in Table 6-1.
3. Anesthetic Depth
The single most important concept of anesthetic monitoring
1. Observation and Evaluation
is the assurance that the depth of anesthesia is consistent with
The techniques used in monitoring range from the use of the welfare of the patient. The depth of anesthesia required for
sophisticated electronic equipment to simple visual and tactile an animal is determined by the type of procedure being per-
observation. Mechanical and electronic devices enhance patient formed and the response of the patient to the surgical stimulus.
monitoring and are very useful in the laboratory setting where The depth of anesthesia required for a particular procedure also
the anesthetist often has other duties, including that of a sur- varies with the species of the animal. Some species, such as
geon. Further, some parameters can only be monitored using sheep, are far more tolerant of manipulation than others, such
6. MONITORING OF ANESTHESIA 173

TABLE 6-1
ACVA Suggestions for Monitoring Anesthetized Veterinary Patients (American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists, 1995)

Circulation
Objective: To ensure that blood flow to tissues is adequate.
Methods: (1) Palpation of peripheral pulse; (2) palpation of heartbeat through thoracic wall; (3) auscultation of heartbeat (stethoscope, esophageal stethoscope,
or other audible heart monitor); (4) electrocardiogram (continuous display)a,b ; (5) noninvasive blood flow or BP monitor (e.g., Doppler ultrasonic flow detector
and oscillometric flow detector)a,b ); and (6) invasive blood pressure (IVBP) monitor (arterial catheter connected to transducer/oscilloscope or to aneroid manometer).b

Oxygenation
Objective: To ensure adequate oxygen concentration in the patient’s arterial blood.
Methods: (1) Observation of mucous membrane color; (2) pulse oximetry (noninvasive estimation of hemoglobin saturation); (3) oxygen analyzer in the inspiratory
limb of the breathing circuit; (4) blood gas analysis (PaO2 ); and (5) hemoximetry (measurement of hemoglobin saturation in the blood).

Ventilation
Objective: To ensure that the patient’s ventilation is adequately maintained.
Methods: (1) Observation of thoracic wall movement; (2) observation of breathing bag movement; (3) auscultation of breath sounds; (4) audible respiratory
monitor; (5) respirometry (measurement of tidal volume +/− minute volume); (6) capnography (measurement of CO2 in end-expired gas); and (7) blood
gas monitoring (PaCO2 ).

Anesthetic record
Objective: To maintain a legal record of significant events and to enhance recognition of trends in monitored variables.
Methods: (1) Record all drugs administered to each patient, noting the dose, time, and route of administration; and (2) record monitored variables (at least
HR and respiratory rate) on a regular basis (at least every 10 minutes) during anesthesia.

Personnel
Objective: To ensure that a responsible individual is aware of the patient’s status at all times during anesthesia and recovery, and is prepared either to intervene,
when indicated, or to alert the veterinarian in charge about changes in the patient’s condition.
Methods: (1) If a veterinarian, technician, or other responsible person is unable to remain with the patient continuously, a responsible person should check the
patient’s status on a regular basis (at least every 5 minutes) during anesthesia and recovery; (2) a responsible person may be present in the same room, although
not necessarily solely occupied with the anesthetized patient (for instance, the surgeon may also be responsible for overseeing anesthesia); (3) in either of the
aforementioned situations, audible heart and respiratory monitors are suggested; and (4) a responsible person, solely dedicated to managing and caring for the
anesthetized patient during anesthesia, remains with the patient continuously until the end of the anesthetic period.a,b

a
Recommended for all patients assessed to be ASA status III, IV, or V.
b
Recommended for horses anesthetized with inhalation anesthetics and/or horses anesthetized for longer than 45 minutes.

as the rabbit. The type of procedure will determine the intensity and masseter muscle strength. Jaw tone is easily assessed in cer-
of the stimulation. High-intensity painful procedures, such as tain small animal species such as dogs and cats. It is much more
joint capsule incision, periosteal stimulation, fracture manipula- difficult to evaluate in rodents, sheep, and swine. Although it is
tion, visceral or peritoneal traction, diaphragmatic stimulation, usually desirable to maintain some degree of muscle tone dur-
corneal manipulation, or the manipulation of inflamed tis- ing anesthesia, if an animal attempts to close its mouth when
sue will require a deeper level of anesthesia than less painful gentle traction is placed on the mandible during a procedure,
procedures. Because different pain intensities occur within a more anesthesia is generally needed.
procedure as different tissues are manipulated, the anesthetist Purposeful movement has traditionally been thought of as an
must frequently reassess and adjust the depth of anesthesia as is indication that anesthesia is too light, and the animal is respond-
appropriate. Experience with a procedure will allow the anes- ing to a painful stimulus. The traditional view is that purposeful
thetist to anticipate necessary changes in the depth of anesthesia. movement in response to surgical manipulation must be differ-
Observational techniques that help indicate depth of anesthe- entiated from spontaneous movement which can be seen with
sia include the level of muscle relation, reflex activities, and certain anesthetic agents such as ketamine, opioids, enflurane,
physiologic responses to surgical stimulation. and methoxyflurane and which does not occur in response to
A good assessment of muscle relaxation can be made by mon- a surgical stimulus. The pedal withdrawal reflex is commonly
itoring jaw tone in certain species. The ease of monitoring jaw used to help determine the level of surgical anesthesia in small
muscle tone varies with species due to the differences in jaw size laboratory animals. The pinnae of rabbits or rodents are often
174 JENNIFER C. SMITH AND PEGGY J. DANNEMAN

tested in a similar manner, looking for head shaking in response B. Monitoring Techniques
to a painful stimulus. It has recently been suggested that pur-
poseful movement as an assessment of depth of anesthesia alone The key body systems responsible for the short-term well-
is not adequate (Antognini et al., 2005). This theory has not being of an animal during anesthesia and surgery consist of the
been widely accepted and thus should be used with caution in cardiovascular, respiratory, and central nervous systems. All
the assessment of anesthetic depth. of these systems are markedly affected by anesthesia when the
Ocular reflexes can be used to indicate anesthetic depth. These normal homeostatic mechanisms that influence their function
include palpebral response, ocular position, and corneal reflex. are disturbed. Anesthetic monitoring allows one to recognize the
The palpebral response is the blinking that occurs when the extent of compromise to each body system during the course of
edge of the eyelid is lightly touched. There is species varia- a procedure and to make adjustments in the anesthetic protocol
tion in this response under anesthesia. Most animals lose the to prevent untoward long-term effects in the animal.
palpebral response fairly early in surgical anesthesia; however, Today’s anesthetist can utilize specialized monitoring equip-
rabbits may maintain a palpebral response even at deeper planes ment as an adjunct to their routine observational skills. Phys-
of anesthesia. The intensity of the palpebral response is also iologic data relating to the cardiovascular, respiratory, and
influenced by the particular anesthetic agent used. The palpe- central nervous systems can all be collected and recorded using
bral response is lost early with barbiturates and most inhalation common monitoring equipment (Fig. 6-1).
agents; however, it is well maintained with ketamine.
Ocular position is generally a reliable sign of changing anes-
thetic depth in many species. As anesthesia is induced and in 1. Cardiovascular System Monitoring
light planes of anesthesia the eyeball remains central in the orbit
Most anesthetic agents cause a dose-dependent depression of
and the palpebral response is present. Nystagmus and lacrima-
the cardiovascular system. Therefore, monitoring of this system
tion are also indications of a light plane of surgical anesthesia.
When a surgical plane of anesthesia is reached, the globe rotates
ventromedially. As anesthesia deepens (and muscle relaxation
continues to increase), the globe will again rotate upward and
return to a central position in the orbit. A centrally located globe
during a deep plane of anesthesia can be distinguished from the
A
centrally located globe of light anesthesia by the absence of
the palpebral response during increased anesthetic depth. The
corneal reflex is another ocular reflex that changes with the
B
changing depth of anesthesia. To determine the presence of a
corneal reflex, the surface of the cornea is lightly touched and
the presence or absence of a blinking response noted. A brisk
corneal reflex is found in awake animals and its intensity begins
to diminish as the plane of anesthesia deepens. Certain species,
such as ruminants, will maintain a corneal reflex during a sur-
gical plane of anesthesia, whereas the reflex is often absent at a
surgical plane in other species, such as the dog or cat.
Various physiologic responses to stimuli are also used to
assess the level of surgical anesthesia. Increases in HR, BP,
and/or respiratory rate can be seen in response to surgical
stimulation when no purposeful movement has been observed.
Changes in HR, BP, and respiratory rate are also affected by
the specific drugs given and the physiologic state of the ani-
mal. An accurate interpretation of the cause of such autonomic
responses requires an understanding of predicted cardiopul-
monary responses to the pharmacologic agents being used in
the animal, combined with an evaluation of anesthetic depth
based on CNS signs. Again, no single parameter that can be
monitored is solely adequate to pinpoint accurately the plane of
anesthesia in an anesthetized animal.
All of the above information on anesthetic depth should be
considered when formalizing a proper anesthetic monitoring Fig. 6-1 Typical anesthesia monitoring equipment used in the laboratory
plan to assure the best possible anesthetic outcome. environment. (A) Pulse oximetry, ECG, and capnography. (B) NIBP and HR.
6. MONITORING OF ANESTHESIA 175

provides not only an assessment of circulatory function, but also other parameters need to be used to confirm adequate cardiovas-
additional information on the depth of anesthesia. cular function. Although a good pulse is not always an absolute
indication that all is going well during anesthesia, the absence
of a palpable pulse should always be considered a sign of inad-
a. Heart Rate
equate cardiovascular function. Furthermore, it is important to
HR is important for the effect it has on overall cardiac output note that the detection of a digital pulse in smaller laboratory
(CO). CO is the product of HR and stroke volume. HR is often animals (rodents) is not always easy or possible.
influenced by the depth of anesthesia, such that bradycardia fre-
quently occurs as the anesthetic plane gets deeper and tachycar-
c. Capillary Refill Time
dia occurs when the anesthetic plane is too light. The definition
of bradycardia and tachycardia is species-dependent, so at the The time it takes for the mucous membrane color to return to
outset of anesthesia one should be aware of the normal range of normal after releasing digital pressure applied to the membrane
HR for the particular species that is being studied. The impor- sufficient to blanch it of color is defined as CRT. Normal CRT
tance of not relying solely on one parameter while monitoring is should be less than 2.5 seconds. CRT is considered as an indica-
well illustrated by HR. Tachycardia can be caused by painful sur- tor of peripheral perfusion, and a prolonged CRT is seen during
gical stimulation in a lightly anesthetized animal, and increasing hypotension or low CO states. It is important to realize, however,
the plane of anesthesia is often indicated in this case. However, that CRT is markedly influenced by arteriolar tone. A number
hypotension, hypovolemia, hypoxia, hyperthermia, and hyper- of conditions causing peripheral arterial vasoconstriction will
carbia are also potential causes of elevated HR and increasing prolong CRT even though overall tissue perfusion is likely ade-
the level of anesthesia would not be indicated for these causes. quate. Pain, excitement, hypothermia, and certain drugs (i.e.,
Determination of the actual cause of the tachycardia requires xylazine) induce vasoconstriction and can increase CRT above
examination of other monitored information. Bradycardia may the acceptable upper limit. On detecting a prolonged CRT, other
be caused by specific anesthetic drugs (i.e., opioids and alpha- monitoring parameters must be examined in order to determine
2-agonists), reflex activity (i.e., mesenteric traction, intubation, its significance.
oculocardiac reflex, and hypertension), hypothermia, hyper-
kalemia, or cardiac conduction disturbances. If anesthetic depth
d. Electrocardiography
is determined to be appropriate, bradycardia may be treated
by anticholinergics. Anticholinergics would be the treatment of Electrocardiography (ECG) is a technique that provides
choice for bradycardia caused by opioids, xylazine, vagal reflex important information during the course of anesthesia. An ECG
activity, and certain cardiac conduction disturbances. Brady- is widely applicable to most large species, and sometimes used
cardia secondary to hypothermia is unresponsive to anticholin- in smaller laboratory animals. Many ECG monitors provide
ergics and requires rewarming of the animal for improvement. a continuous readout of HR. When attached to a recording
Bradycardia as a result of hyperkalemia represents a serious dis- device, ECG monitors allow continuous or intermittent accu-
turbance in cardiac conduction, and emergency steps to reduce mulation of HR and rhythm data at different stages of an
serum potassium need to be instituted. experiment. In addition, an ECG is the only way to establish the
diagnosis of arrhythmias that might occur as a result of anesthe-
sia or surgical manipulations. The major shortcoming of ECG
b. Pulse
as a monitoring tool is that it represents only cardiac electrical
Pulse strength and regularity are usually determined by the activity and does not provide an assessment of the CO or tissue
digital palpation of the pulse from an accessible site (i.e., perfusion, which are the more important functional aspects of
femoral artery, lingual artery, auricular artery, or tail artery). cardiovascular performance.
Palpation of the pulse is helpful in assessing mechanical activity The ECG of most species consists of a set of waves, including
of the heart. Palpation can reveal the presence of an arrhythmia the P wave that indicates atrial depolarization and the T wave
and, based on the subjective assessment of the pulse strength, that represents ventricular repolarization. The shape, size, and
can provide some information relating to adequacy of the CO. timing of each of these waves are dependent on the species
It is important to realize when interpreting pulse strength that and the particular lead system that is being used. For diagnostic
the intensity of the palpated pulse is a function of the magnitude purposes in an individual with suspected cardiac disease, a mul-
of the pulse pressure. Pulse pressure is the numerical difference tilead system (12 lead) is frequently used. During monitoring of
between the systolic and the diastolic arterial blood pressures. anesthesia, the ECG mostly serves as an HR and rhythm moni-
The larger the systolic/diastolic difference, the stronger the pulse tor, and therefore a single lead system (i.e., lead II with reference
feels. A large systolic/diastolic difference resulting in good electrodes attached at right forelimb and left hind limb) is often
pulse strength does not always indicate an adequate tissue per- used. In small laboratory animal species, the electrical signal
fusion. Once again, relying only on a single parameter—in this is small (low millivoltage), as are the amplitudes of the ECG
case the pulse strength—could be misleading, and therefore waves. In addition, the HR is relatively rapid, sometimes making
176 JENNIFER C. SMITH AND PEGGY J. DANNEMAN

it difficult to discern anything other than the QRS complex on interfere with the accuracy of the pressures obtained with either
the ECG. Despite this situation, the ECG can still be useful in of these methods. However, a recent paper by Krege (2005)
these smaller species as an indicator of HR, and an irregular P-R reports useful adaptations to oscillometric BP monitors that can
interval, or changes in the shape of the QRS complex, can be a be used in the laboratory animal setting.
useful indicator of the development of arrhythmias. The recogni- Oscillometric monitors generally report a measured systolic
tion of the type of arrhythmia usually determines the appropriate and mean BP and extrapolate a diastolic BP (Geddes, 1984a).
treatment; consultation of a comprehensive cardiology text is Oscillometric devices also report HR, which can be used as
recommended (Tilley, 1992). an index of the accuracy of the reported pressures. A rule of
thumb for accuracy is that pressure values should be questioned
when a pressure reading from the monitor is accompanied by
e. Arterial Blood Pressure
a reported HR that varies more than 10% from the actual HR as
The measurement of arterial BP can be very helpful in determined by auscultation or palpation of pulses.
determining the adequacy of cardiovascular function during The Doppler ultrasonic monitor gives systolic BP only. As a
anesthesia. The majority of anesthetic agents will cause a rule, a systolic BP > 100 mmHg is accompanied by adequate tis-
dose-dependent depression of BP through their effects on CO, sue perfusion. A major advantage of the Doppler monitor is that
vascular tone, or both, and, therefore, a trend of progressively it also transmits a pulse sound signal through a speaker device.
decreasing BP may be an indication of excessive anesthetic This audible signal can be used to count HR, and indicates that
depth. However, to accurately interpret the significance of there is functional cardiac activity adequate enough to gener-
changes, one must take into account the varied factors that influ- ate a peripheral pulse. In addition, although subjective, changes
ence BP. Factors that contribute most notably to BP are CO, in intensity of the audible signal correlate with changes in CO
peripheral vascular resistance (PVR), and blood volume. Anal- (Dyson et al., 1985). If the audible Doppler signal becomes
ogous to Ohm’s law, which applies to electrical current, pressure diminished, one should quickly examine other parameters of
is equal to flow times resistance, such that BP = CO × PVR. If hemodynamic status. Doppler monitors are useful in virtually
CO and/or PVR increase, so will arterial BP. If CO decreases, all species, although in small species they are primarily used as
by way of direct anesthetic depression of the myocardium pulse monitors, with the probe placed on the chest wall directly
or decreased filling pressures due to loss of blood volume, over the cardiac apex.
without a compensatory increase in arteriolar tone, the BP
will fall.
f. Central Venous Pressure
The actual significance of arterial BP is, as a component of
tissue perfusion pressure, a determinant of tissue blood flow. Central venous pressure (CVP) is measured directly by inser-
The upstream (arterial) pressure must significantly exceed the tion of a catheter through the anterior vena cava to the level of the
downstream (venous) pressure to enhance the flow through tis- right atrium. This catheter is then connected to a fluid manome-
sue capillary beds. The perfusion pressure should be greater ter, where the pressure reading can be read. Thus, the CVP value
than 60 mmHg for adequate tissue perfusion (Haskins, 1987). reflects the pressure in the right atrium and is an index of cardiac
Therefore, in monitoring arterial BP, a mean BP less than filling pressure. The CVP value allows the anesthetist to assess
60 mmHg is considered unacceptable for maintaining tissue how well the blood is returning to the heart, which is helpful
blood flow. Mean BP is not the mathematical mean of the in right-sided heart failure patients. The factors that influence
systolic and diastolic blood pressures. Rather, it can be esti- the CVP are the volume of the blood in the central veins, the
mated from the measured systolic and diastolic pressures by compliance of the right atrium during filling, the central vein
the following equation: mean BP = diastolic BP + 0.3 (systolic vascular tone, and the intrathoracic pressure.
BP–diastolic BP).
To obtain BP ideally, a direct arterial catheter can be used,
g. Pulmonary Artery Pressures and Cardiac Output
and through the use of a pressure transducer, accurate systolic,
diastolic, and mean blood pressures are determined. Because The standard method of obtaining CO data during anes-
of the invasive nature of this technique, the difficulty in placing thesia is through measurements of pulmonary blood flow by
arterial catheters in many species, and the expense of the elec- thermodilution. The Swan–Ganz catheter is a balloon-tipped,
tronic monitor, estimates of direct arterial blood pressures are flow-directed device equipped with a thermistor tip for mea-
not always available. There are, however, two reasonable nonin- suring the change in blood temperature after injection of cold
vasive alternatives to indirect BP monitoring: the oscillometric solution (Dorsh and Dorsh, 1999). This device is passed into the
monitor and the Doppler ultrasonic BP monitor. Although both pulmonary artery (PA) via the jugular vein-right atrium-right
of these devices are versatile and very useful in the clinical set- ventricle route and confirmation of correct placement is usually
ting, there are some limitations to their use. Small patient size, made by observation of characteristic changes in the pressure
extremes of HR (<40 or >200 bpm), significant hypotension, waveform during its passage (Geddes, 1984a). The Swan–Ganz
and hypothermia (through peripheral vasoconstriction) may all catheter allows measurement of CO, systolic, diastolic, and
6. MONITORING OF ANESTHESIA 177

mean PA pressures, as well as pulmonary artery occlusion pres- b. Mucous Membrane Color
sure (PAOP, also called “wedge” pressure), which is obtained
Cyanosis is the discoloration of mucous membranes that
upon inflation of the balloon tip, impeding PA blood flow, and
results from reduced hemoglobin in the blood, imparting a
reflecting left atrial pressure. Normal values in many species for
purplish cast to the tissue. Cyanotic mucous membranes are
PA pressures are: systolic, 20–40 mmHg; mean, 10–20 mmHg;
not seen until 5 g/dl of hemoglobin in the blood becomes
diastolic, 5–10 mmHg; and PAOP, 3–8 mmHg. PA catheters are
unoxygenated (Allen, 1991). In anemic states, when the blood
indicated for mixed venous blood gas sampling, measurement
hemoglobin concentration is low, hypoxemia can be quite severe
of CO, monitoring for left-sided cardiac insufficiency, and pul-
even though cyanosis is not evident. Therefore, the appearance
monary hemodynamics. Because much of the hemodynamic
of cyanotic mucous membranes indicates hypoxemia, but a lack
data obtained from PA catheters involve calculation of derived
of visible cyanosis does not mean that the animal is adequately
variables (i.e., vascular resistances and ventricular stroke work
oxygenated.
index), PA catheters are used more often in the experimental
setting for the collection of study-specific data rather than for
anesthetic monitoring per se; however, the information gained c. Tidal Volume
from the catheter is often useful for making future anesthetic
determinations. The amount of gas entering the respiratory tract during one
respiratory cycle is called the tidal volume. An average tidal vol-
ume for most species is about 10 ml/kg; however, there can be
wide variations among species. Monitoring tidal volume is usu-
2. Respiratory System Monitoring ally subjectively based on the degree of chest wall motion with
The major function of the respiratory system, in either an each breath or the amount of movement in the rebreathing bag of
awake or anesthetized animal, is to act as a gas exchange organ. the anesthetic machine. It is important to realize that monitoring
The lung is responsible for the introduction of oxygen into chest wall motion alone tells little about the actual volume of
the arterial blood (oxygenation) and the elimination of carbon gas inhaled, as an animal with an airway obstruction or restric-
dioxide from the body (ventilation),and the uptake and elimi- tive pulmonary disease often has marked chest wall motion with
nation of gas anesthetics when inhalation anesthesia is used. To little air movement, with the chest wall motion reflecting a high
evaluate respiratory function, both oxygenation and ventilation work of breathing in this case. In certain species, such as rumi-
must be assessed. It is important to monitor the respiratory sys- nants, rabbits, and guinea pigs, with the potential to develop
tem during anesthesia not only because of its life-sustaining abdominal distension secondary to gas accumulation in their
importance, but also because many anesthetic agents sup- gastrointestinal tract, close attention should be paid to respira-
press respiratory control mechanisms; respiratory arrest usually tory effort and tidal volume because abdominal distension can
precedes cardiovascular collapse when excessive anesthesia be a significant cause of respiratory insufficiency. Evaluation of
occurs. other parameters such as concurrent change of volume in the
Observational techniques allow one to assess respiratory fre- rebreathing bag can be beneficial to help confirm adequate tidal
quency, rhythm, and volume as well as mucous membrane volume. The volume of gas in each respiratory cycle can be
color. Each of these parameters alone provides little informa- measured by attaching an instrument called a respirometer to
tion of the adequacy of ventilation and oxygenation. However, the endotracheal tube (Lumb and Jones, 1996).
when viewed collectively these parameters are advantageous in
indicating the state of respiratory function.
d. Minute Ventilation
Respiratory rate and respiratory volume are determined as an
a. Respiratory Rate
indication of the minute ventilation of the animal. Minute ven-
This rate can be determined by visual observation of the ani- tilation is the product of respiratory rate and tidal volume. The
mal, looking at chest wall motion, by auscultation of the thorax, adequacy of ventilation is judged by the effectiveness of the lung
or by observing the rebreathing bag on the anesthetic machine. in removing carbon dioxide from the pulmonary capillary blood
There are species variations in the range of normal respira- and is directly linked to minute ventilation. The partial pressure
tory rates and one should be familiar with these values prior of carbon dioxide in the arterial blood is inversely proportional
to anesthetizing any animal. In particular, in smaller laboratory to minute ventilation, such that if metabolism (CO2 production)
animal species (rodents), it can be difficult to visually assess remains constant, doubling the minute ventilation decreases
respiratory rate. Usually, the higher the basal metabolic rate PaCO2 by one-half. The partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood
(and CO2 production) of the animal, the higher the resting is the major stimulus for ventilation in the respiratory control
respiratory rate. Most anesthetics are respiratory depressants center in the brain, where anesthetics exert their respiratory
and, as a general rule, the respiratory rate decreases with an depressant effect (increased threshold and decreased sensitivity
increasing anesthetic depth. to CO2 ) (Nunn, 1987). Decreasing minute ventilation during
178 JENNIFER C. SMITH AND PEGGY J. DANNEMAN

anesthesia may reflect a decrease in CO2 production (often seen oxygen, endotracheal intubation, and/or assisted ventilation as
with hypothermia) or it may reflect increased depression of indicated (Clark et al., 1992). There are also a number of condi-
the respiratory control centers from the anesthetic drugs. An tions that produce erroneously low oximeter values. Because
elevation in PaCO2 (above 60 mmHg) indicates the need for the pulse oximeter is highly dependent on good peripheral
increased minute ventilation, through an increase in respiratory perfusion, hypotension and hypothermia will impair accuracy.
rate, volume, or both, and may also indicate the need to decrease Motion artifacts (i.e., patient movement or shivering) and bright
anesthetic depth. external light sources (i.e., fluorescent lights, surgery lights, and
heat lamps) will interfere with the probe’s ability to detect sig-
nal (Severinhaus and Kelleher, 1992). In addition to reporting
e. Capnography
SaO2 , the pulse oximeter often gives a value for the HR. If the
The concentration of carbon dioxide in the inspired and HR value, as reported, varies significantly from the actual HR
expired gas can be continuously measured from the airway using obtained by palpation, then the accuracy of the reported SaO2
capnography. The capnograph samples airway gas from a port should be questioned. Pulse oximeter probes work best when
located either at the endotracheal tube/breathing circuit inter- placed on nonpigmented, hairless tissues such as the tongue.
face or from a site at the distal end of the endotracheal tube. The
capnograph measures the CO2 in the inspired and expired air that
g. Blood Gas Analysis
passes through the monitor and displays it in graph form (the
capnograph). Inspired gas should contain virtually no carbon Although the above-mentioned techniques can provide the
dioxide. As an animal exhales and alveolar emptying occurs, anesthetist with respiratory system information, the only abso-
carbon dioxide appears in the exhaled gas. The peak expired lute way to effectively judge the adequacy of ventilation and
CO2 is a reflection of the partial pressure of CO2 in alveolar gas, oxygenation in any animal is through arterial blood gas anal-
which is equilibrated with arterial blood (Moens and Versraeten, ysis. This analysis is carried out on an arterial blood sample,
1982). Therefore, increased values suggest hypoventilation which must be stored on ice and analyzed within 2 hours of
whereas low peak expired CO2 suggests hyperventilation. The collection. The partial pressure of CO2 in arterial blood should
peak expired (i.e., end-tidal) CO2 may tend to underestimate the fall between 35 and 45 mmHg. A PaCO2 < 35 mmHg is defined
PaCO2 because the gas sampling flow rate of the machine is high as hyperventilation, which most often occurs iatrogenically in
enough that gas (containing virtually no CO2 ) is entrained from animals that are being ventilated. A PaCO2 > 45 mmHg is, by
the breathing circuit, diluting the end-tidal sample (Dorsch and definition, hypoventilation and, depending on the experimental
Dorsch, 1984). In addition to ventilatory information, a capno- conditions, may also indicate the need for assisted ventilation. If
graph can be useful in the rapid detection of endotracheal tube an animal has a PaCO2 above 60 mmHg during anesthesia, steps
malfunctions, such as disconnection from the circuit or a kinked should be taken immediately to improve ventilation, which may
or obstructed tube. Capnographs have also proven to be sensitive include endotracheal intubation, manual or mechanical ventila-
early indicators of the development of malignant hyperther- tion, or decreasing the level of anesthesia as indicated. A partial
mia in susceptible species (primarily swine) in which a rapid pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood >90 mmHg assures ade-
rise in end-tidal CO2 reflects the marked metabolic increase in quate oxygenation (provided there is adequate tissue perfusion).
CO2 production that precedes the often fatal increase in body Much higher levels of PaO2 are often expected during anesthesia
temperature (Bagshaw et al., 1978). depending on the percentage of oxygen in the inspired gas. As a
rule, the PaO2 should be approximately five times the inspired
oxygen concentration so that when breathing 100% oxygen the
f. Pulse Oximetry
arterial PaO2 should approach 500 mmHg. An animal may be
A pulse oximeter is an instrument that by means of a light relatively hypoxemic in that its PaO2 is less than that would
source and photo detector measures the light absorbance of tis- be expected for the particular inspired oxygen concentration.
sues and indicates the level of oxygen saturation of hemoglobin This can indicate concurrent hypoventilation (check the PaCO2 ),
in the blood. Oxygen saturation of hemoglobin (SaO2 ) is related ventilation-perfusion mismatching, shunt, or diffusion impair-
to the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood such that ment. Absolute hypoxemia with significant impairment of tissue
for each value of PaO2 there is a corresponding percentage oxygenation occurs at PaO2 values <60 mmHg (Shapiro et al.,
of hemoglobin that is saturated with oxygen. Adequate arte- 1982). When PaO2 falls to that level, measures should be
rial oxygenation requires a minimum PaO2 value greater than taken to improve oxygenation, such as maximizing the inspired
60 mmHg (and ideally >90 mmHg). A PaO2 of 60 mmHg cor- oxygen concentration and improving ventilation.
responds to a 90% saturation of the hemoglobin in the arterial
blood. Using a pulse oximeter, changes in hemoglobin satura-
h. End-tidal Anesthetic Concentration
tion can be monitored continuously. When the SaO2 value falls
below 90%, the animal becomes hypoxemic and steps should An adjunct to monitoring anesthetic depth is monitoring the
be taken to improve oxygenation, such as administering 100% end-expiratory (end-tidal) inhalation agent concentration during
6. MONITORING OF ANESTHESIA 179

the anesthetic procedure. As described with capnography, the small laboratory animal species. These animals have a very large
end-expiratory concentration of an inhalation agent is assumed surface area relative to body mass, which causes a correspond-
to be reflective of the arterial and brain concentration of the agent ingly greater loss of body heat. This is further compounded by
being monitored. Typically, surgical anesthesia is achieved at the removal of hair and wetting the remaining hair coat during
1.2–1.5 times the minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of aseptic preparation of the surgical site. When this small damp
an inhalation agent (Steffey, 1984). As an example, the MAC of animal is then placed on a cold metal surface, the result can be
halothane in the dog or cat is 0.87%. Surgical anesthesia would fatal hypothermia. Opening of a body cavity will further accel-
therefore be achieved at an end-tidal halothane concentration of erate the loss of body heat. Body temperature is best monitored
1.04–1.31%. An end-tidal inhalation agent monitor will indicate using a small thermistor placed into the esophagus to the level
if the alveolar concentration of gas is in the proper range and, of the heart. This will provide a closer indication of core body
in combination with observational signs of depth of anesthesia, temperature than other methods (Lumb and Jones, 1996). Clin-
will indicate if the animal is suitably anesthetized for a surgical ical thermometers do not register continuous decrease in body
procedure. temperature and thus are not recommended. Hypothermia can
As with other parameters, using end-tidal agent concentration be minimized by the warming of surgical preparation solutions,
as the sole indicator of anesthetic depth can lead to erroneous insulating the patient from both cool ambient temperatures and
conclusions. The administration of other anesthetic drugs, espe- a cold restraining surface, using warm fluids if supplemental
cially opioids or alpha-2 agonists, that have significant analgesic fluids are provided, warming inspired gases, and using supple-
properties, will allow an animal to be adequately anesthetized mental heat provided by a circulating water blanket or forced
at anesthetic concentrations much less than 1.5 times MAC. air warming systems (i.e., Bair-Hugger). An example of the
Hypothermia can also markedly decrease the MAC of inhala- latter device adapted for the laboratory animal environment is
tion agents, so relying on end-tidal concentration alone without described in a recent article by Rembert et al. (2004). Electric
observing additional signs in the animal may lead to inappropri- heating pads should be avoided as they can cause serious thermal
ately deep planes of anesthesia. It is important to recognize that burns and even hyperthermia. Anesthetic-induced hyperthermia
the end-tidal gas concentration necessary to achieve surgical can be seen in some breeds of dogs and pigs. Because both hypo-
anesthesia is not the same thing as the concentration setting on and hyperthermia can enhance the effects of central depressant
the vaporizer. During the induction and equilibration phase of drugs, as well as confound experimental data, monitoring body
inhalation anesthesia, there can be a large difference between the temperature of the patient is particularly important in laboratory
vaporizer concentration and the end-tidal value (the vaporizer animals.
concentration being higher at the beginning of anesthesia). With
time, the difference between these two concentrations narrows.
b. New Trends in CNS Monitoring
Monitoring end-tidal agent concentrations can serve as a useful
guide for when to decrease or increase the setting on the vapor- To date, several different methods to describe and monitor
izer, is often necessary in a research setting to quantitatively the potency of anesthetic agents and patient anesthetic depth
establish the dose of drug delivered. in animals have been described. The Bispectral Index (BIS)
is a newer technology utilizing a predetermined algorithm of
human electroencephalography (EEG) activity to provide the
3. CNS Monitoring
anesthetist with immediate feedback on the patient’s CNS activ-
Anesthesia directly suppresses the homeostatic control sys- ity, and therefore anesthetic depth. Basically, a number between
tems within the body, most of which arise from, or channel 0 and 100 is derived from EEG data collected from the patient
information through, the CNS. Anesthesia suppresses the level during anesthesia. A typical BIS value of 40–60 is used to pre-
of consciousness, pain perception, muscle tone, and reflexes, all vent intraoperative awareness in human anesthesia. The use of
of which result primarily from anesthetic drug activity on the BIS technology has been reported recently in animals (pigs,
CNS. The basis of our ability to control the effects of anesthesia dogs, goats, and cats) (Antognini et al., 2000; Greene et al.,
depends on being aware of the impact the drugs are having 2004; Lamont et al., 2004; March and Muir, 2003); however,
within the CNS at any given moment. An awareness of the its accuracy has been questioned. It is generally agreed that the
level of anesthetic-induced CNS depression requires monitor- differences between the human and animal species account for
ing signs in body systems that reflect the level of input from most of these inaccuracies. Nonetheless, the BIS monitor can be
the CNS. considered a useful adjunct tool for anesthetic depth monitoring
in animals. (See additional discussion of BIS below.)
Anesthetic depth as judged by the obliteration of any purpose-
a. Thermoregulation
ful movement has also been discussed recently (Antognini et al.,
Most anesthetic procedures cause a depression of the 2005). Complex movement patterns can occur during anesthe-
hypothalamic thermoregulatory mechanism, predisposing sia and do not require connections with the cerebral cortex as
animals to hypothermia. This is an even greater problem in once believed. Thus, it is concluded that these movements can
180 JENNIFER C. SMITH AND PEGGY J. DANNEMAN

occur in properly anesthetized patients, and do not necessarily TABLE 6-2

imply that the animal is awake. Although this could be an inter- Summary Comments on Anesthetic Monitoring in the Laboratory
esting development in anesthetic depth assessment, it should Animal Environment
be used with caution to assure that the patient’s welfare during • Comprehensive and ongoing training program for all personnel
anesthesia is always a priority. conducting anesthesia
• Pre-anesthetic physical exam and ASA classificationa as appropriate
• Create appropriate anesthetic plan
◦ Include current ASA classificationa
III. SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES ◦ Consider research procedure
◦ Consult previous anesthetic protocols/anesthetic records
• Minimum monitoring should include
A. Unique Challenges of Laboratory Animals ◦ Heart rate/rhythm and pulse pressure
◦ Respiratory rate and pattern
Monitoring of general anesthesia becomes more difficult ◦ CRT/mucous membrane color
◦ Temperature
when the patient size is reduced. The laboratory animal vet- ◦ Blood loss
erinarian is uniquely tasked with conducting anesthesia in a ◦ Anesthetic record
wide variety of species, most of which are small. The nature of ◦ Consult AVCA suggested planb
their small body size makes routine techniques used to moni- • Anesthetic depth
tor anesthesia (i.e., manual pulse, observations of respiratory ◦ Use a combination of observations
◦ Consider traditional methods
effort, etc.) difficult. To compensate for this, the use of cre- ◦ Consider BIS EEG monitoring
ative techniques and modified equipment is often necessary to • Consider use of specialized monitors
be able to follow the status of very small patients under anesthe- ◦ NIBP and INBP
sia. Other equipment, such as a BP-monitoring device, is often ◦ Pulse oximetry
impractical. However, modifications can sometimes be made in ◦ Capnography
◦ Peripheral nerve stimulator for NMB protocols
existing equipment to accommodate the smaller species used in ◦ BIS
the laboratory setting (Hagaman et al., 2005; Krege et al., 2005).
Summary comments on anesthetic monitoring in the laboratory a
American Society of Anesthesiologists (2007).
animal environment can be found in Table 6-2. b
American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists (1995).
Further challenges facing the laboratory animal anesthetist
are the necessity for physiologic stability for valid experimental
data and accurate interpretation of research results. Anesthetics muscles and diaphragm, which are essential to respiration. In
can have a profound effect on research results, and a well- clinical doses, the NMBDs have virtually no CNS effects, and
documented anesthetic procedure is an important part of the they provide no degree of anesthesia or analgesia. For this
experimental record. Data collected during anesthetic moni- reason, the use of these agents to immobilize otherwise unanes-
toring serve as the basis for design of subsequent anesthetic thetized animals is condemned (PHS, 2000). They can be used
procedures. humanely in anesthetized animals, provided that the animal is
The need to minimize pain and distress is an important aspect protected from experiencing pain while paralyzed. The problem
of all veterinary anesthesia, but the regulatory environment adds is that many of the techniques that may be used to monitor pain
an additional dimension in the research setting. An anesthetic perception in an anesthetized animal are useless in one that is
protocol, approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use also paralyzed.
Committee, is the first step toward this goal, but anesthetic mon- A paralyzed animal cannot move in response to perception
itoring plays a role as the indicator of an animal’s response to the of painful stimulation, and most respiratory parameters can-
procedure while under the influence of anesthetic drugs. When not be assessed because the paralysis of the muscles involved
an animal responds to surgical manipulation, additional anes- in respiration requires that the animal be mechanically venti-
thesia is indicated and the anesthetic protocol designed for that lated. Some investigators have used changes in end-tidal CO2
study may need reexamination. as an indicator of pain perception in paralyzed animals. The
premise is that catecholamines released in response to pain
lead to increased CO2 production (and concomitant increase
B. Monitoring of Neuromuscular Blockade in in oxygen consumption) (Haskins, 1996; Sarton et al., 1997).
Anesthesia However, hypercapnia is not a specific indicator of arousal or
pain, as it may result from other conditions including hypoven-
Monitoring the depth of anesthesia in an animal that has been tilation, dead space rebreathing, or even increased muscle tone
paralyzed with a neuromuscular blocking agent drug (NMBD) associated with waning of the neuromuscular blockade (Hall
is both critically important and challenging. These drugs may and Clarke, 1991; Haskins, 1996). HR, BP, and cardiac rhythm
cause paralysis of all skeletal muscles, including the intercostal also can be monitored in paralyzed animals, but the anesthetist
6. MONITORING OF ANESTHESIA 181

must be aware that many NMBDs can cause arrhythmias and experimental data. An accurate interpretation of monitoring
changes in BP or HR. Although cardiovascular effects are min- data begins with the knowledge of what is normal for the ani-
imal with most of the newer NMBDs, such as atracurium and mal species, and this should always start with a preanesthetic
vecuronium, cardiovascular changes may be observed even with evaluation.
some of the newer drugs (Cullen, 1996; Gyermek et al., 2006; It is usually not feasible to monitor all possible parameters
Sparr et al., 2001; Taylor, 1996). Accurate interpretation of any in every patient, so the anesthetist must choose those parame-
of these physiological parameters is facilitated if the animal is at ters that are most likely to change in response to anesthesia and
an adequate and stable plane of anesthesia prior to administra- surgery and will have an impact on the well-being of the animal
tion of the paralytic agent. Changes in physiological parameters and on the research itself. In order to achieve this, the anesthetist
associated with administration of the agent should be noted, must have a basic knowledge of the physiological effects of the
and subsequent changes viewed as possible indicators of altered anesthetic agents to be used, the procedures to be performed,
depth of anesthesia or pain perception (Hartsfield, 1992; NRC, and the experimental manipulations and data to be collected as
2003). When consistent with the requirements of the experi- part of the experimental protocol. When a change in a monitored
ment, allowing the anesthetized animal to recover periodically parameter occurs, the anesthetist must accurately determine the
from the effects of the paralytic agent is desirable, in that it cause of that change. Monitoring several parameters, with serial
provides opportunities for a more thorough evaluation of anes- data collected, allows trends to be observed that enable the anes-
thetic depth (NRC, 2003). This is not always practical, however, thetist to tailor the anesthetic protocol to the response of the
especially with the longer-acting drugs such as pipecuronium animal. This is important because systems interact with each
and doxacurium. other to create a physiologic state, and because interventions
A more technically demanding measure that may be helpful in will likely affect more than one system. The systems requiring
assessing adequacy of anesthesia is the BIS. BIS has been used at least some degree of monitoring in all patients include the
as a means of monitoring depth of anesthesia in both humans cardiovascular, respiratory, and central nervous systems.
and animals, including those paralyzed with NMBD. Bispectral Smaller laboratory animal species present additional chal-
analysis is a method of signal processing that involves complex lenges to the anesthetist in regards to anesthetic monitoring.
Fourier (power) analysis of the EEG and quantitation of the Although their small size and blood volumes make frequent
degree of phase coupling between different components of the monitoring of certain parameters (i.e., blood gases) difficult,
signal. The BIS is derived from the bispectral analysis combined modifications can sometimes be made in the existing equipment
with other features of the EEG such as the level of burst sup- to accommodate these smaller species.
pression (Sigl and Chamoun, 1994; Struys et al., 1998). While The most successful anesthetic protocols, however, come
it does not appear that BIS is able to discriminate precisely with practice. To determine the best protocol for a given research
between different depths of anesthesia, it may be a useful mea- or surgical procedure, it is helpful to have anesthetic monitoring
sure of awareness or arousal in anesthetized subjects—human records of past procedures. Such records assist the anesthetist
or animal—under the influence of NMBD (Greene et al., 2004; in anticipating problems that might be encountered in future
Haga and Dolvik, 2002; March and Muir, 2003, 2005; Myles procedures. In addition, good monitoring records are always
et al., 2004; Schneider et al., 2003). necessary for demonstrating consistency in experimental pro-
In summary, there is no single technique or measure that can tocols and for eliminating variability that may invalidate the
be used as a universally reliable indicator of insensitivity to pain research data.
in a paralyzed animal. The best approach involves consistent
and careful monitoring of a variety of physiological parameters
before and during neuromuscular blockade. Interpretation of ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
any observed changes should be based on the pattern, as well In preparation of this chapter for this second edition, the authors wish to
as the knowledge of both the pharmacology of the drugs being acknowledge D.E. Mason and M.J. Brown for their efforts in the preparation of
used (anesthetics, NMBD, and other pharmacologic agents) and Chapter 5 (Monitoring of Anesthesia) for the first edition of this text.
the species of animal being studied.
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Antognini, J.F., Barter, L., and Carstens, E. (2005). Movement as an index of March, P.A., and Muir, W.W. (2003). Use of bispectral index as a monitor of
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Antognini, J.F., Wang, X.W., and Carstens, E. (2000). Isoflurane anaesthetic March, P.A., and Muir, W.W. (2005). Bispectral analysis of the electroen-
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Cullen, L.K. (1996). Muscle relaxants and neuromuscular block. In Myles, P.S., Leslie, K., McNeil, J., Forbes, A., and Chan, M.T. (2004). Bispec-
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“Veterinary Anesthesia,” 3rd ed., pp 409–424.
 Chapter 7

Waste Anesthetic Gas Safety

Jennifer C. Smith

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
II. Potential Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
A. Historical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
B. Adverse Health Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
III. Sources of Waste Anesthetic Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
A. Anesthetic Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
B. Anesthetic Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
C. Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
IV. Evacuation of WAG . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
A. Active Scavenging Equipment and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
B. Passive Scavenging Equipment and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
C. Environmental Effects of Evacuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
V. Risk Assessment and Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
A. Sampling Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
B. Risk Mitigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
VI. Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

I. INTRODUCTION
also increased. The first published works addressing WAG pol-
lution in the veterinary setting occurred in 1976 (Sawyer, 1976a,
Over the past 40 years, the level of awareness of waste anes- 1976b), 1977 (Best and McGrath, 1977), and 1980 (Manley
thetic gas (WAG) pollution has steadily increased. It is now an and McDonnell, 1980a, 1980b). Although these early commen-
accepted belief that the use of volatile anesthetics will release taries created awareness of the subject, actual research studies
WAG into the environment. In fact, it is estimated that some were not conducted for several years. The first of these studies
200,000 healthcare professionals—including 50,000 veterinar- (Ruby et al., 1980; Wingfield et al., 1980) surveyed veterinari-
ians and veterinary technicians—are routinely exposed to trace ans participating in small-animal private practice in the state of
levels of WAGs (OSHA, 2000). Colorado. The results indicated that although there was exposure
The degree of interest in WAG pertaining to the veterinary to WAG in private veterinary practice hospitals, it was far less
environment, in particular the laboratory animal setting, has than what was being reported in the human literature. A similar

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

183
184 JENNIFER C. SMITH

study was conducted in the following year (Dreesen et al., 1981) Act (1970) created two separate regulating bodies with differ-
to assess the risk of WAG exposure to students, staff, and faculty ent responsibilities to carry out the provisions of the Act. The
in a veterinary teaching hospital (University of Georgia). This National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)
study concluded that WAG exposure was present, but credited was created to oversee research, education, and rule making, as
the newly established scavenging system for keeping the expo- they relate to occupational illnesses; the Occupational Safety
sure to a minimum. Ward and Byland (1982a, 1982b) reported and Health Administration (OSHA) was created to provide
on the use of a spectrophotometer device to monitor the real- investigative, enforcement, and standard enacting responsibili-
time exposure to WAG of veterinary personnel. This technique ties of the Act (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999). To assist NIOSH in
of air sampling remains the gold standard for monitoring today. formulating its current Criteria for a Recommended Standard
Also in 1982 (Milligan and Saban), real-time monitoring results document (NIOSH, 1977), the American Society of Anesthe-
were reported specifically for the recovery room at a veteri- siologists (ASA) joined forces with NIOSH. An ASA ad hoc
nary teaching hospital (Cornell University). This study showed committee was formed in 1974 with the charter of conducting a
that postextubation emission of methoxyflurane was dependent large U.S. epidemiological study of operating room personnel.
on the anesthetic concentration delivered and that WAG could The first report from this committee was published in 1974, with
be emitted for up to 128 minutes. In 1987, the first retrospec- the expectation that a follow-up study would be done in 1978 to
tive study was published to assess reproductive outcome with measure the effectiveness of the adoption of WAG-scavenging
occupational exposure in veterinarians (Johnson et al., 1987). techniques. However, after the alleged incriminating data from
One thousand nine hundred fourteen women who graduated the first study (1974), NIOSH withdrew its support of the follow-
from U.S. veterinary schools from 1970 to 1980 were surveyed. up study and went on to finalize its criteria document. Of note
Although no direct correlations could be drawn from this study, is the fact that this NIOSH Criteria Document (1977) has never
it was concluded that advice and training should be included been adopted as a federal standard and thus is not officially
upon employment. These early environmental measurements enforceable by OSHA. However, in the absence of any further
made in veterinary facilities indicated that these exposures are U.S. policy document on this issue, these recommendations are
an order of magnitude or more below the levels measured in still referred to today. A summary of the NIOSH Criteria Doc-
human surgical facilities (Johnson et al., 1987). However, the ument, including its notorious Recommended Exposure Levels
risk from low-level WAG exposure in the laboratory animal (RELs) for halogenated agents, has been prepared for readers
environment was unknown. In 2002, the first study conducted in Table 7-2. After the NIOSH Criteria Document was released,
in the laboratory animal environment demonstrated that WAG the ASA published “Waste Anesthetic Gases in Operating Room
pollution should also be expected when common rodent surgical Air: A Suggested Program to Reduce Personnel Exposure,”
techniques are employed (Smith and Bolon, 2002). The reader written by its Ad Hoc Committee on Effects of Trace Anes-
is directed to Table 7-1 for a brief review of the key contributions thetic Agents on Health of Operating Room Personnel (1981).
to the veterinary literature as described above. This document has subsequently been revised to include more
Any discussion of WAG pollution would be incomplete current standards and information (ASA, 1999). And in 1989,
without including information on the U.S. government safety
guidelines. The passage of the Occupational Safety and Health
TABLE 7-2
TABLE 7-1 Summary Statements of Current NIOSH Recommendations (NIOSH,
1977) as They Relate to the Laboratory Animal Setting
Key Contributions to WAG Pollution in Veterinary Literature

Year Author(s) Contribution summary Issued RELs for both N2 O and halogenated agents (including methoxyflurane,
halothane, and enflurane)
1976 Sawyer Earliest mention of occupational WAG No worker should be exposed at ceiling concentrations greater than 2 ppm of
exposure hazards in veterinary industry any halogenated anesthetic agent over a sampling period not to exceed 1 hour
1980 Manley and Recommended the employment of
The REL of N2 O, when used as the sole inhaled anesthetic agent, is 25 ppm
McDonnell gas-scavenging system for a reduction in
measured as a TWA
WAG pollution
1980 Ruby et al. First retrospective study—private practice All anesthetic delivery machines should be equipped with WAG collection
1981 Dreesen et al. First retrospective study—veterinary school (scavenging) and removal (disposal) devices from the work environment
1982 Ward and Byland Utilized infrared spectrophotometer Anesthetic work practices should be utilized to obtain and maintain minimum
equipment for real-time assessment WAG concentrations
1982 Milligan and Saban Monitored anesthetic pollution in recovery
Medical surveillance shall be made available to all employees subject to
rooms
occupational exposure of WAG
1987 Johnson et al. First retrospective study on reproductive
outcomes Employees shall be informed of the possible health effects of exposure
1990 Burkhart and Strobe Described mobile charcoal adsorption device to WAG
2002 Smith and Bolon Reported WAG emissions in rodent laboratory An air-monitoring program shall be implemented and supervised by
animal setting knowledgeable personnel, with appropriate record keeping to follow
7. WASTE ANESTHETIC GAS SAFETY 185

TABLE 7-3
Summary of U.S. Recommendations Pertaining to WAG Safety

Year Action Summary of action

1970 Passage of Occupational Health and Safety Acta NIOSHb and OSHAc agencies established
1974 ASAd Ad Hoc Committee epidemiological study Conducted national study of effects of WAG on health of operating room personnel
1977 Criteria document prepared by NIOSHe Recommended permissible levels of exposure (REL) for halogenated anesthetic agentsf
1981 ASA publication ASA Ad Hoc Committee resultsg
1983 Joint Commission on Accreditation Recommend that all anesthesia machines be equipped with gas-scavenging devices
of Healthcare Organizations
1987 ACGIHh TLV-TWA recommendationsi
1994 NIOSH Alertj Updates on N2 O usage and safety
1996 AVCA Ad Hoc Committee Veterinary anesthesia specialty recommendationsk
1999 ASA document revision Revised 1981 publicationl
2000 OSHA Guidelinesm Established guidelines for use of halogenated agents in the workplace

a
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970, PL 91-596.
b
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.
c
Occupational Safety and Health Administration.
d
American Society of Anesthesiologists Ad Hoc Committee on Effects of Trace Anesthetic Agents on the Health of Operating Room Personnel.
e
NIOSH Criteria for a Recommended Standard: Occupational Exposure to Waste Anesthetic Gases and Vapors, Publication No. 77-140 (1977).
f
Summarized in Table 7-3.
g
ASA Ad Hoc Committee on Effects of Trace Anesthetic Agents on the Health of Operating Room Personnel. Waste Anesthetic in Operating Room Air: A
Suggested Program to Reduce Personnel Exposure (1981).
h
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
i
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. Threshold limit value-time-weighted average (TLV-TWA) of 50 ppm for N2 O.
j
NIOSH Alert: Controlling Exposures to Nitrous oxide During Anesthetic Administration, DHHS (NIOSH), Publication No. 94-100 (1994).
k
American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists (ACVA), Ad Hoc Committee on Waste Anesthetic Gas Pollution and its Control. Commentary and recom-
mendations on control of waste anesthetic gases in the workplace (1996).
l
ASA revised document, Information for Management in Anesthetizing Areas and the Postanesthesia Care Unit (PACU) (1999).
m
Occupational Safety and Health Association (OSHA). Guidelines for workplace exposures (2000).

the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygien- adverse health effects experienced by Russian anesthesiologists
ists (ACGIH) assigned a threshold limit value-time-weighted (Vaisman, 1967). Of particular concern in this notable study was
average (TLV-TWA) for nitrous oxide (N2 O), halothane, and the suspected link between WAG and the reported increase in
enflurane of 50, 50, and 75 ppm (parts per million), respectively spontaneous abortions. Sixteen similar studies were embarked
(for a normal 8-hour workday). upon during the next decade; most have now been criticized for
Table 7-3 provides a brief review of the historical events in their poor study design, statistical errors, underpowering, and
U.S. WAG recommendations that are in place today. poor result analysis. Nine of these studies connected occupa-
tional exposure to WAGs with deleterious health effects, and
the remaining seven failed to make a statistically significant
correlation (Sessler, 1998). One of these studies was a large epi-
II. POTENTIAL HEALTH EFFECTS
demiological study undertaken jointly by the ASA and NIOSH
(ASA, 1974). This study reported an increased risk of spon-
A. Historical Perspectives taneous abortions in exposed women and an increased risk of
congenital abnormalities in the offspring of exposed males; a
WAG contamination of the work environment is not a new 1.3- to 2-fold increase in the occurrence of cancer (leukemia and
phenomenon. Its discussion in medical literature dates back lymphoma) in exposed females; a significant increase in hep-
to the early 1900s when a German surgeon made the connec- atic disease in all exposed women and some exposed men; and
tion between deleterious health effects to surgeons and constant a 1.2- to 1.4-fold increase in renal disease in exposed women
exposure to anesthetics (Kelling, 1918). In the 1920s, the idea of (Foley, 1993).
removing these hazardous anesthetic gases from the operating WAG studies after 1980 attempted to substantiate the data
environment was discussed (Goerig and Pothmann, 2004). Early of the earlier anecdotal studies. Laboratory investigations were
mentions of WAG pollution and health concerns in the litera- conducted utilizing live animals, tissues, and cell cultures in
ture were strictly anecdotal until the 1960s, when A.I. Vaisman, an attempt to provide sound scientific evidence to support the
a Russian anesthesiologist, published a now-historical epi- early epidemiological data. The distinctions between trace and
demiological report correlating work conditions with the high levels of WAG were also established after 1980, when the
186 JENNIFER C. SMITH

successful adoption of scavenging techniques occurred. Dorsch 2. Reproduction

and Dorsch (1999) define a trace level of anesthetic gas as being
The most widely discussed area of WAG exposure is in the
far below the concentration needed for anesthesia, or that can
field of reproduction where there is some evidence that high
be detected by smell. To date, there have been no successful
concentrations of WAG exposure could adversely affect the
studies performed that link occupational exposure to trace lev-
reproductive system and the developing fetus (McKelvey and
els of WAG with any adverse health effects. The ASA Task
Hollingshead, 2003). The early studies built the foundation of
Force (1999) notes that even though adverse health effects are
presumptive evidence that occupational exposure to WAG is
associated with chronic exposure to high levels of WAG, studies
linked to a higher incidence of spontaneous abortions, congen-
have failed to demonstrate an association between trace levels of
ital abnormalities, and infertility. Most of these early studies on
WAG (such as found in scavenged human/veterinary hospitals)
reproduction have since been extensively reviewed. Buring et al.
and adverse health effects. The Task Force concluded that even
(1985) conducted a meta-analysis on behalf of the ASA Ad Hoc
at the maximum allowable dose of isoflurane and halothane,
Committee and calculated a relative risk for spontaneous abor-
there was no evidence of significant health damage and therefore
tion among exposed females at 1.3 (95% confidence limits from
no data to suggest that WAG exposure is dangerous to hospital
1.2 to 1.4) for epidemiological studies conducted between 1970
employees (including pregnant women) working in a properly
and 1982. The most recent meta-analysis of an epidemiological
scavenged environment (ASA, 1999).
study, conducted in 1997, calculated a relative risk of 1.48 for
In summary, controversy still remains concerning the actual
spontaneous abortion in women (Boivin, 1997). The statistical
adverse health effects (discussed below) linked to occupational
data related to congenital abnormalities was also analyzed, and
exposure to WAG, as well as how much effort should be placed
similarly found to be nonconclusive. In summary, the interpre-
on risk mitigation. As discussed in Section I, initial veterinary
tation of many of these reproductive studies is complicated by
literature concluded that the exposure levels of veterinarians
the inconsistent use of anesthetic agent, variable exposure time
and staff exposed to WAG were lower than exposures reported
and anesthetic concentration, and the use/disuse of proper scav-
for personnel in human hospitals. Subsequent veterinary studies
enging systems. Thus, it is now commonly believed that while
have shown that this early premise may be incorrect (McKelvey
exposure to abnormally high concentrations of WAG could
and Hollingshead, 2003). However, these veterinary studies
cause reproductive abnormalities, there is a little risk when the
were not undertaken in a laboratory animal environment where
exposure concentrations are kept at trace levels.
common work practices (use of induction box, high carrier-gas
flow rates, use of face masks, multiple patient delivery systems,
high-throughput design, etc.) increase the likelihood of occu- 3. Hepatotoxicity
pational WAG exposure (Smith and Bolon, 2002). Therefore,
in the laboratory animal environment, it is reasonable to con- The literature is replete with information linking volatile
clude that continued vigilance to the reduction of occupational anesthetics (particularly halothane) with liver damage, although
exposure to WAG remains a high priority. the mechanism is yet uncertain. One study (McKelvey and
Hollingshead, 2003) reported that the risk of liver disease in
human-anesthesia healthcare workers was 1.5 times greater than
among the general population. A rare condition, halothane hep-
B. Adverse Health Effects atitis, has been described in which anesthetized individuals form
antigenic metabolites of halothane that cause a delayed autoim-
1. Short Term vs. Long Term mune response to hepatocytes (Byhahn et al., 2001). Although
The majority of studies reporting potential adverse health similar research data for the newer halogenated agents (isoflu-
effects of WAG exposure relate to chronic or long-term rane, enflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane) exist, there has
exposure (weeks, months, and/or years of exposure). In the yet to be conclusive proof that long-term exposure to these
short-term setting (immediately after the exposure), effects agents causes any hepatocellular injury (Dorsch and Dorsch,
including drowsiness, irritability, depression, headache, nau- 1999).
sea, and fatigue have been reported (NIOSH, 1977). Perceptual,
cognitive, and motor skill deficits have been reported in anes-
4. Carcinogenicity
thesiologists after high levels of WAG exposure in unscavenged
environments (Burm, 2003). Although these effects usually dis- The premise that WAGs may exert adverse effects on DNA has
sipate soon after WAG exposure, they are of particular concern suggested their potential to cause other DNA-related changes
as the success of the surgery and health of the operating room such as cancer. Early studies suggested that WAG exposure was
staff may be compromised during exposure. However, these related to various types of cancer. However, as is the case with
short-term neurological effects are not expected to occur when most of these early concerns, these studies have since been dis-
proper work practices (i.e., scavenging of WAGs) are in place missed based on poor data collection and statistical analysis. It
(Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999). is now generally thought that, used properly, current anesthetic
7. WASTE ANESTHETIC GAS SAFETY 187

agents are not carcinogenic at the levels found in the modern sources are connections between tubing and devices, around
operating environment (McKelvey and Hollingshead, 2003). face masks and seals that are not tight fitting, and at the scav-
Studies of the effects of volatile anesthetics on the formation enging device. A facemask is commonly used during laboratory
of sister chromatid exchanges as an assessment of genetic dam- animal anesthesia, especially when intubation of the patient is
age provide an alternative to carcinogenicity studies, but are not difficult or not possible. Although progress has been made in
reliably predictive (Hoerauf et al., 1999). Nevertheless, these improving the design and overall tightness of the seal of the
recent studies have failed to show a correlation between trace face mask to the animal, leakage does result. A recent study
levels of occupational exposure to WAG and cancer (Dorsch and demonstrated that the use of traditional rodent face masks will
Dorsch, 1999). result in significant levels of WAG and exposure of laboratory
personnel to levels above the NIOSH recommendations (Smith
and Bolon, 2005).
5. Others
Various reports have been published incriminating WAG
exposure in cardiac, kidney, and hematologic diseases. Renal
B. Anesthetic Environment
toxicity in anesthetized patients has been associated with the
use of methoxyflurane, due to its toxic metabolites of inor-
Pollution of the surrounding environment also exists while
ganic fluoride and oxalic acid (Smith, 1993). However, the
volatile anesthetic agents are being used. Examples of this type
association between renal disease and occupational exposure to
of pollution occur when the vaporizer is being filled or emptied,
trace levels of WAGs has not been made. Several studies (pre-
the liquid anesthetic is accidentally spilled, or there is room
dominantly in dental practice) have implicated N2 O as a cause
drift. The latter occurs when volatile agents are used repeatedly
of hematologic disease. The suggested mechanism involves
over a long period—a common scenario in laboratory animal
the physicochemical reaction between N2 O and vitamin B12
medicine—and the overall background concentration in the sur-
after inhalation, which leads to megaloblastic changes in the
rounding environment steadily increases as a factor of both time
bone marrow. These changes were reported after exposure to
and amount of anesthetic gas vapor used (Smith and Bolon,
high concentrations of N2 O that are generally not present in
2002, 2003).
routine laboratory animal practice today (Dorsch and Dorsch,
1999).

C. Patient
III. SOURCES OF WASTE ANESTHETIC GAS
One frequently overlooked source of WAG is the patient.
Although there have been numerous studies describing WAG
A. Anesthetic Machine pollution, very few are specific to exposure after the patient
leaves the surgical area. Exposure of recovery room and PACU
The anesthetic machine is the essential tool of the anesthetist, (postanesthesia care unit) personnel to WAG via the exhaled
as it serves as the primary workstation; this equipment is also breath of postoperated human and veterinary patients has been
the greatest source of WAG in the environment. This is an area reported. Corbett and Ball (1971) showed that methoxyflu-
where the differences between some veterinary and human anes- rane in the end-expired air of patients and anesthesiologists
thesia practices are notable. The work practices pertaining to was detectable for 10–18 days and 30 hours after an anes-
the former (e.g., rodents) are generally focused around a patient thetic event, respectively. Bruce and Linde (1972), Byhahn
that may be several orders of body size smaller than the latter et al. (1998), and Sessler and Badgwell (1998) measured human
(humans). To accommodate this fundamental difference, work PACU halothane concentrations and found them to exceed the
practices including the use of induction boxes, face masks, and current NIOSH recommendations; and Corbett and Ball (1971)
higher carrier-gas flow rates are followed. Methods of WAG col- reported increased concentrations of fluoride in the urine of
lection and capture have been incorporated into the induction anesthesiologists. In the veterinary literature, Milligan and
process in an attempt to improve WAG scavenging. However, Saban (1982) reported that methoxyflurane was emitted for
unless the induction box is properly purged of anesthetic gas up to 128 minutes postextubation in the canine, while Smith
to decrease the WAG concentration, its opening will cause and Bolon (2003) reported that isoflurane was emitted 18 hours
significant pollution in the unscavenged work environment. postcanine extubation. These studies confirm that occupational
Another source of leakage is the anesthetic machine and asso- exposure to WAG, at levels exceeding trace amounts, occurs in
ciated delivery equipment. This source of WAG pollution is many areas of both human and veterinary hospitals, and iden-
especially problematic because it is often not recognized and tify the patient as contributing to this exposure. In the veterinary
cannot be reduced by the anesthetic machine’s scavenging sys- and laboratory animal settings, this exposure can be extended
tem. Leakage can occur anywhere in the system, but common to the research staff or animal owner. Therefore, the planning
188 JENNIFER C. SMITH

and construction of recovery room areas should consider proper

room ventilation as well as exhaust methods for WAG.

IV. EVACUATION OF WAG

Scavenging or evacuation of WAG is the process of collect-

ing the excess gases from the anesthetic delivery equipment, or
the patient, and removing them from the working environment.
Scavenging or evacuation systems utilize gas-capturing devices,
interfaces, and gas-disposal systems to accomplish this impor-
tant task. A comprehensive discussion of anesthetic-machine
scavenging equipment (specifically gas-capturing and interface
devices that are described in Chapter 5 of this book) is outside
of the scope of this chapter.
The NIOSH Criteria Document (NIOSH, 1977) recommends
scavenging of WAGs, work practices to reduce WAG pollution,
monitoring of WAG, and medical surveillance of all poten-
tially exposed personnel. Of these recommendations, the most
effective step in reducing the levels of WAG in the surgical
environment is the installation of an effective scavenging sys- Fig. 7-1 Example of simple “snorkel apparatus” for active WAG evacuation
placed at the induction-box opening.
tem (McGregor, 2000). The Guide for the Care and Use of
Laboratory Animals by NRC (NRC, 1996) states: “Exposure
to anesthetic waste gases should be limited. This is usually and into the scavenging device. This is the most effective way
accomplished by using various scavenging techniques.” to remove WAG. Many types of active scavenging systems are
In general, the concentration of N2 O and halothane reported available in both human and veterinary settings (McKelvey and
to occur in the anesthetist’s breathing zone in a ventilated sur- Hollingshead, 2003).
gical suite (without scavenging) during the 1970s was 200–500 A form of active scavenging used in the laboratory animal
and 2–5 ppm, respectively. N2 O and halothane concentrations environment is the “snorkel apparatus” (Fig. 7-1). This consists
in unventilated, unscavenged surgical suites were as high as of corrugated plastic or stainless-steel tubing that is directly
7,000 and 85 ppm, respectively (McKelvey and Hollingshead, vented to the heating, ventilation, and air-conditioning (HVAC)
2003). The NIOSH Criteria Document (NIOSH, 1977) recom- system (nonrecirculating air). The amount of suction necessary
mended the use of a scavenging system in human hospitals, for evacuation will vary depending on the diameter of tubing, the
which is capable of reducing halothane and N2 O concentrations type of anesthetic carrier-gas flow rates, and the existing facility
to 0.2–0.5 and 15–35 ppm, respectively. In veterinary hospitals, design. These devices are generally placed around the inhalant
the adoption of scavenging techniques reduced isoflurane and anesthetic delivery equipment at areas where WAG emissions
halothane concentrations to 1–20 ppm and the N2 O concentra- are the highest (vaporizer-filling port, induction box, animal:
tions to 50–200 ppm (Gardner, 1991). It has been demonstrated face-mask interface, charcoal adsorption canister vents, etc).
that the use of scavenging techniques will reduce the concen- Advantages of these snorkel devices include ease of use and flex-
trations of WAG tenfold (Lecky, 1977), or by 90% (ACVA, ibility in placement. Disadvantages include the initial expense
1996). However, even with the successful addition of WAG- of ducting these devices within the existing facility design, and
scavenging systems, the need for implementation of training increased difficulty in cleaning and maintaining a sterile surgical
and equipment-checking procedures is necessary. A study by environment.
Soontranan et al. (2002) showed that 10/38 scavenging systems
(26.3%) within a third-world (Thailand) human teaching hospi-
tal were incorrectly installed. All problems were due to errors in
B. Passive Scavenging Equipment and Techniques
the assembly of the devices and could have been avoided with
routine preuse equipment checks and regular maintenance.
A passive system of scavenging WAG utilizes the positive
pressure of the gas in the anesthetic machine to push the WAG
A. Active Scavenging Equipment and Techniques into the scavenging device. Different types of passive configu-
rations can be used, which in the laboratory animal environment
Active scavenging occurs when a pump or fan is used to commonly include discharge tubing, room ventilation, and
move anesthetic gases away from the patient and equipment, activated charcoal adsorption canisters.
7. WASTE ANESTHETIC GAS SAFETY 189

Discharge tubing simply connects the anesthetic machine V. RISK ASSESSMENT AND MITIGATION
with the outside environment, usually through a hole in a wall.
McKelvey and Hollingshead (2003) recommend that the dis-
A. Sampling Methodology
tance to the outside environment should be less than 20 feet,
making this method suitable only for externally adjacent rooms.
Techniques other than air sampling have been utilized for the
The use of the room’s nonrecirculating ventilation system is
assessment of WAG exposure. These techniques involve mea-
also an example of passive scavenging. In this situation, the stan-
suring the products of anesthetic gas metabolism in the blood or
dard air changes per hour of the room’s ventilation are employed
urine. Imberti et al. (1995) described the technique of urine col-
to remove WAG and reduce their levels to acceptable standards.
lection and mathematical calculation of the urine/air partition
The ACVA (1996) recommends that a nonrecirculating ventila-
coefficient for use in WAG assessment. Hoerauf et al. (1997)
tion system, which can provide at least 12–15 air changes per
compared the calculated urine/air partition coefficient with val-
hour, should be used for this purpose.
ues collected by real-time monitoring, and found them to be
In situations where other scavenging systems are not avail-
comparable. Biological monitoring can be used as an adjunct
able, activated charcoal filters can be used to absorb volatile
to other monitoring modalities in a comprehensive WAG emis-
anesthetic agents from the waste gas. However, these devices
sion control program; however, the fundamental tool used to
cannot be used to remove N2 O. In the veterinary/laboratory ani-
evaluate workplace exposure to WAG remains air sampling.
mal setting, the use of these canisters is common due to their low
cost, ease of use, and portability. Studies to qualify and quan-
tify the effectiveness of these canisters in the laboratory animal 1. Instantaneous Air Sampling
setting (Smith and Bolon, 2002, 2003) found that breakthrough
emissions of WAG should be expected when these devices are This method is often referred to as grab or snatch sampling
used. Furthermore, their use resulted in WAG concentrations because of its collection process. A sample of air from the anes-
above the NIOSH RELs, illustrating the need for vigilant mon- thetic environment is quickly collected into a container (plastic
itoring and removal of such containers when they have reached or nylon bag) and transferred to a processing laboratory. This
their manufacturer’s suggested end of life or when breakthrough method is quick, simple to perform, and also inexpensive. The
emission of WAG occurs. disadvantage of this method is the time interval between sample
Active and passive scavenging techniques may be used alone collections and result reporting, which means this method is not
or in combination. The latter option provides the most effective suitable for real-time assessment (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999).
WAG scavenging and is recommended by the ACVA (1996) for
the veterinary and laboratory animal settings.
2. Time-weighted Average Sampling
Time-weighted average (TWA) sampling encompasses both
amount of time and concentration of WAG exposure. Thus,
C. Environmental Effects of Evacuation the TWA exposure refers to the average airborne concen-
tration of a substance during a normal 8–10 hour workday.
Once proper evacuation of WAG has occurred, it is usually NIOSH recommends that the maximum TWA concentration of
not thought of again. However, the effect of halogenated agent volatile halogenated anesthetics should not exceed 2 ppm over
pollution in the outside environment deserves discussion. The a period of no greater than 1 hour (NIOSH, 1977). NIOSH
volatile anesthetics (halothane, enflurane, and isoflurane) are also recommends that no worker should be exposed to ceiling
classified as halogenated chlorofluorocarbons or H-CFCs; and concentrations greater than 2 ppm of any halogenated anesthetic
release fluorine, chlorine, and bromine into the atmosphere agent over a sampling period not to exceed 1 hour. These recom-
where they damage the ozone layer. The newer volatile anes- mendations for volatile anesthetics include short-term exposure
thetics, sevoflurane and desflurane, are not H-CFCs but rather limits or ceiling values that are intended to supplement the TWA
fluorinated hydrocarbons (FHCs), which contain only fluorine where there are recognized toxic effects from the high short-
and thus are considered less damaging to the ozone layer (Marx, term exposures (NIOSH, 1977). TWA sampling can be used as
1999). One recent study calculated that 25 million liters of an assessment tool alone, but is much more effective when used
volatile anesthetics are released from German hospitals annually in combination with real-time monitoring results.
(Marx et al., 2001). To date, it has been considered acceptable Active and passive dosimetry monitoring are the usual meth-
practice to vent or exhaust these agents directly to the outside ods of obtaining TWA samples. Passive dosimetry devices are
air. However, the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete commonly used in the laboratory animal environment due to
the Ozone Layer has proposed the abolition of H-CFC release their ease of use, minimal maintenance and expense, and abil-
into the atmosphere by the year 2030 (UN, 1987). The effect ity to provide data for written reports. These devices, also called
this will have on volatile anesthetic use in the future remains to dosimeters, function by diffusion of the gas through the molec-
be seen. ular filter inside. Once the proper amount of time has elapsed,
190 JENNIFER C. SMITH

the badge is transferred to the analysis laboratory where a TWA a. Direction

report is generated. Disadvantages of these devices include
According to Dorsch and Dorsch (1999), direction of the
inability to obtain real-time information, and greater potential
monitoring surveillance program should be undertaken by
for operator error if the badge is not worn properly or is damaged
someone who is both interested and qualified, preferably from
during the workday (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999).
the anesthesia department. In the laboratory animal setting, this
is not usually the case, and often such a monitoring program is
directed by the occupational safety and health department, or
by an outside consultant NRC (1987).
3. Continuous Air Sampling
Up until 1980, the most commonly reported way to monitor
b. Sites to be Monitored
air samples was discontinuous gas chromatography (Bruce and
Linde, 1972). Since 1980, the use of infrared spectrophotometry NIOSH (1977) recommends that air sampling be conducted
has replaced gas chromatography and become the gold stan- in areas that are representative of the concentrations at which
dard for collecting air samples. This change reflects the ability workers are exposed during routine procedures. A comprehen-
of infrared spectrophotometry to provide continuous, or real- sive program for the laboratory animal research setting should
time, sampling and therefore immediate feedback of results. include all rooms where volatile anesthetics are being used.
This advantage makes immediate work practice modifications,
including identification of brief peak exposure levels and cor- c. Frequency of Monitoring
rection of system leaks, possible. The main disadvantage of this
method is the purchase/rental of the equipment—infrared spec- OSHA (2000) recommends that air sampling should be per-
trophotometer or ambient air analyzer—necessary to perform formed every 6 months. In addition, it is recommended that
the sampling (Dorsch and Dorsch, 1999). An example of an only the most frequently used halogenated agent should be mon-
infrared spectrophotometer currently used in WAG monitoring itored, as proper WAG controls and work practices should reduce
is shown in Fig. 7-2. all agents proportionally (OSHA, 2000).

d. Record Keeping

B. Risk Mitigation The ASA (1999) recommends that the permanent medical
record of employees be kept for the duration of employment
1. Monitoring Surveillance Plan plus 20 years. NIOSH (1977) and the ASA (1999) recommend
that all complete air-sampling records should be maintained for
The best way to assess the success of an occupational safety a period of at least 20 years.
and health program, in regard to WAG management, is to adhere
to a well-thought-out plan of air monitoring. Such a plan is nec-
essary even with the assurance that best work practices are being e. Medical Surveillance
followed, including scavenging and disposal of WAG (Dorsch Medical surveillance shall be made available to all employees
and Dorsch, 1999). subjected to WAG occupational exposure. In addition, NIOSH
(1977) recommends that preplacement medical and occupa-
tional histories and examinations be conducted on all employees
subject to exposure to WAG. These histories and physicals
should be conducted annually thereafter, and all results should
be kept in the employees’ permanent medical records. In addi-
tion, any abnormal pregnancy outcome in an employee, or
spouse of an employee, should be documented in the employee’s
permanent medical record, which is maintained for the period
of employment plus 20 years (ASA, 1999). OSHA (2000) also
recommends that the following techniques should be added to
the medical surveillance program: a system for all employees to
report health concerns that they believe may be associated with
WAG exposure; the adoption of a reproductive hazards policy
to be posted within the facility; documentation and review of
a sudden high exposure; and a final medical review upon job
Fig. 7-2 Infrared spectrophotometer (Series 205A, Miran SapphiRe, termination or transfer. In the laboratory environment, the
Foxboro Co., Foxboro, MA) for determination of real-time WAG monitoring. extent of medical surveillance is not usually this comprehensive
7. WASTE ANESTHETIC GAS SAFETY 191

and will depend on individual facility programs to implement TABLE 7-4

and maintain. Summary Comments of Work Practices to Reduce Occupational
Exposure to WAG in the Laboratory Animal Environment

• Functional WAG-scavenging system in place prior to starting anesthetic

f. Education of Personnel
event
Both NIOSH (1977) and OSHA (2000) recommend edu- • Follow a regular maintenance schedule for all anesthetic equipment
High and low pressure-leak testing prior to each use
cation of all personnel who could be exposed to WAG. This
Proper filling and draining of vaporizer (agent-specific key fill device)
program should include an overview of the topic, information Annual assessment of system and tri-annual calibration of the
on maintenance and checking of equipment, and work practices vaporizer
that would help to reduce anesthetic pollution. Such training • Comprehensive medical surveillance program for all personnel working
should also include information on potential adverse health with WAG
• Comprehensive training program for all personnel working with WAG
effects and how WAG exposure can be avoided. In the research
• Refrain from techniques that will unnecessarily expose personnel
setting, this educational step is usually the responsibility of the to WAG
environmental health safety group associated with the animal Starting anesthetic gas prior to connection with patient
facility. The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals Disconnecting system with anesthetic gas on
(NRC, 1996) recommends that an oversight committee (safety Opening liquid anesthetic bottle without proper ventilation
Liquid anesthetic spills
committee) should be developed as part of a facility’s occupa-
• Use of induction box should be limited to:
tional safety and health plan. Training and compliance within Purging, snorkel devices, active scavenging or fume hood
the area of WAG safety could become a function of this com- • Use of “newer” techniques whenever possible
mittee. A study has shown that the adoption of such a training Low flow anesthesia
program can reduce the WAG concentrations to below the levels Intubation of rodents
Replace facemasks with tighter seals, or alternative (LMA) devices
recommended by NIOSH and OSHA (McGregor, 2000).
• Compliance mandates for WAG usage
Involve safety committee, occupational health group
• Comprehensive air-monitoring program
2. Work Practices to Decrease Emissions
Use several monitoring modalities
Although several effective methods for reductions of WAG Bi-annual monitoring and periodic sampling when necessary
Record keeping
exposure have been described, it has been estimated that up to
94% of WAG emissions (in adequately scavenged anesthetic
environments) were the direct result of poor work practices of
the personnel performing anesthesia (NIOSH, 1977). Recom-
mended work practices have been described by NIOSH (1977),
OSHA (2000), ASA (1999), and ACVA (1996). A brief sum-
mary of these work practices, as they specifically relate to the
laboratory animal environment, is included in Table 7-4.
One work practice technique that could significantly reduce
WAG pollution in the laboratory animal setting is regular adop-
tion of intubation. Intubation of the trachea for anesthetic
delivery replaces the need for ill-fitting face-mask delivery of
anesthetic gases. Smith and Bolon (2005) reported significant
WAG leakage from various rodent face masks, and describe
a simple modification using a latex glove gasket (Fig. 7-3).
Although several techniques have been described for intubat-
Fig. 7-3 Example of simple engineering controls that could be utilized to
ing rodents with traditional (reviewed in Rivera et al., 2005)
mitigate occupational exposure to WAG in the research setting: a homemade
and novel (Imai et al., 2005) airway devices, this is not widely diaphragm is manufactured from the thumb portion of a small latex surgical
practiced. Most studies list patient anatomy and small size, the glove. The thumb is removed using scissors and then stretched over the orifice
need for advanced training techniques, and the need for special- of a conventional conical rodent face mask, creating a small (0.5- to 0.8-cm
ized visual equipment as reasons why rodent intubation has not long) aperture just large enough to contain the animal’s nose.
become standard practice. Concerns about intubation are not
usually an issue with larger laboratory animal species (dogs, A study comparing the WAG emissions from rabbits fitted with
pigs, primates, and rabbits), as they are generally more easily either an endotracheal tube (cuffed and uncuffed) or an LMA
intubated. One alternative to intubation and face-mask tech- found the latter to emit a third more WAG into the environment
niques is the laryngeal mask airway (LMA), which has been (Smith et al., 2004). The use of LMAs as an alternative to intuba-
described for use in several laboratory species (Imai et al., 2005) tion in smaller laboratory species may be an easier technique to
including the rabbit (Bateman et al., 2002; Long et al., 2003). master, but its WAG emission profile should also be considered.
192 JENNIFER C. SMITH

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involves delivery of fresh gas at a rate equal to the uptake of agement in Anesthetizing Areas and Postanesthesia Care Unit (PACU).”
anesthetic gases and oxygen by the patient (Dorsch and Dorsch, American Society of Anesthesiologists, Park Ridge, IL. http://www.asahq.
1999). This technique is considered to be a safe, practical, and org/publicationsAndServices/wasteanes.pdf (last accessed December 2006).
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Of the hundreds of studies published on WAG pollution, Goerig, M., and Pothmann, W. (2004). Anaesthetic gas pollution at the
fewer than 25 were conducted specifically in the veterinary or workplace: An ancient problem associated with inhalation anaesthesia.
laboratory animal environment. Although much of what has Anasthesiol. Intensivmed. 45, 572–577.
been written in the human literature can be extrapolated to the Hoerauf, K., Lierz, M., Wiesner, G., Schroegendofer, K., Lierz, P., Spacek, A.,
veterinary setting, more scientific studies specifically relating Brunnber, L., and Nusse, M. (1999). Genetic damage in operating room
personnel exposed to isoflurane and nitrous oxide. Occup. Environ. Med. 56,
to this field should be undertaken. Such literature would lead 433–437.
to continued improvements in risk mitigation of the potential Hoerauf, K., Wiesner, G., Funk, W., Schroegendorfer, K., and Hobbhahn, J.
occupational hazards related to volatile anesthetic practices. (1997). Biological monitoring during occupational exposure to isoflurane
and sevoflurane. Zentbl. Hyg. Umweltmed. 200, 521–529.
Imai, A., Eisele, P.H., and Steffey, E.P. (2005). A new airway device for small
laboratory animals. Lab. Anim. 39, 111–115.
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Mapelli, A. (1995). Low flow anaesthesia reduces occupational exposure
American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists (ACVA). (1996). Com- to inhalation anesthetics. Acta Anaesthesiol. Scand. 39, 586–591.
mentary and recommendations on control of waste anesthetic gases in the Johnson, J.A., Buchan, R.M., and Reif, J.S. (1987). Effect of waste anesthetic
workplace. JAVMA 209, 75–77. http://www.acva.org/professional/Position/ gas and vapor exposure on reproductive outcome in veterinary personnel.
waste.htm (last accessed December 2006). Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J. 48, 62–66.
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Kelling, G. (1918). Uber die Beseitigung der Narkosedampfe aus dem Sawyer, D.C. (1976b). A personal hazard: O. R. environmental pollution. Vet.
Operationssaale. Zentralbi. Chir. 45, 602–606. Anesthesiol. 3, 73–77.
Lecky, J.H. (1977). The mechanical aspects of anesthetic pollution control. Sessler, D.I., and Badgwell, J.M. (1998). Exposure of postoperative nurses to
Anesth. Analg. 56, 760–774. exhaled anesthetic gases. Anesth. Analg. 87, 1083–1088.
Long, J.P., Ngala, V.R., and Foresman, L.L. (2003). The use of a laryngeal Smith, J.A. (1993). Anesthetic pollution and waste anesthetic gas scavenging.
mask airway (LMA) in the rabbit: An alternative to endotracheal intubation. Semin. Vet. Med. Surg. 8, 90–103.
Contemp. Top. 42, 92 [Abstract P030]. Smith, J.C., and Bolon, B. (2002). Atmospheric waste isoflurane concentrations
Manley, S.V., and McDonnell, W.N. (1980a). Anesthetic pollution and disease. using conventional equipment and rat anesthesia protocols. Contemp. Top.
JAVMA 176, 515–518. 41, 10–17.
Manley, S.V., and McDonnell, W.N. (1980b). Recommendations for reduction Smith, J.C., and Bolon, B. (2003). Comparison of three commercially available
of anesthetic gas pollution. JAVMA 176, 519–524. activated charcoal canisters for passive scavenging of waste isoflurane during
Marx, T. (1999). Global pollution: The anaesthetist’s contribution. Anaesthesia. conventional rodent anesthesia. Contemp. Top. 42, 10–15.
54, 301–302. Smith, J.C., and Bolon, B. (2004). Waste anesthetic gas during canine anesthe-
Marx, T., Schmidt, M., Schirmer, U., and Reinelt, H. (2001). Pollution of the sia: Comparison of isoflurane levels emitted under high and low flow carrier
environment and the workplace with anesthetic gases. Int. Anesthesiol. Clin. gas rates. Proceedings of the 55th Annual Meeting of the American Associa-
39, 15–27. tion of Laboratory Animal Science, October 17–21, 2004, p 101, Tampa, FL
McGregor, D.G. (2000). Occupational exposure to trace concentrations of waste [Abstract PS30].
anesthetic gases. Mayo Clin. Proc. 75, 273–277. Smith, J.C., and Bolon, B. (2005). Isoflurane leakage form non-rebreathing
McKelvey, D., and Hollingshead, K.W. (2003). Workplace safety. In rodent anaesthesia circuits: Comparison of emissions from conventional and
“Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia.” pp 217–237. Mosby Elsevier modified ports. Lab. Anim. 40, 200–209.
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Milligan, J.E., and Saban, J.L. (1982). Waste anesthetic gas concentrations in a (2004). Endotracheal tubes versus laryngeal mask airways in rabbit intuba-
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National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). (1977). “Criteria 22–255.
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“NIOSH Alert: Controlling Exposure to Nitrous Oxide During Anes- Deplete the Ozone Layer. United Nations, New York. http://www.unido.org/
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Washington, D.C. U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). (2000). Anes-
National Research Council (NRC). (1996). Institutional policies and responsi- thetic gases: Guidelines for workplace exposures. http://www.osha.gov/
bilities. In “Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.” pp 8–20. dts/osta/anestheticgases/index.html (last accessed December 2006).
National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Vaisman, A.I. (1967). Working conditions in surgery and their effect on the
National Research Council (NRC). (1997). Physical, chemical and protocol- health of anesthesiologists. Eksp. Khir. Anesteziol. 3, 44–49.
related hazards. In “Occupational Health and Safety in the Care and Use of Ward, G.S., and Byland, R.R. (1982a). Concentrations of methoxyflurane and
Research Animals.” pp 32–50. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. nitrous oxide in veterinary operating rooms. Am. J. Vet. Res. 43, 360–362.
Rivera, B., Miller, S.R., Brown, E.M., and Price, R.E. (2005). A novel Ward, G.S., and Byland, R.R. (1982b). Concentration of halothane in veterinary
method for endotracheal intubation of mice and rats used in imaging studies. operating and treatment rooms. JAVMA 180, 174–177.
Contemp. Top. 44, 52–55. Wingfield, W.E., Ruby, D.L., Buchan, R.M., and Gunther, B.J. (1980). Waste
Ruby, D.L., Buchanan, R.M., and Gunter, B.J. (1980). Waste anesthetic gas and anesthetic gas exposures to veterinarians and animal technicians. JAVMA
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41, 229–231.
Sawyer, D.C. (1976a). A personal hazard: Operating room environmental
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 Chapter 8

Strategies for Assessing and Minimizing Pain

Alicia Z. Karas, Peggy J. Danneman, and Joan M. Cadillac

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
II. Why Prevent Pain? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
A. Pain Perception in Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
B. Pain and Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
C. Other Physiological Effects of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
III. Preprocedural Considerations: Predicting and Preventing Pain . . . . . . . . . . . 199
A. Types of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
B. Severity of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
C. Strategies for Minimizing Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
IV. Postprocedural Considerations: Recognizing and Monitoring Pain . . . . . . . 206
A. When and How Often to Monitor? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
B. Behavioral Assessment of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
C. Other Indicators of Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
D. Novel Methods of Monitoring Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
V. Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

I. INTRODUCTION
evident. In fact, it is best to admit from the start that we cannot
measure pain in animals with anything even approaching pre-
Pain hurts. Everyone can agree on this simple truth, but cision (ACLAM, 2006; Anil et al., 2002; Carstens and Moberg,
identifying pain has proven challenging, and measuring it con- 2000; Mathews, 2000; Underwood, 2002; Wixson, 1999).
siderably more challenging yet. Although pain consists in part Notwithstanding our limitations in this regard, veterinarians and
of purely physical sensation, the truly unpleasant aspects of it investigators have both a moral and legal obligation to prevent
are all in the mind. As a result, pain is a uniquely individual or minimize animal pain to the maximum extent consistent with
experience and it is difficult, if not impossible, for us to fully scientific goals. To do so requires the ability to recognize, or to
understand the pain even of others. When viewed in this light, predict, the need for intervention as well as knowledge of the
the problems inherent in trying to measure pain in animals are most effective forms of intervention. The effective treatment of

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

195
196 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

pain requires appreciation of the many different types of pain, the all-important cognitive and emotional components of pain
as they may respond quite differently to specific therapeutic in animals, it is not possible to determine whether an animal
regimens, a thorough understanding of species-specific (and perceives a noxious stimulus as unpleasant in the same way
sometimes strain-specific) behavior, and a general understand- and to the same extent as a human would. Despite our inabil-
ing of pain physiology. This chapter begins with a discussion of ity to measure all aspects of the pain experience in animals, the
the reasons—ethical, regulatory, and scientific—why the min- assumption must nonetheless be made that nonhuman mammals
imization of pain in experimental animals must be viewed as have the capacity to perceive as unpleasant the same noxious
an essential element of scientific investigation. The remainder stimuli that humans perceive as unpleasant. This assumption is
of the chapter focuses on the steps that can be taken during reinforced by observations that mammals exhibit behavioral and
the preprocedural planning phase to prevent or reduce pain, the physiological responses to noxious stimulation that are similar
strategies that can be used after the procedure to recognize pain, to those exhibited by humans and, like humans, these animals
and the need for additional intervention to relieve it. Some novel will work harder to escape more intense stimulation (Dubner,
methods for monitoring pain during the postprocedural period 1994; Kitchell, 1987). Animals of even the most “stoic” species
are reviewed at the end of the chapter. show altered patterns of behavior and physiological disturbances
for several hours or days following simple invasive procedures
(Anil et al., 2005; Blackburn-Munro, 2004; Carroll et al., 2006;
Kent et al., 2000; Liles et al., 1998; Malavasi et al., 2006;
II. WHY PREVENT PAIN?
Molony and Kent, 1997; Rady et al., 1993; Roughan and Fleck-
nell, 2004; Thuer et al., 2007; Ting et al., 2003a, 2003b) and for
A. Pain Perception in Animals up to several weeks following procedures that result in more sig-
nificant or prolonged tissue damage (Anil et al., 2005; Molony
The perception of pain requires initial detection of the stim- and Kent, 1997). The belief that these changes are related to
ulus by nociceptors, processing through peripheral and spinal pain is supported by observations that the behavioral changes,
cord pathways, and final processing through higher centers in as well as many of the physiological changes that occur after
the brain, including the cerebral cortex (see Chapter 1 for a injury, can be reduced or eliminated by analgesic drugs.
more detailed review). However, mere conscious awareness of The situation is less clear in phylogenetically more primi-
a stimulus is not equivalent to recognizing it as painful. At lev- tive animals (lower vertebrates and invertebrates). Even very
els of stimulation just adequate to activate nociceptors, humans primitive vertebrates have peripheral nociceptors and neural
will report an awareness of sensation but will not describe the pathways that correspond to those involved in nociceptive pro-
sensation as painful. This is referred to as the nociceptive thresh- cessing in mammals. However, the cerebral cortex in these
old. Higher levels of stimulation are required to reach the pain animals is either poorly developed or nonexistent, and the brain-
detection threshold, which is the least experience of pain that a stem centers of the lower vertebrates lack the organization and
subject can recognize as painful (IASP, 1994). Under carefully complexity of these structures in mammals (Stevens, 1995).
controlled conditions, both the nociceptive and pain detection A functioning cerebral cortex is considered by many to be
thresholds are fairly consistent among different subjects. The a basic requirement for noxious stimuli to be recognized as
highest experimentally defined level of pain perception is the painful (Anonymous, 2001; Kitchell, 1987). Thus, it could be
pain tolerance threshold. This is the highest level of pain that a argued that lower vertebrate and invertebrate animals are not
human subject is willing to tolerate (IASP, 1994). It is highly able to perceive noxious stimuli as unpleasant in the same man-
variable not only between subjects but also in the same subject ner mammals do (Stevens, 1995). However, these animals do
at different times. At the lower end of the pain sensitivity range, show physiological and behavioral responses to noxious stim-
the cognitive and emotional responses that characterize the stim- ulation, including avoidance or escape behaviors (Arena and
ulus as aversive (provoking avoidance or escape) are weak Richardson, 1990; NRC, 1992, Sneddon et al., 2003). This
(Chapman et al., 1985; Dubner, 1994; NRC, 1992). As the stim- indicates that, at the very least, noxious stimulation can be a
ulus intensity increases, these responses become stronger. It is potent stressor for more primitive animals.
the cognitive and emotional components of pain that contribute Given the evidence that animals are able to experience pain in
to the wide variability in the pain tolerance threshold. much the same way as humans when exposed to noxious stim-
What does pain perception mean in an animal? Do animals uli, do veterinarians and scientists have an obligation to limit
feel pain in the same way as humans? The answer is that we such exposures, or to take steps to minimize the unpleasant
do not know. We do know that the neurological mechanisms for outcomes, in experimental animals? On both ethical and regula-
processing nociceptive (painful) information are quite similar in tory grounds, the answer is “yes.” Even among those groups that
humans and other mammals (Bonica, 1992; Gebhart, 1994). We most actively support the use of animals in research, there is vir-
also know that the stimulus intensities required to activate these tually unanimous agreement on three points: (1) the benefits of
mechanisms are remarkably similar for humans and other mam- the research must outweigh the costs (including costs in animal
mals (Kitchell, 1987). However, because we cannot measure suffering); (2) all relevant regulations and guidelines must be
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 197

followed; and (3) animal subjects must be treated humanely, acid–base balance; and changes in cardiovascular, gastro-
including minimization of pain and distress to the extent intestinal, renal, and immune function (Fisher, 2002; Fisher
consistent with scientific goals (Animals in Research Commit- et al., 1997a, 1997b). Clinical signs of repeated or prolonged
tee, 1988; Anonymous, 2006; Carroll, 2005; Kastello, 2003; stress may include delayed wound healing, muscle wasting,
Zimmermann, 1983, 1986). Thus, even with more primitive ani- immune deficiencies, enhanced susceptibility to infection, stim-
mals that may not experience pain in the same way as humans, ulation or inhibition of feeding behavior, gastrointestinal bloat-
the most humane alternative is to minimize noxious stimulation ing, and/or diarrhea (Breazile, 1987; Eijkelkamp et al., 2007;
or interfere with its processing with anesthetics or analgesics. Lewis et al., 1994; NRC, 1992).
More in-depth explorations of the ethical and regulatory issues Pain is a stressor that can have different effects on the organ-
related to the prevention and alleviation of pain in research ism depending on many factors, including severity and duration.
animals are presented elsewhere in this text. Brief or mild pain provokes an adaptive response, whereas
severe or prolonged pain is more likely to provoke a phys-
iologically harmful response. For example, while brief pain
B. Pain and Stress may stimulate the secretion of β-endorphin and enhance the
cytotoxic capacity of natural killer (NK) cells, more severe or
Like pain, stress is a concept that eludes precise defini- prolonged pain may result in a significant decrease in NK cell
tion. Dorland (1981) defines it as “the sum of the biological cytotoxicity (Fisher, 2002). Pain may also interact with other
reactions to any adverse stimulus, physical, mental, or emo- stressors (e.g., fear, cold, hunger, and dirty environment) to
tional, internal or external, that tends to disturb the organism’s produce an augmented stress response. This interaction may
homeostasis.” The biological reactions that comprise the stress be of particular importance in clinical situations where pain
response include behaviors, changes in autonomic function, and is a component of the organism’s response to conditions such
changes in neuroendocrine function. These reactions allow the as traumatic injury, surgery, or sepsis. For example, postop-
organism to adapt to the perceived stimulus and return to a state erative pain in humans and animals has been demonstrated
of equilibrium. If the organism is unable to adapt, a state of to amplify the stress-induced response to injury, resulting in
distress ensues. Distress is characterized by maladaptive, often delayed wound healing, increased metabolic rate, accelerated
overtly harmful, behavioral and/or physiological changes. The loss of body protein, negative nitrogen balance, hyperglycemia,
adverse stimuli that provoke a stress response are called stres- and disturbances in plasma electrolytes. Many, but not neces-
sors. As Dorland’s definition of stress implies, almost anything sarily all, of these changes can be reduced or eliminated by
can be a stressor, and a stressor for one animal may not be a effective control of surgical pain (Brandt et al., 1978; Kehlet,
stressor for another. Similarly, the response to a stressor may 2006; Kehlet and Dahl, 2003; Lewis et al., 1994; McGuire
vary both qualitatively and quantitatively from one animal to et al., 2006; White et al., 2007; Yeager et al., 1987). Pain con-
another, or in the same animal at different times. trol is important in managing the severely injured, seriously ill,
Acute stressors trigger the release of corticotropin-releasing or postsurgical patient; it is also important to recognize that
factor (CRF) from the hypothalamus. CRF causes the pituitary the purpose of the stress response is to restore hemodynamic
to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which, in turn, and metabolic homeostasis. Analgesics, particularly the opioid
stimulates the adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids (cortisol agonists, may interfere with this response and should be used
and corticosterone). These hormones cause (1) enhanced hep- judiciously with full awareness of all of their potential clinical
atic gluconeogenesis; (2) inhibition of glucose uptake by tissues; and physiological effects (Molina, 2006).
(3) enhanced lipid and protein catabolism; (4) altered function
of macrophages, lymphocytes, and neutrophils; and (5) stim-
ulation of tissue lipocortin production. Lipocortins inhibit the C. Other Physiological Effects of Pain
inflammatory response by, among other things, inhibiting pro-
duction of prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and leukotrienes Besides the general physiological changes associated with
(Breazile, 1987). The response to stress also involves increased stress, pain has been shown to have specific effects on wound
sympathetic tone, which causes (1) reduced secretion of insulin healing, behavior, and metabolism, and on immune, pulmonary,
by the pancreatic islet cells; (2) increased release of renin by the cardiac, gastrointestinal, and urinary tract function. Pain may
kidneys; (3) increased release of vasoactive intestinal peptide by also have more general effects on the speed of recovery from
the intestine; (4) increased release of substance P; (5) increased surgery and even on survival. Studies in humans have shown that
production of inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis superior pain control is associated with significantly reduced
factor-alpha, interleukin-1, and interleukin-6; and (6) increased morbidity, quicker wound healing, a more rapid return to nor-
secretion of catecholamines from the adrenal medulla and sym- mal function, and a higher short-term survival rate following
pathetic nerve terminals. Changes in the plasma concentrations surgery (Brandt et al., 1978; Cullen et al., 1985; Lewis et al.,
of these substances result in changes in carbohydrate, pro- 1994; McGuire et al., 2006; Scott and Kehlet, 1988; Yeager
tein, and fat metabolism; alterations in fluid, electrolyte, and et al., 1987). Better pain management is associated with faster
198 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

recovery, as indicated by earlier extubation, earlier ambulation, suffering from cancer or chronic pain syndromes often suf-
and shorter stays in the intensive care unit, hospital, and reha- fer disrupted sleep patterns, and may experience inappropriate
bilitation (Bonnet and Marret, 2005; de Leon-Casasola et al., cognitions and disruptions in mood and/or social functioning.
1994; Lewis et al., 1994). There have been many studies of the They are also at high risk of depression (Blackburn-Munro,
effects of pain on food intake, body weight, long-term behavior, 2004; Siddall and Cousins, 2004) and disabling fatigue (Brown
and functioning of the immune, respiratory, cardiovascular, and et al., 2005; Stone et al., 2000). Similar abnormalities in sleep
gastrointestinal systems. Most of these studies have been per- patterns are observed in experimental rat models of polyarthri-
formed on human surgical patients, but results from a smaller tis and neuropathy (Blackburn-Munro, 2004), and treatment
number of animal studies suggest that the findings in humans of arthritic rats with analgesics has been shown to improve
are generally applicable to animals. their performance on operant tasks measuring concentration
and memory (Cain et al., 1997; Lindner et al., 1999). Uncon-
trolled postoperative pain in humans has been related to an
1. Effects on Food Intake and Body Weight
increased predisposition to the development of chronic pain syn-
Surgery and other painful procedures performed without the dromes, and more effective postoperative pain management has
use of supplemental analgesics have been demonstrated to cause been related to a reduced incidence of chronic pain following
reductions in activity and feed consumption and loss of body thoracotomy (Bonnet and Marret, 2005).
weight in several species, including rats (Flecknell et al., 1999;
Liles et al., 1998; Page et al., 1993), cattle (Fisher, 2002; Fisher
3. Immune Effects
et al., 1997a, 1997b; Ting et al., 2003a, 2003b), and swine
(Malavasi et al., 2006). These negative effects can be reduced or Postoperative pain has been shown to negatively influence
eliminated with the use of local anesthetics or pre- and/or post- immune function in humans and animals undergoing surgery.
operative analgesics (Fisher, 2002; Fisher et al., 1997a, 1997b; Suppression of mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation and
Flecknell et al., 1999; Jablonski et al., 2001; Liles et al., 1998; an increase in production of IL-1β and IL-6 occurred in all
Malavasi et al., 2006; Page et al., 1993; Ting et al., 2003b). patients in one study (Beilin et al., 2003). However, compared
It should be noted, however, that considerable variability has with those who reported greater postoperative pain, patients who
been found in the ability of analgesic treatment to reduce the reported the least postoperative pain showed smaller changes
adverse effects of surgery on activity, feed consumption, and in these parameters. In humans undergoing root canal surgery,
body weight. Depending on the drug used, route of administra- an observed postprocedural decrease in NK cell cytotoxicity
tion, and dosing regimen, analgesics may be highly effective, was correlated with a higher incidence of respiratory illness
partially effective, ineffective, or even detrimental in this regard during the 2 weeks following surgery (Logan et al., 2001).
(Flecknell et al., 1999; Jablonski and Howden, 2002; Jablonski Acute nonsurgical pain in experimental animals has also been
et al., 2001; Jacobson, 2000; Liles et al., 1998; Page, 2005; demonstrated to inhibit the cytotoxic activity of NK cells (Liebe-
Sharp et al., 2003; Ting et al., 2003b). skind, 1991; Shanin et al., 2005). Surgery, but not anesthesia
alone, increased the number of lung metastases in rats inocu-
lated IV with mammary adenocarcinoma tumor cells shortly
2. Behavioral Effects
after surgery. This effect was correlated with a postsurgical
The long-term effects of unrelieved pain have been studied decrease in NK cell cytotoxicity. The effect of surgery on
most extensively in neonatal humans and animals. Repeated tumor spread was significantly reduced by morphine or fen-
exposure of human neonates, especially those born prematurely, tanyl administered pre- and postoperatively, or by bupivacaine
to painful procedures results in altered development of neural administered intrathecally (IT) before surgery combined with
systems subserving pain perception and stress arousal (Grunau morphine postsurgery (Page et al., 1993, 2001). None of these
et al., 2005). Repeated pain exposure in infancy also predis- treatments had any effect on tumor metastasis in nonoperated
poses children to long-term attention, learning, and behavior rats, although fentanyl suppressed NK cell cytotoxicity in the
problems (Grunau et al., 2005; Whitfield and Grunau, 2000). nonoperated animals (Page et al., 1993, 2001). In another
Exposure of rat pups to a mild pain stimulus (needle prick) sev- study using the same tumor model, postoperative buprenor-
eral times a day for the first week of life resulted in increased phine treatment significantly reduced tumor metastasis, but
sensitivity to pain, an increased preference for alcohol, and neither fentanyl nor morphine had a significant effect. In this
increased anxiety on several behavioral tests when the ani- study, both morphine and fentanyl significantly reduced NK
mals were tested as adults (Anand et al., 1999). In a similar cell activity in nonoperated animals, whereas buprenorphine
study, there was no immediate effect on the stress responsive- had no effect (Franchi et al., 2007). Chronic pain associ-
ness of rat pups exposed to repeated needle pricks, but there ated with experimentally induced mononeuropathy in rats was
was a significant increase in maternal grooming of these pups. accompanied by increased delayed-type hypersensitivity and a
It was hypothesized that the increased maternal care attenuated decreased IgG response to keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH).
the stress response in the pups (Walker et al., 2003). Humans A smaller decrease in the IgG response to KLH was observed
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 199

in sham-operated rats; these smaller changes were attributed 1997; Fukuda et al., 2006; Kehlet and Holte, 2001; Rosenberg,
to stress associated with surgery and acute pain (Herzberg 2000; Saclarides, 2006; Sinatra, 2006; White et al., 2007).
et al., 1994).

III. PREPROCEDURAL CONSIDERATIONS:

4. Pulmonary Effects
PREDICTING AND PREVENTING PAIN
In humans, and undoubtedly in animals also, pain involving
the upper abdomen or thorax causes a pattern of rapid, shal-
If the objective is to improve animal welfare and scientific
low breathing with reduced or absent deep breaths. This leads
outcome by minimizing pain, the greatest benefit is derived by
to reduced vital capacity, tidal volume, and functional residual
predicting the likelihood of its occurrence and anticipating the
capacity, which, in turn, predisposes the patient to atelectasis,
steps that will be needed to prevent or control it. It is necessary
hypoxemia, hypercarbia, retention of pulmonary secretions, and
to estimate the degree of pain that an animal is likely to experi-
pulmonary infections (Cullen et al., 1985; IASP, 1992; Lewis
ence during or after specific experimental procedures for several
et al., 1994). Superior postoperative pain control in humans
reasons. Prediction of the type and extent of pain that is pos-
is associated with improved postoperative pulmonary function
sible allows crafting of suitable analgesic regimens, supportive
and reduced pulmonary complications, including respiratory
therapy measures, and criteria for triggering intervention with
failure (Ballantyne et al., 1998; Bonnet and Marret, 2005;
euthanasia. Also, if the extent of pain as well as the potential for
Dabu-Bondoc, 2004).
controlling it is not correctly anticipated, then a study might be
incorrectly assigned to a United States Department of Agricul-
5. Cardiovascular Effects ture (USDA) pain/distress category, an important consideration
during Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC)
Pain-induced sympathetic stimulation causes vasoconstric-
review. Such estimates are optimally based on the incidence and
tion and increased heart rate, stroke volume, cardiac output,
severity of pain-related clinical signs that have been observed
myocardial oxygen consumption, and blood pressure (IASP,
in other animals and humans subjected to the same or similar
1992; Lewis et al., 1994). Increased effectiveness of postopera-
procedures. In general, it is valid to assume that procedures and
tive pain management is associated with improved cardiovascu-
conditions that cause pain in humans are likely to cause pain in
lar function, decreased incidence of postoperative myocardial
animals. In fact, the U.S. Government Principles for the Utiliza-
infarction and stroke, a decreased incidence of deep vein throm-
tion and Care of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research,
bosis and pulmonary embolism, and improved tissue oxygen
and Training require investigators to make such assumptions
tension (Akca et al., 1999; Bonnet and Marret, 2005; Farag et al.,
in the absence of any evidence to the contrary (Public Health
2005; Lewis et al., 1994; Rosenberg, 2000). In anesthetized
Service, 1996).
pigs, mortality rates were higher and compensatory cardiovas-
A considerable amount of information is available relating tis-
cular responses were reduced when the animals were subjected
sue injury to histologic, neurologic, and biobehavioral changes
to experimental hemorrhage plus a nociceptive afferent stim-
in animal models and humans. Pain can arise from injury to
ulus versus hemorrhage alone (Foex et al., 2004). Addition
somatic tissues, the viscera, or nervous tissue, but can paradox-
of a nociceptive stimulus also augmented hemorrhage-induced
ically occur in some cases in the absence of apparent noxious
reductions in oxygen delivery and oxygen consumption (Rady
stimuli. The neurological mechanisms underlying pain arising
et al., 1991). Even greater effects on cardiac function and oxy-
from these tissues vary, as do the characteristics of the pain and
gen delivery were seen when the anesthetized animals were
its response to specific therapeutic regimens. Pain also may be
subjected to significant skeletal muscle injury in addition to
classified as acute or chronic and these two types of pain often
hemorrhage (Rady et al., 1993).
have different underlying causes and respond differently to treat-
ment. All of these differences relate to the way in which pain is
6. Gastrointestinal and Urinary Tract Effects processed within the nervous system, and a basic understand-
ing of the neurophysiology of pain is essential to prediction,
Nociceptive impulses from viscera and somatic structures
diagnosis, and effective treatment of different types of pain.
can lead to ileus, nausea and vomiting, and hypomotility of
A brief mention of the basic types of pain follows, but the
the urethra and bladder in humans and animals (Bustorff-Silva
reader is encouraged to refer to Chapter 1 of this volume for
et al., 1999; Fukuda et al., 2006; IASP, 1992; Rady et al., 1993;
a detailed review.
Uemura et al., 2004). Effective postoperative pain management
in humans is associated with a more rapid return to normal func-
tion. Newer opioid analgesics and multimodal, opioid-sparing A. Types of Pain
analgesic regimens are particularly effective in reducing post-
operative gastrointestinal and urinary complications, including The specific type of pain experienced may determine the
ileus, in humans and animals (Carli et al., 2001; De Winter et al., symptoms exhibited by the animal, and signs common with one
200 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

kind of pain may not be seen with another. In addition, the time for example, pain of sometimes severe magnitude caused by
course and type of pain will determine the type and duration of myocardial ischemia can be felt in the chest wall or arm, and of
treatment. Nonpain factors may figure in a given disease model cholelithiasis to the caudal chest wall and upper abdomen.
as well, for example, the impact of analgesic therapy on comfort
might be greatly augmented by fluid and thermal support in a
sepsis model. 4. Neuropathic Pain
Neuropathic pain is a particularly problematic type of acute
1. Acute Versus Chronic Pain or chronic pain, which occurs as a result of damage to elements
Acute pain results from both nondamaging or tissue- of the nervous system, including peripheral nerve, spinal cord,
damaging events and the duration varies from seconds to days. and brain; crush, inflammation, ligation, and ischemia are some
When tissues are injured, acute pain appears to resolve as potential causes. The underlying mechanism of neuropathic pain
repair proceeds. Acute pain can also fail to resolve and become is abnormal activity within a peripheral nerve and/or in the cen-
chronic, but chronic pain may instead be insidious in ori- tral nervous system (CNS). This abnormal activity is triggered
gin. Many different conditions and syndromes are associated by normal nociceptive input related to the initial acute insult
with chronic pain, including malignancies, chronic inflamma- but, due to functional changes within the nervous system, it
tory disorders (e.g., cholecystitis and colitis), and orthopedic becomes self-sustaining. As a result, the pain can continue even
disorders (e.g., spinal stenosis and osteophytes). after the inciting cause resolves.
Chronic pain is imprecisely defined in humans and animals Humans often characterize the pain associated with neuro-
but it is generally regarded as present when it outlasts the normal pathic pain syndromes as burning or aching with sudden electric
healing course of an injury; in humans it has been documented shock-like (“lancinating”) pains. A number of different clinical
to continue for months to years after certain types of surgeries. neuropathic pain syndromes are recognized to occur in humans.
Postsurgical chronic pain in one meta-analysis was estimated to Examples of these include post herpetic neuralgia, diabetic neu-
occur in 11–81% of patients after amputation of limbs, thoraco- ropathy, central stroke pain, and phantom limb pain. In addition,
tomy, mastectomy, and hernia repair (Perkins and Kehlet, 2000), neuropathic pain is increasingly recognized as a potential com-
and it was presumed to be neuropathic in etiology. Chronic pain ponent of many disease states (Dworkin et al., 2003). Although
may wax and wane in certain disease states, or worsen over time, animal models of neuropathic pain exist, not much is known
as in cancer and degenerative diseases such as renal failure, or understood about its clinical incidence in animals. It is well
diabetes, or osteoarthritis. known that animals engage in abnormal behaviors (e.g., self-
mutilation) following nerve injury; therefore, we must assume
that animals are subject to dysesthesias (unpleasant abnormal
2. Somatic Pain sensations), and potentially significant pain in association with
When an injured body part is involved in covering or support nerve damage. Neuropathic pain may not respond well to anal-
of the body, such as skin, bone, tendon, joint, or muscle, pain gesic therapy that typically is effective for nonneuropathic pain,
can be sharp and easily localizable. Somatic pain can be acute and thus the differentiation may be important in the planning of
or chronic. The causes of somatic pain include incision, crush, experiments (Campbell, 2001; Kehlet et al., 2006; Perkins and
inflammation, bone fracture, ischemia, or thermal or chemical Kehlet, 2000).
injury. Postsurgical pain is not the only etiology of concern
in research, although it is likely to receive more attention and
treatment than other acute or chronic somatic pain states. B. Severity of Pain

Armed with an understanding of how tissue injury leads to

3. Visceral Pain
pain, we can go about the process of predicting the severity
Visceral pain arises when visceral organs become inflamed, of expected pain. There is unfortunately little experimental evi-
distended, or ischemic. Because of the type and density of dence to distinguish the levels of pain expected from procedures
receptors, cutting, clamping, and sharp incision are not per- in many animal species, other than those studies examining
ceived as painful, but ischemia, inflammation, and distention are dose–response relationships for analgesics. In many cases, it
painful and the pain can be unrelenting and extreme. Although will be possible to refer to expert opinions concerning the
the parenchyma of certain organs (lung, brain, and liver) is painfulness of procedures and conditions found in the veteri-
not innervated, the surrounding tissues (bronchial smooth mus- nary clinical and laboratory animal literature. Table 8-1 lists a
cle, meninges, and capsule) characteristically produce the pain compilation of these, as well as symptoms associated with pain.
associated with such syndromes as encephalitis headache and Several veterinary pain textbooks list procedures or diseases that
renal colic. Visceral pain (and deep somatic pain) can “refer” are likely to cause pain in animals, but information on sever-
to topical areas of the body of the same dermatome. Thus, ity may have to be extrapolated from well-characterized species
 TABLE 8-1
Estimated Severity of Pain Based on Type and Location of Injury

Tissue or site Mild Moderate Severe

Skin/integument Puncture, hematoma, venipuncture Larger uncomplicated incision, Extensive burns, degloving, crush Rubbing,
or cannulation, subcutaneous fluids abscess, skin grafts, autoimmune or bite wounds, major soft tissue guarding,
or injections, small incision, and dermatitis, rewarming hypothermic excision, and mastitis
restraint by “scruffing” skin, ionizing radiation damage,
and chemical irritation
Muscle/tendon Minor bruise, intramuscular (IM) Muscle or tendon tear or incision, Generalized myositis, fasciitis, and Reluctance
injection, lactate accumulation viral or postvaccination syndrome extensive excision stif
(after exercise), and restraint (cytokine mediated)
by squeeze board or hurdle
Bones/joints Periosteal bruise and joint tap Bone or bone marrow biopsy, Fracture (displaced) and repair (plating), Reluctance
external fixation of fracture, simple amputation of limb or multiple digits, stif
osteotomy, tail amputation, joint panosteitis, bone tumors and metastasis, disuse
surgery, and osteo- or rheumatoid bone or bone marrow harvest, and
arthritis joint replacement
Nervous system/spine Trauma, thoracolumbar disk disease, Meningitis, encephalitis, nerve Licking,
craniotomy, neuroma, cerebrospinal entrapment or ligation (neuropath
tap, laminectomy, and myelography neck
photophobia
and
Thorax Cough, pleurocentesis Chest tube drain, pleuritis, Thoracotomy and rib resection Shallo
bronchitis, and pneumonia lie
“w
muscle
Viscera Cystocentesis, mild cystitis or Castration, cystitis, urethral Nephrolith, pyelonephritis, hepatitis, Shallo
gastritis, esophagitis, and gavage catheterization, enteritis, visceral torsion or distention, and unwilling
parturition, and egg laying ischemia (especially myocardial) looking
and
Abdomen Laparoscopic surgical approacha Laparotomy (no inflammation), Peritonitis, necrotizing pancreatitis, Unwilling
and abdominocentesis visceral resection (nephrectomy, cholelithiasis, and laparotomy with shallo
splenectomy, and ovariectomy), inflammation muscles,
and enterotomy looking
Eye Conjunctivitis and eyelid surgery Corneal injury/ulcer, enucleation, Glaucoma, uveitis, and corneal Rubbing,
and bright light ulcer—inflamed photophobia
Ear Ear canal exam and ear punch Otitis externa, pinna surgery, Ear canal ablation, tympanitis, and Rubbing,
sterotaxic ear bars, and sound otitis media
Oral cavity Endotracheal intubation, gingivitis, Mucositis, tooth removal, and Abscessed tooth root and Sali
snaring (pig), and twitch tracheostomy mandibulectomy sw
(horse)

Note: The amount of pain experienced varies on an individiual basis. This is not an exhaustive list of painful conditions or procedures in laboratory animals. Note that signs
and may be accompanied by immobility, abnormal posture, inappetance, dullness, anxiety, guarding, aggression, or struggling. Chronic pain may be accompanied by altered
Many signs of pain are species-specific, for example, “prey” species and cats are more prone to become immobile.
(Dobromylskyj et al., 2000; Hardie, 2000; Mathews, 2000; Muir and Gaynor, 2002)
a
Retention of insufflation gases may cause greater amount of pain than expected.
202 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

TABLE 8-2
Suggested Resources for Severity and Assessment of Pain caused by Procedures in Animals

Reference Species Comments

Ness, 1999; Carstens and Moberg, 2000 Rodents and other species Experimental animal models of nociception and humane endpoints. Both
issues contain articles that are of use for determining extent and signs of
pain, including recognition of pain and distress.
Leenaars and Hendriksen (2005) Rodents and rabbits Information about signs and assessment in ascites models.
Martini et al. (2000) General, not species-specific Presents severity scheme for classifying procedures as minimal, medium,
and high severity based on the amount of pain and disability that
would be involved.
Hawkins (2002) General, not species-specific Lists approaches for determining potential impact of experimental pain and
distress, including use of pilot studies, consultation with other veterinarians
and researchers, previously submitted score sheets, and scrutiny of literature
on significance of condition in humans.
Baumans et al. (1994) Rodents and rabbits FELASA guidelines on pain and distress suggest signs of pain
corresponding to three levels of severity.
Mathews (2000) Dogs and cats Examples of surgeries and conditions categorized as mild, moderate, and
severe, as well as a pain rating system.
http://www.vet.ed.ac.uk/animalpain/ Livestock Complete online resource for physiology, assessment, and treatment of pain.
Video clips and self-assessment especially useful for training purposes.
http://www.ahwla.org.uk/site/Tutorials.html Multiple species examples Tutorials emphasizing normal animal appearance and behavior, and
recognition of pain in animals. Graphical illustrations and video clips,
useful for investigator and care staff training.
AALAS Animal Care and Use Courses Mice and rats Concepts and procedures for minimizing pain and distress; useful for
Library on anesthesia and analgesia, go to investigator and care staff training.
http://www.aalas.org/index.aspx and online
resources
OECD (2000). Guidance Document on the General, not species-specific Suggests methods to assess severity prior to undertaking study, and
Recognition, Assessment, and Use of methods of assessment of animal condition.
Clinical Signs as Humane Endpoints for
Experimental Animals Used in Safety
Evaluation. Paris: OECD
ACLAM (2006) Rodents and rabbits Lists typical procedures performed in rodents and rabbits with categorical
ranking of expected amount of pain, and general species signs of pain.

(including humans) to other species (Hardie, 2000; Hellyer, periosteum, and lining are richly innervated with nocicep-
2002; Mathews, 2000). tors, and surgical approach to the brain disrupts these tissues.
Hawkins (2002) reports some approaches used by laboratory Craniotomy pain, if present, may have gone unnoted, because
animal professionals for determining the potential impact of headache is difficult to assess in animals. To determine the
experimental pain and distress; strategies include use of pilot expected severity or duration of craniotomy pain in animals,
studies, consultation with other veterinarians and researchers, it is possible to search for reviews of the topic in the human
previously submitted score sheets, and scrutiny of literature medical literature. As presented in Table 8-3, using the search
regarding the significance of related conditions in humans. terms “craniotomy” and “pain,” and then limiting the results to
Other references for severity and assessment of pain are in “reviews,” several general features of pain after craniotomy can
Table 8-2. Such published guidelines and approaches are partic- be quickly gleaned. Although this does not mean that the proce-
ularly useful for investigators and IACUC members who must dures definitely cause pain in animals, the IACUC can determine
evaluate the severity of experimental procedures and determine that there may be a potential need to treat and monitor pain.
what special precautions or stipulations should be considered Differences in the degree of pain that a procedure causes may
prior to approving these procedures. Karas also makes use of depend to an extent on the species. For example, humans can-
reviews of procedure and disease-related pain in the human not stand barefoot on ice or moderately hot pavement, but most
medical field to guide estimates of pain severity in animals. quadrupeds and birds can do so. Noises outside the range of
An example is that of craniotomy surgery. Craniotomy pain human hearing are not distressful to humans, but may be so to
in animals has been considered insignificant because “brain other species; tolerance to ambient temperatures, gas concentra-
parenchyma has no nociceptors.” However, the scalp, cranial tions, and odors also vary by species. Such differences depend
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 203

TABLE 8-3
Use of a Literature Search on Severity of Craniotomy Pain in Humans to Help Predict Pain in Animal Models

Citation Relevant information Interpretation

Gottshalk et al. (2007) Study of incidence and severity of postoperative pain in In a current prospective study of craniotomy pain, moderate to
187 patients having supratentorial (ST) or infratentorial (Inf) severe pain of at least 2-day duration was experienced in
surgical approach. 69 and 48% of patients reported moderate a human cohort, despite the fact that patients were treated
to severe pain on postoperative days 1 and 2, respectively. for pain. Animals having craniotomy might experience a similar
Inf approach was more painful than ST. Both opioid and degree of pain, especially if the Inf approach is used.
nonopioid analgesics were employed.
Rahimi et al. (2006) Report of a small prospective randomized controlled trial Combination (multimodal) therapy with opioids and NSAIDS
(RCT) of opioids alone versus an opioid/COX2 preferential may reduce pain safely in craniotomy subjects and reduce
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug combination to treat incidence of opioid side effects. Single modality analgesia is
craniotomy pain, as some disadvantages to use of opioid-only potentially less effective as a means of pain control.
methods can be cited. The opioid-only group was found to
have significantly longer hospital stay and greater levels of pain.
Bala et al. (2006) A prospective RCT was conducted of bupivacaine (B) versus Nerve block infiltration with bupivacaine may provide 4 hours
saline (S) for local analgesia after skin closure for ST craniotomy. of analgesia after certain surgical approaches to the brain.
Sixty percent of S-treated patients had moderate to severe pain in Technique may be valuable part of multimodal analgesic
the first 12 hours, versus 25% of B-treated. Additional analgesia treatment of craniotomy pain.
was needed sooner and more often in S group. Local analgesia
with bupivacaine provided up to 4 hours of “pain free” status
after ST craniotomy.
Gray and Matta (2005) Describes anatomy of skull and linings with innervation. Craniotomy pain severity depends to some extent on surgical
Review of studies of incidence of postcraniotomy pain as well location. Reported incidence and duration in humans,
trials of treatment method. Discussion of pathogenesis of and if extrapolated to animals, suggest that pain is possibly
reported quality of acute pain (nociceptive, tension type, and underestimated and undertreated. Craniotomy may
incisional), some pain physiology. Also reviews reported lead to chronic pain.
incidence and pathogenesis of chronic pain following
craniotomy (2 months to 2 years, with incidence ranging from
9% to 82%, varying with surgical location).

on adaptations to ecological niche. Specific situations should be of strategies to reduce anxiety and the recognition that certain
investigated using standard behavioral testing methods such as strains or individuals are more anxious are important in the
preference testing prior to making an assumption that a stimu- overall consideration of whether anxiety will play an important
lus is not painful for a particular species (Weary et al., 2006). role in the pain experience.
There has been a historical tendency to expect that animals in
general feel less pain than a human would, and this tendency is
reinforced because animals may not display overt signs of pain. C. Strategies for Minimizing Pain
It is critical to dispel the myth that animals are generally less
able to feel pain than humans, even if differences in the total Prediction of the severity of expected pain is the first step in
experience may exist (ACVA, 1998). a strategic approach toward its minimization. Pain either may
Strictly painful conditions are not the only ones that are capa- be brief/self-limiting or prolonged, in acute situations, or may
ble of being unpleasant or noxious. Adverse states such as fear be constant, resolving, or escalating over time in chronic mod-
or anxiety, hunger, dehydration, nausea, boredom, or isolation els. Establishing the time frame during which pain is expected
are important for animal well-being, and these conditions are to be present is essential for optimal monitoring and therapeu-
not ameliorated by analgesics. Although many signs of pain tic intervention, but three important measures for prevention of
may not be distinguishable from those of other types of nox- pain are still to be considered. These are as follows: ensuring
ious experiences, this review is geared toward recognition and stable and supportive husbandry conditions; training of investi-
prevention of pain. However, two emotional states, fear and gators in low impact handling and surgery/procedural methods;
anxiety, may increase the amount of pain experienced by the and preemptive and multimodal analgesia administration.
subject. Pain can exacerbate anxiety and vice versa (Linton,
2000; Morley et al., 1999; Perkins and Kehlet, 2000; Ploghaus
1. Stable and Supportive Conditions
et al., 2001). In humans, this means that behavioral (cognitive)
interventions as well as nonanalgesic drugs that mitigate anxi- Reduction of the affective-motivational component of
ety may reduce pain (Belzung and Griebel, 2001). Thus, the use pain by reducing or eliminating noxious environmental and
204 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

psychological stressors is a desirable adjunct or alternative to taught to understand the potential significance of all components
drug treatment. By eliminating serious nonpain stressors, one of animal handling (Martini et al., 2000). Ultimately, reduction
would expect to improve overall well-being. Husbandry staff are of tissue injury due to surgery will be possible by means of
usually familiar with generally accepted husbandry practices new technological advances, such as catheter-based placement
such as frequency of cage changes, need for specific ambi- of devices, miniaturization, and fiber optic and laser guidance
ent temperature/humidity/lighting conditions, etc., but research and surgery. These technologies contribute to the emerging field
staff may not realize the importance of these factors and should of minimally invasive surgery, which is gaining popularity for
be appropriately advised. Careful attention should be directed to reduced pain, convalescence, and severity of impact upon the
the animals’social environment. While social species of animals patient compared with open/scalpel surgical techniques (Walsh
may be seriously stressed by isolation, efforts must be made to et al., 1999).
protect vulnerable animals (e.g., those recovering from surgery) Although not adequately studied in veterinary patients, the lit-
from aggression by cage or pen mates. A stable environment is erature about teaching/learning of surgical skills by MD trainees
particularly important. Changes in food, water, temperature, appears to support the premise that complication rates and
lighting, social groupings, or even position within the room all duration of surgery are related to the number of procedures per-
may be significant stressors and should be avoided when dealing formed and the quality of the training. Weise et al. (2004) found
with animals in pain. that more experienced surgeons (having performed 10 times the
Researchers can do much to limit stress associated with exper- number of surgeries compared to the less experienced group)
imental procedures; there are two basic approaches: (1) plan had a complication rate of 2.2% versus 10.7% for the less expe-
studies with the likely responses of the animals in mind and, rienced group. As might be expected, it was noted that some
whenever possible, choose approaches and techniques that are of the recorded complications were associated with greater ini-
less likely to cause significant pain or stress; and (2) allow tial postoperative pain. Georgeson and Owings (2000) cited the
time for the animals to acclimate to the research facility and inverse relationship between duration of procedure and num-
the laboratory, and take the time required to accustom them ber of surgeries performed by MD surgeons. When surgeons
to handling, restraint devices, and other specialized equipment have performed fewer than 10 of a particular endoscopic pro-
prior to beginning the experiment (Grandin, 1997; Morgan and cedure, the duration of that surgery is roughly double that
Tromborg, 2007). of surgeons who had performed the same surgery 40 times.
Expertise reduces procedure duration and improves outcome,
and if surgical time increases postoperative pain (presumably
2. Reduction of Tissue Injury Due to Surgery or Procedures
due to increased tissue handling), then one might surmise
In any case where tissue injury occurs, the extent of damage that as surgeons move along the learning curve for a tech-
and inflammatory response will affect the amount of acute and nique, pain from a surgery could be reduced (Kahn et al.,
possibly chronic pain that is experienced. This is particularly 2003).
relevant when considering (1) the type and amount of disrup- In smaller patients or animal subjects, incision length is often
tion of innervated structures and (2) the degree of expertise of described as “small,” therefore implying that it is less conse-
the surgeon. Current opinion is that reducing the size of the inci- quential to the patient; instead incision size in tiny animals is in
sion lessens the amount of pain felt by the patient. The degree fact either proportional to body size or larger in order to facil-
of pain associated with the surgical procedures in Table 8-1 is itate access to the surgical site by comparatively large fingers
what would be expected if the procedures were performed by and instruments. It can be argued that the pain resulting from
a skillful surgeon practicing good tissue-handling techniques. a surgical procedure in a laboratory animal model may depend
Unnecessary trauma of tissues, allowing tissues to become dry, significantly on the degree of pain or invasiveness of a proce-
and/or generally poor surgical technique will result in increased dure, which may in turn depend on the skill of the surgeon,
postoperative pain. which is dependent on the quality and quantity of training, as
Any type of tissue disruption can potentially cause pain, well as on innate characteristics of the surgeon. Fortunately, by
and procedures that may cause tissue disruption are often not assuring that the individuals who perform surgery on animals
apparent from descriptions listed in animal use protocols. For are well trained in both general surgical techniques and asep-
example, extensive retraction of the ribs following intercostal tic practices, poor technique can be eliminated as a cause of
incision enhances surgical access and may decrease surgical excessive postoperative pain.
time, but can result in more severe pain. Abnormal position-
ing during surgery or strong restraint, including surgical table
3. Preemptive Analgesia
positioner-induced injury, can lead to muscle and nerve damage
to the extent that pain and loss of function is possible. Increased An attractive theory, the original conception of preemptive
inflammation, including that associated with infection, will also analgesia was that antinociceptive intervention given prior to
cause increased postoperative pain. Thus, unnecessary pain a surgical incision would prevent the establishment of cen-
from manipulations can only be avoided if all personnel are tral or peripheral sensitization and thus “preempt” pain more
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 205

effectively than interventions started after surgery. A number preventive or protective analgesia will undoubtedly be further
of animal models have convincingly demonstrated an effect honed.
of timing on pathological pain, and trials have been designed
to evaluate the importance of timing of analgesia (Lascelles
4. Multimodal Analgesia
et al., 1995, 1997). Over the years, the small-scale clinical tri-
als have been subjected to meta-analyses by numerous authors There are numerous experimental models in which the admin-
(Moiniche et al., 2002; Ong et al., 2005; Pogatzki-Zahn and istration of two or more analgesics (i.e., targeting different
Zahn, 2006; Straube et al., 2005). From such reviews, it can be mechanisms) has resulted in a synergy (less pain than would be
variably gleaned that there either is or is not evidence for “pre- predicted from a simple additive effect) (Kolesnikov et al., 2000;
emptive” effects of analgesic techniques; there are limitations in Matthews and Dickenson, 2002; Price et al., 1996). Benefits
study design and methods, including choice of outcome mea- of multimodal analgesia include the following: more effective
sures, technique/drug, and even definition of what is actually analgesia, possible reduction in the doses of one or more individ-
meant by preemptive dosing. ual drugs (this may reduce the side effects of individual agents),
Ong et al. (2005) reviewed studies for evidence favoring the and fewer incidences of “breakthrough pain.” There is little
validity of preemptive analgesia using the following measures: uncertainty of whether the concept of multimodal analgesia is
(1) reduced postoperative pain scores; (2) decreased supplemen- valid for human clinical pain. Clinical trials often show evidence
tal postoperative analgesic requirements; and (3) prolonged time for lower total doses of morphine when another type of anal-
until first rescue analgesia. These authors concluded that “pre- gesic is also given at surgery, and a corresponding reduction in
emptive analgesia showed an overall beneficial effect in selected opioid side effects such as constipation. The opioids, NSAIDS,
analgesic regimens that was most pronounced after epidural local anesthetics, alpha 2 agonists, ketamine, tramadol, and
analgesia, local wound infiltrations, and systemic nonsteriodal gabapentin have been shown to have robust synergistic effects
anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) administration.” Moiniche when used in certain combinations (Guillou et al., 2003;
et al. (2002) indicated, however, that the overall conclusion of Koppert et al., 2004; Reuben and Buvanendran, 2007; White
their meta-analysis was negative, i.e., not supportive of preemp- et al., 2007). There is an unrecognized potential for use of local
tive analgesia as a superior approach. Analyses of specific drug anesthetic nerve and “intracavitary” blocks, of ketamine, and
classes have also been attempted, and at least one study found of combinations of these techniques with each other and with
an overall benefit of N -methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) channel opioids and NSAIDS when planning for surgical analgesia in
antagonists (e.g., ketamine and dextromethorphan) given prein- animals (Carpenter et al., 2004; Muir et al., 2003; Shafford et al.,
cisionally; another study found that coxib (cyclo-oxygenase 2 2004). Multimodal analgesia may also be effective for treatment
inhibitors) NSAIDS were overall of greater benefit for postsur- of chronic pain that is unresponsive to a single agent, and the
gical pain when given preemptively (McCartney et al., 2004; use of such “adjuvant analgesics” (antidepressants, antiepileptic
Straube et al., 2005). drugs, NMDA channel antagonists, intravenous (IV) and trans-
The emerging thought is that timing of initiation of analgesia dermal lidocaine) is common now in both human and veterinary
per se is not as important as duration and efficacy of anal- medicine (Knotkova and Pappagallo, 2007).
gesic interventions (Dahl and Moiniche, 2004; Kissin, 2005; The tenets of current clinical veterinary pain medicine
Pogatzki-Zahn and Zahn, 2006). While the original theories include: (1) use of analgesics such that the drugs are present
focused on the surgical stimulus and its “coverage” by analge- at effective plasma levels while nociceptive barrage and pain
sia, a substantial role is now thought to be played by postinjury sensation are greatest; (2) potential use of more than one type
events. The barrage of input to the spinal cord and brain con- of analgesic (targeting multiple pain mechanisms, such as local
tinues for some time after incisional closure, as inflammation anesthetics and opioids) when expected level of pain would be
occurs and the peripheral and central sensitization that ensues moderate to severe; (3) ideally, avoidance of peaks and valleys in
serves to “maintain” pain (Carr and Goudas, 1999). Experts analgesic dosing to the extent possible, through administration
have written that the concept of “preemptive” analgesia has by continuous or overlapping methods, or “superimposition” of
evolved and is more correctly thought of as “preventive” or “pro- a long-duration drug (e.g., NSAID) on top of a shorter-duration
tective” analgesia (Kissin, 2005; McCartney et al., 2004). The drug (buprenorphine); and (4) monitoring of effectiveness and,
aim of preventive analgesic administration is to reduce central when doubt arises whether an animal’s clinical signs are due
sensitization and thus its impact on pain, by means of “aggres- to pain, trial of an additional dose of analgesic to “prove” that
sive, perioperative, and analgesic intervention on short- and pain was at issue. While these guidelines for effective pain man-
long-term pain after surgery” (Moiniche et al., 2002). Over- agement are comparatively easy to apply in clinically familiar
all there appears to be no loss of support for the fact that species such as dogs and cats, it will require more ingenuity to
the adequacy and timing of analgesics in the surgical patient apply them in other laboratory animal species. Nevertheless, as
are critical to optimal acute pain prevention. As clinical pain a large proportion of basic pain science is conducted on rats and
researchers continue to define targets for therapy, and ani- mice, it seems logical to expect that rational analgesic therapy
mal models of surgical pain are studied, the current theory of for pain is an attainable goal in rodents.
206 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

IV. POSTPROCEDURAL CONSIDERATIONS: to nonpainful joints, and the animal’s activity gradually slows
RECOGNIZING AND MONITORING PAIN down over time. In instances where treatment with an effective
analgesic restores mood and agility, it can be inferred that pain
was substantial prior to treatment, even though the observer did
A. When and How Often to Monitor?
not recognize the significant pain. Laboratory animal models of
chronic pain may vary in the time course of intensity depending
The time course of pain varies with the etiology, and so will
on whether an acute induction (i.e., urate injection) or progres-
the frequency and type of assessment. The fact that some anal-
sive worsening (i.e., diabetic neuropathy) is studied. In a study
gesics have been given is not adequate to ensure absence of
of chronic joint pain induced by adjuvant injection in Lewis
pain without an effective monitoring system. In the early post-
rats, Lindner et al. (1999) found that morphine pellet implants
operative period, residual sedation from anesthesia may mask
at two dose levels did not reduce weight loss or improve overall
pain, and more frequent assessments are needed in the first
daily activity compared to untreated rats. However, in a battery
24–48 hours after surgery. It is well accepted that waiting for
of tests that measured ambulatory function, fine motor control,
convincing signs of pain leads to more difficulty in ameliora-
and performance on a food-rewarded bar pressing task, a dose-
tion, and of course means that the animal has been in pain for
dependent beneficial effect of morphine was seen. It was noted
some time prior to dosing. For this reason, “as needed” dosing
that the pain induced by the model was greater during the early
schemes may be inappropriate in the first 12–24 hours or longer
part of the chronic pain study than later on. In cancer models,
after major surgery. Once a chronic or increasing type of pain is
as tumors grow and impinge on or obliterate normal structures,
induced, this should automatically trigger greater frequency of
pain can worsen. It is thus important to have some idea of the
observation to detect need for treatment or intervention. When
time course of expected pain, to enable a responsive increase
animals are observed to be abnormal in the early morning,
in frequency of observations and intervention with additional
this is an indication that an earlier intervention or observation
analgesia, support, or euthanasia.
should be instituted. Also it should always be borne in mind
that severely disabled or sick animals may not be able to show
commonly recognized signs of pain (Hansen, 2005).
B. Behavioral Assessment of Pain
Inflammation, if not well controlled, occurs over the first
24 hours after tissue injury; after that time it may subside
Behavioral changes are the major methods that will be used
unless the model dictates that it continue. It has been suggested
“cage-side” to assess pain. At the outset, it should be acknowl-
that, based on clinical experience in humans, gradual reduc-
edged that any approach must take into account species-specific
tion of discomfort takes as much as 10–14 days after soft tissue
differences, and that technical staff, investigators, and veteri-
surgeries and 4–6 weeks after orthopedic surgeries (Kehlet and
narians must be clear on what these are. Many criteria may be
Dahl, 2003). However, as metabolic rate may determine the
widely appreciated in one species (a painful dog cries when han-
speed of healing, it might be surmised that smaller species may
dled) but will never or seldom be seen in another (chinchilla). If
recover more rapidly from simple surgical procedures. Greater
a new or novel species is to be used (e.g., armadillo) then infor-
doses or more frequent administration of analgesics are needed
mation from the zoo or ethology literature or experts can be
when injury is severe, with lower levels needed on subsequent
consulted to determine husbandry practices, enrichment, and
days. Until the contrary is known, observations should continue,
normal behavior. Generalized interspecies considerations can
albeit at a lower frequency until the animal appears normal to
be as varied as the appearances or habitats of the animals, and
all measures, rather than stopping at the end of the “predicted”
include the following:
duration of analgesia dictated in the protocol. In addition, ani-
mals subjected to procedures that cause pain, such as adjuvant • The differences between socialized versus nonsocialized
injection, may not have obvious signs of injury (abscessation), domestic species and colonies. Certain sources for domes-
but may show signs of sickness behavior (lethargy, somnolence, tic species may not provide much habituation to human
and shivering) and may have generalized pain that will respond contact, and response to handler is often recommended as
to analgesia or other supportive measures. one element of an overall health assessment. When animals
Pain of insidious onset (cancer, disease, and degenerative) is are not habituated, handling represents an additional stress,
more challenging to assess. Chronic pain, cancer pain, and ter- and may reduce or alter the behavioral repertoire during
minal pain (pain that occurs at the end of a disease process such observation. Nonsocialized animals may behave more like
as renal insufficiency) are quite different than acute surgical wild or prey species.
or procedural pain; the onset may be gradual and coping ability • Wild or dangerous species can usually not be handled with
may develop to some extent along with progression of the condi- the frequency or ease necessary to weigh or palpate body
tion, or coping ability may suddenly fail at a critical point. Many parts. Like any stressed animal, such species may also
pet owners fail to notice symptoms of chronic osteoarthritis pain be inhibited in behavior in the presence of an observer.
in dogs and cats, for example, because weight can be shifted However, acclimation and training of animals to engage in
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 207

certain rewardable tasks may help distinguish those in need ought to look, it will not be detected, or symptoms of other con-
of additional treatment. ditions (such as dehydration or dyspnea) might be interpreted
• “Prey” species (may include hoofstock, rodents, rabbits, as pain, with untoward consequences. Although the veterinary
other small mammals, and nonmammals) are thought to literature indicates that factors such as gender, age, level of
fear predation to the extent that they will “attempt to look training, and context (food animal production versus companion
normal” in all but the most dire circumstances. This teleo- animal settings) appear to highlight major disparities in attitudes
logical explanation appears a suitable theory for why it has toward animal pain in general, a structured examination of how
taken so long to be able to see abnormal pain behaviors this impacts the ability to detect animal pain is not available. It
in certain species. However, the breadth of the psychol- is evident from the fields of human pain medicine that a signif-
ogy and reproductive behavior literatures involving prey icant barrier to accurate assessment of pain is when it is done
species, for example, would suggest that pain assessment by proxy (i.e. evaluated by someone, or some indication other
might only have lacked application of enough creative than direct patient report) (Nekolaichuk et al., 1999; van Dijk
energy and that this can be remedied. et al., 2002). And since pain must be identified to be adequately
• Circumstances that do not permit easy monitoring. Ani- treated, if the severity is underestimated it is not likely to be
mals of virtually any species can present a difficulty when treated aggressively enough. Therefore, continual training and
involved in biosafety risk, fragile, or environmentally con- mentoring of observers will be necessary, given the diversity of
strained models. If animal contact must be limited, then types of pain and conditions, which laboratory animals might
remote observation or other novel methods will be required experience.
to assess well-being. These are discussed in a later section. The laboratory animal veterinarian or researcher is often
Nocturnal or hibernating animals may be able to be viewed faced with the need to assess well-being in animal species (or
in reverse daylight or other altered light conditions so that entire orders) of limited familiarity, such as fish, marsupials,
a true estimate of activity is obtained. Rabbits in standard mustelids, reptiles, and amphibians, and in neonatal animals of
stainless steel caging are difficult to observe without open- familiar species. Sources such as zoo and wildlife veterinari-
ing the door, and small rodents may be difficult to observe ans or biologists and an extensive neonatal human pain biology
without removing the cage lid. literature might prove useful in these cases where little is known.
• Interindividual variations, especially in larger animal
species, will make it reasonable for caretakers to learn
a given animal’s prestudy demeanor, and for this to fac-
2. Behavioral Assessment Approaches
tor into subsequent analyses. For example, an anxious dog
may be expected to require more sedation or to have stormy With consideration of the caveats of an animal’s species,
anesthesia recoveries, and may require more analgesia strain, breed, and previous experience, and allowing for study
after surgery. Another example of this is that of a previ- limitations in making observations, there are essentially four
ously dominant sow who allowed another animal access to behavioral observation approaches that may be used to assess
favorite treats offered by a caretaker after surgery, a role whether an animal’s pain is easily tolerable or not. These
reversal that was “put right” after more analgesia (Paul involve observations of normal behaviors, abnormal behaviors,
Flecknell, personal communication). Strain or breed dif- evoked pain behaviors, and changes in behavior in response to
ferences may also make it difficult to apply criteria across analgesia.
a species (Baumans et al., 1994).
a. Examination of the impact of pain on normal behavior
1. The Importance of Observer Training in Species- and
The intensity or impact of pain or illness may be directly
Procedure-Specific Methods of Assessment
related to changes in “normal” 24-hour activity levels (Negus
On some level, human observers naturally apply some blend et al., 2006). Activities such as feeding and food-rewarded
of the paradigms discussed below to animals, saying for exam- behaviors, exploration, wheel running, nest building, social
ple, the animal is eating/walking normally or not, is or is not interaction, and sleep may be negatively influenced by the pres-
writhing/vocalizing/sleeping, etc., indicating that if the pain ence of pain (Crawley, 1999). Observations of activity must
were significant, the normal or pain-specific behaviors would be tempered by an understanding of factors such as species-
not be seen. Sensitive, motivated, caring individuals may fail to specific behavior, pain chronicity, periodicity, drug treatment,
recognize pain in animals nonetheless. It is difficult to appreci- and willingness to demonstrate altered behaviors in the presence
ate changes in animal behavior, and the ability to do so depends of an observer. A normal or abnormal behavior must occur with
heavily on familiarity with the species and the conditions under enough frequency that it can be seen during a relatively short
which observations occur (i.e., the amount of time spent observ- observation period (Hansen, 2005). Lack of normal behavior
ing and the time of the day). Therefore, if a system is used that patterns might, however, be inferred by looking at the results of
leaves too much to the observer’s personal notions of how pain such behaviors (fur or feather condition, nail wear, quality of
208 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

nests built in mice, chewing of wooden objects in rats, or fail- mammalian species, and ruffled feathers are indicators of poor
ure to consume favored food treats). Such “indirect” or “proxy” well-being in birds (Dobromylskyj et al., 2000). Lack of preen-
evidence of normal behavior can potentially be exploited to a ing and dust bathing were observed in chronically lame turkeys
greater extent for species that are difficult to observe. Not all (Duncan et al., 1991). Thus, altered appearance may identify
animals will be able to exhibit “normal” behavioral repertoire, undertreated individuals, or those approaching a state where
and this should be recognized. Some experimental constraints alleviation of pain or distress is not possible. While grooming is
may put animals in enclosures or housing where they have no a general feature of normal behavior, in certain cases excessive
access to bedding, toys, or other animals, and critically ill or grooming may be associated with pain (see below).
chronically debilitated animals may not be able to walk or react Social behavior is another aspect of behavior that can be used
as healthier animals do, and so development of other methods to assess well-being. Interaction with cage or pen mates is com-
of assessment is essential (Hansen, 2003). monly decreased in pain and illness. Social isolation and lack
Feeding behavior and body weight loss/gain (a surrogate mea- of play and sexual activity may be evident (Baumans et al.,
sure of oral intake) have been used in multiple rat models of 1994; Hay et al., 2003). In a study of owner-reported pain in
postoperative pain assessment (Cooper et al., 2005; Flecknell dogs, decreases in curiosity, sociability, marking, and playful-
et al., 1999; Harkin et al., 2003; Hayes and Flecknell, 1999; ness corresponded with chronic pain conditions (Wiseman-Orr
Jablonski et al., 2001; Krugner-Higby et al., 2003; Martin et al., et al., 2001, 2006). Mental dullness may be seen, and response to
2005; Page et al., 2001; Shavit et al., 2005; Stewart and Martin, handling or approach of an observer is often altered; in cases of
2003). Less commonly reported, studies of pain in mice also severe pain, some animals appear unable to respond or unaware
often indicate reductions in spontaneous activity, body weight, of the presence of a human. Conversely, dogs who were observed
and oral intake (Dorsch et al., 2004; Goecke et al., 2005; Hayes to be dull and depressed responded to the entry of a human by
et al., 2000; Karas et al., 2001; vanLoo et al., 1997). Studies tail wags and greeting (which was, however, subtly diminished
have demonstrated that rabbits consumed significantly less pel- from normal quality) (Hansen, 2003). This phenomenon may
leted food and treats immediately after telemeter implantation erroneously lead to the conclusion that such animals are not
surgery (Karas et al., 2007), and there are reports that reduc- in significant pain when, in fact, additional analgesia reverses
tions in food intake in rabbits and rodents can be evident from their dullness when alone and improves vigor of greeting and
body weight measurement even when animals are fed ad lib interactions with humans. Wiseman-Orr et al. (2001) also found
(Dobromylskyj et al., 2000). Reports of studies of acute proce- that dogs with chronic pain were reported to have increases in
dural pain in livestock species (cattle, sheep, and pigs) do not aggression and compulsive behavior.
routinely include feed consumption data. In one study of tail Locomotion or distance traveled is also frequently decreased
docking pain in calves and heifers, Schreiner and Ruegg (2002) in painful states. Duncan et al. (1991) found that among turkeys
found little effect of pain on feeding, but in a thoracotomy model with osteoarthritis, analgesic-treated birds took more steps and
in pigs, food intake was suppressed postoperatively (Harvey- spent significantly more time standing than untreated birds.
Clark et al., 2000). Certainly, chronic pain is generally thought Rabbits remotely observed in pen-exercise periods after laparo-
to affect weight gain or productivity in livestock. Differences in tomy traveled significantly less distance than prior to surgery
food intake in the context of acute pain depend on the magni- (Karas et al., 2007). Using video-recorded behavior, Hansen
tude of the pain, but also on the body part affected. Inability to (2003) found that total distance traveled and average speed were
access food (e.g., in an overhead hopper because of abdominal decreased after laparotomy in dogs housed in runs. Decreases
muscle or spinal pain) or to prehend food (e.g., oral/gastric pain in activity level are also commonly noted in rodent models
and masticatory impairment) will almost certainly lead to lower of acute pain (Liles and Flecknell, 1994). Increases in cer-
body weight gain. However, an animal showing inappetance in tain activities may, on the other hand, occur in response to
a situation where physical impairment should not reduce food pain. Restlessness is frequently observed in food animals after
consumption (e.g., food placed nearby on cage floor in a stifle routine surgical procedures. Two hours after tail banding for
surgery model), for example, may be experiencing such signif- docking, calves reportedly spent less time lying down, and
icant pain that it will not eat, or may have some other serious stood and walked more. This was in contrast to behavior seen
problem (sepsis, ileus, and renal failure). In some cases, using in older cows, who did not exhibit marked changes in behav-
body weight as an indicator is not feasible (large pigs and pri- ior (Eicher and Dailey, 2002). Thus, although immobility and
mates), and consumption of food or treats is a better option. increases in “sleep” behavior are general signs of illness or pain
In any case, body weight alterations should be considered non- in animals and are very likely to be seen in the case of severe
specific indicators of pain, and only used in conjunction with a pain, increased locomotory movement should not be taken as
comprehensive assessment program. a sign of lack of pain in every situation (Baumans et al., 1994;
Grooming activity is another often cited nonspecific indica- Hayes et al., 2000; Morton and Griffiths, 1985; Wiseman-Orr
tor of well-being, and decreased grooming or preening leads to et al., 2001).
abnormal fur or feather maintenance. Piloerection and soiled Generally, willingness to engage in normal postures or activi-
coat are indicators of generalized illness in rodents and other ties can be used as indicators of comfort. For example, members
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 209

of some species engage in a vigorous “whole body shake” or against the floor (Gonzalez et al., 2000). Roughan and Flecknell
stretch upon rising from sleep or rest. In the authors’experience, (2001, 2003) analyzed rat behaviors after laparotomy and three
an injured dog or horse will terminate the shake at the level of behaviors specific to pain could be observed in the imme-
the injury (i.e., stop at diaphragm if abdominal pain is present) diate postoperative period: twitching of the back and flank,
or fail to shake at all (head/neck or severe debilitating pain), and stagger/fall, and back arching and abdominal writhing.
when this behavior is seen to be restored to normal, it indicates Spontaneous vocalization is often assumed to be a universal
comfort. Play behavior is a normal activity in young animals pain symptom; however, whether animals vocalize or not may be
(e.g., rabbits, lambs, piglets, and puppies), and its observation a species-specific and even an individual characteristic. Vocal-
could be used as a positive indicator of well-being. ization in dogs after surgery is less specifically indicative of pain
and more commonly a sign of anxiety; it is not a feature of pain
in cats unless pain is extreme (Gassel et al., 2005). Vocalization
b. Observations of the incidence of spontaneous episodes
in ruminants is uncommonly reported as occurring as a result
of pain-specific behaviors, such as writhing, licking,
of acute pain, but is a well-known behavior when an animal is
paw shaking, and limping
separated from the flock. Lay et al. (1992) compared responses
Hansen (2003) characterized new onset behaviors in painful to freeze versus heat branding (versus sham) in dairy cattle, and
animals as occurring for a variety of reasons, that is, as pro- found that peak heart rate, cortisol levels, and aversive behav-
tection against exacerbation of pain (guarding or escape), as ior were all higher in branded animals compared to sham. Taken
expressions of pain that are designed to distract or call atten- together, these results are interpreted as indicating that the expe-
tion, as learned responses, or as a result of physical impairment. rience was painful; however, the animals did not vocalize. The
Although it is possible that an animal might limp because of vocalization may be undetectable, either as distinguished from
nonpainful limb dysfunction, administration of an effective background calls and cries (pigs and goats), or because calls may
analgesic would be expected to help distinguish the cause by be outside the range of human hearing. Weary et al. (1998) used a
improving the lameness in the case of pain. sophisticated method of analyzing call frequency in piglets, and
Grooming and other behaviors directed at the painful body concluded that in castrated animals, the rate of high-frequency
part, such as looking, biting or chewing, kicking, rubbing, and calls was higher than in sham-restrained piglets, but this differ-
paw or head shaking, may be observed as new onset indicators ence would have been undetectable to human ears. In addition,
of pain (Kent et al., 1998; Mellor et al., 1991). Paw shaking these investigators found that hearing calls of other piglets being
and licking are two common measures used in analgesiomet- castrated increased the call frequency of piglets subsequently
ric studies of rodents. In rat models of visceral (bladder) pain, castrated, and they concluded that distress may have increased
increases in both facial grooming and perineal licking were used the noxiousness of the experience. Most rat vocalizations are
as indicators of pain (Abelli et al., 1989; Ness, 1999). Roughan outside the range of human acoustic detection, and therefore if
et al. (2004) found that rats with experimentally induced bladder calls do occur in response to pain, they will not be heard during
tumors groomed the ventral abdomen after handling for dosing normal observation methods.
and examination, and that this activity was not seen in subjects
treated with analgesics. Excessive grooming, including auto-
c. Evoked behavioral responses
tomy of affected body parts, can be a feature of neuropathic
pain conditions. Birds and mammals may excessively groom a Pain in relation to movement can also be used as a clinical
painful body part in both acute and chronic pain states. However, indicator of pain. In human clinical studies, pain scores are often
such behaviors may occur too infrequently to be observed or found to be similar in treatment versus control groups when pain
not at all in the presence of humans, especially in nocturnal ani- is assessed at rest, but when dynamic pain is studied (subjects
mals. Molony and Kent (1997) described “active” behaviors of might be asked to do a task such as sit up or cough) differ-
lambs after castration or tail docking such as kicking, stamping, ences between groups in mean pain score become evident. This
rolling, jumping, tail wagging, licking, or biting at the site. indicates that inactivity is protective of pain, and that normal
Abnormal postures frequently occur in painful animals, and postures may not be able to be sustained in more painful subjects.
may include writhing, hunching, inability to lie down, inabil- For this reason, most currently accepted veterinary pain scoring
ity to roll into sternal recumbency, stiffness, walking on toes, systems include an interactive component of assessment, for
and inability to hold tail up (Muir and Gaynor, 2002). Such example, the animal is asked to walk or a wound is palpated.
postures depend on the affected body part. Abdominal and tho- This practice mimics the technique of asking humans to bend
racic surgery often causes an increase in tone of the abdominal or cough, and is thought to be of significant value in detect-
muscles (“splinting”) and breath-holding or shallow respira- ing moderate-to-severe pain in animals whose behavior may
tion. Pain of abdominal visceral organs may be accompanied appear normal at rest. Pain of the abdomen, spine, and thoracic
by writhing. In rats, acute pain after ovariohysterectomy was wall regions may cause unwillingness to bend laterally; thus,
accompanied by a hump-backed position, contraction of abdom- quadrupeds will be seen to take additional steps when turning.
inal muscles, stretching, and squashing the lower abdomen The degree of lameness exhibited is a dynamic (and arguably
210 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

evoked) behavior that is used to assess orthopedic pain. Several effects of morphine. In almost every well-controlled study of
rodent models have been published using gait evaluation scores pain, the measure of effect distinguishes between animals that
for assessment of the degree of bone cancer pain (El Mouedden are effectively treated and those that are not. When no differ-
and Meert, 2007). ence is seen between groups, it may be reasonable to conclude
Because not all laboratory animals are amenable to being that the analgesic was not effective (and this may be due to use
led or to having their wounds palpated, dedicated observers can of an incorrect dose or type of drug), but it is also possible that
devise novel methods to assess pain evoked by activity. Changes behavioral side effects masked the actual improvement in com-
in operant responding frequency have been used to investigate fort that the animal experienced, or it might be that the severity
analgesic drug efficacy and are built on the premise that pain of the untreated pain was not sufficient to distinguish between
decreases how much the animal will work to gain access to food treatments. Liles and Flecknell (1994) found that rats treated
(Martin et al., 2005). Although animals are typically fasted in with either carprofen or buprenorphine had greater intakes of
order to increase their willingness to work for food reward, this food and water than saline treated. Mice treated with buprenor-
approach could be adapted for monitoring ability to stand and phine at various doses (0.05–0.2 mg/kg) prior to laparotomy are
stretch, for example, by placing valued food treats above the more active after surgery and their posture is altered, whereas
animal (in a hopper) or so that a door or gate has to be pushed untreated mice fail to move at all after surgery (Karas, unpub-
to gain access. For support of debilitated animals, food, and lished data). In a controlled study of bone cancer pain in mice,
sometimes high-moisture or enhanced nutritional content mat- performance on a rotarod was improved by administration of
ter, is placed in an easily accessed location (i.e., cage floor) so morphine, fentanyl, or tramadol, and no evidence of sedation
that an animal has to expend less effort to reach it. It would was seen at the tested doses; in fact, some hyperactivity was
not be acceptable to withhold food altogether from recovering noted (El Mouedden and Meert, 2007). In addition, experimen-
or sick animals so that they would have to work to earn food tal analgesia studies in rodents found that doses of opioids that
as a reward. Roughan et al. (2004) reasoned that regular han- controlled inflammatory pain (from Freunds adjuvant injection)
dling for exam or treatment in rats with advanced cancer may were insufficient when used to treat advanced bone tumor pain.
have intensified licking behavior as a sign of pain in untreated When greatly increased doses were used in the animals with
versus analgesic-treated animals in the period after handling. bone tumors, reduction in lameness and dysfunction occurred
However, in that chronic pain model, they did not observe the without sedation (Luger et al., 2002). Thus, the observer’s pre-
behaviors (e.g., writhing and back arching) typically seen after conceived opinions about sedative or other effects of analgesics
surgery to the same body part (bladder). This highlights the fact may need to be tempered by the realization that side effects may
that assumptions about pain-related behavior may not cross over be a necessary component of effective pain relief, but also that
from one type of pain to another (e.g., acute surgical pain symp- when pain is severe, side effects may be less prevalent. Also
toms may not be identical to those seen in cancer), just as they the tendency to anthropomorphize the common human con-
may not cross between species. In other words, any new onset cerns about alertness that stem from not being able to read or
behaviors that are expressed may depend on the severity and drive should be avoided; weighing the consequences of seda-
type of pain (e.g., visceral versus somatic, chronic versus acute, tion against those of unrelieved pain should take into account
and neuropathic versus inflammatory), as well as species. the experience of the fear and stress and the value of comfort to
the animal.
d. Behavioral changes in response to analgesic
administration 3. Pain Scoring Systems
Observing return of normal behavior, or cessation of abnor- Use of behavior as a method of assessment of pain requires
mal behavior in response to analgesic administration (or over a structured, reliable, valid, and recorded system of evalua-
time if spontaneous recovery occurs), is a convincing gauge tion. If a well-constructed and well-applied system is to be
that pain was indeed present when it is observed. However, some used, it can serve as a training method for new observers, to
analgesics will confound such observations, as many drugs used help guide treatment for individual animals, and as a basis
for treatment of acute and chronic pain may have behavioral for prediction of pain in future studies. The veterinarian can
effects. Activity level may be suppressed in the early postanes- use the results of monitoring from previous work to advise the
thetic recovery period, especially if longer-lasting preanesthetic IACUC on protocols submitted for approval. The first such sys-
and anesthetic injectable drugs are used. Opioids may cause tem specifically designed for use with laboratory animals was
increased activity in certain species or strains of animals (e.g., proposed by Morton and Griffiths (1985). These authors sug-
mice, rats, and horses) and sedation in others (e.g., dogs). The gested assessing five variables in each animal: body weight,
effect of opioids on behavior may depend on the dose or the appearance, clinical signs, unprovoked behavior, and responses
severity of pain; in other words, locomotion may be more evi- to stimulation. Based on specified deviations from normal, each
dent in a dog treated with morphine (because it does not hurt variable is assigned a score of 0 (normal) to 3 (severely abnor-
to move) than in a dog in significant pain despite the sedative mal). Many such systems have been modeled on that seminal
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 211

report. However, the construction of pain rating systems that use numerical values assigned to descriptions that categorize
are truly valid for nonverbal beings is complex and still not different levels of pain intensity (such as mild pain, moderate
completely understood, and a pain rating system that does not pain, and severe pain). Once verbal descriptions of behavior
do what it is supposed to do is likely to be worthless—a waste become part of pain scales, then care must be taken to ensure
of time and money for the scientists and unhelpful to the ani- that all potential users of the scale assign equal meaning and
mals themselves. The practical application of scoring systems importance to the words or terms in the description. Arbitrary
presents several problems, not the least of which is the time and word meanings can increase the subjectivity of the measure-
effort that would be required to evaluate a rack full or roomful ment (Hansen, 2003; Holton et al., 2001). This is particularly
of group-housed animals. problematic with observers using scales not constructed in their
A complete review of the features and problems of effective own primary language. With both VAS and NRS, the observer’s
pain rating systems is beyond the scope of this chapter, but skill of evaluation is crucial to accurate assessment. Although
numerous articles on the subject are available (Cambridge et al., an observation is recorded rapidly, VAS, NRS, and SDS are
2000; Hølen et al., 2006; Holton et al., 1998, 2001; Hudson considered to have poor reliability when multiple, less skilled
et al., 2004; Morton et al., 2005; Wiseman-Orr et al., 2006). observers are using them; advantages and disadvantages are
Pain rating tools or scales should be designed with at least three commonly discussed (Holton et al., 2001; Morton et al., 2005).
requirements: (1) interobserver variability and observer bias Many observers will never have seen an animal experiencing
is minimized; (2) they can distinguish varying levels of pain the “worst possible pain,” and so the VAS scale is subject to
intensity in a particular species and situation; and (3) the degree bias. In addition, the values that are generated from these scales
of “importance” of pain to the subject is detected. are nonnumerical; thus, it cannot necessarily be assumed that
Several terms that refer to qualities of a pain-rating tool a subject whose pain was rated at 8 was twice a painful as one
include the following: validity (the ability of the scale to effec- whose pain was rated at 4.
tively measure what it is supposed to measure), responsiveness A major limitation of analgesiometric testing is that it does
(whether the tool can detect a change in pain, particularly one not measure the importance of pain to the animal. A pain scale
that is meaningful to the subject), and reliability (whether two that would take into account the various dimensions of pain
observers will give similar ratings using the tool). Pain scales would be theoretically more useful in indicating how much the
would ideally be developed to correlate with a “gold standard” pain “meant” to the animal, but VAS, NRS, and SDS scales are
of measurement of pain, but since the gold standard in verbal said to be unidimensional. An alternative type of scale is the
humans is self-report, and animals cannot self-report, this is composite measurement scale (CMS), constructed such that it
less likely to be possible (Wiseman-Orr et al., 2006). Relatively takes into account such dimensions as the temporal patterns,
few pain scales have been validated in veterinary medicine, but location, interference with basic function, or enjoyment of life.
a number of different ones have been reported, particularly for These have been widely developed for human patients. There is
dogs, and countless more are undoubtedly in use (Conzemius a paucity of validated CMS pain scales in veterinary medicine,
et al., 1997; Firth and Haldane, 1999; Holton et al., 1998, 2001; but this does not mean that scales should not be crafted, using
Morton et al., 2005). A pain scale should also ideally be mul- a basic but essential understanding of pain rating tools and ani-
tidimensional, in that several aspects of the pain intensity or mal behavior, and combining those with actual “in the trenches”
pain-related disability are rated. Pain is felt to have multiple experience with observations. Such scales would ideally “ask”
dimensions, and in human chronic pain rating tools, subjects the subject to evaluate how much their pain meant by observing
may be asked a number of different questions about their pain— their willingness to do context-specific things, for example, to
to rate the intensity, to describe how much it interferes with play (kitten or puppy), to build a nest or run in a wheel (rodent),
work or with family relationships, and to indicate how unpleas- to stretch or climb to reach a treat. In theory, the CMS approach
ant the pain is. The importance, or degree of unpleasantness, of of looking at several indicators of well-being (e.g., posture,
pain or of any symptom may be related to the impact on sur- body weight or food intake, motor impairment, evoked pain
vival that a given symptom has. McMillan (2003) argues that as responses, and social interaction) might also hedge against the
the unpleasantness of a sensation (not restricted to pain alone) problem of a single measure being confounded by unexpected
increases, there is an increase in the need for the animal to focus factors. The most difficult aspect of new untested scoring sys-
on that sensation, and that it is not the intensity per se but the tems is the determination of the point at which an intervention
unpleasantness that may cause distress. would be made, for example, when the veterinarian would be
Several types of pain scales are used. Visual analog scales alerted, additional analgesics administered, or the animal eutha-
(VAS) involve a line with no markings and a 0 (no pain) and a nized. This most probably would have to be done in consultation
100 (worst pain imaginable) at either end. Raters (in nonverbal with a veterinarian, who would independently determine when
beings always an observer) are asked to place a mark at the point to intervene (without knowing the score). Humane endpoint
where they feel the pain is. Numeric rating scales (NRS) involve criteria may have to be developed by watching a number of ani-
a number line with discrete numerical markings (as in 1–10), mals for clinical signs and waiting to see which signs predict
which are chosen as a score. Simple descriptive scales (SDS) death.
212 ALICIA Z. KARAS ET AL.

C. Other Indicators of Pain one body part can decrease pain thresholds elsewhere, then pro-
vision of support such as softer bedding might help animals with
Experimental methods for the quantification of pain include abdominal or orthopedic pain. Approaches to experimental pain
analgesiometry, measurement of physiologic parameters such testing in mice are discussed in more detail in the Chapter 23.
as hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis activation, and
alterations in physiologic parameters such as heart rate or blood
2. Physiologic Parameters and Pain
pressure. In basic pain research, the outcome measure (e.g.,
serum cortisol and avoidance behavior or heart rate) is sam- All stressful stimuli can be associated with changes in auto-
pled after a painful or nonpainful sensory stimulus is given nomic nervous system activity and respiration. Increases in
by the investigator (Smith et al., 1996). The same outcome heart and respiratory rates and blood pressure often accompany
measures may also be sampled in an animal experiencing a acute and chronic pain states but measurement of such param-
more complex pain state, such as postsurgery. More recently, eters usually involves contact with the animal, and the contact
highly technically sophisticated methods have emerged, includ- itself may be a stressor that confounds interpretation. Holton
ing measurement of messenger RNA (mRNA) production and et al. (1998) prospectively examined heart and respiratory rates
other molecular changes that occur at a cellular level, and imag- and pupil dilation in dogs concomitantly scored by veterinar-
ing [functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and positron ians for pain and, although a small correlation between heart
emission tomography (PET) scan] during pain transmission, rate and pain score was seen, respiratory rate did not vary in
transduction, and perception (Negus et al., 2006; Pace et al., a predictable way with pain score. The authors concluded that
2006). A brief discussion of analgesiometric or biochemical none of the physiologic parameters they studied would be useful
pain measurement methods is included here, because a diligent indicators of pain in dogs. In a recently published retrospective
search of the basic and applied pain literature may offer some of human patients with painful injuries in an emergency room
clues, not for clinical assessment purposes, but to effective setting, no correlation between patient’s self-reported level of
dose ranges for analgesics. For the most part, these experi- pain and heart rate, arterial blood pressure, or respiratory rate
mental techniques are not suitable for monitoring of acute and were found. Heart rate variability (HRV) is often used as a mea-
chronic pain of animals on study. This is because despite the surement of pain or stress, particularly in human infant models
reputed advantages of being more objective, those techniques of pain (Gang and Malik, 2002; Oberlander and Saul, 2002;
require control groups, specialized technology, histopatholog- Storella et al., 1999). Believed to be an indicator of the pre-
ical sampling (often postmortem), and time to analyze data dominance of vagal over sympathetic tone, HRV decreases in
for interpretation. For assessing the animal’s state in time to situations of stress and pain and cardiovascular and other dis-
provide additional analgesia, the emphasis continues to be on ease; normal fluctuations in balance of parasympathetic and
observation of its behavior. autonomic tone become “pinned” toward predominantly sym-
pathetic. In a study of horses with laminitis, Rietmann et al.
(2004) found that HRV may be a useful indicator of pain and
1. Analgesiometry
its alleviation, but emphasizes the need for concurrent behavior
Generally, for the study of pain, a stimulus of a given mag- observations and a controlled environment. Heart rate, respira-
nitude is applied (heat, pressure, touch, current, and irritant tion, and HRV can be influenced by multiple factors, including
substance), either in a normal uninjured subject or in an injured temperature, oxygenation, and blood pressure, and as such may
state (such as chronic constriction of a nerve trunk or after be a potentially useful tools for study of pain and for assessing
surgery), and the subject’s response (verbal rating if human adequacy of general anesthesia, but not for cageside assessment
subject, movement away from or other behaviors indicative of in the awake animal. The actual direction in which physiologic
escape, or reaction to pain) is measured. This “quantitative sen- parameters vary in response to pain is not absolute, because
sory testing” approach to assessing the magnitude of pain is bradycardia and breath holding can occur in response to sudden
often thought of a “gold standard” because of its controlled stimulation, particularly in certain species. Additionally, heart
nature. rate and blood pressure changes may be influenced by the pres-
An inherent feature of analgesiometric testing is that pain in ence of anesthetic and analgesic drugs. Thus, in view of the
an injured region, and in surrounding regions, can be inferred challenges of collecting physiologic data without influencing
when a mechanical or thermal stimulus is applied and the ani- it, and its nonspecificity, many pain specialists have resorted to
mal reacts. The stimulus can be innocuous, as in a light filament pain scoring systems that use behavioral elements only (Holton
or brushing with a cotton swab, or above the baseline nocicep- et al., 1998).
tive threshold. A basic understanding of this type of pain testing
and its underlying physiology is helpful as it forms the basis for
3. Quantitative Biochemical Evaluation of Pain
using observations of evoked behavior to clinically assess pain.
Also strategies to minimize pain can take into account the gen- Searching for objective measures of pain in humans and ani-
eralized decrease in pain thresholds that may occur—if injury to mals led researchers to consider elements of the HPA axis as
8. STRATEGIES FOR ASSESSING AND MINIMIZING PAIN 213

potential candidates. Indeed, much work on acute and chronic short training latencies and are introduced only after appropriate
pain assessment in animals is based on measurement of HPA studies to validate their meaning.
axis hormones (Smith et al., 1999). When experiments are care-
fully controlled, serum or urinary cortisol or corticosterone, or
ACTH levels, may assist with discrimination between the effects V. Summary
of different surgical techniques or analgesic methods. However,
HPA axis hormones are nonspecific indicators of stress, of which
pain is only one type, and levels rise rapidly when animals are Persons involved in scientific research and research support
handled such that sampling itself can lead to an increase in have both ethical and regulatory obligations to minimize pain in
cortisol. In addition, measurement of serum markers requires animal subjects. Beyond these obligations, minimizing pain is
sample handling and assay time. Thus, HPA axis hormone pro- good science. Animals in pain are likely to experience a variety
duction, though perhaps a valuable adjunct to studies of pain of physiological and behavioral perturbations that can alter or
and stress intervention, would not be considered useful in the confound scientific data. The most effective strategy for mini-
day-to-day clinical assessment of pain in animals. Similarly, mizing pain is to prevent its occurrence in the first place. This
new gene expressions (c-fos) in spinal cord and brain have been requires knowledge of what types of procedures are likely to
used as markers of pain—but also rise in response to stress—and cause pain and the type and severity of pain that is likely to
require tissue sampling as well as time to assay. result. Planning procedures to limit stress and minimize tissue
To summarize, despite the fact that these so-called objec- injury can do much to reduce the occurrence and impact of pain
tive methods of pain assessment can give precise information in the postprocedural period. Analgesic drugs have an impor-
regarding stimulus intensity and dose–response relationships, tant place in the overall strategy, and the effectiveness of these
in day-to-day animal care, neither analgesiometry, nor HPA drugs can be greatly increased using newer approaches such as
axis hormone production, nor physiologic parameters appear preemptive analgesia and multimodal analgesia. Careful pre-
to be easily evaluated, time responsive, or specific indicators planning, while of great importance, does not reduce the need
of pain. for postprocedural monitoring. Ongoing efforts must be made
to assure that the animal is not in excessive pain and to recog-
nize the need for additional analgesic interventions. Behavioral
D. Novel Methods of Monitoring Pain monitoring by trained, experienced observers who are familiar
with the procedure performed and the species in question is the
To enhance the ability to detect pain in a timely manner, surro- backbone of postprocedural monitoring. The frequency of mon-
gate or remote monitoring methods may be implemented. Such itoring is important and must be tailored to the situation and the
methods are especially useful in cases where circumstances pro- response of the individual animal. Use of a pain scoring sys-
hibit easy monitoring (biosafety, overnight when care staff are tem may help to assure a consistent approach to postprocedural
not available), or where animals may not display normal behav- monitoring, but it is important to recognize both the advan-
iors in the presence of humans. Remote video monitoring can be tages and limitations of these systems. Some of the more novel
achieved even in dark animal rooms by use of standard surveil- approaches to pain monitoring include remote video monitor-
lance equipment (using video cameras that have the ability to ing, telemetry, and assessment of the animal’s ability to perform
film in 0 lux conditions or with the aid of infrared light sources), specific behaviors on cue.
and video can be sent over secure internet, wirelessly, or via
hard wiring. Telemetry systems may be useful gauges of activity.
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Underwood, W.J. (2002). Pain and distress in agricultural animals. J. Am. Vet. (M.L. Podolsky and V.S. Lukas, eds.), Chap. 9, pp 115–134. CRC Press
Med. Assoc. 221(2), 208–211. LLC, Boca Raton, FL.
van Dijk, M., Koot, H.M., Saad, H., Huijer, A., Tibboel, D., and Passchier, J. Yeager, M.P., Glass, D.D., Neff, R.K., and Brinck-Johnsen, T. (1987). Epidu-
(2002) Observational visual analog scale in pediatric pain assessment: ral anesthesia and analgesia in high-risk surgical patients. Anesthesiology
Useful tool or good riddance? Clin. J. Pain 18, 310–316. 66, 729–736.
 Chapter 9

Postprocedural Care of Commonly Utilized

Research Animal Subjects
Victoria A. Hampshire and Judith A. Davis

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
II. Recruitment and Organization of Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
A. Rats and Mice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
B. Large-Animal Postprocedural Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
C. Cabinets and Ancillary Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
III. Staffing and Personnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
IV. Oversight, Planning, and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
A. Assessing the Model; Determining the Interventions and Endpoints . . 224
B. Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
C. Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
V. Monitoring and Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
A. Personnel and Shifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
B. Acclimation and Baseline Assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
C. Trending Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
VI. Record Keeping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
A. Rats and Mice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
B. Large Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
VII. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

I. INTRODUCTION
of care (Commission on Life Sciences, 1996a). Modern con-
siderations for what might be termed usual and customary
Procedural aftermaths in biomedical research settings can postprocedural care for rats and mice still differ considerably
compromise the outcomes of a wide variety of invasive and from the customs and traditions associated with the veterinary
noninvasive protocol designs, each with varying levels of pain care that has been the standard for small ungulates, carnivores,
and/or distress and each requiring multiple levels of care in and primates, which comprise the second largest body of animal
order to meet or exceed what is a generally acceptable standard research subjects globally. The authors recognize that programs

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

219
220 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

operating under USDA regulations are not required to prioritize function. Electronic equipment, the building HVAC system, and
rodent postprocedural care at the same level as programs receiv- opening and closing doors are examples of nonauditory acous-
ing federal funding for large animals. However, since rodents tical noise that may confound postprocedural assessment of the
comprise the mainstay of biomedical research programs in the animal.
world, many programs that seek accreditation aspire to meet In a similar manner, the light spectrum perceived by rats and
performance standards emphasized within the scope of current mice compared to man are dissimilar. Rats and mice, unlike
standards of practice (Commission on Life Sciences, 1996a; man, possess ultraviolet photoreception. Studies have demon-
PHS Policy, 2002; ACLAM, 2007). Thus, most of the discussion strated that UV wavelength can influence neuroendocrine and
in this chapter will focus on refining postprocedural care in rats behavioral responses (Brainard et al., 1994). The spectral sensi-
and mice. tivity of the rat and mouse retina, composed primarily of rods,
Postprocedural care begins during the planning stage of an suggests that they are unable to see in the red light wavelength.
animal study proposal. This is important in establishing that the However, Hofstetter unexpectedly discovered that a dim red
institution is adequately staffed and stocked to provide timely light-emitting (1 lux at 652 nM) diode (LED), which was acti-
and appropriate intervention. This chapter describes the mod- vated with activity, increased the circadian pattern of common
ern methodology that enables biomedical research programs strains of mice used in biomedical research (Hofstetter et al.,
to attain a high level of animal care and research support for 2005). Fluorescent lights from monitors, computer screens,
commonly used research animals. etc. are frequently found in intensive care units (ICUs) and
can unintentionally affect an animal both physiologically and
behaviorally. A system must be developed to ensure that the
lights in the recovery area, if not in an animal holding room,
II. RECRUITMENT AND ORGANIZATION OF
go on and off at the normal times of a day typical for the
SPACE
vivarium.
Thus, creating a centralized rodent support area is the most
For early postprocedural animal patients, provisions for efficient approach to providing this environment for the first
appropriate monitoring equipment, space, and personnel are 24–72 hours postoperatively or at least until the attending vet-
more easily accomplished in a centralized location. Cages erinarian has determined that normal vital signs and/or clinical
should be located so that the animals are easily monitored and endpoints are established. This is especially important if the
changed at frequent periods. Records, which may require fre- procedure requires entering a major body cavity, is prolonged
quent entries, are best located close to the patient so that all (>1 hour), or causes major disability. If space is not available
personnel charged with the provision of care and research sup- for creation of a central support area, well-stocked mobile carts
port have a central repository of information at their fingertips. are handy tools for visiting animal holding rooms to monitor
This section provides species-specific tips for rodents as well animals. This is especially useful in minimizing inefficiencies
as emphasizes important provisions that are considered routine associated with travel back and forth to procedure rooms for
and ordinary in large-animal care settings. necessary supplies. Mobile treatment carts should be stocked
with the necessary supplies for basic veterinary nursing care
(thermometers, fluids, supplemental forms of nutrition, hard
A. Rats and Mice or soft records such as palm pilots, laptops, or index cards)
(Hampshire and Davis, 2000a).
The postprocedural area should be warm and quiet with lim- Public Health Service Policy espouses the use of methods to
ited pedestrian traffic. Lighting should reflect the day/night light control pain and distress when procedures are expected to cause
cycle that is appropriate for the species (Commission on Life more than momentary discomfort (Commission on Life Sci-
Sciences, 1996b). ences, 1996a). Occasionally, the postprocedural period requires
The acoustic environment rarely receives attention other than clinical intervention and may cause discomfort. For this, a
trying to separate noisy areas (cage wash, barking dogs, etc.) small mobile anesthesia unit is useful. Additionally, if frequent
from quieter areas (surgery, rodent animal holding rooms, pro- blood sampling is required, the rapid induction and recovery of
cedure rooms). However, because rodents hear high-frequency animals with a general anesthetic may be preferable to hand
sounds that are undetected by humans, the acoustic environment restraint in order to minimize sampling trauma. A tabletop
presents a potentially confounding impact on the physiology of isoflurane unit with a self-scavenging device, tubing, charcoal
the animal. The impact is influenced not only by species but also canisters, and an induction chamber can also be installed on the
by strain, extent of exposure, and characteristics of the auditory mobile cart. Finally, a support area should be well stocked with
stimulus (intensity, familiarity, duration; Turner et al., 2005). sterile, small surgery packs and/or cold sterilant for nonster-
Multiple physiological systems have been affected by nonau- ile instruments. The area should have a sink for cleaning dirty
ditory acoustic signals including disturbances in the circadian instruments and ideally a small ultrasonic instrument cleaner
rhythm sleep cycle and changes in endocrine and cardiovascular and a tabletop autoclave.
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 221

1. Primary Enclosures: Rats and Mice

a. Single versus group housing
It is preferable to isolate individual rodents during the imme-
diate postprocedural period in order to improve individual
observations, enhance the quality of clinical assessments, and
more easily provide individual intervention and treatment. Indi-
vidual housing will also minimize chewing by conspecifics on
sutures and staples and the incidence of injury due to disori-
entation in the immediate postprocedural course. If this is not
possible, limiting the number of animals per cage should be
considered.

b. Bedding
In the postprocedural period of rodents, bedding will often
adhere to the incision line, which delays wound healing. Fre-
Fig. 9-1 An example of a cage suited for a postoperative rat. Absorbent
quently during the first 72 hours of postoperative care, when
bedding provides clean visible surfaces for assessing bowel and bladder activity
animals are receiving fluid therapy, the cage bedding can also while a cardboard tube provides opportunity for hiding and burrowing. Food
be urine-soaked. Standard rodent bedding may mask seepage treats can also be kept clean and inspected for patient appetite. Note that the
from the incision line which, when crusted with serosanguinous cages are placed on a warm water circulating blanket; fluids with analgesic are
fluid, can hamper mobility. Thus, another stocking item to also kept warm by placing on the warm water circulating blanket. The green
postoperative monitoring card is clearly visible.
consider is appropriate change-out cages with bedding or Iso-
PAD™ (Omni BioResources, Inc., Cherry Hill, NJ) and water
bottles. Iso-PADs absorb fluids and allow visual inspection for
watering devices and animal studies involving the insertion of
evidence of urine, blood, and wound seepage. They absorb
head implants. For the former, special arrangements may be
moisture better and caregivers can easily assess the quality and
needed for water bottles, gel packs, or other water sources until
quantity of the waste material. The pads also provide sufficient
the animals are returned to their home rack. For animals with
traction to aid ambulatory efforts of weakened (muscular) or
head implants, animals in metabolic caging, or other customized
impaired (peripheral nerve injury) animals.
protocol-specific cage design, prior planning should address
specialized cage needs. The type of implant may also preclude
c. Cage accessories the use of nesting material or paper tubes in the cages, thereby
requiring more imaginative environmental enrichment.
Various authors have described the benefits of cage enrich-
ment for rodents Gonder and Laber, 2007; Moons et al., 2004;
Smith and Corrow, 2005; Van de Weerd et al., 1997). Recently B. Large-Animal Postprocedural Housing
others have described interspecies and interstrain differences in
the response to various enrichments that may effect experimen- A proper functioning large-animal postprocedural unit should
tal outcome (Tsai et al., 2002). This view was later countered be able to accommodate all of the species used in the facility,
(Wolfer et al., 2004). Olsson and colleagues performed a series including rabbits, small ungulates, and dogs, with considera-
of 40 studies over nearly 20 years and determined that mice tions for separation of species using visual, olfactory, auditory,
will work for an enriched cage (Olsson and Dahlborn, 2002). and/or climatic barriers. This can be achieved using temporary
Thus, for improving animal welfare immediately after procedu- or permanent walls, secondary enclosures, mobile dividers, or
ral stress, this is a topic that should be addressed by the animal as a last resort, curtains.
program. Most programs have requirements to house animal biosafety
Burrowing is a particularly important activity to try to sup- level 2 and/or 3 projects. Some may also require boundaries
plement when pads are preferable to thick paper or shaved wood for radioactively labeled animals. Since these needs compete
bedding. A large paper tube stuffed with shredded bedding still for available space for research needs, the selection of isolated
provides suitable opportunity for hiding and nesting (Fig. 9-1). rooms for individual species is sometimes not realistic; how-
In addition to the option for a cardboard tube, the authors also ever, the centralized intensive care area as discussed in this
use paper towels or cotton nestlets as a substrate for burrowing chapter will work nicely for most research projects and it may
(Hampshire and Davis, 2000a). be duplicated in smaller care areas for large animals and ABL2
Additional concerns regarding housing practices for the post- and ABL3 projects or particular projects where animal noise is
procedural period of rodent studies are the use of automatic expected.
222 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

Little has been written about the impact of noise on large-

animal welfare. Generally the potential impact of vocalization
by large-animal patients is a rationale for the separation of
species. Large animals are also known to require adequate
lighting and decreased sensory stimuli to obtain normal sleep
patterns (Lucas et al., 1977). A disruption in lighting and sleep
patterns in large-scale shelter operations was noted to cause
an increased frequency of dog bites, which was dramatically
reduced by establishing dark quiet periods of shelter inactivity
(Hampshire, 2005).
Generally speaking, when most large-animal species become
alert and noisy, they have likely surpassed the goal of the post-
procedural care unit and belong most appropriately to an interim
care area where observation and care is provided at a reduced
frequency. Ideally, this intermediate care area is an area of the
animal facility that is easily accessible and close to the veteri-
nary and technician offices, such as a room between the intensive
care area and laboratories, or the animal’s home cage that can
be easily visited with supplies on a mobile cart.
Polyvinyl-coated raised flooring has become the standard in
primary and secondary enclosures for large research animals. It
is recommended that these animals be kept in caging that permits Fig. 9-2 A swine cardiovascular model is instrumented with telemetry for
easy access to intravenous (IV) ports, ready spot cleaning, and purposes of monitoring heart rate and rhythm. Note that the carboy mounted
ergonomically thoughtful arrangement of animal versus floor. atop the temporary transport cage facilitates no-spill easy provision of potable
IV line swivel systems keep fluid lines out of urine and feces. water. Picture courtesy of the National Institutes of Health Veterinary Resources
Wall-mounted food and water receptacles should be acquired for Program.
stationary or transport cages. Hay nets can be used to achieve
upright head positions for sheep. Likewise, dogs and swine that
are instrumented with Elizabethan collars, swivel systems, or
jackets may benefit from the use of portable ball-valve bottles
or raised pans (Fig. 9-2).

C. Cabinets and Ancillary Equipment

Most contemporary programs have configured the post-

procedural space for large research animals in much the same
way that a veterinary teaching institution might approach the
requirement. Desirable attributes are ease of cage and cabinet
movement, occupational safety and health, ease of sanitation,
elimination of clutter, and ability to easily hang various fluids,
monitors, and pumps. The postprocedural space is also ide-
ally located close to the surgical and radiology area and should Fig. 9-3 An example of a stainless steel cabinetry used in the large-animal
postprocedural care unit. The cabinet is manufactured with stainless steel casters
permit easy access to attending veterinarian and key technical for ease of maintaining sanitation. (Courtesy of the National Institutes of Health
offices, laundry facilities, and records. Veterinary Resources Program.)
The ideal arrangement of caging and resources utilizes ample
and flexible lighting, sanitizable surfaces, mobile countertops
(Fig. 9-3), mobile oxygen cages, piped oxygen (as opposed quick bath to the recovering animals, or clean rubber cage mats.
to tanks), portable IV pumps mounted on IV stands, portable Such organization also permits reorganization of space and bar-
drawer units, and a few sanitizable stools for staff to seek postu- riers with little to no programmatic cost or effort. Surfaces
ral relief. Floor drains are also especially helpful in large-animal and mobile carts should also be ample enough to accom-
intensive care settings so that cages can be easily spot-changed. modate necessary veterinary supplies, computerized or paper
The value of a waist-level tub cannot be overemphasized in order records, critical care diagnostic equipment, and refrigeration
to provide hand sanitization of food and water bowels, give a and incubation of key fluids and/or drugs and specimens.
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 223

1. Stocking Supplies TABLE 9-1

Checklist of Postprocedural Care Equipment for Floor,
a. Rats and mice Countertop, or Open-Shelved Items
Working solutions of fluids should be dated. Stock prepara-
Hematocrit centrifuge, hematocrit tube putty, and heparinized hematocrit
tions should include 250 mL bags of normal saline or lactated tubes and putty
Ringer’s solution maintained in a fluid-warming unit. Prefor- Refractometer
mulated bags of nonsteroidals and opioids in 250-mL bags are Complete blood count machine
helpful for rapid delivery of fluids and analgesics to large groups Portable gas anesthetic unit
Intravenous fluid pumps mounted on stands
of recovering rodents (Hampshire and Davis, 2000b).
Microscope and slides, staining solutions such as Diff Quicka
A selection of small-gauge syringes and needles, butterfly Cage-side or handheld electrolyte analyzer (cartridge variety)
needles, and gavage tubes, various types of disposable wipes Glucometer
including disposable diapers, lab bench absorbent pads, paper ECG machine
towels, and utility wipes should be stocked, plus 2 × 2 in. and Blood pressure monitor or Doppler blood pressure monitor
Nebulizer
4 × 4 in. gauze squares and cotton-tipped applicator sticks. A
Apnea monitors
few packets of suture and stainless steel wound clips should also Activated clotting time capability; either gray-top tubes or analyzer
be stocked. A small digital scale (electric or battery-operated) (now available)
is required. The scale should be capable of accurately weighing Stethoscope
both mice and rats if both species are used at the institution. Otoscope
Ophthalmoscope
Petroleum-based artificial tear ointment, lubricant jelly, and
a topical analgesic crème or ointment [EMLA® Crème (2.5% a
Many vendors sell this stain under a variety of commercial names. Diff Quick
lidocaine + 2.5% prilocaine), AstraZeneca, Wilmington, DE] is a three-pack of methanol fixative, buffered eosin, and phosphate buffered
are additional medications often needed. Doses of commonly Azure B.
utilized antibiotics, anesthetics, and analgesics are available in
the literature. Internet-accessible dose formularies and pocket so that all users are aware of what devices are contained within.
editions of formularies from almost every large university ani- We recommend a checklist of postprocedural care equipment or
mal program also exist (Adamcack and Otten, 2000; Atinoff, open-shelved items as shown in Table 9-1.
1998; Dartmouth University, 2007; Heard, 2000; Marx and
Raston, 2007; Plumb, 2002; University of Pittsburg, 2007).
III. STAFFING AND PERSONNEL
b. Large animals
The postprocedural care ward is a place where rapid, efficient Adequate care of recovering animals involves the system-
assessment and humane intervention is necessary. The veteri- atic utilization of veterinary physical examination skills. Such
nary marketplace now contains a number of vendors who market skills involve the interpretation of clinical findings (within the
small, easily calibrated, and even handheld diagnostic devices context of the animal model) with diagnostic results; the abil-
with cartridges for rapid assessment of various chemistry pan- ity to document such findings in order to create an efficient
els. For any diagnostic equipment in the postprocedural care and harmonious functional postprocedural care unit, an intu-
setting we recommend routine maintenance programs. ition that helps advise the principal investigator and his/her
Supplies that are used frequently should be in visible bins staff regarding confounders or enhancements to the protocol;
or well-marked drawers. Unnecessary or infrequently utilized and the wisdom to be able to integrate the findings into one or
equipment should not be occupying horizontal space surfaces. more standardized outcomes that result in best science, opti-
Emergency equipment such as electrocardiogram (ECG) moni- mal animal wellness, and programmatic compliance. Ideally,
tors and defibrillators should be located on an easily accessible the postprocedural function of an animal program is structured
lightweight crash cart along with an intubation equipment. in such a way that one or more highly experienced attending
The countertops should contain the basic diagnostic equipment veterinarians supervise a team of qualified technologists and
that permits rapid assessment of hemodynamic and physio- works on a daily basis with the investigative staff. Although this
logic variables. Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should type of animal care paradigm is rather common for the large-
be in place and training records should indicate that each animal setting, it is not the typical practice in a high-density
employee who may come upon an animal in need of cardiopul- rodent facility. Nonetheless, programs should strive to provide
monary resuscitation can both recognize that it is in such a this level of effort for rodents as well as large animals. The
state and respond accordingly using all equipment that is on authors have described tangible and intangible savings associ-
the cart. ated with enhanced stewardship of rodent postprocedural care
Drawers should contain drawer-separators to ensure that sup- in such a paradigm in a previous paper (Hampshire and Davis,
plies are easily located. Drawers should be appropriately labeled 2000b).
224 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

TABLE 9-2
Question and Action List for Postprocedural Planning

Question Action

Has the procedure been done in humans or If yes, describe the level and duration of pain and recovery period.
other animal models?
What physiologic impact is anticipated? Example: cardiovascular, neurologic, gastrointestinal, etc.
What are the supplies necessary for recovery List necessary supplies.
(antibiotics, analgesics, bandaging, etc.)?
Are there any drugs or procedures that are List drugs or procedures that might confound the experiment.
known to confound the research plan?
Do you envision any bleeding complications? If yes, be certain to have donors identified, and/or blood and blood
components on hand.
Will the surgery be prolonged (>1 hour)? If yes, plan for prolonged observation and possible hypothermia.
How long will it be until the animal will eat? If yes or not sure, plan for fluid therapy or total parenteral nutrition and prolonged
Will it be nauseated? venous access. (If rodent, consider acquiring a model with jugular access.)a
Will the investigative staff be present to If yes, schedule training and orientation with investigators. If no,
help with recovery? identify animal program staff necessary to support the model.
What will the likely clinical endpoints be Identify action items to result in successful
for discharge from the ICU? discharge to interim or routine housing.

a
Some rodent vendors will sell rats with indwelling jugular access.

IV. OVERSIGHT, PLANNING, AND months. An investigator interview checklist and action items
ORGANIZATION format is helpful for this purpose (Table 9-2).

Title 9 C.F.R., Section 2.33 of the Animal Welfare Act 1. Familiarity with the Experimental Model
describes the regulatory requirements of adequate veterinary
care, including a period of consulting in advance of initiat- The consultative period required under present research reg-
ing the protocol (Title 9, 1985). Animal care programs apply ulations and standards and the literature search required under
these regulations and principles to all species in an effort the Animal Welfare Act (Title 9, USC 1985 [AWA]) are key
to meet Public Health Service (PHS) and Association for opportunities for animal care staff to explain to the members of
the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care the investigative team why the control of pain and distress in the
(AAALAC) International standards and to better control the perioperative period not only is beneficial to the animals’ well-
experiment. being, but also reduces experimental variability from a host of
physiologic and behavioral confounders associated with adverse
homeostatic parameters. Although the search for alternatives
A. Assessing the Model; Determining the required under Section 2.31 of the AWA was intended to provide
Interventions and Endpoints information about alternatives to the use of animals, it is also an
excellent way to find literature about what might be known about
The animal model and the type of procedure will guide the supporting the proposed research condition in humans and how
selection of anesthesia, analgesia, and supportive care during this information might be applied to a veterinary patient.
recovery. The postprocedural period of animal care is a period of
high metabolic demand where research personnel must monitor
2. Knowledge of Background Characteristics
for pain and distress, as well as physiologic and pharmacologic
stability. Animals are fragile during this period. Common risks Other contributing factors to postprocedural planning and
include hypoxia, hemorrhage, fluid and electrolyte depletion, consideration are health status, age, strain and substrain, and
and infection (Langlois, 2004). animal position during surgery or procedure. For example, preg-
Programmatic planning should include a prediction of the nant animals and ruminants frequently do not have adequate
level of distress and/or pain that is expected based on what tidal volume due to pressure on the diaphragm whereas older
is known about other animal models or the human condition. animals may have inadequate gas exchange despite a relatively
For example, a protocol involving a high intensity and low normal tidal volume and respiratory rate. Geriatric animals
frequency of expected pain may only require high levels of anal- that are anesthetized and breathing room air are more prone
gesia and frequent monitoring for a few days versus a model that to hypoxemia than young animals. (Note that age ranges vary
might cause physical or physiological impairment for weeks or with strains of rat and mice; R111 mice, for example, typically
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 225

live no longer than 8–10 months.) The popularity of geneti- how the drug might alter behavior in a manipulated animal. It
cally engineered rodents (GEM) may pose significant factors has also been noted that such efforts are often added attributes
for consideration both prior to the procedure and during post- for presentation in research publications, which were not neces-
procedural care. Physical conditions of GEM animals may alter sarily deemed of use in advance of the research (Morton et al.,
anesthesia regimens. For example, mice with induced periph- 2001).
eral neuropathies may have problems with respiratory function.
Muscle weakness associated with these conditions reduces func-
4. Establishing Criteria for Intervention
tional residual capacity and suppresses alveolar ventilation. An
additional variable is that surgery involving rodents usually Following the review of the literature, the development of
means a relatively large group of rodents will have surgery in a a working understanding of the duration and intensity of dis-
single day. tress and/or pain associated with the protocol, and gathering
Strains of rats or mice can also vary significantly in their nor- of knowledge of background characteristics, the research team
mal clinical values. For example, blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is in a better position to identify clinical parameters (such as
has a range of 19 ± 2.2 mg/dL in male Sprague-Dawley rats but body temperature, blood pressure, body mass index, tumor size,
in Fisher 344 male rats it is 15 ± 2.5 mg/dL (Fox et al., 2002). It activity level, appetite, hydration) that can be monitored by the
may prove difficult to find normal values for a particular stock veterinary staff without compromising the scientific endpoint.
or strain of rodent, and genetically engineered animals present Establishing a clinical endpoint is critical to assuring ani-
additional challenges; in this case, clinical pathology values for mal well-being, by avoiding prolonged delay when the ani-
a common rat or mouse strain should be used as a guideline mal is obviously not recovering or is moribund. Clinical
until acceptable clinical values (through experience) with the and/or humane endpoints such as appetite, weight, hydration,
particular animal stock or strain are established. Other physio- hemogram values, and level of pain should be clearly distin-
logical parameters such as thermoregulation and hydration are guished from experimental endpoints, and the investigator needs
more easily assessed and controlled. to understand that the former may be reached well in advance
Thus, the more the information gathered about the model, the of the latter.
greater the potential for providing outstanding veterinary care
and support.
5. Training Requirements
During discussion with the research team, the veterinarian
3. Expected Duration and Intensity of Pain or Distress
also has the opportunity to explore how well the investigators
Each model and each procedural approach share basic sim- understand and recognize normal animal behavior and demon-
ilarities due to similar responses to anesthesia, surgery, and/or strate the ability to detect subtle signs of pain and distress. If
procedural stress. However, there are also unique aspects to it is clear that the investigators have relatively little experience
consider such as the degree of pain involved, if physiological differentiating normal from abnormal behavior, they may be
impairment is induced (ataxia, toxic injury, etc.), and the length receptive to the idea of a small pilot study, with significant par-
of time the animals are expected to survive prior to reaching the ticipation of a clinical veterinarian, to hone their observational
experimental endpoint. The species, strain, and gender of the skills and customize training. This is especially true if the staff
animal; the skill of the investigator; and the skill of the persons has no experience with the animal model or if the investigator is
responsible for providing postoperative care influence all these having difficulty developing appropriate monitoring plans and
factors. intervention charts.
In order to standardize observations, a scoring assessment
chart is helpful (Peterson, 2004; Stasiak et al., 2003). If there
is no precedent for the procedure or the proposed interven- B. Institutional Animal Care and Use
tions in question, a small pilot study may also be indicated. Committee Approval
For example, Roughan and Flecknell (2001) observed groups
of rats pre-surgically and post-procedurally, with and without Once a model has been selected and the approximate level of
analgesics to identify behaviors that could, through statistical effort has been defined, the institutional animal care commit-
analysis, be used as indicators of pain or discomfort. Sixteen tee is better able to participate in an informed decision about
behaviors were identified by discriminant analysis and four of whether the postprocedural care of the animal model is appro-
these behaviors (“cat-like” back arching, horizontal stretch- priate and whether the institution can allocate the personnel and
ing, writhing, and twitching while inactive) were found to be resources to meet adequate levels of care. The IACUC must
markedly reduced (thereby quantifiable) and therefore of prac- recognize that complete monitoring plans, including identifica-
tical value when determining the efficacy of an analgesic in the tion of individuals responsible for monitoring and their contact
rat for the procedure performed. Based on these findings, it was information, are in effect before a study is approved even if this
suggested that pilot studies be performed initially to determine means a delay while hiring additional personnel. The IACUC
226 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

must also be prepared to insist that monitoring and assessment time a baseline weight and an appreciation of normal posture
plans proposed by the investigator are adequate. Without the and nature (friendly, inquisitive, anxious, aggressive) can be
support and participation of IACUC, it is difficult to convince obtained and normal hematologic, hemodynamic, and serum
reluctant investigators about the beneficial effects of these plans. chemistries can be established. Staff will learn the individual
personalities of the animals that will make their observations
and assessments more powerful. Tickling in adolescent rats, for
C. Scheduling example, is known to produce a positive social affect, which
can be induced by technician(s) who will be giving postoper-
Some animal programs have adopted several policies that ative injections if they begin to play and tickle the rats before
prove beneficial for both the animals and staff. First and fore- surgery (personal experiences; Panksepp, 2005, 2007). Dogs
most, it is advisable to limit procedural insults such as surgery or and swine are exceptionally responsive to human handling and
key injections to Monday–Wednesday, e.g., not on Thursday or treats, and can be socialized using combinations of food treats
Friday. The reason for this suggestion is that the first 72 hours and play to acclimate them in their new environment.
postoperatively are usually the most critical time for the ani-
mals. Veterinary patients who have surgery early on Monday or
Tuesday derive the benefit of a full staff for support care during C. Trending Criteria
this critical time period; those who have surgery on Wednes-
day benefit from 48 hours of full staff for support. Weekend One of the most critical decisions to make during the peripro-
staff should be fully aware of concerns or special instructions cedural period is what the best frequency of observation will
for the animals over the weekend. Similarly, other research be to minimize distress and optimize scientific study. Another
procedures that may affect the animals’ well-being (complete important concept is that despite the best planning, trending
Freund’s; infectious agents; LPS, streptozotocin, or cyclosporin frequencies may indicate deviation from the plans and so staff
administration) require the same focus. should remain flexible and treat based on the trend shown by
the patient rather than that developed in the plan.
Rechecks for large and small research animals are best sched-
V. MONITORING AND INTERVENTION uled at a frequency determined by the attending veterinary staff,
depending on the animals’ status at the last recheck. This will
A. Personnel and Shifts likely vary among animals in the same protocol, because some
interanimal variability is inevitable.
A combination of veterinary and investigator staff is generally Monitoring techniques differ between large-animal species
required in order to meet programmatic goals for timely veteri- and rodents. Generally speaking, large-animal models lend
nary care. For veterinary technical support, one option is to themselves to better arterial and venous access and more
extend shifts or have overlapping shifts of personnel in order to detailed monitoring that enable better objective assessment of
provide late postoperative monitoring and dosing of analgesics, hemostatic and infectious processes, better control of hydration
fluids, and antibiotics as well as to ensure the animal is warm and cardiovascular support, and ability to control pain. This abil-
and comfortable (bedding is not wet) in its home cage. Having ity lends a greater level of confidence in reducing monitoring
personnel work in shifts provides greater flexibility in frequency intervals. Whenever more than a few days of illness is expected,
of dosing drugs as well as in monitoring of the animals. If two or sampling of blood is required at frequent intervals, vascular
or more clinical veterinarians are available this concept extends access ports should be considered. Swindle et al. (2005) have
to them, as well. A veterinarian performing late treatments can detailed chronic intravascular access port placement and care.
address potential problems before they become critical or life This practice also permits the administration of larger molecular
threatening. Similarly, use of the scientific group will augment weight colloids and/or total parenteral nutrition (TPN), a main-
the monitoring and treatment schedule as well as provide the stay for protocols with predictably long periods of anorexia such
scientist with a complete perspective of the requirements of the as those involving alterations in major organ function or sepsis
animal model. (Natanson, 1990; Pennington et al., 1988).
Large-animal observations should include a minimum sub-
jective data set of appetite, thirst, urination, defecation attitude,
B. Acclimation and Baseline Assessments and condition of hair or skin coat. Cage-side equipment (Table
9-1) should permit a minimum assessment of respiratory rate
Animals destined for surgery or procedures should be iden- and character, mucous membrane color and refill time, heart
tified well in advance, to allow time (conditioning phase) for rate and rhythm and pulse character, packed cell volume, and
staff to observe the animals prior to the procedure, handle total solids, serum electrolytes, and blood glucose.
them and introduce the caging and nutritional supplements The appropriate monitoring of rodent patients is often more
that are planned during the postprocedural period. During this challenging because it is often a more subjective assessment.
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 227

Fig. 9-4 The removal of a cage lid permits the observation of the patient’s Fig. 9-5 Mouse cages in which cage cards are conspicuously different in
curiosity, postural adjustments, strength, and agility. color and contain flags for repeat evaluation. These flags have a corresponding
index card as a medical record, which is kept in a wall-desk outside the room
or in an index card box specifically for rechecks organized by month and week
Modern care paradigms have advocated a combination of sub- in the central treatment room.
jective and objective measures into a composite scoring system.
Objective indices may be added to the subjective components
(Flecknell and Liles, 1991; Morton, 2000). These indices may Hypothermia is one of the most preventable postprocedural con-
include attributes such as body weight, locomotion, gait, urine ditions, and efforts to intervene to prevent extremes in body
specific gravity, hematocrit and packed cell volume, body tem- temperature can result in preventing other sequelae such as
perature, and any other objective measures that may be protocol overutilization of glucose, cardiac depression, and hypotension.
specific and measurable in rodents. A range of numerical scores
is determined for each attribute and a low and high possible com-
posite score determines the degree of intervention (Hampshire, a. Rodents
2001; Hampshire and Davis, 2000a; Morton, 2000; Smith et al., All fluids should be warmed to body temperature before
2006). A number of excellent web-based training resources and administration. Placing cages on recirculating warm water blan-
tutorials are now available to illustrate subjective and objec- kets, using heat lamps (at a safe distance from the animal),
tive assessment of laboratory animals (American Association and placing insulated hand warmers (Warm Buddies ‘N Pals™,
of Laboratory Animal Science, 2007; University of Edinburgh, Heat Factory Inc, Vista, CA) in the cage are all effective means
2007; University of Newcastle, 2005). Observing animals from for providing external warmth. Alternatively, forced warm air
a distance is also important in order to eliminate confounders (Arizant Bair Hugger Model 750) or a heater (Heater Module
introduced by apprehension or excitement. Removing the cage 760100, Small Animal Instruments) can be used. If cages are
lid and observing from a distance offers more information about placed on a recirculating warm water blanket, two tips should
attributes such as curiosity, gait, and neurologic status (Fig. 9-4). be remembered: (1) the blanket should not be set at a temper-
In the chronic period, the challenge is to avoid relapses ature >37◦ C (100◦ F) or the animal may develop hyperthermia
in clinical signs. For this, a prospective re-evaluation sys- and (2) the cage should be placed half on the blanket, which
tem is recommended. For rodents, those cases that raise allows the animal to self-regulate their environmental temper-
reservations or concerns about possible relapse can be ature, moving from warmth to cool, as needed. If heat lamps
flagged in the holding room with cage card tags indicating are used they must be placed at sufficient height to preclude
weekly, biweekly, or monthly rechecks for possible relapse unintended burns. This rule also applies during surgery. It is
(Fig. 9-5) (Hampshire and Davis, 2000b). For large research not unusual to note burned ears (pinna), nose, or eyes (corneal
animals in cages or pens, a computerized database with calendar lesions), caused by strong surgical lights trained on the incision
reminders is helpful in recalling the patient for re-examination. area without adequate protection of the sensitive tissues (drapes,
ophthalmic ointment, etc.). These iatrogenic injuries not only
are unfortunate, causing unnecessary harm to the animals, but
1. Thermoregulation
also may further impede the animal’s recovery. Other causes
The control of normal body temperature is a fundamen- of iatrogenic burns include inadequate grounding of cautery
tal activity in most postprocedural programs of support. equipment and injection of low/high-pH substances.
228 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

b. Large animals nonuniform repolarization of the myocardium. Reperfusion

following recovery from hypovolemic shock may also cause
The physiologic effects of anesthesia are pronounced and the
myocardial necrosis and arrhythmias (Podrid et al., 1990).
subject of thermostasis has been an area of active investiga-
There are many additional examples of injury, intentional or
tion by nurses, anesthesiologists, and critical care physicians
spontaneous, that indirectly place the heart at risk for arrhyth-
(Cooper, 2006; Fossum et al., 2001; Frank et al., 1995; Gies-
mia development. However, treatment with antiarrhythmogenic
brecht et al., 1994; Lee et al., 2004; Patel et al., 1996; Vanni
drugs is also risky and can result in serious systemic side effects
et al., 2003; Wilson et al., 2006). Beneficial strategies may
(Hamlin, 1992). Thus, for procedures where there is expected
be undermined when body temperatures are not maintained.
pain and distress, monitoring and control of arrhythmias should
For example, Wilson et al. (2006) reported that the isoflu-
be practiced whenever possible.
rane minimum alveolar concentration (MAC)-sparing effects of
Monitoring respiratory pattern and blood pH is important
transdermal fentanyl normally seen in warmed dogs are absent
especially in the immediate hours following surgery. Anesthet-
in hypothermic dogs. This finding has also been duplicated in
ics can cause a reduction in respiratory rate and tidal volume.
the pig model (Satas et al., 1996).
Painful procedures may also cause decreased chest expan-
A modern laboratory postprocedural care program institutes
sion with secondary tachypnea so that often the correction of
preemptive measures such as preanesthetic warming, intraoper-
acid/base balance can be linked to adequate analgesia. Knowing
ative forced warm air, and warmed fluids as well as postprocedu-
the anesthetic regimen is also helpful in anticipating potential
ral monitoring and provisions for maintaining thermoneutrality.
acid/base problems and in having the means to correct problems
Common confounders to the approach of maintaining ther-
encountered due to the anesthetic. Alpha-agonists (medetomi-
moneutral systems in research animals include the use of cold
dine) are popular drugs used in combination with ketamine for
aluminum transport cages, the staging of animals in hallways
many rodent procedures. However, the animal often remains
or corridors that are not appropriately warmed, delays in mov-
sedated when under the influence of alpha-agonists, which puts
ing animals from a warm operating room to the postprocedural
them at risk for hypothermia, bradycardia, hyperglycemia, and
care unit, and inadequate frequency of monitoring or efforts at
respiratory depression.
provisional thermal controls.
The airway should be assessed at appropriate intervals to char-
Thus, SOPs should be developed in consultation with sur-
acterize normal rate, depth, and sound of breathing. In the acute
gical personnel to address the holding of animals during the
perioperative period, additional atropine should be considered
preanesthetic period in prewarmed chambers, the utilization of
for research animals that demonstrate excessive mucus produc-
incubators to maintain reserve fluids at body temperature, the
tion. Provision of oxygen during the first few hours of recovery
acquisition of IV pumps with fluid warming capacity, and the
may also be beneficial to recovering laboratory animals. For this
use of forced warm air above and below the patient while in
purpose, a small Plexiglas pediatric unit might be a worthwhile
the postprocedural care unit and in transport if possible. Hyper-
addition to rodent recovery areas.
thermia is also a rare possibility, well documented for outbred
Monitoring arterial blood gases and pH in large-animal
research swine (Denborough, 1998). Managers should have a
research subjects will provide early indications of an acid/base
ready source of crushed ice, chilled blankets, and a stock of
abnormality and thus indicate the degree of intervention nec-
dantrolene for this less likely possibility.
essary. Historically, with respect to rodent models, this was
The subacute, intermediate, and subchronic periods of post-
difficult to accomplish due to the sample size required. Instru-
procedural management should also involve planning to monitor
mentation is now available for this purpose (RadiometerABL77,
temperature. During these periods, hyperthermia either from
Radiometer America). This instrument will measure pO2 , CO2 ,
inflammation or infection, or of CNS origin (common in stroke
phosphorus, sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium on
models) is more often a concern; however, certain models
sample sizes as small as 70 μL.
also may be prone to hypothermia. For example, a pancrea-
Anesthesia and surgery in large research animals can also
tectomized model may develop secondary chilling due to the
produce shifts in acid/base status due to prolonged abnormal
inability to adequately utilize glucose.
positions, decreased muscle tone, decreased chest expansion,
hemorrhage, decreased cardiac output, decreased renal perfu-
sion, and increased catabolic demand (Clavijo-Alvarez et al.,
2. Cardiopulmonary Support, Hemodynamics,
2005; Sims et al., 2001). These shifts are often dependent on
and Acid/Base Balance
duration and intensity of invasiveness and on the expected exper-
To the extent that instrumentation permits, cardiac and res- imental outcome. Key monitoring schemes involve rapid assess-
piratory parameters should be recorded and their irregularities ment capability using small-volume repeat arterial sampling
corrected. Uncontrolled cardiac electrical activity can lead to (capillary tubes are ideal) for acid/base, blood glucose, and
poor perfusion and death. Catecholamines enhance influx of electrolytes (sodium, potassium, chloride, calcium), and total
sodium and calcium, which increases the risk of arrhythmo- carbon dioxide measurement. Handheld and tabletop units are
genic effects via increased amplitude of after-potential and available. For ease of use, we recommend handheld versions
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 229

with small-volume sample cartridge capability unless the pro- renal and cardiac function as well as the distribution and elimina-
gram is performing large numbers of procedures and is capable tion of necessary antibiotics, analgesics, and other experimental
of calibrating in-house equipment daily (IDEXX Laboratories). treatments. The last decade has witnessed a plethora of refer-
Hypotension can be a sign of hemorrhage, endocrine disrup- ences pertaining to fluid therapy. A variety of crystalloids and
tion, pain, and decreased cardiac output. Efforts to track and colloids as well as improved filtration and administration sys-
control blood pressure are mainstays of a sound postprocedural tems for small-volume infusions are available now. The subject
care facility. of the restoration of blood volume in animal patients has previ-
Telemetry is extraordinarily helpful for tracking key patient ously been addressed in general terms (Haskins, 1997). Those
variables and for detecting small differences over baseline char- principles and methods are still appropriate and are slightly
acteristics that external cuff and Doppler devices may not read expanded in this discussion for the purpose of addressing the
with precision. Telemetry offers a means to monitor blood special needs of research in rodents.
pressure and electrocardiographic parameters for both rodent The recognition of the need to adequately hydrate rodent
and large-animal models. However due to the high equipment patients has stemmed largely from work in exotic animal
costs and high heart rates of rodents, telemetry is not com- medicine and biomedical research support programs (Atinoff,
monly utilized for postprocedural monitoring, nor are attempts 1998; Heard, 2000; Waynforth and Flecknell, 1992). A large
to intervene common. Some large-scale highly funded rodent body of information in companion animal medicine, where dogs
facilities such as a dedicated rodent imaging facility or a large- vary in size from 1 to 70 kg, also contributes to the large body
scale physiologic monitoring program may utilize this type of literature on hydration requirements. This information has
of technology. Another example might include drug discov- repeatedly emphasized the small size of some research patients,
ery wherein the large-scale monitoring of individual rodent associated with a large body surface area over which body fluid
research subjects for changes in hemodynamic variables is losses can occur. Rats in particular can be research models rang-
desirable. ing in size from 200 to 400 g and, at either end of this range,
State-of-the-art large-animal cardiovascular-targeted research may require different amounts of fluid to sustain adequate fluid
programs have shifted to the use of indwelling arterial lines or volume for homeostasis. A good method for calculating sur-
telemetry devices in order to adequately and accurately monitor face area has been published by Hawk and was recently put
blood pressure and heart rate (Ilback and Stalhandske, 2003; into use (Hampshire et al., 2001, Hawk and Leary, 1999) (Fig.
Miyazaki et al., 2002; Najafi and Ludomirsky, 2004; Soloviev 9-6a, b). A variety of references recommend similar formulas
et al., 2006). Some telemetry devices are enabled with temper- for establishing weight and hydration-specific doses of crystal-
ature and ECG capability. Again, due to the expense and the loid fluid preparations for rodents (Battaglia, 2001; Kirk et al.,
need for single housing, these systems are not in general use in 1990; Mathews, 1998, 2006; Schaer, 1998). The range varies
routine recovery areas across most biomedical research institu- from 20 mL/(kg h) for maintenance needs to 100 mL/(kg h) for
tions. In most postprocedural care areas, blood pressure is still severe dehydration and/or replacement volume.
measured by external cuff or Doppler device and heart rhythm Haskins’ recommendations for the assessment of hydration
and rate by stethoscope and/or ECG. by using skin turgor and urine output and concentration are use-
ful for determining an estimated percent fluid loss in rodents and
3. Hemostasis large animals (Haskins, 1997). These methods may be supple-
mented with the utilization of hematology and serum protein
Bleeding can be a common complication from experimental values from a pilot study, the interpretation of a subjective
research procedures. An ICU and/or postprocedural care rou- assessment for corneal gloss, or the presence or absence of
tine should have adequate diagnostic equipment and methods enophthalmia and concentrated porphyrin stain at the medial
for monitoring packed cell volume (a hematocrit centrifuge, canthus. Maintenance volumes are generally estimated between
tubes, and putty). Blood loss, when detected early, can often 50 and 60 mL/(kg day) (Kirk et al., 1990; Mathews, 2006) in
be mitigated, either through surgical intervention or through single or divided doses with higher doses per kg for neonates,
transfusion. Intervention by transfusion is usually a proce- pediatric patients, and small rodents based on the formula
dure performed in large-animal research models and requires 1.2–1.3(70 BW kg)75 (Mathews, 2006). When the interani-
careful attention to species-specific blood types, blood storage mal variability in weight in a rodent study falls within 50 g,
requirements, and rules of administration to avoid inadvertent preparation of individual doses can be minimized by spiking
embolisms. bags of saline or lactated Ringer’s solution with the analgesic
drug of choice to achieve a final combined fluid volume and
analgesic dose that is weight- and species-appropriate (Hamp-
4. Hydration and Electrolyte Balance
shire and Davis, 2000a). If prepared in advance, a bag can
The provision of adequate hydration and the restoration of be provided to the surgery team so that they may administer
normal tissue volume may be the most important interventions warmed fluids and analgesic simultaneously while closing the
in the postprocedural period. This effort also supports normal incision.
230 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

Surface Area to Body Weight Ratios of Commonly The tonicity of blood and extracellular water is
Used Research Animals
290–310 mOsm/L (Mathews, 1998). The route, rate, and moni-
0.15 toring of fluid administration is important to ensure appropriate
volume replacement without fluid overload and its conse-
0.1 quences of interstitial and intracellular edema. When dehydra-
tion occurs, determining the location of the fluid deficit and
0.05 calculating volume deficits require a basic knowledge of body
fluid dynamics. Veterinarians should be heavily involved in
0 the interventions associated with laboratory animal recovery,
mouse rat cat dog pig especially when fluid deficits occur or are anticipated.
Species Occasionally, research programs may encounter a model that
(a)
loses serum protein. Liver transplantation and cardiovascular
models of right-sided insufficiency are examples of procedures
kg mL/daya
that are strongly associated with these problems. Colloidal solu-
Mice 0.02 4.5
tions may be considered for these models but should be delivered
0.03 6
0.04 7.5 carefully to avoid pulmonary edema. A variety of products are
Rats 0.2 25 available commercially for hypovolemia and hypoproteinemia.
0.3 34 Most are compounded from high-molecular-weight solutions,
0.4 42 including dextran, gelatin, or starch. Different brands vary in
Cats 5 280 their molecular weight and therefore vary in the length of time
Small they remain in the circulatory system. Thus, users should care-
dogs 10 472
fully investigate doses in the literature, which rests largely in
(b) veterinary nursing manuals (Battaglia, 2001).
IV fluid therapy through cephalic or central lines is the pre-
Fig. 9-6 (a) A representative comparison of surface area to body weight ferred route of choice for small ruminants, research swine, dogs,
ratios of commonly utilized research animals. The formula is M2= weight
cats, and rabbits because it permits precise rates of delivery.
(g) × K × 10−4 , where K = 10.1 for dogs, cats, pigs and 10.5 for mice and
rats (Hawk, 1999). (b) A representative comparison of fluid requirements in Indwelling silastic catheters or intravascular access ports have
milliliters across the spectrum of laboratory animal weights using the formula: enabled the support of models of severe illness such as sepsis,
maintenance rate per 24 hour = 1.2 − 1.3(70 BW kg)75 (Mathews, 2006). organ transplant, or toxic shock where morbidity is expected to
a
Divided in two equal volumes 12 hours apart. The number 1.2 is typically be pronounced. Swindle and colleagues have described meth-
utilized for those animals assessed to be mildly dehydrated and 1.3 for those
ods for the placement and care of indwelling access catheters
with moderate-to-severe hydration.
(Dennis et al., 1993; Swindle et al., 2005). Fluid rates should be
established by veterinary staff and tailored to the patient’s phys-
The type of procedure performed may also influence the iologic responses, not the protocol. Most fluid rates for large
choice of fluid type to administer. Osmolality, pH, and iso- animals can be determined using the formula in Fig. 9-6.
tonicity are all important variables for consideration (Haskins, Serum blood glucose can be easily monitored in large and
1997; Morton et al., 2001). Lactated Ringer’s solution is a crys- small research animals using simple cage-side glucose monitors
talloid replacement fluid that resembles the extracellular fluid and drop-sized quantities of blood. Special problems in glu-
compartment and has a pH of 6.5 (considered isotonic). This cose management include those animals that have undergone
solution contains 28 mEq/L of lactate, which is converted to long periods of anorexia, those with infections, and induced
bicarbonate in the liver. This exogenous lactate does not affect models of diabetes or insulinoma. Diabetic models are very
plasma lactate levels in an animal with normal liver function commonly encountered and present special management chal-
(Rudloff and Kirby, 1998). Thus, lactated Ringer’s solution lenges that require strict attention to establishing daily glucose
is beneficial as a replacement therapy for most animals expe- trends (Connally, 2002).
riencing hypovolemic shock or volume deficits. It is also an
excellent choice when an animal is experiencing calcium or
potassium deficits. Containing the lactate precursor to bicar-
5. Inflammation and Infection
bonate, lactated Ringer’s solution is an alkalinizing solution and
indicated in animals with metabolic acidosis, diarrhea, vom- Wound/incision care may or may not be necessary if adequate
iting, and other metabolic or endocrine disorders. However, aseptic technique was practiced during surgery. Many veteri-
scientists should understand that lactated Ringer’s solution is narians are reluctant to administer antibiotics in rodents as a
not a universal replacement solution. It is contraindicated for prophylactic measure because of the common adverse effects
use in animals with hypercalcemia, liver disease, or metabolic (enterotoxemia) in many species. Also, mice and rats seem
alkalosis. especially robust, possessing admirable resistance to bacterial
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 231

infection. This attribute should not be used as an excuse to pre- high-protein cube of gelatin can be made in large quantities
clude high surgical standards and veterinary care. Considering and refrigerated (Hampshire and Davis, 2000a). A dose of 0.25
the caging environment that confines rodents, a vigilant moni- cubes per mouse or 1 cube per rat per day is prescribed. Fresh
toring and assessment regimen of the surgical incision should be fruit and gelatin should be removed from the cage within 24
planned and followed. Abdominal incisions and/or wounds are hours and refrigerated gelatin kept no longer than 48 hours. If
inevitably contaminated with urine, feces, and perhaps bedding. the animal does not eat any of the supplements offered and body
The incision should be cleaned daily and the sutures or surgical weight continues to fall, it may be necessary to gavage the ani-
wound clips checked to ensure that the animal is not remov- mal with a liquid, high-protein supplement. Geriatric animals
ing them. Rodents that receive cranial implants may or may not may invariably incur renal losses of protein as they age. Our
require incision care, dependent on the skill and expertise of experience with aged rodents is that they may be unwilling to
the surgeon applying the acrylic material. It may be necessary develop postures in which feeding is optimized. In this case fat-
to smooth the edges of the acrylic material with a dermal drill and protein-dense supplements on the cage floor may be indi-
and apply topical antibiotic ointment to the skin/acrylic margin. cated and may necessitate a change in SOPs. Cage tags entitled
When the person applying the acrylic is inexperienced, prob- “cage feeding by medical direction” are useful for this purpose.
lems may develop because the heat of the acrylic reaction is not Critically ill large animals also undergo periods of anorexia.
controlled (burning the dura and skin) or the acrylic edges are Some analgesics can cause anorexia or aberrant behaviors that
rough, uneven, and/or insufficient. In the latter case, the skin are associated with anorexia (Bender, 1998; Clarke et al., 1997).
may require sutures to complete closure. If iatrogenic burns Animals that are not eating after 5 days of optimal care should be
occur, bleeding and continued seepage will occur that require considered candidates for supplemental fat, protein, and carbo-
both antibiotics and wound care to prevent systemic infection. hydrates. Again, a central line will permit the administration of
Large research animals are best monitored for infection by protein and fat supplements. Nasogastric, esophageal, or duo-
regular recordings of body temperature and white blood cell denal feeding tubes have also been utilized for animal models of
count. Various texts exist for reference to normal values; how- critical care (Dudrick, 2003; Garcia-Gamito et al., 1991; Han,
ever, comparison to baseline indices and individual laboratory 2004; Pennington et al., 1988).
reference normals is emphasized. Antibiotics should be refer-
enced for appropriate dose, route, and frequency (Plumb, 2002),
and tailored to conservative treatment of the suspect organisms
7. Methods of Dose Administration in Rodents
to avoid the development of resistant nosocomial infections.
Dosing medications to achieve steady-state blood concen-
trations is challenging in small animals with a high metabolic
6. Nutritional Status
rate, whose surface-to-volume ratio is roughly 10 times that of
In the initial 24 hours following major procedures, rodents humans. Other than high metabolic rate, small rodents present
frequently are reluctant to “reach up” to the wire bar lid for food. other practical problems and great challenges for those assigned
Certain procedures can also impinge on the intake of adequate the responsibility of monitoring and care of post-procedural
calories (Holte and Kehlet, 2002). Narcotics are also known to mice and rats. Their muscle mass is small, which means injected
interfere with appetite in rodents (Jacobson, 2000). Soaking a drugs can easily cause tissue damage (consider pH, osmolality,
few pellets in warm water and placing them in a shallow dish and isotonicity) or fail to be absorbed properly. Two possi-
(Petri) on the cage bottom may encourage them to eat. Pro- ble stress-related problems are (1) the stress of handling and
viding nutritional supplements can also stimulate appetite as restraint for repeated drug administration, and (2) the stress
well as provide a tool for assessing appetite. This is particularly associated with a painful needle stick. The difference in response
effective if the surgical animals are identified at least 1 week to handling and drug administration is striking in rodents; for
prior to surgery and the nutritional supplements are introduced example, the DA and Lewis strains of rats react very differently
to offset the “novelty” effect. Sick animals, like humans, can to handling and pain than Sprague-Dawley (stock) rats (personal
be very picky in their eating selections and may ignore a new experience with rat liver transplantation studies). These dif-
food that under normal circumstances they would readily eat. ferences should be considered during presurgical planning for
Fresh fruit, protein-enriched gelatin, peanut butter, and Bacon nursing care. An additional challenge in working with rodents is
Softies™ (Bio-Serv, Frenchtown, NJ) are the types of treats that the variation in response to drugs and dosages between animals
provide additional calories and fluid source (fruit), and also help of different strains, gender, and age (similar to people) (Lovell,
stimulate the appetite. For anorectic, critically ill rodents, nutri- 1986).
tional demands must be met via gavage or parenteral nutrition. An easy method of providing fluids and analgesics in a com-
Dextrose-containing fluids are not sufficiently calorie-dense to bination regimen subcutaneously, with minimal disturbance to
meet the daily resting energy requirement of anorectic animals the animal, is the use of butterfly catheters. A variety of 1- and
and should be administered intravenously making these animals 3-mL syringes, needle sizes, and broad-spectrum antibiotics
impractical for many rodent protocols. Alternatively, a high-fat, should be readily accessible.
232 VICTORIA A. HAMPSHIRE AND JUDITH A. DAVIS

a. Oral (PO) TABLE 9-3

Commonly Mentioned Vendors
Oral administration in rodents has another set of problems
that can be difficult to overcome. First, rodents are often group 1. Iso-PAD™: Omni BioResources, Inc.; Cherry Hill, NJ
housed; ensuring that each cage inhabitant eats their fair share of 2. ALZET® : DURECT Corporation, Cupertino, CA
the drug article is impossible. Second, rodents are notoriously 3. Bacon Softies™: Bio-Serve, Frenchtown, NJ
4. EMLA® Crème (2.5% lidocaine +2.5% prilocaine): AstraZeneca,
picky with “novel food items”—a behavior that is amplified Wilmington, DE
when they do not feel well. Third, if they have poor appetite or 5. Warm Buddies ‘N Pals™: Heat Factory, Vista, CA
are not eating, oral delivery is not an option unless you plan 6. Arizant Bair Hugger Model 750: Arizant Health Care, Eden Prairie, MN
to individually gavage the animals—a technique that requires 7. Radiometer ABL77: Radiometer America, Westlake, OH
skilled personnel, experience, and a lot of time. Fourth, the 8. Foers Pharmacy, Bethesda, MD
9. ESOX pumps; www.Norfolkaccess.com/pumps/html or Access
drug selected must not be significantly metabolized before Technologies, Norfolk Medical Products, Skokie, IL
effective blood concentrations are achieved (Brewster et al., 10. Innovative Research of America, Sarasota, FL
1981). The dose may need to be increased significantly above a 11. Harvard IV tether system for Rodents: Instech Soloman, Plymouth
dose used for subcutaneous (SQ) or intramuscular (IM) deliv- Meeting, PA. www.instechlabs.com/downloads/systems.pdf
ery to achieve similar efficacy, but higher doses may have 12. IDEXX Laboratories, Westbrook, ME
untoward side effects (ulcerogenic threshold for NSAIDs, for
Disclaimer: The mention or lack of mention of a specific brand is neither an
example). endorsement nor a disapproval of a particular brand name. The names mentioned
are simply those that have been utilized by the authors.

b. Subcutaneous (SQ)
company lists nearly all compounds of drugs and also will
SQ administration of fluids and medications is a popular route prepare special formulations.
of administration in rodent patients. Generally, it is easy to
restrain mice or rats and deliver a calculated bolus (Fig. 9-6b)
c. Transcutaneous (TC)
in single or divided daily doses in the neck or scapula region.
For more recalcitrant animals, the use of a butterfly catheter The advent of pain medications in topical gels and creams
allows the animal to remain in its cage while administering the allows systemic absorption of active drugs after application.
drug. For optimal absorption, drugs should be hypo-osmolar Drugs where this approach has been successful include keto-
(<300 mOsm). Necrosis at the site of entry is a major side profen, fentanyl, nitroglycerin, and motion-sickness drugs.
effect with highly acidic or alkaline substances but sterility is Pharmacists who formulate drugs to create crèmes with higher
not as much a problem with SQ administration as it is with IM concentrations of lidocaine and NSAIDS have used Organogel,
and IV injections. Immunodeficient animals should not receive a lecithin-based matrix. This approach may allow for another
anything that has not been sterilized and aseptically prepared. innovative approach to provide stress-free drug delivery but
Slow and continuous-release options have also become avail- should be verified with a pharmacokinetic study to confirm that
able for transcutaneous (TC) and SQ rodent delivery systems. adequate drug levels are actually delivered and that the desired
ALZET® osmotic pumps allow continuous delivery of agents pharmacologic effect (analgesia, antibiotic, etc.) is achieved.
at controlled rates when placed subcutaneously or intraperi-
toneally. If targeted delivery of a drug to an area remote from
d. Intravenous (IV)
the site of implantation is required, a catheter can be attached
to the pump. These pumps come in various sizes with differ- With practice, it is also possible to cannulate mouse and rat
ent volume reservoirs. The manufacturer provides an explant jugular and femoral veins. It is also possible to purchase mice
schedule, based on the pump model, once the pump is empty. and rats already instrumented with intravascular access. If suc-
This is important because this type of pump is an inert object for cessful, this makes IV drug delivery available. Alternatively,
only a short period of time before it begins to attract water into a number of companies now make mouse infusion systems
the pump (osmotic forces), which causes the pump to swell. with swivels that have low rotational friction. The challenge
At this point, the pump can either rupture or leak a concen- for indwelling catheters is maintaining them and making sure
trated salt solution that damages the tissue (www.alzet.com/ the rodent does not chew or remove the catheter.
products/imp_exp.php) (Table 9-3).
The ESOX (Norfolkaccess.com) implantable pump is another
e. Intramuscular (IM)
option. This system, with its refillable reservoir, enables
truly long-term drug delivery. One other delivery system mar- Due to small muscle mass, IM injections are discouraged in
keted by Innovative Research (http://www.innovrsrsh.com) is a rodents and are less than ideal in large animals as well. Necrosis
time-release matrix-driven biomedical delivery system in a pel- and pain at the injection site are unpleasant sequelae, and irrita-
leted form that can easily be placed in an SQ pocket. The tion of the sciatic nerve with resulting polyneuropathy is not an
9. POSTPROCEDURAL CARE OF COMMONLY UTILIZED RESEARCH ANIMAL SUBJECTS 233

uncommon occurrence in mice and rats. If an investigator must records of animals that are taken off observation or placed on
use the IM route, training in the anatomy of the hind limb is the reduced observational frequency appear in a reminder area for a
best practice. The volume delivered at a single site must also be recheck. An index card box with locations for weekly, biweekly,
limited in rats and mice (0.1–0.3 mL in rats and 0.05–0.1 mL in and monthly rechecks is a simple way to attain this standard.
mice). This often translates into multiple injection sites in order Computerized systems may use a system of calendar reminders
to deliver the full dose of the drug. The lumbar muscles are also for this purpose.
potential sites for IM injection but again, they are very thin and
often the needle goes through the muscle, which means the drug
B. Large Animals
is not appropriately delivered. If working with obese rodents
(leptin knockouts, for example), their high body fat content
Large research animals should have individual records. A dis-
serves as a barrier for accurate drug delivery using the IM route.
position sheet with key points of contact, protocol number, and
master problem list should be the first page in the record. Blood
f. Intraperitoneal (IP) work and vital signs should be next in line in charts that permit
ease of interpretation of the trend of each vital sign or variable.
IP drug delivery is overused in rodent studies and carries
Next, daily treatment and observation notes should be recorded
many concerns such as contamination, splenic trauma, serosal
so that in-depth findings and information can be interpreted
hemorrhage, drug delivery into visceral organs or fat pads, and
(Haskins, 1997). We find flip charts useful for protecting written
other untoward effects. Hence, selection of this method of deliv-
records in a plastic shield. Computerized record-keeping sys-
ery should be given a thought, and the skill of the technician
tems that are made for veterinary hospitals are also a nice choice
will be critical to ensure accurate delivery.
for detailed information and are becoming more commonplace
in research settings. However, adequate backup systems should
be in place to protect this information and access should not
VI. RECORD KEEPING
be so difficult as to restrict routine and frequent entries by all
caregivers.
Trending of animal wellness is the crux of postprocedural care
and use. For this reason, records management is a mainstay for
establishing a sound postprocedural program. Whether a pro- VII. CONCLUSIONS
gram utilizes computerized or paper records is not as important
as whether record-keeping procedures are consistent and com- The landscape of 21st century animal care has experienced
prehensive. Methods of record-keeping have been extensively a transformation of research protocols heavily imprinted by
discussed (Hampshire, 2001; Hampshire and Davis, 2000b). rodent care and use. Concomitantly, there has been a cultural
shift raising the bar for the level of postprocedural care that is
A. Rats and Mice both possible and expected. Although individual participants
in this field do not all agree on levels of care that are neces-
If the program uses a decentralized approach to caring for sary for any one particular protocol, most would agree that the
rodents, a wall-desk located immediately outside the holding minimization of research variables is paramount and that a mul-
room is ideal. Folders should contain disposition sheets that titude of favorable impacts on research is experienced when
contain key points of contact (principal investigator and attend- such variability is controlled.
ing veterinarian). Each box of rodents that are under treatment
should have a record indicating the number of animals and the
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 Section III

Practical Anesthesia and Analgesia of

Traditional Laboratory Animal Species
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 Chapter 10

Anesthesia and Analgesia for Laboratory Rodents

Diane J. Gaertner, Troy M. Hallman, F. Claire Hankenson, and Margaret A. Batchelder

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
II. Considerations in Selection of Anesthetics for Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
A. Animal Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
B. Procedure Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
C. Practical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
III. General Anesthetic Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
A. Preparation for Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
B. Preanesthetic Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
C. Intraoperative and Recovery Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
D. Sequential Surgeries on a Number of Rodents in a Single Session . . . . 250
IV. Recommended Anesthetic Methods for Routine Use in Rodents . . . . . . . . . 250
A. Inhalant Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
B. Injectable Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
V. Drugs Used as Adjuvants to Primary Anesthetic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
A. Anticholinergics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
B. α-2 Adrenergic Agonists: Xylazine and Medetomidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
C. Phenothiazine Tranquilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
D. Benzodiazepines: Diazepam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
E. The Action and Use of Opioids in Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
F. Cholinergic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
G. Local Anesthetics for Anesthesia and Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
H. Neuromuscular Blockade in Rodent Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
VI. Anesthetic Regimens Used for Special Purposes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
A. Inactin: Anesthesia of Long Duration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
B. Alpha Chloralose: Maintenance of Respiratory and Cardiac Reflexes
During Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
C. Urethane: Long Duration Anesthesia with Preservation of Autonomic
Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
D. Ether: Historical Precedent and Use by Open-Drop Methods . . . . . . . . 266
VII. Other Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A. Chloral Hydrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
B. Steroid Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
VIII. Use of Neuromuscular Blocking Agents and Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
A. Depolarizing Neuromuscular Blocking Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
B. Nondepolarizing Neuromuscular Blocking Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
C. Neuromuscular Blocker Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

239
240 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

IX. Analgesics for Mice and Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

A. Assessment of Pain in Experimental Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
B. Timing of Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
C. Opioid Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
D. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
E. Other Agents with Analgesic Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
F. Adjuncts to Analgesia in Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
G. Analgesic Use in Immunologic, Inflammation, and Tumor Studies . . . 276
X. Anesthesia and Analgesia in Neonatal Mice and Rats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
A. Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
B. Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
XI. Special Considerations for Postprocedural Monitoring of Rodents . . . . . . . 278
XII. Other Rodents, Including Guinea Pigs, Hamsters, and Gerbils . . . . . . . . . . . 279
A. Guinea Pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
B. Hamsters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
C. Gerbils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
D. Other Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

I. INTRODUCTION
Assessment of discomfort and distress in animals can be dif-
ficult (Koch, 2006), particularly in prey species like rodents
Knowledge of the advantages, disadvantages, and complica- that tend naturally to hide any overt signs of pain that could
tions of commonly used anesthetics and analgesics is essential impact their survival. Personnel may neglect to provide appro-
for a veterinarian practicing laboratory animal medicine. In this priate anesthesia or analgesia to rodents due to their inability
role, the veterinarian utilizes his or her knowledge of anesthet- to comfortably assess and recognize pain in animals, lack of
ics and analgesics to promote humane and effective research knowledge about appropriate medications, and fear of untoward
through input into the protocol review process, teaching of anes- side effects (Robertson, 2001). Table 10-2 lists the behav-
thetic techniques, informed selection and direct or delegated ioral symptoms of pain in rodents to assist the reader in this
administration of appropriate anesthetics and analgesics, and assessment.
assistance to scientists when there are problems with anesthetic Laboratory animal professionals are mandated by “The U.S.
aspects of procedures. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care of Verte-
In the biomedical research environment, administration of brate Testing, Research and Training” (1985), the Public Health
anesthesia and analgesia is routinely performed by scientists Service Policy (IV.C.1.b) (PHS, 2002), and The Animal Welfare
and members of the scientific group without the direct super- Regulations (9CFR 2.c.) (Code of Federal Regulations, 2002) to
vision of a veterinarian. Institutions provide advice to and select appropriate agents for use in various animal species that
training of these scientists through their veterinary and train- are compatible with sound scientific methods. More specifically,
ing staff. For rodents, regulations in the United States allow one must administer appropriate sedation, analgesia, or anes-
anesthesia in locations remote from the central vivarium such thesia to animals undergoing procedures that cause more than
as the laboratory, where direct observation of the efficacy of momentary or slight pain or distress. Sedative drugs induce a
anesthesia by laboratory animal veterinarians is not routine. relaxed state, analgesics reduce or relieve pain without loss of
Because of the indirect role of the veterinarian in anesthesia consciousness, and anesthetics render the animal unconscious
and the frequently remote location of rodent anesthesia, we have without loss of vital functions. The avoidance or minimization of
selected the most reliable, safest, and simplest methods of anes- discomfort, distress, and pain in laboratory animals is a moral
thesia and analgesia in this chapter. We have emphasized the imperative for all individuals who work with these species in
use of inhalant anesthetics such as isoflurane and of injectable biomedical research (Koch, 2006).
combinations including ketamine because of the increasing pop- No matter which type of anesthetic is selected, it is important
ularity of these methods. Other, seldom-used methods have been to provide appropriate and gentle restraint, a sufficient amount
de-emphasized in order to focus the reader’s attention on cur- of analgesia to diminish pain sensation during the procedure,
rent best practice methods of laboratory animal anesthesia. We and relaxation of muscle tone to the degree that procedures
have supplemented this selection with information about those can be performed quickly and efficiently (Flecknell, 1993b).
additional anesthetics and analgesics that are used due to their Strain differences in rodents must be taken into account and
special characteristics such as minimal cardiovascular depres- pilot studies should be undertaken when changing to a new
sion. Table 10-1 lists the commonly used anesthetics, analgesics, anesthetic regimen in research models (Flecknell, 1993a). Table
and reversal agents, with their trade names and recommended 10-3 lists the published effects of various genetic backgrounds
dose ranges by species. on the effects of analgesics and anesthetics.
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 241

TABLE 10-1
Recommended Anesthetics, Analgesics, and Reversal Agents for Mice and Rats

Dosage unless
Drug Species Use otherwise specified (mg/kg) Route References
®
Acetaminophen (Tylenol ) Rats AG 50 SC, IP Abbott and Hellemans (2000)
Rats AG 100 PO Millecamps et al. (2005)
Rodents AG 110–305 PO Flecknell (1984)
Rodents AG 110–305 IP
Alpha chloralose Mice A 114 of a 5% solution IP Field and Lang (1988), Rieg et al. (2004)
Rats A 31–65 IP White and Field (1987)
Alphaxolone-alphadolone Mice A 60–150 IM Child et al. (1971), Glen (1980), Green et al. (1978),
(Saffan® , Althesin® ) Mice A 60–120 IP Rank and Jensen (1989)
Rats A 10–25 IV
Rats A 25–30 IP
Aspirin Rats AG 100 PO Jablonski and Howden (2002)
Rodents AG 20 SC Flecknell (1984)
Rodents AG 100–120 IP
Atipamezole (Antisedan® ) Rats R 0.5 SC Hahn et al. (2005), Hedenqvist et al. (2000b),
MacDonald et al. (1989)
Atracurium (Tracurium® )/ Rats NMB 15 mg/(kg h) A CRI/ IV Bohrer et al. (1994)
fentanyl 1.25 mg/(kg h) F
Atracurium/isoflurane Rats NMB 360 μg/kg A/1.25 MAC I IV Shin et al. (1992)
Atracurium/sevoflurane Rats NMB 311 μg/kg A/1.25 MAC S IV Shin et al. (1992)
Bupivicaine (Marcaine® ) Rodents LA Local infiltration SC Hassan et al. (1993), Hayes and Flecknell (1999)
Buprenorphine (Buprenex® ) Mice AG 2 SC Gades et al. (2000)
Mice AG 1.1 mM in DMSO Topical Kolesnikov et al. (2000)
Rodents AG 0.002–0.055 IV Christoph et al. (2005)
Rodents AG 0.04–0.13 IP
Rats AG 0.05–0.5 SC, IP Abbott and Bonder (1997), Gades et al. (2000),
Stewart and Martin (2003a),
Roughan and Flecknell (2004)
Rats AG 0.4 PO Roughan and Flecknell (2004)
Butorphanol (Torbugesic® , Mice AG 5 SC Gades et al. (2000)
Torbutrol® , Stadol® ) Rats AG 2 SC
Carbon dioxide Guinea pigs A 80% for 60 seconds Inhaled Kohler et al. (1999)
Mice A 80% for 120 seconds Inhaled
Rats A 80% for 60 seconds Inhaled
Carprofen (Rimadyl® ) Rats AG 5–15 SC Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Celecoxib (Celebra® ) Rats AG 10–20 PO Millecamps et al. (2005), Whiteside et al. (2004)
Chloral hydrate (Noctec® ) Mice A 370–400 P Field (1988), White and Field (1987)
Rats A 300–450 IP Field et al. (1993), Silverman and Muir (1993)
Rats A 400–600 SC
Clonidine (Catapres® , Mice AG 0.25–0.5 PO Jain et al. (2002)
Combipres® ) Mice AG 0.001–0.1 IP Sluka and Chandran (2002), Sabetkasaie et al. (2004)
Clonidine/morphine Rats AG 0.025 C/0.5 IP Gurtu et al. (1994)
Diclofenac (Voltaren® ) Mice AG 9.0–28 IP Santos et al. (1998)
Dipyrone (Metamizol® ) Rats AG 50–600 SC, IP, IV Abbott and Bonder (1997), Abbott and Hellemans (2000),
Hernandez-Delgadillo and Cruz (2006), Hernandez-
Delgadillo et al. (2003), Laird and Cervero (1996),
Laird et al. (1998)
Dipyrone/morphine Rats AG 177–600 D/3.1–3.2 SC, IV Hernandez-Delgadillo and Cruz (2006), Hernandez-
Delgadillo et al. (2002, 2003)
Ethyl carbamate (Urethane® ) Rats A 1,000–1,500 IP Field (1988), Severs et al. (1981)
Ethyl carbamate (Urethane® )/ Rats A 250–400 E (30 minutes prior IP Dalkara et al. (1995), Hughes et al. (1982)
alpha chloralose to alpha chloralose 114 mg/kg)
Fentanyl (Sublimaze® ) Mice AG 0.025–0.6 SC El Mouedden and Meert (2005)
Mice AG 0.032 SC Schmidt et al. (1985)
Rats AG 0.01–1.0 SC Colpaert et al. (2001), Meert and Vermeirsch (2005),
Stewart and Martin 2003a and 2003b
Rats AG 2.0–4.0 g/day PO Colpaert et al. (2001)

(Continued)
242 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

TABLE 10-1
(Continued)

Dosage (mg/kg) unless

Drug Species Use otherwise specified Route References

Fentanyl/fluanisone/diazepam Mice A 0.1–0.3 ml of a 1:10 dilution IP, SC Green (1975), Flecknell (1993)
of Hypnorm: 5 D/30 g mouse
Fentanyl/fluanisone/midazolam Mice A 3.313 mg fentanyl, 104.8 mg SC, IP Flecknell (1996, 1993), Flecknell and
fluanisone, 52.42 mg Mitchell (1984), Jong et al. (2002)
midazolam/kg
Flumazenil (Romazicon® ) Rodents R 10 nmol IP Sarlis and Kaniaris (1991), Stackman and
Walsh (1992)
Flunixin meglumine Mice AG 4.0–11 IV Herrero and Headley (1996)
(Banamine® ,Flunazine® )
Gallamine/pentobarbital Rats NMB 4–10 G/60 P IP then IV Gourine et al. (2003), Mishra and Ramzan (1993c)
2–6 mg/kg/h IV CRI
Gallamine/urethane Rats NMB 4.0 bolus G, 3 mg/(kg h) IV Mishra and Ramzan (1992a, 1993c)
G CRI/1.2 g/kg U repeated
boluses
Ibuprofen (Advil® ), Mice AG 40 PO Hayes et al. (2000)
Motrin® , Nuprin® )
Ibuprofen/hydrocodone Rats AG 200 I/2.3 SC Zelcer et al. (2005)
Ibuprofen/methadone Rats AG 200 I/1.7 SC Zelcer et al. (2005)
Ibuprofen/oxycodone Rats AG 200 I/0.5 SC Zelcer et al. (2005)
Inactin (ETMU):
see thiobarbital
Isoflurane (Forane® ) Mice I 0.04 Inhaled Szczensy et al. (2004)
Mice A 0.08–1.5% Inhaled
Neonatal mice I 4% Inhaled Drobac et al. (2004)
Neonatal mice I 2% Inhaled Gotoh et al. (2004)
Neonatal mice A 0.25–2.5% Inhaled
Rats I 5% Inhaled Smith et al. (2004)
Rats A 0.25–2.5% Inhaled Vaillancourt et al. (1999), Wood et al. (2001)
Isoflurane/morphine Rats A 2% I/5 M Inhaled, IP Smith et al. (2004)
Ketamine (Ketaset® )/ Mice A 100 K: 5 D IP Flecknell (1993)
diazepam Rats A 40 K: 5 D IP Wixson et al. (1987a)
Ketamine/medetomidine Mice A 50–75 K/1–10 M IP Cruz et al. (1998), Flecknell (1993),
Hahn et al. (2005), Hedenqvist et al. (2000a),
Taylor et al. (2000)
Rats A 60 K/0.4 M IP Hedenqvist et al. (2000a)
Ketamine/xylazine Mice P 37.5 K/2.5 X (with IP Hoff et al. (2006)
isoflurane)
Mice A 90–150 K/7.5–16 X IP Clifford (1984), Flecknell (1993), Furukawa et al.
(1998), Hahn et al. (2005), Zeller et al. (1998)
Rats A 40–80 K/5–10 X IM, IP Hsu et al. (1986), Stringer and Seligmann (1996),
Wixson et al. (1987a)
Ketamine/xylazine/ Mice A 100 K/2.5 X/2.5 A IM Flecknell (1996)
acepromazine Rats A 40 K/8.0 X/4.0 A IM Lawson et al. (2001)
Ketoprofen (Ketofen® ) Rats AG 5–15% SC Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Rats AG 10–20% IP Prado and Pontes (2002)
Levallorphan tartrate Rodents R 0.89 SC Notarnicola et al. (1983)
(Lorfan® )
Lidocaine (Xylocaine® ) Rats AG 0.67–1.3 mg/(kg h) CRI SC-pump Smith et al. (2002)
Lidocaine/buprenorphine Mice AG 0.44 mM L/0.18 mM in DMSO Topical Kolesnikov et al. (2000)
Lidocaine/morphine Mice LA 0.85 mM L/1.7 mM in DMSO Local Kolesnikov et al. (2000)
Lidocaine/prilocaine cream Rats TA Local application Topical Arevalo et al. (2004), Flecknell et al. (1990),
(EMLA Cream® ) Sintov and Shapiro (2004)
Medetomidine/fentanyl Rats A 200–300 μg/kg M/300 μg/kg IP Hu et al. (1992)
Medetomidine/sufentanil Rats A 150 μg/kg M/40–50 μg/kg SC Hedenqvist (2000b)

(Continued)
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 243

TABLE 10-1
(Continued)

Dosage (mg/kg) unless

Drug Species Use otherwise specified Route References
®
Meloxicam (Metacam ) Mice AG 1.0–10 IP Santos et al. (1998)
Rats AG 1.0–4.0 SC, IP Laird et al. (1997), Roughan and Flecknell (2003)
Meloxicam/tizanidine Mice AG 0.5 M/0.25 PO Jain et al. (2002)
or clonidine
Meperidine (Demerol® ) Mice AG 20 IP Paris et al. (2005)
Methadone (Dolophine® ) Rats AG 0.5–3 SC Erichsen et al. (2005)
Morphine (Duramorph® ) Mice AG 10 SC Gades et al. (2000)
Mice AG 6.1 mM in DMSO Topical Kolesnikov et al. (2000)
Rats AG 2.0–10 SC Davis and Perkins (1993), Erichsen et al. (2005),
Gades et al. (2000)
Rats AG 2.8 SC-L Smith et al. (2003)
Naloxone hydrochloride Rodents R 20 IP Gross (2001), Levine et al. (1986)
(Narcan® )
Naproxen/hydrocodone Rats AG 200 N/1.3 SC Zelcer et al. (2005)
Oxymorphone (Numorphan® ) Mice AG 4 SC-L Clark et al. (2004)
Rats AG 0.03 mg/(kg h) CRI IV Gillingham et al. (2001)
Rats AG 0.1 IV Briggs et al. (1995)
Rats AG 1.2–1.6 SC-L Krugner-Higby et al. (2003), Smith et al. (2003)
Physostigmine (Antilirium® ) Rats AG 50–200 μg/kg SC Poyhia et al. (1999)
Propofol (Rapinovet® ) Mice I 26 IV Cantwell (2001), Flecknell (1993)
Rats I 10 IV Cantwell (2001)
Rocuronium/pentobarbital/ Rats NMB 12–19 nmol/(kg min) IV Epemolu et al. (2003)
urethane R CRI/30 P/900 U
Sevoflurane (Ultane® ) Rats A 2–2.4% Inhaled Pape et al. (2006), Payne et al. (2005)
Sodium pentobarbital Mice A 30–90 IP Flecknell (1993), Gardner et al. (1995)
(Nembutal® ) Rats A 30–60 IP Rao (1990), Wixson et al. (1987a–d)
Succinylcholine (Anectine® )/ Rats NMB 1.0 bolus S/1.2 g/kg IV Mishra and Ramzan (1992b, 1993c)
urethane U repeated boluses
Rats NMB 10–50 μg/(kg min) CRI/ IV Mishra and Ramzan (1992b, 1993c), Rana and
1.2 g/kg repeated boluses Ramzan (1995)
Tiletamine/zolazepam Rats A 20–40 IP Ferrari et al. (2005), Silverman et al. (1983),
(Telazol® ) Wilson et al. (1992)
Thiobarbital [5-ethyl-5- Mice A 80 IP Buelke-Sam et al. (1978)
(1-methylproply)-2-
thiobarbiturate](Inactin® )
Tizanidine (Zanaflex® ) Mice AG 0.25–1.0 PO Jain et al. (2002)
Tizanidine or clonidine/ Mice AG 0.25 T/1.0 PO Jain et al. (2002)
nimesulide
Tramadol (Zydol® , Ultram® ) Mice AG 20–40 IP Erhan et al. (2005)
Tribromoethanol (Avertin® ) Mice A 0.015–0.017 ml of IP Bagis et al. (2004), Chu et al. (2006),
a 0.5% TBE/g body Kiatchoosakun et al. (2001),
weight Papaioannou and Fox (1993),
Weiss and Zimmermann (1999)
Mice A 125–300 IP Flecknell (1993)
Tribromoethanol/ Rats A 150 T/0.5 (reversal IP Gopalan et al. (2005)
medetomidine 2.5 mg/kg atipamezole)
Vecuronium/fentanyl Rats NMB 1.5 bolus/7.5 mg/(kg h) CRI IV Bohrer et al. (1994)
Vecuronium/isoflurane Rats NMB 0.15–0.19 bolus V then IV Shin et al. (1992)
5.0 mg/(kg h) V CRI/1.25
MAC I
Vecuronium/pentobarbital/ Rats NMB 0.3 or 2.25 V/40 P/500 U IV, IM Sunaga et al. (2006)
urethane
Vecuronium/sevoflurane Rats NMB 0.15–0.19 bolus V then IV Shin et al. (1992)
2.0 mg/(kg h) CRI/1.25
MAC S

A, anesthetic; AG, analgesic; I, induction agent; LA, local anesthetic; NMB, neuromuscular blockade; PA, preanesthetic; R, reversal agent; SC-L, subcutaneous
in liposomes; TA, topical anesthetic.
244 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

TABLE 10-2
Behavioral and Clinical Signs of Pain in Rodents

Behavioral and clinical signs Species References

Mild signs
Lack of grooming Rat Colpaert (1987), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Mild porphyrin staining Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Weight loss of <5% Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent Flecknell (1996)
Minor depression Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Quiet, but mobile after slight stimulation Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Moderate signs
Roughened haircoat, piloerection Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Porphyrin staining of nose and eyes Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Decreased food consumption Rat Colpaert (1987), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent Flecknell (1996), ILAR (1992, 2003)
Increased or decreased water intake Rat ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Weight loss 10–15% Rat Colpaert (1987), Flecknell (1996), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Hunched posture, sitting Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Less mobile and alert, responsive only after Rat Colpaert (1987), Kirsch et al. (2002), Roughan and Flecknell (2003)
moderate stimulation Rodent ILAR (2003)
Eyes closed or squinted Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Hypothermia, body temperature (BT) reduced 1–2◦ C Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Tachypnea, increased 30% over baseline Rat Colpaert (1987), ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Shallow respirations, abdominal component Rat ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Guarding potentially painful site Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Licking or scratching of potentially painful site Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001, 2003)
Twitching, tremors Rat ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002), Roughan and Flecknell (2001, 2003)
Mouse Wright-Williams et al. (2006)
Lameness Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Mouse Wright-Williams et al. (2006)
More aggressive or more docile Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Agitation, restlessness Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Pica, chewing on cage Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Severe signs
Very roughened haircoat, ungroomed Rat Colpaert (1987), Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002),
ILAR (2003)
Severe porphyrin staining Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Inappetant Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent Flecknell (1996), ILAR (1992), Newton et al. (1975)
Weight loss 20% Rat Colpaert (1987), Flecknell (1996), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Hunched posture, head down Rat Colpaert et al. (1982), Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002),
Roughan and Flecknell (2003)
Hamster Laber-Laird et al. (1996)
Mouse Wright-Williams et al. (2006)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Inactive, lying prone Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Eyes pale, sunken, glazed Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Dilated pupils Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Eyes closed or squinted with discharge Rat Gillingham et al. (2001)
Profound hypothermia, BT reduced by >2◦ C Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Tachypnea, increase by 50% Rat Colpaert (1987), ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)

(Continued)
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 245

TABLE 10-2
(Continued)

Behavioral and clinical signs Species References

Markedly reduced breathing frequency Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)

Rodent ILAR (1992)
Shallow respiration with visible effort Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
Expiratory grunts Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Exaggerated guarding of potentially painful area Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Vocalizations (unsolicited, increased frequency) Rat Colpaert et al. (1982), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Abnormal gait, incoordination Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003), Roughan and Flecknell (2003)
Exaggerated lameness Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Exaggerated twitching, tremors, or writhing Rat ILAR (2003), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Mouse Wright-Williams et al. (2006)
Unresponsive to external stimuli Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Overreacts to external stimuli Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992)
Bruxism, teeth chattering Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Ptyalism Rat Kirsch et al. (2002)
Self-mutilation Rat Gillingham et al. (2001), Kirsch et al. (2002)
Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
General clinical signs of pain
Absence of nest building Rodent ILAR (2003)
Altered group behaviors (e.g., conspecific Rodent ILAR (1992, 2003)
grooming, separation)
Altered sleep–wake cycle Rodent ILAR (1992)
Cannibalism of offspring Rodent ILAR (1992)
Back-arching Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Increased low rearing Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Reduced high rearing, reduced exploring Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Lying with legs crossed Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Stretching Rat Roughan and Flecknell (2001)
Unusually quiet (e.g., no startle reflex or stampede) Guinea pig ILAR (1992)

Materials in this chapter have been derived in part from the and minimize risks. Considerations of the animal’s own charac-
chapter, “Anesthesia and Analgesia in Rodents” in the first teristics, the intended procedure, and the practicality of available
edition of Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals agents all contribute to the choice of analgesics and anesthetics
(Wixson and Smiler, 1997). The first edition also includes a utilized in a given situation.
more comprehensive compilation of anesthetic and analgesic
agents that are now seldom used, are not available in the
United States, or are no longer recommended. The reader is A. Animal Considerations
referred to the first edition if this additional information is
needed. Many animal species characteristics may influence the choice
or route of administration of anesthetic agents (Borchard et al.,
1992; Flecknell, 1987a). The small size of rodents imposes lim-
itations on the volume of an agent that can be administered by a
II. CONSIDERATIONS IN SELECTION OF
particular route. Table 10-4 lists the amounts of drugs that can
ANESTHETICS FOR RODENTS
be given by various routes in rodent species. Within a species,
gender, genotype, age, and other factors such as light cycle can
Every anesthetic affects an animal’s physiology as well as its affect response to anesthetic or analgesic agents; strain differ-
pain perception, and no anesthetic is ideal in all cases. Therefore, ences have also been reported (Cole et al., 1990; Cruz et al.,
the selection of an appropriate anesthetic regimen requires care- 1998; Fagioli et al., 1990; Jauchem and Frei, 1991; Kest et al.,
ful consideration of multiple factors to maximize effectiveness 1999; Pavone et al., 1989; Pick et al., 1991; Sonner et al., 1999;
 TABLE 10-3
Specific Anesthetic and Analgesic Variations Among Mice and Rats of Unique Genetic Backgrounds

Anesthetic or
Species Strain or stock Model/use analgesic agent Effect of agent on the rodenta

Mouse 129 Transgenic background ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia

strain
ASP High sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
IND High sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
Kappa-agonist High sensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
129/J ISO, HAL, DES Lower MAC than other strains
129Sv MOR Low sensitivity to morphine analgesia
MOR Decreased tolerance to chronic morphine administration
A Cancer, immunology ACE High sensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ASP High sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
IND High sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
AKR Cancer, immunology ACE High sensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ASP High sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
IND Low sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
MOR Low sensitivity to morphine analgesia
α − 2KO Absence of α-2 receptors BUP, TRA Increased analgesia
BALB/c General use ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ALP Highly sensitive to alprazolam analgesia
ASP Low sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
ISO Resists isoflurane-induced bradycardia
kappa-agonist High sensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
C3H General use ISO, SEV, DES Increased respiratory pauses, apnea
C3H/He ACE High sensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
SP Intermediate sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
C3H/HeN ISO Leukopenia, thrombocytopenia
C3H/J HAL Higher MAC than other strains
C57BL General use, immunology ALP Insensitive to alprazolam analgesia
ISO Acute porphyria
C57BL/10 ASP Intermediate sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
ACE High sensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
CLO Relative insensitivity to clonidine analgesia
IND High sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
MOR Relative insensitivity to mu-agonist analgesia
C57BL/6 ACE High sensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ASP Intermediate sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO Relative insensitivity to clonidine analgesia
Kappa-agonist Relative insensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR Relative insensitivity to mu-agonist analgesia
ISO Lower MAC than other strains
C58 Hearing loss, leukemia ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ASP High sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO Relative insensitivity to clonidine analgesia
 IND High sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
Kappa-agonist Relative insensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR Relative insensitivity to mu-agonist analgesia
CBA General use ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
IND Low sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
Kappa-agonist Relative insensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
CF1 General use ENF Acute porphyria
DBA/2 General use ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
ASP High sensitivity to aspirin analgesia
CLO High sensitivity to clonidine analgesia
EA Increased analgesia
IND High sensitivity to indomethacin analgesia
Kappa-agonist High sensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
ddN Corpus callosum agenesis ISO, ENF Anesthesia resistance
ISO, SEV, ENF Anesthesia resistance: ddN > C57BL
FVB/J Susceptible to Friend ISO, HAL Lower MAC than other strains
Leukemia Virus B
LP/J Audiogenic seizures, tumors HAL, DES Higher MAC than other strains
NZW No anti-DNA antibodies MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
PKC-γ KO Absence of protein kinase C ISO Higher MAC than other strains
Reeler Increased seizure suscepti- ISO Further increased incidence of seizure activity
bility
RIIIS Factor VIII deficiency ACE Relative insensitivity to acetaminophen analgesia
CLO Relative insensitivity to clonidine analgesia
Kappa-agonist High sensitivity to kappa-agonist analgesia
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
Serotonin Reduced hippocampal 5-HT ISO Further reduction in hippocampal 5-HT
transporter KO
Obesity, atherosclerosis CLO Relative insensitivity to clonidine analgesia
MOR Low sensitivity to morphine analgesia

MOR Decreased tolerance to chronic morphine administration

Spret/Ei Mus spretus ISO, HAL, DES Higher MAC than other strains
Rat Fischer 344 General use HAL Reduced NK activity
MOR Low sensitivity to morphine analgesia
Lewis Transplantation, ISO MAC Lewis < SD
inflammation
Long Evans General use MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
SD General use BUP SD has decreased food intake at higher doses
(< intake than treated DA)
ISO MAC SD > Lewis
MOR High sensitivity to morphine analgesia
SHR Spontaneous hypertensive ISO, HAL, SEV Decreased cardiac contractility
ISO, SEV Enhanced inhibition of Ang-II vasoconstriction leading
to systemic hypotension
MOR Hypotension and bradycardia: SHR > WKY, SD
Zucker fa/fa Obesity ISO, HAL, Blunted anesthetic response
ENF, DES

ISO, isoflurane; SEV, sevoflurane; HAL, halothane; DES, desflurane; ENF, enflurane; BUP, buprenorphine; TRA, tramadol; MOR, morphine; EA, electroacupuncture; CLO, clonidine;
indomethacin; ASP, aspirin; ALP, alprazolam.
a Effect of the anesthetic or analgesic is a comparison between a “treated” rodent and an untreated control or between a specific strain or stock and a wild-type control.
248 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

TABLE 10-4
Volumes and Routes of Administration by Species and Site

Intravenous
Species Oral Subcutaneous Intraperitoneal Intramusculara Intravenous (bolus) (infusion)

Mouse 0.25 (max 1.0) Scruff 2–3 (<20 G) 2–3 (<21 G) Quadriceps or caudal thigh 0.05 Lateral tail vein 0.2 (<25 G) Max. 25 ml/kg
(<23 G)
Rat 3–5 (max. 15) Scruff or back 5–10 5–10 (<21 G) Quadriceps or caudal thigh 0.3 (<21 G) Lateral tail vein 0.5 (<23 G) Max. 20 ml/kg
(<20 G)
Gerbil 0.5 (max. 1.0) Scruff 3–4 (<20 G) 3–4 (<21 G) Quadriceps or caudal thigh 0.1 (<21 G) Lateral tail vein 0.3 (<25 G) Max. 25 ml/kg
Hamster 0.5 (max. 1.0) Scruff 3–4 (<20 G) 3–4 (<21 G) Quadriceps or caudal thigh 0.1 (<21 G) Femoral or jugular vein Max. 25 ml/kg
(cut-down) 0.3 (<25 G)
Guinea 5–10 Scruff or back 5–10 10–15 (<21 G) Quadriceps or caudal thigh 0.3 (<21 G) Ear vein or saphenous vein Max. 20 ml/kg
pig (max. 35) (<20 G) 0.5 (<23 G)

a
Values are in milliliters per site.
G = gauge of needle to be used.

Vaccarino et al., 1988). Genetically modified rodents may have of the anesthetic protocol, associated risks, the planned anes-
unexpected variability in their response to anesthetics compared thetic dose, and whether this animal is a suitable subject for the
with background strains, since the location of inserted genetic proposed research.
material and the number of inserted copies of that genetic mate-
rial will vary among transgenic animals. Table 10-3 summarizes
B. Procedure Considerations
published instances where genetic background has been shown
to influence the effects of anesthetics and analgesics on rodents.
The anesthetic regimen must be compatible with the needs
Biodistribution of drugs may differ in obese, pregnant, or lean
and restrictions of the procedure to be performed. Different
animals, and prior exposure to agents, such as raw pine shav-
agents have different durations of effect, so the anticipated
ings, that affect hepatic enzymes has been shown to alter the
length of the procedure must be a primary consideration. It is
effects of drugs metabolized by this route (Amouzadeh et al.,
also essential that contingency plans be in place to ensure con-
1989; Borchard et al., 1992; Weichbrod et al., 1988). Pregnant
tinued depth of anesthesia should the procedure last longer than
animals require special consideration depending on the stage of
expected. The choice of anesthetics may depend on whether
pregnancy, whether or not the agent under consideration crosses
or not the animal is intended to survive the procedure, and
the placenta, and whether potential effects on the fetus will
the degree of invasiveness of the proposed procedure needs
alter experimental data. While a primary consideration is that
to be anticipated. Scientific goals may require specific physi-
animals are anesthetized humanely with as little physiological
ologic effects such as muscle relaxation or avoidance of cardiac
disturbance as possible, a second important consideration is that
or respiratory disturbances and the anesthetic regimen must
the anesthetic to be used should minimally affect research data.
be adjusted to provide or avoid these effects (Antunes et al.,
The health status of an individual animal also requires con-
2003a; Brown et al., 1989; Stringer and Seligmann, 1996).
sideration. While it may be impractical to perform a complete
The anatomical location of the procedure and a requirement for
physical exam on every rodent, a useful assessment can be made
intraoperative restraint, such as the use of stereotaxic surgery
quite quickly. Changes in overall appearance or demeanor, such
or procedures on the eyes, nose, or mouth, may limit the anes-
as skin lesions, masses, or dehydration, or changes in alertness,
thetic options (Yamasaki et al., 2003). The animal may need
activity, gait, or body position, may indicate a health problem.
to be transported while under anesthesia, or may be undergoing
A body weight that is significantly less than that of cohorts may
a procedure in a location with physical limitations, such as mag-
be observed in the cage or as the animal is handled, or may be
netic resonance or other imaging studies, which are addressed
documented by weighing. Body condition scoring, which can
elsewhere in this text.
be applied to many species, is a quick and effective method to
assess overall condition (Easterly et al., 2001; Ullman-Cullere
and Foltz, 1999). Respiratory disease may be detected by noisy C. Practical Considerations
or rapid breathing or by nasal or ocular discharges and may sug-
gest serious conditions such as pulmonary consolidation due to Any anesthetic choice involves consideration of availability,
agents such as Pneumocystis carinii. Examination of the quan- equipment, training, and expense. Some agents are not avail-
tity, consistency, and color of fecal material and urine in the able in all countries or locations, and controlled drugs require
animal’s cage may indicate gastrointestinal or urinary abnor- special licensing and handling. Modern inhalant anesthetics
malities. Detection of any potential health issues should initiate require the use of calibrated vaporizers and gas scavenging
closer examination of the individual animal and reassessment systems, while infusion methods may require an infusion pump
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 249

for precise control. Recovery support, especially after lengthy For injectable anesthetics, it is highly desirable to measure the
procedures, may include a need for heated cages or chambers actual body weight of each animal rather than using a single
and supplemental oxygen. Personnel must be trained in proce- dose for all animals in a group. Because of their small body size
dures such as injection techniques, endotracheal intubation, or and the small volumes used for injection, it is relatively easy to
vascular access, must be familiar with the use of any equip- inadvertently overdose or underdose an individual rodent. This
ment required for administration and monitoring, and should is particularly important in cohorts of older animals, which may
also be knowledgeable regarding potential adverse anesthetic have more variation in weight than those at a younger age.
effects and appropriate responses.
The number of animals to undergo a procedure on the same
day may influence the choice of anesthetics, since rodent anes-
B. Preanesthetic Drugs
thesia for groups of rodents is often done as in an assembly line
with individual animals proceeding through induction, surgery,
In some instances, additional drugs given before or during
and supervised recovery phases. The availability of resources
anesthesia may improve the quality of the anesthesia and/or
such as a centralized surgery facility and staff with experi-
recovery. The most commonly used premedications are seda-
ence in rodent anesthesia may increase the options available
tives and analgesics. Sedatives calm the animal, smooth anes-
for scientists by providing access to drugs, equipment, per-
thetic induction and recovery, and reduce the dose of anesthetic
sonnel, and training opportunities. The expense of agents or
agent needed, but are seldom used prior to rodent anesthesia
equipment, technical challenges, and safety considerations may
due to the additional stress of administering a second injection.
all affect whether a specific agent may be suitable in a given
Systemic and/or local analgesics may also reduce the anesthetic
situation.
requirements, and have a preemptive effect on pain perception,
which persists into the recovery period (Karas, 2002; Penderis
and Franklin, 2005). Other agents that may be used prior to
III. GENERAL ANESTHETIC PLAN or during anesthesia are anticholinergics, antibiotics, parenteral
fluids, supplemental oxygen, and paralytic agents. These are
In addition to the selection of the anesthetic regimen, it is discussed in greater detail in other sections of this chapter.
important to have a general plan in place that includes animal
preparation and postanesthetic recovery. All animals, includ-
ing rodents, should be observed during recovery until they are C. Intraoperative and Recovery Support
able to move around independently. This is especially important
for group-housed rodents because each cage group maintains a Because rodents have a high surface area to body mass ratio,
dominance hierarchy and partially awake rodents may serve as it is extremely important to provide thermal support starting
targets for aggression. Anesthesia is a stressful event, indepen- immediately after anesthetic induction and continuing through-
dent of any other procedures performed, and alleviating other out full recovery (Gardner et al., 1995; Wixson et al., 1987c).
stressors as much as possible will maximize the animal’s overall Body heat is lost rapidly and this loss is accelerated when the
well-being (Flecknell, 1993a, 1996). fur is clipped and liquid disinfectants are applied. Body heat is
also lost if the anesthetized rodent is in contact with conductive
surfaces such as metals. Intra- and postoperative thermal sup-
A. Preparation for Anesthesia port can be accomplished through the use of a heated surgery
platform, heating pad, heated chamber or cubicle, or an in-cage
Animals that have been recently shipped should be allowed heat source such as a sealed container of warm water or nontoxic
24–72 hours to recover from the stress of transport. During this self-heating chemical warming packs (such as Grabber Mycoal
time they are also acclimating to changes in their surroundings, 12+ Hour Pocket Warmers, Grabber Performance Group, Grand
which may include the cage environment, feed and water, light Rapids, MI), which can be left in the animal’s cage overnight.
cycle, cage mates, noise levels, and handlers. For rodents, pre- Animals should be assessed at least daily for signs of pain or
anesthetic fasting is generally not needed unless required by distress over the following 24–72 hours and appropriate treat-
the procedure. If necessary, fasting should be minimized due ment given. Table 10-2 summarizes the signs of pain seen in rats
to the high metabolic rate of these small animals. Water should and mice. In general, since rodents are prey species that have
not be withheld. Vomition during induction and anesthesia is evolved to mask signs of distress, it is better to err on the side
extremely uncommon and the rat is unable to vomit due to the of providing analgesics for too long a time than too short. Ani-
anatomical constraint of the limiting ridge of the forestomach mals may also require assistance meeting their nutritional and
(Luciano and Reale, 1992). fluid needs. Contingency plans should be in place for treatment
As close as possible to the time of anesthesia, animals should or euthanasia of animals experiencing adverse effects from the
receive at least a brief health assessment as described above. anesthesia or the procedure.
250 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

D. Sequential Surgeries on a Number of Rodents in a concentration of a nonvolatile gas to the rodent via the respira-
Single Session tory tract. The use of a “bell jar” for short-duration anesthesia
continues to be popular because the required equipment is
It is common for surgery to be performed on a number of inexpensive and readily available. However, this method has
rodents in the same session, but this practice requires some several disadvantages: (1) the potential for the rodent to come
special considerations. There should be enough people partic- in contact with the liquid anesthetic, (2) an unmeasured and
ipating in the session to ensure that each animal is adequately uncontrolled concentration of the anesthetic, (3) the possibility
observed during induction, anesthesia, and recovery. Injectable of inadvertent overdose when using highly volatile agents, and
anesthetics may be preferred since it is generally not necessary (4) the potential release of volatilized anesthetic to the room
to adjust the dose once given, but this does not preclude the need air if the jar is not contained in a chemical fume hood. As a
to monitor depth of anesthesia closely. If the session involves result, many institutions have restricted or forbidden the use
many animals and runs late in the workday, there may be a of bell jars for rodent anesthesia. A refinement to this tech-
temptation to return the last animals of the group to their hous- nique is an “anesthesia box,” usually made of Plexiglas and
ing area before they are fully recovered. Animals that are not attached to an inhalant vaporizer or gas line and a scavenging
fully awake may be injured by cage mates or may rapidly chill system.
without thermal support. Education of personnel is essential to Inhalant anesthesia of small rodents is generally maintained
avoid compromise of animal welfare. utilizing face masks or nosecones, either to a single animal
or to a group of animals by use of a manifold connected to a
vaporizer. With improved training programs and equipment (Jou
IV. RECOMMENDED ANESTHETIC METHODS et al., 2000; Ordodi et al., 2005), endotracheal intubation has
FOR ROUTINE USE IN RODENTS also become a more common practice in mice and rats. Because
anesthetic-induced respiratory depression is not uncommon,
the anesthetist will often choose to mechanically ventilate the
A. Inhalant Anesthetics rodent patient. Due to the easily compliant pulmonary sys-
tem of the rodent, it is possible to ventilate a rodent with a
Historically, the use of inhalant anesthetics for rodents was nosecone. Today, there are commercial nosecones designed for
limited by deterrents such as small animal size and difficulty rodents, which closely fit the rodent snout and thus minimize the
of intubation. With the advent of more convenient and cost- amount of waste gas exiting the cone around the patient–mask
effective delivery systems and increased numbers of trained interface. Close-fitting “masks” for small rodents can also be
personnel, the ease and frequency of the use of inhalant anes- easily fashioned out of trimmed latex exam gloves fitted snugly
thetics for rodents have increased dramatically over the past over a mask adapter. Rodents are obligate nasal breathers;
decade. Inhalant anesthetics provide a safe, reliable, reversible, therefore, a nosecone is an ideal way to deliver inhalant
and reproducible means of rendering rodents unconscious in anesthesia.
order to perform surgeries and other intricate or potentially Endotracheal intubation of mice and rats is facilitated by
painful procedures. This section will provide a review of the equipment and techniques that have been refined and cus-
use of inhalant anesthetics in mice and rats. For more informa- tomized for these species (Brown et al., 1999; Jou et al., 2000;
tion regarding the pharmacokinetics of anesthetic agents, please Kastl et al., 2004; Linden et al., 2000; Ordodi et al., 2005;
refer to the previous edition of this text (Brunson, 1997). Vergari et al., 2003, 2004; Weksler et al., 1994). Endotracheal
tubes are most commonly custom-designed from intravenous
catheters and polyvinyl cannulae. Depending on the species
1. Delivery Systems
and technique, visualization of the laryngeal orifice may involve
Inhalants are unique among veterinary anesthetics because ventral transillumination of the oropharynx (Brown et al., 1999),
the lungs provide the route of both administration and elim- a customized laryngoscope (Molthen, 2006), or conventional
ination. The two main categories of inhalant anesthetics are pediatric equipment (Schaefer et al., 1984). Intubation can be
volatile agents (isoflurane, sevoflurane, etc.) and nonvolatile accomplished in dorsal recumbency or by using customized or
gases (e.g., carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, etc.). While the non- commercially available inclined rodent boards. Similar to other
volatile agents require only a low-pressure connection between rodent equipment refinements, many manufacturers of mechan-
the gas supply and the animal, the volatile agents require a preci- ical ventilators have specifically designed and calibrated models
sion vaporizer to control the delivery of the agent. With modern for use in small rodents.
vaporizers, the anesthetist can set the combination of air or oxy- At times, large numbers of rodents may need to be anes-
gen to be mixed with the agent and deliver a specific percentage thetized in quick succession to allow for procedures of short
of drug to the patient. duration to be performed humanely and efficiently. Commer-
Regardless of the agent or the system, inhalation anesthe- cially available manifolds requiring only one vaporizer and input
sia involves the delivery of a volatile compound or a high of air/oxygen have become much more popular when attached
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 251

via nosecones or masks to several rodents undergoing similar are higher than those with the use of injectable anesthetics. The
experimental surgical procedures. use of volatile anesthetics without effective scavenging can be
Scavenging of anesthetic gases is essential to protect lab- dangerous for personnel (Paddleford, 1986), but proper training,
oratory personnel working with animals. In a barrier setting, conscientious application of training techniques, oversight, and
many rodent procedures are best performed within secondary the diligent use of fully functional, modern equipment will
enclosures such as a cage changing station or a biosafety cab- minimize the occupational exposures.
inet (BSC). If this BSC is hard-ducted and exhausts to the Anesthetic induction of a rodent with inhalants often requires
outside (Class II, Type B2), then supplemental scavenging is closer attention than with parenteral anesthetics. Induction
not needed. Otherwise, the exhaust from the induction cham- doses (e.g., isoflurane 4–5%) are often significantly higher
ber must be attached either to a wall-mounted vacuum system than maintenance doses (e.g., isoflurane 1–3%), and prolonged
or to commercial charcoal canisters that remove anesthetic gas exposure to these higher percentages may lead to mortality
from expired and excess anesthetic mixture. Charcoal filtration via cardiovascular and respiratory depression. The induction,
is not effective for removing nitrous oxide from the anesthetic delivery, and scavenging systems all add to the cost and tech-
circuit (Smith and Bolon, 2003). Canisters must be rou- nical training necessary to provide safe and reliable inhalation
tinely monitored to ensure they do not exceed their scavenging anesthesia. Prefabricated induction chambers should exhaust
capacity. through a carbon filter, a calibrated vacuum system (hard-ducted
Although the most common method for delivery of volatile to the exhaust system), or into a fume hood, vacuum exhaust, or
gas anesthetics is via inhalation, it has been demonstrated that ducted BSC. Even if the induction chamber is attached to a scav-
isoflurane can be administered intravenously (IV) when mixed enging system, opening the chamber to retrieve the anesthetized
with Intralipid in the mouse (Eger and MacLeod, 1995) and the rodent releases the vaporized inhalant into the surrounding area.
rat (Zhou et al., 2006). The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
and the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health
(NIOSH) have established standards for exposure to unscav-
2. Advantages of Inhalation Anesthesia
enged anesthetics in humans (NIOSH, 1977). Chronic exposure
Over the years, inhalant anesthesia has proven to be safe and to volatile anesthetics in excess of these limits has led to hepatic,
reliable in rodents. The most important advantages of inhalant neurologic, renal, and reproductive dysfunction in staff (Rogers,
anesthesia are the predictable and rapid control of anesthetic 1986; Smith, 1993). The institution’s occupational health pro-
depth and the minimal influence on research data (Wixson and gram should define the proper use of inhalant anesthetics by
Smiler, 1997). These factors directly relate to increased sur- trained personnel [Institute for Laboratory Animal Research
vival rates and optimal data acquisition from rodent models (U.S.) (ILAR), 1996].
of biomedical research. Compared with anesthetics adminis- While the anesthetic monitoring of a rodent requires the same
tered by injection, the use of inhalant anesthetics offers far more clinical experience as the use of parenteral anesthetics and the
control over the duration and depth of the anesthesia because maintenance of a stable animal may be simple, intubation of
central nervous system (CNS) depression is rapidly reversed rodents requires training (Vergari et al., 2003). When intubation
after reduction of delivered anesthetic levels. Because of high is performed properly, the rodent will be a more stable patient
gas solubilities in tissues and pulmonary delivery methods, a and there will be very little unscavenged anesthetic gas. Within
change in the percentage of inspired volatile gas will result in the last several years, the trend in laboratory animal medicine
rapid changes in anesthetic depth. Inhalants are administered is the creation or expansion of training programs within animal
“to effect” and within a fairly narrow dosage range (typically care units (Kennedy, 2002), so much of the infrastructure nec-
0–5%); thus, dose calculations are not required and dilution essary to counter this disadvantage is already in place at many
or mixing prior to use is not necessary (Brunson, 1997). The institutions.
use of inhalant anesthetics does not require special licensing Improved training is not the only cost related to inhalant
and record-keeping because they are not controlled substances. anesthesia—an even more direct expense is the equipment
Volatile inhalant anesthetics have profound and specific short- itself. Volatile anesthetics such as isoflurane require vaporiz-
term effects on the CNS, their primary site of action. Their ers that cost $1,000 or more per unit. Complete systems to
effects on other organ systems vary and will be discussed in the anesthetize a number of rodents may cost several thousand dol-
sections on each agent below. lars. Fortunately, these are start-up costs and inhalant anesthesia
equipment will function well for years with regular servic-
ing. Anesthetic vaporizers should be recalibrated at appropriate
3. Disadvantages of Inhalation Anesthesia
intervals to ensure correct dosage.
The disadvantages to the use of inhalation anesthetics are as It is important to note that the significance of the advantages of
follows: (1) induction must be closely monitored, (2) specialized inhalant anesthetic delivery (safe for the animal patient and easy
personnel training may be necessary, (3) specialized equipment to adjust anesthetic depth) far outweigh the listed disadvantages.
is needed, and (4) costs associated with training and equipment We advocate for the appropriate use of these agents.
252 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

4. Volatile Inhalation Agents produce hepatic injury following metabolism by the cytochrome
P450 system. This effect is greatest with halothane, and least
The blood:gas partition coefficient of any volatile anesthetic
with desflurane and isoflurane. The breakdown products can
determines the rapidity of induction, how quickly the anesthetist
elicit an immune response that predicates the hepatic damage
can alter the depth of anesthesia, and how rapidly the animal
(Njoku et al., 1997). These metabolized by-products do not stay
recovers from anesthesia. The lower the blood:gas coefficient,
in the liver, but will circulate systemically. Because the brain,
the more rapidly the induction, adjustment, and recovery will
heart, liver, and kidneys represent a small proportion of the body
occur. The direct consequence of a lower blood:gas coefficient
mass but receive 75% of the blood flow, these organs will be
is that the lung alveolar concentration of the gas (the last step
most affected by volatile agents (Rampil and King, 1996).
before entering the bloodstream) reaches levels similar to that
of inspired gas very quickly. A high ratio of arterial to inspired
gas (Fa /Fi ) allows for rapid adjustments in depth of anesthesia.
a. Isoflurane
The newer gases (e.g., desflurane and sevoflurane) have a lower
blood:gas coefficient and higher Fa /Fi ratios, and thus work For procedures where only very short durations of anesthe-
more rapidly than the more historic agents (e.g., isoflurane and sia are required, isoflurane provides a rapid onset of induction
halothane) (Heavner, 2001). and recovery and raises corticosterone levels to a lesser degree
The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of a volatile than does anesthesia with carbon dioxide (CO2 ) (Altholtz et al.,
anesthetic is a relative measure of how much delivered gas is 2006). Overall, isoflurane is used far more often than other
necessary to anesthetize the patient (Heavner, 1997). MAC is inhaled agents and has been shown to be very safe when used
inversely proportional to the potency of the gas, i.e., anesthetics appropriately, even for long periods of anesthesia in both mice
with a low MAC have a relatively high potency. MAC typically (Szczensy et al., 2004) and rats (Wood et al., 2001). Isoflurane
is described as the “effective dose” when 50% of the patients are is a preferred anesthetic for all rodents when equipment for
“anesthetized,” or the ED50 . The ED50 equaling 1 MAC gen- gas anesthesia and scavenging is available.
erally represents “light” anesthesia. ED95 represents 1.2–1.4 Isoflurane produces significant alterations in the CNS. Neuro-
MAC—when 95% of the patients are anesthetized. MAC 2.0 is protection induced by isoflurane is thought to be a consequence
considered very deep anesthesia and may be fatal (Rampil and of reduced sympathetic activity (Engelhard et al., 1999). At
King, 1996). Although adequate anesthesia of a patient can be typical anesthetic levels, isoflurane significantly reduces sero-
measured in different ways (e.g., loss of righting reflex, unre- tonin levels in the hippocampus of mice (Whittington and
sponsiveness to surgical manipulation), the relative ranking of Virag, 2006) and increases survivability of oxygen- and glucose-
MAC in volatile anesthetics remains consistent. For inhalants, deprived hippocampal cells of the rat, an action that decreases
halothane has the lowest MAC, followed closely by isoflurane with age (Zhan et al., 2006). Isoflurane offers a protective effect
and sevoflurane, while desflurane is considerably higher. This on ischemic rat neuronal cells, noted by a reduction of apopto-
relative ranking is true for most animal species (Heavner, 2001). sis, for up to a week after anesthesia (Kawaguchi et al., 2004).
The primary effects of volatile and gas anesthetics are to pro- Neuroprotection from cerebral ischemia in a perinatal stroke
duce sedation, amnesia, and/or hypnosis, which can be achieved model in neonatal rats anesthetized with isoflurane is thought to
through different mechanisms. Clinical and physiologic signs of be mediated by a reduced expression of inducible nitric oxide
adequate anesthetic depth in rodents include increases in arte- synthase, thus producing less oxidative damage in these ani-
rial CO2 , eyelid aperture, and pupil diameter and decrease in mals (Zhao and Zuo, 2004). Isoflurane improves survivability
mean arterial pressure (MAP) and respiratory rate (Steffey et in hypoxic neurons of the cortex by attenuating the increase in
al., 2003). The pharmacology of inhalant anesthetics is detailed intracellular calcium (Bickler and Fahlman, 2006). Isoflurane
in Chapter 3. works at sites in the CNS below the level of the brain. It reduces
The primary negative side effect seen with all volatile anes- excitatory transmitters released at nociceptive inputs at the level
thetics is an agent-dependent depression of the cardiovascular of the dorsal horn of the spinal cord (Haseneder et al., 2004).
system resulting in decreased cardiac output, reduced contractil- In rats, isoflurane improves spatial memory following general
ity, and systemic hypotension (Rampil and King, 1996). There hypoxia (Bekker et al., 2006).
is some variability among the volatile agents, e.g., halothane Isoflurane may be the best inhalant anesthetic agent to be used
creates more profound myocardial depression compared to in rodent models of human traumatic brain injury. While injured
isoflurane. The development of hypotension in anesthetized rats anesthetized with isoflurane developed a clinically rele-
rodents may also be affected by rodent genotype. Table 10-3 vant decrease in MAP, the intracranial pressure did not change
summarizes the reported influences of genotype and strain on (Goren et al., 2001). Not only do injured rats anesthetized with
anesthesia and analgesia. For instance, spontaneously hyperten- isoflurane have the best cognitive outcome and neuronal survival
sive rats (SHR) have a greater than usual decrease in MAP when compared with other common anesthetics (Statler et al., 2006),
anesthetized with isoflurane or sevoflurane (Yu et al., 2004). anesthesia with isoflurane before and immediately after the
With prolonged anesthesia, volatile anesthetic agents may also traumatic brain injury showed no alterations in histopathology
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 253

compared with control animals (Statler et al., 2006). This is not Isoflurane may be safely used in pregnant or neonatal rodents
true of other volatile inhalant anesthetics. and can be recommended for embryo transfer (ET) proce-
Isoflurane has protective effects in models of ischemic cardiac dures (Smith et al., 2004). Exposure of pregnant ICR mice to
disease. If mice are anesthetized with isoflurane and subjected to isoflurane in the first gestational week produces slight growth
coronary artery occlusion, the subsequent infarct size is smaller retardation in preterm fetuses (Haque et al., 2004). Caesarian-
than that in the absence of isoflurane (Tsutsumi et al., 2006b). derived pups of pregnant rats administered 2.5% isoflurane have
Cardioprotective effects can last for 2 weeks following the anes- more physiologically normal levels of lactate, pO2 , and pCO2
thetic episode (Tsutsumi et al., 2006a). A similar effect has been than those at higher doses of isoflurane (Vaillancourt et al.,
documented in rats (Wakeno-Takahashi et al., 2005). Reduc- 1999). Isoflurane produces hypoglycemia and metabolic acido-
tion of the superoxide production and adherence of neutrophils sis in neonatal mice. Mechanical ventilation greatly improves
are thought to be the mechanisms of cardioprotection in stroke the survivability in neonatal mice over spontaneous breathing
models (Hu et al., 2003). Compared with a historical, but still when exposed to long anesthetic regimens (Loepke et al., 2006).
commonly used injected anesthetic, pentobarbital, isoflurane Despite these physiologic effects, isoflurane is generally safe to
produces less deleterious cardiac effects, demonstrated by a use in neonatal mice (Drobac et al., 2004; Gotoh et al., 2004)
higher mean coronary blood flow in rats due to a larger ejec- and can be recommended for brief procedures such as tail biopsy
tion fraction and higher cardiac output (Iltis et al., 2005). In for genotyping or toe clipping for identification.
a small number of common strains and stocks of mice (CD-1, The specific effects of isoflurane on DNA and gene expres-
Swiss, and C57BL), cardiac output decreased only 5% com- sion are inconsistent. Although isoflurane has been shown
pared with awake, resting control mice (Janssen et al., 2004). to offer protection of the brain and heart following hypoxia
This minimal decrease in cardiac output seen in mice is not seen to anoxia, normal anesthetic doses of isoflurane can produce
in rats. Wistar rats anesthetized with 0.9% isoflurane have sig- oxidative DNA damage in lymphocytes, spleen, and bone mar-
nificantly reduced MAP and perfusion pressure of the brain as row of rats as well as brain, liver, and lung tissue (Kim et al.,
compared with rats anesthetized with propofol (Kahveci et al., 2006). Conversely, in rat neuronal cultures, exposure to isoflu-
2001). rane upregulates protective genes and downregulates damaging
Isoflurane has inconsistent effects in the lung, and can be genes (Huang and Zuo, 2005). Isoflurane has been shown to
both protective and deleterious in effect. At the cellular level, alter the expression of hundreds of genes in the rat brain as
isoflurane causes a significant ciliary dysfunction of rat tra- detected by gene microarrays (Rampil et al., 2006).
chea epithelial cells at normal anesthetic doses (Matsuura et al., Isoflurane and other volatile agents may have a hyperalgesic
2006). Anesthesia with isoflurane worsens the sequelae in effect if the inhaled concentration becomes too low. In rats
patients with neurogenic pulmonary edema, a trait linked to the recovering from anesthesia, a concentration of 0.5 MAC is
excessive release of endothelial growth factor from bronchial high enough to produce an antinociceptive effect, while 0.1–0.2
cells in rats (Kandatsu et al., 2005). Long-term exposure of MAC produces hyperalgesia (Flood et al., 2002; Zhang et al.,
rats to isoflurane inhibits the release of inflammatory cytokines 2000). Therefore, it is of great importance to have completed all
by the pulmonary epithelium (Giraud et al., 2003). Isoflurane painful procedures prior to lowering the dose of isoflurane and
has protective effects on the vascular endothelium when rats beginning recovery of the rodent. It is also recommended that
are anesthetized before lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administra- perioperative analgesics be administered well before the patient
tion. LPS-induced vasodilation and subsequent drop in MAP, begins recovering from isoflurane anesthesia.
increase in tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and direct vas-
cular damage can all be attenuated by prior exposure of rats to
b. Halothane
isoflurane (Plachinta et al., 2003).
Isoflurane is only minimally metabolized by the liver; there- Of all the volatile inhalants, halothane has been shown to
fore, adverse hepatic effects are uncommon following short-to- have the most extensive effects on the cardiopulmonary system
moderate duration anesthesia. Rats can be anesthetized for short during anesthesia. At therapeutic levels, it is a strong hypoten-
periods of time with isoflurane without any change in the activ- sive agent and is known to be arrhythmogenic (Rampil and
ity of cytochrome P450 enzymes (Plate et al., 2005). Compared King, 1996). Most cardiophysiologic parameters are impacted
to the cardiovascular and nervous systems, the gastrointestinal adversely in rodent hearts exposed to halothane compared with
system is generally spared of side effects of anesthesia with other inhalant anesthetics (Skeehan et al., 1995). Halothane
volatile agents. However, rats briefly anesthetized with isoflu- is the most potent bronchodilator (Klide and Aviado, 1967),
rane demonstrate a 50% reduction in gut motility for up to and thus may be the best choice for rodent models that may
2 hours (Torjman et al., 2005). Another important consider- be prone to airway resistance. As newer, safer volatile anes-
ation is the use of anesthesia for hematologic measurements. thetics become more easily available and affordable, the use
C3H/HeN mice have been shown to develop a leukopenia, neu- of halothane is expected to decrease. Currently, halothane has
tropenia, and thrombocytopenia within 48 hours following only very limited availability, with all North American and European
30 minutes of isoflurane anesthesia (Jacobsen et al., 2004). manufacturing discontinued.
254 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

In halothane-anesthetized rats and mice, albino animals are latency and reduced mounting (Oropeza-Hernandez et al.,
spared from retinal photoreceptor degeneration produced by 2002). Furthermore, halothane may reduce pup survival
prolonged exposure to high-intensity white light (Keller et al., from CBi dams subjected to limited repeated exposures to
2001). Like isoflurane, halothane affects dopamine metabolism halothane. Surviving pups demonstrate a reduced general anti-
at presynaptic sites (Adachi et al., 2005). Exposure to about 0.1 body response as neonates and young adult mice (Puig et al.,
MAC of halothane significantly enhances memory of aversive 1999). In pregnant rats, anesthesia with halothane reduces
stimuli in rats (Alkire et al., 2005). Halothane also has neuro- oxytocin-induced uterine contractions (Yamakage et al., 2002);
protective effects, most notably in reducing the pathology seen thus, halothane may be considered for anesthesia in cases of
with cerebral ischemia (Sarraf-Yazdi et al., 1999). Experimen- cesarean derivation when the pregnant dam must survive to
tally, halothane in combination with nitrous oxide provides a reproduce again.
significantly increased access of the West Nile virus to the CNS Despite the significant side effects, halothane can be used
in mice resulting in more cases of fatal encephalitis than in CO2 - effectively in rodents.
anesthetized control mice (Ben-Nathan et al., 2000; Katz et al.,
2002).
c. Sevoflurane
As few as three halothane anesthetic episodes have been
shown to cause fatty change in the livers of CBi mice (Puig et Sevoflurane does have direct cardiodepressive effects, most
al., 1999). In addition to fatty change, mitochondrial swelling, notably on myocardial contractility, but this effect is similar to
ribosome depletion, and fragmentation of the endoplasmic retic- that of isoflurane and not severe (Park et al., 1996). Pretreatment
ulum of hepatocytes can be seen in rats subjected to 1.5% with clinically relevant doses of sevoflurane is cardioprotec-
halothane (Noseworthy et al., 1997). Similarly, hemorrhagic tive, similar to many other fluorinated anesthetics (Obal et al.,
shock of the liver in rats anesthetized with halothane produced 2001), and is most significant in animals pretreated 48 hours
a slower ATP recovery rate than that in rats anesthetized with before infarction (Lutz and Liu, 2006) and in septic animals
isoflurane (Takahashi et al., 1997). However, surgical liver (Serita et al., 2002). This protective effect further extends into
insults do not affect high-energy phosphate states following the reperfusion phase in these models. Sevoflurane delivered
halothane anesthesia, as with isoflurane (Mets et al., 1997). during the first few minutes of reperfusion significantly reduces
Halothane may have confounding effects on the immune infarct size, but a longer duration of anesthesia did not further
response. In pulmonary epithelium of rats, long periods improve the protective effects (Obal et al., 2003).
of halothane exposure inhibit the release of inflammatory Sevoflurane appears to have positive effects on the pul-
cytokines and decrease the recruitment of leukocytes in lung monary system. At normal anesthetic doses, sevoflurane does
inflammation (Giraud et al., 2000, 2003). Immune-challenged not produce ciliary dysfunction of rat tracheal epithelial cells
female CBi mice repeatedly exposed to halothane develop (Matsuura et al., 2006). In cases of neurogenic pulmonary
increased numbers of circulating plasma cells (Puig et al., 1999), edema, sevoflurane does not worsen and may improve over-
but have reduced numbers of generalized T and B cells (Elena all outcome (Kandatsu et al., 2005). Furthermore, sevoflurane
et al., 1997). Length of exposure to halothane has significant induces an epithelium-dependent bronchodilation (Park et al.,
effects on survival in a C3H/HeN mouse undergoing cecal 1998), which may improve both anesthetic and oxygen delivery
ligation and puncture; an intermediate duration of halothane to patients with pulmonary compromise.
anesthesia (2 hours) has a significantly lower mortality than Ischemia-induced cerebral apoptosis is reduced if rats are
both very short (15 minutes) and very long (6 hours) exposures anesthetized with sevoflurane (Pape et al., 2006). General neu-
to halothane (Imai et al., 1998). roprotection from preconditioning occurs whether sevoflurane
Halothane causes a consistent and sustained elevation in cor- is inhaled minutes to days before an ischemic event (Payne et al.,
ticosterone for up to 24 hours, as demonstrated in rats subjected 2005). When compared with isoflurane, the most widely used
to just one 2-hour anesthetic episode (Karuri et al., 1998). In anesthetic in neurophysiology, sevoflurane offers similar rates
even briefer anesthetic episodes (30 minutes), halothane acts as of rebuilding of high-energy phosphate stores following cere-
a very potent inducer of the stress-related heat shock proteins in bral ischemia in rats (Payne et al., 2005). Sevoflurane does not
the liver, lungs, and kidneys (Kilgore et al., 2003). Heat shock have the same neuroprotective effects in experimental spinal
proteins are typically induced in response to various stressors cord ischemia in rats (Zvara et al., 2006). Behaviorally, expo-
(e.g., hypoxia), but halothane increases the induction of these sure to about 0.1 MAC of sevoflurane significantly enhances
stress markers over and above the level generally seen in hypoxia memory of aversive stimuli in the rat (Alkire et al., 2005).
alone (Yamasaki et al., 2001). As seen in mice anesthetized with halothane, repeated anes-
Halothane may also have reproductive effects. It has been thesia with sevoflurane has been shown to produce a peripheral
shown to impede development of rat embryos harvested for cul- leukopenia and lymphopenia that can persist for several days
ture, a side effect not seen with isoflurane (Brown-Woodman (Elena et al., 2003).
et al., 2004). Male rats chronically exposed to halothane On a cellular level, sevoflurane inhibits oxytocin-induced
exhibit sexual behavior deficiencies, including increased mating contractions of the pregnant myometrium at normal anesthetic
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 255

doses (Gultekin et al., 2006; Yamakage et al., 2002). This Like sevoflurane, the required MAC of desflurane is inversely
effect, combined with other positive physiologic effects of related to the age of the anesthetized rodent, with neonatal
sevoflurane, could be useful in improving the success rate of rats requiring a much higher MAC than adults (Fang et al.,
cesarean sections in rodents. Adolescent rats require a higher 1997).
MAC of sevoflurane than do young adult rats (Kashimoto et al.,
1997).
Despite the very rapid induction, ease of maintenance, and e. Methoxyflurane
rapid recovery of rodents under sevoflurane, the use of this agent
Methoxyflurane is the most soluble volatile agent in the blood
has decreased dramatically since the discovery of “Compound
and brain, and thus the most potent inhalant. Historically, it
A” (fluoromethyl-2,2-difluoro-1-trifluoromethyl vinyl ether), a
was the most commonly used volatile anesthetic for induction
by-product of the interaction between sevoflurane and soda lime.
of rodents in a bell jar because it reaches a maximum con-
Compound A is nephrotoxic in rats and humans. There is evi-
centration of 3% and therefore does not produce fatalities due
dence that there may be species differences with regards to the
to overdose. Currently, methoxyflurane has very limited avail-
renal metabolism of inhaled CompoundA (Kharasch and Jubert,
ability, with all North American and European manufacturing
1999), but it has not been shown to be neurotoxic in clinical
discontinued.
situations (Konat et al., 2003). It is also a potent upregulator
Although it is slower than halothane or isoflurane to pro-
of genes involved in apoptosis, oxidative injury, the inflamma-
duce effect in other species, methoxyflurane has a very rapid
tory response (Kharasch et al., 2006), and the cytochrome P450
and consistent induction time in mice (Gardner et al., 1995).
system (Sheffels et al., 2004).
Methoxyflurane is very effective in neonatal rodents and has
An additional deterrent to the use of sevoflurane over other
been shown to be as safe and effective as anesthesia by hypother-
inhalants is its higher cost.
mia (Danneman and Mandrell, 1997). Methoxyflurane has
a profound effect on hormone release. In the hypothalamus–
d. Desflurane pituitary–adrenal (HPA) gland axis, both ACTH and corticos-
terone are elevated by methoxyflurane exposure (Karuri et al.,
Desflurane is infrequently used because of its low boiling
1998). In the absence of any perturbation of serum calcium
point and high cost of use. At 23.5◦ C, near “room temper-
ature,” liquid desflurane vaporizes into its gaseous state. In levels, anesthesia of rats with methoxyflurane produces a sig-
order to overcome this characteristic, desflurane use requires a nificant increase in parathyroid hormone levels (Schultz et al.,
highly specialized vaporizer. The lower solubility of desflurane 1995).
contributes to the much more rapid recovery from anesthesia
compared with isoflurane. Because of this characteristic, des-
f. Enflurane
flurane has been used in succession at the procedure’s end with
a more traditional, less expensive maintenance inhalant such as As with isoflurane and halothane, long-term exposure of rats
isoflurane, allowing for a rapid transition to a wakeful state. to enflurane produces an inhibitory effect on the release of
The recovery of rats exposed to isoflurane and then desflu- inflammatory cytokines secreted by the pulmonary epithelium
rane was nearly as rapid as rats inhaling desflurane alone and (Giraud et al., 2003). Enflurane has a lower margin of safety in
much faster than those inhaling isoflurane alone (Gong et al., rats compared with agents such as isoflurane; therefore, the use
1998). of this inhalant in rodents is not recommended. The apneic index
On a cellular level, synaptic activity recovers more quickly (AI)—the multiple of MAC at which an anesthetized patient
in the hippocampus of rats subjected to normal anesthetic doses ceases spontaneous respirations—is less than the MAC for rats
of desflurane (Dimalculangan et al., 2006). Neuroprotection anesthetized with enflurane; thus, the rodent ceases to breath
induced by desflurane is greater than that induced by halothane, spontaneously before it is fully anesthetized (Rampil and King,
and is thought to be a consequence of reduced sympathetic 1996). In comparison, the AI is about 2 MAC or more for other
activity in the CNS (Engelhard et al., 1999). volatile anesthetics.
Like other volatile anesthetics, clinically relevant concen- Enflurane has action both in the higher cortex and in the lower
trations of desflurane used to pretreat rats before myocardial spinal cord. Like other volatile anesthetics, enflurane admin-
infarctions reduced the overall infarction size. Unlike other istered after training experiments improved spatial memory
anesthetics, desflurane produces this effect if administered dur- in mice (Komatsu et al., 1998). Of all the volatile anesthet-
ing the infarction procedure and even following the procedure, ics, enflurane is the most epileptogenic, especially in animals
potentially serving as a treatment for myocardial infarction already prone to developing seizures. As with isoflurane and
(Haelewyn et al., 2004). Like sevoflurane, desflurane acts on halothane, high-energy phosphate status is not affected by enflu-
the bronchiolar epithelium of rats, producing bronchodilation. rane anesthesia in rats subjected to a major surgery (Mets
This effect may improve both anesthetic and oxygen delivery to et al., 1997). Most recent use is experimental rather than
pulmonary-compromised patients (Park et al., 1998). clinical.
256 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

5. Nonvolatile Inhalation Agents for cerebral ischemia under some circumstances. When used
for anesthesia in rats, xenon may potentiate gas emboli forma-
a. Carbon dioxide
tion in procedures involving cardiopulmonary bypass, which
For decades, CO2 has been used as a safe form of anes- can impair motor performance and cognition (Jungwirth et al.,
thesia for short-term procedures in rodents as well as a rapid 2006).
and effective form of euthanasia. CO2 is typically administered
in a chamber or bell jar. Its administration does not require
the use of a precision vaporizer; however, because of the nar- 6. Inhalant Combinations and Supplemental Agents
row margin between anesthesia and euthanasia, animals being By combining an inhalant with another anesthetic, analgesic,
anesthetized must be constantly observed during induction and or sedative, the overall safety and efficacy of the anesthetic pro-
removed promptly from the chamber. It is well documented tocol can be improved. Volatile agents can be combined (e.g.,
that CO2 is highly aversive to both mice and rats (Leach et al., isoflurane followed by desflurane) with or without the addition
2002a, 2002b). The aversive effects of CO2 have been compared of other inhalants such as nitrous oxide. Inhalant anesthesia can
to those of other inhalation anesthetics. Anesthesia using CO2 be supplemented with intravenous or intrathecal administration
produces an increase in corticosterone release in rats, an effect of parenteral drugs (e.g., fentanyl). Other agents with otherwise
that is cumulative with repeated exposure (Altholtz et al., 2006). minimal antinociceptive effects alone can improve the effects of
This increase appears to be the result of ACTH release, espe- the volatile inhalants. For example, intrathecal administration
cially when combined with an event thought to induce stress of midazolam will potentiate the analgesic effects of isoflurane
(Vahl et al., 2005). Despite these limitations, induction and (Taira et al., 2000). Care must be taken during the selection
recovery from CO2 have been noted to be smooth and CO2 has of drug combinations and doses should be reduced in order to
been considered acceptable for short-term procedures in rodents minimize side effects. For instance, sevoflurane and isoflurane
(Kohler et al., 1999). Recovery proceeds rapidly after cessation potentiate seizure and arrhythmia activity in rats given con-
of CO2 exposure. current high doses of intravenous bupivicaine (Dwyer et al.,
1994).
b. Nitrous oxide In summary, volatile and other gas anesthetics can be
extremely useful in rodent models. As with any other method
Nitrous oxide was among the first inhalant anesthetic gases of anesthesia, there may be undesirable side effects or poten-
used in a clinical setting in the early 19th century. It has many tially confounding variables; thus, a method must be chosen that
desirable characteristics, including low solubility in the blood, protects the health and welfare of the animal while maintaining
low toxicity, and minimal cardiopulmonary depression. How- minimal impact on the research.
ever, since its anesthetic properties are insufficient for surgical
anesthesia, it is most often used as a supplemental inhalant gas
anesthetic. It is seldom used in rodents (Goto et al., 1996; Zhang
B. Injectable Anesthetics
et al., 2000).
1. General Considerations in the Use of Injectable
c. Xenon Anesthetics in Rodents
Many other gases have been evaluated for their anesthetic Injectable anesthetics are commonly preferred over inhalant
or immobilizing potential with little success. Induction of con- anesthetics, particularly for short-term anesthesia, because of
vulsions and the necessity of using hyperbaric conditions (in ease of use. In cases when inhalant administration would phys-
some cases over 100 atm) limits the usefulness of most other ically interfere with the work being performed (e.g., surgery of
gases (Koblin et al., 1998). Only xenon has been found to have the head or mouth) or when inhalant equipment, or staff trained
an attainable MAC in normobaric conditions combined with in its use, is unavailable, injectables can be administered read-
limited side effects. ily. Injectable anesthetics require only a needle (23–25 gauge),
Xenon’s profound neuroprotective effects stem from its syringe, and the appropriate training to give a simple injec-
antagonism of the N -methyl-d-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptor tion in a defined anatomic location (Flecknell, 1993). Injectable
(Watkins and Jane, 2006), which is implicated in neuronal dam- agents also more easily allow a number of animals to be main-
age (Wilhelm et al., 2002). Like many other gaseous anesthetics, tained under anesthesia at the same time. Longer periods of
xenon has cardioprotective (Weber et al., 2005) and neuropro- anesthesia can be accomplished by repeated injections or by
tective (Petzelt et al., 2003) effects if animals are pretreated continuous infusion methods (Hall et al., 2001a). When using
with the gas before an ischemic episode. In addition, xenon parenteral anesthetics, it is important to consider accurate dos-
was shown to provide short-term neuroprotection when admin- ing with correct multidrug use ratios, storage conditions, and
istered after an episode of hypoxia in neonatal rats (Dingley feasibility of immediate use following reconstitution. It is crit-
et al., 2006). Thus, xenon may actually be an effective treatment ical to weigh each animal accurately prior to administration of
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 257

a calculated dose of anesthesia to avoid over- or underdosing. agent. Ketamine does not lead to muscle relaxation, and tonic-
Injectables in rodents are usually administered intraperitoneally clonic spasms of limb muscles may occur even in the absence of
(IP); however, in larger species (e.g., adult rats, guinea pigs) surgical or other stimulation. The absence of muscle relaxation
anesthetics may be administered intramuscularly (IM) or intra- makes ketamine a poor choice as the sole anesthetic for intraab-
venously (IV). Both the volume administered and the gauge of dominal surgery. Although dilute single doses are short acting,
needle used for administration should be considered, particu- they effectively produce sedation rather than classic ketamine-
larly for the IM route. Table 10-4 gives guidance for appropriate induced hallucinatory behavior. Salivation is increased and
routes, volumes, and needle gauges for various rodent species. secretions can obstruct the airways, although laryngeal and pha-
When drugs are given by injection, the dosage cannot be ryngeal reflexes are retained. Ketamine can induce a rise in
reduced after induction. Therefore, drugs either at a low dose arterial pressure, usually measured as hypertension in rodents.
or with a wide safety margin should be used. Subcutaneous Ketamine, like most anesthetic agents, is broken down into
(SC) administration of anesthetics is not recommended because metabolites in the liver prior to urinary excretion. In most
the induction of anesthesia is prolonged and variable in onset. rodents, ketamine as a sole anesthetic is regarded as a poor anes-
Intravenous injections in rodents can be performed by more thetic and analgesic (Flecknell, 1987b). Incremental additional
highly trained personnel. For most purposes, general anesthe- doses of ketamine can be given to extend the period of anes-
sia in rodents is preferred to localized anesthesia because it is thesia but can cause severe respiratory depression (Flecknell,
believed to reduce stress to the animal and increase safety for 1987b). Reports have also shown that repeated administration
personnel (Hall et al., 2001b). of ketamine in neonatal rats can result in neuronal degeneration
Many small mammals become distressed by handling, sub- (Hayashi et al., 2002). Another disadvantage of ketamine is the
sequently increasing the risk of injury and adverse physiologic occasional production of apneustic ventilation, a pattern charac-
effects that might lead to complications while under anesthesia. terized by a prolonged pause after inspiration. Due to its status as
Risk of injury is considerably reduced by proper handling by a controlled substance, ketamine procurement and usage require
trained personnel. To further reduce stress, it is recommended controlled substance registration, careful documentation, and
to use appropriate mechanical restraint devices for obtaining secure storage.
accurate body weight measurements. Small mammals require Despite these disadvantages, ketamine remains the drug of
an almost continuous supply of food and water; accordingly, choice for injectable anesthesia when combined with other
fasting and water deprivation should be minimized prior to agents. Ketamine is used preferentially due to its (1) ease of
anesthetic induction. IP administration; (2) relative safety among injectable agents;
Multimodal treatment is the most common approach to (3) ability to produce a cataleptic state characterized by CNS
administration of anesthetics and analgesics in laboratory excitement rather than depression, along with analgesia, immo-
rodents. As the mechanism of action of these drugs varies, bility, dissociation from the environment, and amnesia; and (4)
depending on target sites and receptors within the central and complementary properties with adjuvant agents, allowing for a
peripheral pain pathways, the overall doses of individual drugs decrease in the amount of general anesthetic needed. To elimi-
used in combination can often be decreased to reduce the occur- nate side effects, a variety of other compounds, both injectables
rence of side effects (Robertson, 2001). A considerable increase and inhalants, are typically administered along with ketamine
in the use of injectable anesthetic combinations compared to (Hall et al., 2001b). Ketamine combinations are the first choice
single injected agents has been documented (Richardson and for injectable rodent anesthesia and it is expected that the use of
Flecknell, 2005). Most injectable and inhalant agents are not ketamine, in combination with xylazine or medetomidine, will
advised for use in neonatal rodents. Anesthesia for neonatal continue to increase in the future (Richardson and Flecknell,
rodents is discussed briefly later in this chapter and in detail in 2005).
Chapter 27.
b. Ketamine combined with xylazine
2. Dissociative Anesthetics Xylazine (Rompun® ) is an α-2 adrenergic agonist used most
often to produce chemical restraint. Although rarely used alone,
a. Ketamine
it can produce sedation and muscle relaxation. This drug
Ketamine combinations, usually with xylazine or xylazine sensitizes the myocardium to catecholamines and may elicit
plus acepromazine, are a preferred anesthetic when the equip- significant bradycardia and sinoatrial block, which is atropine
ment for inhalant anesthesia is not available. Ketamine sensitive. Although atropine is commonly administered to larger
(Ketaset® ) is a noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonist that species prior to administration of xylazine, this is unneces-
can prevent central sensitization and provide analgesia in the sary in rodents. Xylazine does have analgesic properties and
face of ischemic and somatic pain (Robertson, 2001). High potentiates many general anesthetics. In rats, xylazine may
doses of ketamine produce dissociative anesthesia and behav- cause transient hyperglycemia (Hsu et al., 1986), yet con-
ioral effects that limit its usefulness as a primary anesthetic trasting observations indicate that hypoglycemia may be noted
258 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

with prolonged administration of ketamine/xylazine anesthesia recommended (Gaertner et al., 1987; Smiler et al., 1990).
(Simpson, 1997). Neurologically impaired rats may require decreased doses of
When administering xylazine, cardiac output may decrease ketamine/xylazine to obtain steady-state anesthesia, and may
due to bradycardia and increased peripheral vascular resistance. have an increased risk for fatal respiratory depression (Dittmar
Blood pressure may increase slightly due to vasoconstriction, et al., 2004). For assessment of coagulation assays in rats,
followed by hypotension. The effects on the pulmonary system ketamine/xylazine had an influence on thrombin time when
are somewhat variable, but the overall depressant effects are compared to urethane anesthesia (Stringer and Seligmann,
due to effects on respiratory centers that may lead to respiratory 1996).
acidosis (Muir and Hubbell, 1989).
A significant advantage of xylazine is its ability to be reversed
c. Ketamine combined with medetomidine
by specific antagonists, including yohimbine, tolazoline, ati-
pamezole, and idazoxan (Wixson and Smiler, 1997). If reversal Medetomidine (Domitor® ) is an α-2 adrenoceptor agonist
agents are used, both the anesthetic and analgesic properties with 10 times greater specificity than xylazine and fewer notable
of xylazine are terminated and thus alternative sources of anal- side effects (Virtanen, 1989). Medetomide alone can be used
gesia must be provided. Ketamine/xylazine combinations are a for deep sedation and analgesia with rapid reversal by its spe-
valuable anesthetic combination for long-term procedures and cific antagonist, atipamezole (Antisedan® ) (Virtanen, 1989).
for use in rats undergoing imaging procedures, reducing mobil- Atipamezole is 200 times more selective for α-2 adrenoceptor
ity and allowing calm restraint while maintaining spontaneous receptors than yohimbine (Virtanen, 1989). Medetomidine has
ventilation (Simpson, 1997). In mice undergoing hypophy- been used in combination with the opioids fentanyl (Hu et al.,
sectomy, ketamine/xylazine has been used successfully as a 1992) or sufentanil (Hedenqvist et al., 2000) for reliable and
preanesthetic followed by maintenance on vaporized isoflurane reversible anesthesia in the rat. A main advantage to the use of
(Hoff et al., 2006). When compared to other means of anes- these two combinations is their reversibility with nalbuphine
thetizing mice for ETs, the administration of ketamine/xylazine or butorphanol and atipamazole. Use of the combination of
resulted in no abdominal lesions following IP administra- ketamine/medetomidine may cause hyperglycemia and polyuria
tion and more mice were born per litter when compared to similar to xylazine.
mice anesthetized with tribromoethanol (TBE) (Zeller et al., Ketamine/medetomidine produces restraint for minor pro-
1998). Ketamine/xylazine also has been effective for anesthetiz- cedures in mice, such as retroorbital bleeding, which can be
ing pregnant mice (Furukawa et al., 1998). Combinations of reversed rapidly by atipamezole (Cruz et al., 1998; Taylor et al.,
ketamine/xylazine have a greater potentiating effect on allevi- 2000). Female mice appear to be more resistant to the effects
ation of noxious stimulus perception in rats, as compared to of this anesthetic combination than male mice (Cruz et al.,
ketamine/diazepam anesthesia (Wixson et al., 1987d). 1998; Taylor et al., 2000). This combination has also been
Adverse side effects of ketamine plus xylazine must also used for rodents in field studies. With this combination, induc-
be considered. Body temperature in rodents may decrease by tion occurred within 1 minute (Hahn et al., 2005). Less muscle
several degrees following administration of ketamine/xylazine, tissue inflammation has been observed when medetomidine is
and this decrease may be exacerbated by increased urination, combined with ketamine (versus ketamine alone) (Sun et al.,
defecation, and salivation (Wixson and Smiler, 1997; Wixson 2003) for IM injections in rats, which may be related to the
et al., 1987c). This side effect emphasizes the overwhelming lesser concentration of ketamine used in multimodal treatment.
need to minimize hypothermia in rodents undergoing anesthe- In rats, ketamine/medetomidine anesthesia can be prolonged
sia (Lin et al., 1978; Simpson, 1997). Profound reductions with the addition of buprenorphine (Hedenqvist et al., 2000).
in rectal and core body temperatures have been noted in rats, Opposing studies have demonstrated high levels of anesthetic
demonstrated by a decrease of up to 4◦ C over 60 minutes of complications and mortality when rats are premedicated with
anesthesia (Wixson et al., 1987c). It has been documented that SC buprenorphine 1 hour prior to IP ketamine/medetomidine
rats anesthetized with ketamine plus xylazine may develop ocu- administration (Roughan et al., 1999).
lar lesions, including keratoconjunctivitis sicca (Kufoy et al.,
1989). Irreversible corneal opacities related to mineralization of
d. Ketamine combined with diazepam
the anterior limiting membrane and keratinocyte degeneration,
despite perioperative eye lubrication, have also been described Diazepam (Valium® ) is a benzodiazepine that provides seda-
(Turner and Albassam, 2005). Acute reversible cataracts have tion and good muscle relaxation, and can potentiate the action
been documented in mice and rats, attributable to a side effect of anesthetics and opioid analgesics (Flecknell, 1996). Classi-
of xylazine (Calderone et al., 1986). Corneal opacities are less- cally, diazepam has been used as an anticonvulsant and it can
ened in severity in certain strains of rats that receive yohimbine be antagonized in rodents by flumazenil (10 mg/kg IP) (Metten
for reversal of ketamine plus xylazine anesthesia (Turner and et al., 2007).
Albassam, 2005). Muscle necrosis may occur following Minimal cardiovascular effects are observed with ketamine/
IM injections in small rodents; therefore, IP injections are diazepam combinations, in particular minimal hypotension,
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 259

especially when compared to ketamine/xylazine (Wixson et al., ketamine, azaperone produces a surgical plane of anesthesia
1987b). Respiratory effects are also minimal and may be limited in both mice (34.5 mg/ml ketamine/25.4 mg/ml azaperone) and
to a slight decrease in breathing rate and tidal volume. Ketamine/ rats (40.5 mg/ml ketamine/23.3 mg/ml azaperone) (Olson and
diazepam provides only light anesthesia (Flecknell, 1987b) Renchko, 1988). Anesthetic duration is increased with more
with poor muscle relaxation and a hyperacoustic response in concentrated doses of anesthesia for this combination.
rats at doses of 40 mg/kg ketamine plus 5 mg/kg diazepam.
When compared to other multimodal methods of anesthesia,
higher mortality has been observed within 15 minutes of induc- 3. Barbiturate Anesthetics
tion with a combination at 60–80 mg/kg ketamine/7.5–10 mg/kg
diazepam. Diazepam may also potentiate the heat loss known Along with the dissociatives described above, barbiturates
to occur with ketamine (Wixson et al., 1987c). constitute the other major group of injectable agents. Barbi-
turates and thiobarbiturates act as CNS depressants and cause
decreases in blood pressure, body temperature, renal filtration
e. Ketamine combined with promazine or acepromazine and function, and peripheral vasodilation (Wixson et al., 1987b).
Promazine, when combined with ketamine and aminopen- The liver is involved in the metabolic breakdown of barbiturates,
tamide hydrogen sulfate, constitutes Ketaset plus® , which has as for most anesthetic agents.
been documented to produce effective anesthesia in several Barbiturates may have a narrow margin of safety (Fleck-
species. The combination of drugs suppresses the protec- nell, 1993). Anesthetic duration may be impacted by envi-
tive reflexes such as coughing and swallowing during anes- ronmental conditions, such as raw pine bedding, that cause
thesia, which otherwise remain under ketamine anesthesia induction of hepatic microsomal enzymes. Due to cumulative
alone (Mulder, 1978; Mulder and Johnson, 1978). Promazine effects, barbiturates are not suitable for repeated administra-
alone provides CNS depression without marked motor func- tion (Flecknell, 1996). One can observe a dose-dependent
tion impairment. The combination is fairly potent and minimal cardiac and respiratory depression, with prolonged recovery
doses can provide sedative effects with minimal impact on car- times and predisposition toward hypothermia. Depending on
diovascular or respiratory depression. Dosing of Ketaset plus the strain, gender, and body composition of animals, barbitu-
in rodents is based on the volume of ketamine provided, i.e., rates will often exhibit effects specific to each individual rodent
75 mg/kg of body weight (Mulder and Johnson, 1978), and (Flecknell, 1993). Due to their status as controlled substances,
allows 40–50 minutes of anesthesia after IM injection. Ketaset the procurement and usage of barbiturates require controlled
plus is nonreversible, and hypothermia and hypotension may substance registration, careful documentation, and secure
develop with longer durations of anesthesia. In addition, this storage.
combination of agents may decrease the seizure threshold in
the animal.
a. Pentobarbital
The administration of ketamine with acepromazine provides
only light anesthesia, which is not sufficient for surgical proce- Sodium pentobarbital, also commonly referred to as pen-
dures (Flecknell, 1987b). Instead, the addition of xylazine to the tobarbital, pentobarb, or pentobarbitone, is known to have
ketamine/acepromazine mixture, given SC, has been shown to a narrow margin of safety in most animal species. It has been
induce rapid and long-acting sedation and analgesia in rats and used historically because it provides a surgical plane of anesthe-
mice (Arras et al., 2001; Welberg et al., 2006). Recovery of rats sia following IV or IP administration. However, in laboratory
to presurgical body weight levels, following implantation with rodents, pentobarbital provides minimal analgesic effect inde-
carotid catheters under IM ketamine/xylazine/acepromazine pendent of the ability of barbiturates to affect consciousness
anesthesia, was prolonged up to 4 days postsurgery (Lawson (Brammer et al., 1993; Field et al., 1993). More importantly,
et al., 2001). the quality of anesthesia provided by pentobarbital is generally
regarded as poor (Flecknell, 1996) and the assessment of pedal
reflex is a poor indicator of anesthetic depth (Haberham et al.,
f. Ketamine combined with butyrophenones
1999). When compared to neuroleptanalgesics, pentobarbital
Butyrophenones are neuroleptic agents that include azaperone, incurred minimal to no impact on blood glucose levels in rats
droperidol, and haloperidol. Droperidol, when combined (Johansen et al., 1994).
with a narcotic (e.g., fentanyl), has not been documented Pentobarbital administration has been shown to be more reli-
to produce surgical anesthesia in rodents and neonates, but able for rats than for mice and provides approximately 60–120
induces respiratory depression (Danneman and Mandrell, minutes of anesthesia (Wixson et al., 1987a). Higher doses
1997). Azaperone is a sedative neuroleptic with anti-shock (80 mg/kg IP) in rats have been utilized for carotid catheter-
properties in rodents. When used alone, azaperone pro- ization in rats (Lawson et al., 2001). Mice and rats may
vides sedation in mice; however, in rats, it may induce experience initial hyperexcitability, including hyperalgesia, dur-
tachypnea (Olson and Renchko, 1988). When combined with ing the induction phase and upon recovery with this agent (Field
260 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

et al., 1993; Wixson et al., 1987d). Significant cardiovascular 4. Alkylphenol Derivative: Propofol
depression has been noted in pregnant and nonpregnant mice
Propofol (Rapinovet® ) was initially marketed in Canada and
(Furukawa et al., 1998). In contrast, little effect on heart rate
represents the alkylphenol class of anesthetics (Wixson and
has been noted in rats, as compared to anesthesia with other
Smiler, 1997). This agent is administered IV, with smooth
injectable agents (Sage et al., 1985; Wixson et al., 1987b).
induction, and is rapidly metabolized. The major advantage of
Hypotension and uncompensated respiratory acidosis have been
propofol is the lack of residual effects following administration.
documented in rats (Field et al., 1993). Sex differences in
There are no known active metabolites of propofol and 90% of
tolerance have been noted with this agent, in that male rats
the drug is excreted in the urine as water-soluble by-products.
clear the drug more rapidly than do females (Zambricki and
Animals recover rapidly when the infusion is stopped, even if
Dalecy, 2004). A low incidence of irreversible corneal lesions
repeated boluses have been given to maintain anesthesia. This
has been noted in rats anesthetized with pentobarbital (Turner
quick recovery is important for rodents to avoid complications
and Albassam, 2005).
including hypothermia, dehydration, and prolonged fasting that
Pentobarbital can be combined with other anesthetic
can accompany postsurgical recovery periods. In rats, mean
agents, in particular medetomidine and tiletamine/zolazepam
blood pressures are very stable for up to 3 hours, with 100%
(Telazol® ), for long-term anesthesia in rats (Ferrari et al., 2005).
survival rates (Brammer et al., 1993). Premedication with other
Rats that received pentobarbital 1 hour after buprenorphine had
agents may be necessary to sedate rodents prior to IV cannu-
longer sleep times and longer durations of surgical anesthesia
lation for propofol infusion (Brammer et al., 1993; Cantwell,
when compared to ketamine/xylazine (Roughan et al., 1999).
2001). Target-controlled infusions (TCIs) may be used for IV
Due to the decreasing availability of pentobarbital in the United
administrations (Hacker et al., 2005).
Kingdom, the United States, and elsewhere, it is anticipated that
Drawbacks to the use of propofol include cardiopulmonary
the use of this agent will decline in the future (Richardson and
effects due to direct myocardial depression, bolus injection
Flecknell, 2005).
resulting in apnea and hypotension, and the need for careful
monitoring to detect changes in the anesthetic depth (Hacker
b. Thiobarbital (Inactin) et al., 2005). Premedication with buprenorphine prior to propo-
fol anesthesia in rats resulted in a significant reduction in
Thiobarbital [5-ethyl-5-(1-methyl proply)-2-thiobarbiturate]
the total propofol requirement (Penderis and Franklin, 2005).
(Inactin® ) induces anesthesia of longer duration than pentobar-
The injection of propofol may be painful in rodents (Brammer
bital. Stable anesthesia for 3 hours has been documented in rats.
et al., 1993). It is recommended that propofol be used within
Administration of additional anesthetic boluses, typically given
6 hours of opening a vial to avoid the potential for growth of
by the IP route, may be necessary for anesthesia of longer dura-
microorganisms in the anesthetic solution.
tion. This agent is most useful when a long anesthetic period
is needed; however, redosing (in rats) using higher than pub-
lished doses may be needed to maintain the absence of pedal
5. 2,2,2 Tribromoethanol: Avertin
withdrawal reflexes (Brammer et al., 1993). Thiobarbital, like
pentobarbital, has variable analgesic activity (Brammer et al., Tribromoethanol (TBE), formerly sold commercially in the
1993; Flecknell, 1996) and may impact liver function (Nemeth United States as Avertin® , has been used as a general anesthetic,
et al., 1985). historically and primarily in the generation of transgenic mice
using ET methods. Overall, the anesthesia provided by TBE is
relatively inexpensive and safe, with minimal cardiodepressive
c. Thiopental
effects when compared to other agents. TBE is administered IP
Thiopental, also referred to as thiopentone, sodium pentothal, and provides rapid induction and recovery, loss of reflex activ-
or pentothal, is an ultrashort-acting barbiturate. It is important ity, good muscle relaxation, and low mortality (Papaioannou
to administer the lowest possible dose of this potent anesthetic. and Fox, 1993; Silverman et al., 2003; Weiss and Zimmer-
The agent is highly protein bound and induces a rapid effect, mann, 1999; Zeller et al., 1998). TBE can lower blood pressures
with anesthesia occurring in 20–60 seconds (Muir and Hubbell, and respiratory rates in anesthetized animals. It is not a con-
1989). Thiopental usually leads to increases in heart rate due trolled substance, and therefore administrative documentation
to depression of the vagal center, and significant respiratory is minimized. Due to numerous reports of animal welfare con-
depression. Thiopental is most commonly used as an induction cerns following TBE anesthesia (see below), TBE is used less
agent prior to maintenance of anesthesia with inhalants. This commonly than anesthetic combinations with ketamine.
injectable agent is an irritant, primarily because of its high pH Common doses used for ET and echocardiographic proce-
level; therefore, it is not advisable to administer thiopental IP to dures are listed inTable 10-1 (Bagis et al., 2004; Chu et al., 2006;
animals in survival procedures (Flecknell, 1996). Overall, it is Kiatchoosakun et al., 2001; Weiss and Zimmermann, 1999).
seldom used in rodents and is only effective when administered TBE has been combined safely with medetomidine, which can
by the IV route (Flecknell, 1993). then be reversed by atipamezole in rats (Gopalan et al., 2005).
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 261

TBE can have rapid and adverse effects on liver and splenic ensure a safe recovery when using higher dosages. Due to
function following IP administration (Thompson et al., 2002). its status as a schedule III-controlled substance, Telazol pro-
This anesthetic has been linked to animal health issues related curement and usage require controlled substance registration,
to complications with the reconstituted solution. It is recom- careful documentation, and secure storage.
mended that reconstituted solution be used within 2 weeks of
thawing because temperature increases or exposure to light can 7. Neuroleptanalgesic Combinations
increase the chance of product breakdown (Buetow et al., 1999).
TBE does not have a pharmaceutical-grade formulation; there- Commercially available preparations of neuroleptanalgesics
fore, the reconstitution of chemical-grade TBE may result in consist of an opioid analgesic and a potent tranquilizer. A partic-
formulation errors that could lead to inaccurate dosing in lab- ular advantage to these agents is that the effects of the opioid may
oratory animals. Animals may have adverse reactions to the be reversed using a specific antagonist, like naloxone. This will
toxic by-products, including dibromoacetaldehyde, resulting also result in complete reversal of analgesia produced by the opi-
in acute inflammatory changes, local irritation, fibrous adhe- oid; therefore, buprenorphine can be administered to reverse the
sions in the abdominal cavity, and mortality following one or respiratory depressant effects of the opioid (i.e., fentanyl) and
repeated IP applications (Buetow et al., 1999; Lieggi et al., also provide analgesia into the postoperative period (Flecknell,
2005a, 2005b; Norris and Turner, 1983; Zeller et al., 1998). 1987b). One should be cautious with repeated dosing, which
TBE is replaced with inhalant anesthesia for routine procedures can be detrimental to the animal due to longer duration of action
(Chu et al., 2006), and its use is recommended only for acute of the tranquilizing agent. Respiratory depression can result in
terminal studies when administered IP (Meyer and Fish, 2005). hypercapnia and acidosis.
To avoid the potential for inflammatory peritoneal lesions
secondary to toxic by-products and microorganisms, it is recom- a. Fentanyl/Fluanisone
mended that TBE be dissolved only in tertiary amyl alcohol, and
that the anesthetic solution should undergo filtration to ensure Fentanyl/fluanisone, or Hypnorm® , is the most popular com-
sterility prior to administration (Weiss and Zimmermann, 1999). bination of neuroleptanalgesia. Hypnorm is administered IM,
Stock solutions are highly light sensitive and must remain cov- yet repeated boluses may not provide additional analgesia
ered (i.e., with foil) during storage to avoid degradation. Appro- (Brammer et al., 1993). Hypnorm is most commonly mixed
priate handling and preparation of this chemical-grade agent with benzodiazepines, like midazolam or diazepam, to pro-
are imperative for successful and uncomplicated anesthesia in vide excellent surgical anesthesia for short-term procedures
rodents. (Flecknell, 1987b; Richardson and Flecknell, 2005). Tachy-
cardia and hypotension may be noted with this combination
(Brammer et al., 1993; Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984). Hyp-
6. Dissociative Agent and Muscle Relaxant: Telazol norm/midazolam is recommended as the anesthetic of choice for
Telazol, a unique combination of dissociative agent longitudinal studies of somatosensory-evoked potentials (SEPs)
(tiletamine hydrochloride) and muscle relaxant (zolazepam in the rat (Hayton et al., 1999). Low incidence of irreversible
hydrochloride), is a nonnarcotic and nonbarbiturate agent. It is corneal lesions has been noted in rats anesthetized with Hyp-
short-acting and has characteristics similar to those of ketamine, norm/midazolam (Turner and Albassam, 2005). Attempts to
including the maintenance of a number of reflexes under anes- administer a related benzodiazepine, climazolam, with Hyp-
thesia. Persistent cough, swallowing, and corneal and pedal norm were confounded by relatively poor anesthesia levels in
reflexes make it difficult for the anesthetist to assess the depth of rats (West and Green, 1987). Hyperglycemia has also been
anesthesia. Tiletamine is more potent, yet structurally similar to induced in fed (not fasted) rats when placed under Hypnorm
ketamine, with a longer duration of action. Zolazepam is a ben- anesthesia (Johansen et al., 1994). Despite the popularity of
zodiazepine derivative, licensed for use only with tiletamine. Hypnorm, it is unlikely to be commercially available in the
It has a rapid onset of action, but lacks analgesic properties future (Richardson and Flecknell, 2005). Pharmacies in the
(Ferrari et al., 2005) and is used to offset the cataleptic effects United States can compound combinations of fentanyl and
of tiletamine. fluanisone, if desired.
Telazol produces anesthesia in rats and can be combined with
medetomidine, xylazine, or butorphanol to prolong duration of
V. DRUGS USED AS ADJUVANTS TO PRIMARY
effects (Ferrari et al., 2005; Silverman et al., 1983; Wilson et
ANESTHETIC AGENTS
al., 1992). This anesthetic agent is not recommended for solitary
use in mice or hamsters due to difficulties in inducing anesthesia
and a very narrow margin of safety in these species (Silverman Adjuvant agents for anesthesia are agents that are combined
et al., 1983). It is important to note that, as with many agents, with the primary anesthetic agent or agents to gain specific
higher doses of Telazol result in prolonged recovery times; advantages. Such advantages include a reduction in the dose of
therefore, laboratory animals should be monitored closely to the primary anesthetic, an increase in the duration of the surgical
262 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

plane of anesthesia or muscle relaxation, an increase in the depth (Gross, 2001; Thurmon et al., 1996b). Xylazine may also be
of anesthesia, postoperative analgesia, or more rapid recovery used as a preanesthetic, which reduces the dosage of barbiturate
from anesthesia. However, there are disadvantages to adding or inhalant primary anesthetic.
adjuvant agents to the anesthetic regimen. The addition of any An advantage of these drugs is the ability to reverse them
drug beyond the primary anesthetic potentially complicates the once the procedure is completed. Medetomidine can be reversed
course of anesthesia for the animal. Since an unanticipated nega- with atipamezole (Hahn et al., 2005; MacDonald et al., 1989)
tive reaction is possible with the administration of any drug, each and xylazine can be partially reversed with yohimbine (Hsu
drug added to the regimen increases the possibility of an adverse et al., 1986; Lipman et al., 1987), tolazoline, 4-aminopyridine
reaction. The addition of drugs that depress essential functions, (Komulainen and Olson, 1991), or atipamezole (Flecknell,
such as the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, means that 1996). Reversal leads to early termination of surgical anesthe-
supplemental doses of the primary anesthetic(s) may need to be sia, which may reduce mortality and allow rapid return of the
reduced. The discussion below focuses on the advantages and rodents to the home cage environment. Reversal agents also
disadvantages of drugs commonly used as anesthetic adjuvants. reverse bradycardia, bradypnea, and polyuria, but do not elim-
inate the hypothermic effects; thus, thermal support remains
essential (Komulainen and Olson, 1991).
A. Anticholinergics Disadvantages of the administration of xylazine and
medetomadine include transient hyperglycemia, bradycardia,
Anticholinergics such as atropine are seldom utilized in anes- peripheral vasoconstriction, hypothermia, and diuresis; how-
thesia of rodents. Their primary uses in anesthesia of larger ever, these effects are reduced in rodents compared to dogs
species are for their parasympatholytic actions of decreased because xylazine is most commonly administered by the IP
salivation, decreased secretions in the respiratory tract, and pre- route rather than by the IV route. When these agents are used
vention of vagus inhibition of the heart (Thurmon et al., 1996a). with ketamine and additional anesthetic time is needed, only
The need for these actions is much reduced or absent in rodents, the ketamine should be re-dosed because of the potential for
eliminating the routine need to use these drugs. Additionally, bradycardia and cardiac arrest. Xylazine should be avoided for
the rat rapidly metabolizes atropine because it has a hepatic studies of cardiac function due to its depressant effect on the
atropine esterase (Thurmon et al., 1996a). heart. It is also contraindicated in studies of muscle function due
to a depressant effect on contractility of skeletal muscle (Ingalls
et al., 1996). Xylazine has been demonstrated to alter ocu-
B. α-2 Adrenergic Agonists: Xylazine and lar physiology and to cause transient cataracts, although these
Medetomidine effects may be due to drying of the cornea, and it may be best to
avoid use of xylazine in studies of ocular physiology (Calderone
α-2 Adrenergic agonists xylazine (Rompun) and medetomi- et al., 1986). Xylazine has also been documented to increase
dine (Domitor) are commonly used to supplement the primary gastrointestinal transit time in mice (Hsu, 1982), cause hyper-
anesthetic ketamine (Ketaset) (Flecknell, 1993; Green et al., glycemia in the C57/Bl6 inbred strain of mice (Brown et al.,
1981; Hahn et al., 2005; Hsu et al., 1986; Mulder and Mulder, 2005), and induce diuresis via decreased release of antidiuretic
1979; Nevalainen et al., 1989; Van Pelt, 1977; Wixson and hormone (Hsu et al., 1986). For further discussion of specific
Smiler, 1997). Most commonly, ketamine and xylazine are drug combinations, the reader should refer to Section IV.B.
mixed together prior to administration and are given by the
intraperitoneal (IP) route to avoid muscle necrosis that may
result if given by the intramuscular (IM) route. Muscle necrosis C. Phenothiazine Tranquilizers
is most likely due to the pH of 3 of the ketamine component
(Gaertner et al., 1987). These agents are extremely useful in Phenothiazine tranquilizers such as acepromazine, chlorpro-
combination with ketamine because they smooth induction, pro- mazine, and promazine are often used in combination with
vide analgesia beyond the short period of surgical anesthesia ketamine or in combination with ketamine plus xylazine in mice
(15–30 minutes), and provide muscle relaxation that is absent if and rats. Phenothiazines act to depress the brain stem and con-
ketamine is given alone. Ketamine/xylazine combinations are nections to the cerebral cortex (Gross, 2001). The addition of
the most commonly used injectable combinations for anesthe- these tranquilizers improves muscle relaxation and decreases
sia of mice, rats, hamsters, and guinea pigs (Branson, 2001; the total dose needed of ketamine or ketamine plus xylazine.
Gilroy and Varga, 1980; Green et al., 1981; Van Pelt, 1977). Phenothiazine tranquilizers also reduce ventricular arrhythmias
Ketamine/medetomadine combinations are also recommended and cardiac fibrillation, especially those that are induced by
(Hu et al., 1992; Taylor et al., 2000). Sedative and analgesic epinephrine (Thurmon et al., 1996a). Tranquilizers do not pro-
activity are related to CNS depression mediated by stimula- vide analgesia, but reduce the animal’s reaction to handling
tion of α-2 receptors, while the muscle-relaxant effect is due or pain via sedation and CNS depression, and thus have an
to inhibition of intranural transmission of impulses to the CNS additional positive effect (Thurmon et al., 1996a). However,
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 263

especially in higher doses, phenothiazine tranquilizers depress depression of the cardiac rate, rhythm, and cardiac output; thus,
cardiac and respiratory function. They cause a decrease in they can be used where cardiovascular parameters are under
arterial blood pressure as a result of depression of vasomotor study or where the animal enters the anesthetic period with prior
reflexes. They also have peripheral vasodilatory actions and cen- cardiovascular compromise. Additional discussion regarding
tral hypothermic effects, which can contribute to decreased body the actions of opioid drugs is provided in Section IX.D.
temperature in rodents and other small animals (Thurmon et al.,
1996a). Acepromazine, a potent neuroleptic agent with high
1. Morphine
margin of safety, is the most widely used phenothiazine tran-
quilizer in rodents and should be the first choice among these The primary beneficial pharmacologic effect of morphine is
agents because of its long history of safe use in rodents. The analgesia. The primary disadvantage of morphine is depres-
combination of ketamine/acepromazine is unlikely to provide a sion of respiration. Central nervous stimulation with morphine
surgical plane of anesthesia, but may be adequate for smooth has been reported in the mouse, as in the cat (Thurmon et al.,
induction with inhalants or nonpainful procedures (Gardner et 1996a); it is used less frequently in rodents than is the syn-
al., 1995). Chlorpromazine has been identified as having varied thetic opioid meperidine hydrochloride (Demerol). However,
neurotoxicity on ICR, BALB/c and C57/BL6 and CDF1 mice the effects of morphine are species specific, and morphine pro-
(Messiha, 1991) and the same could be true for acepromazine, duces analgesia without CNS or respiratory depression in the
which is closely related. hamster (Gross, 2001). In guinea pigs, rats, and mice, a low
dose of morphine causes elevations in body temperature, while
larger doses cause body cooling (Branson and Gross, 2001).
D. Benzodiazepines: Diazepam Morphine is not recommended for animals with head trauma
due to its role in increasing intracranial pressure. Morphine may
Benzodiazepines such as diazepam (Valium) are sometimes be used by SC or IM injection in the mouse, rat, and guinea pig
used in combination with ketamine or as a preanesthetic adju- as a preanesthetic or analgesic and will be effective within 15
vant for inhalant anesthetics. In therapeutic doses, there are minutes.
minimal respiratory and cardiac effects. Diazepam has muscle-
relaxant and anticonvulsant activities and acts on parts of the
2. Meperidine
limbic system, the thalamus, and the hypothalamus to produce
calming effects (Thurmon et al., 1996a). In combination, it Meperidine hydrochloride (Demerol), like morphine, acts to
counteracts muscle rigidity induced by ketamine. Because of reduce the amount of primary anesthetic needed and reduces
its anticonvulsant activities, it would be an anesthetic adjuvant postoperative pain. Per unit body weight, meperidine is 10-fold
of choice for models of head trauma, but should be avoided if less active than morphine (Thurmon et al., 1996a). Meperi-
seizures are the subject of study. The muscle-relaxing activity dine should be administered IM or IP because the SC route is
is due to an effect at the neuromuscular synapse (Thurmon et painful and locally irritating. Naloxone antagonizes the respira-
al., 1996a). Diazepam enhances blockade induced by myoneu- tory depression induced by meperidine but will not antagonize
ral blocking agents and other centrally acting muscle relaxants convulsive effects or other CNS stimulatory effects (Gross,
(Dretchen et al., 1971). Diazepam can be antagonized utilizing 2001). The sedative and analgesic actions of meperidine can
flumazenil (Lemke et al., 1996). be reversed by several narcotic antagonists (Thurmon et al.,
1996a).

E. The Action and Use of Opioids in Anesthesia

3. Fentanyl Citrate
Opioids such as fentanyl, meperidine, and oxymorphone are Fentanyl citrate (Sublimaze® ), a phenylperadine derivative,
added to anesthetic regimens because they provide substan- is more lipid soluble than morphine, acts rapidly, and is approxi-
tial analgesia in addition to reducing the dose of the primary mately 50–100 times more potent as an analgesic than morphine
anesthetic, and the analgesia is effective against visceral pain. on a per unit weight basis (Gross, 2001). Fentanyl provides anal-
Opioids produce a higher level of analgesia than does xylazine gesia and sedation with a relatively short duration of action, of
at commonly used dosages. This analgesic effect is produced by less than 30 minutes, but is also a respiratory depressant; it
interacting with opioid receptors that normally act as receptors is recommended in combination with fluanisone and diazepam
for the naturally occurring endogenous opioids, endorphins and (Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984; Green, 1975). Fentanyl is also
enkaphalins (Branson and Gross, 2001; Thurmon et al., 1996a). used to relieve postoperative pain via a transdermal patch (Dura-
The pharmacology of opioids and other analgesics is covered gesic) in larger species. Administration via transdermal patch
in Chapter 4. Unlike xylazine and phenothiazine tranquilizers, may circumvent the short duration of action via continuous
therapeutic doses of opioids given by SC or IP injection cause administration. These methods have been used with success in
minimal depression of cardiovascular function, with minimal larger animals but are not reported for rodents. With fentanyl,
264 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

analgesia may last for a shorter period of time than does respi- and antagonists to opioids. Their effect is specific to opioids
ratory depression, which may last for several hours after dosing where they compete for receptor sites. Administration reverses
(Thurmon et al., 1996b). Shifts in acid–base status during the respiratory depression of opioids. When administered with-
anesthesia or analgesia from acid to base increase the penetra- out prior administration of an opioid, they act as CNS and
tion through the blood–brain barrier (Thurmon et al., 1996b). respiratory depressants (Thurmon et al., 1996b).
Fentanyl has been reported to increase auditory-evoked poten-
tial (AEP) and electroencephalogram (EEG) magnitude during
anesthesia (Antunes et al., 2003b). Fentanyl can be reversed by F. Cholinergic Agents
the narcotic antagonists nalorphine and levallorphan.
Physostigmine and 4-aminopyridine are central cholinergic
agents that have been shown to shorten ketamine-induced sleep-
4. Oxymorphone ing time, but these agents are not commonly used as reversal
Oxymorphone hydrochloride (Numorphan) is a semisyn- agents following ketamine anesthesia in rodents.
thetic opioid analgesic with a potency approximately 10 times
that of morphine that can be used in rodents (Thurmon et al.,
1996a). It provides analgesia with some respiratory depression G. Local Anesthetics for Anesthesia and Analgesia
and reduces the dosage of primary anesthetic such as bar-
biturates. Oxymorphone can be antagonized by levallorphan, 1. Injectable Local Anesthetics
nalorphine, or naloxone (Branson and Gross, 2001; Thurmon
Local anesthetics such as lidocaine, bupivicaine, and others
et al., 1996a).
may be used to reduce the perception of pain at the surgical
site as local or regional anesthetics. However, they are seldom
5. Buprenorphine used alone in rodents because, unlike general anesthetics, they
do not eliminate stressful perceptions or give immobility dur-
Buprenorphine hydrochloride (Buprenex) is a partial agonist ing the procedure. The use of local anesthetics without general
with high affinity for the mu-opioid receptor but only partial anesthesia is not recommended for experimental rodents due to
activity (Branson and Gross, 2001). It is slow in onset and humane concerns and chances of bite injury to humans. In con-
long in duration. It is primarily used for postoperative analge- junction with other agents, their use may allow reduced levels
sia because of its long duration of action and minimal adverse of general anesthetics, which may speed recovery and mini-
side effects, and is used more often than morphine (Gross, mize mortality. These agents act locally on nerve endings or
2001). Its analgesic effects may last 8–12 hours depending fibers causing a temporary blockade of nerve impulse conduc-
on dose and species; it may be used for preemptive analge- tion, and recovery is spontaneous. The duration of analgesia may
sia (Hayes and Flecknell, 1999; Penderis and Franklin, 2005). be prolonged by the concurrent use of a vasoconstricting agent
Although oral formulations in flavored gelatin for postoperative such as epinephrine (Branson and Gross, 2001). When care-
analgesia have been proposed (Flecknell et al., 1999b), their fully used, direct injection of anesthetic can be a useful adjunct
efficacy has not been consistently documented (Kirsch et al., to anesthesia (Arevalo et al., 2004; Flecknell et al., 1990; Sintov
2002). and Shapiro, 2004). Local anesthetics can preempt priming
of pain perception mechanisms. Local anesthetics, especially
long-acting local anesthetics such as bupivicaine, also provide
6. Naloxone, Nalorphine, and Levallorphan—Opioid
some analgesic effect into the postoperative period. The primary
Antagonists
disadvantage of effective use of local analgesics is that they take
Naloxone hydrochloride (Narcan® ) is a derivative of oxymor- time to full effect after injection or topical application. Starting
phone and is a pure competitive antagonist to oxymorophone the surgery or procedure prior to full effectiveness negates the
and other opioids such as morphine, meperidine, and fentanyl. positive effects of using these drugs.
Because it lacks agonist properties, it does not produce anal- The two most useful injectable anesthetics for local or
gesia or respiratory depression when used alone. Due to its regional anesthesia in rodents are lidocaine and bupivacaine.
relatively short half-life, reversal effects of naloxone may con- Lidocaine has a fast onset of action with moderate duration of
clude prior to the respiratory depression effects of the opioid analgesia, is very stable in solution, and spreads through local
that is being reversed, so animals should be observed until fully tissues (Branson and Gross, 2001). It also is effective when
recovered. Naloxone also reduces the duration of anesthesia applied to the surface of mucous membranes or the cornea.
and LD50 of pentobarbital in rats (Branson and Gross, 2001; Although epinephrine combined with lidocaine is utilized in
Lumb and Jones, 1984). The opioid antagonists nalorphine larger animals to induce local vasoconstriction and to prolong
hydrochloride (Nalline® ) and levallorphan tartrate (Lorfan® ) the duration of action, its use is not recommended in rodents.
are synthetic agents related to morphine and act as both agonists Lidocaine has been shown to cross the placenta and, in the liver
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 265

of fetal guinea pigs, reaches levels higher than maternal hepatic VI. ANESTHETIC REGIMENS USED FOR SPECIAL
levels (Finster et al., 1972). Bupivacaine (Marcain) has a slower PURPOSES
onset than lidocaine, but a longer duration of action. Bupiva-
caine is also stable in solution and is approximately four times as
A. Inactin: Anesthesia of Long Duration
potent as lidocaine on a percent volume basis. Analgesic dura-
tion is at least twice as long as lidocaine and has been reported
Inactin (thiobutabarbital sodium salt hydrate), a barbiturate
to last as long as 12 hours in larger species (Hassan et al., 1993;
with sedative and hypnotic properties, is primarily used in
Hayes and Flecknell, 1999), but can be expected to last only 4–
rodents where a longer duration of anesthesia is needed. Com-
7 hours in most rodents (Roughan and Flecknell, 2004). Either
pared to pentobarbital, it has minimal effects on cardiovascular
morphine alone or bupivacaine plus buprenorphine have been
tone and renal output (Buelke-Sam et al., 1978). Inactin may be
shown to be effective agents for epidural anesthesia in the rat
combined with ketamine in separate IP injections to utilize the
(Akerman, 1985; Morimoto et al., 2001). The opioid meperi-
initial deeper period of anesthesia to place invasive monitoring
dine may also be used in rats for local anesthesia, as it exerts
equipment for nonsurvival studies such as cardiac catheteriza-
a local action on the nerves (Hassan et al., 1989).
tion (Lorenz, 2002). The combination of ketamine plus inactin
results in a longer duration of action in the rat than in the mouse,
and supplementation with additional inactin may be needed for
2. Topical Local Anesthetics both species during a prolonged procedure (Lorenz, 2002).
EMLA cream (AstraZeneca), which combines lidocaine and
prilocaine in equal amounts in a eutectic mixture, has been rec-
ommended prior to procedures such as venipuncture (Flecknell B. Alpha Chloralose: Maintenance of Respiratory and
et al., 1990). However, satisfactory efficacy of topically applied Cardiac Reflexes During Anesthesia
EMLA cream takes about 1 hour after application in humans,
dogs, cats, and rabbits. It was less effective in rats (Flecknell Alpha chloralose is used IV to induce anesthesia at a 1–10%
et al., 1990), which may benefit from a longer preprocedural concentration but is difficult to dissolve without heating and
period. Absorption varies with the time of day at application should not be boiled (Branson and Gross, 2001). Once admin-
(Bruguerolle et al., 1991). istered, it is transformed into trichloroethanol, the same active
compound that is transformed from chloral hydrate. It acts
as a hypnotic and anesthetic with little analgesic effect and
thus is less useful for invasive surgery, but may be accept-
H. Neuromuscular Blockade in Rodent Anesthesia able for less painful procedures. Chloralose has a unique action
in that it depresses the CNS to result in a loss of conscious-
Neuromuscular blocking agents such as d-tubocurarine, gal- ness while increasing reflex activity (Thurmon et al., 1996b).
lamine, succinylcholine, and 4-aminopyridine are used as adju- The use of chloralose is recommended only for long nonre-
vants to anesthesia when animal movement must be avoided. covery surgical procedures, primarily physiologic experiments,
Since these agents ablate all voluntary movement, their use where it is favored for producing stable anesthesia (Rieg et al.,
requires respiratory support, usually via the use of mechani- 2004) of limited depth (Field, 1988) and minimal depression
cal ventilation. Their use may include cardiac surgery, where of respiratory and cardiac reflexes such as baroreceptors and
respiration must be timed to allow for surgical intervention, or chemoreceptor activities (Branson and Gross, 2001; Thurmon
stereotaxic surgery where the slightest movement could result et al., 1996b). Respiratory effects have been shown to vary with
in unintended damage to the brain. In addition to the need for the duration of anesthesia (Hughes et al., 1982). Kidney func-
mechanical ventilation, the major disadvantage of the use of tion has also been shown to be more stable under chloralose
paralytic drugs is that animal movement in response to painful anesthesia (Rieg et al., 2004). However, approximately 9% of
stimuli is prevented. Animal movement is the most convenient rats developed seizures (Field, 1988). Other authors suggest
and readily perceived indicator that the plane of anesthesia is that fenanyl-fluazinone-midazolam provides more stable condi-
too light. Once movement is prevented, it must be confirmed tions for physiologic studies (Jong et al., 2002) or suggest that
that pain is not perceived using more intensive methods such as alpha chloralose could be combined with morphine (Wixson
monitoring of heart rate by electrocardiography or brain waves and Smiler, 1997).
via electroencephalography. For this reason, in most institutions,
the use of paralyzing agents requires specific written justifica-
tion in the animal care and use protocol. This topic is discussed C. Urethane: Long Duration Anesthesia with
in more detail in Section VIII and also in the chapters on ethical Preservation of Autonomic Reflexes
and regulatory issues. Monitoring of the efficacy of paralytic
drugs is readily accomplished by the use of stimuli such as toe Ethyl carbamate (urethane) may be combined with alpha
pinch. chloralose and used occasionally as an anesthetic by IP injection
266 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

for nonrecovery procedures in laboratory rodents (Dalkara et al., VII. OTHER ANESTHETICS
1995). Urethane is recommended for procedures of exception-
ally long duration where preservation of autonomic reflexes is
A. Chloral Hydrate
needed, but may be inferior to fentanyl-fluanisone-midazolam
combinations (Jong et al., 2002). Prolonged, stable anesthe-
Chloral hydrate is among the first depressants of the CNS used
sia with analgesia is produced through the slow metabolism of
in veterinary medicine. It is a good hypnotic with minimal anal-
urethane into carbamic acid and ethyl alcohol. Use in survival
gesic properties. It has been recommended for use in rodents
procedures is limited by liver damage and pulmonary edema that
(Field, 1988), and continues to be useful in larger species. How-
result from its use (Branson, 2001). Anesthesia in rats produced
ever, its use in rodents has largely been discontinued by the
by urethane administered IP caused peritoneal fluid accumu-
availability of safer anesthetics that provide better analgesia.
lation, inability to undergo a renal response to NaCl or water
When compared to ketamine/xylazine, chloral hydrate produced
loading, and pronounced hyperosmolality of body fluids without
a greater decrease in systolic and diastolic blood pressures, but
affecting plasma [Na+ ], which was attributed to osmotoxicity of
less intensive reduction in heart rate (Rodrigues et al., 2006).
the mesenteric vasculature (Severs et al., 1981). Urethane use
Both anesthetics promoted an increase in arterial pCO2 and a
is often prohibited by institutional policy because it has been
decrease in pH levels compared to unanesthetized animals. The
shown to have a carcinogenic effect in several species including
blood glucose levels in rats were of a higher magnitude after
man (Branson, 2001; Cadranel et al., 1993; Field and Lang,
ketamine/xylazine anesthesia than after chloral hydrate anes-
1988; Sorahan and Pope, 1993).
thesia (Rodrigues et al., 2006). Chloral hydrate has marked
depressant effects on the respiratory system and anesthetic
doses approach LD50 , reflecting a very narrow margin of safety
(Thurmon et al., 1996b). Chloral hydrate is a gastric irritant
D. Ether: Historical Precedent and Use by
when ingested and a vascular irritant when injected extravascu-
Open-Drop Methods
larly. This irritant property is reflected in repeated reports of ady-
namic ileus, intestinal obstruction, and death in rats 5–16 days
Ether (ethyl ether, diethyl ether, ethyl oxide) is largely
after anesthesia by IP injection (Fleischman et al., 1977; Silver-
of historical interest and is seldom used today because it
man and Muir, 1993). The incidence of this complication has
requires special precautions for safe use due to its explosive
been so high that the use of chloral hydrate has been prohibited
and inflammable characteristics (Morch et al., 1956). Ether may
in many institutions due to humane concerns, although adequate
be used by an open-drop or chamber method because of its low
justification may result in its continued use in other institutions.
volatility relative to more modern anesthetics such as isoflurane.
Safe use requires storage in an explosion-proof refrigerator to
slow degradation within the supply container and off-gassing B. Steroid Anesthetics
of animal carcasses in a fume hood to allow volatile peroxides
to dissipate after ether anesthesia and prior to carcass disposal. Saffan (alphaxolone–alphadolone) is a neuroactive steroid
Ether is also not favored because it is a respiratory irritant and anesthetic that can be administered by the IP or IM routes but
causes increased respiratory secretion (Nielsen et al., 1985). is primarily recommended for intravenous administration. It is
When institutional safety policies allow the use of ether, it is uti- not approved for use or commercially available in the United
lized because of precedent for its use in some fields and because States. Alphaxalone produces sedative and anesthetic effects
of its relative safety for the animal when administered by open- with no antinociception, while alphadolone causes antinocicep-
drop methods. Some institutions may allow ether to be used for tive effects without sedation (Nadeson and Goodchild, 2000).
anesthesia of obese and diabetic mice if a vaporizer for isoflu- It can be recommended for intravenous administration to rats,
rane is not available. It has been recommended that atropine mice, and hamsters, but has limited value in mice and hamsters
should be administered to mice or rats prior to induction with by the IP route. It may be useful where inhalation anesthesia is
ether, although atropine is short-lived in rodents (Clifford, 1984; not an option because it can be given repeatedly or continuously
Poole, 1987). Ether is relatively inexpensive and has minimal to maintain anesthesia for long periods without the development
physiological effects on some parameters, although hypotha- of tolerance or cumulation (Green et al., 1978). Saffan can cause
lamic function may be inhibited and there may be effects on seizures in mice (File and Simmonds, 1988).
the liver (Flecknell, 1987a; Kobayashi, 1985). Because ether
abolishes the corneal blink reflex, eyes of anesthetized animals
VIII. USE OF NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING
should be treated with ophthalmic ointment. Differences in ether
AGENTS AND ANTAGONISTS
susceptibility have been reported among strains of inbred mice
(Kobayashi, 1985). The use of ether for guinea pigs and gerbils
is not recommended due to breath-holding in guinea pigs (Hoar, This section will concentrate specifically on special fea-
1969) and rapid induction in gerbils (Poole, 1987). tures of the use of neuromuscular agents in laboratory rodents.
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 267

Primary concerns in the use of neuromuscular blocking agents 3.7–5.0 mg/(kg h) (Shin et al., 1992). While under continu-
are the provision of analgesia in an animal that cannot respond to ous urethane anesthesia, 50% neuromuscular blockage can be
pain by movement and the maintenance of adequate oxygenation achieved with a constant-rate infusion (CRI) of 3 mg/(kg h) with
in an animal that has paralysis of the respiratory muscles (Gibbs (Mishra and Ramzan, 1993a) or without (Rana and Ramzan,
et al., 1989; ILAR, 1996, 2003; Office of Laboratory Animal 1995) a 1 mg/kg IV bolus of atracurium. Much higher doses are
Welfare, 2002). Because the commonly used signs of anes- necessary to provide for complete paralysis in rats. Under fen-
thetic depth such as toe pinch, palpebral reflex, and respiratory tanyl anesthesia (1.25 g/(kg h)), a bolus of atracurium at 4 mg/kg
rate and depth are abolished when the patient is under neuro- followed by 15 mg/(kg h) CRI results in 95% twitch suppression
muscular blockade, anesthetists need to verify analgesia during (Bohrer et al., 1994).
neuromuscular blockade by observing the effects of the auto- Gallamine is a neuromuscular blocker with parasympa-
nomic nervous system. Though technically challenging, heart tholytic actions. When combined with pentobarbital anesthesia
rate monitoring and mean arterial blood pressure measurement (60 mg/kg IP bolus then 10 mg/kg IV, as needed) in rats, gal-
may be continually evaluated in small rodents, and alterations lamine 4–10 mg/kg then 2–6 mg/(kg h) IV depresses twitch
in these parameters can be used as a gauge of anesthetic depth tension by 90% and produces paralysis sufficient for artifi-
(Szczensy et al., 2004). Another approach to ensure that analge- cial ventilation (Gourine et al., 2003; Mishra and Ramzan,
sia for rodents under neuromuscular blockade will be adequate 1993b). Approximately 50% paralysis can be achieved with
is to first define best dosage ranges using the same procedure 4 mg/kg bolus and 3 mg/(kg h) IV (Mishra and Ramzan, 1992a,
in the same species of animals without the use of the blocking 1993b). In guinea pigs, gallamine produces a dose-dependent
agent (ILAR, 1992). Although electroencephalography (EEG) bronchoconstriction and thus should be used with caution (Del
is a reasonable measure of changing anesthesia depth, it is not Monte et al., 1990).
a good indicator of actual depth of anesthesia (Dwyer et al., Vecuronium may be administered to rats in numerous ways.
1994). An additional challenge is that the use of neuromuscu- With a dose of 0.3 mg/kg injected IV, the induction of paralysis
lar blockers requires the rodent to be mechanically ventilated is very rapid (18 seconds) but the duration of action is very short
(Hildebrand, 1997), which can be done safely for rodents with (90 seconds). If administered intratracheally or IM (doses of 1.5
training and experience (Weksler et al., 1994). and 2.25 mg/kg, respectively), the duration of action is approxi-
mately 8 minutes after induction. The onset of action with intra-
tracheal instillation in rats is about 4.5 minutes, while the onset
A. Depolarizing Neuromuscular Blocking Agents
with IM injection is more than doubled (Sunaga et al., 2006).
Infusion of a lower dose of vecuronium (0.14 mg/(kg h)) pro-
Succinylcholine is a commonly used depolarizing agent for
duces a stable 50% neuromuscular depression (Weinger et al.,
mice and rats, which has a rapid onset and a short duration
1995). When anesthetized with 1.25 MAC isoflurane or sevoflu-
of action, making it useful in short clinical procedures where
rane anesthesia, vecuronium produces 50% paralysis in rats in
immobility is needed. Partial paralysis of rats may be main-
a dose range of 0.15–0.19 mg/kg bolus and can be maintained
tained with approximately 10–50 μg/(kg min) constant-rate IV
at 2 mg/(kg h) (Shin et al., 1992). Higher bolus (1.5 mg/kg) and
infusions with or without an initial IV bolus of 1 mg/kg of suc-
infusion doses (7.5 mg/(kg h)) are needed to produce near com-
cinylcholine (Mishra and Ramzan, 1992b; Rana and Ramzan,
plete paralysis in rats (Bohrer et al., 1994). Under deep fentanyl
1995).
anesthesia, a 0.75 mg/kg bolus and a 2.5 mg/(kg h) CRI of pan-
curonium produce similar results (Bohrer et al., 1994). Rocuro-
B. Nondepolarizing Neuromuscular Blocking Agents nium, another nondepolarizing agent in the curare family, when
infused IV at 12–19 nmol/(kg min), gradually increases block-
Nondepolarizing neuromuscular blocking agents act as com- ade and produces a steady-state 90% neuromuscular block after
petitive antagonists to acetylcholine (ACh) at postsynaptic ACh 30 minutes (Epemolu et al., 2003).
receptors. Some of these agents are closely related to or derived
from curare, a plant toxin from South America, and have more
pronounced systemic effects due to histamine release. Non- C. Neuromuscular Blocker Antagonists
depolarizing agents that have been used in rodents include
atracurium and gallamine. Other agents, including vecuronium, Neostigmine and physostigmine are acetylcholinesterase
pancuronium, and rocuronium, are steroid analogs that have less (ACH) inhibitors, which act to increase the amount of ACh
deleterious physiologic effects (Hildebrand, 1997). at the neuromuscular junction by interfering with the enzyme
Atracurium has a quick onset and a relatively short duration that degrades ACh. They effectively act to reverse the effects of
of action, thus making it a suitable nondepolarizing agent for nondepolarizing agents that rely on low levels of ACh to work
short procedures. Under 1.25 MAC of isoflurane or sevoflurane effectively. Neostigmine (0.03 mg/kg IV) can reverse the neu-
anesthesia, atracurium produces 50% paralysis in rats using an romuscular blocking effects of pancuronium in rats (Henning
initial bolus dose of 0.31–0.36 mg/kg with maintenance using et al., 1993).
268 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

These agents also have effects not directly associated with of a mouse in a cage may fail to detect painful behaviors despite
antagonism of neuromuscular blockers. Neostigmine has been the presence of severe pain. Signs of pain in mice and rats
demonstrated to counteract the opioid-induced ileus common are listed in Table 10-2, and are also addressed in the chap-
with morphine and other opioids and slightly increases gas- ter that discusses strategies for assessing and minimizing pain.
trointestinal motility in rats (Erbil et al., 1998). Physostigmine The presence of preexisting pain increases the frequency and
(0.1 mg/kg IP) may act to antagonize the effects of ketamine in strength of some pain-associated behaviors such as withdrawal
rats, as evidenced by approximately 10–20% reduction in the response to hot plate and tail-flick tests, while reducing the
anesthesia time produced by ketamine alone (75 or 100 mg/kg frequency of other normal behaviors such as ambulation and
IP) (Kubota et al., 1999; Mimura et al., 1992), but it does not feeding. The effect of painful stimuli and the demonstration
decrease the limited analgesia provided by ketamine (Mimura of pain-associated behaviors in mice are also influenced by
et al., 1990). Interestingly, higher doses of physostigmine (up rodent genotype (Liang et al., 2006). The perception of pain
to 0.6 mg/kg) are not as effective as 0.1 mg/kg at antagonizing in cage mates and neighboring mice may also influence the
ketamine (Mimura et al., 1990). In comparison, the ketamine- demonstration of pain behaviors in mice (Langford et al., 2006).
reversal characteristic of neostigmine increases with increase Table 10-3 lists known effects of mouse and rat strain and
in dosage between 100 μg/kg and 200 μg/kg. Neostigmine has genotype on the efficacy of analgesic drugs. Age (McLaughlin
also been shown to shorten the duration of anesthesia from pen- and Dewey, 1994; Smith and French, 2002; Smith and Gray,
tobarbital when used in the dose range 150–200 μg/kg (Leeuwin 2001), gender (Barrett et al., 2002; Bartok and Craft, 1997;
et al., 1984). Cicero et al., 2002; Craft, 2003; Craft and Bernal, 2001; Craft
and McNiel, 2003; Javan et al., 2006; Ji et al., 2006; Kest
IX. ANALGESICS FOR MICE AND RATS et al., 1999; Sternberg et al., 2004), and gonadectomy (Terner
et al., 2002) all determine the efficacy of certain analgesics in
rodents. Additionally, positive (D’Amato, 1998) and negative
Improved pain management for rodents is an important goal social interactions (Canto de Souza et al., 1997; McLaughlin
in the use of experimental animals. In the past decade, as sup- et al., 2006), stress (Filaretov et al., 1996; Kavaliers et al.,
ported by numerous scientific publications on this topic, there 1997; Molina et al., 1994; Williams et al., 2005), restraint
has been an increased emphasis on minimizing pain in experi- (Calcagnetti et al., 1990), and exercise (Smith andYancey, 2003)
mental rats and mice (Richardson and Flecknell, 2005). Factors may produce profound differences in analgesic effects. Dietary
contributing to improved rodent pain management include the components (Kanarek et al., 1997; Zhao et al., 2004) and hard-
increased use of mice and rats in biomedical research, continued ness of food (Ogawa et al., 2003) may also affect the impact of
improvements in humane care and use for all species, and recent analgesia in rodents subjected to painful stimuli. As discussed
scientific documentation that rodents experience pain despite below, some drugs are more useful than others in alleviating
their stoic behavior (ILAR, 1992). certain signs and types of pain.
The analgesics most commonly used for rodents and other
laboratory animal species are opioids and nonsteroidal anti-
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The ultimate decision for select- B. Timing of Analgesia
ing a drug must be based on the experimental model under study
and the specific types of data to be collected. Here we discuss Preemptive analgesia, or the provision of analgesic drugs in
pain in rodents and provide a discussion of analgesics that are advance of the painful stimulus, is a controversial topic, and
useful in relieving pain in experimental rats and mice, emphasiz- conflicting evidence exists regarding its efficacy in rodents.
ing the effects of specific analgesics on major types of models. In mice, fentanyl fails to provide preemptive analgesia in
Recommended analgesics, doses, and routes are listed in Table formalin-induced inflammatory pain (Fu and Scharf, 1995), and
10-1. For a comprehensive list of drugs with doses, the reader neither buprenorphine nor flunixin provides preemptive analge-
is directed to the formularies by Flecknell (1996) and Hawk sia for mice undergoing a laparotomy (Goecke et al., 2005).
et al. (2005); for pharmacology of these drugs, refer to Heavner Conversely, liposome-encapsulated hydromorphone provides
(1997) and Chapter 4. preemptive analgesia for rats undergoing sciatic nerve resection
(Smith et al., 2006), and bupivicaine local nerve blocks prevent
A. Assessment of Pain in Experimental Rodents subsequent hyperalgesia from thermal pain, but fail to protect
rats against hyperalgesia triggered by mechanical stimulation
Assessing pain in rodents can be difficult. Since rodents are (Themistocleous et al., 2007).
prey species that live in large colonies, individuals exhibiting Not only preoperative but also immediate postoperative anal-
weakness may be targeted as prey by aggressive conspecifics. gesic administration is important for adequate pain relief in
Rodents minimize pain-associated behaviors unless the pain postsurgical rodents. Intermediate doses of morphine (3 mg/kg)
is incapacitating; therefore, it can be very difficult to detect given parenterally 30 minutes before, and 30 minutes and 2
mild-to-moderate pain in these animals. Momentary observation hours after a simple abdominal surgery provide adequate pain
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 269

relief over a 2-day period. Administration of this same dose as demonstrated by studies in mu-receptor knockout mice
later in the postsurgical period provides only transient relief (Matthes et al., 1996). In vitro morphine has been shown to
(Gonzalez et al., 2000). Presurgical administration of anal- bind to both delta and kappa receptors. Morphine interacts with
gesics will reduce the amount of anesthesia needed during other drugs, such as inhalant and injectable anesthetics and anal-
surgery. This is demonstrated by studies showing that rats given gesics, to reduce the overall necessary dose of anesthetic or
buprenorphine at the beginning of a surgery require less propo- analgesic. Subanesthetic doses of ketamine not only potentiate
fol over the course of the surgery, resulting in a significantly the analgesic response of morphine, but also may further reduce
reduced total anesthesia requirement and significantly improved the activity level in rodents concurrently administered both of
recovery score (Penderis and Franklin, 2005). these agents (Campos et al., 2006).
Regardless of route of administration, morphine has a rel-
atively short duration of action, thus limiting its use in a
C. Opioid Analgesics laboratory animal setting where 24-hour intensive care is not
routinely provided. In rats and mice, 10 mg/kg of morphine
Opioids vary greatly in potency, duration of action, potential provides analgesia adequate to relieve severe pain for only 2–3
side effects, and negative interactions with other compounds. hours (Gades et al., 2000). Morphine alone has been shown to
These factors and the expected level of postprocedural pain must be effective at alleviating pain due to bone cancer in mice, but
be considered when choosing an appropriate opioid to admin- more complete analgesia is achieved if morphine is adminis-
ister to rodents (Gades et al., 2000; Genedani et al., 1999). The tered concurrently with oral acetaminophen (Saito et al., 2005).
most serious adverse effect of opioids is respiratory depression, In nerve injury models, morphine has been shown to be effec-
which may occur depending on the agent, administration, and tive in alleviating pain in rats, contrary to the long-held belief
the target receptor. Respiratory depression is seen more in mu- that opioids in general are poor analgesics for neuropathic pain
and delta-agonists and less in kappa-agonists (Heavner, 1997). (Erichsen et al., 2005; Joshi et al., 2006). A commonly used
A common side effect of opioid analgesia is hypomotility of the dose range, 2–10 mg/kg, is useful to alleviate pain in rats with
gastrointestinal tract (Gawrisch and Cheng, 1990), ultimately arthritis induced by complete Freund’s adjuvant (CFA) (Davis
leading to decreased food intake, which can prolong convales- and Perkins, 1993).
cence and which may be of special concern in models involving Although morphine administration in mice is not likely to
gastrointestinal surgery. The development of dependence and produce inappetance due to ileus, gastrointestinal side effects
tolerance is another important factor in determining the useful- can be noted in rats at doses as low as 10 mg/kg (Meert and
ness of opioid analgesia. Tolerance develops with the activation Vermeirsch, 2005; Stevenson et al., 2006). Small intestinal and
of both mu- and delta-opioid receptors. If only the mu receptor cecal lumen bacterial counts are increased in morphine-treated
is activated and the delta receptor is blocked, the development rats with 100% incidence of bacterial translocation through the
of tolerance is greatly attenuated (Roy et al., 2005). intestinal wall (Erbil et al., 1998).
Optimized opioid dosing of rodents is important, not only Encapsulation in a lipid-bilayer liposome greatly increases
to prevent high-dose side effects such as respiratory depres- the intensity of analgesia and extends the duration of action of
sion, but also to prevent hyperalgesic effects often seen in morphine (Smith et al., 2003; see also Chapter 28) If encapsu-
low-dose opioid administration (Crain and Shen, 2001). Many lated morphine is administered intrathecally, the onset of action
published rodent formularies offer very wide ranges of doses is rapid but analgesia is prolonged dramatically, up to 32 times
of opioids; therefore, investigators along with consulting labo- longer duration than parenteral morphine (Kim et al., 1996).
ratory animal veterinarians must evaluate individual animals to Mice develop a tolerance to morphine after several days of
determine what agent and dose is appropriate for a particular repeated single doses (Tokuyama et al., 1998), although toler-
species and protocol. These opioid regimens may need to be ance is not noted if the morphine is continuously administered
tested and customized for appropriate dose levels during model for several days (Backonja et al., 1995). Therefore, morphine
development. may not be an appropriate choice for relief of chronic pain if a
Because of their potential for abuse and addiction, most CRI is not practical or available. Parenteral dosing of morphine
opioids are controlled substances. Regulations delineated by may also produce acute variations in circulating sex hormones
federal or local agencies (e.g., Drug Enforcement Agency in the in the rat (Ceccarelli et al., 2006).
United States) will necessitate increased security in maintaining
a stock of these drugs in animal facilities.
2. Buprenorphine
Buprenorphine is a preferred analgesic to relieve moder-
1. Morphine
ate postsurgical pain in rodents. Buprenorphine (Buprenex® ,
Morphine (Duramorph® ) is one of the classic opioids often Temgesic® ) is a partial mu-agonist and is much more potent
used as a standard to measure comparative potency among than morphine, with a longer duration of action. In rats, it has
opioid drugs. Morphine acts primarily at the mu-opioid receptor, a very wide safety margin, producing a low level of analgesia
270 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

at low doses and much stronger analgesia at higher doses, with et al. have demonstrated that the pain threshold in rats is not
little increase in side effects (Meert and De Kock, 1994; Meert increased with self-medicated oral dosage of buprenorphine.
and Vermeirsch, 2005). Buprenorphine is very useful to relieve Instead, these reports advocate SC administration of 0.05 mg/kg
moderate pain and is the most practical and clinically useful as an effective dose to increase the pain threshold in rats (Martin
opioid analgesic for rodents (Roughan and Flecknell, 2002). et al., 2001; Thompson et al., 2004, 2006). Based on these incon-
Buprenorphine relieves many types of pain. It has been clusive findings, it is recommended that caution be exercised
shown to increase the latency of thermal tests over a wide while administering buprenorphine by oral gelatin.
range of doses, but is effective against inflammatory pain over Administration of buprenorphine has been shown to result in
a much narrower range. Buprenorphine is generally less effec- pica (e.g., ingestion of bedding) in rats both with and without
tive against mechanically induced pain; but is effective at higher prior laparotomy (Clark et al., 1997). Buprenorphine-induced
doses (0.055 mg/kg IV and 0.129 mg/kg IP) in treating neuro- pica may reduce long-term growth (Jacobson, 2000). Pica has
pathic pain (Christoph et al., 2005). In rat nerve injury models, not been documented as a side effect of buprenorphine in mice.
buprenorphine in this same range reduces mechanical sensitiv- Parenteral dosing of buprenorphine may also produce acute
ity without impacting postsurgical body weights (Stewart and variations in circulating sex hormones in the rat (Ceccarelli
Martin, 2003b). The duration of buprenorphine treatment and et al., 2006). Chronic administration of buprenorphine to rats
its dose have a significant effect on the maintenance of body (1.2 mg/kg twice daily for 14 days) produces analgesic tolerance
weight in rats. Doses of 0.05 mg/kg versus 0.01 mg/kg appear to (Gringauz et al., 2001).
produce equivalent analgesia following laparotomy in Sprague–
Dawley rats. Rats exhibit a dose-dependent response to the
3. Fentanyl
tail-flick test when buprenorphine is administered up to the max-
imal effective dose of 2.5 mg/kg. Doses exceeding 10 mg/kg Fentanyl (Duragesic) is a full mu-agonist that effectively
SC (up to 80 mg/kg) reduce the pain but to a lesser extent than reduces chronic or dull pain as well as nociception caused by
lower doses (Meert and Vermeirsch, 2005). Repeated doses in thermal or chemical stimuli. In rat nerve injury models, fentanyl
the higher range reduce food intake, resulting in weight loss, a reduces mechanical sensitivity while allowing for the mainte-
consequence not seen at the lower doses (Jablonski et al., 2001). nance of weight following surgery (Stewart and Martin, 2003b).
If administered SC, 0.3 mg/kg is effective at eliminating low- Fentanyl is administered to rats and mice in a wide range of
intensity thermal pain in rats only 30 minutes post injection, but doses. Doses of 0.01–1.0 mg/kg IP have been reported to be
has limited efficacy for more intense pain over the same period. effective, and dosing may be as infrequent as once per day
Higher doses have no additional analgesic effect on this short- (El Mouedden and Meert, 2005; Stewart and Martin, 2003a;
time course (Abram et al., 1997). Over a longer time course, SC Stewart and Martin, 2003b). Meert and Vermeirsch (2005)
administration of 0.5 mg/kg in rats produces 6–8 hours of anal- determined that 0.16 mg/kg of fentanyl administered subcuta-
gesia and 2.0 mg/kg in mice produces 3–5 hours of analgesia neously in rats has an onset of action within 15 minutes and
(Gades et al., 2000). produces analgesia for at least 2 hours. Chronically arthritic
Buprenorphine may not provide adequate analgesia for some rats self-medicate with fentanyl in drinking water and alter their
surgical procedures but can be combined effectively with other intake based on the pain experienced, not by a progressive opioid
opioids or NSAIDs. Buprenorphine was not effective when dependence (Colpaert et al., 2001).
used alone in a rat bowel transplant model (Camprodon and Fentanyl patches designed for transdermal delivery, which are
Bowles, 2006), resulting in poor analgesia and high mortality. commonly used in a variety of larger animals, are not yet used
Other studies have shown that for specific surgeries, varying in rodents due to practical considerations such as the size of the
doses of parenteral buprenorphine in rats are not effective at patient relative to the patch and the amount of fentanyl contained
reducing pain thresholds below vehicle/control levels (Kirsch in patches originally designed for humans. Because the fentanyl
et al., 2002) and may actually prolong recovery (Sharp et al., gel matrix is released through the transmembrane at a titered
2003). The analgesic effects of buprenorphine are augmented rate, patches cannot be cut into pieces prior to use without risk-
with the administration of α-2 adrenergic antagonists such as ati- ing a fatal analgesic overdose. Fentanyl may be applied topically
pamezole to α-2 adrenoceptor knockout mice (Ozdogan et al., to nonhaired skin in an aqueous cream base, and in this prepa-
2006). Because buprenorphine is a partial mu-agonist, it can be ration fentanyl improved wound healing, wound contracture,
used concurrently with full mu-agonists, such as morphine and cellular proliferation, and angiogenesis in rats (Poonawala et al.,
fentanyl, to produce additive effects. 2005). A technique to extend the duration of effectiveness of
It has been observed that in rats self-medication of buprenor- fentanyl and to mimic the sustained release seen in transdermal
phine (0.5 mg/kg in flavored gelatin) may provide pain relief delivery is to encapsulate the opioid in liposomes. Encapsula-
adequate to maintain food and water intake, avoiding postsurgi- tion greatly increases the intensity of analgesia and extends the
cal weight loss (Flecknell et al., 1999b; Liles et al., 1998), and duration of action of fentanyl (Thornton et al., 1998); however,
normal activity after surgery (Jablonski and Howden, 2002). producing encapsulated fentanyl in-house is an intricate process
Conflicting studies utilizing pain testing and scoring by Martin and commercial availability is limited (Smith et al., 2003).
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 271

Fentanyl analogs, such as remifentanil, alfentanil, lofentanil, seldom used because it has a short duration (1–2 hours) of anal-
carfentanil, and sufentanil, are not currently or commonly used gesia and relieves only minor pain (Gades et al., 2000). The
as analgesics in rodents due to the very short duration of analge- unique opioid-receptor profile of this drug allows butorphanol
sia and rapid development of analgesic tolerance (Kissin et al., to be administered to a patient that requires reversal of a mu-
1996). agonist, but avoids a complete reversal, that otherwise might
Parenteral dosing of fentanyl may produce acute variations result in perceived pain. Butorphanol can reverse the effects
in circulating sex hormones in the rat (Ceccarelli et al., 2006). of the mu receptor while providing short-term analgesia via
In rodents, single boluses as well as short-term infusions of the kappa receptor. Lower doses of butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg)
fentanyl and fentanyl analogs may result in prolonged hyper- and nalbuphine (2 mg/kg) than would otherwise be used for
algesia following the surgical procedure (Celerier et al., 2000, primary analgesia can be used in combination with atipame-
2006). It is advised that complete analgesic coverage postoper- zole (1 mg/kg) to rapidly reverse the anesthetic and respiratory
atively should combine fentanyl (or its analogs) with other pain depression effects of fentanyl (0.3 mg/kg) and medetomidine
medications. In rats, the use of subanesthetic doses of ketamine (0.2–0.3 mg/kg) in rats (Hu et al., 1992) while still maintaining
alleviates this postoperative hyperalgesic state (Richebe et al., adequate analgesia. Long-term administration of butorphanol
2005). In rats, gastrointestinal side effects from fentanyl are less may result in analgesic tolerance (Gringauz et al., 2001).
than those noted with other opioids, and generally occur at doses Nalbuphine (Nubain® ) is structurally similar to both nalox-
higher than that are necessary to produce analgesia (Meert and one and oxymorphone, and also has a kappa-agonism and
Vermeirsch, 2005). mixed mu-agonism/-antagonism receptor profile. Similar to
butorphanol, nalbuphine may be used to reverse the respiratory
4. Oxymorphone and Hydromorphone depression caused by mu-agonists, but still provide analge-
sia from the kappa-receptor activation (Loomis et al., 1989).
Oxymorphone (Numorphone® ) has limited use because of Nalbuphine is equal in potency to morphine, but causes min-
its abbreviated analgesic duration. If the duration of action can imal side effects and has a low potential for abuse. When
be extended by methods such as encapsulation, it is a good administered with morphine to rats, nalbuphine eliminated the
analgesic and may be a practical alternative to other opioids dependence and tolerance usually seen with chronically admin-
such as buprenorphine. Chronically administered oxymorphone istered morphine (Jang et al., 2006; Lee et al., 1997). Unlike
reduces pain-related behavioral changes such as altered groom- other opioids, it has minor effects on gastrointestinal motility
ing behavior, squinting eyes, activity, and agitation in rats and has been shown to promote food and water intake in post-
subjected to a laparotomy, a result not seen with buprenor- surgical rats, as well as to increase activity (Asai et al., 1998;
phine (Gillingham et al., 2001). This drug has been shown to be Flecknell and Liles, 1991). In rats, its duration of action has
effective in treating visceral pain in a gastrointestinal distension been shown to be relatively short (2 hours), thus limiting its
model (Briggs et al., 1995). Recently, sustained-release oxy- clinical usefulness (Chen et al., 2002a). In vivo studies involv-
morphone in the form of liposome-encapsulation has allowed ing oil-based preparations of IM-administered nalbuphine have
for a resurgence in veterinary medical use of the shorter-acting demonstrated that the duration of analgesia is extended to over
opioids in long-term pain release, specifically in mice (Thornton 2 days (Liu et al., 2004; Wang et al., 2006).
et al., 1998) and rats (Krugner-Higby et al., 2003; Smith et Pentazocine (Pentagin® , Talwin® , Fortral® ) is a kappa-
al., 2003); however, producing encapsulated oxymorphone in- agonist that may be administered for mild-to-moderate pain but
house is an intricate process and commercial availability is is not often used due to development of analgesic tolerance
limited (Clark et al., 2004). Another unique delivery system is with chronic administration. Activation of the kappa receptor
drug-impregnated biodegradable poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) causes little, if any, respiratory depression and its low addiction
rods. Although not commercially available as a ready-to-use potential makes pentazocine a safe alternative to mu-agonists
product, hydromorphone-impregnated rods may be relatively for mild-to-moderate pain-producing procedures. In rats, penta-
easily produced in the laboratory with some specialized equip- zocine increases the level of analgesia to heat-induced pain when
ment and skills. A total dose of 20 mg hydromorphone rods coadministered with low doses of morphine (Hamura et al.,
implanted subcutaneously in the hind limb of rats in sciatic nerve 2000). Like other opioids, pentazocine markedly decreases gas-
resection injury models provides adequate analgesia for 12 days tric emptying time and gut transit time in rodents (Asai et al.,
(Hasirci et al., 2003) based on tail-flick and paw-withdrawal 1998).
testing (Sendil et al., 2003).

6. Miscellaneous Opioids
5. Kappa Receptor Agonists: Butorphanol, Nalbuphine,
Certain opioid drugs may be less commonly used in labora-
and Pentazocine
tory rodents primarily due to a lack of sufficient data about their
Butorphanol (Torbugesic, Torbutrol, Stadol) is a kappa- scientific, pharmacologic, and clinical efficacy. A summary of
agonist and mu-antagonist. In mice and rats, butorphanol is these agents has been provided based on relevant literature.
272 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

Tramadol (Zydol, Ultram) affects the CNS as an opioid D. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Agents
agonist and acts as a serotonin reuptake inhibitor. At rela-
tively low doses, an analgesic effect is not seen, but 20 or 1. Salicylic Acid Acetate (Aspirin)
40 mg/kg of Tramadol increases the pain threshold in mice
Aspirin, the oldest commercial NSAID, demonstrates contin-
(Erhan et al., 2005). In rats, low doses such as 1.0 mg/kg are
ued efficacy despite having many side effects including reduced
effective to increase the pain threshold in rats with experimen-
hemostasis and increased incidence of gastric ulceration. In rats
tally induced arthritis (Kayser et al., 1991). Parenteral dosing of
undergoing laparotomies and organ transplants, oral adminis-
tramadol may produce acute variations in circulating sex hor-
tration of aspirin maintained a normal activity level (Jablonski
mones in the rat (Ceccarelli et al., 2006). In higher doses of
and Howden, 2002). Aspirin has been shown to be ineffective
tramadol, opioid-induced ileus is observed, but this reduced
in restoring activity to control levels in CFA-induced arthri-
activity is overcome by concomitant use of clinically relevant
tis models (Millecamps et al., 2005) and formalin-induced
doses of dipyrone, acetaminophen, or ibuprofen (Planas et al.,
inflammatory pain models (Choi et al., 2001).
2003).
Meperidine (Demerol, Pethidine® ) is a mu-agonist with some
α-2 adrenergic properties (Takada et al., 2002). Meperidine is
useful alone or in combination with other opioids to potenti- 2. Acetaminophen
ate opioid analgesia. Meperidine can provide short-term relief Acetaminophen (Tylenol, Paracetamol, Datril®, Phenaphen® )
from severe pain and has been shown to reduce the thresh- reduces pyrexia and provides analgesia, but is quite lim-
old for shivering (Paris et al., 2005). This latter effect could ited in reducing inflammation (Capetola et al., 1983). Oral
be utilized, in specific instances, to reduce involuntary move- acetaminophen alone has been shown to be effective in allevi-
ment under anesthesia and the use of neuromuscular blocking ating bone cancer pain in mice; improved analgesia is provided
agents. Meperidine has also been demonstrated to offer local when acetaminophen and morphine are administered in com-
anesthetic effects in doses greater than 1.0 mg/kg when injected bination (Saito et al., 2005). Rats with CFA-induced arthritis
perineurally (Hassan et al., 1989). have been shown to be significantly less active than naïve
In nerve injury models, methadone, a mu-agonist, has been rats. Arthritic rats treated with acetaminophen have activity
shown to be effective in alleviating pain in rats (Erichsen et al., levels closer to normal levels (Millecamps et al., 2005), but
2005), contrary to the long-held belief that opioids in general acetaminophen does not maintain normal activity levels in
are poor analgesics for neuropathic pain (Kupers and Gybels, formalin-induced pain models (Choi et al., 2001). Conflict-
1995). Methadone has been shown to produce additive analgesic ing evidence in the literature exists with regards to whether
effects when paired with other opioids (Bolan et al., 2002), an voluntarily ingested acetaminophen provides reliable analgesia
effect which may be due to its partial NMDA-antagonist activity for rats (Bauer et al., 2003; Mickley et al., 2006) or mice fol-
(Ebert et al., 1995). lowing surgery (Hayes et al., 2000). The analgesic effect of
acetaminophen does not seem to be associated with the COX-1
7. Opioid Reversal Agents or COX-2 pathways, as it produces very different analgesic pro-
files when compared with indomethacin, a well-known effector
Naloxone (Narcan® ) is an opioid antagonist that acts pri- of the COX cascade. Thus, acetaminophen may be used to pro-
marily on the mu receptor, but has some blocking activity vide relief in mild-to-moderate pain in animal models involving
of the kappa receptors (Kong et al., 1994; Tokuyama et al., coagulation, prostaglandin synthesis, and inflammation (Abbott
1998). At low doses, it can potentiate the analgesic effects of and Hellemans, 2000).
kappa-receptor agonists, such as pentazocine (Legros et al.,
1984; Levine et al., 1988). Naloxone also reverses the anal-
gesic effect of other agents that produce opioid-like analgesics,
3. Propionic Acid Derivatives: Ibuprofen, Carprofen,
as well as the analgesic and euphoric effects of endogenous
Ketoprofen, Ketorolac, and Naproxen
opioids.
Recent work has identified a peripherally acting opioid rever- The combination of ibuprofen (Advil, Medipren® , Motrin,
sal agent, alvimopam (Greenwood-Van Meerveld et al., 2004). Nuprin) and hydrocodone or oxycodone provides better analge-
Opioid receptors involved with nociception are typically central sia than opioids or ibuprofen alone, as evidenced by increased
(brain and spinal cord), but those involved with producing the time to remove in response to the tail test. This synergistic effect
side effect of ileus are found in the gut. Because the mu recep- was not seen when ibuprofen was combined with fentanyl or
tors associated with reduction of gastrointestinal motility are morphine; additional NSAIDs (ketorolac and aspirin) did not
peripheral and not central, peripherally acting reversal agents add to the effects of hydrocodone or oxycodone (Kolesnikov
may be used to restore the normal physiology of the gastroin- et al., 2003; Zelcer et al., 2005). In rats, when coadministered
testinal tract with little impact on the analgesic effects of the with caffeine, high-dose ibuprofen has an analgesic profile sim-
opioid. ilar to that of morphine (Lopez et al., 2006), a level of analgesia
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 273

that is not provided by ibuprofen alone. Orally administered 4. Dipyrone

ibuprofen in self-medicating mice allowed for a rapid return
Dipyrone (Metamizol® ) produces very good analgesia over
to normal activity following abdominal surgery (Hayes et al.,
a wide dosage range (150–600 mg/kg) and relieves inflamma-
2000). Analgesic doses of ibuprofen, otherwise capable of pain
tory pain (Abbott and Bonder, 1997; Hernandez-Delgadillo
relief in other models, did not significantly alleviate pain in
et al., 2002), central pain (Beirith et al., 1998), thermal pain
capsaicin-induced neuropathic pain models (Joshi et al., 2006).
(Hernandez-Delgadillo and Cruz, 2006; Hernandez-Delgadillo
In traumatic brain injury models, rats receiving ibuprofen post
et al., 2003), and visceral pain (Laird and Cervero, 1996;
injury developed significant learning dysfunction and cogni-
Laird et al., 1998). Dipyrone acts centrally in the brainstem
tive deficits compared with injured rats not receiving ibuprofen
(Tortorici and Vanegas, 1994; Tortorici et al., 1996) or spinal
(Browne et al., 2006).
cord (Neugebauer et al., 1994), either alone or by activating
Combining carprofen (Rimadyl® ) with buprenorphine as a
the endogenous opioid pathways (Hernandez-Delgadillo and
pain medication protocol in rats undergoing laparotomy reduces
Cruz, 2006; Omisore et al., 2004). Despite this apparent mech-
postoperative depression, anorexia, and water intake (Liles
anism of action, the effects of dipyrone may not be reversible
and Flecknell, 1994), as well as other pain-related behaviors
by naloxone (Poveda et al., 2003; Taylor et al., 1998) nor does
(Roughan and Flecknell, 2004). This combination is effective
it produce opioid-induced ileus (Hernandez-Delgadillo et al.,
for up to several hours over a wide range of doses in rats with
2002). Repeated doses of dipyrone eventually induce analgesic
laparotomies (Roughan and Flecknell, 2001, 2003). In rats,
tolerance, a tolerance that is cross-reactive with morphine tol-
oral administration of carprofen via self-administration may
erance (Hernandez-Delgadillo and Cruz, 2004; Vanegas and
not be adequate for controlling pain associated with laparotomy
Tortorici, 2002). If these two agents are chronically coadmin-
when compared to similar SC doses (Flecknell et al., 1999a).
istered, the analgesic tolerances of both agents are delayed by
Carprofen was not effective when used alone in a rat bowel trans-
11–13 days (Hernandez-Delgadillo et al., 2002, 2003).
plant model (Camprodon and Bowles, 2006) nor was high-dose
Dipyrone use should be avoided for rodent epilepsy mod-
carprofen (15 ml/kg) effective in alleviating pain or elevating
els, as intermediate-to-high doses (300–500 mg/kg) reduce limb
the pain threshold in rats subjected to acute muscle pain (Nielsen
extension and tonic-clonic plus limbic components of seizures
et al., 2004). Carprofen is not recommended as the sole
induced by electroshock and sound (Doretto et al., 1998). The
analgesic for rodent surgery models.
analgesic effect of dipyrone does not seem to be associated
Oral self-administration of ketoprofen (Ketofen® ) to rats may
with the COX pathway (Abbott and Hellemans, 2000). It is
not be adequate for controlling pain associated with laparotomy
suggested that the analgesic effect of dipyrone is not associ-
when compared to similar SC doses (Flecknell et al., 1999a).
ated with its anti-inflammatory effect (Beirith et al., 1998).
With less severe incisional pain, ketoprofen provides analgesia
Furthermore, dipyrone produces analgesia in adjuvant-induced
for up to 24 hours at 10–20 mg/kg doses (Prado and Pontes,
arthritis models while not reducing inflammation, swelling,
2002). Like ibuprofen, ketoprofen combined with caffeine pro-
and edema (Tatsuo et al., 1994). Thus, dipyrone is a recom-
duces the analgesic efficacy in rats, which is two to three
mended analgesic for adjuvant-induced arthritis models and
times that produced with ketoprofen alone (Diaz-Reval et al.,
animal models involving coagulation, prostaglandin synthesis,
2001).
and inflammation (Abbott and Hellemans, 2000).
Ketorolac tromethamine (Toradol® ) provides very good anal-
gesic properties for visceral, tonic, and inflammatory pain.
Although it produces gastric lesions in high or prolonged doses
5. Celecoxib and Parecoxib
(Padi et al., 2004), ketorolac does not interfere with platelet
function. Ketorolac has analgesic effects comparable to strong Celecoxib (Celebra® ) and, to a lesser extent, parecoxib
opioids, yet its effectiveness in preventing pain from direct stim- are two of the more commonly used highly specific COX-2
ulation of nerves is questionable (Randolph and Peters, 1997). inhibitors used in rodents. In general, COX-2 specific agents
It has very rapid oral uptake (maximal plasma levels at approxi- impart less gastrointestinal effects and have better analgesic
mately 20 minutes) and has a half-life of 6 hours (Granados-Soto effects with inflammatory pain, but do induce cardiovascular
and Flores-Murrieta, 1995). Ketorolac administered with the side effects such as stroke and hypertension.
antibiotic gentamicin is contraindicated, because both drugs In rodents, celecoxib has been shown to be ineffective against
have acute kidney effects and together have been shown to pro- bone cancer (Medhurst et al., 2002; Saito et al., 2005) or
mote severe acute tubular necrosis over the course of 3 days thermal pain (Nishiyama, 2006; Veiga et al., 2004). Pain-
(Jaquenod et al., 1998). associated behavioral alterations following induction of CFA-
Naproxen (Anaprox® , Aleve® ) is a long-acting COX inhibitor induced arthritis are alleviated by celecoxib (Millecamps et al.,
that has been seldom used in rodents because of short dura- 2005); however, celecoxib also reduces swelling, chronic hyper-
tion of analgesia and the development of gastric ulceration algesia, and joint pathology that may or may not be tolerable
(Whiteside et al., 2004). The use of this agent in rodents is depending on the aspect of the model under study (Noguchi
not recommended. et al., 2005). A high dose (∼30 mg/kg) is necessary to promote
274 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

weight bearing in an inducible osteoarthritis model (Pomonis 7. Miscellaneous NSAIDs

et al., 2005). Analgesic doses of celecoxib, otherwise capable
Flunixin meglumine (Banamine® , Flunazine), though not
of pain relief in other models, did not significantly alleviate
frequently used in rodents, reduces inflammatory pain through
pain in capsaicin-induced neuropathic pain models (Joshi et al.,
activation of spinal opioid receptors and is of use in inflamma-
2006). Chronic administration effectively reduces the severity
tory conditions (Herrero and Headley, 1996). Flunixin provides
of endometriosis in mice, while not altering the estrous cycle
excellent anti-inflammatory activity in rat nerve injury mod-
(Efstathiou et al., 2005). When given for long duration, cele-
els, and promotes greater weight gains than with opioids. This
coxib is effective in alleviating incisional pain (Whiteside et al.,
agent has minimal antinociceptive properties and is less effec-
2004). Systemically administered celecoxib is capable of allevi-
tive for providing analgesia following major surgery (Liles and
ating formalin-induced inflammatory pain (Nishiyama, 2006),
Flecknell, 1994; Stewart and Martin, 2003b).
but has no local effects (Torres-Lopez et al., 2002). Preemptive
The primary mechanism of indomethacin is blockade of
administration of celecoxib, given prior to the painful stimulus,
prostaglandin synthesis due to nonselective COX-1/COX-2
is highly effective (Veiga et al., 2004). NSAIDs have long been
inhibition. It may participate in the centrally located release
implicated in prolonging fracture healing; thus, opioids have
of endogenous opioids (Suganuma et al., 1998). While
routinely been used in orthopedic procedures. When celecoxib
indomethacin has been shown to be effective at alleviating bone
is administered to rats with femoral fractures, there is increased
cancer pain in mice (Saito et al., 2005), it prolongs bone fracture
fibrous repair, but not a significantly increased time to healing
repair in rats (Brown et al., 2004). Interestingly, in rats it has
(Brown et al., 2004).
been shown to prevent the unusually rapid metastasis associated
Parecoxib has more potent synergistic effects when combined
with untreated surgical pain (Page and Ben-Eliyahu, 2002). The
with morphine than other COX-2 NSAIDs (Pinardi et al., 2005)
use of indomethacin in pregnant rats should be avoided because
and reduces the amount of opioid needed for adequate analgesia.
it may cause significant neurologic and behavioral deficits in the
This overall reduction in drug improves the safety margin of
pups as they mature (Benesova et al., 2001).
the analgesic regime and provides better analgesic coverage.
Mechanisms of analgesic and anti-inflammatory actions of
Parecoxib provides relief from inflammatory pain, but it does
diclofenac are unclear; they may be through the inhibition of
not relieve visceral or tonic pain (Padi et al., 2004).
COX and possibly the lipooxygenase pathways (Scholer et al.,
1986) or by activation of K+ channels of afferent nerves (Ortiz
6. Meloxicam and Piroxicam et al., 2002). Diclofenac is primarily used for the relief of
musculoskeletal or neurogenic pain (Santos et al., 1998). In
Meloxicam (Metacam® ) is primarily a COX-2 inhibitor that
inflammatory pain models, diclofenac has a very good analgesic
acts peripherally to block nociceptors. It reduces swelling
effect when administered locally near the site of inflammation
in inflamed joints and diminishes pain-related behaviors in
(Gupta et al., 2002; Jain et al., 2005; Torres-Lopez et al., 2002),
arthritic rats (Laird et al., 1997). In rats undergoing laparo-
but is less effective when administered systemically (Prado and
tomies, meloxicam is effective over a wide range of doses for
Pontes, 2002).
up to several hours (Roughan and Flecknell, 2003) and raises
the chronic hyperalgesia threshold in rats experiencing neuro-
pathic pain (Takahashi et al., 2005). Meloxicam is effective in
E. Other Agents with Analgesic Action
both inflammatory and neurogenic pain, but has limited anal-
gesic abilities with visceral distension or thermal pain (Santos
1. Ketamine
et al., 1998). Meloxicam exhibits moderate synergistic effects
with morphine (Pinardi et al., 2005), allowing a reduction in Some studies indicate that the NMDA antagonist ketamine
dose for both drugs and improving the safety margin. improves analgesia when used in conjunction with other agents,
Meloxicam may be ulcerogenic in rats at a clinically rele- especially opioids. In rats, ketamine used as part of the anes-
vant dose of 3.2 mg/kg (Jain et al., 2002), although this side thetic combination or in the days following the painful procedure
effect is reduced by formulating the drug in polyethylene glycol eliminates the hyperalgesia seen with the short-term use of
for oral preparations (Vijaya Kumar and Mishra, 2006). Gastric fentanyl (Laulin et al., 2002). In contrast, other studies have
ulceration is also the primary drawback to piroxicam, which supported the usefulness of NMDA antagonists in combination
is more ulcerogenic than meloxicam (Engelhardt et al., 1995). with opioid analgesia (Redwine and Trujillo, 2003).
There have been successful attempts to bypass this deficiency by
formulating piroxicam in an orally absorbed preparation, which
2. α-2 Adrenergic Agonists
has been shown to have greater analgesic effects than a commer-
cial tablet preparation (Attia et al., 2004). Both piroxicam and α-2 Adrenergic agonists, such as xylazine and medetomidine,
meloxicam may be administered in a topical gel, which produces do have analgesic effects, but their sedative effects disqualify
therapeutic plasma levels while minimizing gastrointestinal side them from being used as sole analgesic agents. These agents
effects (Gupta et al., 2002). combined with an opioid or NSAID result in a synergistic effect,
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 275

extending both the duration and potency of the total analgesic properties when used in rodents. Physostigmine 50–200 μg/kg
effect (Jain et al., 2002; McLaughlin and Dewey, 1994). Tizani- SC produces relief of mechanical and cold-based allodynia in
dine is also used in combination with NSAIDs in order to reduce rats, although it does not provide significant analgesia in hot
gastric irritation and ulcerogenesis (Jain et al., 2002). plate stimulation tests (Poyhia et al., 1999).
Clonidine is a centrally acting α-2 adrenergic agonist that
provides short-acting analgesia in rodents alone and espe-
cially when coupled with an opioid (Hirst et al., 1984). In a F. Adjuncts to Analgesia in Rodents
formalin model of visceral pain in mice, clonidine provides
dose-dependent analgesia over a very wide dose range (0.001– While opioids and NSAIDs are by far the most commonly
0.1 mg/kg IP) for at least 1 hour (Sabetkasaie et al., 2004). used methods of alleviating pain in rodents, other “alternative”
Clonidine given IP at doses greater than 0.02 mg/kg will allevi- methods of analgesia that may not intuitively be associated with
ate hot plate nociception in most rats (Sluka and Chandran, providing analgesia have recently been investigated. Alterna-
2002). Significantly higher doses (2 mg/kg) have also been tives with limited clinical documentation are not discussed here.
shown to provide mechanical analgesia in mice (Ozdogan et al., (See also the chapter on nonpharmacological pain control.)
2004; Sluka and Chandran, 2002). Clonidine (0.025 mg/kg)
coadministered IP with low-dose morphine (0.5 mg/kg) pro-
1. Diet and Ingestion of Sweets
duces a pronounced synergistic effect to alleviate inflammation
pain. In contrast with morphine alone, tolerance does not In mice with bone cancer models, soy-based diets may
develop to this combination (Gurtu et al., 1994). Administra- improve the well-being of the animals by reducing the hyperal-
tion of clonidine (0.1 and 1.0 mg/kg) seems to produce different gesia inherent to these models (Zhao et al., 2004). The ingestion
effects in young, mature, and old mice during the active (dark) of sweet compounds produces a low-level euphoria and anal-
and inactive periods. During the inactive period, clonidine gesia. Nociception test latencies (e.g., tail flick) are increased
provides greater analgesic effects in young and mature mice in rats after the ingestion of sugar solutions and this effect is
compared with old animals. During the active period, identi- reversed by administering opioid receptor antagonists. It is spec-
cal doses of clonidine produce a much greater analgesic effect ulated that the sugar compounds not only trigger the release of
in young and mature mice, but only a slight increase in older endogenous opioids (Segato et al., 1997), but also act on sero-
mice. Older mice may demonstrate tremors from clonidine tonergic and noradrenergic receptors (Reboucas et al., 2005).
administration (Hirst et al., 1984). Rats given a wide range of doses of aspartame, an artificial
sweetener, exhibited an increased pain threshold (Sharma et al.,
3. Local and Topical Anesthetics 2005). There is a synergistic effect when aspartame is given
along with various opioids and NSAIDs in rats and mice (Nikfar
Administration of local anesthetics such as lidocaine has
et al., 1997; Sharma et al., 2005).
both analgesic and anti-arrhythmic effects. Lidocaine or bupivi-
caine may be combined with opioids and NSAIDs to fully
relieve pain during the most painful period of 4–7 hours post 2. Acupuncture
surgery (Roughan and Flecknell, 2004). Continuously deliv-
Acupuncture has only recently become more popular and
ered lidocaine, via implantable osmotic pumps, at doses from
more accepted in veterinary medicine due to the increase in sci-
0.67 mg/(kg h) to 1.3 mg/(kg h) provides analgesia to alleviate
entifically based studies investigating its mechanisms of action
pain produced by a chronic constriction injury model of neuro-
and documenting results. Many of these studies have been done
pathic pain and may even reverse the hyperalgesic peak if admin-
using rodents. On an anatomic level, acupuncture analgesia
istered later at three postoperative days (Smith et al., 2002).
seems to be regulated by the hypothalamus, while on a biochem-
Ammonium sulfate and bupivicaine are safe to use in neona-
ical level an increase in arginine vasopressin seems to elicit an
tal rodents (Hertl et al., 1998). Analgesic effects are additive and
acupuncture-induced analgesic response in the rat hypothala-
may last for hours when a local anesthetic such as lidocaine or
mus (Yang et al., 2006). At the receptor level, naloxone often
bupivicaine is combined with an opioid analgesic such as mor-
abolishes the clinical effects of acupuncture, though this may be
phine, levorphanol, or buprenorphine delivered topically using
frequency specific for electroacupuncture (Huang et al., 2002),
DMSO (Hayes and Flecknell, 1999; Kolesnikov et al., 2000).
thus adding evidence to the notion of opioid receptor activa-
Application of morphine in DMSO to the tails of mice produced
tion. Recent studies have shown that acupuncture triggers the
local, dose-dependent analgesia with no uptake of the morphine
upregulation of mu receptors in many areas of the rat brain,
by central receptors (Kolesnikov and Pasternak, 1999).
thus allowing for a greater effect of opioids in treating the ani-
mal having pain (Zhu et al., 1995). Evidence suggests that
4. Cholinesterase Inhibitors
the trigger for electroacupuncture induced analgesia in mice
In addition to acting as neuromuscular blocking antago- is the release of brain endomorphins and other endogenous opi-
nists, neostigmine and physostigmine have significant analgesic oids (Huang et al., 2000), although some evidence exists that
276 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

other mechanisms may also be involved. For example, elec- mu receptor knockout mice demonstrate no immune alteration
troacupuncture in a rat ankle sprain model increases stepping when morphine is administered. Kappa-agonists are generally
force equivalent to morphine analgesia (Koo et al., 2002), but strong anti-inflammatory opioids that act through the release
this effect could not be reversed by naloxone. Electroacupunc- of interleukins (Parkhill and Bidlack, 2006), decreased TNF-α
ture combined with low doses of indomethacin has a synergistic release, and reduced adhesion molecule and cytokine expres-
effect on the reduction of hyperalgesia (Zhang et al., 2004). sion (Walker, 2003), and are seldom suitable for use in these
models.
Morphine suppresses splenic T-cell proliferation without
3. Dexamethasone
immunosuppression in a mild burn injury model (Alexander
Dexamethasone provides significant relief from inflammation- et al., 2005). Rats receiving chronic continuous morphine
based pain in chronic adjuvant-induced arthritis (Colpaert et al., demonstrate no significant immune alteration (measured by NK
2001; Wilson et al., 2006). It also allows for a return of normal cell activity, T-cell proliferation, and TNF-α production) com-
mobility in arthritic rats (Matson et al., 2007) and improves pared with saline controls, while bolus-dosing of morphine does
the clinical condition of aged, adrenalectomized arthritic rats induce altered immune function (West et al., 1998). Intermit-
(Yokoro et al., 2003). Dexamethasone does not provide analge- tent, but not continuous, morphine attenuates adjuvant-induced
sia in rodents with mechanical, neuropathic, and thermal pain arthritis in rats (Walker et al., 1996). B cells, T cells, and IFN-γ
(Veiga et al., 2004). While effective in increasing the threshold production are maximally suppressed at 1 hour with recov-
for pressure pain in endotoxin-induced hyperalgesia, dexam- ery after 2 hours. Since all measured immunologic parameters
ethasone is only marginally effective or ineffective in alleviating return to control levels by 24 hours, preemptive administra-
thermal pain associated with this model (Kanaan et al., 1997). tion of morphine in advance of a painful procedure can provide
Thus, the type of model will determine the potential usefulness analgesia without compromising the data generated following
of dexamethasone. recovery (Nelson et al., 1997). A single dose of morphine mod-
ulates NK activity from 1 to 12 hours, while fentanyl does not
alter NK cytotoxicity in rats following abdominal surgery (Page
G. Analgesic Use in Immunologic, Inflammation, and et al., 2001). Fentanyl has been shown to have significant effects
Tumor Studies on the immune system, causing a decrease in lymphoprolifera-
tion. In sustained-release systems such as osmotic pumps, the
Provision of analgesia may compromise experimental results effects on the immune system are reduced in a few days and
in rodent studies involving immunology, tumor studies, and completely absent by 1 week (Martucci et al., 2004).
experimental models of inflammation. There is evidence both Buprenorphine has minimal effects on the immune system
supporting and refuting the idea that opioids, NSAIDs, and other and is a recommended analgesic for protocols where chronic
analgesic agents may affect the immune system and animal mod- inflammation is induced such as arthritis, burn, and infectious
els of inflammation, although a recent review of immunology disease models. Martucci et al. (2004) also showed that neither
literature indicated that analgesics were not routinely utilized a single dose of 5 mg/kg or chronic administration of buprenor-
(Piersma et al., 1999). The use of specific classes of analgesics phine of 0.3 mg/day had any effect on lymphoproliferation, NK
in model systems likely to cause chronic pain in rodents is cell activity, IL-2, or IFN-γ over 1, 3, or 7 days. Mice adminis-
discussed below. tered buprenorphine continuously with an osmotic pump show
no alteration in CD4+ or CD8+ lymphocyte populations (D’Elia
et al., 2003). Van Loveren et al. (1994) demonstrated a consis-
1. Opioids
tent and general lack of immunomodulation by buprenorphine
Opioids modulate immunological parameters, but this mod- in rats. Buprenorphine given at recommended doses does not
ulation depends on the drug, the dose, and whether the opioid is induce hematologic, bone marrow, or splenic changes, or alter-
administered continuously or intermittently. Many opioids mod- ations in serum immunoglobulins IgM, IgG, IgA, and IgE. The
ulate the immune system by directly binding the mu receptors on thymus and regional lymph node may become enlarged, but not
inflammatory cells, by indirectly altering the HPA axis and the due to pathologic changes. Natural killer cell functionality is
glucocorticoid influence on leukocytes, or by the sympathetic preserved.
effect of noradrenalin on leukocytes (Sacerdote, 2006). Mor- When used in rat models of arthritis, buprenorphine is thought
phine has been shown to suppress NK cells (Saurer et al., 2006), to have anti-inflammatory effects, without altering the develop-
reduce lymphocyte proliferation (Mellon and Bayer, 2001), alter ment of arthritis in CFA-induced arthritis rat models (Walker
gene expression of MHC II proteins (Beagles et al., 2004), et al., 1996), but does reduce hock swelling and inflamma-
and induce apoptosis in bone marrow macrophages (Malik et tory changes in streptococcal cell wall-induced arthritis (Volker
al., 2002). Gaveriaux-Ruff et al. (1998) determined that the et al., 2000). Hall et al. (1996) report that buprenorphine admin-
immune effects commonly seen with morphine usage are due istration to arthritic rats actually worsens the clinical arthritis
to the activation of the mu receptor, not due to morphine itself; and increases joint destruction.
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 277

Buprenorphine does not seem to alter immune parameters 2002). Pemedoloc is a fast-acting, long-lasting NSAID with
in burn models (Jobin et al., 2000). Unlike other mu-agonists, a very good oral uptake, analgesic potency, and a wide safety
buprenorphine does not affect the immune system by binding margin. In rodents, levels of 2 mg/kg provide analgesia, whereas
on inflammatory cells or by indirectly altering the HPA axis 50 times this dose is needed to inhibit inflammation (Chau and
(Sacerdote, 2006). Studies provide strong evidence supporting Weichman, 1989). This presents the potential for use in inflam-
the use of buprenorphine in chronic inflammation protocols. mation studies, where the alleviation of pain might be achieved
Buprenorphine, when used at clinically relevant doses without alteration of the inflammatory cascade.
(0.05 mg/kg BID), does not significantly interfere with the vir-
ulence of Shigella. It has no effect on the severity of the clinical 3. Unrelieved Pain or Distress also Alters
signs, serum antibody responses, local immune responses in the Immune Parameters
cervical lymph nodes, and no consistent alteration in antibody-
Whether or not analgesic drugs are provided, stress, pain, and
secreting cells (Hanson et al., 2001). In mice experimentally
distress have an effect on the immune system. Surgical pain has
infected with Toxoplasma gondii, buprenorphine reduces clin-
been shown to promote abnormal metastasis of tumor cells to the
ical signs related to pain and distress, but does not alter the
lungs, as shown in studies where provision of the analgesic fen-
life expectancy with acute toxoplasmosis (Lindsay et al., 2005).
tanyl reduced metastatic tumors (Page and Ben-Eliyahu, 2002;
Because many acute toxoplasma infection studies rely on a rapid
Page et al., 2001). Administration of fentanyl or indomethacin
decline in clinical condition as a measure of disease progression
reduced the frequency of metastasis to near that of control ani-
and therapeutic efficacy, the use of buprenorphine may help
mals, while Shuey et al. (2006) have shown that oxymorphone
in maintaining the comfort of the rodents without significantly
is not carcinogenic in either mice or rats. Rodents experiencing
affecting the research model.
surgical pain have reduced natural killer cell activity (Sternberg
Thus, several viable options exist for relief of pain in chronic
and Liebeskind, 1995). Mitogen-stimulated leukocytes release
models of inflammation and infection, including pretreatment
endogenous opioids in quantities that activate peripheral recep-
with morphine, the development of an immune tolerance with
tors and produce analgesic effects in rodents (Verma-Gandhu
fentanyl infusion, and the use of buprenorphine.
et al., 2006; Williams et al., 2005). With the significant natural
opioid production in response to stress and pain, immune and
2. NSAIDs inflammation models may already be compromised by opioids
even without an exogenous source. While no single analgesic
As discussed in Chapter 4, NSAIDs such as aspirin and
provides pain relief without effects on the immune system,
ibuprofen modulate the inflammatory process by acting upon
there is evidence supporting the selection of individual drugs
the arachidonic acid cascade. This makes their use unsuitable for
to spare the specific aspects of inflammation, immunology, or
many model systems. The COX-2 inhibitors including meloxi-
tumorigenesis under study.
cam and celecoxib are the best choice to minimize unwanted
effects on inflammation, but even COX-2 specific agents still
have some COX-1 activity. Aspirin and ibuprofen may not be
X. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NEONATAL
suitable for infectious disease studies since they have been
MICE AND RATS
shown to reduce bacterial and viral numbers (Chen et al.,
2002b; Hockertz and Heckenberger, 1996). Indomethacin is
also well documented to have significant immunomodulatory Analgesic and anesthetic drugs have sometimes been with-
effects by increasing microglial cell activity in mice (Prechel et held from neonatal rodents due to concerns that they will cause
al., 2000) and inhibiting phagocytosis in leukocytes (Mahel’ova failure to thrive or increased mortality. There have been his-
and Linkova, 1991). torical beliefs have been that very young animals have a high
Abbott and Hellemans (2000) state that acetaminophen and pain threshold and do not feel pain to the extent it is felt by an
dipyrone do not significantly act on the COX cascade in adult of the same species. The Guidelines for the Care and
inflammation-induced pain models. Other literature supports Use of Mammals in Neuroscience and Behavioral Research
the notion that the analgesic effect of dipyrone is not asso- (ILAR, 2003) stipulate that for experiments involving late-term
ciated with reducing inflammation (Beirith et al., 1998), an rodent fetuses after their removal from unanesthetized mothers
idea confirming earlier work using dipyrone in an adjuvant (such as a dam euthanized by decapitation or cervical disloca-
arthritis model (Tatsuo et al., 1994). This is very important tion), guidelines for anesthesia and analgesia in neonates should
for their potential use in animal models involving coagulation, be followed. Potentially painful experimental manipulations in
prostaglandin synthesis, and inflammation. Naproxen, a non- neonatal rodents require the use of anesthesia or analgesia unless
specific COX inhibitor, has no apparent effect on tumor growth the scientist has scientifically justified the nonuse of anesthet-
or any cytotoxicity (Castonguay et al., 1998). Ketorolac, another ics or analgesics to the IACUC. The primary difficulty in using
nonspecific COX inhibitor, promotes the expression of COX- anesthesia or analgesia in the neonate is balancing its effec-
2 in the presence of cytokines, TNF-α, and IL-1 (Blais et al., tiveness and safety. Anesthetics that are safely and effectively
278 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

used in adult mice and rats are often less well tolerated in doses in older animals. Fentanyl, meperidine, buprenorphine,
neonates (ILAR, 2003). Neonatal anesthesia is covered else- and morphine can also be used safely in neonates (Danneman
where in this text. In general, the margin of safety for injectable and Mandrell, 1997; McLaughlin and Dewey, 1994; Thornton
anesthetics is narrowed in the neonate and inhalation anesthesia et al., 1998). Fentanyl and droperidol (160 μg/kg and 800 μg/kg
recommended if available. Hypothermia may be an acceptable IP, respectively) have been shown to be a safe combination
alternative for some procedures in very young neonatal rodents. for light anesthesia, but not for a surgical level of anesthe-
sia (Danneman and Mandrell, 1997). Morphine, at 10 mg/kg
administered subcutaneously, alleviates pain associated with a
A. Anesthetics
laparotomy in day-old pups to the level where distress vocaliza-
tions are significantly reduced (Bartok and Craft, 1997). There
Inhalants are a good first choice for anesthesia of neonatal
is little information in the literature regarding the use of NSAIDs
rodents (ILAR, 2003). Although halothane is not readily avail-
to relieve pain in neonatal rodents. Ketorolac has analgesic and
able and isoflurane is very popular for use in rodents, isoflurane
anti-inflammatory activity in neonates, more so in 21-day-old
may not be as safe as halothane when anesthetizing neonatal
than in 3-day-old pups (Gupta et al., 2001).
mice. Loepke et al. (2006) demonstrated that 10-day-old mice
The use of analgesia has significant welfare implications in
required mechanical ventilation in order to survive 60 minutes
the neonate, and early use of analgesics may also affect pain
of isoflurane anesthesia. Isoflurane anesthesia of 3- and 10-day-
sensitivity later in life. Stress (such as cold exposure, excessive
old mice is safe for noninvasive imaging studies (Wiesmann et
restraint and handling, and separation from the dam) and drug
al., 2000) and is neuroprotective (Zhao and Zuo, 2004).
exposure as a neonate may also alter adult sensitivity. Expo-
When inhalants cannot be used for safety or for practical
sure to stressful or painful stimuli as a neonate can also alter the
reasons, hypothermia is a relatively safe and effective alter-
rodent’s nociception later in life, reducing pain behaviors to nox-
native to injectable drugs in altricial rodents up to 7 days of
ious stimuli (Sternberg et al., 2005). Sternberg and Ridgeway
age (Cunningham and McKay, 1993; Danneman and Mandrell,
(2003) determined that nociception thresholds are increased by
1997; Phifer andTerry, 1986). Hypothermia is the most common
prenatal or postnatal stress in male and female mice. Stress
method of anesthesia in neonatal altricial rodents, providing
responses in adulthood, as well as adult morphine sensitivity, are
both immobilization and mild analgesia when body tempera-
reduced in perinatally stressed rats (Kalinichev et al., 2001). In
ture is reduced to 10–20◦ C (Phifer and Terry, 1986). Altricial
utero exposure to opioid antagonists has been shown to desensi-
rodents function as poikilotherms in that their body temperature
tize offspring to the effect of opioid analgesia later in life (Zagon
and metabolic rate are closely correlated to the ambient tempera-
et al., 1998).
ture. Analgesic depth during hypothermia is less controlled than
that during inhalant anesthesia. Ice or cold water may be used to
induce hypothermia in rodent neonates, and more sophisticated
systems to chill rodent pups are available. Pups must not come XI. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR
in direct contact with ice to avoid skin lesions due to frostbite. POSTPROCEDURAL MONITORING OF RODENTS
Some injectable anesthetics may also be safely used in
neonatal rodents. Fentanyl plus fluanisone is safe and effec-
Special considerations for postanesthetic monitoring of
tive for most surgical procedures (Clowry and Flecknell, 2000).
rodents are discussed below. Additional information about this
Ketamine may be used safely in neonatal rats and mice (Rofael
topic is provided in the first edition of this book (Wixson and
et al., 2003). Danneman and Mandrell (1997) demonstrated that
Smiler, 1997). During the period when animals are regaining
the combination of ketamine and pentobarbital should be used
consciousness, the recovery area should be visible to personnel,
with caution in neonatal (1–3-day-old) rat pups because a dose
yet in a space away from loud noise and personnel trafficking.
sufficient to anesthetize only 80% of pups resulted in up to a
Any wet hair on the animal should be dried gently with tow-
70% fatality rate. In the same study, less effective anesthesia
els or by using warmed air. Controlled and prophylactic fluid
but a similar fatality rate was produced by 35 and 40 mg/kg of
loading can assist in recovery primarily because self-hydration
pentobarbital.
will naturally be inhibited during the recovery phase. Dehy-
dration can compound anorexia, generalized weakness, and the
B. Analgesics ability to regulate body temperature following anesthesia. It is
advisable to provide additional fluids (typically administration
Opioids safely provide effective analgesia against thermal, of physiologic saline or lactated Ringer’s solution) in small bolus
inflammatory, and mechanical pain in neonatal rodents (Barr, volumes (1.0 ml) given IP or SC. Mortality has been shown to
1999; ILAR, 2003). Morphine produces safe analgesia in both decrease significantly in mice receiving 0.9% sodium chloride
3- and 21-day-old rat pups (Gupta et al., 2001). Rats are most prior to recovery from anesthesia (Flecknell, 1993; Smith et al.,
sensitive to morphine at 6–7 days old (Van Loveren et al., 1999). Rodents should be minimally handled and placed alone in
1994), requiring lower doses to provide a similar effect to higher recovery caging to avoid fighting or cannibalism by conscious
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 279

cage mates. The administration of postoperative analgesics is tool to monitor the pre-, peri-, and postanesthesia appearance
also recommended, with longer-acting agents recommended to and health of rodents (Easterly et al., 2001; Ullman-Cullere and
prevent excessive handling (Cantwell, 2001). Foltz, 1999).
The hypothermia that can be induced by a variety of anesthet- The multimodal treatment approach should also include
ics can be detrimental to postoperative recovery and scientific appropriate pre- and postoperative analgesics (see Section IX).
outcomes. Hypothermia is probably the single most impor- Numerous postoperative behavior-based pain scoring mech-
tant cause of anesthetic mortality in mice (Flecknell, 1993). anisms have been devised for rodents (Clark et al., 1997;
Additional hypothermia due to fluid loss and heat loss during Roughan and Flecknell, 2001, 2003, 2004). Continued improve-
anesthesia can also slow recovery and be a source of distress for ments in anesthetic regimens for laboratory rodents are an
the animal. The overriding principle that seems to work most important implementation of Russell and Birch’s “3 R’s”
efficiently is to prevent heat loss rather than to treat it once it (Russell, 1959), both for refinements in animal experimentation
occurs (Cantwell, 2001). Supplemental heat should be provided and for improvement of animal health and welfare.
in the form of a re-circulating warm water blanket, isothermal
heat source, or nontoxic self-heating chemical warming packs
XII. OTHER RODENTS, INCLUDING GUINEA
(such as Grabber Mycoal 12+ Hour Pocket Warmers, Grabber
PIGS, HAMSTERS, AND GERBILS
Performance Group, Grand Rapids, MI) that can be left in the
animal’s cage overnight (Bagis et al., 2004; Cantwell, 2001;
Rembert et al., 2004; Weinandy et al., 2005). Electric heating Rats of the genus Rattus and mice of the genus Mus are the
pads are discouraged because of uneven heating and tendency to most common rodent species used in research, and information
cause thermal burns. Regardless of the heat source, the animal regarding anesthesia and analgesia of other rodent species is
must never be placed directly on the heat but should be sepa- limited and frequently antiquated. Of the more than 100 pub-
rated from it by a towel or sterile drape. Covering the animal with lished articles evaluated for inclusion in this subsection, more
a surgical drape, aluminum foil, or insulating cotton wool also than 75% were 15 years or older. However, it should be noted
helps to conserve body temperature. When covering an anes- that much of the earliest work on specific anesthetics and anal-
thetized animal, be careful not to place excessive pressure over gesics began in these “other rodent” species, while few of the
the thorax or obstruct nasal passages. It is imperative to monitor newer drugs have been studied in these relatively uncommon
body temperature to ensure that the measures taken are effective, laboratory animals.
and also to avoid over-heating of the animal (Flecknell, 1987b). The rodent species discussed in this section are covered by
The use of forced-air warming blankets (FAWB), which are per- the Animal Welfare Act and thus are required to receive appro-
forated to blow warmed air directly on the animal, along with priate relief to potentially painful or distressful procedures as
coverage by a plastic drape, has been shown to provide superior described in the Act and in USDA Policy #11 (Code of Federal
thermal support to circulating warm water blankets and infrared Regulations, 1997). As part of the Act and USDA Policy #12
heat emitters (Rembert et al., 2004). A negative aspect of the (Code of Federal Regulations, 2000; Code of Federal Regula-
FAWB may be the initial cost of the equipment, which is over tions, 2002), investigators must also perform a comprehensive
$1,000 per unit. Blanket temperatures should be in the range of literature search and consider any alternative to potentially
37–40◦ C for rodents (Flecknell, 1993). painful or distressful procedures performed on covered rodent
Laboratory animal personnel should frequently observe and species (Code of Federal Regulations, 2000). These alterna-
closely monitor rodents during the recovery period, particularly tives may include refinements to the anesthetic and analgesic
to assess loss of appetite, dehydration, lethargy, or abnormal protocols used for these species.
healing of surgical sites (Hoff et al., 2006). Once an animal has Like mice and rats, these other rodents require special con-
regained consciousness, the residual effects of many anesthetics sideration when administering anesthetics and analgesics. Most
may persist for up to 48 hours, resulting in depression of food small mammals are primary or obligate nasal breathers, thus
and water intake and prolonged ataxia (Flecknell, 1987b). It is patency of the nares and nasopharynx is crucial whether using
useful to record body weight before and after anesthetic pro- inhalant or injectable anesthesia (Heard, 2004). Even the large
cedures. Weight losses are typically seen during the anesthetic rodent species used commonly in biomedical research (e.g.,
and recovery periods in rodents. Body weight may take several Marmota or guinea pigs) are small enough to necessitate use
days to return to preanesthetic levels, even if food and water of nonrebreathing systems when using gas anesthesia (Lerche
consumption appears within normal limits (Hayton et al., 1999; et al., 2000). There are few published reports describing the clin-
Lawson et al., 2001). It is often recommended to provide food ically relevant use of inhalant anesthetics in these other rodents.
and water immediately after recovery, including solid pellets on
the cage floor to prompt ingestion following anesthesia. Nor- A. Guinea Pigs
mal circadian rhythms, as assessed in telemeterized rodents,
may also take several days to return to preprocedural levels Several anatomical aspects of the guinea pig (Cavia
(Weinandy et al., 2005). Body condition scoring is a helpful porcellus) are relevant to anesthesia for this species. Nearly the
280 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

entire tongue of a guinea pig is tightly attached to the orophar- Guinea pigs experience deep anesthesia when pentobarbital
ynx, making this one of the most difficult laboratory animal (15 mg/kg IP) is combined with fentanyl-droperidol (Innovar-
species to intubate. The very large cecum can make drug cal- vet® ) (0.4 mg/kg IM) (Brown et al., 1989). Consistent deep
culations challenging, as the effective weight of the animal can anesthesia has also been induced in guinea pigs by combining
be considerably less than the body mass with cecal contents. pentobarbital (45 mg/kg IP) with xylazine (7 mg/kg) (Rhodes
The pedal reflex is not always a reliable measure of anesthetic et al., 2001). Specific attention must be given to the IM site
depth because guinea pigs make involuntary leg movements of injection of fentanyl-droperidol as guinea pigs may chew
even while under a surgical plane of anesthesia (Harkness and their feet or amputate their toes if administered at high doses,
Wagner, 1995). especially if the injection is given too close to the ischiatic nerve
(Leash et al., 1973; Newton et al., 1975).
Sublethal doses of CO2 have proven to be an effective anes-
1. Anesthetics
thetic in guinea pigs for ultrashort-term procedures such as
In guinea pigs, an administered dose of ketamine 87 mg/kg cardiac bleeding (Kohler et al., 1999). Guinea pigs exposed
and xylazine 13 mg/kg with supplemental boluses of ketamine to carbon dioxide gas must be watched constantly and removed
is recommended for anesthesia (Barzago et al., 1994). This from the induction chamber promptly after they recline in lateral
combination dose is higher than other published doses (30– recumbency. Intermediate-term, low-dose halothane anesthesia
35 mg/kg ketamine with 0.2–5.0 mg/kg xylazine) that may has been shown to be hepatotoxic in Strain 13 (Lind et al., 1989)
require numerous additional bolus doses of ketamine for anes- and Strain 2 (Lind et al., 1987) guinea pigs, inciting a centrilob-
thetic maintenance (Barzago et al., 1994; Hart et al., 1984). ular necrosis, which is almost nonexistent in inbred Hartley
The combination of 30 mg/kg ketamine and 5 mg/kg xylazine guinea pigs. Hepatic necrosis is evident on the second day after
provides approximately 30–50 minutes of anesthesia and is inhalant anesthesia and is transient, resolving after about 7 days.
appropriate for noninvasive echocardiographic evaluations but Isoflurane does not appear to have a hepatotoxic effect (Lunam
not surgical procedures (Cetin et al., 2005). A general range of et al., 1985). In naïve guinea pigs, methoxyflurane anesthesia
40–120 mg/kg ketamine with 10 mg/kg xylazine provides anes- induces a two- to fivefold rise in plasma cortisol, similar to that
thesia in a dose-dependent manner. Ketamine has a large margin of surgery, although timing is delayed (Kipp et al., 1989).
of safety in guinea pigs and anesthesia-related fatalities are not
expected until doses of greater than 300 mg/kg ketamine are 2. Analgesics
administered (D’Alleinne and Mann, 1982).
The administration of inhalant agents, such as methoxyflu- Meloxicam (0.5 mg/kg PO) and naproxen (5 mg/kg PO) pro-
rane, to guinea pigs can significantly potentiate the anesthetic duce significant analgesia in visceral pain tests in guinea pigs,
and analgesic properties of ketamine/xylazine (Radde et al., while the addition of clonidine (0.25 mg/kg PO) improves anal-
1996) and the use of ketamine plus xylazine prior to inhala- gesia even more so (Jain et al., 2002). Guinea pigs are sensitive
tion anesthesia will avoid induction of breath-holding by guinea to naproxen-induced gastric ulceration at high doses (80 mg/kg
pigs. In guinea pigs, unlike other rodents, breath-holding is BID), a dose about five times greater than a known ulcero-
so marked that an anesthetic chamber should not be used for genic dose in rats (Jain et al., 2002). The incidence of this
induction. Breath-holding can result in a sudden deep breath of gastric ulceration in guinea pigs occurs within a few days and
anesthetic gas followed by respiratory and/or cardiac arrest. For decreases over a 3–21-day period as the cellular population of
prolonged cardiorespiratory assessments in the guinea pig, com- the stomach adapts to long-term administration of naproxen.
bining low IV bolus doses of ketamine and xylazine hourly (14.6 Naproxen-induced ulceration is prevented by misoprostol, but
and 3.7 mg/kg, respectively) with inhalants may be effective not famotidine (Fitzpatrick et al., 1999). Indomethacin does not
(Schwenke and Cragg, 2004). cause gastric ulceration in guinea pigs (Mariani and Bonanomi,
Telazol alone at 50–100 mg/kg has been found to be com- 1978). Aspirin is ototoxic in guinea pigs at doses as low as
pletely ineffective as an analgesic in guinea pigs (Radde 50 mg/kg (Crifo, 1975).
et al., 1996; Ward et al., 1974). Telazol (60 mg/kg IP), xylazine
(5 mg/kg IP) plus butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg IM) is acceptable for B. Hamsters
prolonged anesthesia with significant analgesia and minimal
effects on physiologic parameters (Jacobson, 2001). Ketamine, xylazine, and Telazol are common parenteral anes-
Fentanyl (1.0 mg/kg IM) and diazepam (5 mg/kg IP) anesthe- thetics considered safe and effective in the Syrian hamster
sia is an appropriate combination for minor surgical procedures (Mesocricetus auratus). Chloral hydrate and pentobarbital are
on guinea pigs without causing respiratory depression (Mertens not recommended due to significant side effects. As a general
and Muller-Deile, 1991). Morphine (50 mg/kg IP) produces a rule, because of the size and anatomical position of the testes,
significant level of hypothermia in guinea pigs, which can be careful and deliberate orientation of male hamsters receiving IP
counteracted with dexamethasone (0.5–1.0 mg/kg IP) (Milanes injections is vital to prevent accidental injection into the testes.
et al., 1984). Though not available in the United States, fentanyl/fluanisone
10. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA FOR LABORATORY RODENTS 281

(Hypnorm) may also be used safely in hamsters (Flecknell, any behavior effects, except a reduction in sexual response
1996). in females (Ostrowski et al., 1979). This diminished sexual
activity is reversible by naloxone. Fetal deaths associated with
prolonged gestation lengths may be seen in hamsters and rats
1. Anesthetics
administered naproxen once or twice daily; thus, this particu-
In Syrian hamsters, a dose of 150 or 200 mg/kg ketamine lar NSAID should be used with caution in pregnant hamsters
with 10 mg/kg xylazine IP fairly consistently produces an ade- (Vickery, 1979).
quate level of anesthesia for most procedures (Curl and Peters,
1983; Payton et al., 1993). Lower doses of ketamine are
less reliable in this species. In Djungarian hamsters (Phodo- C. Gerbils
pus spp.), ketamine 50–100 mg/kg and xylazine 5–10 mg/kg
administered IP produce a satisfactory level of general anes- In Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus), Telazol
thesia. Although ketamine is generally considered very safe 60 mg/kg seems to be safe and suitable for major surgical
in most species, twice this dose of ketamine in Phodopus procedures, while lower doses are sufficient for immobiliza-
hamsters (200 mg/kg) is fatal in about 50% of the recipients tion for noninvasive procedures (Hrapkiewicz et al., 1989).
(Curl, 1988). In neonatal Phodopus, a lower dose of ketamine Ketamine (75 mg/kg) and medetomidine (0.5 mg/kg) provide
(40 mg/kg) and xylazine (4 mg/kg) administered IP produces at least 30 minutes of safe, repeatable anesthesia in gerbils
a surgical plane of anesthesia within 3–4 minutes, which lasts (Perez-Garcia et al., 2003). Gerbils receiving 80 mg/kg pento-
for at least 30 minutes (Vella et al., 2004). Although ketamine barbital exhibit profound hypothermia during relatively simple
and xylazine in combination appear to be very safe in ham- 60-minute surgical procedures (Weinandy et al., 2005) and
sters, Gaertner et al. (1987) demonstrated that IM injections of experience prolonged recovery times compared with ketamine
100–200 mg/kg ketamine with 10 mg/kg xylazine consistently (Lightfoote and Molinari, 1978).
produce moderate-to-severe muscle necrosis at the injection
site. When possible, ketamine should be administered IP in
hamsters. If IM injections are required, injection-related necro- D. Other Rodents
sis may be reduced by diluting the stock concentration, thus
decreasing the acidity of the drug. Woodchucks (Marmota marmota) may be anesthetized for
Telazol 20 mg/kg and xylazine 10 mg/kg IP in hamsters was short-term procedures using xylazine (3 mg/kg) plus ketamine
adequate for restraint, but necrotic muscle lesions may appear (40 mg/kg), medetomidine (0.25 mg/kg) plus ketamine (35 mg/
following IM injection. Higher doses of Telazol (30 mg/kg) kg), or xylazine (3 mg/kg) mixed 1:1 with Telazol (15 mg/kg).
combined with 10 mg/kg xylazine IP produce a safe, reliable For procedures of longer duration and surgery, these doses may
level of surgical anesthesia (Forsythe et al., 1992). Lower be safely increased approximately twofold. Although hypother-
dosages of Telazol in hamsters are suitable for less painful, mia may be seen with any anesthetic, poor muscle relaxation
noninvasive experimental manipulations (Hrapkiewicz et al., with xylazine–ketamine, and prolonged induction duration
1989). Hamsters may exhibit poor respiration following Telazol with xylazine–zolazepam–tiletamine, these drugs and doses
administration (Silverman et al., 1983). provide safe and efficient anesthesia in marmots (Beiglbock
Pentobarbital (70 mg/kg IP) produces profound respiratory and Zenker, 2003). Alternatively, a simple dose of 50 mg/kg
perturbations in hamsters, manifested by decreased tidal and ketamine has been shown to produce enough sedation to
minute volumes, reduced breathing rate, and increased air- allow simple procedures like blood collection (Frase and Van
way resistance (Skornik and Brain, 1990). Pentobarbital has Vuren, 1989). Pentobarbital (30 mg/kg), urethane (2 g/kg), chlo-
been successfully combined with acepromazine for abdominal ralose/urethane (50 mg/kg and 500 mg/kg, respectively), and
surgery (Dubois et al., 1981), and with chloralose and urethane thiobutabarbital (100 mg/kg) have all been demonstrated to
for long-term, deep anesthesia for nonrecovery surgical pro- produce profound cardiovascular depression in Marmota fla-
cedures (Reid et al., 1989). Approximately one-third of male viventris, and thus should be used with caution (Zatzman and
Syrian hamsters injected IP with 350 mg/kg chloral hydrate may Thornhill, 1988).
die within 10 days due to severe peritonitis and ileus. Within A combination of ketamine and xylazine has been used for
2–3 weeks, hamsters given chloral hydrate routinely develop anesthesia and analgesia in deer mice (Peromyscus manicula-
intraabdominal adhesions, testicular atrophy, and abdominal fat tus); ketamine alone at a dose of 100 mg/kg provides anesthesia,
necrosis (Dada et al., 1992). but not analgesia in this species (Silverman and Ingram, 1986).
Meperidine not only reduces the response latency to ther-
mal pain, it also seems to promote aggressive behavior in
2. Analgesics
naked mole rats (Heterocephalus glaber). Acetaminophen and
High doses of morphine (80 mg/kg) produce sedation in ham- indomethacin also provide significant analgesia to thermal pain
sters, while lower doses (10 mg/kg) do not appear to have (Towett and Kanui, 1993). Acetaminophen (200–400 mg/kg)
282 DIANE J. GAERTNER ET AL.

and morphine (10–20 mg/kg) both provide alleviation of during isoflurane and halothane anaesthesia in the rat. Vet. Anaesth. Analg.
inflammatory pain (Payton et al., 1993); however, morphine 30(1), 15–23.
Antunes, L.M., Roughan, J.V., and Flecknell, P.A. (2003b). Excitatory effects
elicits fatally aggressive behavior in colony-housed Hetero-
of fentanyl upon the rat electroencephalogram and auditory-evoked potential
cephalus (Kanui and Hole, 1990). responses during anaesthesia. Eur. J. Anaesthesiol. 20(10), 800–808.
The combination of 1.0 mg/kg midazolam, 0.05 mg/kg Arevalo, M.I., Escribano, E., Calpena, A., Domenech, J., and Queralt, J. (2004).
medetomidine, and 0.02 mg/kg fentanyl IM produces a surgi- Rapid skin anesthesia using a new topical amethocaine formulation: a
cal level of anesthesia that lasts for approximately 1.5 hours preclinical study. Anesth. Analg. 98(5), 1407–1412.
Arras, M., Autenried, P., Rettich, A., Spaeni, D., and Rulicke, T. (2001). Opti-
in chinchillas (Chinchilla lanigera). This combination pre-
mization of intraperitoneal injection anesthesia in mice: drugs, dosages,
cipitated a recovery time of about 40 minutes, which was adverse effects, and anesthesia depth. Comp. Med. 51(5), 443–456.
shortened to just 5 minutes with administration of the cor- Asai, T., Mapleson, W.W., and Power, I. (1998). Effects of nalbuphine, penta-
responding reversal agents: flumazenil (0.1 mg/kg), atipame- zocine and U50488H on gastric emptying and gastrointestinal transit in the
zole (0.5 mg/kg), and naloxone (0.05 mg/kg) (Henke et al., rat. Br. J. Anaesth. 80(6), 814–819.
Attia, M.A., El-Gibaly, I., Shaltout, S.E., and Fetih, G.N. (2004). Transbuccal
2004).
permeation, anti-inflammatory activity and clinical efficacy of piroxicam
In the bushy-tailed woodrat (Neotoma cinerea), ketamine is formulated in different gels. Int. J. Pharm. 276(1–2), 11–28.
safe and effective at doses ranging from 30 to 110 mg/kg, pro- Backonja, M.M., Miletic, G., and Miletic, V. (1995). The effect of contin-
ducing chemical restraint to allow for easy handling and blood uous morphine analgesia on chronic thermal hyperalgesia due to sciatic
collection (Frase and Van Vuren, 1989). constriction injury in rats. Neurosci. Lett. 196(1–2), 61–64.
Bagis, H., Odaman Mercan, H., and Dinnyes, A. (2004). Exposure to warmer
In the Richardson’s ground squirrel (Spermophilus richard-
postoperative temperatures reduces hypothermia caused by anaesthesia and
sonii), a combination of ketamine (85 mg/kg) and xylazine significantly increases the implantation rate of transferred embryos in the
(10 mg/kg) IM or SC provides effective surgical anesthe- mouse. Lab. Anim. 38(1), 50–54.
sia for 20–30 minutes. Ketamine alone (85 mg/kg, IM), Barr, G.A. (1999). Antinociceptive effects of locally administered morphine in
droperidol/fentanyl combination (2.5 mg/kg and 50 μg/kg IM, infant rats. Pain 81(1–2), 155–161.
Barrett, A.C., Smith, E.S., and Picker, M.J. (2002). Sex-related differences in
respectively), or pentobarbital (50 mg/kg IP) does not induce
mechanical nociception and antinociception produced by mu- and kappa-
anesthesia adequate for surgery, but does produce respiratory opioid receptor agonists in rats. Eur. J. Pharmacol. 452(2), 163–173.
depression in this species (Olson and McCabe, 1986). Bartok, R.E., and Craft, R.M. (1997). Sex differences in opioid antinociception.
J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 282(2), 769–778.
Barzago, M.M., Bortolotti, A., Stellari, F.F., Pagani, C., Marraro, G., and
Bonati, M. (1994). Respiratory and hemodynamic functions, blood-gas
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 Chapter 11

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Rabbits

Neil S. Lipman, Robert P. Marini, and Paul A. Flecknell

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
II. Preoperative Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
A. Choice of Subject . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
B. Patient Evaluation and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
C. Premedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
III. Methods of Delivery/Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
A. Injection Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
B. Intranasal Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
C. Tracheal Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
IV. Parenteral Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
A. Barbiturates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
B. Dissociatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
C. Neuroleptanalgesia/Neuroleptanesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
D. Miscellaneous Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
V. Inhalation Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
VI. Regional Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
A. Local or Regional Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
B. Spinal Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
VII. Special Anesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
A. Hypnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
B. Anesthesia during Ophthalmic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
C. Anesthesia for Fetal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
D. Long-Term Anesthetic Preparations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
VIII. Intraoperative Support and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
A. Reflexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
B. Body Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
C. Cardiopulmonary Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
IX. Postoperative Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
X. Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
A. Pain Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
B. Selection of Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

299
300 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

I. INTRODUCTION Rabbits may appear clinically normal despite significant respi-

ratory pathology. These rabbits may fail to respire spontaneously
once anesthetized, because the animal has adapted to hypercap-
Rabbits are routinely utilized as research subjects for in vivo
nia resulting from pulmonary insufficiency (Sedgwick, 1986).
studies. Their popularity is a result of availability, cost, size, ease
The careful selection, purchase, and maintenance of specific
of handling, vascular access, and a variety of specific anatomi-
pathogen free (SPF) rabbits will eliminate the risks associated
cal, physiological, and biochemical features. Their use requires
with using animals that are compromised by pathogens.
the routine administration of pharmacologic agents for restraint,
Breed selection is frequently mandated by the size of the
vascular access, surgery, and pain relief. The rabbit is reputed
desired subject, specific anatomical or physiological features,
to be one of the most difficult laboratory animals to anesthetize.
and availability. The New Zealand white and Dutch belted
Numerous literature citations attribute this difficulty to indi-
remain the most frequently used breeds for research in the
vidual as well as strain- and sex-specific variation in response
United States. These outbred stocks are maintained by a vari-
to anesthetic agents, enhanced sensitivity of the brainstem to
ety of vendors in closed colonies; genetic differences do exist
respiratory depression, and anatomic features making endotra-
in members of the same stock obtained from different vendors.
cheal (ET) intubation difficult (Avsaroglu et al., 2003; Chen
The choice of sex may also be a consideration. Cyclic hormonal
and Bohner, 1968; Gardner, 1964; Gay, 1963; Green, 1982b;
changes occur in does during the estrus cycle, which may have
Murdock, 1969). Most of these characteristics, which apply only
subtle effects that can alter research or anesthetic responses
to the use of pentobarbital or to rabbits that were compromised
(Lawson, 1985). Diurnal and seasonal effects may also con-
with pneumonia, have unfairly stigmatized the rabbit, which
tribute to response variation (Deimling and Schnell, 1980;
can be easily and safely anesthetized for a wide variety of pro-
Hastings and Menaker, 1976; Jori et al., 1971; Radzialowski
cedures. In fact, rabbits are routinely used as an animal model
and Bousquet, 1968; Scheving et al., 1968).
to investigate and define the physiologic effects of new anes-
Sufficient time should be allotted when planning and schedul-
thetics and analgesics (Bernards and Artru, 1991; Blake et al.,
ing experimental procedures to allow for stabilization following
1991; Chakrabarty et al., 1991; Dhasmana et al., 1984; Dollo
shipment and acclimation to a new environment. Stress from
et al., 2004a; 2004b; Dorward et al., 1987; Drummond et al.,
shipment and handling may result in increased levels of circulat-
1987; Harris and Best, 1979; Hartikainen et al., 1995; Hess
ing catecholamines, which may adversely affect the anesthetic
et al., 1971, 1981; Horita et al., 1983; Hovav and Weinstock,
course. Ideally, rabbits should be quarantined for a minimum of
1987; Lockhart et al., 1991; Maggi et al., 1984; McGraph
72 hours, habituated to handling, and evaluated clinically before
and MacKenzie, 1977; Mills et al., 1987; Morita et al., 1987;
being subjected to anesthesia.
Orszulak-Michalak, 1996; Patel and Mutch, 1990; Ruta and
Animals with specialized anatomic, physiologic, or biochem-
Mutch, 1989; Sainz et al., 1987; Warren and Ledingham, 1978;
ical features may be required in studies utilizing anesthesia.
Wyler and Weisser, 1972).
These specialized characteristics may occur spontaneously or
In this second edition, we have updated our previous chapter,
can be experimentally induced; examples include the Watan-
in which we review the topic of anesthesia and analgesia as it per-
abe, a model of familial hypercholesteremia, the Adriamycin-
tains to the rabbit. Biomethodology, pre-, intra-, and postopera-
induced model of cardiomyopathy, and the β-myosin heavy
tive considerations, and special anesthetic procedures will also
chain transgenic rabbit model of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
be discussed. This chapter gives the reader a general overview of
(Arnolda et al., 1985; Goldstein et al., 1983; Marian et al.,
the subject; detailed information should be sought from the ref-
1999). Rabbits with these features should be evaluated preoper-
erences provided. Since the science of anesthesia is constantly
atively to anticipate special factors that may impact anesthesia.
changing, the reader should also consult pertinent journals for
Steps may be required pre- and intraoperatively to ensure a sta-
“state-of-the-art” information. The tables in this chapter can be
ble course of anesthesia. Careful consideration should be given
consulted for quick reference to the agents and doses used for
to the selection of the anesthetic agent. For example, xylazine
sedation, tranquilization, anesthesia, and analgesia in rabbits.
has been shown to increase blood glucose levels, so its use
should be avoided in the diabetic animal (Salonen, 1992); agents
that reduce or minimally impact intracranial pressure should be
II. PREOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
selected for neurosurgical procedures; and consideration of the
effect of anesthetic agents on intraocular pressure is important
A. Choice of Subject in ophthalmologic procedures.

The selection of the experimental subject is as important as

the choice of the appropriate anesthetic agent. Rabbits may B. Patient Evaluation and Preparation
be infected with a variety of agents that can have an adverse
impact on anesthesia; as an example, Pasteurella multocida Rabbits should be subject to, at a minimum, a physical exam-
causes a variety of clinical syndromes, including pneumonia. ination prior to inclusion in an anesthetic protocol. The chest
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 301

should be auscultated carefully for evidence of pulmonary Liebenberg, 1979). The presence ofAtrE has led some authors to
or cardiovascular disease and rectal temperature should be recommend preoperative doses of atropine as high as 1–2 mg/kg
determined. Baseline laboratory evaluation including a com- (Hall and Clarke, 1991) and redosing as frequently as every
plete blood count and serum biochemistry may be useful in 10–15 minutes (Sedgwick, 1986). Stampfii and Quon (1995)
animals that have been subject to prior manipulation. Rab- have suggested that the rabbit AtrE is actually a carboxylesterase
bits with pasteurellosis are not good anesthetic candidates. that has been shown to hydrolyze flestolol, an ultra short-acting
Thoracic radiography to identify latent pulmonary consoli- beta blocker as well as other ester-containing compounds such
dation and abscesses is advisable in rabbits from colonies as procaine. This may have clinical significance as the half-life
with enzootic pasteurellosis. Specialized studies may require of a variety of drugs, including the ester-type local anesthetics
additional preoperative diagnostics. such as lidocaine, may be significantly reduced in rabbits with
There is no consensus on the withdrawal of food from rabbits elevated concentrations of the carboxylesterase. Esterase activ-
preoperatively (Flecknell, 1987; Kaplan and Timmons, 1979). ity has been found in various ocular tissues in both albino and
The rabbit is unable to vomit and its stomach does not empty pigmented rabbits, and would be expected to alter ocular drug
despite 5 days of food withdrawal (Murdock, 1969). It has been bioavailability (Lee, 1983). The activity was higher in the pig-
theorized that a 12-hour fast yields more consistent anesthe- mented rabbits and was greatest in the iris-ciliary body, followed
sia and the decreased stomach volume may aid respiration, as by the cornea and the aqueous humor.
rabbits breathe primarily by diaphragmatic excursion. Blood Glycopyrrolate, a quaternary ammonium with powerful anti-
glucose levels remain stable for up to 96 hours without eating sialagogue activity and a more rapid onset than atropine, can
(Kozma et al., 1974). However, rabbits weighing less than 3 kg be utilized in rabbits with AtrE. Glycopyrrolate was shown to
develop metabolic acidosis and a significant decline in blood be an effective anticholinergic agent in rabbits when adminis-
glucose levels as a result of food deprivation (Bonath et al., tered at a dose of 0.1 mg/kg intramuscular (IM) (Olson et al.,
1982). Rabbits weighing less than 2 kg are not able to compen- 1994). Glycopyrrolate produced a significantly elevated heart
sate for the acidosis. It is recommended that rabbits weighing rate that lasted 60 minutes when administered alone to rabbits
less than 3 kg not be fasted for longer than 12 hours (Bonath free of AtrE as determined by the in vivo screening test, while
et al., 1982). Generally there is no need to remove water more doses of atropine as high as 2 mg/kg did not. Glycopyrrolate
than several hours before surgery. also prevented the bradycardia associated with administration
of ketamine/xylazine. It has been used as a mydriatic agent,
providing a faster, stronger, and more persistent effect than
C. Premedication
atropine, lasting as long as 1 week without affecting intraocu-
lar pressure (Varsanno et al., 1996). Topically (ophthalmically)
1. Parasympatholytics
administered glycopyrrolate has systemic effects, as it causes
Parasympatholytics may be employed to prevent brady- mydriasis of the contralateral pupil (Ji et al., 2000).
cardia from vagal reflex and reduce salivary and bronchial
secretions that can occlude the airway. Rabbits may produce
2. Tranquilizers/sedatives
atropinesterase (AtrE), which degrades atropine into inactive
products. The presence of AtrE is inherited and is found in Tranquilizers/sedatives are frequently used as premedicants
varying frequencies (up to 50%) in the sera and/or tissues of for anesthesia or alone for noninvasive procedures such a phle-
some rabbits in a variety of breeds (Ecobichon and Comeau, botomy. Their use frequently reduces the dose of anesthetic
1974). AtrE may be present in the liver and the brain with- and may counteract or limit the adverse effects of some agents
out being detectable in the sera (Margolis and Fiegelson, 1963). (Table 11-1).
AtrE activity in serum has been shown to increase with age from The phenothiazine tranquilizers (acepromazine, chlorpro-
3 to 10 weeks, at which time the maximal activity is reached (van mazine, and propiopromazine) have been utilized alone or
Zutphen, 1972). At least three different phenotypes have been in combination with a variety of agents. Acepromazine has
described with low, intermediate, and high levels of AtrE activ- been extensively used in the rabbit (Dolowy and Hesse, 1959;
ity (Ecobichon and Comeau, 1974). The enzyme hydrolyzes Freeman et al., 1972; Lipman et al., 1990; Ludders et al.,
other amino-alcohol esters and appears to be related to or iden- 1987; McCormick and Ashworth, 1971; Moore et al., 1987).
tical to the enzyme cocainesterase, which hydrolyzes cocaine Peripheral vasodilation, a result of adrenoceptor blockade, and
(van Zutphen, 1972). In vitro and in vivo screening tests have sedation make it extremely useful for phlebotomy. It is used
been described for AtrE detection (Ecobichon and Comeau, alone at doses of 0.25–0.75 mg/kg intravenous (IV), IM, or SC
1974; Linn and Liebenberg, 1979; Tucker and Beattie, 1983; (Lipman, unpublished observations) and in combination with
van Zutphen, 1972). A rapid screening test (in vivo) in which ketamine/xylazine at 1 mg/kg IM for blood collection (Ludders
the presence of the pupillary light reflex is evaluated 45 minutes et al., 1987). Acepromazine significantly increased the dura-
after receiving atropine sulfate (0.5 mg/kg subcutaneous, SC) tion and depth of anesthesia achieved with ketamine/xylazine
has compared favorably to qualitative in vitro tests (Linn and and urethane (Lipman et al., 1990; Moore et al., 1987).
302 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

TABLE 11-1
Reported Doses of Anticholinergics, Sedatives, Tranquilizers, and Anesthetics for Clinical Use in the Rabbita

Drug Dosage Route of administration References

Anticholinergics
Atropine 0.04–2.0 mg/kg (0.5 mg/kg IM, SC Hall and Clarke, 1991
commonly recommended)
Glycopyrrolate 0.1 mg/kg IM, SC Olson et al., 1994
Sedatives/tranquilizers
Diazepam 5–10 mg/kg IM Green et al., 1981; Sedgwick, 1986
1–2 mg/kg IM, IV Flecknell et al., 1983
Midazolam 2 mg/kg IP, IV Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984
Acepromazine 0.75–10.0 mg/kg IM McCormick and Ashworth, 1971
0.75–1.0 mg/kg is most Freeman et al., 1972
frequently used
Chlorpromazine 25–100 mg/kg IM Bivin and Timmons, 1974; Dolowy
hydrochloride and Hesse, 1959
Xylazine 3–9 mg/kg IM, IV Green, 1975; Sanford and Colby, 1980
Medetomidine 0.25 mg/kg IM Ko et al., 1992
6 mg/kg IV (1.25% sol slowly to Green, 1982b
allow endotracheal
intubation)
Barbiturates
Thiopental 15–30 mg/kg IV (1% sol) GTE Clifford, 1984; Sedgwick, 1986
50 mg/kg IV (2.5% sol) GTE Lumb and Jones, 1984
Thiamylal sodium 15 mg/kg IV (1% sol) GTE Clifford, 1984; Sedgwick, 1986
29 mg/kg IV (2% sol) GTE Gardner, 1964
EMTU 47.5 mg/kg IV to effect Hobbs et al., 1991
Methohexital 5–10 mg/kg IV (1% sol) GTE Antal, 1985; Green, 1975
Pentobarbital 20–60 mg/kg IV Borkowski et al., 1990; Conn and Langer, 1978;
Flecknell et al., 1983; Green, 1975; Jacobs and Krohn,
1975; Koch and Dwyer, 1988; Marston et al., 1965;
Peeters et al., 1988; Zhou et al., 1981
30 mg/kg IM Krogh, 1975
Intrahepatic Jacobs and Krohn, 1975
Pentobarbital + 20 mg/kg IV Olson et al., 1987
Guaifenesin 200 mg/kg IV
Pentobarbital + 20–30 mg/kg IV Green, 1975
Chlorpromazine 2 mg/kg IM prior to pentobarbital
Pentobarbital + 11.8–28.4 mg/kg IV Hobbs et al., 1991
Xylazine 5 mg/kg SC followed in 10 minutes by
pentobarbital
Pentobarbital + 30 mg/kg IV Raman et al., 1989
Ketamine + 10 mg/kg IM administration 10 minutes
following pentobarbital
1% Lidocaine Local infiltration of SC
hydrochloride surgical incision
Dissociatives
Ketamine 20–60 mg/kg IM Clifford, 1984; Green, 1975, 1982b; Sedgwick, 1986
Ketamine + 10 mg/kg IV Flecknell, 1987
Xylazine 3 mg/kg IV
Ketamine + 22–50 mg/kg IM Clifford, 1984
Xylazine 2.5–10 mg/kg Beyers et al., 1991; Koch and Dwyer, 1988; Lipman
et al., 1990; Peeters et al., 1988; Popilskis et al., 1991;
Rich et al., 1990; Sanford and Colby, 1980; Sedgwick, 1986;
White and Holmes, 1976
Reverse with Yohimbine 0.2 mg/kg IV Lipman et al., 1987
Ketamine + 35–40 mg/kg IM Hobbs et al., 1991
Xylazine + 3–5 mg/kg Lipman et al., 1990
Acepromazine (preoperative 0.75–1.0 mg/kg SC Ludders et al., 1987
with atropine, 0.04 mg/kg IM)
Ketamine + 75 mg/kg IM Clifford, 1984
Acepromazine 5 mg/kg IM (given 30 minutes prior
to ketamine)

(Continued)
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 303

TABLE 11-1
Continued

Drug Dosage Route of administration References

Ketamine + 35 mg/kg IM Difilippo et al., 2004

Xylazine + 5 mg/kg
Buprenorphine 0.03 mg/kg
Ketamine + 60–80 mg/kg IM Sedgwick, 1986
Diazepam 5–10 mg/kg IM (given 30 minutes prior
to ketamine)
Ketamine + 20 mg/kg SC Mero et al., 1989
Medetomidine + 0.3 mg/kg
Diazepam 0.75–1.5 mg/kg
Ketamine + 35 mg/kg IM Hobbs et al., 1991
EMTU (Inactin) 25–55 mg/kg IV to effect
Ketamine + 50 mg/kg IM Krogh, 1975
Pentobarbital 30 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + 20 mg/kg IV Chen and Bohner, 1968
Chloral hydrate 250 mg/kg IV Hobbs et al., 1991
Ketamine + 15–25 mg/kg IM, SC Nevalainen et al., 1989
Medetomidine 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IM, SC Orr et al., 2005
Reverse with Atipamezole Up to 1 mg/kg IM, SC, IV Kim et al., 2004; Orr et al., 2005
Ketamine + 35 mg/kg IM Difilippo et al., 2004
Medetomidine + 0.5 mg/kg IM
Buprenorphine 0.03 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + 15 mg/kg IM, SC Hedenqvist et al., 2002
Medetomidine + 0.25–0.5 mg/kg IM, SC
Butorphanol 0.4 mg/kg SC
Tiletamineb + Zolazepam 32–64 mg/kg IM Brammer et al., 1991
Tiletamineb + Zolazepam + 15 mg/kg IM (inject all simultaneously Popilskis et al., 1991
but use separate syringes)
Xylazine 5 mg/kg
Neuroleptanalgesics
Fentanyl–droperidol 0.125 mg/kg SC Tillman and Norman, 1983
0.15–0.44 ml/kg (0.22 ml/kg IM Bivin and Timmons, 1974; Lewis and Jennings, 1972;
is optimal dose) Strack and Kaplan, 1968; Walden, 1978
Fentanyl–fluanisone 0.2–0.6 ml/kg IM, SC Alberius et al., 1989; Flecknell, 1987; Flecknell et al.,
1989; Green, 1975
Diazepam + 1.5–5 mg/kg IM, IV, IP Green, 1975
Fentanyl–fluanisone 0.2–0.5 ml/kg (administer IM, SC Flecknell, 1987; Flecknell et al., 1983;
diazepam 5 minutes prior Mero et al., 1987
to fentanyl–fluanisone)
Midazolam + 2 mg/kg IP, IV Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984
Fentanyl–fluanisone 0.3 ml/kg (administer IM Flecknell, 1987
midazolam 5 minutes prior
to fentanyl–fluanisone)
Etorphine + Methotrimeprazine 0.025–0.05 ml/kg IM Flecknell, 1987; Flecknell et al., 1983
Diazepam + 1.0 mg/kg IV, IP Flecknell, 1987
Etorphine + Flecknell et al., 1983
Methotrimeprazine 0.25 ml/kg IM

Other
Alphaxalone + 6–20 mg/kg IV Green, 1975
Alphadolone Optimal dose = 12 mg/kg Green et al., 1978
Chloral hydrate 250 mg/kg IV Harvey and Walberg, 1987
Chloral hydrate + 0.5–3.0 ml/kg Per rectum Hodesson et al., 1965
Magnesium sulfate + Pentobarbital + In increments of 0.5 ml Bivin and Timmons, 1974
Propylene glycol (Equi-Thesin)
Equi-Thesin To effect IV Bivin and Timmons, 1974; Hodesson et al., 1965
Ketamine + 20 mg/kg IM Bivin and Timmons, 1974
Chloral hydrate 250 mg/kg IV Hobbs et al., 1991
Alpha chloralose 100 mg/kg IV Chakrabarty et al., 1991; Harvey and Walberg, 1987
Propofol 7.5–15 mg/kg IV Adam et al., 1980
Guaifenesin 5% solution in 5% dextrose, IV Olson et al., 1987
given at a dosage of 200 mg/kg

(Continued)
304 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

TABLE 11-1
Continued

Drug Dosage Route of administration References

Medetomidine + 0.25–0.35 mg/kg IM Ko et al., 1992

Propofol 3–4 mg/kg IV Hellebrekers et al., 1997
Medetomidine + 0.25 mg/kg IM Ko et al., 1992
Midazolam + 0.5 mg/kg IM
Propofol 2 mg/kg IV
Guaifenesin + 200 mg/kg IV Olson et al., 1987
Ketamine 50 mg/kg IM
Alpha chloralose + 32 mmol (10 g)/L IV (slowly) Korner et al., 1968
Urethane In saline at dose of 258 μmol Warren and Ledingham, 1978
(80 mg)/kg, 400–500 mg/kg
(5.61 mmol/kg) in 1 L of saline
(2.81 mol/L)
Urethane 1–1.6 g/kg IP Bree and Cohen, 1965
1.5 g/kg IV
Urethane + 1–1.30 IV Moore et al., 1987
Acepromazine 1 mg/0.46 kg IM
Paraldehyde 1 ml/kg IM, IP, orally Green, 1982a; Hodesson et al., 1965; Pandeya
and Lemon, 1965
Intermittent bolus or continuous
IV infusion regimens
Sedate with
Fentanyl + 0.05 mg/kg IM Guerreiro and Page, 1987
Droperidol 2.5 mg/kg
Induce with infusion of
Fentanyl + 2.4 mg IV
Droperidol 40 mg in 100 ml of 5% dextrose,
rate of 15–20 drops (volume of
17 μl/drop)/min; maintain with
15 drops/min
Dilute Hypnorm 1:10 Infuse 1–3 ml/kg/h IV Flecknell, 1987
Midazolam + 1 mg/kg IV Borkowski et al., 1990
Xylazine + 1 mg/kg
Alfentanil 0.1 mg/kg
Alpha chloralose + 60 mg/kg IV Jenkins, 1987
Urethane 400 mg/kg, followed by 1–3 ml
1% alpha chloralose q 30–50
minutes
Alpha chloralose + 40–60 mg/kg IV Dorward et al., 1987
Urethane 800 mg/kg, followed by 3–4 ml/h
1% alpha chloralose
Sedate with
Ketamine + 35 mg/kg IM Wyatt et al., 1989
Xylazine 5 mg/kg IM
Maintain with
Ketamine + 1 mg/min Continuous Wyatt et al., 1989
Xylazine 0.1 mg/min IV Infusion
Ketamine + 25 mg/kg IV Borkowski et al., 1990
Xylazine 5 mg/kg 1/3 bolus dose over 1 minute,
remainder over 4 minutes
Pentobarbital 40 mg/kg IV, 1/3 bolus dose initially over Borkowski et al., 1990
1 minute, remainder over
4 minutes
Propofol Sedate with 1.5 mg/kg, IV bolus continuous IV infusion Blake et al., 1988
maintain with 0.2–0.6 mg/kg/min
“Utilization rate” of 1.55 mg/kg/min IV Glen, 1980
Alphaxalone + Alphadolone Sedate with 1 mg/kg maintain with IV bolus continuous IV infusion Blake et al., 1988
0.1 mg/kg/min

Note: GTE, given to effect.

a
Modified with permission from Wixson (1994).
b
May cause severe nephrotoxicity.
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 305

Acepromazine dosage ranging from 0.75 to 10 mg/kg IM has at 3–9 mg/kg IV produces sedation, excellent muscle relaxation,
been recommended when used in combination with other agents and, at the high dose, analgesia; however, when used alone it
(Dolowy and Hesse, 1959; Freeman et al., 1972; Lipman et al., is not sufficient to provide surgical anesthesia and is reported
1990; Ludders et al., 1987; McCormick and Ashworth, 1971; to cause hyperacusia (Green, 1975). Moderate depression of
Moore et al., 1987; Sedgwick, 1986). In the authors’experience, cardiopulmonary parameters is observed following IM admin-
doses of 0.75–2 mg/kg are recommended when acepromazine istration at 5 mg/kg (Sanford and Colby, 1980). Xylazine has
is utilized in combination with other agents. Chlorpromazine, been used in combination with a variety of agents, including
at doses of 25–100 mg/kg IM, reduces the amount of pentobar- ketamine, ketamine/acepromazine, ketamine/buprenorphine,
bital required to induce anesthesia while partially overcoming ketamine/butorphanol, ketamine/midazolam, midazolam/
the respiratory depression caused by the barbiturate (Dolowy alfentanil, and tiletamine/zolazepam to induce and/or maintain
and Hesse, 1959). Chlorpromazine has been shown to cause surgical anesthesia (Borkowski et al., 1990; Difilippo et al.,
severe muscle necrosis following IM injection; IV adminis- 2004; Dupras et al., 2001; Green, 1975; Green et al., 1981;
tration (7.5 mg/kg) has therefore been advocated (Bree et al., Henke et al., 2005; Lipman et al., 1990; Marini et al., 1992;
1971). Chlorpromazine (0.1 mg/kg IV) is used in conjunction Popilskis et al., 1991; Sanford and Colby, 1980; Sedgwick,
with a head-up tilt in the urethane-anesthetized rabbit to produce 1986; Vachon et al., 1999). The α-2 antagonist yohimbine
an orthostatic hypotension model (Kurihara et al., 2000; Takata (0.2 mg/kg IV) was shown to effectively reverse the effects of
et al., 1999). Propiopromazine with paraldehyde had been used anesthesia in ketamine/xylazine-anesthetized rabbits (Lipman
safely as a preanesthetic agent prior to the administration of et al., 1987).
Equi-Thesin® (Hodesson et al., 1965). Medetomidine, the most selective α-2 agonist available for
The benzodiazepine tranquilizers (diazepam, midazolam, use in veterinary medicine, is useful as a sedative when admin-
and zolazepam) have been used either alone or combined with istered to rabbits at 0.25 mg/kg IM (Ko et al., 1992). ET
other agents to produce general anesthesia. Diazepam has been intubation should not be attempted when the agent is used
used at doses of 1–2 mg/kg IM or IV (Flecknell et al., 1983). alone (Ko et al., 1992). Medetomidine in combination with
Higher doses have been cited (5–10 mg/kg IM) in the liter- ketamine, ketamine/diazepam, propofol, midazolam/propofol,
ature (Green et al., 1981). When diazepam (5 mg/kg IM) is midazolam/fentanyl, and ketamine/buprenorphine is useful for
utilized with ketamine (30 mg/kg IM), the combination pro- rabbit anesthesia of short-to-moderate duration (Difilippo et al.,
duces good sedation and muscle relaxation but insufficient 2004; Hellebrekers et al., 1997; Henke et al., 2005; Ko
analgesia to carry out surgical procedures (Green et al., 1981). et al., 1992; Mero et al., 1989; Nevalainen et al., 1989;
Midazolam, which is more potent than diazepam and is water Orr et al., 2005). Medetomidine/ketamine and medetomidine/
soluble, has been successfully utilized for short-term anesthesia ketamine/diazepam causes hypoxemia, necessitating supple-
at 2 mg/kg intraperitoneal (IP) when combined 5 minutes later mental oxygen administration (Hellebrekers et al., 1997; Mero
with 0.3 ml/kg IM of fentanyl/fluanisone and at 0.5 mg/kg IM et al., 1989). The addition of butorphanol to the combination
combined with medetomidine (0.25 mg/kg IM) when followed prolonged the period of surgical anesthesia (Hedenqvist et al.,
in 5 minutes by propofol (2 mg/kg IV) (Flecknell and Mitchell, 2002). The effects of medetomidine are successfully reversed
1984; Ko et al., 1992). The use of midazolam (1 mg/kg) following administration of the α-2 antagonist atipamezole at
has also been reported in combination with xylazine/alfentanil either twice the dose of medetomidine administered or 1 mg/kg
(1 mg/kg; 0.1 mg/kg) for IV anesthesia in the rabbit (Borkowski IM (Kim et al., 2004; Nevalainen et al., 1989; Orr et al., 2005).
et al., 1990). However, muscle rigidity often accompanied by Detomidine, another α-2 adrenergic agonist, has also been eval-
seizures was reported with this combination. In combination uated in rabbits (Hurley et al., 1994). Detomidine administered
with ketamine/xylazine (30 mg/kg IM; 3 mg/kg IM), midazo- at 150 μg/kg IM provided only tranquilization. When combined
lam (0.2 mg/kg IM) provides an adequate plane of anesthesia at 150 and 300 μg/kg IM with ketamine and 150 μg/kg IM with
for 30–45 minutes, as evaluated by reflexes and an EEG spec- ketamine/diazepam, anesthesia was attained only with the high
tral response to a painful stimulus; however, cardiac depression dose of detomidine or when diazepam was included in the reg-
was observed and oxygen supplementation is recommended imen. Anorexia and myocardial necrosis was noted in many of
when using this combination (Dupras et al., 2001; Vachon the rabbits receiving the high detomidine dose. It has been con-
et al., 1999). Midazolam (1 mg/kg IM) has also been admin- cluded that the use of detomidine did not provide any advantages
istered concurrently with fentanyl/medetomidine (0.02 mg/kg over other established parenteral anesthetic regimens and that
IM; 0.20 mg/kg IM); however, a surgical plane of anesthesia detomidine should be avoided while determining the etiology
was not achieved in all rabbits and the combination resulted in of the myocardial necrosis.
respiratory depression (Henke et al., 2005).
The α-2 adrenergic agonists (xylazine, medetomidine, and
3. Opioids
detomidine) have been employed alone as tranquilizers or in
combination with other agents for anesthesia. The pharma- The use of opioid drugs pre- or intraoperatively may reduce
cology of the α-2 adrenoceptor agonists has been reviewed or eliminate the need for postoperative analgesia. Experimental
(Bertolet and Hughes, 1980). Xylazine administered to rabbits evidence in rodents, as well as clinical experience in humans
306 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

and animals, indicates that opioids used preoperatively may Vastus lateralis m.
block afferent impulses from arriving within the CNS, prevent- Hip joint
ing sensitization to pain that may develop from CNS nociceptive Sciatic n.
stimulation (Melzack et al., 2001). Their administration has
been shown to reduce postoperative pain and analgesic require-
ments (Melzack et al., 2001). Classically, narcotic analgesics
have been employed alone for pre- and intraoperative analgesia
or with sedatives for chemical restraint preoperatively. A more Femur
detailed discussion of opioid analgesics is provided later in the
chapter.
Stifle joint
4. Antimicrobials Peroneal n.
Parenteral antimicrobial administration may be useful for Tibial n.
specific surgical procedures, for example surgical manipu-
lation of the bowel. Antimicrobials should be administered
pre- or intraoperatively so that sufficient levels are present in
blood and/or tissue at the time of the expected insult. Partic-
ular antibiotics such as amoxicillin, ampicillin, cephalothin,
clindamycin, and lincomycin may precipitate potentially fatal Fig. 11-1 Sketch depicting major nerves and blood vessels of thigh.
Reprinted with permission from Hodesson et al. (1965).
clostridial enterotoxemias (Carman and Evans, 1984). Post-
operative administration of cholestyramine may be useful in
reducing mortality associated with antibiotic administration and rectus femoris muscles of the anterior thigh at right angles to
(Lipman et al., 1992). Certain antibiotics may also interact the femur (Fig. 11-1). Injections into the caudal thigh, specif-
adversely with paralytics and/or inhalational agents. ically the biceps femoris, semimembranosis, semitendinosus,
and the adductor magnus, can be performed safely if the needle
5. Vitamin C is directed away from the sciatic nerve and its branches. The
Premedication of rabbits with vitamin C (240 mg/kg) intra- needle should be inserted into the lateral aspect of the thigh
muscularly, 5 minutes prior to administration of ketamine at right angles to the femur or directed caudally away from
(40 mg/kg IM), resulted in a reduction in anesthesia onset, pro- the femur. Despite appropriate technique, some drugs, notably
longation of anesthetic duration, as well as bradycardia and chlorpromazine and ketamine/xylazine, have been associated
hyperglycemia (Elsa and Ubandawaki, 2005). Sleep time and with pathology following IM administration (Beyers et al.,
blood glucose concentration were increased by 18 and 212%, 1991; Bree et al., 1971). Myonecrosis, vasculitis, and axonal
and anesthesia onset and heart rate were reduced by 67 and 33%, degeneration with attendant self-trauma and amputation have
respectively. Premedication with high-dose vitamin C also pre- been reported. Injection volumes should be limited to less than
cluded ketamine-induced reduction of serum calcium and phos- 1.5 and 1.0 ml IM, respectively, for adult New Zealand white
phorus. These findings were the result of the depressant effects and Dutch belted rabbits.
of vitamin C on central nervous system function. The findings Subcutaneous administration of anesthetics, although
of this single report should be confirmed by another laboratory uncommon, may be useful with particular agents such as
before ascorbic acid is employed as a preanesthetic in rabbits. ketamine and medetomidine (Hedenqvist et al., 2002; Mero
et al., 1989; Orr et al., 2005). Postoperative fluid administra-
tion by the SC route is routine. The cervical region should be
avoided, as rabbits are routinely handled by the scruff of the
III. METHODS OF DELIVERY/ADMINISTRATION
neck. Substances that are irritating should be avoided or diluted
prior to SC injection.
A. Injection Sites Vascular access for IV administration of drugs is readily
attainable. The lateral (marginal) auricular veins are preferred
The IM site is commonly used for the administration of a and easily accessed. Injection and catheterization techniques
variety of parenteral agents used for tranquilization and anes- have been described that can also be used for constant IV or
thesia. As in other species, injections should be made into the intermittent bolus infusion techniques (Green, 1982b; Grice,
body of large muscles, avoiding vessels and nerves. IM injec- 1964; Melich, 1990; Paulsen and Valentine, 1984). The cephalic
tions can be made into either the anterior or posterior aspect of and recurrent tarsal veins can also be utilized (Gardner, 1964;
the thigh or the lumbar epaxial musculature. Hodesson et al. Green, 1982b). An intravascular catheter can be attached to
(1965) recommend administering drugs into the vastus lateralis a vascular access port that is taped to the animal’s pinnae
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 307

or implanted subcutaneously when repetitive vascular access

is required (Melich, 1990; Perry-Clark and Meunier, 1991;
Swindle et al., 2005). The volume and rate of IV infusion
must be monitored in order to prevent volume overload, which
may lead to pulmonary edema. Air bubbles should be voided
from the material to be administered to prevent air emboli.
The application of lidocaine–prilocaine cream to the ear before
venipuncture has been recommended to reduce pain, especially
when training inexperienced staff (Flecknell et al., 1990). The
central auricular artery is easily cannulated for arterial blood
sampling for blood gas determination and is routinely used for
collection of large volumes of blood (Fick and Schalm, 1986;
Ludders et al., 1987; Marini et al., 1992; Smith et al., 1988;
Stickrod et al., 1981). Drugs with vasodilatory action, such as
acepromazine or droperidol, can be administered to aid in blood
collection. Vasospasm can be prevented by applying 2% nitro-
glycerin ointment to the artery (Smith et al., 1988). Adequate Fig. 11-2 Dorsal view of the tongue, larynx, and proximal trachea from an
postphlebotomy hemostasis is critical, especially following adult New Zealand white rabbit. Note the long tongue and notched U-shaped
arterial puncture. epiglottis.
Intraperitoneal administration of anesthestics is primarily of
historical interest. Although IP injections can be performed
safely, the risk of puncturing a hollow viscus, the difficulty
of restraint for injections, the possibility of irritation, and
inconsistent absorption limit their consideration in light of
alternatives.
Techniques have been described for the intrathecal adminis-
tration of local anesthetics for spinal anesthesia in the rabbit.
Techniques for both single injection and chronic administra-
tion through a surgically implanted cannula have been described
(Adams et al., 1974; Bieter et al., 1936; Hughes et al., 1993;
Kero et al., 1981; Langerman et al., 1990; Malinovksy et al.,
1997). Spinal anesthesia has been recommended for studies on
the fetus in which depressant anesthetic effects are to be avoided
(Kero et al., 1981).

B. Intranasal Administration

A variety of anesthetics or anesthetic combinations

(ketamine, midazolam, tiletamine/zolazepam, ketamine/ Fig. 11-3 View of laryngeal structures in an anesthetized rabbit utilizing
a 3.5 mm fiberoptic bronchoscope. The tip of the bronchoscope is depressing
xylazine, ketamine/midazolam, and fentanyl/droperidol) have the epiglottis. The hamuli epiglottici are visible (arrow) as are the vocal cords
been administered via the intranasal route to rabbits (Robertson (VC). Photograph courtesy of P. Padrid.
and Eberhart, 1994). Equal volumes of anesthetic were admin-
istered into each nare using a catheter-tipped syringe after the
agents were diluted with sterile saline and administered at a dose larynx are difficult to visualize because of the large incisors,
of 0.4 ml/kg. No single anesthetic or anesthetic combination the long and narrow oral cavity, a thick tongue, and the limited
consistently provided a surgical plane of anesthesia; however, mobility of the tempero-mandibular joint (Fig. 11-2). Laryn-
midazolam provided good sedation and muscle relaxation. gospasm is also induced easily (Wixson, 1994). The epiglottis
is large, U-shaped, soft, and flexible. Just beyond the base of
the epiglottis is a deep sagittal niche, bordered on both sagittal
C. Tracheal Access recesses by the hamuli epiglottici (Fig. 11-3). This structure lifts
the local epithelial layer and can be damaged easily by rough or
The anatomy of the rabbit’s oropharynx makes ET intubation incorrect ET intubation (Schuyt and Leene, 1977). The diame-
more difficult than in most other species. The epiglottis and ter of the aditus laryngicus is smaller than the diameter of the
308 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

Fig. 11-5 Devices used to deliver inhalational anesthetics to rabbits. From

top to bottom: cuffed endotracheal tube (Murphy eye type), uncuffed endotra-
cheal tube (Cole type), and laryngeal mask airway. Reprinted with permission
from Smith et al. (2004).

Fig. 11-4 View of the oropharynx and larynx in an anesthetized rabbit uti- Miller blade) may be used, depending on the size of the rabbit
lizing a 3.5 mm fiberoptic bronchoscope. The laryngoscope blade is visible in
the foreground. Note the tonsils (T) and the aditus laryngicus (arrow).
(Lindquist, 1972; Macrae and Guerreiro, 1989). A handheld
otoscope with a 5 mm ear speculum can be utilized to visual-
ize the larynx and intubate small (∼1.3 kg) rabbits (Weinstein
tracheal lumen and dictates the size of the ET tube (Fig. 11-4) et al., 2000). The larynx may be sprayed with a topical anesthetic
(Schuyt et al., 1978). The vocal cords are situated extremely (without epinephrine) or anesthetic lubricant applied to the tube
craniad and run obliquely in a dorsal–ventral direction (Schuyt to reduce laryngeal irritability. Extreme caution should be used
and Leene, 1977). when spraying the larynx with any of the topical anesthetics, as
There are numerous descriptions of techniques and devices overdosage is possible. Benzocaine-topical anesthetic spray has
which are useful in ET tube placement (Alexander and Clark, been shown to cause methemoglobinemia, which may confound
1980; Bertolet and Hughes, 1980; Davis and Malinin, 1974; experimental results, in rabbits following a second application
Fick and Schalm, 1987; Gografe et al., 2003; Hoge et al., (Davis et al., 1993). Following visualization of the larynx, the
1969; Howard et al., 1990; Kumar et al., 1993; Lindquist, 1972; tube is inserted gently on inspiration so that it passes through the
Macrae and Guerreiro, 1989; Schuyt and Leene, 1977; Schuyt aditus laryngicus when the vocal cords are abducted. If place-
et al., 1978; Smith et al., 2004; Tran et al., 2001; Worthley et al., ment of the ET tube in the supraglottic region severely limits
2000). Parenteral or volatile anesthetics are administered prior vision, the ET tube can be placed over a 0.97 mm flexible guide
to intubation. ET intubation can be performed with or without wire or a 5 or 6 Fr nylon IV or polypropylene urinary catheter
direct visualization of the larynx in the prone or supine posi- (Gografe et al., 2003; Macrae and Guerreiro, 1989; Weinstein
tion. For successful intubation, the mouth, larynx, and trachea et al., 2000). The guide wire or catheter can be advanced into
must be brought into linear alignment. In an outstretched prone the larynx under direct visualization before advancing the tube
position, the rabbit’s head is tipped and the neck is extended over the device. Intubation can also be aided using a rigid 30◦
until the head is upright at a right angle to the rest of its body endoscope passed through a 4.5 mm ET tube (Tran et al., 2001).
(Alexander and Clark, 1980). If intubated in the supine posi- This method allows direct visualization as the tube is advanced.
tion, the neck is hyperextended by placing a rolled towel under Similarly, Worthley et al. (2000) used a 10 mm fiber optic to
the cervical region (Schuyt and Leene, 1977) or by fashioning visualize the larynx before passing an ET tube.
a holder from styrofoam (Davis and Malinin, 1974). When intubation is performed blindly, the tube is placed in the
Uncuffed (Cole or straight) or cuffed ET tubes (2.0– supraglottic region and inserted into the larynx during inspira-
4.0 mm diameter) are used with or without an intubation stylet tion, with the operator observing respiratory pattern and rate or
(Fig. 11-5). Smith et al. (2004) reported easier intubation tube condensation, or listening for breath sounds with or with-
using a cuffed tube. However, slightly greater waste anesthetic out a respiratory monitor to coordinate the advancement (Hoge
gas (WAG) was emitted from the rabbit’s labial commissure, et al., 1969; Howard et al., 1990). Proper placement of the tube
although none was detected at the operator’s breathing zone. can be verified, as in other species, by palpation of the trachea
Wire-reinforced ET tubes should be used for procedures where and esophagus, listening for respiratory sounds, or observing
kinking the tube is possible, such as stereotaxic surgery. A pedi- air flow at the distal end of the tube by looking for displacement
atric laryngoscope (size 0–1 Wisconsin or neonatal or size no. 1 of plucked fur or condensation on a dental mirror. Intubation
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 309

Cranial
Palate Vault

Nasal
Passages

Tube for
Anesthetic
Delivery
Pharynx

LMA Cuff

Esophagus
Tube for Tongue
Cuff Trachea
Larynx
Inflation

Fig. 11-6 Diagram showing proper placement of a laryngeal mask airway with respect to the oropharyngeal cavity and upper airway of the rabbit. Reprinted
with permission from Smith et al. (2004).

has also been accomplished by inserting a 19 gauge, 20 cm sought. Tracheostomies may be appropriate for nonsurvival
catheter percutaneously through a guide needle into the tra- surgical preparations requiring tracheal access. They are
chea of an anesthetized rabbit, advancing the catheter retrograde not generally recommended for survival surgical procedures
through the larynx into the mouth, and finally, advancing the because of postoperative considerations. Administration of
ET tube over the catheter, which serves as a guide (Bertolet and inhalational agents by mask has been described for both induc-
Hughes, 1980). Alternatively, a needle cricothyroidotomy can tion and/or maintenance of anesthesia (Bateman et al., 2005;
be performed, followed by cannulation with a guide wire, vessel Betteridge, 1973; Flecknell et al., 1996, 1999; Hedenqvist
dilator, and sheath introducer with sideport extension (Irazuzta et al., 2001; Kent, 1971; Sherrard, 1966). Induction by this
et al., 1997). ET tubes should be fixed in place with gauze or method should be avoided, unless injectable premedicant use
tape to avoid accidental extubation and should be routinely suc- is restricted by experimental protocol, as significant behavioral
tioned during procedures of modest or prolonged duration, as and adverse physiologic effects, including severe apnea, hyper-
respiratory secretions may occlude the lumen. capnia, and hypoxemia, have been reported with desflurane,
Tracheal mucosal injury may be a sequela to intubation in isoflurane, and sevoflurane (Bateman et al., 2005; Flecknell
the rabbit (Grint et al., 2005; Nordin et al., 1977; Phaneuf et al., 1996, 1999; Hedenqvist et al., 2001). Given the need,
et al., 2006; Squire et al., 1990). The pressure of the inflated rapid induction with desflurane is preferred to slowly increasing
cuff against the epithelium has been reported to interfere with concentrations of desflurane, isoflurane, or sevoflurane (Fleck-
blood flow and possibly cause necrosis (Nordin et al., 1977). nell et al., 1999; Hedenqvist et al., 2001). Similar problems have
Phaneuf et al. (2006) described sublaryngeal tracheal injury been observed when using an anesthetic chamber for induc-
and ulceration in 15 rabbits from several institutions intubated tion (Flecknell et al., 1996). While maintaining gas anesthesia
with both cuffed and uncuffed ET tubes. They eliminated both by mask is not fraught with the same issues as induction, the
cuff pressure and prolonged intubation times as the etiology increased risk of operator exposure to WAG, the inability to
and speculated that the rabbit’s tracheal vascular anatomy, the administer controlled or assisted ventilation, the possibility of
subtle movement of the tube during mechanical ventilation, airway obstruction, and the considerable dead space provided
positioning, and repeated intubation may have resulted in tra- by the mask must all be considered (Bateman et al., 2005). Rab-
cheal mucosal injury. Postintubation tracheal strictures have bits should be premedicated with sedatives if mask or chamber
been described in rabbits 2–3 weeks after anesthesia (Grint et al., induction is used. Modified cat restraint bags have been used to
2005). Although the definitive cause of the tracheal injury was mask induce previously sedated animals (Lindquist, 1972).
unconfirmed, the location of the injury (adjacent to the tube’s Recent reports describe the use of a laryngeal mask airway
bevel) led the authors to speculate that the cause was either (LMA) [size 1] in lieu of ET tube placement (Bateman et al.,
trauma or chemical injury from agents used to disinfect the 2005; Smith et al., 2004) for provision of inhalants. An LMA
ET tubes. consists of an airway tube, a mask with an inflatable cuff,
Because of the difficulties with intubation and its potential and a mask-inflation line (Fig. 11-5). The mask is designed
complications, alternatives to ET tube placement have been to sit over and surround the larynx (Fig. 11-6). Smith et al.
310 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

(2004) described placing an LMA with the rabbit in right lateral in the immediate postanesthetic recovery period (Gonzalez-Gil
recumbency and the animal’s head and neck tilted upward at a et al., 2002, 2003, 2005; Gil et al., 2004; Illera et al., 2000).
90◦ angle. The device is inserted with its aperture turned toward In this section, injectable agents will be discussed based upon
the tongue and its convex side against the left buccal wall blindly functional or chemical similarities.
until it reaches the desired position. The device is then rotated
90◦ counterclockwise so that the margins of the LMA’s cuff
cover the edges of the laryngeal aperture and the cuff is inflated A. Barbiturates
to reduce WAG escape and allow for positive pressure ventila-
tion. The authors report that the LMA was easier to place than The oxybarbiturate agent pentobarbital has been alternately
an ET tube, especially among staff with limited experience; lauded (Conn and Langer, 1978; Jacobs and Krohn, 1975; Koch
however, the LMA emitted greater WAG. Bateman et al. (2005) and Dwyer, 1988; Marston et al., 1965; Zhou et al., 1981)
reported a similar experience using an LMA, except they did and disparaged (Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell et al., 1983;
not inflate the cuff and observed gastric tympany in ventilated Green, 1975; Peeters et al., 1988) as an anesthetic agent in the
animals. Imai et al. (2005) developed a device with features rabbit. It is now widely held that the dose at which surgical
similar to an LMA, consisting of a spiral wire-containing tube, anesthesia occurs is extremely close to the dose at which apnea
a mask designed to surround and seal the larynx, and an inflat- occurs. This apnea may be reversed by utilizing the Hering-
able balloon designed to lie in the proximal esophagus. The Breuer reflex, the activation of stretch receptors in the lungs in
device is inserted blindly, with the rabbit positioned in lateral response to overinflation. Most commonly, chest compression
recumbency with its neck in ventriflexion; the device allowed can be provided by manual compression or by placement of
for intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV). an elastic band around the thorax. Anecdotally, success in the
The authors’ recommended regimen for intubation of the use of this agent requires considerable finesse. While pentobar-
rabbit is ketamine (35 mg/kg IM) and xylazine (5 mg/kg IM). bital is customarily given intravenously, the IM (Krogh, 1975)
Isoflurane, methohexital, Saffan, thiamylal, thiopentone, pen- and intrahepatic routes of administration have also been reported
tobarbital, propofol, medetomidine/propofol, medetomidine/ (Jacobs and Krohn, 1975). These latter routes are discouraged
ketamine, medetomidine/xylazine/propofol, medetomidine/ because of variability in effect, the potential for tissue irritation,
fentanyl/midazolam, ketamine/xylazine/acepromazine, and and the ease of IV administration in the rabbit. Dosages range
propanidid have also been used for anesthetic induction prior to from 25 to 60 mg/kg IV. A typical schedule of administration
ET intubation in the rabbit (Green, 1982b; Hellebrekers et al., is to inject some fraction of the calculated dose (generally one-
1997; Henke et al., 1996, 2005; Ko et al., 1992; Orr et al., 2005; third) over a specified time period, followed by slow infusion
Tran et al., 2001; Weinstein et al., 2000). of the remainder. Incremental dosages of 3–5 mg/kg IV can be
used to prolong anesthesia (Green, 1982b). Pentobarbital may
be diluted with saline to enhance the precision of dose admin-
istration and, consequently, its safety (Booth and McDonald,
IV. PARENTERAL TECHNIQUES
1988). Continuous IV infusions of 7.5 and 20 mg/kg/h after an
initial pentobarbital bolus of 50 mg/kg have also been reported
For practical purposes, anesthetics used in the rabbit can be (Todd et al., 1994).
divided into the broad categories of injectable and inhalational The hallmark physiologic effect of pentobarbital is respira-
agents. Injectable techniques have a long history of use in the tory depression. A number of studies using a variety of doses
rabbit. Ease of administration, predictability, reasonable effi- and infusion schedules describe severe respiratory depression
cacy, and avoidance of the technical demands of administering or arrest (Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell et al., 1983; Peeters
inhalants are features that have popularized the use of these et al., 1988). Respiratory acidosis, hypoxemia, hypercarbia, and
agents in the rabbit. At the same time however, untoward physio- depression of respiratory rate are all characteristic features of
logic effects, inability to control anesthetic depth, and prolonged this drug (Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell et al., 1983). In
recovery attendant with their use have prompted the search for contrast, several studies have demonstrated minimal blood gas
newer agents or novel combinations of agents. Many injectable alterations when using pentobarbital at doses that did not elim-
agents and combinations produce physiologic trespass sufficient inate the pedal reflex (Korner et al., 1968; Morita et al., 1987).
to produce hypoxemia and should therefore be used with oxygen The additional dosage required to eliminate response to noxious
supplementation. The literature abounds with descriptions of the stimuli may induce prolonged apnea.
use of various injectables; some are of historical interest, others The features of pentobarbital’s effects on the cardiovascu-
are of limited availability, and still others have become valuable lar system include preservation of (Borkowski et al., 1990)
agents in the anesthetist’s armamentarium. Recently, a number or increased heart rate (Korner et al., 1968; Morita et al.,
of these agents have been evaluated for their influence on plasma 1987), decreased arterial blood pressure (Borkowski et al.,
analytes; therefore, careful consideration must be given to inter- 1990; Korner et al., 1968; Morita et al., 1987), peripheral
preting biochemical results from anesthetized rabbits or those vasodilation (Korner et al., 1968; Morita et al., 1987), decreased
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 311

cardiac output (Korner et al., 1968), and depression of the available but can be prepared by combining pentobarbital,
vasoconstrictor response to hemorrhage (Warren and Leding- magnesium sulfate, and chloral hydrate.
ham, 1978). The gain of the baroreflex system (the ability of the Several miscellaneous features of pentobarbital anesthesia
system to sustain arterial pressure in the face of hemorrhage) deserve mention. When pentobarbital was used in a coronary
is depressed in a time-dependent fashion, with complete recov- artery ligation study, less myocardial damage was observed
ery of the system to preanesthetic levels 70 minutes after the when compared to either halothane or alpha chloralose
administration of 25 mg/kg pentobarbital (Katsuda et al., 2000). (Chakrabarty et al., 1991), underscoring the impact of choice
Pentobarbital maintained cardiovascular parameters better than of anesthetic on research results. Pentobarbital caused reduc-
either ketamine/xylazine or midazolam/xylazine/alfentanil in tions in plasma potassium concentrations that were associated
one study (Borkowski et al., 1990). The tachycardia of pentobar- with increases in plasma renin activity and aldosterone con-
bital anesthesia has been shown to be attributable to baroreflex centration (Robson et al., 1981). Pentobarbital appears to
compensation (Morita et al., 1987). exhibit tolerance (tachyphylaxis) in the rabbit; equivalent anes-
Pentobarbital has been used in combination with a vari- thetic effects required doubling the pentobarbital doses when
ety of agents to reduce the dosage required for anesthesia, attempts were made to anesthetize animals more than once
improve safety, and enhance efficacy (Dolowy and Hesse, 1959; weekly (Pandeya and Lemon, 1965). Finally, opioids appear
Green, 1975, 1982b; Hobbs et al., 1991; Krogh, 1975; Olson to modify the duration of action of pentobarbital by a central
et al., 1987; Schutten and Van Horn, 1977). The following cholinergic mechanism (Horita and Carino, 1978; Horita et al.,
combinations have been used: 1983).
Other barbiturates that have been used in the rabbit include
• Ketamine (50 mg/kg) and pentobarbital (30 mg/kg) admin-
the thiobarbiturates thiamylal, thiopental, ethyl-malonyl-thio-
istered in separate syringes intramuscularly, were reported
urea (EMTU), and the methylated oxybarbiturate, methohexital
to cause deep anesthesia of 60–80 minutes duration (Krogh,
(Gardner, 1964; Green, 1982b; Hobbs et al., 1991; Holland,
1975).
1973; Lockhart et al., 1991; MacLeod, 1977; Murdock, 1969;
• Chlorpromazine premedication (2 mg/kg IM) followed by
Mustola et al., 2000; Sedgwick, 1986; Stunkard and Miller,
pentobarbital (20–30 mg/kg IV) has been reported to be a
1974). These are outlined below.
safe anesthetic combination for the rabbit (Green, 1975).
• A range of chlorpromazine doses (25–100 mg/kg IM) was
• Dosages reported for thiamylal are 31 mg/kg of a 1% solu-
used prior to pentobarbital (20 mg/kg IV) to produce anes-
tion, 29 mg/kg of a 2% solution (Gardner, 1964), and
thesia but pedal “withdrawal reflexes were often present”
15 mg/kg IV (Sedgwick, 1986). Thiopentone dosages rec-
(Dolowy and Hesse, 1959).
ommended in the literature include 30 mg/kg (one-half
• Five percent guaifenesin in 5% dextrose (200 mg/kg IV)
given rapidly IV with the rest administered slowly over 60
was followed by 20 mg/kg pentobarbital (20 mg/kg IV)
seconds) (Green, 1982b), 6 mg/kg slowly IV to effect prior
to produce anesthesia in six rabbits (Olson et al., 1987).
to ET intubation (Green, 1982b), 15 mg/kg (Sedgwick,
Tachycardia with reductions in respiratory rate and mean
1986), 50 mg/kg of a 1.25% solution (Holland, 1973), and
arterial blood pressure characterized this combination;
50 mg/kg of a 2.5% solution (Lumb and Jones, 1984). A
pedal reflex returned in all rabbits by 30 minutes after drug
constant rate infusion of thiopentone (30 ml/h of a 25 g/ml
administration (Olson et al., 1987).
solution IV) achieved loss of righting reflex and ablation of
• Xylazine (5 mg/kg SC) followed in 10 minutes by 11.8–
reaction to tail clamping (spinally processed stimulus) or
28.4 mg/kg pentobarbital IV produced 37.5 minutes of
intranasal administration of ammonia vapor (centrally pro-
anesthesia although one of eight rabbits died (Hobbs et al.,
cessed stimulus). One-third of rabbits developed cyanosis
1991).
during the tail-clamping trial but respiratory arrest did not
Pentobarbital has been used in the rabbit as a component occur (Mustola et al., 2000). These dosages vary widely
of Equi-Thesin (Hodesson et al., 1965). Rabbits were premedi- and may be influenced by other factors such as breed or con-
cated with paraldehyde (0.3 ml/kg IM) and diazepam (7.5 mg/kg ditioning. Whatever dose is chosen, safety is enhanced by
IM) and then administered varying doses of Equi-Thesin intra- using the more dilute solutions and injecting agents slowly
rectally (1–3 ml/kg). Results were variable with regard to safety to effect. The duration of action for these agents is usually
and the depth and duration of anesthesia produced. Equi-Thesin 5–10 minutes (Murdock, 1969).
was also administered intravenously to effect after paraldehyde • The use of EMTU has been reported in conjunction with
(0.3 ml/kg) and diazepam (10 mg/kg IM). Effective dosages xylazine or ketamine (Hobbs et al., 1991). Xylazine
of Equi-Thesin ranged from 0.83 to 2.35 ml/kg; anesthesia of (5 mg/kg SC) or ketamine (35 mg/kg IM) was followed
varying durations was achieved in 10 of 11 rabbits with one fatal- in 10 minutes by EMTU administered intravenously to
ity. Similar results were attained with Equi-Thesin used after effect (12.5–47.6 mg/kg following xylazine; 25–54 mg/kg
premedication with propiopromazine (5 mg/kg IM) and paralde- following ketamine). The combinations caused 34 and
hyde (0.3 ml/kg IM). Equi-Thesin is no longer commercially 19 minutes of anesthesia, respectively. Anesthesia was
312 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

not consistently induced with ketamine–EMTU while respiratory rate). There may be breed, gender, or other influ-
xylazine–EMTU provided “the most consistent and safest ences in the anesthetic efficacy of this combination (Avsaroglu
anesthetic episode” of those tested (Hobbs et al., 1991). et al., 2003), as 50 mg/kg ketamine and 4 mg/kg xylazine pro-
• Methohexitone has been recommended for use as an induc- duced an adequate anesthetic plane in only 7 of 19 chinchilla
tion agent prior to ET intubation (10 mg/kg of a 1% rabbits in one study (Henke et al., 2005).
solution rapidly IV) (Green, 1982b). Two to 5 minutes of A myriad of physiologic effects occurs with intramuscu-
light anesthesia are provided; increments of 4–6 mg/kg IV larly administered ketamine/xylazine. Depression of respiratory
may prolong anesthesia for short procedures. Methohexi- rate ranging from 40 to 77% of preanesthetic baseline values
tal (5 mg/kg) administered IV has also been recommended has been reported (Hobbs et al., 1991; Lipman et al., 1990;
for use in the rabbit (Antal, 1985). Marini et al., 1992; Peeters et al., 1988; Popilskis et al., 1991;
Sanford and Colby, 1980; Wyatt et al., 1989). Associated blood
gas changes included hypoxemia (43–50% reduction) and CO2
B. Dissociatives retention (25–50% increase) (Marini et al., 1992; Peeters et al.,
1988; Popilskis et al., 1991; Wyatt et al., 1989). Arterial blood
The dissociative agent that has been used most widely in pH either remained unchanged (Marini et al., 1992; Popilskis
rabbit anesthesia is ketamine. It is typically administered in et al., 1991; Wyatt et al., 1989) or increased marginally due
combination with other agents as it does not provide adequate to metabolic alkalosis with partial respiratory compensation
muscle relaxation or analgesia for surgical anesthesia when used (Peeters et al., 1988). Cardiovascular changes were manifest
alone (Green, 1982b; Green et al., 1981; White and Holmes, as decreases in heart rate (from insignificant change to 35%
1976). As a sole agent, ketamine should be restricted to min- reduction) and hypotension (20–35% reduction). The maximal
imally invasive procedures; both the IM and IV routes have alterations produced by the ketamine/xylazine combination par-
been used. Constant-rate IV infusion of ketamine (30 ml/h of alleled those seen when either drug was administered alone;
a 20 mg/ml concentration) effected loss of righting reflex, and ketamine preservation of heart rate was the only exception
loss of reaction to tail clamping and ammonia vapor inhalation (Sanford and Colby, 1980).
(Mustola et al., 2000). The relative potency and plasma con-
centrations of ketamine with regard to these endpoints and in
Authors’ Preference
comparison to propofol and thiopentone were also reported (see
below). Intramuscular doses ranging from 20 to 60 mg/kg have Agent Ketamine/xylazine
been reported (Green, 1975, 1982b) although doses greater than Route IM injection
Dose Ketamine 35–50 mg/kg; xylazine 5–10 mg/kg
50 mg/kg probably provide little additional restraint. ET intuba-
Comments Perineural injection may lead to self-trauma; adequate for
tion has been reported with ketamine alone (15–20 mg/kg); 10% arterial cutdowns and other somatic procedures. Consistency
ketamine diluted 1:2 with saline and injected at a rate of 100 mg may be improved and depth enhanced by the addition of
in 10–15 seconds was used for this purpose (Lindquist, 1972). butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg IM) or acepromazine (0.75 mg/kg
The combination ketamine/xylazine is preferred for intubation. IM). Incremental doses of one-third the original dose of
ketamine/xylazine may be used to prolong anesthesia.
The agent most commonly used in combination with ketamine
is the α-2 agonist xylazine. Ketamine/xylazine doses ranging
from 22 mg/kg ketamine and 2.5 mg/kg xylazine to 50 mg/kg Several investigators have described the IV use of ketamine,
ketamine and 10 mg/kg xylazine have been reported (Beyers either alone or in combination with xylazine (Borkowski et al.,
et al., 1991; Rich et al., 1990; White and Holmes, 1976). The 1990; Dhasmana et al., 1984; Lindquist, 1972; McGrath
dose that appears most frequently in the literature is 35 mg/kg et al., 1975; Wyatt et al., 1989). Borkowski evaluated ketamine
ketamine and 5 mg/kg xylazine. The combination at this dose (25 mg/kg) and xylazine (5 mg/kg); the agents were mixed in
provided mean withdrawal reflex loss durations of 46.5 (Hobbs the same syringe (1:1 v:v) and one-third the calculated dose
et al., 1991), 32 (Marini et al., 1992), and 57 minutes (Lipman was administered into the marginal ear vein over 1 minute.
et al., 1990), respectively. Considerable variation in the response The remainder was administered over the next 4 minutes. The
to ketamine/xylazine exists among rabbits (Marini et al., 1992; physiologic changes measured were similar to those described
Peeters et al., 1988). Incremental doses of one-third the original previously for IM administration of this combination with the
dose IM can be used to prolong anesthesia. The combination exception that apnea occurred in two of seven rabbits. In another
of ketamine (50 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) provides gen- study, a single IM dose of ketamine (35 mg/kg) and xylazine
erally effective anesthesia for procedures of moderate surgical (5 mg/kg) was followed with a 4-hour, constant-rate IV infu-
stimulus intensity (e.g., carotid endarterectomy and subcuta- sion of the same agents at dose levels of 1 mg/min ketamine
neous implantation). More intense surgical stimuli associated and 0.1 mg/min xylazine (Wyatt et al., 1989). Blood pressure
with intraabdominal and intrathoracic procedures are accom- progressively declined throughout the duration of this regimen
panied by undesirable muscle fasciculation and autonomic from an initial reduction of 21% from baseline to a reduction of
response (e.g., increased heart rate, arterial blood pressure, and 49%. Arterial O2 tension initially declined to 45% of baseline
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 313

but increased progressively as the infusion continued. It was of heart rate, mean arterial pressure and respiratory rate. At
concluded that the regimen was a safe and effective method of a medetomidine equivalent dose, atipamezole reduced mean
producing light anesthesia in the rabbit, except that hypotension arousal time from 40.5 ± 15 minutes to 1.5 ± 1 minute (Kim
and hypoxemia might be unacceptable experimental variables. et al., 2004). While IV administration of atipamezole has
In the Dutch belted rabbit, repeated use of IM ketamine/xylazine been safely used in the rabbit, the IM route was preferred for
followed by constant-rate infusions of this combination has been routine use.
associated with myocardial fibrosis (Marini et al., 1999). Other ketamine combinations that have been reported include
Medetomidine/ketamine combinations have been more ketamine/pentobarbital (Krogh, 1975; Schutten and Van Horn,
widely investigated since the first edition of this text (Difilippo 1977), ketamine/EMTU (Hobbs et al., 1991), ketamine/
et al., 2004; Hedenqvist et al., 2001; Hellebrekers et al., 1997; guaifenesin (Olson et al., 1987), ketamine/chloral hydrate (Chen
Henke et al., 2005; Nevalainen et al., 1989; Orr et al., 2005) and Bohner, 1968; Hobbs et al., 1991), ketamine/xylazine/
Reported doses vary from 15 to 35 mg/kg for ketamine and acepromazine (Lipman et al., 1990), ketamine/detomidine
0.25–0.5 mg/kg for medetomidine. Physiologic effects of these (Hurley et al., 1994), ketamine/diazepam (Green, 1982b;
regimens are similar to those reported for ketamine/xylazine, Sedgwick, 1986), ketamine/detomidine/diazepam (Hurley
but arterial blood pressure is better preserved in most stud- et al., 1994), and ketamine/xylazine/butorphanol (Marini et al.,
ies. As in other species however, cardiac output is likely to be 1992).
depressed by α-2 agonists, and inadequate tissue perfusion may Ketamine/xylazine/acepromazine increased the duration of
still occur. Henke et al. (2005) determined that medetomidine anesthesia (as measured by absence of pedal reflex) when com-
(0.25 mg/kg IM) and ketamine (35.0 mg/kg IM) were superior pared to ketamine/xylazine but did so at the expense of moderate
to xylazine/ketamine and medetomidine/fentanyl/midazolam increases in degree of hypotension and hypothermia. Reported
from the perspective of quality and prevalence of surgical anes- doses include ketamine (35 mg/kg), xylazine (5 mg/kg), ace-
thesia in chinchilla rabbits. Difilippo et al. (2004) compared promazine (0.75 mg/kg) and ketamine (40 mg/kg), xylazine
medetomidine (0.5 mg/kg IM), ketamine (35 mg/kg IM), and (3 mg/kg), and acepromazine (1 mg/kg) (Hobbs et al., 1991;
buprenorphine (0.03 mg/kg IM) with an equivalent regimen Lipman et al., 1990; Ludders et al., 1987). The addition of
substituting xylazine (5 mg/kg IM) for medetomidine. Rab- butorphanol to ketamine/xylazine also increased the duration
bits were intubated and administered 0.75% isoflurane. They of reflex loss but with less physiologic embarrassment than
found that the medetomidine combination was safe and effec- that accompanying the addition of acepromazine (Marini et al.,
tive, and preserved mean, systolic, and diastolic blood pressure 1992). Ketamine (50 mg/kg IV) and 5% guaifenesin in 5% dex-
to a significantly greater degree than xylazine. The α-2 ago- trose (200 mg/kg IV) were reported to provide safe and effective
nists were not reversed in this study; the medetomidine group anesthesia for 30 minutes with preservation of heart rate and
had significantly longer reflex recovery times. Medetomidine arterial blood pressure (Olson et al., 1987). Respiratory rate
(0.25 or 0.5 mg/kg IM or SC) and ketamine (15 mg IM or decreased by approximately 50% from baseline.
SC) were used for gonadectomy in 105 domestic pet rabbits Chen and Bohner (1968) reported that a combination of
of various breeds, ages, and both genders (Orr et al., 2005) ketamine (20 mg/kg IM) and 10% chloral hydrate (250 mg/kg)
All rabbits were intubated and administered 100% oxygen; injected IV, over a 2–3 minute-period after ketamine-induced
isoflurane was administered as needed to maintain an adequate catalepsy had occurred, produced 1–1.5 hours of anesthesia
anesthetic plane. Fewer rabbits required isoflurane with the without dramatic changes in arterial blood pressure or respira-
higher medetomidine dose; both routes were efficacious but tory rate. In contrast, Hobbs et al. (1991) found that the identical
anesthetic induction was slower when the agents were admin- regimen produced only 20 minutes of anesthesia and a 67%
istered SC. Righting reflex returned more quickly with the reduction in respiratory rate from baseline.
lower dose. Female rabbits more frequently required isoflu- Telazol® is a combination agent consisting of the dissociative
rane, presumably due to the more invasive nature of the surgical agent, tiletamine, and the benzodiazepine, zolazepam. Admin-
procedure, and also maintained higher respiratory rates and istered alone it does not provide sufficient analgesia for surgery
lower mean and highest expired CO2 concentration (FE CO2 ) but is useful for restraint and immobilization (Brammer et al.,
during anesthesia. Because of the variable health status and 1991; Doerning et al., 1992; Ward et al., 1974). The agent
breed differences likely encountered in a diverse pet population, is also nephrotoxic in rabbits, as manifest by post recovery
the authors recommended lower dose medetomidine/ketamine azotemia and urinary casts. Intranasal administration of Tela-
administered SC along with using isoflurane supplementation zol (10 mg/kg) produced a mean duration of righting reflex
as needed as the regimen of choice. Medetomidine reversal was loss of 44 minutes while eliminating the pedal reflex in only
achieved using atipamezole administered intravenously at twice one of four rabbits (Robertson and Eberhart, 1994). Additional
the former drug’s dose. In rabbits anesthetized with medetomi- features of intranasal Telazol included good muscle relaxation,
dine (0.35 mg/kg IV) and ketamine (5 mg/kg IV), atipamezole increased heart rate, and decreased respiratory rate. Serum cre-
administered at doses equivalent to or twice that of medeto- atinine and BUN were not measured in that study. The addition
midine rapidly reversed medetomidine-associated depression of xylazine (5 mg/kg IM) to Telazol (15 mg/kg IM) produced
314 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

surgical anesthesia lasting approximately 70 minutes (Popil- (Green, 1975). The addition of diazepam or midazolam to Hyp-
skis et al., 1991). In contrast, Doerning et al. (1992) reported norm results in good surgical anesthesia of moderate duration
that as little as 7.5 mg/kg tiletamine was sufficient to produce (Flecknell et al., 1983; Flecknell and Mitchell, 1984; Hexe-
mild nephrosis manifest as “scattered dilated tubules and occa- berg et al., 1995). Premedication with diazepam (1 mg/kg IV or
sional cellular casts.” Azotemia did not occur at this dose. 2 mg/kg IP), followed 5 minutes later by Hypnorm (0.2 ml/kg
Tiletamine use is best avoided in the rabbit because of attendant IM) produced 45–60 minutes of anesthesia and respiratory rate
nephrotoxicity. depression of 30–60% (Flecknell et al., 1983). Similarly, mida-
zolam (2 mg/kg IP) has been used with Hypnorm (0.3 ml/kg
IM) to produce surgical anesthesia of 100 minutes mean dura-
C. Neuroleptanalgesia/Neuroleptanesthesia tion with respiratory rate depression of 29–62% (Flecknell and
Mitchell, 1984). Increments of 0.05–0.1 ml/kg Hypnorm every
The most widely investigated neuroleptanalgesic combina- 20–30 minutes and 1 mg/kg diazepam IV every 2–4 hours have
tions used in the rabbit are fentanyl/droperidol (Innovar Vet® ) been used to prolong anesthesia. Hypnorm (0.3 ml/kg SC) and
and fentanyl/fluanisone (Hypnorm® ). diazepam (5 mg/kg SC) were used after atropine premedication
Innovar Vet, used historically but seldom cited in the (1 mg/kg SC) to provide anesthesia for orthopedic procedures
recent literature, contains fentanyl (0.4 mg/ml) and droperidol in 565 rabbits (Mero et al., 1987). The subcutaneous route was
(20 mg/ml). It has been recommended for use as a sole agent for used so that drug absorption might be delayed and the likelihood
anesthesia (0.22 ml/kg) (Strack and Kaplan, 1968), for sedation of respiratory depression reduced. The mortality rate for use of
during attempts at group housing (Love and Hammond, 1991), the combination in this manner was 1.4%.
for sedation prior to cardiac puncture (0.17 ml/kg) (Lewis and
Jennings, 1972), or prior to arteriocentesis of the central auric- Authors’ Preference
ular artery (0.15, 0.17, 0.19, and 0.30 ml/kg) (Sartick et al.,
1979); (0.125 ml/kg) (Tillman and Norman, 1983), and for sta- Agent Fentanyl/fluanisone/midazolam
Route Fentanyl/fluanisone IM; midazolam IV
ble neuroleptanalgesia using constant IV infusion (255 μl/min
Dose Fentanyl/fluanisone 0.3 ml/kg; midazolam 0.5–2 mg/kg
of a 0.05 mg/ml fentanyl, 0.13 mg/ml droperidol solution in to effect
5% dextrose) after a single IM dose (0.125 ml/kg) (Guerreiro Comments Fentanyl/fluanisone is administered as a premedication.
and Page, 1987). Fentanyl/droperidol administered intranasally Midazolam is then administered to the sedated rabbit to
at a dosage of 0.3 mg/kg produced bradycardia, apnea, and produce surgical anesthesia. Fentanyl/fluanisone is available
in Europe.
50% mortality (Robertson and Eberhart, 1994). The droperi-
dol component of Innovar Vet has a longer duration of action
than fentanyl; accordingly, animals may remain sedated well A constant-rate infusion technique has been described in
after the peak of neuroleptanalgesia has passed. Atropine or which a 1:10 dilution of Hypnorm is administered intravenously
glycopyrrolate should be considered as a premedicant to avoid at a rate of 1–3 ml/kg/h (Flecknell, 1987). While most reports
the bradycardia associated with the use of fentanyl or any of its support the advantages of the Hypnorm/benzodiazepine com-
congeners. binations, Peeters et al. (1988) reported that only three of six
When Innovar Vet (0.15 ml/kg IM) was used in combina- rabbits were adequately anesthetized with Hypnorm (0.5 ml/kg
tion with either diazepam (2 mg/kg IV) or the α-2 agonist IM) and diazepam (2 mg/kg IM). It should be noted, however,
detomidine (20 μg/kg IV), neither combination was found to that forelimb withdrawal was used as the criterion for anesthesia
improve the consistency or reliability of fentanyl/droperidol in that study instead of the more commonly used parameter of
(Marini et al., 1993). Physiologic changes associated with hindlimb withdrawal. These responses are lost at different times
Innovar Vet included decreases in heart rate (35%), arterial in the rabbit.
blood pressure (11%), respiratory rate (85%), and PaO2 (46%). Naloxone (at doses of 0.005, 0.01, and 0.1 mg/kg IV),
Blood pressure was the parameter most severely affected by doxapram (5 mg/kg IV), and various mixed agonist/antagonist
the addition of diazepam or detomidine. It was concluded that opioids can reverse the respiratory depression caused by
fentanyl/droperidol use at the dose selected be restricted to pro- Hypnorm (Flecknell et al., 1989). The use of mixed
viding restraint for physical examination and minimally invasive agonist/antagonist opioids following neuroleptanalgesia has
diagnostic procedures. been termed anesthesié/analgesique sequentielle, and per-
Hypnorm is available in Europe but must be imported as an mits restoration of physiologic variables to preanesthetic
investigational drug in the United States. The commercial prepa- values while providing postoperative pain relief (DeCastro
ration contains 0.3 mg/ml fentanyl and 10 mg/ml fluanisone. At and Viars, 1968). The mixed agonist/antagonists were
doses of 0.3–0.5 ml/kg, Hypnorm has been used for superficial notable in that despite reversal of sedation and respira-
surgeries and as a sedative prior to administration of inhalational tory depression, analgesia persisted for varying periods after
agents (Green, 1975, 1982b). Respiratory depression, bradycar- administration. Ranked by the duration of analgesia pro-
dia, and poor muscle relaxation are characteristic of this agent vided after reversal of fentanyl, meptazinol < pentazocine
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 315

< butorphanol < nalbuphine < buprenorphine. Buprenorphine is now produced in the UK by the pharmaceutical company
(0.03 mg/kg IV) reversed Hypnorm associated depression of Vetoquinol UK Ltd. It is not available in the United States.
respiratory rate, normalized hypoxemia and arterial CO2 reten- Bolus injection (1 mg/kg IV), followed by constant-rate
tion, and provided 420 minutes of analgesia. infusion of alphaxalone/alphadolone (0.1 mg/kg/min IV) in
A combination containing etorphine (0.074 mg/ml and chronically instrumented rabbits was used to determine the
methotrimeprazine 18 mg/ml) (Small Animal Immobilon® ) was hemodynamic and reflex responses to this agent in compari-
used at dose rates of 0.05 and 0.025 ml/kg IM in the rabbit son with propofol (Blake et al., 1988). The regimen used was
(Flecknell et al., 1983). There was insufficient analgesia at the sufficient to produce loss of righting and palpebral reflex but did
lower dose but combining this dose with diazepam (1 mg/kg not eliminate response to noxious stimuli. Mean arterial blood
IV) produced surgical anesthesia in six of nine rabbits. Severe pressure, cardiac output, blood gas tensions, and total peripheral
respiratory depression was associated with the higher dose of resistance were unchanged while heart rate increased approxi-
this agent. mately 20%. At low doses, alphaxalone/alphadolone preserves
Midazolam/xylazine/alfentanyl has been evaluated as an peripheral vasoconstrictor reflexes and may therefore be useful
IV neuroleptanesthetic for rabbits (Borkowski et al., 1990). in pharmacologic studies that require integrity of these reflexes
Midazolam (1 mg/kg) was administered over 15–30 seconds; in a lightly anesthetized animals.
xylazine (1 mg/kg) was administered over 10–15 seconds. The alkyl phenol agent, propofol, reviewed by Sebel and
Alfentanyl (0.1 mg/kg) was given incrementally over a 5-minute Lowdon (1989), has been used to produce deep sedation dur-
period; infusion was terminated for 2 minutes if muscle rigid- ing constant IV infusion in the rabbit (Adam et al., 1980;
ity or opisthotonus occurred. Additional increments of one-half Blake et al., 1988; Glen, 1980). Glen (1980) used doses of
the calculated dose were administered every 15 minutes. Fea- 5–15 mg/kg of 2% propofol in 10% Cremophor EL and found
tures of this regimen included good analgesia, incomplete or only light anesthesia of short duration with “little reflex depres-
variable muscle relaxation, apnea in one of the seven rabbits sion.” A mean “utilization rate,” obtained by the quotient of
during induction, and muscle rigidity with seizure activity dur- total dose administered and time from induction to recovery
ing redose in three of the seven rabbits. Physiologic changes (head lift), was determined to be 1.55 mg/kg/min for the rabbit.
included marked depression of respiratory rate (90%), hypox- This infusion rate provided light anesthesia without increasing
emia (60%), CO2 retention, and decreased pH. Heart rate and recovery time. Blake et al. (1988) found that a bolus dose of
mean arterial blood pressure were also depressed (30 and 35%, 1.5 mg/kg followed by constant rate infusion of 0.2, 0.4, and
respectively, from baseline). The usefulness of this combination 0.6 mg/kg/min produced either sedation (characterized by loss
appears to be limited by these adverse effects. Another regimen of righting and palpebral reflex) at the two lower infusion rates or
using agents of the same three classes (midazolam (1.0 mg/kg anesthesia at the higher infusion rate. Blood gas tensions were
IM/medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg IM)/fentanyl (0.02 mg/kg IM) preserved at all infusion rates and at the lower infusion rates
was evaluated in cross-bred chinchilla rabbits (Henke et al., there were no changes in mean arterial pressure. Cardiac output
2005). This combination produced surgical anesthesia in most and heart rate were increased from baseline at the two lower
rabbits (14 of 19) but was associated with apnea of short dura- infusion rates; total peripheral resistance was decreased. At the
tion (30 seconds) in a third of animals and respiratory depression highest infusion rate, cardiac output and mean arterial pres-
sufficient to produce mild-to-moderate hypercapnia. sure were decreased while total peripheral resistance remained
depressed. Propofol caused a dose-related reduction in the range
and gain of the baroreceptor reflex. These effects are concordant
D. Miscellaneous Agents with the negative effects exerted by higher concentrations of
propofol on cardiac contractility, left ventricular pressure, and
The steroidal combination alphaxalone/alphadolone heart rate in a modified Langendorff model of intact, isolated
(12 mg/ml total steroids, Saffan or Althesin) was evaluated in rabbit heart (Chen et al., 2006). The pharmacokinetics of single-
rabbits and was found to produce useful, light to medium depth bolus propofol (5 mg/kg) in the rabbit have also been described
anesthesia of 8–10 minutes duration when used at a dose of (Cockshott et al., 1992).
12 mg/kg IV (Green et al., 1978). Full recovery took 2–2.5 Constant rate infusion of propofol (30 ml/h of a 10 mg/ml con-
hours; incremental doses every 20 minutes could be used to centration) achieved loss of righting reflex and ablation of gross
prolong anesthesia for up to 8 hours. The agent has been rec- purposeful movement response to tail clamp and intranasal
ommended for superficial surgery or for ET intubation, the administration of ammonia (Mustola et al., 2000). Propofol was
latter being accomplished by injecting one-half the calculated superior to constant-rate infusions of thiopentone and ketamine
dose rapidly with the remainder given slowly to effect (Green, with regard to return of righting reflex after termination of infu-
1982b). Analgesia may be inconsistent with this agent despite sion. The larger volume of distribution, total body clearance,
reliable muscle relaxation. Saffan production has recently been and faster elimination half-life of propofol compared to the
discontinued by its manufacturer. The anesthetic agent Alfaxan, other agents was credited with this feature. Potency ratios for
which consists of alfaxolone in a cyclodextrin formulation, propofol, thiopentone, and ketamine were 1:1.8:1.2 for loss of
316 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

righting reflex, 1:1.5:1.6 for loss of reaction to ammonia vapor, a wide range of endocrine effects, tissue slough at extravasation,
and 1:1.5:3.9 for the loss of reaction to tail clamping. Plasma venodilation of the vessel used for injection, hemolysis, and
concentrations of these drugs associated with loss of reaction to transient reduction of hematocrit (Bree and Cohen, 1965; Maggi
noxious stimuli were also determined. et al., 1984). Its carcinogenic properties and the attendant haz-
The Cremophor EL diluent used in these studies was associ- ards to personnel require that its use be regulated by institutional
ated with hypersensitivity in humans and has now been replaced safety personnel. Doses of 1.5 g/kg (20% urethane slowly IV to
by an oil-in-water emulsion that presumably yields a less potent effect) (Bree and Cohen, 1965), 1.0 g/kg IP with 50–100 mg
propofol formulation (Aeschbacher and Webb, 1993a). Using supplements IV as needed (Xu et al., 1998), 10 ml/kg of a 10%
this formulation at an injection rate of 20 mg/kg/min, an ED50 solution IP (1.0 g/kg) (Princi et al., 2000) and 1–1.6 g/kg IP
for induction was determined to be 6.44 mg/kg. Induction and have been recommended (Green, 1982b). These recommenda-
recovery were smooth and rapid, with rabbits regaining the tions notwithstanding, IP doses of 1.5 and 1.75 g/kg of a 20%
righting reflex 2–8.5 minutes after induction. Further studies urethane solution were associated with postoperative death in
using propofol induction (mean 7.3 mg/kg) and long-term IV one study (Bree and Cohen, 1965).
infusion (mean infusion rate 0.876 mg/kg/min) produced light Urethane combinations include chloralose/urethane (Dor-
levels of anesthesia characterized by persistence of the pinna, ward et al., 1987; Korner et al., 1968; Warren and Ledingham,
pedal, and palpebral reflexes. Hypoxemia, hypertension, lipi- 1978; Wyler, 1974) and urethane/acepromazine (Moore et al.,
demia, prolonged recovery, and mortality were other features 1987). Chloralose/urethane has been widely used for nonsur-
of this regimen (Aeschbacher and Webb, 1993b). Propofol vival procedures requiring long-term anesthesia. Physiologic
as a sole agent is apparently suitable only for induction and features of this combination include respiratory rate depres-
minimally invasive diagnostic procedures. Apnea, commonly sion (65%), tachycardia, increased total peripheral resistance,
encountered in other species during propofol induction, may be increased venous blood pressure, decreased total body blood
largely avoided in the rabbit provided administration is by slow flow, and unchanged arterial blood pressure (Wyler, 1974). It
IV injection (e.g., 45–90 seconds). is widely held that chloralose/urethane preserves or enhances
Ko et al. (1992) studied propofol induction after baroreceptor reflexes, making it popular in studies where preser-
medetomidine–atropine or medetomidine–midazolam–atropine vation of these reflexes is desirable (Sebel and Lowdon, 1989;
premedication. Rabbits were administered medetomidine Warren and Ledingham, 1978). Dosage recommendations
(0.25 mg/kg IM) and atropine (0.5 mg/kg IM) or medetomi- include the following:
dine (0.25 mg/kg IM), midazolam (0.5 mg/kg IM), and atropine
• 800 mg/kg of 25% urethane IV with 40–60 mg/kg of
(0.5 mg/kg IM) 5 minutes prior to propofol (4 mg/kg IV for
1% chloralose IV initially, followed by 3–4 ml/h of 1%
the former group; 2 mg/kg IV for the latter). Each premedicant
chloralose (Dorward et al., 1987).
combination produced loss of righting reflex but persistence
• 400 mg/kg of 25% urethane IV with 60 mg/kg of 1% chlo-
of pedal, ear pinch, palpebral, and corneal reflex. Propo-
ralose IV initially, followed by 1–3 ml of 1% chloralose
fol administration caused further loss of palpebral, ear pinch,
every 30–50 minutes (Jenkins, 1987).
and corneal reflex, but pedal withdrawal reflex was preserved.
• 500 mg/kg urethane (% solution not reported) IV with
The addition of midazolam prolonged the loss of ear pinch
50 mg/kg chloralose IV initially, followed by supplemental
reflex from a mean of 25 minutes to 37 minutes. No changes
urethane 100 mg/kg and chloralose 10 mg/kg every 50–60
were seen from preanesthetic baseline in heart rate, respiratory
minutes (Raimondi et al., 1996)
rate, mean arterial pressure, or end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2 ). These
combinations provided sufficient anesthesia to achieve ET intu- Urethane/acepromazine has been evaluated in the rabbit as a
bation and may therefore be useful for induction or short-term long-term anesthetic (Moore et al., 1987). Light anesthesia was
anesthesia. Concordantly, Hellebrekers et al. (1997) reported produced by premedication with acepromazine (1 mg/0.46 kg
that medetomidine premedication (0.35 mg/kg IM) followed by IM), followed in 15 minutes by 1 g/kg urethane IV. The urethane
intravenously administered propofol (3 mg/kg) was sufficient was injected over a period of 5–10 minutes followed by a saline
to produce anesthesia of short duration (mean of 11 minutes) flush. Loss of consciousness persisted for over 12 hours. The
and depth adequate to ablate ear pinch and pedal withdrawal level of anesthesia was described as comprising loss of respon-
reflex. siveness to superficial, but not to deep visceral pain. Heart and
Urethane (ethyl carbamate) has been used for anesthesia in respiratory rates decreased over the first hour but then stabi-
rabbits both alone (Bree and Cohen, 1965; Murai and Ogura, lized. Administration of a higher dose of urethane (1.3 g/kg IV)
1978) and in combination with other agents (Moore et al., 1987; after acepromazine premedication resulted in deep anesthesia
Wyler, 1974). The popularity of this agent can be attributed to its appropriate for abdominal and thoracic procedures. Pedal reflex
long duration of action (5–6 hours) and excellent muscle relax- was still absent at 18 hours after administration with this dose.
ation (Maggi et al., 1984; Princi et al., 2000). Disadvantages of Physiologic changes paralleled those measured with the lower
urethane include carcinogenicity, slow recovery, hypotension, dose regimen. Vibrissae twitching and flaring of the nares have
reduced response of vascular smooth muscle to norepinephrine, been observed in acepromazine/urethane-anesthetized rabbits
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 317

by one of the authors (RPM) and is premonitory of anesthetic 1993; Patel and Mutch, 1990) have been reported. The newer
emergence. ventilation modalities, high-frequency jet ventilation, continu-
ous positive pressure ventilation with positive end-expiratory
pressure, oscillatory ventilation, and negative impedance ven-
tilation have been described in the rabbit, often as models for
V. INHALATION ANESTHESIA
ventilation in human beings, but have not replaced traditional
methods (Baum et al., 1989; Lebowitz, 1990; Mook et al.,
The use of inhalants, while requiring special equipment and 1984). In a study of ventilatory modes at inverted inspiratory to
training, provides excellent reliability, efficacy, and anesthetic expiratory ratio (inspiratory time: expiratory time of 2:1 instead
depth. These features are especially important in rabbit anesthe- of the more physiologic 1:2) in a rabbit model of subarachnoid
sia where many injectable combinations that are adequate for hemorrhage, Taplu et al. (2003) showed that both volume and
procedures involving superficial structures are inadequate for pressure cycled modes were associated with increased airway
more invasive manipulations. Reduction in recovery time is an pressures. Additionally, inverse ratio ventilation resulted in a
additional benefit of inhalant anesthesia. The use of inhalants in dramatic elevation in intracranial pressure.
specific experimental protocols may be precluded, in that effects Methoxyflurane, halothane, and ether, once widely used for
such as cardioprotection and reduction of infarct size have anesthesia in the rabbit, have been largely supplanted by isoflu-
been demonstrated (Cope et al., 1997). Serum catecholamine rane. Reports on the use of desflurane and enflurane exist, but
and serum glucocorticoid concentrations in rabbits anesthetized these agents do not appear to be in common usage (Drummond,
with isoflurane or halothane have been published (Gil et al., 1985; Hedenqvist et al., 2001; Lockhart et al., 1991; Stadnicka
2005). et al., 1993; Tashiro et al., 1986). The inhalant of choice in many
Once the rabbit is intubated, inhalants may be administered surgical laboratories is isoflurane. The advantages of isoflurane
using various circuits, and animals may be ventilated or be include cardiac safety, rapid induction and recovery due to low
allowed to breathe spontaneously. The Rees modified T-piece blood solubility, minimal hepatic transformation, and reduced
and Bain circuits are traditionally considered the most appro- viscerotoxicity. The disadvantages are cost, potential increase
priate circuits for animals comprising the range of weights of in breath holding at the start of exposure, reduced respiratory
most rabbits; Magill and circle circuits have also been used anesthetic index, and hypotension. Physiologic effects of 1.3
(Nelson et al., 1990; Peeters et al., 1988). The range of fresh minimal alveolar concentration (MAC) isoflurane anesthesia
gas flows reported in the maintenance of spontaneously breath- include 21% reduction in mean arterial pressure, 18% increase
ing animals is 1–3 L/min (Green, 1982b; Kent, 1971; Kumar in heart rate, 21% reduction in renal blood flow, and preser-
et al., 1993; Peeters et al., 1988). Alternatively, one may choose vation of hepatic blood flow, cardiac output, respiratory rate,
to administer a volume of fresh gas that is two to three times and arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2 ) (Blake
the minute respiratory volume of the animal (Flecknell, 1987). et al., 1991). Cardiac output in rabbits with Adriamycin-induced
Twice the minute respiratory volume of 100% O2 delivered via heart failure was unchanged by isoflurane but decreased (20%)
Bain circuit is the method used for inhalant administration in by halothane (Blake et al., 1991), a reflection of isoflurane’s high
our surgical laboratory (Marini, personal experience). A 2 kg cardiac anesthetic index (the quotient of the dose of an agent
rabbit breathing at 30 times/min would be expected to have a required to produce cardiac arrest and the MAC). Indices of car-
respiratory minute volume of 0.9 L (the product of respiratory diac contractility measured via two-dimensional transthoracic
rate and an estimated tidal volume of 7–10 ml/kg). Rebreath- echocardiography were better preserved by 1 MAC isoflurane in
ing is likely to occur for small veterinary patients if a fresh gas 50% nitrous oxide than an equipotent concentration of halothane
flow of 500 ml/min is used with a coaxial circuit. In the exam- in nitrous oxide (Marano et al., 1997). Mean heart rate and arte-
ple above, the rabbit would receive 1.8–2.7 (2–3) L/min fresh rial pressure were not significantly different. Cerebral uptake
gas flow. Monitoring ETCO2 helps avoid hypercapnia and its and elimination of isoflurane was found to be slower than desflu-
attendant metabolic effects. rane’s but faster than halothane’s (Lockhart et al., 1991). Several
Artificial ventilation has most commonly been used in the clamping-stimuli generated MAC values for isoflurane in rab-
rabbit in the setting of acute preparations involving paralytics. bits have been published: 2.05 ± 0.18% (Drummond, 1985);
Ventilatory parameters during IPPV can be determined by esti- 2.07 ± 0.09% (Imai et al., 1999); 2.08 ± 0.02% (Valverde et al.,
mates of tidal volume and empiric settings of ventilatory rate, 2003). A recent study comparing MAC values and differ-
by use of pressure cycling to terminate inspiration at a chosen ent stimuli in the isoflurane-anesthetized rabbit showed that
airway pressure, or by guidance of ventilatory settings by blood the MAC for surgical incision (0.9 ± 0.02%) was considerably
gas parameters. Tidal volume and respiratory rate settings of lower than that for electrical stimulation of the fore or hindlimb
10 ml/kg, 45 breaths/min (Chakrabarty et al., 1991; Ishibe et al., (2.08 ± 0.02%) or those for clamping stimuli (2.08 ± 0.02%)
1993), 15 ml/kg, 20 breaths/min (Drummond, 1985; Drum- (Valverde et al., 2003). The MAC for halothane in the rabbit
mond et al., 1987), 8 ml/kg, 20 breaths/min (Aeschbacher and is 1.39 ± 0.32% and that for enflurane is 2.86 ± 0.18%. Anes-
Webb, 1993b), and 15 ml/kg, 30 breaths/min (Kumar et al., thetists accustomed to the use of halothane will notice that
318 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

maintenance concentrations of isoflurane are higher for a given pressure by both a direct myocardial depressant effect and a
procedure or surgical stimulus. decrease in systemic vascular resistance (Ma et al., 1998). In
the setting of basal anesthesia maintained by constant-rate infu-
Authors’ Preference sion of chloralose, a reduction in MAP of 80–40 mmHg was
effected by concentrations of 1 and 4% sevoflurane, respectively,
Agent Ketamine/xylazine followed by isoflurane without concomitant change in heart rate or renal sympathetic
Route Ketamine/xylazine (IM); isoflurane (inhalation)
Dose Induction: Ketamine 35 mg/kg; xylazine 5 mg/kg
nerve activity (RSNA), the latter decreased at 4% sevoflurane.
Maintenance: Isoflurane 1–4% Through the use of pressor and depressor agents it has been
Comments Our anesthetic regimen of choice for invasive procedures such demonstrated that the apparent absence of autonomic response
as celiotomy or thoracotomy. at these sevoflurane concentrations was determined to be due to
the mitigating effects of depressed but functioning baroreflexes
Halothane is relatively inexpensive and provides safe and on concomitant direct inhibitory effects on heart rate and RSNA
effective anesthesia in rabbits. Physiologic effects of halothane (Ma et al., 1998).
anesthesia include reductions in cardiac output, arterial blood In another study by the same authors, chloralose-anesthetized
pressure, PaCO2 , and respiratory rate and increases in venous rabbits were used to evaluate sevoflurane for its ability to obtund
blood pressure, plasma renin, PaCO2 , and heart rate (Sartick the autonomic response to a noxious stimulus (Ma et al., 1999).
et al., 1979; Wyler, 1974; Wyler and Weisser, 1972). Total Blunting the autonomic response to surgical trauma is consid-
peripheral resistance remains unchanged or is mildly elevated, ered desirable and is associated with improved outcomes, but
suggesting that the mechanism of hypotension and reduced should not be achieved at the expense of direct cardiovascu-
cardiac output is myocardial depression (Wyler and Weisser, lar depression associated with high concentrations of anesthetic
1972). Reduction in organ blood flow occurs in proportion to agents. A regimen characterized by maintenance of reasonable
the reduction in cardiac output with preservation of flow to cardiopulmonary status with concomitant suppression of the
brain, adrenals, testes, and muscle in one study (Wyler and neurohumoral reflex response to surgical stimuli would be of
Weisser, 1972) and brain, stomach, appendix, arterial hep- considerable value to patients and anesthetists. Higher con-
atic flow, and muscle in another (Wyler, 1974). Sartick et al. centrations of sevoflurane (5 and 6%) than that used in their
(1979) reported that cardiac output and arterial blood pressure previous study caused significant decreases from baseline of
returned to preanesthetic baseline values 15 minutes after ter- heart rate and mean arterial pressure (maximal effect of 14 and
mination of halothane anesthesia. Plasma renin concentrations 55%, respectively). Phrenic nerve activity, an index of cen-
returned to baseline by 210 minutes after anesthesia. A compar- tral respiratory control, also decreased linearly with increasing
ison of isoflurane and halothane on cardiopulmonary variables sevoflurane concentrations. Sevoflurane obtunded the arterial
in the rabbit demonstrated enhanced dose-dependent respira- pressure response to tibial nerve stimulation to approximately
tory depression of isoflurane (decreased respiratory rate and 45% of its control value at 3% and completely abolished it
CO2 retention) and comparable levels of hypotension (central at 6%. The heart rate response was blunted to 20% of its
auricular mean arterial pressure: 52 mmHg for halothane and control value at 3% sevoflurane and was almost completely
55 mmHg for isoflurane at equivalent multiples (0.8) of MAC; abolished at 5%. These depressant effects were greater than
Imai et al., 1999.) sevoflurane’s effect on phrenic nerve activity. When the opi-
Sevoflurane use has increased in the rabbit since the pub- oid remifentail was added to sevoflurane, the two agents were
lication of the first edition of this text (Ishibe et al., 1993; found to act synergistically with regard to resting heart rate,
Scheller et al., 1988). It is an agent characterized by rapid resting mean arterial pressure, phrenic nerve activity, and
induction and recovery, lack of odor, and good acceptance by depression of the arterial pressure response to tibial nerve stim-
human patients where the agent was administered by using a ulation; they acted additively with regard to the evoked heart
face mask (Flecknell et al., 1999). Unfortunately, rabbits are rate response. Their synergistic effect on phrenic nerve activity
not as compliant with face mask or chamber induction, and was adequately profound that the authors recommended the use
may struggle violently and experience apnea and its physio- of assisted ventilation during sevoflurane–remifentanyl anes-
logic consequences when administered the agent in this fashion thesia. In the clinical setting, sevoflurane maintenance after
(Flecknell et al., 1999). Mask induction and maintenance propofol induction is associated with rapid, smooth recovery
with sevoflurane (3–5% in balanced oxygen) was used in a (Flecknell, personal experience). Mask induction with sevoflu-
study evaluating epidural anesthetic effects of deoxyaconitine, rane after premedication with either acepromazine (1 mg/kg
a compound from aconite tuber, a traditional Oriental medicine SC), diazepam (0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM), or medetomidine (0.1–
(Komoda et al., 2003). Anesthesia maintenance with sevoflu- 0.5 mg/kg SC) may also be used, but the operator must observe
rane at 3.7% (1 MAC) has been described after buprenorphine for periods of breathholding (Flecknell and Liles, 1996).
premedication (0.05 mg/kg IV) and propofol induction (8 mg/kg The use of nitrous oxide as a carrier gas during induction
IV) (Martin-Cancho et al., 2006). Sevoflurane administration has been advocated in the past, but concern over operating
to rabbits causes dose-dependent reduction in mean arterial theater pollution in today’s setting may limit the use of this
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 319

agent. Nitrous oxide may be used as a carrier gas or as a back- into the endothoracic fascia of the right paravertebral region,
ground agent in long-term injectable techniques (Green, 1982b). with subsequent injection of 3 ml of 2% mepivacaine through
When compared to pentobarbital, ketamine/xylazine, and fen- the catheter seated at the level of the 11th thoracic vertebra.
tanyl/fluanisone/diazepam, halothane in O2 /nitrous oxide (1:2)
was found to provide the most reliable anesthesia (Peeters et al.,
1988). Halothane/nitrous oxide anesthesia was associated with B. Spinal Anesthesia
reduction in blood pressure (37.5%) and an increase in heart rate
(24%); rabbits recovered from 50 minutes of general anesthe- Spinal anesthesia has not been widely used clinically in the
sia in 25 minutes. Care should be taken to administer 100% O2 rabbit but reports promoting its use as a model for evaluating the
without nitrous oxide for 5–10 minutes at the end of a procedure pharmacology and toxicology of spinal anesthesia or analgesia
to avoid diffusion hypoxia. Investigators performing intracranial have appeared in the literature (Adams et al., 1974; Crawford
procedures should be aware that nitrous oxide will increase cere- et al., 1993; Demeril et al., 2006; Dollo et al., 2004a, 2004b;
bral blood flow to varying degrees depending on background Durant and Yaksh, 1986; Erdine et al., 1999; Hino et al., 2001;
anesthesia (Drummond et al., 1987). Hogan et al., 1998; Hughes et al., 1993; Jensen et al., 1992;
Komoda et al., 2003; Langerman et al., 1990; Madsen et al.,
Authors’ Preference 1993; Malinovsky et al., 1991, 2002; Ugur et al., 2005; Vranken
Agent Isoflurane et al., 2006 ). Both the epidural (Madsen et al., 1993) and sub-
Route Endotracheal tube and coaxial circuit arachnoid (Durant andYaksh, 1986; Jensen et al., 1992; Langer-
Dose Induction: Premedication with 1–2 mg/kg diazepam or man et al., 1990) spaces have been cannulated to allow chronic
midazolam IV; anesthetic chamber or face mask using administration of local anesthetics. Both procedures required
incrementally greater concentration of isoflurane from
surgical exposure of the lumbar spinal column and incision of
1 to 4%, increasing by 1% every 30 seconds.
Maintenance: Isoflurane 1–4% via endotracheal tube the ligamentum flavum. In one study, the duration of motor
(preferred) or face mask blockade from injected anesthetics was dose-dependent; the
Comments Use of isoflurane as the sole agent of anesthesia induction relative pharmacologic activity of the agents tested was ametho-
may be associated with breathholding and distress. caine (duration, approximately 170 minutes) > bupivacaine
(duration, approximately 100 minutes) > lidocaine (duration,
Authors’ Preference
approximately 27 minutes) > procaine (duration, approximately
20 minutes) (Langerman et al., 1990).
Agent Sevoflurane A more recent model used the space between the apex coc-
Route Endotracheal tube and coaxial circuit cis sacri and first coccygeal vertebra to cannulate the epidural
Dose Induction: Propofol IV over 60–90 seconds
space (Malinovsky et al., 1997). A skin incision of 1 cm was
Maintenance: Sevoflurane
Comments Use of sevoflurane as the sole agent of anesthesia induction made at the base of the tail, the ligamentum was punctured,
may be associated with breath-holding and distress. and a 23 gauge catheter was advanced 10 cm into the lumbar
Smooth, rapid recoveries occur after propofol induction. epidural space. Cranial insertion of the catheter for this dis-
tance placed the tip at L6 in 2.5–2.7 kg New Zealand white
rabbits. Using this technique, the authors investigated the dura-
tion of motor block when using increasing concentrations of
VI. REGIONAL ANESTHESIA
lidocaine or bupivacaine. One milliliter volume of lidocaine
(0.5, 1.0, and 2.0%) resulted in complete motor block of 27, 43,
A. Local or Regional Anesthesia and 51 minutes respectively, while 1 ml volume of bupivacaine
(0.25 and 0.5%) produced complete motor block of 53 and 93
Local or regional techniques may be used in combination minutes, respectively (Malinovsky et al., 1997). Catheters were
with inhalant or injectable anesthetics as they are in other species maintained for 2 months without clinical sequelae or significant
(Lockhart et al., 1991; Madsen et al., 1993; Raman et al., 1989). histologic change.
Studies in human beings suggest that preoperative infiltration In another study investigating the pattern of distribution of
of incision sites with local anesthetics may affect the course of epidurally administered contrast medium in rabbits, Kim et al.
postoperative pain, causing a decrease in the number of patients (1998) used epidural catheters located at either T7 or T12 to
requiring analgesics or increasing the time to first request for demonstrate differential spread at these two sites. At the mid-
analgesics (Coderre et al., 1993). Lidocaine and bupivacaine are thoracic level, the medium spread equally in cranial and caudal
commonly used in our surgical laboratory for local infiltration directions, while at T12, the distance of cranial spread was twice
of incision sites. Specific nerve block techniques and sites are that of caudal spread. Consequently, the authors recommended
only rarely described for use in the rabbit. Saito et al. (2002) injection at the site of interest for mid-thoracic segments, and
described appendectomy of rabbits after “extended unilateral 1–3 segments caudal to the site of interest for caudal thoracic
anesthesia.” The latter was achieved by insertion of a catheter or lumbar segments.
320 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

Kero et al. (1981) recommended spinal anesthesia for of the anesthetic, site of manipulation within the eye, and
hysterotomy, using 20 mg (0.5 ml) of mepivacaine injected research goals will also determine the choice of anesthetic.
“through the lumbar spinal interspaces at a level 1 to 2 inter- Topical anesthetic agents like 0.3% proparacaine are some-
spaces higher than the iliac crest.” Rabbits were held so that their times used as adjuncts to anesthesia in procedures involving
spines were arched; 0.6 × 25 mm needles were used, the points the cornea (Sherrard, 1966). Atropine or glycopyrrolate is used
being directed in a caudoventral direction. Motor function was in ophthalmic procedures to avoid the oculocardiac reflex.
eliminated for 55 minutes using this technique. The same pro- Anesthetics may affect retinal fine structure, intraocular pres-
cedure performed at 2–3 lumbar interspaces craniad produced sure, and the volume of intraocular air (Antal, 1985; Artru
permanent paralysis. Hughes et al. (1993) described a technique and Momota, 1999; Boucher and Meyers, 1983; Johnson
for epidural administration of local anesthesia in conscious rab- et al., 1973; Schutten and Van Horn, 1977). Ketamine
bits. Twenty gauge, 1.5 cm, short beveled spinal needles were and ketamine/pentobarbital have been shown to effect peak
passed through the lumbosacral space with the needle oriented increases in intraocular pressure by 2.2 and 7.1 mm, respec-
perpendicular to the skin. The duration of sensory loss, loss of tively. The increase was unaffected by atropine premedication
weight bearing, and paresis was determined for 2% lidocaine and lasted for 10 minutes (Schutten and Van Horn, 1977).
with and without 1:200,000 epinephrine and 0.5% bupivacaine Nitrous oxide use may increase intraocular pressure and has
used at a volume of 0.2 ml/kg. These studies notwithstanding, been shown to promote the absorption of air from eyes that
it is believed that rabbits should be heavily sedated prior to have received total air–fluid exchange following lensectomy
spinal anesthesia so that the potential for movement during and vitrectomy (Boucher and Meyers, 1983). In contrast,
administration and subsequent nerve damage are reduced. IV methohexital anesthesia was associated with a significant
decrease in intraocular pressure but produced hypoxic alter-
ations of retinal photoreceptors (Antal, 1985). These changes
persisted for the duration of the study (48 hours); effects on
VII. SPECIAL ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS vision were not evaluated. Urethane alone and a combination
of 0.5% halothane/nitrous oxide, suxamethonium and phency-
A. Hypnosis clidine anesthesia, were found to preserve retinal ultrastructure
while 0.5–2.5% halothane/nitrous oxide caused variable degrees
Hypnosis, or the immobility response, while fascinating of damage to photoreceptors and retinal pigment epithelium.
to the animal scientist, is limited in its utility by variabil- The latter change was duration-dependent; anesthesia of 5–6
ity in response and duration among rabbits (Danneman et al., hours duration was associated with the injury while anesthe-
1988). Many techniques have been described to induce this sia of 15 minutes duration was not (Johnson et al., 1973).
phenomenon: maintaining rabbits in lateral recumbency in a Intraocular pressure was decreased in rabbits anesthetized with
darkened room for 15 seconds (Klemm, 1965); traction on sevoflurane (1, 2, and 3%) or sevoflurane and remifentanyl (1%
the head and neck while in dorsal recumbency (Danneman and 0.65 μg/kg/min IV, respectively) when compared to histor-
et al., 1988); forced dorsal recumbency while stroking the ani- ical values obtained from awake animals (Artru and Momota,
mal’s abdomen and incantation (Rapson and Jones, 1964); and 1999). The decrease was similar in magnitude to that previously
restraint of the animal in dorsal or ventral recumbency with reported in rabbits anesthetized with a variety of agents.
the limbs immobilized and while exerting gentle traction on the
head (Gruber and Amato, 1970). Features of hypnosis include
miosis, increased depth of respiration, analgesia, reduced respi- C. Anesthesia for Fetal Surgery
ratory and heart rate, and decreased blood pressure. Danneman
et al. (1988) showed that naloxone had little effect on hypnosis Reports on anesthetics used in fetal rabbit surgery include
and that some rabbits showed an autonomic response to nox- barbiturates, ether, and halothane (Cowen and Laurenson, 1959;
ious stimuli while showing classical signs of the immobility Thomasson and Ravitch, 1969; Nelson et al., 1990). The for-
response. The authors concluded that hypnosis was not suffi- mer two agents were characterized by high fetal and/or maternal
ciently reliable or efficacious to be considered a replacement loss while the latter was used in over 4,000 fetal operations
for analgesics or anesthetics. with less than 5% maternal mortality and postoperative fetal
survival close to 90% (Nelson et al., 1990). In that study, does
were premedicated with ketamine (20 mg/kg) and acepromazine
B. Anesthesia during Ophthalmic Procedures (1 mg/kg); one-half the dose was administered IM and the
remainder was administered IV 20 minutes later. Halothane
Important criteria for anesthesia during ophthalmic surgery was administered via face mask and circle circuit with CO2
include adequate depth, relaxation of the extraocular muscles, absorption and vaporizer setting of 1–1.5% halothane in 1 L/min
and control of intraocular pressure (Ludders, 1993). Procedure flow of O2 . Uterine relaxation during halothane anesthesia
length, ability to increase anesthetic depth with increments was considered to be an important determinant of success.
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 321

Beaudoin et al. (1998) have described a model of embryonic 1.0 MAC isoflurane with 70% nitrous oxide or 70% N2 ; 0.5
surgery in rabbits. and 1.0 MAC halothane with 70% nitrous oxide or 70% N2 ;
0.5 MAC isoflurane or halothane and 10 mg/kg morphine
sulfate, administered as a slow IV bolus (2 mg/kg/h) with
D. Long-term Anesthetic Preparations
70% nitrous oxide or 70% N2 (Drummond et al., 1987).
• Induction and initial instrumentation: Chamber induc-
Many regimens have been described for maintenance of
tion 5% halothane; succinylcholine 2 mg/kg IV; 1.5%
anesthesia for extended periods of time during nonsurvival
halothane with oxygen/nitrous oxide (1:2); succinylcholine
procedures or under special experimental circumstances like
(3 mg/kg/h).
extracorporeal circulation. While they are presented briefly
Maintenance: IV fentanyl (loading dose 100 μg/kg;
here, readers should consult the original papers for details to
infusion 2.5 μg/kg/min) and diazepam (loading dose
determine if a particular regimen is appropriate in their setting.
2 mg/kg, infusion 50 μg/kg/min); pancuronium (0.1 mg/kg)
For those regimens using paralytics, guidelines promulgated
(Hindman et al., 1990).
by the NIH Workshop on “Preparation and Maintenance of
Higher Mammals During Neuroscience Experiments” (NIH, De Mulder et al. (1997) described continuous total intra-
1991) should be used to provide assurance that adequate depth venous anesthesia (TIVA) for maintenance of a vagotomized
of anesthesia is produced. New Zealand white, open thorax preparation.
Green (1982b) reported three methods of providing basal
• Induction: Ketamine 25 mg/kg and xylazine 15 mg/kg IM
narcosis-light anesthesia, all of which involved intubation and
Maintenance: IV propofol (0.6 mg/kg/min), fentanyl
IPPV with oxygen/nitrous oxide (1:1). They are listed in the
(0.48 μg/kg/min), and vecuronium (0.003 mg/kg/min).
order of his preference:
TIVA with these agents allowed constant, cardiovascular
• Induction: Propanidid (no longer available) (10 mg/kg IV) stability for long-term experimentation in an acute setting.
Maintenance: Alpha-chloralose IV (60–80 mg/kg)
A study investigating myogenic motor-evoked potentials and
• Induction: Hypnorm (0.3 ml/kg IM) and inhalation of
their potential use in monitoring patients in thoracoabdominal
halothane in oxygen/nitrous oxide (1:1)
aortic surgery used the following regimen (Sakamoto et al.,
Maintenance: Hypnorm (0.15 ml/kg IM) at 30–40
2003).
minute intervals; and pentobarbital (3–5 mg/kg IV) as
needed every 45–60 minutes • Induction and initial instrumentation: Ketamine 50 mg IM
• Induction: Alphaxalone/alphadolone (8 mg/kg IV) in 2.0–2.5 kg rabbits; continuous IV infusion of ketamine
Maintenance: Continuous IV infusion alphaxalone/alpha- (25 mg/kg/h) and fentanyl (30 μg/kg/h) in lactated Ringer’s
dolone (6 mg/kg/h) starting 15 minutes after the initial dose solution (4 ml/kg/h)
Maintenance: The TIVA regimen above and a bolus of
Investigations studying the physiology of cerebral blood flow
propofol (10 mg/kg IV) followed by continuous IV infusion
and cerebral anesthetic uptake and elimination have provided
(0.8 mg/kg/min)
innovative regimens for anesthesia of long duration (Drummond
et al., 1987; Hindman et al., 1990; Lockhart et al., 1991; Mills Hayashida et al. (2004) have developed a rabbit model for
et al., 1987; Patel and Mutch, 1990). Four are outlined below: quantification of the behavioral and physiologic characteris-
tics of select agents. Anesthesia was achieved using isoflurane
• Induction and initial instrumentation: IV methohexital,
induction (5%) via nose cone and maintenance isoflurane (3%)
70% nitrous oxide, local infiltration of 1% lidocaine.
was delivered via ET tube. After instrumentation, stepwise
Maintenance: Pancuronium (2 mg/h IV); 70% nitrous
reduction of isoflurane to 0% was followed by a 30-minute stabi-
oxide; methohexital (3 mg/kg/h IV) (Lockhart et al., 1991).
lization period, after which the agent of interest was evaluated.
• Induction and initial instrumentation: Ketamine (35 mg/kg
The analgesic, sedative/hypnotic, and physiologic features of
IM) and xylazine (5 mg/kg IM).
various doses and infusion regimens of fentanyl and remifen-
Maintenance: 60% nitrous oxide, ketamine (10 mg/kg/h
tanyl have been evaluated in this model (Hayashida et al., 2003,
IV), pancuronium as needed (Mills et al., 1987).
2004).
• Induction and initial instrumentation: Chamber induction
with 4% halothane or 6% isoflurane in oxygen; pancuro-
nium (2 mg IV); halothane or isoflurane (0.75–1.0 MAC)
and 70% nitrous oxide.
VIII. INTRAOPERATIVE SUPPORT AND
Maintenance: This study evaluated effects of back-
MONITORING
ground anesthesia on cortical blood flow. Maintenance
anesthesia was therefore provided by the regimens under
study. Wound margins were infiltrated with 0.25% bupiva- Constant vigilance is the anesthetist’s watchword; one per-
caine and following treatments were administered: 0.5 and son who is trained in appropriate decision making should be
322 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

assigned the task of monitoring anesthesia. Patient monitoring their relationship to anesthetic depth has been debated (Kulli and
can be considered to be comprised of three areas: reflexes, car- Koch, 1991; Weinger and Koob, 1990) and is beyond the scope
diopulmonary parameters, and body temperature. These three of this chapter. Perhaps it is sufficient in the setting of experi-
areas should be evaluated with regard to presurgical baseline mental anesthesia and surgery to say that ablation of autonomic
and response to surgical stimuli or intraoperative events. Newer response provides compelling evidence that there is adequate
and less common modalities of anesthesia monitoring, EEG depth of anesthesia while absence of ablation does not neces-
and bispectral index, have also been described (Martin-Cancho sarily indicate that anesthetic depth is inadequate. The reader
et al., 2006; Vachon et al., 1999). is referred to the thoughtful discussion of this issue by Stanski
(1990).
Respiratory rate can be assessed by direct observation of
A. Reflexes chest wall or abdominal wall movements, use of respiratory
monitors that adapt to the ET tube, esophageal stethoscopes,
Traditional reflexes used in the monitoring of rabbit anesthe- pediatric pneumotachometers, and chest wall plethysmographs.
sia include righting, palpebral, corneal, pedal withdrawal, and Cerebrospinal fluid movement may also be used to determine
pinna reflex. It is widely held that the pinna reflex (ear movement respiratory rate during intracranial procedures. Alternatively,
in response to a compressive force) is the most accurate mea- respiratory rate may be set by the anesthetist during mechanical
sure of depth of anesthesia, followed by the pedal withdrawal, ventilation of the lungs. Assessment of breathing pattern, depth
corneal, and palpebral reflexes, in that order (Borkowski et al., of respiration, and respiratory effort may be made by direct
1990). Corneal reflex may be preserved until very deep levels observation or through use of pneumotachometers with circuit
of anesthesia are achieved. Care should be exercised, however, integrators that measure or calculate respiratory flow, tidal vol-
as the presence or absence of these reflexes with different anes- ume, and minute ventilation (Guerreiro and Page, 1987; Rich
thetics in the rabbit defies generalization. Imai et al. (1999) et al., 1990). Information on the adequacy of ventilation can
determined that eyelid aperture increases with increasing anes- be derived through observation of mucous membrane color,
thetic dose (0.8, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 MAC) for both isoflurane and blood gas analysis, ETCO2 determination, and pulse oxime-
halothane anesthesia in the rabbit. try. The rabbit is well suited for routine blood gas evaluation
Muscle tone, jaw tone, vocalization, and gross purposeful because of the availability of peripheral sites for arterial can-
movement in response to surgical stimulus are also indices of nulation or puncture. Pediatric pulse oximeters may be used to
anesthetic depth. provide information on arterial O2 saturation (Aeschbacher and
Webb, 1993; Robertson and Eberhart, 1994). Digits and tongue
B. Body Temperature are usual sites for pulse oximeter probes; ears may give spuri-
ously low readings with some anesthetics (Orr et al., 2005).
Hypothermia can alter metabolic clearance of injectable ETCO2 measurement has been specifically evaluated during
agents and decreases MAC of inhalants. Rectal temperature spontaneous and controlled ventilation in the rabbit with spe-
can be measured intermittently or continuously using available cific regard to the site of sampling (Rich et al., 1990). ETCO2
instrumentation. Esophageal temperature probes may provide determined at the pulmonary tip of the ET tube and that deter-
less variability than rectal probes and provide continuous mon- mined 12 cm from the pulmonary tip differed by less than
itoring. Feedback control of body temperature can be achieved 1 mmHg, independent of the mode of ventilation or fresh gas
through commercially available devices and should be con- flows. The ETCO2 was also found to be a reasonable indicator
sidered for procedures involving prolonged exposure of body of PaCO2 , the values determined for each differing by only 2.9
cavities or extended durations of anesthesia. Rabbits should be and 3.6 mmHg at the distal tip and 12 cm mark, respectively.
protected from cold surfaces during anesthesia by table drapes, Cardiovascular parameters that may be routinely monitored
foam pads, or similar devices. Supplemental heating can be in the rabbit include mucous membrane color and capillary
provided with circulating hot water blankets, warmed irrigation refill time, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, and pulse rate
fluids, judiciously placed heat lamps, and IV fluids heated by and character. Heart rate may be monitored continuously by
fluid warmers. esophageal stethoscope or EKG monitor and intermittently by
direct auscultation with a stethoscope or palpation of the max-
imal apex beat through the chest wall. The high heart rate of
C. Cardiopulmonary Parameters rabbits and the potential occurrence of both T and U waves
have led to the development of specific criteria for QT (or
In the absence of hemorrhage, hypothermia, hyperthermia, QU) interval measurement (Farkas et al., 2004). These mea-
drug effects, and vasovagal or oculocardiac reflexes, changes surements are of particular importance in toxicology, where
in respiratory and cardiovascular parameter values from pre- anesthetized rabbits are used to evaluate the QT prolongation
anesthetic baseline may comprise an autonomic response to a effects of repolarization-delaying agents. Arterial blood pres-
surgical stimulus. The value of ablation of these responses and sure may be measured directly through arterial cannulation or
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 323

indirectly through the use of appropriately sized limb bands Nutritional and fluid support may be necessary postoper-
(Ko et al., 1992). In a study comparing direct and indirect atively. Isotonic fluids should be administered especially if
methods, central auricular pressure was well correlated with there is significant fluid loss during surgery. To minimize
aortic pressure measurements but not with hindlimb indirect hypothermia, fluids can be warmed before administration using
measurements. Forelimb indirect measurements were correlated a fluid warmer, microwave oven, or incubator. The maintenance
with aortic pressure at normal and low arterial pressure but not fluid requirement of the rabbit is reported as 100 ml/kg/day
at high pressure; accuracy of the indirect method with direct (Hillyer, 1992). Fluids can be administered subcutaneously,
aortic pressure was “moderate” (Ypsilantis et al., 2005). Pulse intravenously, or intraperitoneally.
rate and character may be evaluated by palpation of the saphe- Rabbits recovering from anesthesia may be lightly wrapped
nous artery, carotid artery, femoral artery, or through the use of in a blanket or towel (burrito style) with the legs flexed against
pressure pulse waveforms available with some direct pressure the body to prevent thrashing and damage to the spinal column.
monitoring instruments. Visual determination of pulse pressure Postoperative rabbits with accessible sutures may be fitted with
and character can be used when appropriate vascular beds are an Elizabethan or cervical collar for the first postoperative week
exposed during surgical procedures (e.g., laparotomy). Central to prevent inadvertent suture removal. In most cases, problems
venous pressure can be used as a direct measure of preload can be avoided by use of a subcuticular closure together with
and indirect measure of myocardial function but is not widely use of a buried knot (Mehler, 2006).
reported in the literature. Rabbits are prone to hypoglycemia because of high metabolic
Cardiovascular support during surgery includes maintenance rates and, in neonates, limited fat reserves. They should be
of body temperature, administration of fluids, maintenance of allowed access to a nutritious pelleted diet soon after surgery
adequate ventilation, and use of agents to alter blood pH, heart as feasible. Anorexic animals can be given 5% dextrose solu-
rate, rhythm, and blood pressure. In our experience, routine tion SC, 50% dextrose orally, parenteral nutritional support
procedures of short-to-moderate duration incorporate an IV through a stomach or nasoesophageal tube; offered palat-
fluid administration rate of at least 10 ml/kg/h. Administration able supplements such as hay, alfalfa cubes, or dandelions;
rates reported during neurosurgical procedures are 4 ml/kg/h and/or administered high-calorie nutritional supplements such
(Hindman et al., 1990; Lockhart et al., 1991; Mills et al., 1987). as Nutrical® per os (Hillyer, 1992; Reed et al., 1987). Per-
While drug doses used for cardiovascular support are usually sistent untreated anorexia causes fat mobilization and often
extrapolated from those used in other species, dosages of vaso- leads to irreversible fatal hepatic lipidosis. The oral adminis-
pressors specific for the rabbit have been reported (Dorward tration of probiotics such as Lactobacillus culture or a slurry of
et al., 1987; Patel and Mutch, 1990; Ruta and Mutch, 1989). feces or cecal contents from healthy rabbits has been promul-
gated to return the gastrointestinal flora to normal following
gastrointestinal surgery or the administration of flora-altering
antibiotics (Gillett et al., 1983; Reed, 1990). To minimize the
IX. POSTOPERATIVE CONSIDERATIONS
risk of ileus after abdominal surgery, motility modifiers such as
metoclopramide, cisapride, or ranitidine can be administered.
“Every anesthetic is a form of physiologic trespass, and the
• Dosage recommendations are 0.5 mg/kg cisapride SC, two
anesthetist must always consider the effects his drugs will pro-
or three times daily (Paul-Murphy and Ramer, 1998);
duce on body homeostasis” (Holland, 1973). Cardiopulmonary
metoclopramide 0.2–0.5 mg/kg PO or SC, one to three
function should continue to be monitored during recovery into
times daily (Carpenter et al., 1995; Messonnier, 1996);
the postoperative period. Hypostatic pulmonary congestion
and ranitidine 2–5 mg/kg PO, twice daily (Kounenis et al.,
should be avoided by altering the rabbit’s position from left
1992).
to right lateral recumbency every 15 minutes during anesthetic
recovery. Antibiotics may be necessary following select surgical proce-
As in other species, thermal support is critical during recov- dures. They should not be used indiscriminately or as a substitute
ery. This is especially important in the rabbit, because of its for aseptic technique. Clostridial enterotoxemia has been asso-
relatively small size and high surface area/body weight ratio, and ciated with the administration of a wide variety of antibiotics
the hypothermic effects of most anesthetics. Rectal temperature (Carman and Evans, 1984). Surgical sites should be evaluated
should be monitored regularly during recovery. Thermal support daily for dehiscence, infection, and fluid accumulation. Nonab-
consisting of circulating hot water blankets, hot water bottles, sorbable suture materials or staples should be removed as soon
the Bair Hugger patient thermal warming system, hydrocolla- as wound healing permits, to avoid their serving as a nidus of
tor packs, sodium acetate heat packs, microwavable heat packs, infection.
infant incubators, ICU cages, warming lamps, and/or blankets Analgesics should be used routinely postoperatively to reduce
should be used to maintain body temperature. Rectal tempera- or eliminate pain or discomfort. Agents should be selected based
ture should continue to be monitored for 7–10 days postsurgery on the intensity and nature of the stimulus. The following section
to aid in the detection of infection. should be consulted for detailed information.
324 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

X. ANALGESIA used in rabbits. Thermal stimuli have been applied to the muz-
zle (Zhou et al., 1981), ear (McCallister et al., 1986; Piercey
and Schroeder, 1980; Wynn et al., 1984), or skin (Flecknell and
A. Pain Assessment
Liles, 1990) using a radiant heat source. Electrical stimulation
of the ears (Ayhan et al., 1983) or of the tooth pulp (Mattila
Recognition and accurate assessment of pain intensity, loca-
and Saarnivaara, 1968) has also been used. Use of pressure on
tion, and cause is essential if effective therapy is to be insti-
the hindlimb was described by Lightowler and Smith (1963). In
tuted. As with other animal species, our understanding of
all of these tests, the noxious stimulus is applied until the rabbit
pain expression and pain-related behavior in rabbits is limited.
makes a defined response, for example, a skin twitch when radi-
Nevertheless, some attempt to assess pain should be made.
ant heat is applied to the skin, or a chewing response to electrical
In common with several other species, rabbits experiencing
stimulation of the tooth pulp. Changes in the response thresh-
pain may reduce their food and water consumption and, as a con-
old after administration of an analgesic are used to determine
sequence, lose weight. Failure to groom may result in the coat
the potency of the agent. These analgesiometric tests are most
becoming ruffled and unkempt, because of the buildup of shed
useful for assessing the action of opioids and nonsteroidal anti-
hair that would normally be removed by grooming. Behavioral
inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are relatively ineffective (Taber,
changes associated with pain often include reduced activity, and
1974). Tests equivalent to the inflamed paw pressure test, used
almost complete immobility in animals in severe pain. The
in rodents to assess the efficacy of NSAIDs, do not appear to
limited information available indicates that in some animals
have been developed in the rabbit.
following abdominal surgery, contractions of the abdominal
When basing recommendations on data obtained using anal-
muscles and pressing of the abdomen ventrally to the ground
gesiometry, it is important to appreciate that the severity of the
may indicate the presence of pain. If these are noted, then addi-
painful stimuli used may vary considerably, and may also be
tional pain relief should be administered. Guarding behavior
qualitatively different from postsurgical pain. The potency of
may be seen, although frequently this is manifested as an escape
different analgesics assessed using analgesiometry correlates
reaction, or a generalized tensing of muscles with a rigid feel
well with their potency in man, but the doses used to control
to the trunk and limbs. Since this behavior also occurs in rab-
clinical pain may vary considerably. At present, it can only be
bits which are frightened or apprehensive, it is important to
noted that dose rates established using analgesiometry provide a
obtain an accurate history of any experimental procedures and
safe starting point for clinical use of the agent. Adjustment of the
their possible impact on the animal. It is also helpful to discuss
doses used requires the development of reliable methods of post-
the rabbit’s normal behavior with the animal’s regular caretaker.
operative pain assessment. Where no data concerning particular
Because the response of many rabbits to an unfamiliar handler is
analgesics are available for the rabbit, extrapolations have been
to remain immobile, assessment of the animal’s behavior may be
made from data obtained in other species, or recommendations
best carried out by using a video camera, or via an observation
have been made based simply on clinical experience. The source
panel to view the animal in its cage or pen.
of each recommendation for analgesics use is made clear in the
Before initiating a procedure that is likely to cause pain, for
following section.
example, a surgical operation, it is important to assess and
Opioid analgesics can be used both to provide intraoper-
record the rabbit’s normal behavior, growth rate, and food and
ative analgesia in rabbits, and to provide postoperative pain
water consumption. Observations made following the proce-
relief. The efficacy of a range of agents has been assessed
dure can then be made, and the influence of analgesic treatment
using analgesiometry (McCallister et al., 1986; Piercey and
can then be assessed. Careful observation of the responses to a
Schroeder, 1980; Wynn et al., 1984) (Table 11-2), and these
particular research procedure can be used to formulate a pain
data can be used to formulate dose rates for treatment of clinical
scoring system specifically tailored for that procedure. This
pain (Table 11-3). The mixed agonist/antagonist opioids butor-
approach is likely to be considerably more successful than the
phanol, pentazocine, and nalbuphine, and the partial agonist
use of a generalized scoring system.
buprenorphine cause either no respiratory depression or only a
minor depression of respiratory rate, which is unlikely to be of
clinical significance (Flecknell and Liles, 1990). Buprenorphine
B. Selection of Analgesics administered at a dose of 0.03 mg/kg IV was shown to produce
over 10 hours of analgesia by using thermal stimulus analge-
A range of compounds are available to provide pain relief siometry (Flecknell and Liles, 1990). Its onset of action is 30
in the rabbit. However, since this species is less widely used minutes, therefore, it should be administered intraoperatively or
than rodents in the development of new analgesics, relatively prior to recovery from anesthesia when needed for postoperative
limited pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data are avail- pain relief. Buprenorphine is the authors’ analgesic of choice
able. Some data concerning the use of analgesics in rabbits are for control of postoperative pain of moderate intensity. Fentanyl
available, but these are primarily results from analgesiometric and other μ agonists can cause marked respiratory depression,
tests. Several different methods of analgesiometry have been and depress the respiratory center’s responses to CO2 (Brown
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 325

TABLE 11-2
Analgesic Dose Rates in Rabbits, Assessed Using Experimental Analgesiometry or Related Animal Models

Drug Test Dose range References

Opioids
Alfentanil Electrical 0.03 mg/kg IV Wynn et al., 1984
Buprenorphine Thermal 0.0075 mg/kg–0.3 mg/kg IV Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Butorphanol Thermal 0.1–1.5 mg/kg IV Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Codeine Electrical 35–70 mg/kg SC, Leaders and Keasling, 1962
280–560 mg/kg per os
Fentanyl Electrical 0.0074 mg/kg IV Wynn et al., 1984
Methadone Electrical 0.1–5.0 mg/kg IV Piercey and Schroeder, 1980
Morphine Electrical 1.25–10 mg/kg IV Murai and Ogura, 1978
Electrical 1.0–20.0 mg/kg SC Ayhan et al., 1983
Electrical 1.1 mg/kg IV Wynn et al., 1984
Nalbuphine Thermal 1.0–10.0 mg/kg IV Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Pentazocine Thermal 1.0–5.0 mg/kg IV Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Electrical 1–4 mg/kg IV Murai and Ogura, 1978
Electrical 8.2 mg/kg IV Wynn et al., 1984
NSAIDs
Aspirin Electrical 1–20 mg/kg SC Ayhan et al., 1983
Flunixin Reduction in inflammation 1.1 mg/kg IM More et al., 1989
Piroxicam Reduction in inflammation 0.1–0.2 mg/kg per os More et al., 1989
Miscellaneous
Baclofen Electrical 1.5–12 mg/kg IV Piercey and Schroeder, 1980
Mefenamic acid Electrical 200 mg/kg per os Murai and Ogura, 1978
Nefopam Electrical 1.5–12 mg/kg IV Piercey and Schroeder, 1980

TABLE 11-3
Suggested Dose Rates of Analgesics for Clinical Use in the Rabbit

Analgesic Dose rate References

Acetaminophen (with or without codeine) 1 ml drug/100 ml drinking water Wixson, 1994

Buprenorphine 0.01–0.05 mg/kg SC, IV 6–12 hourly Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Butorphanol 0.1–0.5 mg/kg IV, 4 hourly Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Carprofen 5 mg/kg SC or PO, daily Orr et al., 2005
Flunixin 1.1 mg/kg IM, ? 12 hourly More et al., 1989
Meloxicam 0.3–0.6 mg/kg SC or PO, daily Parga, 2003; Turner et al., 2006
Meperidine 5–10 mg/kg SC, 2–3 hourly Flecknell, clinical experience
Methadone 1 mg/kg IV Piercey and Schroeder, 1980
Morphine 2.5 mg/kg SC, 2–4 hourly Flecknell, clinical experience; Murai and Ogura, 1978
Nalbuphine 1–2 mg/kg IV, 4–5 hourly Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Pentazocine 5 mg/kg IV, 2–4 hourly Flecknell and Liles, 1990
Piroxicam 0.2 mg/kg per os, 8 hourly More et al., 1989

et al., 1980; Hunter et al., 1968; Pleuvry and Rees, 1969). The in rabbits but clinical efficacy has not been evaluated in any of
clinical significance of some of this data is difficult to inter- the controlled trials (Foley et al., 2001).
pret since the rabbits studied are likely to have had a marked
tachypnea induced by the stress associated with handling and
Authors’ Preference
restraint. The pharmacokinetics of fentanyl have been investi-
gated in detail in the rabbit (Hess et al., 1971, 1972). A dose of Agent Buprenorphine
20 μg/kg IV produced an analgesic effect for approximately 30 Route SC or IV
minutes. The phamacokinetic data published by these authors Dose 0.01–0.05 mg/kg
Comments An opioid analgesic (partial μ agonist) useful for treating
enables the calculation of continuous IV infusion regimens of
postoperative pain of moderate intensity.
fentanyl in the rabbit. Use of fentanyl patches has been described
326 NEIL S. LIPMAN ET AL.

Morphine has been shown to produce hypertension and large-scale clinical trials with no clinically apparent adverse
hyperglycemia in conscious rabbits (May et al., 1988), as a effects (Orr et al., 2005; Parga et al., 2003). Oral meloxicam has
consequence of increased sympathetic activity, and moderate been administered to laboratory rabbits at doses ranging from
histamine release. Meperidine (Pethidine) (4–16 mg/kg) and 0.3 to 1.5 mg/kg daily for 5 days with no adverse effects (Turner
pentazocine (2–8 mg/kg) have been reported to cause convul- et al., 2006). This latter study suggested that doses in excess of
sions in rabbits after IV administration (Hunter et al., 1968) 0.3 mg/kg may be required to maintain effective analgesia.
although in a subsequent report it is unclear whether true con- Piroxicam (0.1 and 0.2 mg/kg PO every 8 hours) and flunixin
vulsions were produced (Hunter, 1968). Doses of 1–5 mg/kg (1.1 mg/kg IM) were shown to be effective in reducing limb
of pentazocine IV (Flecknell and Liles, 1990) and pethidine swelling in an experimental fracture model in rabbits (More
(5–10 mg/kg SC) (Flecknell, clinical experience) did not cause et al., 1989), but no attempt was made to assess the analgesic
any visible undesirable reactions. Pentazocine at these dose effects of these compounds. Of particular clinical relevance,
rates produced analgesia assessed using thermal analgesiome- however, was the finding that both flunixin and piroxicam
try. Administration of the potent μ opioids fentanyl, alfentanil, reduced tissue swelling without affecting the strength of the
and sufentanil can produce muscle rigidity unless suitable healed fracture. No animals were reported to develop adverse
sedatives and/or tranquilizers are administered simultaneously reactions during the 3-week treatment period in this study,
(Borkowski et al., 1990; Flecknell, unpublished observations). although it is stated that in a pilot study, aspirin was found
Even after administration of sedatives, these undesirable side to be poorly tolerated by rabbits. Unfortunately no details of the
effects may still be encountered (Marini et al., 1993). It is there- dose rate used or the problems encountered were described.
fore recommended that these potent μ opioids are administered Aspirin has been used clinically in rabbits, but no controlled
only as adjuncts to general anesthetics, or in well-characterized trials have been carried out to monitor its toxicity or efficacy
neuroleptanalgesic combinations. Morphine has been reported in this species. A dose of 10 mg/kg SC had a detectable anal-
to produce sedation in rabbits (May et al., 1988), as have butor- gesic effect in a tooth pulp assay (Ayhan et al., 1983), and doses
phanol, pentazocine and nalbuphine (Flecknell and Liles, 1990). over 300 mg/kg IV were lethal (Piercey and Schroeder, 1980).
Detailed studies of the effects of opioids on behavior in rabbits Ketoprofen administered for 8 days (3 mg/kg IV) produced no
have not been undertaken, so their nonspecific effects on pain signs of renal toxicity, but affected renal prostaglandin synthe-
scoring remain to be established. sis (Perrin et al., 1990). Aspirin (10 mg/kg SC) was effective
The efficacy of orally administered morphine and codeine in an electrical stimulation model (Ayhan et al., 1983), but was
has been investigated by Leaders and Keasling (1962), using a relatively ineffective, even in high doses in other pain models
tooth pulp stimulation model. In comparison to subcutaneous (Murai and Ogura, 1978; Piercey and Schroeder, 1980). It is
administration, approximately a 10-fold increase in oral dosage important to note that NSAIDs generally are relatively inef-
was required to have an equivalent analgesic effect. Despite their fective in standard analgesiometric tests, and data from tests
poor bioavailability, oral codeine or morphine might provide a which more effectively predict the clinical efficacy of NSAIDs
useful mean of providing pain relief in rabbits if palatability (e.g., the inflamed paw pressure test), appear to be unavailable
issues could be overcome. for the rabbit. As with the opioids, there appear to be no pub-
There appear to be no published clinical trials of the use of lished clinical trials of NSAIDs in rabbits, and the suggested
opioids to control postoperative pain in rabbits. Clinical experi- dose rates in Table 11-2 require validation using a pain scoring
ence in our laboratory suggests that a variety of opioids can system.
be useful (see Table 11-2), but detailed studies using pain- Acetaminophen with and without codeine has been anecdo-
scoring techniques are urgently required. In our experience, use tally reported to have mild analgesic effect of short duration
of buprenorphine (0.05 mg/kg) has not resulted in any problems when administered orally to rabbits (Wixson, 1994). Palatabil-
associated with reduced gut motility. Since pain is a potential ity is markedly enhanced by using grape- or cherry-flavored
cause of gut stasis in rabbits, the beneficial effects of opioids acetaminophen or fruit flavored acetaminophen–codeine sus-
outweigh any potential side effects. pension. The recommended dose of either product is 1 ml
There are no reports of use of Tramadol, a synthetic μ- drug/100 ml water (Wixson, 1994).
receptor opiate agonist, in rabbits; however, it is becoming Local anesthetics such as lidocaine and bupivacaine can be
more widely used in other species. The pharmacokinetics of used to provide local anesthesia and pain relief in rabbits either
this agent have been described, but its analgesic potency has not by local infiltration of surgical wounds or by spinal anesthe-
been established (Kucuk et al., 2005). sia. Topical ophthalmic anesthetics can be used to produce
The use of NSAIDs in laboratory species has been reviewed anesthesia of the cornea in rabbits.
by Liles and Flecknell (1992) and only limited data concern- Corticosteroids can be used to reduce tissue inflammation
ing the use of these agents in the rabbit appears to have been and hence pain in rabbits. Dose rates must be obtained by
published. extrapolation from other species.
Meloxicam and carprofen have both been widely used in rab- The α-2 agonists, xylazine and medetomidine, have been
bits kept as companion animals, and both have been used in extensively used as adjuncts to ketamine anesthesia in rabbits.
11. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN RABBITS 327

Their utility as analgesics is limited since they are relatively Blake, D.W., Way, D., Trigg, L., Langton, D., and McGrath, B.P. (1991). Car-
short-acting and produce profound sedation. diovascular effects of volatile anesthesia in rabbits: Influence of chronic heart
failure and enalaprilat treatment. Anesth. Analg. 73, 441–448.
Bonath, K., Nolte, I., Schniewind, A., Sandmann, H., and Failing, K. (1982).
Food deprivation as precaution and aftercare measure for anaesthesia: The
influence of fasting on the acid base status and glucose concentration in the
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Dijkgraaf, M.G., and Hollmann, M.W. (2006). Severe toxic damage to methods of arterial blood pressure measurement in the anesthetized rabbit.
the rabbit spinal cord after intrathecal administration of preservative-free Res. Vet. Sci. 78, 269–275.
S(+)-ketamine. Anesthesiology 105, 813–818. Zhou, Z., Du, M., Wu, W., Jiang, Y., and Han, J. (1981). Effects of intracerebral
Walden, N.B. (1978). Effective sedation of rabbits, guinea pigs, rats and mice microinjection of naloxone on acupuncture- and morphine-analgesia in the
with a mixture of fentanyl and droperidol. Aust. Vet. J. 54, 538–540. rabbit. Sci. Sinica 24, 1166–1178.
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 Chapter 12

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Nonhuman Primates

Sulli J. Popilskis, Donald R. Lee, and David B. Elmore

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
II. Preanesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
A. Preoperative Planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
III. Anesthetic Delivery and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
A. General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
B. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
IV. Anticholinergic Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
V. Parenteral Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
A. Dissociative Anesthetic Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
B. Alphaxolone–Alphadolone (Saffan® ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
C. Propofol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
D. Barbiturates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
E. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
F. Etomidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
G. Muscle Relaxants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
VI. Inhalational Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
A. Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
B. Intubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
C. Nitrous Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
D. Halothane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
E. Isoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
F. Sevoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
VII. Intraoperative Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
A. Cardiovascular Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
B. Respiratory Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
C. Depth of Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
D. Body Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
E. Urinary Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
VIII. Intraoperative Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
IX. Special Anesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
A. Obstetric Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
B. Pediatric Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
C. Anesthesia for Laparoscopic and Thorascopic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
D. Anesthesia for Magnetic Resonance Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

335
336 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

E. Anesthesia for Neurological Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

X. Postoperative Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
XI. Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
Personal Communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

I. INTRODUCTION example, the anesthetic dose of alphaxolone–alphadolone for

macaques can exceed the lethal dose for the adult Saimiri sci-
ureus (Logdberg, 1988). Other criteria within the same species,
Nonhuman primates are important models for a wide variety
such as age and gender of the animal, should be considered when
of biomedical and behavioral research because of their close
determining appropriate anesthesia or analgesia management.
phylogenetic relationship to humans. They are useful models
The decreased ability of the neonate to metabolize drugs and the
for experimental surgical studies such as organ transplantation,
immaturity of the blood–brain barrier are examples that could
neuroscience, and cardiovascular disease. Better defining the
reduce the safe and effective dose of some anesthetics. The pur-
research use and understanding the clinical management of
pose of this chapter is to provide the reader with a review of the
nonhuman primates have helped to assure the most effective
literature on techniques, methodologies, and agents that have
use of available animals. Advances in methods of anesthesia
been reported in commonly used nonhuman primates, along
and analgesia have played an important role in ensuring the
with those that have been found to be effective by the authors.
humane treatment of nonhuman primates. Of the approximate
In some instances in which there is little information available
190 species of prosimians, New World and Old World mon-
in the literature and for which the authors have had insufficient
keys, and apes, the majority of nonhuman primates used in
experience, information has been obtained from knowledge-
biomedical research are the macaques (Macaca spp.), baboon
able clinicians by personal communication (Benson, 2000). The
(Papio spp.), patas monkey (Erythrocebus patas), African Green
overall goal of this chapter is to provide veterinarians and inves-
monkey (Chlorocebus sp.), squirrel monkey (Saimiri spp.),
tigators with information that will help ensure that nonhuman
marmosets (Callitrichidae), and chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)
primates are provided with optimal anesthesia and analgesia
(Table 12-1).
during their use as research subjects.
When selecting methods for anesthesia and restraint, the
diversity of the order Primata must be considered. The wide
range in body size and weight of nonhuman primates plays an
important role in selecting an appropriate anesthetic, the route of II. PREANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
administration, and dosage of the drug (Sainsbury et al., 1989).
Extrapolation of anesthetic or analgesic doses from one primate
A. Preoperative Planning
species to another should be done with caution, because of dif-
ferences in the responses of some species to certain agents. For
1. Health and Safety
Since some nonhuman primates carry potentially hazardous
TABLE 12-1 zoonotic viruses, any discussion relative to the handling nonhu-
Nomenclature of Nonhuman Primates Commonly Used in man primates, the topics of personnel health and safety, as well
Biomedical Research as biosecurity of the animals should be considered in advance.
Scientific name Common name A plan that addresses safety concerns relative to infectious, non-
infectious, and physical hazards associated with working with
Callithrix jacchus jacchus Common marmoset research nonhuman primates should be in place. This plan may
Cebus spp. Capuchin monkeys
require special training of personnel, or demand unique man-
Chlorocebus aethiops African green monkeys
Erythrocebus patas Patas monkey agement, engineering, or equipment needs to mitigate the risk
Macaca arctoides Stump-tailed macaque of contamination or injury, to both personnel and the research
Macaca fascicularis Cynomolgus macaque subject.
Macaca fuscata Japanese macaque Numerous pathogenic organisms can be transmitted from
Macaca mulatta Rhesus macaque
nonhuman primates to humans, and several human pathogens
Macaca nemestrina Pig-tailed macaque
Pan troglodytes Chimpanzee are communicable to nonhuman primates. Since nonhuman
Papio anubis Olive baboon primates and humans have a relatively close phylogenetic rela-
Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon tionship, the risk of transmission is greater than with other
Papio hamadryas Sacred baboon laboratory animals [National Research Council (NRC), 2003].
Saguinas spp. Tamarins
Naturally occurring zoonotic diseases, as well as experimen-
Saimiri spp. Squirrel monkeys
tally induced infectious disease in the nonhuman primate model,
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 337

must be considered. All personnel involved in providing anes- type and cross-match may be desirable for nonhuman primates
thesia, analgesia, and perioperative care of nonhuman primates undergoing extracorporeal bypass or other surgical procedures
should be fully aware of means to prevent possible expo- (SP), which may produce vascular volume deficiencies.
sure to zoonotic diseases, and any other induced infectious or Concomitant natural and experimental disease may influence
communicable hazard (Wallis and Lee, 1999). the selection of an appropriate anesthetic protocol. Particular
Personnel should receive training in use of personal protec- anesthetics or analgesics may be contraindicated, or require
tive clothing, compliance with universal precautions relative to modified use in nonhuman primates with abnormal cardiovas-
sharps, and should be enrolled in an appropriate occupational cular dynamics, liver, or renal function, as such conditions may
health program [Adams et al., 1995; National Research Coun- affect anesthetic distribution, metabolism, or excretion (Hom
cil (NRC), 1996]. Personnel “at risk” should also be aware of et al., 1999).
hazards associated with nonhuman primate behavior that could To meet a greater demand for tissue oxygenation, anemic non-
lead to bites, scratches, and splashes of potentially harmful body human primates may compensate with physiologic changes such
fluids. Occupational health and safety must also identify other as an increase in heart rate and cardiac output. Anesthetics that
noninfectious hazards to personnel such as volatile anesthet- reduce a previously elevated cardiac output could interfere with
ics, and potentially harmful chemical exposures (oral/ocular tissue oxygen delivery. Anemia may also reduce the solubility
exposure to disinfectants, ketamine, etc.). of volatile anesthetics and, consequently, accelerate the rate at
In consideration of biosecurity, each anesthetized nonhu- which the alveolar concentration can be increased or decreased.
man primates should be protected from cross-transmission of
infectious organisms from other nonhuman primates. This may 3. Fasting
require species or cohort separation, dedicated equipment or
Preoperative fasting is an accepted practice for nonhuman
space, and other management factors to prevent transmission
primates undergoing SP. Although the optimal fasting time
of pathogens that may not even be readily apparent, such as
in nonhuman primates has not been established, it is conven-
Herpes B virus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, simian immun-
tional practice to fast primates for at least 12 hours in order
odeficiency virus (SIV), simian hemorrhagic fever (SHF), etc.
to decrease the risk of pulmonary aspiration. Exceptions to
this are the Callitrichidae (marmosets and tamarins) and other
2. History and Records and Patient Evaluation small species who generally are fasted only 6–8 hours to help
avoid perioperative hypoglycemia. Human (Schreiner et al.,
Preoperative assessment includes history of previous use,
1990) and nonhuman primate (Popilskis et al., 1992) stud-
physical examination, pertinent laboratory data, and the influ-
ies suggest that prolonged withholding of clear fluids neither
ence of the current experimental protocol on anesthesia man-
reduces gastric volume nor increases pH, and does not decrease
agement. The animal’s clinical and experimental history should
the risk of aspiration of gastric contents when compared to
be reviewed with respect to current or recent treatments or pro-
3 hours of withholding fluids. It is probable that withhold-
cedures; as well as experience to previously applied anesthetic
ing water for only 3 hours may reduce the likelihood of
regimes.
hypotension especially in young primates; however, clearly this
Despite the limitations associated with performing a thorough
recommendation cannot be applied to solid foods.
physical examination in the awake nonhuman primate, impor-
Inclusion of a histamine (H2 ) receptor antagonist reduces the
tant signs of illness that can be readily identified are unusual
risk of aspiration pneumonia by blocking histamine-induced
posture or behavior, anorexia, and abnormal urine or feces.
secretion of gastric fluid. The addition of antagonists such as
Obtaining body weight and temperature, auscultation for heart
cimetidine (10 mg/kg) or ranitidine (1.5 mg/kg) 30–40 minutes
rhythm and bilateral lung sounds, palpation of femoral trian-
before induction provides adequate protection against aspiration
gle for any large A/V fistulas, and observation of the animal’s
pneumonia in Papio spp. (Popilskis et al., 1992). Unlike cime-
color and perfusion during the preoperative period will provide
tidine, ranitidine does not affect cytochrome P450 (Somogyi
additional information on the physical status of the animal. Rou-
and Gugler, 1982) and, therefore, might be a useful adjunct in
tine laboratory tests (e.g., CBC, blood chemistries, and select
situations requiring emergency surgery or in pregnant animals
serology) may be performed while nonhuman primates are in
in which gastric emptying is delayed.
quarantine, prior to study enrollment, or at predefined regular
intervals (Southers and Ford, 1995). Variations in testing within
an institution may reflect specific needs associated with the use
III. ANESTHETIC DELIVERY AND TECHNIQUES
of nonhuman primates. It is usually not necessary to perform
additional clinical laboratory testing in animals that are in good
physical condition. However, in anticipating the impact of an A. General
experimental protocol on the animal’s health, additional labora-
tory data may be prudent. For example, a baseline evaluation of Research nonhuman primates encompass a wide range of
the patient’s hematocrit, hemoglobin level, and possibly blood size, from New World species represented by adults that may
338 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

be quite small and weigh only a few hundred grams to adult the amount of blood to be withdrawn, the following venous
chimpanzees that are much larger, most weighing over 50 kg. sites can be used in nonhuman primates: cephalic, saphenous,
Inherent in this species diversity is a wide range of physiolog- femoral, and brachial veins. Indwelling catheters for use dur-
ical capabilities that are important to the consideration of an ing a procedure can be easily secured in the saphenous vein in
anesthetic regime, such as tidal volume, relative blood volume, many primates, as well as in the brachial, or cephalic veins in
subcutaneous and intramuscular (IM) volume, ability to main- large animals (baboons and chimpanzees). Emergency vascu-
tain body heat, and the animal’s energy reserves. Within a given lar access in infant macaques can also be accomplished by an
species there may also be factors that influence anesthesia, based intramedullary needle placed in the femur.
on the age of the animal, that is, juvenile versus adult. The femoral vein is commonly used for withdrawal of rel-
Research nonhuman primates possess unique behavioral atively large blood volumes. An indwelling catheter or needle
characteristics and are relatively quick and strong for their size. (20 or 22 gauge) is inserted at the femoral triangle just medial
This also is critical in consideration of how an anesthetic agent to the femoral artery, which can be identified by pulsation.
will be safely delivered. Delivery of anesthesia in nonhuman pri- The femoral artery can be used for blood collection or direct
mates generally begins with some effective means of restraint or intra-arterial blood pressure monitoring. Whenever the femoral
cooperative training (Klein and Murray, 1995). This may include artery is being used, direct pressure must be applied to prevent
one or a combination of methods, such as operant training [pre- a hematoma, which may be of clinical importance in an animal
senting a limb for intravenous (IV) or intramuscularinjection], with natural or experimental coagulopathies (Loeb et al., 1976).
physical restraint (squeeze back cage, manual restraint, and Blind access to the femoral artery or vein may also lead to com-
chair/tube restraint), or chemical restraint, or alternatively a plications due to trauma, with the formation of an arteriovenous
remote injection system (dart delivery by blow pipe, hand-pump fistula.
pistol, or CO2 pistol/rifle) (Fortman et al., 2002), or oral bait- Chronic intravascular catheterization of nonhuman primates
ing (Pulley et al., 2004). For very strong animals, and those in has been described (Barnstein et al., 1966; DaRif and Rush,
large enclosures, dart systems are typically required. Blow pipes 1983; Scalese et al., 1990). Placement of indwelling vascu-
and pump air guns are generally preferred over CO2 pistols, as lar catheters allows multiple blood sampling, administration of
they are quieter, and are likely to produce less tissue damage various therapeutic agents, and monitoring of cardiovascular
with the impacting (Fortman et al., 2002; Fowler, 1986). These parameters in a conscious, unrestrained animal, possibly reduc-
methods can cause injury to both the personnel and the ani- ing the frequency of the use of chemical restraint to access a vein.
mal, and should be restricted to use by experienced personnel. The use of indwelling catheters may reduce or eliminate repeated
The more control the anesthetist has of the animal the less the venipuncture in study animals, which can lead to trauma at the
stress and risk of accident or injury during the procedure. Per- site of venous access and difficulty in obtaining a timely sample,
sonnel practicing any of the restraint methods listed above must and require access to multiple veins.
possess proper experience in the implementation of the chosen The internal and external jugular vein, femoral vein, and
technique. artery are common vascular access sites. In macaques, the iliac
IM injection into a large muscle mass, such as the caudal thigh vein and artery are also commonly accessed, and the external
muscles, is the most common means of administering agents for jugular is typically not used, due to the difficulty in place-
chemical restraint. Particular care should be exercised for IM ment and the high failure rate of long-term placement and
injections into very small nonhuman primates, to avoid nerve patency related to the position of the clavicle (Bernal, personal
damage. For repeated IM injections, it is advisable to alternate communication, 2006). Medical-grade silicon rubber tubing,
the leg to minimize the possibility of muscle or nerve irritation often coated with anticoagulant and antibacterial materials, is
by drugs with low pH such as ketamine (Davy et al., 1987). commonly used for indwelling catheters. Tethering systems,
Once animals are safely controlled, repeated IM injection, consisting of a jacket, main swivel, stainless steel tether, and
or IV injection, may be employed to administer anesthetic and pump assembly, are commonly used to protect catheters from
analgesic agents if indicated for the procedure to be performed. damage induced by the animal, and as a means to enable move-
Inhalation anesthesia is generally provided following intubation ment of the animal in its cage. Major problems associated with
of nonhuman primates, to prevent environmental contamina- indwelling catheter systems are loss of catheter patency and
tion and safety concerns caused by face mask administration of infection. The major cause of failure of patency is the infection,
volatile anesthetics. which is often the result of improper aseptic technique to access
IV access is necessary for many anesthetic protocols, in order the port (Bernal, personal communication, 2006). The risk of
to administer anesthetic agents, fluids, or infuse contrast mate- infection is related, in part, to the catheter exit site in the skin.
rial. Chemical restraint is often needed for IV injections or blood Totally implanted subcutaneous VAP reduce the risk of infec-
withdrawal. IV access can be intermittent, or accomplished with tion and stress associated with multiple cutaneous venous access
the placement of an indwelling catheter, or vascular access port techniques (Schmutzler et al., 1988). VAPs are commonly used
(VAP). Depending upon the size of the animal, the frequency with “backpack” pumps for continuous or timed infusions and
of access, the volume/time required to deliver the dose, and can be operated and monitored remotely.
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 339

B. Chemical Restraint particularly in juveniles (Green et al., 1981). For this reason,
if a procedure requires complete immobilization or if a SP is
The objectives of chemical restraint are to inhibit purposeful to be done, another agent is administered in combination with
movements by the animal that could cause injury to the person- ketamine.
nel or escape of the primate. Personnel should be specifically Ketamine administration may also negatively impact food
cautioned of the rapidity of return of consciousness in non- intake in some old world monkeys. In a clinical trial, admin-
human primates restrained with ketamine alone. Furthermore, istration of ketamine 10 mg/kg IM to rhesus and African green
animals that have been given sedatives, analgesics, or tranquil- monkeys was observed to significantly reduce daily feed intake,
izers, without the use of ketamine, can be aroused from apparent especially at 24 hours postdose (mean % intake reduction:
depression and are very dangerous to handle. African green monkeys 57%; rhesus males 48%, and rhe-
The dissociative drugs ketamine and tiletamine have a wide sus females 40%) and at 48 hours postdose (African green
margin of safety and are the most common choices for chem- monkeys 24%, rhesus males 14%, and rhesus females 13%)
ical restraint of research nonhuman primates. Ketamine as a (Springer, and Baker presented at 2006 APV Workshop). Use
sole agent for chemical restraint is commonly employed in of ketamine in individuals of these species may warrant consid-
both Old World and New World monkeys. Telazol (tiletamine + eration for alternatives, especially if the animal is debilitated or
zolazepam) can also be used in nonhuman primates for simple the study protocol requires frequent chemical restraint. Pro-
restraint, and is a method of choice for chemical restraint in longed reduction of feed intake may negatively impact the
chimpanzees (Lee et al., 1991; Lee and Fleming, 1993). In animal’s health and well-being. Alternatives may include reduc-
nonhuman primates, these dissociative agents produce rapid ing the dose of ketamine, combining with other drugs, use of
induction, redistribution, and return to consciousness. They other chemical agents alone, or cooperative manipulation of the
are metabolized by hepatic cytochrome P450 and excreted in animal.
the urine. Dissociative agents produce good somatic analgesia, The effects of ketamine on hematologic and serum bio-
minimal respiratory depression, and hemodynamic stability; chemical values in nonhuman primates have been examined.
however, used alone they produce poor muscle relaxation and Differences in some indices are based on whether a nonhu-
can produce hypersalivation in some species. Ketamine and man primate has been given ketamine, or physically restrained
Telazol are controlled drugs and, as such, require specific stor- with or without conditioning. Loomis et al. (1980) compared
age and record keeping as required by the Drug Enforcement hemograms of Macaca mulatta that were either ketamine treated
Agency (DEA). Given that the use of ketamine for chemical or physically restrained for venipuncture, and found that leuko-
restraint of nonhuman primates is so frequent and wide spread, cyte and lymphocyte counts and total plasma protein levels were
it may be useful to reiterate some advantages and possible reduced in the ketamine-treated animals. Bennett et al. (1992)
unwanted effects of the use of this drug. reported similar findings, with significant decreases in ery-
Ketamine is an analog of phencyclidine and has been widely throcyte, lymphocyte, and total leukocyte counts; hemoglobin,
used for chemical restraint and as an anesthetic agent in nonhu- hematocrit, and serum glucose; total protein, cholesterol, and
man primates since the 1970s. Ketamine produces a cataleptoid albumin.
state involving unconsciousness and somatic analgesia in non- Recent studies have reported similar changes in hematologic
human primates. Ketamine has a wide margin of safety in and biochemical values in two other species of macaques. Blood
nonhuman primates, and has been used in dosages varying samples from cynomolgus monkeys subject to ketamine anes-
from 5 mg/kg to 20 mg/kg IM in many species as an agent thesia showed a reduction in leukocyte counts, lymphocyte
for restraint and induction for subsequent administration of percentages, and concentrations of glucose, sodium, and potas-
other injectable or gaseous anesthetics. Induction is usually sium, when compared to samples obtained under manual and
achieved within 5 minutes after IM administration, and a sin- chair restraint (Kim et al., 2005). Blood samples obtained from
gle bolus will provide chemical restraint for 15–30 minutes, aged bonnet macaques that were anesthetized with ketamine
which is sufficient for tuberculin testing, clinical examination, also yielded lower values of total leukocyte count, lymphocyte
or minor procedures. Complete recovery occurs within 40–60 count, and serum concentrations of glucose, sodium, and potas-
minutes, depending upon the dosage used. Nonhuman pri- sium, when compared to samples obtained by awake cage side
mates retain pharyngeal and palpebral reflexes after ketamine restraint (Venkatesan et al., 2006). Such variations have been
administration. Accordingly, laryngospasm is not uncommon attributed to stress of conscious restraint.
during intubation after ketamine administration due to the The effect that ketamine has on the cardiovascular system
pharyngeal reflex and irritation of the vocal cords by oropha- and on selected plasma hormone levels in Macaca fascicu-
ryngeal secretions. Atropine, at a dose of 0.02–0.05 mg/kg laris has been studied (Castro et al., 1981). The animals in
IM, can be given to limit the salivation that usually occurs this study were well acclimated to restraining chairs to negate
after administration of ketamine. Animals have poor muscular effects that could be due to animal handling rather than to
relaxation, and in some instances ketamine induces tonic- ketamine. Ketamine produced no significant changes in mean
clonic movements and psychotomimetic emergence reactions arterial blood pressure, plasma insulin, glucose, or cortisol
340 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

concentrations. After insulin challenge, plasma glucose con- V. PARENTERAL ANESTHETICS

centrations, plasma adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH),
growth hormone, and cortisol responses were similar in both
A. Dissociative Anesthetic Combinations
ketamine-treated and control monkeys, which suggests that
ketamine does not alter the magnitude of many endocrine
Dissociative anesthetics are cyclohexamine derivatives, and
responses. Brady and Koritnik (1985) reported similar find-
include phencyclidine, ketamine, and tiletamine. Though phen-
ings for glucose tolerance testing in Cercopithecus aethiops.
cyclidine proved to be quite useful as an agent for chemical
In general, ketamine does not produce significant respiratory
restraint in a number of nonhuman primate species, it became
depression, and induces minimal cumulative effects when given
a drug of abuse in humans because of its hallucinatory effects,
over several hours in healthy animals. Similar findings in rhesus
and it is no longer manufactured for human or veterinary use.
monkeys have been reported (Hom et al., 1998), where mean
Ketamine and tiletamine are both commonly employed in com-
arterial pressure (MAP) of ketamine-anesthetized monkeys was
bination with other agents to produce a balanced anesthesia
similar to that of unrestrained conscious monkeys recorded by
for short procedures, or induction with volatile anesthetics. In
radiotelemetry.
many cases, it is beneficial to reduce the total dose of ketamine,
In squirrel monkeys, ketamine restraint to obtain blood sam-
to avoid prolonged recovery and other undesirable side effects
ples was shown to elevate estradiol and luteinizing hormone
of this agent used alone. The volume of ketamine can be
when compared to samples obtained from animals conditioned
reduced by combining this agent with an alpha-2 agonist (such as
for 3 weeks to manual restraint for blood retrieval. These
xylazine or medetomidine), which may provide sedation, addi-
results suggest a possible side effect due to the use of ketamine
tional analgesia, and muscle relaxation, or in combination with
that could interfere with studies of cycling squirrel monkeys
a benzodiazepine drugs (diazepam and midazolam) to provide
(Yeoman et al., 1988).
sedation and muscle relaxation. Availability of specific antag-
Based on the aforementioned studies, investigators should
onists (yohimbine, atipamezole, and flumazenil) (France and
consider the potential for variability posed by how blood
Weltman, 2006) allows reduction of anesthesia or sedation time
samples are obtained. Options for blood sample collection
and speeds recovery.
in nonhuman primates could include: ketamine anesthesia,
The following sections will discuss some of these dissociative
unrestrained conscious sampling by radiotelemetry, physical
anesthetic combinations.
restraint of animals trained to cooperatively present for bleeding,
or physical restraint of nonhuman primates not acclimated to this
procedure. 1. Ketamine–Xylazine
The addition of the alpha-2 agonist xylazine to the dissocia-
tive agent ketamine provides sedation, muscle relaxation, and
greater analgesia sufficient for minor SP. Ketamine (7 mg/kg)
and xylazine (0.6 mg/kg) given to M. mulatta, varying in weight
IV. ANTICHOLINERGIC DRUGS
from 1 kg to 11 kg, provided adequate anesthesia for cisternal
and lumbar spinal puncture, insertion of urinary catheters, tat-
Anticholinergics are used to diminish salivary and bronchial tooing, and digit amputations (Banknieder et al., 1978). The
secretions in nonhuman primates during anesthesia and to pre- effects of various ratios of ketamine and xylazine in M. mulatta
vent the reflex bradycardia that may be experienced during ocu- have been tested (Naccarato and Hunter, 1979). For their study,
lar or deep neck surgery (occulocardiac and vasovagal reflexes). anesthesia was defined only as loss of response to a pinprick
These actions make atropine or glycopyrrolate useful adjuncts stimulus. Therefore, the dosages used cannot be correlated with
to ketamine-xylazine and ketamine–medetomidine anesthesia. their efficacy for surgical anesthesia, but merely as a method
Bradycardia is of great significance in young nonhuman pri- for chemical restraint. Among the dosage combinations used,
mates because their cardiac output is heart-rate-dependent. The ketamine (10 mg/kg) and xylazine (0.25 mg/kg) produced a
addition of atropine (0.02–0.05 mg/kg) will effectively reduce mean anesthesia time of 45 minutes; increasing the xylazine
xylazine- and fentanyl-induced bradycardia. When an antisial- dosage up to 2 mg/kg increased the anesthesia duration to a
ogogue effect is desired, glycopyrrolate (0.005–0.01 mg/kg) is mean of 138 minutes.
selected rather than atropine because it is twice as potent and has The effects of xylazine in the Japanese monkey, M. fuscata,
a longer duration of action. Nevertheless, inclusion of an anti- were reported to be at least partially reversed by the antagonist
cholinergic as part of premedication is not always necessary yohimbine HCl (0.5 mg/kg IV or 1.0 mg/kg IM) to reduce the
or indicated. Noteworthy is that atropine possesses arrhyth- overall time of immobilization (Hayama et al., 2006).
mogenic properties and may predispose nonhuman primates Reutlinger et al. (1980) have studied the effects that ketamine
to ventricular tachycardia and bigeminal patterns (Sedgwick, and xylazine have on cardiovascular and pulmonary values in
1986). Because of this, we usually avoid atropine premedication M. mulatta. Four groups of six adult males were given ketamine
as part of protocols for cardiac surgery (Table 12-2). (7 mg/kg), xylazine (0.6 mg/kg), ketamine and xylazine, or
 TABLE 12-2
Summary of Drugs and Dosages for Nonhuman Primates

Drug Macaca Papio Saimiri sciureus Callithrix jacchus

Anticholinergics
Atropine 0.02–0.05 mg/kg IM 0.02–0.05 mg/kg IM 0.04 mg/kg SQ or IM
Glycopyrrolate 0.005–0.01 mg/kg IM 0.005–0.01 mg/kg IM
Dissociatives
Ketamine 5.0–20 mg/kg IM; 5–10 mg/kg IM; 10–30 mg/kg IM; 15–20 mg/kg IM;
15–30 minutes 15–30 minutes 15–30 minutes 15–30 minutes
Ketamine + medetomidine 3.0 mg/kg IM,
0.15 mg/kg IMa
Ketamine + diazepam 10 mg/kg IM, 15–20 mg/kg IM, 15 mg/kg IM,
0.2–0.35 mg/kg IM 1.0 mg/kg IM 1.0 mg/kg IM
Ketamine + xylazine 7 mg/kg IM, 10–30 mg/kg IM, 15–22 mg/kg IM,
0.6 mg/kg IMb 3.0 mg/kg IM; 1.0–1.5 mg/kg IM;
up to 30 minutesa up to 30 minutes
Ketamine + xylazine 10 mg/kg IM,
0.25–2 mg/kg IM;
45–138 minutesc
Ketamine + midazolam 15 mg/kg IM followed by 5 mg/kg IM,
0.05–0.15 mg IV followed 0.100 mg/kg IM
by ketamine infusion 12 mg/kg/h
Tiletamine + zolazepam 4.0–6.0 mg/kg IM; 4.0–6.0 mg/kg IM; 10 mg/kg IM 5.0 mg/kg IM;
(Telazol) 45–60 minutes 45–60 minutes 15 minutes
Sedatives/tranquilizers
Medetomidine 0.15 mg/kg 0.1 mg/kg IM, 0.1 mg/kg IM or SQ
5.0 mg/kg ketamine IM

Alpha-2 antagonists
Atipamezole 0.25 mg/kg IV, IMd 0.15 mg/kg IV, IM 0.2 mg IV
Yohimbine 0.5 mg/kg IV or 1.0 mg/kg IMe
Other injectable anesthetics
Alphaxolone–alphadolone 120 mg/kg IM bolus, 0.2–0.25 mg/kg/min infusion 11.5–15.5 mg/kg IM 15–19 mg/kg IM
(Saffan) 18 mg/kg IM followed preceded by ketamine bolus; up to 1 hour bolus; up to 1 hour
by 6–12 mg/kg IV 4 mg/kg IM; up to 6 hours
Propofol 2.5–5.0 mg/kg IV bolus 2.0–4.0 mg/kg IV for induction,
2.5–5.0 mg/kg IV followed by repeated as needed
infusion 0.3–0.4 mg/kg/min
Barbiturates
Pentobarbitol 20–30 mg/kg IV; 30–60 minutes, 25 mg/kg IV slowly to effect 15 mg/kg IV slowly to effect
11 mg/kg IV preceded by (adult), 15 mg/kg IV slowly
ketamine 20 mg/kg IM to effect (juvenile)
 TABLE 12-2
Continued

Drug Macaca Papio Saimiri sciureus Callithrix jacchus

Thiopental 5–7 mg/kg IV for induction 15–17 mg/kg/h IV infusion

under ketamine restraint
Opioids
Fentanyl 5–10 μg/kg IV bolus or as a 5–10 μg/kg IV bolus or as a
continuous infusion at 10–25 μg/kg/h continuous infusion at 10–25 μg/kg/h
in combination with low MAC in combination with low MAC
isoflurane 0.05–0.15 μg/kg IM isoflurane
Muscle relaxants
Pancuronium 0.04–0.1 mg/kg IV 0.04–0.1 mg/kg IV
Vecuronium 0.04–0.06 mg/kg IV 0.04–0.06 mg/kg IV
Inhalation anesthesia
Nitrous oxide Addition of 30% reduces MAC
halothane from 1.15% to 0.75%
and enflurane from 1.84% to 1.46%f
Halothane 1 MAC = 0.89–1.15%g 05–1.0% supplemented with 2:1 ratio
of nitrous oxide to oxygen for
anesthesia maintenance
Isoflurane 1 MAC = 1.28%h 1.5–2.0% on 100% oxygen; 0.8–1.25% 1.0–3.0% for maintenance
supplemented with 2:1 ratio of nitrous
oxide to oxygen for anesthesia
maintenance
Sevoflurane 1 MAC = 2.00%i
Analgesics
NSAIDs
Aspirin 325 mg PO, 125 mg/5 kg rectal 325 mg PO, 125 mg/5 kg rectal
suppositories suppositories
Carprofen 2–4 mg/kg, SC, IVj
Ibuprofen 7 mg/kg, PO 7 mg/kg, PO
Ketorolac tromethamine 0.5–1.0 mg/kg 15–30 mg IM
Meloxicam 0.2–0.2 mg/kg, POk
Opioids
Morphine 1–2 mg/kg IM, SQ; 4 hours 1–2 mg/kg IM, SQ; 4 hours 0.15 mg/kg 1–2 mg/kg IM, SQ; 4 hours
epidurally; up to 24
Oxymorphone 0.15 mg/kg IM; 4–6 hours 0.15 mg/kg IM; 4–6 hours 0.075 mg/kg IM; 4–6 hours 0.075 mg/kg IM; 4–6 hours
Meperidine 2 mg/kg IM; 4 hours 2–4 mg/kg IM
Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IM; 6–8 hours 0.01–0.03 mg/kg IM BID 0.015 mg/kg IM; 6–8 hours 0.02 mg/kg SQ; 6 hours
Butorphanol 0.05 mg/kg IM TID 0.02 mg/kg SC QID
Opioid antagonist
Naloxone 0.1–0.2 mg as needed 0.1–0.2 mg as needed 0.1–0.2 mg as needed 0.1–0.2 mg as needed

Note: Macaca (Flecknell, 2005; Hayama et al., 2006; Horne, 2001; Naccarato and Hunter, 1979; Reutlinger et al., 1980; Soma et al., 1995; Steffey et al., 1974a; Sun
Alan, 2000); and Pan troglodytes (Lee et al., 2005).
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 343

saline. There were no significant differences among the three the course of a 15-month controlled feeding trial (Theriault
drug regimens and saline control animals with regard to mean and Niekrasz, personal communication, 2006). In this instance,
respiratory rate, acid–base status, or arterial blood gases. the use of ketamine/medetomidine combination (medetomidine
However, xylazine or xylazine combined with ketamine pro- was reversed with atipamezole, 0.75 mg/kg IM) significantly
duced statistically significant decreases in mean arterial blood reduced recovery time to feeding, and did not appear to have
pressure and heart rate compared to animals given ketamine. a negative impact of appetite, as did the use of ketamine alone
Xylazine-induced bradycardia and hypotension are common (6–15 mg/kg IM). This combination provided rapid, reliable,
in most species and are associated with decreased outflow of reproducible, and safe sedation; and when used for anesthe-
sympathetic nervous system impulses to the periphery. The sig- sia induction, permitted endotracheal intubation, restricted to a
nificant decrease in blood pressure and heart rate encountered in window of about 3–5 minutes.
xylazine and xylazine–ketamine groups indicates that xylazine Ferris et al. (2004) reports using ketamine/medetomidine
overrides the stimulatory effects of ketamine. in the common marmoset for short procedures, to lessen the
Ketamine (15–20 mg/kg) and xylazine (1 mg/kg) given IM to effects of ketamine alone (ketamine administered at 1–3 mg/kg,
juvenile P. troglodytes provided anesthesia with sufficient anal- followed by 0.01–0.03 mg/kg of medetomidine). The effects
gesia for performing minor procedures such as plasmapheresis of medetomidine were reversed with atipamezole dosed at
and percutaneous liver biopsies. Laryngeal and pharyngeal 0.05–0.15 mg/kg (Ferris et al., 2004).
reflexes remained intact, and endotracheal intubation was not Morris (personal communication, 1995) sedates S. sciureus
possible. The average time of anesthesia was 25 minutes with with 100 μg/kg of medetomidine given IM or subcutaneously
recovery in about 2 hours (April et al., 1982). to facilitate mask induction with isoflurane, followed by intuba-
tion using a shortened 1.5 mm Cole neonatal endotracheal tube.
Medetomidine can be reversed after anesthesia with 200 μg
2. Ketamine–Medetomidine
atipamezole to produce a very rapid recovery.
Ketamine–medetomidine is a combination of dissociative Ketamine–medetomidine has been successfully used to anes-
agent with an alpha-2 agonist. It has been successfully used in thetize P. troglodytes (Jalanka and Roeken, 1990; Lewis, 1993).
a number of nonhuman primates including Old World species, In these reports, medetomidine (30–60 μg/kg) IM and ketamine
New World monkeys, and Apes. (2–6 mg/kg) IM produced a rapid induction, prolonged and sta-
Medetomidine-induced sedation, analgesia, and muscle ble immobilization, excellent relaxation, and calm recovery.
relaxation can be reversed with atipamezole, a specific alpha-2 The duration of anesthesia was about 60 minutes, and suffi-
antagonist. Animals given atipamezole at five times the medeto- cient to perform dental extraction and subcutaneous placement
midine dose recovered within 15–20 minutes, whereas those of implants.
not receiving the antagonist recovered in 1–2 hours. The advan-
tages of this combination of agents over ketamine alone are
3. Ketamine–Diazepam
that there was better muscle relaxation, the period of anesthesia
was lengthened, and the anesthesia was partially reversed with The addition of a benzodiazepine like diazepam in com-
atipamezole. bination with ketamine can provide muscle relaxation and
Ketamine versus a combination of ketamine–medetomidine anticonvulsant activity. Benzodiazepines are metabolized in the
was compared in a balanced anesthesia protocol for chemical liver (half-life increases with depleted liver function), and some
immobilization in macaques (Sun et al., 2003). This comparison metabolites are active providing a relatively long duration.
involved pigtail and rhesus macaques (M. mulatta and Macaca Diazepam may be administered intramuscularly at 1.0 mg/kg
nemestrina). Results indicated that medetomidine (0.15 mg/kg or intravenously at 0.25–0.50 mg/kg. However, it is impor-
IM) combined with ketamine (3.0 mg/kg IM) induced a deeper tant to note that IM injection of diazepam may be painful,
plane of anesthesia of longer duration than did ketamine with unreliable absorption; multiple doses may lead to pro-
(10 mg/kg IM) alone. Furthermore, the use of atipamezole longed recovery due to its long elimination half-life (Jacobs
(0.225 mg/kg IM), to reverse the effects of medetomidine, et al., 1993). Flumazenil, a specific benzodiazepine receptor
produced a more rapid recovery. antagonist (0.02 mg/kg IV), was reported to result in faster
Niekrasz (personal communication, 2006) reports the use of recovery times in patas monkeys sedated with midazolam
ketamine (4 mg/kg)–medetomidine (150 μg/kg) combination in (Kalema-Zikusoka et al., 2003).
rhesus macaques. At this dose, rhesus monkeys show muscle The addition of diazepam to ketamine eliminates exces-
relaxation and deep sedation, allowing a 20–30-minute window sive involuntary movements, and helps to maintain adequate
for intubation during gaseous anesthetic induction. immobilization. The combination of ketamine (10 mg/kg) and
The combination of ketamine/medetomidine has been suc- diazepam (0.2–0.35 mg/kg) given IM has been reported to pro-
cessfully employed in new world research monkeys. Capuchin duce an effective restraint in an adult male Papio during a dental
monkeys (Cebus apella) were restrained with medetomidine study that required muscle relaxation of the mouth and head
(0.15 mg/kg IM) combined with ketamine (4 mg/kg IM) over (Woolfson et al., 1980).
344 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

In S. sciureus, ketamine (15–20 mg/kg) and diazepam 1982; Cohen and Bree, 1978; Kaufman and Hahnenberger,
(1 mg/kg) given IM provides light to moderate anesthesia (Mor- 1975). In juvenile M. mulatta, the minimum dosage for restraint
ris, personal communication, 1995). Wyatt (personal commu- is 1.5 mg/kg IM, and 3.0 mg/kg for anesthesia sufficient for
nication, 1995) premedicates Callithrix jacchus with ketamine minor SP. At these dosages, Telazol provides a rapid onset
(15 mg/kg), diazepam (1.0 mg/kg), and atropine (0.04 mg/kg) and smooth recovery, and with the exception of depressed
given subcutaneously. Intubation must be done within several myocardial contractility, it has minimal cardiorespiratory effects
minutes after onset of sedation due to the short duration of max- (Booker et al., 1982). At 4–6 mg/kg IM, chemical restraint is
imal sedation. For intubation, he uses a modified no. 8 French achieved for about 45–60 minutes in M. mulatta, M. nemest-
feeding catheter with an endotracheal tube adaptor end. To pass rina, Macaca arctoides, and Papio papio, whereas the duration
the tube, one hyperextends the animal’s neck and places digital is about 100 minutes in E. patas (Cohen and Bree, 1978).
pressure on the outside of the larynx to aid in opening the lar- Similar to ketamine, the animal’s physiologic responses to
ynx using a no. 1 Miller blade. Maintenance anesthesia is then Telazol and blood sampling are influenced by such variables
initiated with 1–3% isoflurane at 3 L/min with oxygen. as species, time of day, and familiarity with a blood sampling
In Elmore’s experience, ketamine/diazepam combination process. Bentson et al. (2003) studied the effects of Telazol and
used in macaques is insufficient to allow endotracheal intuba- blood sampling on physiological responses in male rhesus mon-
tion, and the use of propofol, ketamine plus medetomidine or keys and male baboons. In macaques, reduction in cortisol was
thiopental may be employed for intubation. noted in the morning but not in the afternoon. In contrast, cor-
tisol changed little in baboons. The injection of anesthetic and
blood sampling process increased cortisol levels in macaques
4. Ketamine–Midazolam
not trained to extend an arm, but had no effect in trained
Midazolam offers certain advantages over diazepam. Com- animals.
pared to diazepam, it is better absorbed after IM injection, Lee et al. (2003) compared effects of Telazol and ketamine
provides more effective anxiolytic sedation, and has a shorter on various physiological parameters in cynomolgus monkeys.
elimination half-life (Jacobs et al., 1993). These authors demon- There were no differences in heart rate, respiratory rate, and
strated that after an initial bolus of ketamine (15 mg/kg IM), pCO2 . However, Telazol caused a decrease in rectal tempera-
an IV injection of midazolam (0.05–0.09 mg for animals less tures that may be partially explained by prolonged immobiliza-
than 1 kg and 0.05–0.15 mg for animals over 1 kg), followed tion caused by Telazol-treated group (67 ± 6.5 minutes) versus
by a ketamine infusion (12 mg/kg/h) provided complete immo- ketamine-treated group (42 ± 6.7 minutes). Similar decrease
bilization in young M. mulatta and C. aethiops during positron in body temperature was observed with Telazol administration
emission tomography. There were no noticeable side effects and (6 mg/kg) in cynomolgus monkeys with implanted telemetry
the animals were returned to their cages within 30 minutes after devices (Lopez, 2002). It should be noted that Telazol dose
discontinuation of anesthesia. In M. mulatta, the effective dose was at the higher range that resulted in longer average duration
of midazolam decreased until 4 months of age and then gradu- of anesthesia (91 minutes), with some monkeys experiencing
ally increased. C. aethiops exhibited age-dependent sensitivity profound decrease in body temperatures exceeding 5◦ C. In addi-
to midazolam, with older animals requiring lower dosages. This tion, Telazol caused notable postanesthesia elevations in body
may be associated with higher metabolic rates in infants and temperature that lasted for more than 24 hours postinduction.
juvenile animals (Sedgwick, 1986). The authors concluded that this postanesthesia elevation in body
IM ketamine–midazolam (ketamine 8 mg/kg and midazolam temperature is of importance, as it may cause misinterpretation
0.2 mg/kg) anesthesia was compared to isoflurane or propo- of data from challenge with various test articles. Telazol does not
fol in rhesus monkeys for a protocol evaluating intraduodenal significantly alter the complete blood cell count, immunologic,
drug administration (Authier et al., 2006). At this dose, palpe- and serum biochemistry values in rhesus monkeys (Woodward
bral, corneal, and pharyngeal reflexes were preserved at all and Weld, 1997).
times. Following intraduodenal dose of dextrose, the ketamine– Morris (personal communication, 1995) uses Telazol at a
midazolam group showed an inconsistent increase in glycemia dosage of 10 mg/kg IM to produce light-to-moderate anesthesia
when compared to the other two anesthetic regimes. Recovery in S. sciureus. Wyatt (personal communication, 1995) uses Tela-
from isoflurane and propofol was significantly faster than from zol at a dosage of 5 mg/kg IM plus atropine (0.04 mg/kg IM) to
ketamine–midazolam. provide 15 minutes of anesthesia adequate for minor invasive
procedures in C. jacchus.
Telazol, given to P. troglodytes at 3–5 mg/kg IM, provides
5. Tiletamine–Zolazepam (Telazol® )
sufficient chemical restraint to perform physical examinations,
Telazol is a 1:1 combination of the dissociative anesthetic, sample collection, and minor procedures (Lee and Guhad,
tiletamine and the benzodiazepine tranquilizer, zolazepam. It 2001). An advantage to Telazol over ketamine is that its greater
has been reported to be a useful agent for chemical restraint and potency allows for administration of smaller volumes. This is
an anesthetic for minor SP in nonhuman primates (Booker et al., particularly helpful when a dart is used for delivery of the agent
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 345

to chimpanzees. Also, the occurrence of cyclohexylamine- A noticeable side effect of propofol is the occurrence of apnea, at
induced seizures seen when using ketamine is nearly eliminated the higher doses following an induction dose. A slow induction
in comparison to Telazol (Lee and Fleming, 1993). There is an will minimize this respiratory effect of the agent. Several clini-
increase in the occurrence of ventricular premature contrac- cal reports have been made on the use of propofol in macaques.
tion seen on electrocardiogram (ECG) readings in chimpanzees In M. fascicularis, the duration of anesthesia varied from about
(Doane et al., 2006). 5 to 40 minutes with propofol dosages of 2.5–10 mg/kg IV.
A dosage of 2.5 mg/kg given repetitively, as needed, provided
adequate anesthesia for laparoscopy. Apnea for 1–2 minutes
B. Alphaxolone–Alphadolone (Saffan® )
occurred immediately after administration at dosages exceeding
5 mg/kg. Based on the results obtained by bolus administration
This combination steroid anesthetic, which is currently avail-
of propofol, the authors of this report suggest that an infu-
able for commercial use outside United States, has been reported
sion rate of 0.3–0.4 mg/kg/min would be sufficient in macaques
as an effective anesthetic in several species of nonhuman pri-
(Sainsbury et al., 1991).
mates. A single dose of the drug (11–19 mg/kg IM) has a
Fanton et al. (2000) studied cardiovascular responses to
short onset of action, and produces anesthetic duration of 1–
propofol in rhesus monkeys. Intravenously administered induc-
1.5 hours and uneventful recovery in C. jacchus and S. sciureus
tion doses of propofol (2 mg/kg of body weight, followed by
(Logdberg, 1988; Phillips and Grist, 1975). An additional
continuous infusion of propofol 0.2 mg/kg/min) resulted in sig-
dosage of 3–5 mg/kg extended anesthesia for another hour in
nificant decreases in blood pressure, heart rate, and myocardial
S. sciureus (Logdberg, 1988). It has been used successfully as
contractility. These changes were accompanied by an increase
a sole anesthetic for various abdominal procedures, bone tissue
in systemic arterial compliance. Only minimal changes in left
excision, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) procedures
ventricular diastolic pressure, cardiac output, and stroke volume
(Logdberg, 1988). A continuous infusion of Saffan has been
were observed in this study.
successfully used during MRI to investigate cerebral ischemia
In contrast, Hom et al. (1999) found that propofol anesthesia
in C. jacchus (Whelan et al., 1999). In this study, the aver-
resulted in elevated heart rate when compared to conscious,
age steady-state infusion of Saffan 27.7 mg/kg/h for females
unrestrained M. mulatta. Similar to the previous study, mean
and 25 mg/kg/h for males coupled with endotracheal intuba-
arterial blood pressure was lower in animals anesthetized with
tion and ventilation produced safe, easily controlled anesthesia
propofol. Hematology, serum chemistry, and blood gasses were
suitable for long-duration imaging. Ventilation was used to
unaffected. However, because of its formulation, propofol was
prevent hypoxia and hypercapnia associated with respiratory
inappropriate for use in animals in which studies of triglyceride
depression. Recovery in the animals anesthetized by continu-
levels were conducted.
ous infusion lasted a mean of 1.35 hours. Marmosets were fully
In the authors’ experience, propofol given at a dosage of
recovered by 3 hours, with no obvious adverse effects (Whelan
2–4 mg/kg provides smooth induction with adequate muscle
et al., 1999). It should be noted that in S. sciureus, respiratory
relaxation in macaques and Papio species; it is sufficient for pro-
depression and hypothermia accompanies Saffan anesthesia.
cedures of short duration (e.g., catheter placement, wound sutur-
For positron emission tomography (PET) imaging, induc-
ing, and radiography) or as an induction agent for inhalational
tion in Papio anubis was achieved with a single injection of
anesthesia. Because rapid clearance of propofol contributes to
Saffan 8–10 mg/kg IM, and anesthesia was maintained through-
a relatively fast recovery, repeated boluses of 2–4 mg/kg IV can
out the study by a continuous IV infusion of 6–9 mg/kg/h
be administered to extend the duration of anesthesia. Alterna-
(Villemagne et al., 1998). Continuous infusion of Saffan has
tively, maintaining animals on a continuous infusion of propofol
been also reported in Erythrocebus. Up to 4 hours of anesthesia
(0.2–0.4 mg/kg/min) provides reliable sedation for the imaging
was provided by continuous IV infusion of Saffan at a dosage
procedures such as MRI or PET, which require no movement
of 0.14 mg/kg/min in E. patas. In these animals, the heart and
for prolonged periods of time. Benveniste et al. (2003) reported
respiratory rates dropped by as much as 62 and 40%, respec-
that pregnant Macaca radiatta was successfully maintained on
tively, in animals breathing air, and by 25% in those breathing
propofol infusion of 0.16–0.3 mg/kg/min for PET and MRI to
oxygen (Dhiri, 1985). It was found to be reliable with a smooth
identify fetal organs and to measure maternal and fetal iso-
and rapid induction.
tope distribution and perform whole-body imaging for up to
7 hours. However, Fowler et al. (2001) found that M. mulatta
C. Propofol required higher dose of propofol infusion to maintain animals
sedated during MRI. Propofol infusion ranged between 0.31 and
Propofol provides a smooth induction with adequate muscle 0.64 mg/kg/min, with a mean value of 0.51 mg/kg/min during
relaxation sufficient for procedures of short duration. Because 60-minute scan. Authors also noted large individual variations
rapid clearance of propofol contributes to a relatively fast awak- in the dose response to propofol that revealed no relationship
ening, repeated boluses of 2–5 mg/kg IV can be administered between physiological parameters or body weight. None of the
to extend the duration of anesthesia without delaying recovery. animals developed hypoxemia or cardiovascular instability.
346 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

Ouchi et al. (2006) evaluated effects of a low dose The effect of pentobarbital anesthesia on respiratory and heart
(12 mg/kg/h) and high dose (25 mg/kg/h) of propofol with rates, and body temperature, was studied in adult M. fascicu-
65% nitrous oxide, under normothermic temperatures and laris anesthetized for 3–9 hours during neurosurgical studies
mildly hypothermic conditions; cerebral metabolism, cerebral (Zola-Morgan and Micheletti, 1986). After ketamine induction,
blood flow (CBF), and their regional coupling were determined the animals were given an initial bolus of pentobarbital IV at
through direct measurement by positron emission tomography. a mean dosage of 11 mg/kg. This was followed by additional
The authors concluded that propofol and mild hypothermia periodic boluses to effect throughout the procedures. The mean
(35◦ C) have an additive effect on metabolism, and can be con- recovery period was more than 3 hours.
sidered safe, because none of the combinations impaired the
coupling of cerebral metabolism and blood flow.
2. Thiopental
An effective dosage in P. troglodytes is 1–2 mg/kg as an initial
bolus followed by maintenance by propofol infusion. This pro- This ultra-short-acting barbiturate is commonly used to facil-
vides anesthesia for procedures of short duration, and a recovery itate intubation prior to induction of anesthesia with inhalation
that is smooth and rapid (Swenson, personal communication, agents at 10–15 mg/kg IV; the dosage is less (5–7 mg/kg) if the
1995). animal has received ketamine.
Unlike other IV agents, propofol is formulated in an emulsion Slow infusion of thiopental at 15–17 mg/kg/h has been
of soybean oil, glycerol, and egg lecithin, which readily supports reported to provide satisfactory chemical restraint and stable
bacterial growth. Since refrigeration is not recommended by the physiological baseline values for 90 minutes in Papio ursinus
manufacturer, multiuse of propofol vials provides a sufficient with animals recovered within 20 minutes after discontinua-
time and environment for microbial replication. Accordingly, it tion of the infusion (Goosen et al., 1984). This rate of infusion
is important that sterile technique be practiced when this agent resulted in lower heart rate, slower respiration, and a mod-
is used in nonhuman primates (Bennett et al., 1995). erate decrease in body temperature. Of interest is that mean
arterial blood pressure did not differ from the values obtained
from awake animals. Administration of thiopental typically pro-
D. Barbiturates
duces a modest reduction in blood pressure due to peripheral
vasodilation, reflecting barbiturate-induced depression of the
1. Pentobarbital
vasomotor center and decreased sympathetic nervous system
Prior to the general use of inhalant anesthetics in veterinary outflow (Stoelting and Miller, 1994a). The unaffected blood
medicine, pentobarbital was routinely used to anesthetize non- pressures observed in these baboons may be partially explained
human primates. The major difficulties with pentobarbital are by the fact that they were given a slow infusion rather than being
severe respiratory depression at high dosages necessary for ade- induced with a bolus of thiopental.
quate anesthesia, inability to modulate the depth of anesthesia Thiobarbiturates induce splenic engorgement, and should not
well, and a very long period of recovery. be used in patients requiring splenectomy (Ko, 2006).
The usual dosage in nonhuman primates is 20–30 mg/kg IV;
however, there may be considerable variation among animals.
Pentobarbital anesthesia is induced by delivering approximately E. Opioids
one-half the calculated dosage as a bolus, and then delivering
additional amounts to effect. The duration of surgical anesthe- Opioids have been used in nonhuman primates to reduce
sia will vary between 30 and 60 minutes. Usually, animals have the minimal alveolar concentration of inhalational anesthetic
been chemically restrained with ketamine prior to administra- and to enhance intraoperative analgesia during balanced anes-
tion of pentobarbital, and this may reduce by about one-third thesia. The main advantage of high-dose opioid anesthesia is
the needed dosage of pentobarbital required to achieve surgi- that it does not seriously impair cardiovascular function, and
cal anesthesia. There are applications for which pentobarbital effectively suppresses sympatho-nervous system responses to
may be useful. These include some neurosurgical procedures, surgical stress (Sofianos et al., 1985). Among the opioids avail-
because pentobarbital induces minimal changes in CSF pressure able, buprenorphine is the most commonly used in nonhuman
and decreases CBF and metabolic rate (Branston et al., 1979). primates for postoperative analgesia, and fentanyl is most often
The administration of pentobarbital (20–25 mg/kg over 10–15 used as the analgesic component for balanced anesthesia.
minutes) in rhesus monkeys significantly reduced (p < 0.05) In the authors’ experience, fentanyl is a valuable supplement
basal mean arterial blood pressure. This is due to venodilation, to inhalational anesthesia for cardiovascular and neurosurgi-
as well as a decrease in myocardial contractility (Hom et al., cal procedures in Old World primates. For cardiac surgeries,
1999). it can be administered either as a bolus (5–10 μg/kg) or as a
Pentobarbital may also be appropriate for long-term, non- continuous infusion (10–25 μg/kg/h) in combination with low
survival procedures that do not require deep anesthesia with minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) isoflurane with mini-
concomitant analgesia. mal effects on heart rate and blood pressure. For neurosurgical
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 347

procedures, fentanyl dose can be increased from 50–70 μg/kg/h Sufentanil infusion produced light stage of anesthesia as judged
to 70–100 μg/kg/h during maximum nociceptive stimulation, by intermediate-amplitude electroencephalogram (EEG) wave-
with isoflurane maintained between 0.2% and 0.5%. This com- forms. In combination with muscle relaxant, vecuronium
bination permits maintenance of blood pressure, central venous 0.1 mg/kg/h, this allowed to record spatial frequency response
pressure, cerebral perfusion pressure, and core body tempera- functions for each cone separately that lasted on average for 4–5
ture at constant levels throughout the operative procedure. The days. All SP were conducted before paralysis to monitor animal
reduction in blood pressure and bradycardia associated with response to placement of recording electrode (Johnson et al.,
opioid infusion is usually dose-dependent. In M. mulatta (Nuss- 2004).
meier et al., 1991), fentanyl produced minimal changes in MAP,
cardiac output, pulmonary and central venous pressures, and
F. Etomidate
systemic vascular resistance in doses not exceeding 16 μg/kg
IV; a 30% decrease in mean arterial blood pressure was only evi-
Etomidate has not been widely used in nonhuman pri-
dent after 64 μg/kg. Increasing doses of morphine up to 1 mg/kg
mates. Cardiovascular stability seen with this anesthetic in
IV in S. sciureus resulted in maximum decrease in mean arte-
humans could offer an attractive alternative for procedures that
rial blood pressure by 15 mmHg from baseline values (Dourish
require minimal effects on the animal’s hemodynamics. How-
et al., 1990).
ever, 1 mg/kg etomidate followed by etomidate infusion of
Similar to humans, respiratory depression is detectable in
100 μg/kg/min produced significant reduction in aortic systolic,
nonhuman primates after relatively small doses of narcotic anal-
diastolic, and mean pressures in macaques (Fanton et al., 2000).
gesics. Morphine, given at dosages of 0.125–1.0 mg/kg to S.
Only minimal changes in cardiac output or stroke volume were
sciureus, resulted in dose-dependent reduction in respiratory
noticed in this study. In view of animal’s ability to maintain
rate, arterial pO2 , and elevation in arterial pCO2 (Dourish et al.,
cardiac output, a decrease in total peripheral resistance may
1990). A significant decrease in respiratory rates was observed
account for the decrease in MAP.
in M. mulatta after a 2 μg/kg fentanyl dosage, whereas PaCO2
Etomidate does not provide adequate analgesia for painful
increased significantly after 4 μg/kg and apnea occurred after
procedures and its ability to suppress adrenal function dur-
a 64 μg/kg fentanyl bolus (Nussmeier et al., 1991). Rever-
ing anesthesia and surgery may be detrimental in immediate
sal of opioid-induced respiratory depression is achieved with
postoperative period. In addition, popularity of propofol dur-
naloxone, 0.01 mg/kg IV. Naloxone should be administered
ing imaging and noninvasive procedures has limited the use of
in nonhuman primates before extubation to counteract any
etomidate for research in nonhuman primates.
elevation of PaCO2 induced by opioids.
The analgesic and respiratory effects of other potent opioids
in macaques were evaluated. Ko et al. (2002) compared effects G. Muscle Relaxants
of three opioids (alfentanil, fentanyl, and remifentanil) on dura-
tion of action on reinforcing effects. Similar to humans, an IV Muscle relaxants are not anesthetics or analgesics and should
bolus of alfentanil (3–32 μg/kg) and ultra-short-acting remifen- only be used in fully anesthetized animals. Used as an adjunct in
tanil (3.2–5.6 μg/kg) had shorter duration of analgesia than IV adequately anesthetized nonhuman primates, they can facilitate
fentanyl (3–32 μg/kg). In particular, 16 μg/kg IV fentanyl pro- mechanical ventilation and reduce skeletal muscle tone during
duced analgesia that lasted 60 minutes. Analgesia produced by surgery. The authors use pancuronium (0.08–0.1 mg/kg IV) and
alfentanil at the same doses lasted for approximately 15 min- vecuronium (0.04–0.06 mg/kg IV) to produce muscle relaxation
utes and remifentanil’s maximal effect was transient, lasting for during maintenance of inhalational anesthesia. Pancuronium
less than 15 minutes. The onset of action did not differ among is a long-acting muscle relaxant. It produces a moderate ele-
the three mu agonists. IV fentanyl administration produced a vation in heart rate and blood pressure, and we have found
dose-related depression of respiration as assessed by reduction that these effects are desirable in hypovolemic and bradycardic
in minute volume that at the highest administered dose returned nonhuman primates. Vecuronium, on the other hand, has no
to control values at 60 minutes. Although remifentanil was also hemodynamic effects and is a viable alternative to pancuronium
effective in suppressing minute volume, animals were breathing in cardiovascular procedures.
at a normal volume within 10 minutes of drug administration. The interaction of ketamine with commonly used nondepo-
Alfentanil had an intermediate effect on respiratory depression. larizing neuromuscular relaxants has been evaluated in adult
It appears that ultra-short-acting effects of remifentanil may be Macaca cyclopis monkeys anesthetized with 0.5–1% halothane
useful in SP in which it can be administered by continuous (Tsai and Lee, 1989). IV infusion of either d-tubocurarine,
infusion in combination with other short-acting agents such as atracurium, vecuronium, or pancuronium was done to provide
propofol. a steady depression of the thumb twitch for 15 minutes at 50%
Sufentanil citrate, a potent opioid agent, was used as an IV of baseline. The effect of ketamine on thumb twitch was done at
infusion at the rate of 6–30 μg/kg/h in 5% dextrose solution three dosage levels (2, 5, and 10 mg/kg IV). In a dose-dependent
for mapping of the visual receptive fields in rhesus monkeys. manner, except for pancuronium at 2 mg/kg, ketamine
348 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

significantly increased the 50% depression of the thumb twitch inter-incisor gap for good visualization of the glottis. Endotra-
values for each of the four muscle relaxants. The maxi- cheal tubes of various sizes are used for old world nonhuman
mum potentiation induced by ketamine occurred within 5–15 primates, ranging from 3.0 mm to 8.0 mm. In general, cuffed
minutes, and the average duration of effect associated with Murphy endotracheal tubes are chosen, but uncuffed Murphy
pancuronium was 1 hour; lesser durations occurred with the or Cole tubes are preferred for young or small primates. Endo-
other three agents. Ketamine, in the absence of the four neuro- tracheal tubes should be passed with the help of an appropriate
muscular relaxants, had no neuromuscular blocking effects. It laryngoscope. The tracheal tube should be inserted to a depth
has also been shown that ketamine potentiates the Phase I and of at least 2 cm after the disappearance of the tracheal tube past
Phase II neuromuscular blocks of succinylcholine in M. cyclopis the vocal folds to approximate placement in the mid-trachea.
monkeys (Tsai et al., 1989). The cuff on the endotracheal tube is carefully inflated to prevent
leaks when the animal is ventilated with an Ambu bag. Alter-
natively, the endotracheal tube is connected to an anesthetic
VI. INHALATIONAL ANESTHESIA breathing bag that is gently squeezed to a pressure of 15–20 cm
H2 O. This allows for bilateral auscultation of the animal’s chest
for lung sounds. The tube is then secured with cotton gauze to
A. Induction
the back of the animal’s head.
As an alternative to face masks and endotracheal tube intu-
Induction of anesthesia in most nonhuman primate species is
bation, a laryngeal mask airway (LMA) is commonly used in
usually initiated with ketamine (5–10 mg/kg IM) or tiletamine–
human medicine, and has been used successfully in macaques
zolazepam (3.5–5.0 mg/kg) sedation to provide chemical
and chimpanzees (Hill et al., 2001). The LMA is a reusable
restraint and IV access. Thiopental is commonly used as an
device that is inserted into the soft palate and rests in the infe-
induction agent for inhalational anesthesia. This is usually given
rior recess of the hypopharynx above the esophageal sphincter,
at a dosage of 3–5 mg/kg IV as a bolus, followed by additional
and against the base of the tongue. It does require closer position
amounts to effect. The authors have also found that propofol
monitoring than an endotracheal tube since it can shift place-
given at 2–5 mg/kg IV as a bolus followed by additional amounts
ment during the procedure. Since most nonhuman primates are
to effect provides for a very satisfactory and smooth induction
sedated with ketamine or Telazol, the gag reflex remains and
in macaques and Papio spp. Once induced, the animal can be
endotracheal intubation can cause laryngospasms. Therefore,
easily intubated and the inhalational agent administered.
the LMA is minimally stimulating, since it does not pass into
the trachea, and is preferred over the mask for gas inhalation,
B. Intubation since the tongue and saliva can partially obstruct the airway. The
LMA can even be used to maintain an open airway in a sedated
The method of choice for delivery of inhalational anesthet- animal that has difficult airways, that is, obese animals.
ics to nonhuman primates is via an endotracheal tube. This Endotracheal intubation of smaller primate species, the
ensures a patent airway, delivers gas anesthetics while prevent- common marmoset (C. jacchus) and the squirrel monkey
ing environmental contamination, and provides an anesthetist (S. sciureus), has been described in detail (Morris et al., 1997).
with the ability to directly ventilate the animal. Endotracheal For larger small primates such as squirrel monkeys, a 1.5 mm
intubation has been described in larger nonhuman primates cole neonatal endotracheal tube can be used. For larger mar-
using commercially available equipment and, with proper posi- mosets, infant-feeding catheters (6–8 French gauge) can be
tioning of the animal, is a straightforward procedure (Fortman used. For very small primates, a 5 French gauge red rubber
et al., 2002). Popilskis prefers preoxygenation with 100% oxy- urinary catheter is utilized. It is important to measure the length
gen for 1 minute via a tight-fitting facemask in a spontaneously of the feeding catheter and cut it to the length that it should end
breathing animal. This prevents desaturation in animals with mid-way between the larynx and bifurcation of trachea. The
compromised airways or respiratory failure following apnea. critical factor for successful intubation is correct positioning.
Nonhuman primates should be adequately anesthetized to pre- One hand of the assistant holds the monkey’s head, grasping
vent vagally mediated reactions such as laryngospasm and the zygomatic arch each side of the head, and simultaneously
bradycardia. Endotracheal intubation can be accomplished with lifting the animal head vertically such that the nares point as ver-
the animal in either the supine or prone position. Placing the tically as possible. The other gently supports the animal’s body.
animal in a sitting position with its head extended toward the The anesthetist opens the mouth so as to expose the pharynx.
anesthetist has been found by to be useful during intubation of A local anesthetic may be necessary to prevent laryngospasm
pediatric baboons or macaques. Hyperextension of the atlanto- if animal is not deeply anesthetized. A cotton tip applicator is
occipital joint facilitates placement of endotracheal tubes in used to press down on the tongue to maximize exposure of the
the supine position. Intubation of animals in the prone posi- larynx. Good lighting aids visualization. In larger squirrel mon-
tion requires elevation of the head with the neck overextended. keys, a pediatric laryngoscope (straight size 1 Miller blade) may
The ultimate goal of both techniques is to achieve the widest be used. With a cotton tip applicator depressing the tongue, the
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 349

endotracheal tube is advanced toward the larynx and into the tra- relatively safe and effective inhalational agent, its production in
chea. The proper placement of the tube is confirmed by bilateral the United States has been recently discontinued. The MAC of
movement of the chest with manual compression of the reservoir halothane in various species of primates has been determined
bag of a nonrebreathing circuit such as the Bain system. (Tinker et al., 1977). There seems to be some variance in MAC
of halothane, even between closely related species of nonhuman
primates. For example, in M. arctoides, the MAC of halothane
C. Nitrous Oxide is 0.89% (Steffey et al., 1974a, 1974b), but in M. fascicularis it
is 1.15% (Tinker et al., 1977).
Unlike the potent volatile anesthetics, nitrous oxide has a rel- Cardiovascular effects of halothane have been well doc-
atively high MAC, 200% in macaques versus 105% in humans, umented in nonhuman primates. The noticeable effect of
and this prevents its use as a complete surgical anesthetic. halothane on the cardiovascular system is a decline in systemic
Nitrous oxide is sometimes used in combination with other blood pressure and heart rate proportional to the depth of anes-
volatile anesthetics such as isoflurane and halothane because thesia. Ritzman et al. (1976) reported that increasing halothane
it allows for a lower inhaled concentration of either agent. MAC from 1 to 1.5 resulted both in a significant decrease in
Tinker et al. (1977) demonstrated that the MAC of halothane blood pressure and a reduction of heart rate in M. mulatta. MAP
in M. fascicularis was reduced from the mean of 1.15–0.75% declined 40–50% and cardiac output was reduced 20–60% when
when halothane was supplemented with 30% nitrous oxide. halothane was increased from 1 to 2 MAC. This dose-dependent
The advantage for inclusion of nitrous oxide with other potent cardiovascular depression seems to be greater in macaques than
volatile anesthetics is a less pronounced circulatory depres- in other species, and is due to the direct effect of halothane on
sion, which may be seen with sole administration of isoflurane myocardial contractility (Steffey et al., 1974a, 1974b). Substi-
or halothane. The minimal cardiovascular effects produced by tution of nitrous oxide for equipotent levels of halothane tends
nitrous oxide can be attributed to its stimulatory effects on the to blunt this response.
sympathetic nervous system, characterized by slight elevations Halothane sensitizes the heart to the dysrhythmogenic effects
in heart rate, and systemic and pulmonary arterial pressures. In of epinephrine. The dysrhythmogenic effect of halothane is not
humans, this sympathomimetic effect of nitrous oxide is most dose-dependent and there is no association between initiation
evident when it is used together with halothane and, to a lesser of dysrhythmia and type or duration of surgical manipula-
degree, with isoflurane (Stoelting and Miller, 1994b). tions. Care should be taken to avoid hypoventilation that may
The authors do not routinely use nitrous oxide in nonhu- result in hypercarbia and increase the occurrence of ventricular
man primates; however, when it is employed we use 50–70% premature contractions (Sanders et al., 1991).
inhaled nitrous oxide and 30–50% oxygen, with the remain- Halothane usually produces rapid and shallow breathing. A
ing anesthetic requirement being provided by either 0.8–1.25% progressive respiratory acidosis prevails, which may lead to
isoflurane or 0.5–1.0% halothane in Papio spp. and macaques. higher serum potassium levels (Goosen et al., 1984). Provid-
Because of the rapid elimination of large volumes of nitrous ing ventilatory support and lowering inspired concentration of
oxide from the blood into the alveoli with a consequent diminu- halothane by supplementing it with nitrous oxide will counteract
tion in alveolar oxygen concentrations, diffusion hypoxia may these effects.
occur if an animal is allowed to breathe air at the end of anes- Halothane causes a dose-dependent increase in CBF and cere-
thesia. We administer 100% oxygen for at least 5 minutes at bral vasodilation. In M. nemestrina, the autoregulation of CBF
the end of anesthetic administration to prevent this occurrence. begins to fail at 1.0%, end-tidal, with complete loss occurring at
McCully et al. (1990) reported a similar anesthetic regimen in 2.0% halothane anesthesia. Administration of 2.0% halothane
M. mulatta using 0.5–1.0% halothane plus a 1:1 ratio of nitrous was associated with a maximum increase in CBF by 97% from
oxide to oxygen at a total flow rate of 4 L/min. Nitrous oxide the baseline value. Morita et al. (1977) noted that impaired CBF
produces a second gas effect when administered concomitantly autoregulation renders the brain highly sensitive to changes in
with volatile anesthetics and as such accelerates the induction. cerebral perfusion pressure. Because this may also have a poten-
Induction in nonhuman primates can be augmented by allowing tially adverse effect on intracranial pressure (ICP), halothane
the animal to spontaneously breathe 1.5–3.0% halothane sup- should be used with caution for neurosurgical procedures.
plemented with 50–60% inspired nitrous oxide. The drawback Eng et al. (1975) investigated the effects of halothane anes-
to this technique is the increased risk of personnel being exposed thesia on maternal and fetal hemodynamics in pregnant M.
to waste anesthetic gases. mulatta. As expected, at 1.5% halothane, the maternal blood
pressure and cardiac output were reduced with a consequen-
tial reduction in uterine blood flow. A decrease in uterine blood
D. Halothane flow and the direct effect of halothane-induced depression on
the fetal cardiovascular system resulted in a 20% reduction in
Although halothane has been used in nonhuman primates for both fetal blood pressure and heart rate. There were pronounced
several decades, and has proven to be, in most applications, a fetal acidosis and hypoxia in some fetuses. Similar results were
350 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

reported in pregnant M. mulatta in which serious hypotension primates, we would anticipate that the MAC of isoflurane would
frequently occurred (Sanders et al., 1991). These data, as well be about 1.0% with 60–70% nitrous oxide.
as the authors’ personal observations with macaques and Papio Isoflurane is recommended for extended (>1 hour) anesthe-
spp., suggest that systemic blood pressure monitoring should sia in squirrel monkeys, as well as for compromised animals.
be instituted during experimental procedures in pregnant non- Squirrel monkeys may be mask induced with isoflurane (4–5%,
human primates. Careful attention to the depth of anesthesia, less for compromised animals), under manual restraint. Induc-
positioning of the animal, and intraoperative fluid management tion usually takes less than 2 minutes, and maintained at 0.5–
will minimize maternal and fetal cardiovascular depression. 3.0% isoflurane/O2 (Brady, personal communication, 2007).
Renal perfusion and glomerular filtration may be decreased In Galago spp., ketamine, 10–15 mg/kg IM, may be used for
secondary to a decline in blood pressure and cardiac output sedation to allow for placement of a mask for delivery of isoflu-
produced by halothane. This may affect radiorenography studies rane, initially at 3.0% and then reduced to about 1.5% for
due to the delay in excretion of various isotopes and contrast maintenance.
materials (Dormehl et al., 1984). Alternatively, balanced anesthesia consisting of 0.5–0.7%
The controversy concerning the role of halothane in the isoflurane and fentanyl titrated to achieve an appropriate depth
production of hepatic necrosis was investigated in E. patas of anesthesia may be used in nonhuman primates. This inhala-
(Fleming and Bearchroft, 1966). They were able to show that tional and opioid combination is useful when cardiovascular
despite multiple and frequent, albeit relatively short duration stability is needed for a procedure. It is important to note that
exposures, halothane was not a specific hepatotoxin in this cardiovascular sparing effects are attributable to a reduction in
species. the dose of inhalant anesthetics because opioids are generally
devoid of hemodynamic effects. A transient but clinically impor-
tant decrease in heart rate and MAP was observed with fentanyl
E. Isoflurane administration (8 μg/kg) when end-tidal isoflurane concentra-
tion was maintained at 1.2% in rhesus monkeys (Valverde et al.,
Isoflurane is a widely used inhalational agent in nonhuman 2000).
primates, and the anesthetic of choice of the authors for most Isoflurane effects on brain metabolism and CBF have been
applications. An advantage of isoflurane over halothane is that investigated in rhesus monkeys (Enlund et al., 1997). Because
it is minimally metabolized due to its chemical stability and isoflurane can induce dose-dependent hypotension with con-
low solubility, and accordingly exhaled essentially unchanged comitant hypocapnea, cerebral oxygenation and blood flow
(see Chapter 3). This characteristic makes it a particularly safe may be affected during hemodynamic instability. As expected,
agent if the nonhuman primate has hepatic or renal deficits, or Enlund et al. (1997) noted that CBF was reduced during
if the research objective is compromised by an agent that has isoflurane-induced hypotension; and while cerebral metabolic
potentially noxious metabolites. Cook and Clarke (1985) used rate of oxygen decreased globally in a dose-dependent manner,
isoflurane in a Gorilla gorilla that had cholestatic jaundice and this led to a higher oxygen extraction ratio in rhesus mon-
found that all hepatic function data remained stable throughout keys. The authors concluded that, although isoflurane-induced
the period of anesthesia. hypotension reduced CBF, it did not result in hypoxia.
Isoflurane, unlike halothane, does not sensitize the
myocardium to the arrhythmogenic properties of circulating
catecholamines. Heart rhythm is stable with isoflurane, and F. Sevoflurane
based on the authors’ experience, ectopic cardiac beats are
very uncommon in normocapnic nonhuman primates. Isoflu- Sevoflurane has minimal odor, no pungency, and is a potent
rane produces minimal depression on cardiac output, but there is bronchodilator (Barash et al., 2006). These attributes make
a dose-dependent decrease in blood pressure due to reductions in sevoflurane an excellent candidate for administration via the
systemic vascular resistance. The hypotension is especially pro- face mask on induction of anesthesia. It offers an advantage
nounced if isoflurane is mask-induced at inspired concentrations over isoflurane mask induction in nonhuman primates. Lower
of 3–4% or when animals are maintained at or above 2%. Inclu- pungency and airway irritation may lessen the risk of strug-
sion of fentanyl attenuates the decrease in blood pressure asso- gling and the associated potential for injury to the animal or
ciated with isoflurane. In young animals, isoflurane-induced anesthetist.
hypotension most likely reflects unrecognized hypovolemia. MAC for cynomolgus monkeys has been determined as 2%
The MAC value for M. fascicularis is 1.28% (Tinker (Soma et al., 1988). It has been shown to be unstable when
et al., 1977). Maintaining nonhuman primates at about 1.3 MAC exposed to soda lime. This instability was a concern because
(1.6–1.75%) provides satisfactory anesthesia for most surgical of potential nephrotoxicity for nonhuman primates (Iyer and
applications. Although the authors are unaware of controlled Anders, 1996). However, multiple administration of sevoflu-
studies done to determine the effects of various concentra- rane to cynomolgus monkeys did not detect any adverse effects
tions of nitrous oxide on the MAC of isoflurane in nonhuman on the animal’s renal function (Soma et al., 1995). In this study,
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 351

cynomolgus monkeys were anesthetized with sevoflurane at 1, displacement of the arterial catheter during the procedure, we
1.6, and 2 times the MAC for 3 h/day and 3 days/week for 8 routinely catheterize the femoral artery using the Seldinger tech-
weeks. Reduction in total erythrocyte and leukocyte counts and nique. The catheter-over-the-needle (Angiocath® ) is used for
increase in serum enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), percutaneous cannulation of the femoral artery. The skin at the
alanine aminotransferase (ALT), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), cannulation site is pierced with the catheter’s stylet to facili-
and creatine kinase (CK)] were the only changes noted. A sig- tate advancement of the catheter and prevent a skin plug from
nificant reduction in red blood cell (RBC) was already noted occluding the stylet. After obtaining pulsatile blood flow from
at 1 and 1.6 MAC sevoflurane at 6 and 8 weeks and in leuko- the cannulation site, a stylet is removed and a guide wire is
cyte count at 1.6 and 2 MAC at 8 weeks. The increases in the placed through the catheter and into the vessel. The catheter
serum enzymes occurred at week 1 at all three concentrations of used for monitoring is then threaded over the wire into the artery.
sevoflurane. These increases were dose-dependent and returned Placement of a three-way stopcock between the catheter and
to baseline values by week 2 in the lowest MAC group. The the arterial tubing allows for frequent blood sampling to deter-
multiple administration of 1.0 and 1.6 MAC sevoflurane anes- mine arterial blood gases. Direct arterial pressure monitoring is
thesia was well tolerated by monkeys; however, at 2.0 MAC usually reserved for animals with cardiac and respiratory dys-
some deaths occurred. With the exception of the reduction of functions, and complex SP such as extracorporeal bypass, which
the thymus in the anesthetized monkeys, there were no gross, may produce vascular volume deficiencies.
histopathologic, or ultrastructural changes found in any of the Assessment of central venous pressure is useful in the man-
groups of monkeys. agement of fluid replacement. The external jugular vein is easily
As with other inhalant anesthetics, sevoflurane causes a dose- accessible and therefore is the most common site for cannula-
dependent increase in CBF, and in M. mulatta the autoregulation tion. A 20 gauge polyurethane indwelling catheter is well suited
of CBF is compromised at 2.0% sevoflurane anesthesia (Kaneko for medium- and larger-size macaques and Papio spp. Follow-
et al., 1997). However, the degree of change is less than that with ing initial cannulation, a J-wire is inserted through the catheter
halothane. and advanced into the central vein. It is used as a guide for
the placement of a longer venous catheter. Cannulation of the
internal jugular vein usually requires a cutdown. Measurements
of cardiac output and calculation of systemic and pulmonary
VII. INTRAOPERATIVE MONITORING
vascular resistance can be obtained with a pulmonary artery
catheter (Swan-Ganz). We find the Swan-Ganz catheter essen-
Intraoperative monitoring provides the means to assess phys- tial for assessment of cardiac function, preload volume status,
iological function during anesthesia and ascertain the proper and responses to therapeutic interventions during major cardio-
functioning of anesthetic equipment. It allows prompt recog- vascular surgery. Placement of the pulmonary artery catheter
nition of adverse reactions and improves the effectiveness into the right internal jugular vein represents the most direct
of therapeutic interventions. However, the use of monitoring approach to the right heart. Catheterization via the femoral
equipment is intended to enhance but not substitute for the vein is also commonly performed, but usually requires fluoro-
awareness on the part of the anesthesiologist. scopic guidance. A 5 French pediatric Swan-Ganz catheter can
be successfully inserted in adult macaques (4–8 kg), whereas
in larger primates (e.g., 15–20 kg baboons), a 7.5 French pul-
A. Cardiovascular Monitoring monary catheter is used. Udelsman et al. (1984) reported that M.
fascicularis had cardiac output, systemic and pulmonary vas-
In larger nonhuman primates, insertion of an esophageal cular resistance values (adjusted for basal surface area) similar
stethoscope during the intraoperative period facilitates early to those of humans. With few exceptions, we have observed a
detection of changes in heart rate and rhythm, and provides close correlation of hemodynamic data between Papio spp. and
information on the adequacy of ventilation. Lead II is commonly humans.
used for detection of cardiac dysrhythmia, because it produces
an easily recognizable P wave and establishes the relationship
of atrial to ventricular depolarization. Arterial blood pressure B. Respiratory Monitoring
can be measured by placing the cuff on the nonhuman primate’s
lower arm or leg. Utilizing a self-calibrating device allows for Assessment of oxygenation and ventilation during admin-
automatic and noninvasive determination of blood pressure. istration of anesthetics is essential. The color of the mucous
Direct arterial pressure monitoring is achieved by percuta- membranes is the simplest method to ascertain adequacy of oxy-
neous cannulation or cutdown of the femoral artery in smaller genation. Quantitative pulmonary evaluation can be achieved by
nonhuman primates. To cannulate the femoral artery, we insert obtaining arterial blood for blood gas analysis or noninvasively
an 18-gauge catheter in animals over 10 kg and a 20 gauge with monitors such as pulse oximetry, end-tidal CO2 moni-
Teflon® catheter for smaller macaques. To avoid accidental tors, or mass spectrometry. Pulse oximetry provides continuous
352 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

measurement of arterial oxygen saturation. We use an infant alveolar anesthetic concentration required to prevent “gross and
digit oxygen transducer that can be attached to a nonhuman pri- purposeful” movement. Patients generally lose consciousness
mate’s tongue or ear. The tongue site seems to be less influenced and memory at around 0.25–0.4 MAC. Because MAC awake is
by intraoperative conditions such as hypothermia or hypoten- a fraction of MAC for movement, animals can be anesthetized
sion, and therefore we find it preferable to an ear site. For smaller at depths that produce unconsciousness and amnesia, yet do not
new world primate (NWP) (marmosets), a pediatric finger probe abolish movement. As a general guideline, evaluation of the
attached to a shaved footpad provides reliable and continuous depth of anesthesia should not be reliant upon any single value
monitoring of oxygen saturation and heart rate data. or observation, but should be based on the integrated assessment
It is well recognized that measurement of expired CO2 is the of a number of physiological parameters by the anesthetist.
single most effective method of determining airway patency and
adequacy of ventilation. Monitors for end-tidal CO2 sample gas
from the animal’s airway, usually at the site where the breathing D. Body Temperature
circuit is connected to the endotracheal tube. In addition to dis-
playing CO2 levels, it also generates a CO2 waveform called a It is not uncommon for a nonhuman primate to lose a sig-
capnogram. The shape of the capnogram provides us with use- nificant amount of body heat during anesthesia and surgery.
ful information on a variety of conditions such as obstruction Very young and small-size animals (marmosets and squirrel
of the endotracheal tube and rebreathing of expired gases. monkeys) are particularly at risk of becoming hypothermic.
Airway pressure created by assisted or controlled ventilation Intraoperative monitoring of body temperature is routinely
is measured by a pressure manometer within the airway circuit performed by inserting a temperature probe into either the
of anesthesia machine. Peak inspiratory pressures of 15–30 cm esophagus or the rectum and connecting it to the monitor. The
H2 O are usually sufficient to expand the lungs. High peak inspi- drawback of rectal temperature is that it does not accurately
ratory pressures are usually indicative of a kinked endotracheal reflect blood or “core” temperature when changes in temperature
tube, endobronchial intubation, or an insufficiently opened are very rapid. Deep hypothermia induced for central nervous
“pop-off” valve. Any of these conditions may lead to baro- system surgery is an example that calls for monitoring core tem-
trauma and eventually result in pneumothorax or subcutaneous perature by an esophageal probe inserted into the lower third of
emphysema. the esophagus. A tympanic probe placed in the external auditory
canal will reflect brain temperature by measuring the tempera-
ture of blood perfusing the brain and is useful during cerebral
C. Depth of Anesthesia cooling procedures.

Anesthetic depth is usually assessed by monitoring a variety

of parameters. Loss of palpebral and corneal reflexes, degree E. Urinary Output
of muscle relaxation, rate and depth of breathing, and lack of
somatic response to surgical stimuli are most commonly used to Urinary output is a direct indicator of renal function and
ascertain adequacy of anesthesia. If muscle relaxants are used serves as a useful guide of intravascular volume status. In female
during the maintenance of anesthesia, monitoring autonomic macaques and Papio spp., bladder catheterization is usually per-
responses to surgical events must be done to assess the depth formed by inserting a soft rubber Foley catheter through the
of anesthesia. Increases in heart rate and systolic blood pres- urethral meatus, located between two papillary folds posterior
sure of 20% or more over baseline values can be interpreted as to the clitoris, into the bladder and then connecting it into a
indications of an inadequate depth of anesthesia. Lacrimation urinary drainage bag.
and attempts to breathe out of synchrony with a ventilator might
also indicate inadequate anesthesia.
The degree of anesthetic depth is crucial to avoiding compli-
VIII. INTRAOPERATIVE SUPPORT
cations and maximizing experimental success. Traditional signs
of anesthetic depth, such as heart rate and blood pressure, may
be inadequate, depending on the anesthetic and species. Diverse IV infusion of crystalloid solutions during surgery helps
opinions regarding what constitutes acceptable anesthetic depth to maintain normovolemia necessary for adequate tissue per-
exist among human and veterinary anesthesiologists, and an fusion. Intraoperative fluid and blood loss replacement is
in-depth discussion of this evolving issue is beyond the scope of usually determined by the site and duration of surgery. For
this chapter. However, researchers should be aware that animal minor procedures in nonhuman primates, administration of iso-
movement during surgical and experimental procedures may tonic electrolyte solutions such as lactated Ringer’s solution
not necessarily indicate that the animal is “underanesthetized” at the rate of 5–10 ml/kg/h is sufficient to maintain normal
from the standpoint of awareness or discomfort (Antognini fluid composition. During abdominal surgery, infusion of lac-
et al., 2005). Anesthesiologists use “MAC,” the minimum tated Ringer’s solution at the rate of 15–20 ml/kg/h is needed
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 353

to compensate for third-space loss. Because of their small be prepared in a solution of 5% dextrose in water or alternatively
intravascular volumes, marmosets and squirrel monkeys are in normal saline.
especially at an increased risk of some electrolyte disturbances. The use of forced-air warming systems (e.g., Bair Hugger) is
For maintenance in juvenile macaques and baboons, we rou- a simple and effective means of providing temperature support.
tinely administer 2.5% dextrose in 0.45% saline at the rate of Bair Hugger blankets are available in a variety of shapes and
5 ml/kg/h. sizes to optimize convective warming for the large size range
A urinary catheter should be used to evaluate the adequacy of of nonhuman primates encountered in research. Warming of
fluid therapy whenever surgery is prolonged or if significant IV fluids generally does not contribute to the maintenance of
changes in intravascular volume are anticipated. Minor-to- normothermia. However, if large volumes of fluid are to be
moderate blood loss can be replaced with crystalloid solutions administered, this measure is recommended, as it would help to
given in the amounts equal to about three times the amount prevent fluid-induced hypothermia.
of blood loss. Monitoring blood pressure and urinary output
allows one to determine whether intravascular fluid volume is
being adequately replaced.
IX. SPECIAL ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
Significant intraoperative blood loss warrants serial determi-
nation of a nonhuman primate’s hematocrit. If the hematocrit
falls below 20%, we usually administer blood as part of the A. Obstetric Anesthesia
replacement solution. There is some disagreement on the neces-
sity of cross-matching blood between the same species of Physiological changes occurring during pregnancy can
nonhuman primates prior to transfusion (Socha et al., 1984). directly influence the anesthesia management for obstetric
Initial blood transfusions in macaques and Papio spp. do not surgery. Increased plasma volume leading to dilutional ane-
normally cause any of the symptoms associated with an acute mia, increased alveolar ventilation, prolonged gastric emptying,
transfusion reaction because preformed isoantibodies to ery- and decreased requirements for inhaled anesthetics are the most
throcyte antigens are absent (Socha et al., 1982). Autologous common physiological alterations. After ketamine preanesthe-
blood transfusions can be used in studies where clinically inap- sia, thiopental (3–5 mg/kg), or propofol (2–5 mg/kg) IV can
parent, but immunologically significant incompatibilities may be used for induction with inhalational agents for maintenance
occur (e.g., organ transplantation). In such instances, we with- of anesthesia. For maintenance in Papio spp., we use 0.5–0.7
draw 10–12% of the nonhuman primate’s blood 10–14 days MAC of either halothane or isoflurane supplemented with 50–
before surgery and place the blood into a blood collection bag 60% inspired nitrous oxide. The advantage of including nitrous
(with citrate–phosphate–dextrose as anticoagulant), which is oxide with other volatile anesthetics is that there is a less pro-
stored at 1–6◦ C until the day of surgery. nounced circulatory depression. Because maternal hypotension
Anesthesia in conjunction with surgery produces a com- is the most common complication encountered during anesthe-
plex and unstable physiological status. Understanding the sia, we routinely monitor blood pressure. Indirect blood pressure
effects of various inotropes and vasopressors is important is monitored with the proper-size cuff placed around the area
for treating alterations of physiological functions during the of the tibial or radial artery. Measuring indirect blood pressure
intraoperative period. We consider phenylephrine to be a in the arm may not provide correct information due to arte-
drug of choice to treat isoflurane-induced hypotension. A rial hypotension occurring only in the lower extremities in the
1–2 μg/kg bolus of phenylephrine, followed by an infusion of pregnant animal.
0.5–1.0 μg/kg/min, will elevate blood pressure by increasing Placing the pregnant nonhuman primate in a supine posi-
systemic vascular resistance. When hypotension is accompa- tion may contribute to hypotension due to compression of the
nied by bradycardia, a 2.5 mg IV bolus of ephedrine, repeated caudal vena cava and abdominal aorta by the gravid uterus. Tilt-
if needed, will increase blood pressure and improve cardiac ing the pregnant animal to the left by elevating the right sacral
output. We have not observed cardiac dysrhythmias in non- area helps to prevent maternal hypotension. Maternal hypoten-
human primates anesthetized with isoflurane and treated with sion from any cause requires immediate volume restoration and,
ephedrine. if needed, careful vasopressor therapy. We maintain hydration
An IV bolus of lidocaine, 1.0–2.0 mg/kg, followed by lido- by IV infusion of lactated Ringer’s solution at the rate of 10–
caine infusion, 20–50 μg/kg/min, is helpful in suppressing 20 ml/kg/h. Preoperative placement of a urinary catheter allows
premature ventricular contractions. for monitoring the effectiveness of fluid therapy. If hypoten-
During cardiovascular collapse, characterized by decreased sion persists, we consider vasopressor therapy. Ephedrine,
cardiac output and markedly reduced blood pressure, dopamine intravenously in 1.25–2.5-mg increments, is the safest vaso-
and norepinephrine infusions can be used. Dopamine has an pressor for use during maternal hypotension. Because of its
advantage over other sympathomimetic drugs due to its ability to predominant beta-adrenergic activity, ephedrine will maintain
maintain perfusion pressure and cardiac output without reducing uterine arterial perfusion by increasing maternal cardiac out-
renal blood flow. Infusions of all sympathomimetic drugs should put and restoring uterine blood flow without uterine arterial
354 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

vasoconstriction (Levinson et al., 1974). Maternal normocapnea Therefore, based on physiologic differences, one of the main
should be maintained during the intraoperative period. Extreme goals of preanesthesia and induction is the avoidance of heart
hyperventilation of the lungs should be avoided. In humans, rate reduction. This can be achieved with administration of
hypocarbia has been shown to reduce uteroplacental blood flow ketamine (5 mg/kg) and atropine (0.02 mg/kg) IM. Inhalational
(Stoelting and Miller, 1994a, 1994b). Conversely, hypoven- mask induction is also an accepted technique in pediatric anes-
tilation during halothane anesthesia has been associated with thesia, but because neonatal primates are usually allowed to
an increased incidence of premature ventricular contractions in nurse until anesthesia time, assisted ventilation during mask
M. mulatta (Sanders et al., 1991). induction should be avoided. Assisted ventilation may lead to the
Laparotomy performed on pregnant rhesus monkeys and insufflation of the stomach with gases and place the neonate at
baboons during the last third of gestation is often followed by risk to aspiration. For the same reason, the authors often induce
pronounced uterine contractions, especially in the first few post- neonatal primates with propofol (2–4 mg/kg) IV. The suckling
operative days (Morgan et al., 1992; Taylor et al., 1983). This, in reflex is used as one of the indicators for depth of anesthesia
turn, may lead to premature delivery. In late pregnancy, myome- in neonatal nonhuman primates. This is done by placing a fin-
trial contractions in nonhuman primates occur in two distinct ger into the neonate’s mouth, which elicits sucking. The loss
forms: contractures, which are long in duration and accompa- of this reflex serves as a reliable indicator of adequate depth of
nied by increases in intra-amniotic pressure; and contractions, anesthesia.
which are short in duration and high in amplitude (Tame et al., Intubation of pediatric nonhuman primates can be done with
1999). It has been suggested by the authors that elevated estro- the use of both uncuffed and cuffed endotracheal tubes. The
gen levels in pregnant monkeys are responsible for switching authors use 2.5–3.5 mm internal diameter endotracheal tubes
from contracture mode to the contraction mode. Close attention for neonatal and juvenile Papio and Macaca spp. The intubation
to the level of postoperative analgesia may help to reduce post- technique has been described previously. Postintubation laryn-
operative myometrial contraction activity and enhance success geal edema is unlikely if the size of the endotracheal tube in the
after SP in pregnant nonhuman primates. Tame et al. (1999) trachea is such that a slightly audible air leak occurs around the
administered a continuous infusion of buprenorphine at either tube when positive pressure of 15–20 cm H2 O is applied.
15 or 30 μg/kg/day for 48 hours through an intra-arterial catheter Small tidal volumes in pediatric animals require the use of
protected by the tether system. Higher doses of buprenorphine nonrebreathing circuits such as modified Jackson Rees and Bain
resulted in inhibition of postoperative myometrial contractions, systems. A fresh gas flow of 1.5–2.0 L/min is adequate to prevent
as well as lower maternal estradiol and cortisol concentrations. rebreathing during spontaneous ventilation. Because volatile
Similarly, there were decreases in myometrial contractions and anesthetics depress spontaneous ventilation, we use controlled
maternal plasma catecholamine concentrations with the use of a or assisted ventilation for all but short procedures to prevent CO2
single injection of epidural morphine (0.15 mg/kg) or a continu- accumulation. Intermittent positive pressure ventilation (IPPV)
ous infusion of morphine (0.5 mg/h/day for 48 hours) (Popilskis can also be provided with a Bain system. In smaller nonhuman
et al., 1994). Prevention of hypothermia is also an important primates, IPPV offers an advantage over spontaneous ventila-
factor in the anesthesia management for obstetric surgery, par- tion by providing better ventilation and improving acid–base
ticularly for laparotomy procedures. As discussed previously, balance.
the use of forced-air warming systems (e.g., Bair Hugger) is We routinely monitor ECG, indirect blood pressure, oxygen
recommended, besides warmed fluids if large volumes are to be saturation, and body temperature in pediatric cases. Indirect
administered. blood pressure is obtained by placing a proper-size cuff around
the radial artery. The pulse oximetry transducer is best attached
to the tongue or to the palm of the hand in the neonate. Pedi-
B. Pediatric Anesthesia atric animals have a larger surface area per kg of body weight
than adults, resulting in increased heat loss to the environment.
Successful pediatric anesthesia management requires an This, together with an increased metabolic rate and lack of
understanding of the physiologic and pharmacologic differences body fat, increases the potential for significant hypothermia
between adult and pediatric animals. Cardiac output is heart in pediatric nonhuman primates. The use of warming lights,
rate dependent in pediatric animals, since stroke volume is rel- forced-air warming systems (e.g., Bair Hugger) and warm IV
atively fixed due to the noncompliant left ventricle in young fluids minimizes the severity of hypothermia.
nonhuman primates. The high heart rate makes ECG moni- We consider isoflurane to be the anesthetic of choice for pedi-
toring difficult with routine electrocardiograph units. Arterial atric animals. It may increase the heart rate slightly; however, a
blood pressure is lower than that in adult nonhuman primates. stable rhythm is maintained. The hypotension that accompanies
Accurate measurement of blood pressure can be a problem if isoflurane anesthesia is not uncommon in pediatric macaques
adult human blood pressure cuffs are used. Popilskis has used and Papio spp. We treat isoflurane-induced hypotension with
pediatric (size one) blood pressure cuffs for 1 kg nonhuman phenylephrine, and in some cases it may be more effectively
primates with intermittent success. treated with a norepinephrine infusion (0.05–0.1 μg/kg/min).
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 355

As a guideline for maintenance fluids in pediatric primates, induced and maintained with isoflurane and positive pres-
we use 4 ml/kg/h of warm 5% dextrose or 2.5% dextrose in sure ventilation was instituted throughout the procedure. The
0.45% NaCl. This will not correct third-space intraoperative port sites were created by making three 1-cm incisions: for
losses and blood loss. Because vasoconstrictive responses of endoscopic camera in intercostals space (ICS 6), Babcock
neonates to hemorrhage are less than those of adults, even forceps (ICS 5), and Metzenbaum scissors (ICS 3). Both Bab-
moderate blood loss will result in precipitous declines in blood cock forceps and Metzenbaum scissors were used to create
pressure. Therefore, crystalloid solution, equal to three times defects in pleura and retract the samples. Insufflation was per-
the blood loss, should be immediately given. formed with carbon dioxide at the rate of 2–5 L/min. The
In general, we find that neonatal Papio spp. and macaques authors noted only minor complication such as self-limiting
recover more quickly from anesthesia and are less disturbed by bleeding and avascular adhesions that were easily broken. It
minor complications than are adult nonhuman primates. should be noted that insufflation pressures should be maintained
as low as possible and the CO2 inflow rate kept preferably
less than 2 L/min (Barash et al., 2006). Higher pressures
C. Anesthesia for Laparoscopic and Thorascopic can cause mediastinal shift, hemodynamic compromise, and
Procedures increase in end-tidal CO2 . Hypotension and tachycardia could
be present especially at pressures above 5 mmHg (Sato et al.,
Compared to open procedures, endoscopic surgery decreases 2005).
surgical morbidity due to reductions in incision size, hem-
orrhage, and procedure time that may lead to prolonged
postoperative recovery. In addition, it reduces the number of D. Anesthesia for Magnetic Resonance Imaging
animals required for certain studies because of the ability to
retrieve serial samples (Liao et al., 2004). This, in turn, allows MRI techniques have gained popularity because of their non-
performing minimally invasive procedure on a single animal invasiveness, ability to obtain both biochemical and spatial
without the need for an additional animal for each collection information without destroying the sample, and lack of ion-
point. The endoscopic procedures for various species for non- izing radiation. An inevitable consequence of carrying MRI is
human primates have been described (Gaglio et al., 2000; Liao the presence of strong magnetic field that may affect anesthesia
et al., 2004; Perret-Gentil et al., 2000; Rawlings et al., 2000). equipment and various physiological monitors. An additional
For research purposes, it has been performed in baboons to disadvantage of using MRI techniques, especially functional
obtain liver and splenic biopsy specimens (Rawlings et al., MRI, is its sensitivity to motion artifact, which creates the need
2000), in rhesus for study of hepatectomy and liver regener- to avoid movement of the animal and thus minimize misinter-
ation (Gaglio et al., 2000), for intra-abdominal biopsy in obese pretation of data. Reliable sedation and anesthesia is essential
rhesus monkeys (Liao et al., 2004) and serial abdominal tis- to avoid gross movement. Propofol has been successfully used
sue samples for HIV studies in macaques (Perret-Gentil et al., in nonhuman primates to achieve reliable sedation during the
2000). imaging. When compared with other injectable anesthetics such
A majority of laparoscopic procedures are performed under as Saffan or etomidate, it offers certain advantages. Saffan is
inhalational anesthetic, isoflurane. In addition to routine mon- only available in the United Kingdom. Etomidate’s ability to
itors such as ECG and pulse oximeter, it is advantageous to suppress adrenal function during anesthesia and surgery may
incorporate capnograph monitor for continuous assessment of be detrimental in immediate postoperative period. Given the
end-tidal CO2 . Because pneumoperitoneum is created using noncumulative nature of propofol, it allows for ease of titra-
CO2 insufflation, to a pressure of 8–12 mmHg, high abdomi- tion during continuous infusion and rapid recovery. Although
nal pressure may induce adverse physiologic changes, including propofol provides faster induction and recovery times, it causes
retention of CO2 and reduced visceral perfusion. This especially desaturation, hypotension, decrease in heart rate, and myocar-
may be important to older and obese monkeys, with potentially dial contractility (Fanton et al., 2000; Fowler et al., 2001).
greater medical risks associated with these conditions (Liao MRI-compatible fiber optic pulse oximetry (NONIN, Model
et al., 2004). Nevertheless, laparoscopy greatly reduces the like- 8000FC) offers continuous monitoring of propofol-anesthetized
lihood of adhesions that are more common for open SP. In turn, nonhuman primates during imaging procedures. Despite its
this should allow the animal to return rapidly to normal food limitations, it alerts anesthesiologist of potential problems
intake and activity. (desaturation, cardiovascular instability, and hypothermia) dur-
Video-assisted endoscopic surgery has been gaining pop- ing limited visualization of the primate in the scanner. Applying
ularity in nonhuman primates. In the effort to decrease the assisted ventilation with 100% oxygen supplementation would
postoperative morbidity associated with open thoracotomy, further assure maintenance of safe anesthesia during imaging
Bohm et al. (2000) describe the procedure to collect thymic tis- procedure.
sues in rhesus monkeys. After premedication with acepromazine The usefulness of a continuous infusion of propofol to obtain
0.02 mg/kg and butorphanol 0.013 mg/kg IM, anesthesia was high-resolution MRIs in 27 M. mulatta was demonstrated
356 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

by Fowler et al. (2001). Animals were initially sedated E. Anesthesia for Neurological Procedures
with tiletamine–zolazepam and induced with 1 mg/kg propo-
fol IV. Animals were intubated to provide assisted ventilation Nonhuman primate models of focal cerebral ischemia pro-
and supplemental oxygen during transport and imaging vide clinically relevant models for investigating the vascular
procedures. Propofol infusion ranged between 0.31 and and cellular pathophysiology associated with ischemic brain
0.64 mg/kg/min, with a mean value of 0.51 mg/kg/min dur- injury and pharmacological interventions that are appropriate
ing 60-minute scan. Popilskis noted large individual variations for stroke patients. One of the most relevant and reproducible
in the dose response to propofol with no correlation to body models is that of Papio species, with the transorbital surgical
weight. None of the animals developed hypoxemia as assessed injury to the proximal middle cerebral artery. A majority of
by pulse oximetry and although blood pressure was not mea- animals display both cortical and subcortical injury with ani-
sured during the actual imaging, measurements were normal mals exhibiting various degrees of neurological deficits. The
prior to and after the MRI. Because each MRI was followed size of Papio makes this species suitable for clinical neurolog-
by the craniotomy and neural transplant surgery under isoflu- ical assessment, computerized tomography and MRI cerebral
rane anesthesia, accurate assessment of recovery time was scanning, neuroelectrophysologic measurements, and evalua-
not made. Anesthetic recovery from propofol anesthesia in tion of neuropathology. These characteristics are important in
two monkeys without subsequent cranial surgery occurred the development of clinically relevant experiments.
within 5–10 minutes of stopping the infusion (Fowler et al., There is currently no widely accepted drug or technique that
2001). has been shown to offer brain protection during neurosurgi-
Benveniste et al. (2003) used propofol infusion to deter- cal procedures. Nehls et al. (1987) have compared the effects
mine methodology for combining PET and MRI to identify of isoflurane (2 ± 0.5%), thiopental (3.6 ± 0.7 g), and nitrous
fetal organs and to measure bi-directional nutrient exchange and oxide (60%)/fentanyl (3–25 μg/kg/h) anesthesia on neurolog-
metabolism between dam and fetus M. radiata. This presents ical outcome in baboons subjected to middle cerebral artery
certain challenges as maternal drug transfer may be hazardous occlusion. Baboons in the isoflurane group had more frequent
to the fetus, and on the other hand, sufficient transplacental infarcts than animals that were maintained on thiopental infu-
transfer of drugs to the fetus plays crucial role in therapeu- sion; their neurogical outcome scores were worse. Furthermore,
tic efficacy. Animals were maintained on propofol infusion of while there were no significant differences between isoflurane
160–300 μg/kg/min for anatomic T2-weighted images, with and nitrous oxide/fentanyl groups in terms of neurological out-
subsequent acquisition of whole-body PET images. All animals come, there was a significant difference in the character of
underwent uneventful anesthesia for a duration of up to 7 hours. infarcts, with those in isoflurane group being more hemorrhagic
Propofol infusion did not adversely affect isotope distribution in character.
across placenta and its accumulation in both maternal and fetal The use of balanced anesthesia that utilizes combination of
internal organs. In addition, IV propofol, in combination with high doses of opioid analgesic, low inspired concentration of
IV hydration, ensured stable physiological state during long- volatile anesthetic and muscle relaxant provides physiologically
term imaging study as well as rapid and uncomplicated recovery. stable anesthesia that is important for neurosurgical procedures.
None of the pregnant macaques developed preterm labor during An additional and very important advantage of this technique
or immediately after the study and all mothers delivered normal, for neuroanesthesia is that it causes minimal changes in CBF
full-term babies. and ICP. The use of inhalant anesthetic, that is, isoflurane, as a
The Popilskis used propofol IV infusion for imaging in Papio sole anesthetic produces a dose-dependent decrease in systemic
spp. with various degrees of neurological deficits to characterize blood pressure that alters CBF and may even worsen an outcome
stroke lesion evolution. Animals tolerated well propofol infu- of focal ischemia in baboons (Nehls et al., 1986, 1987).
sion of 100–225 μg/kg/min at 72 hours postcerebral ischemia. Popilskis used balanced anesthesia, consisting of a high
Baboons were intubated and connected to nonrebreathing circuit fentanyl infusion (50–100 μg/kg/h) with a low MAC of isoflu-
with attached Ambu bag. Supplemental oxygen was provided rane (0.1–0.5%) administered in combination with 60% nitrous
and pulse oximeter was used to monitor physiological param- oxide in a modified transorbital baboon model of reperfused
eters. Propofol was discontinued at the end of the scan and stroke. Large doses of fentanyl were utilized not only for
baboons were delivered to the home cage for further monitoring. analgesia and MAC reduction, but also to produce unconscious-
Because of the neurological deficits related to stroke, the recov- ness and suppress the usual stress response to surgery. Muscle
ery was prolonged (1–1.5 hours) but without anesthesia-related relaxant, vecuronium (0.04 mg/kg/h IV), was infused during
complications. the intraoperative period. Used as an adjunct in adequately
Recently, MRI-compatible anesthesia machines and monitors anesthetized nonhuman primates, it facilitated mechanical ven-
became available, but it is still important to check exactly how tilation and reduced skeletal muscle tone. Continuous moni-
close this equipment can be brought to the magnetic field. In toring of direct arterial blood pressure and heart rate assured
the absence of MRI-compatible monitors, long sampling tubes timely recognition and immediate correction of inadequate
can be connected to anesthesia monitors. anesthesia.
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 357

An intensive physiologic monitoring during neurovascular Although we find that Papio spp. and macaques initially seem to
procedures is key to successful short- and long-term outcome. tolerate mild-to-moderate hypoxemia (PaO2 55–60 mmHg) rel-
For this reason, an intra-arterial catheter was placed into the atively well, over a period of time this condition may progress
femoral artery to provide for continuous monitoring of blood into severe acidosis and circulatory depression.
pressure and multiple arterial blood gas sampling. A mean Before extubation, the oropharynx and trachea are suctioned
arterial blood pressure was maintained between 60 mmHg and to clear secretions and blood, which may have accumulated dur-
80 mmHg. Hypotensive episodes were treated with IV injec- ing surgery. Suctioning of the trachea is particularly important
tions of phenylephrine. Central venous pressure was assessed for smaller nonhuman primates because respiratory passages
via femoral vein catheter and sustained between 3 mmHg and can be easily obstructed with bronchial secretions. Attaching
7 mmHg. An indwelling, transurethral Foley catheter permit- a soft rubber catheter to standard suction tubing allows for
ted monitoring of urinary output to guide fluid management effective clearing of the trachea and pharynx.
and CVP. Respiratory rate and tidal volumes were adjusted to Animals may require careful clinical evaluation for inade-
maintain PCO2 around 35 mmHg. Continuous ICP monitoring quate surgical hemostasis. Sequential hematocrit determina-
was accomplished with a parenchymal sensor (Neuromonitor tions help provide a rapid and accurate evaluation of a bleeding
and Goodman). Monitoring of core body temperatures with an animal. Animals receiving large amounts of heparin (e.g., dur-
esophageal probe and of the brain with a parenchymal probe ing cardiopulmonary bypass) require evaluation of prothrombin
(Mon-a-Therm 70B, Mallinckrodt Medical) allowed body tem- time when cardiopulmonary bypass is discontinued. Protamine
peratures to be maintained close to 37◦ C with a warm air-heating is usually administered over a period of time to reverse heparin
blanket. anticoagulation.
Postsurgical animals remained intubated and sedated (isoflu- Postoperative hypothermia is frequently encountered during
rane 0.4–1% and fentanyl 5–20 μg/kg/h) for the first 18 hours. a SP. Exposure to a cool ambient temperature in the operating
This allowed for continuous monitoring of blood pressure, CVP room and the use of unwarmed IV fluids may contribute to sig-
and ICP, core and brain temperatures, and arterial blood gas. nificant heat loss. NWPs are particularly at risk of developing
Sustained ICP of >20 mmHg was treated with mannitol at a severe hypothermia because of their large body surface area,
dose of 0.5 g/kg administered IV. Pulmonary evacuation was which increases heat loss to the environment. Severe hypother-
achieved with suctioning and chest physical therapy. By the end mia may delay awakening by reducing metabolism and excretion
of 18 hours monitoring period, inhalant anesthetics and opioids of anesthetic drugs. It may also result in hemodynamic compro-
were tapered and animals were allowed to regain consciousness. mise manifested in a decrease of cardiac output and bradycardia.
Extubation was attempted only if animals demonstrated the abil- Hypothermia should be treated with warming lights, heating
ity to maintain normal arterial blood gas (PO2 > 60 mmHg and blankets, and warm saline bags to raise the body temperature. It
PCO2 < 40 mmHg) without assisted ventilation. is important to prevent burns and avoid placing heating lamps
very close to the animal. Space heaters may be used to pre-
heat the recovery area. The use of forced-air warming blankets
(e.g., Bair Hugger® ) is a safe and effective means of providing
X. POSTOPERATIVE CARE
temperature support in the perioperative period.
Hypotension and tachycardia are common circulatory com-
Postoperative monitoring ensures prompt recognition of plications associated with the early postoperative period. Resid-
postsurgical complications and helps provide for an overall ual effects of anesthetics and inadequately replaced blood loss
safe recovery from anesthesia. Physiological disorders most during surgery are often causes for hypotension. Uncontrolled
commonly encountered during postoperative recovery include postoperative bleeding can result in hypovolemia and hypoten-
pulmonary and circulatory complications, hypothermia, and sion. Because bladder catheterization is a relatively simple
pain. technique, maintaining a urinary catheter in the early postoper-
It is not uncommon for nonhuman primates to vomit when ative period helps in evaluating the adequacy of fluid and blood
they emerge from anesthesia. Extubation should be delayed until loss replacement.
the animal regains the swallowing reflex or other signs of volun- Hypoglycemia is not uncommon among NWPs (squirrel
tary movement (e.g., head movement and chewing). If vomiting monkey, owl monkey, common marmoset, and titi monkey).
occurs after extubation, the animal should be placed in a prone Very palatable foods should be offered as soon as the animal
position with its head lowered to avoid aspiration of the vomi- is fully awake. Force-feeding should be avoided, especially
tus. Maintaining an arterial catheter until the nonhuman primate in titi monkeys because of their unusual vocal cord structure.
regains sufficient consciousness allows one to determine arterial This makes force-feeding difficult and can result in aspiration
blood gases after the animal is spontaneously breathing room pneumonia (Tardif et al., 2006).
air. To avoid respiratory inadequacy during the postoperative In general, recovery of all nonhuman primates should be
period, we generally do not extubate the nonhuman primate if accomplished with least possible noise and reduced traffic
PaO2 is less than 60 mmHg and pCO2 is more than 50 mmHg. except essential visual monitoring. Extraneous noise may result
358 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

in unnecessary stress especially among marmosets, titi mon- synthesis in support of many physiologic functions, includ-
keys, and nocturnal monogamous species—Aotus. As a con- ing gastric mucosal defense and platelet aggregation. Cox-2
sequence of an increase in stressful situations, these animals is present in some tissues, and can be turned on by bacte-
can develop persistent high blood pressure, which can lead to rial endotoxins, cytokines, and growth factors, leading to the
cardiovascular disease (Tardif et al., 2006). synthesis of pro-inflammatory PGs. Problematic side effects
are usually the result of chronic administration and are rarely
seen with short-term administration (Dobromylskyj, P. et al.,
2000).
XI. ANALGESIA
The most common NSAIDs used in nonhuman primates are
nonselective Cox inhibitors, meaning that they block both iso-
Administration of analgesia to nonhuman primates may be forms of cyclooxygenase. These include aspirin, carprofen,
necessitated clinically by events such as trauma related to con- ibuprofen, ketoprofen, and ketorolac. Meloxicam is an NSAID
specific interactions in social housing, self-injurious behavior, produced for veterinary use that has been demonstrated to
or injury from activity in the animal’s primary enclosure. Anal- inhibit Cox-2 to a greater extent than Cox-1 in vitro and in
gesia may also be indicated in conjunction with study design that vivo (Boehringer, 2007).
anticipates or produces a painful situation. The use of analgesics Ibuprofen (7 mg/kg) has been used in both old world and new
should always consider possible side effects and confounding world nonhuman primates. It should be noted that ibuprofen is
implications on animal care and research goals. a mild analgesic, and as such may only be sufficient for alle-
Research primates are wild animals, regardless of their origin. viation of mild postsurgical pain. Another NSAID, ketorolac
As such they tend to mask signs of discomfort and pain. We (0.5–1 mg/kg IM in macaques and Papio spp.), provides anal-
may however observe changes in the animal’s behavior related gesia for moderate postoperative pain in nonhuman primates
to discomfort or pain. Nonhuman primates may show pain by when parenteral administration is desirable. Because ketoro-
displaying some of the following signs: reduction of appetite lac may prolong bleeding, it should not be used in nonhuman
(diet or treats), vocalization and gnashing of teeth, change in primates with acquired or natural coagulopathies.
posture (crouched and huddled), focusing attention on a body The author prefers the use of carprofen (2–4 mg/kg SC, IV
part (including biting, scratching, self-mutilating, and licking), q8h–q12h) administered for mild-to-moderate pain, or as antic-
avoidance of cage mates, and so on. ipated pre and postsurgically, for 3–4 days. If additional anal-
The most common analgesic agents employed in research pri- gesia is required, the opioid buprenorphine (0.01–0.03 mg/kg
mates include nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) IM q8h–q12h) may be added for pain management. Fleck-
and opiate analgesics; the para-aminophenol derivative nell (2005) reports the use of carprofen (3–4 mg/kg IV, SC)
acetaminophen (5–10 mg/kg PO q6h) is also used in the treat- administered preoperatively in rhesus macaques, followed by
ment of fever or mild pain, especially in juvenile macaques or meloxicam daily oral dosing [0.1–0.2 mg/kg Metacam palatable
new world monkeys (DE). Acetaminophen’s rectal formulation drops (Boehringer) starting 1 day postsurgery, and continued
(15–20 mg/kg) allows administration to unconscious animals at daily for up to 3 days]. During his clinical observation of 24
the end of SP. surgeries, wound swelling was noted to be substantially reduced,
Management of pain in animals requires that pain either be and there were no clinical signs of delayed bone healing related
anticipated and prevented (preemptive), or be recognized and to cranial implants.
alleviated (postinductive). Preemptive analgesia presumes that Mu-specific opioid (morphine 1–2 mg/kg IM or SQ every
the pain will result from the procedure and that nonpharma- 4 hours) is generally indicated for the treatment of moderate-
cological and pharmacological protocols would be instituted to-severe postoperative pain. Alternatively, Popilskis used a
prior to the induction of pain. Preemptive techniques include continuous infusion of morphine 0.5 mg/h/day for 48 hours
parenteral administration of systemic analgesics, infiltration to provide adequate analgesia after laparotomy in pregnant
of a suture line with local anesthetics, and epidural admin- baboons (Popilskis et al., 1994).
istration of analgesics. Parenteral analgesia with an opioid Although morphine produces reliable postoperative analge-
or NSAID should be administered prior to making a surgical sia, it causes dose-dependent reduction in respiratory rate and
incision. Postinductive management is used to decrease an ani- pO2 and increases in pCO2 (Dourish et al., 1990). It should be
mal’s experience of a noxious stimuli, and to maintain normal used with care, especially in NWPs. In general, chronic admin-
physiological and cardiovascular stability. istration of opioids may result in physical dependence and/or
The NSAIDs in general reduce fever, and inhibit inflamma- tolerance. For this reason, all of the opioids used clinically are
tion and platelet aggregation. These effects are generally related controlled substances.
to their ability to inhibit cyclooxygenase in the synthesis of Oxymorphone, 0.15 mg/kg (Old World Primates) and
prostaglandins (Vane, 1971). Cyclooxygenase has two distinct 0.075 mg/kg (NWPs) IM, every 4–6 hours, is an effective anal-
isoforms—Cox-1 and Cox-2 (Khan et al., 2002). The Cox-1 gesic without producing noticeable respiratory depression in
isoform is active in many organs and cells and catalyzes PG both old and new world monkeys (Rosenberg, 1991). In humans,
12. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN NONHUMAN PRIMATES 359

this opioid has an oral 12-hour sustained release form that offers at lower doses of each of the drugs. Another advantage of this
further investigation for its use in nonhuman primates (Barash combination is the concomitant decrease in the incidence and
et al., 2006). severity of side effects. The author (SP) has administered ketoro-
Opioid agonist–antagonists (buprenorphine and butor- lac (0.5–1 mg/kg IM) in addition to buprenorphine (0.01 IM,
phanol) have been used to provide postoperative analgesia in q8h–q12h) for mild-to-moderate pain in rhesus monkeys and
nonhuman primates. Buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg IM, IV) is the baboons. The preferred method for mild-to-moderate pain man-
most commonly used injectable analgesic in nonhuman pri- agement in chimpanzee is oral acetaminophen with codeine
mates (Flecknell, 1987). The long duration of effect (6–8 hours) (0.24–0.36 mg/kg) every 6 hours. In addition, a variety of oral
and relative absence of respiratory depression make buprenor- NSAIDs are well tolerated by the chimpanzees (Lee and Guhad,
phine an attractive alternative to other analgesia regimens. Tame 2001).
et al. (1999) administered continuous infusion of buprenorphine Postoperative IM administration of opioids results in variable
to a pregnant baboons at 30 μg/kg/day for 48 hours through absorption, especially in hypotensive and hypothermic animals,
intra-arterial catheter protected by the tether system. This dose and this may reflect a considerable delay between adminis-
of buprenorphine resulted in inhibition of postoperative myome- tration of the drug and effective analgesia. Continuous IV
trial contractions as well as lower maternal estradiol and cortisol infusion of opioids may be more effective, but it is impractical in
concentrations. uncooperative nonhuman primates. It also may carry a greater
Buprenorphine, 0.015 mg/kg, provides effective analgesia for risk of respiratory depression, sedation, and hypotension, thus
mild-to-moderate pain in S. sciureus (Morris, personal com- requiring close monitoring.
munication, 1995). Brady (personal communication, 2007) The discovery of opioid receptors in the spinal cord has led
administers buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg IM to squirrel and owl to great interest in the use of these drugs by the epidural route.
monkeys preemptively in cases where pain may be anticipated The action of epidural opioids is mediated by receptors located
during recovery from anesthesia. In Galago spp., buprenor- in the substantia gelatinosa in the dorsal horn of the spinal cord.
phine, at a dosage of 0.01 mg/kg, IM or SQ, provides satisfac- Previous studies have suggested that administration of epidural
tory postoperative analgesia for up to 12 hours without excessive opioids produce effective and safe postoperative analgesia with
sedation (McTighe, personal communication, 2008) minimal sympathetic blockade, and no sedation or respiratory
Butorphanol (0.003–0.32 mg/kg) is also indicated for treat- depression (Morgan, 1989; Rutberg et al., 1984; Shulman et al.,
ment of moderate pain. It is associated with mild sedation that 1987). Placement of an epidural catheter is a relatively simple
may be useful in avoiding problems associated with delirium in technique in nonhuman primates such as macaques and Papio
the immediate postoperative period. In laboratory setting, butor- spp. We introduce an 18-gauge Tuohy epidural needle with
phanol (0.003–0.1 mg/kg) produces mild to moderate analgesia, a curved distal end at lumbar 5–6 or 6–7 interspace. Once the
devoid of substantial sedative or muscle relaxant effects in rhe- epidural needle penetrates the intraspinous ligament, the char-
sus monkeys (Butelman et al., 1995). The lack of pronounced acteristic “pop” sound is heard. A glass syringe with a freely
sedation can be attributed to the lower dose of butorphanol. movable plunger is attached and the needle is advanced into
However, even at this dose range, respiratory depression was the epidural space. Entry into the epidural space is confirmed
noticeable. Butorphanol (0.02 mg/kg SQ) has also been used by ease of depression of the plunger in the syringe. The nylon
for postoperative analgesia in new world species (Saguinus spp. catheter is then inserted and the epidural needle is removed. The
and C. geoffroyi) (Wolff et al., 1990). For postoperative pain in catheter is usually advanced 5–7 cm from the introduction site
chimpanzees, butorphanol is given IM postoperatively once the to ascertain the proper placement.
animal is able to move. Chimpanzees are very sensitive to drugs Morphine is one of the most commonly used opiate anal-
that cause respiratory depression; therefore, it is recommended gesics via the epidural route. One of the main advantages of
that a dose of 0.02 mg/kg be given IM, not to exceed 0.3 mg epidural morphine is that it has low lipid solubility relative to
total (1 vial). other opioids, which makes systemic absorption less likely to
In case of potential overdose with opiate analgesics, naloxone occur from the epidural site. This suggests that more of the drug
can be of invaluable assistance. When administered intra- is available at the receptor sites in the spinal cord, resulting in
venously it effectively reverses respiratory depression induced prolonged analgesia. We have used epidural morphine (single
by opioids. The usual dose of naloxone is 0.1–0.2 mg IV, injection of 0.1 mg/kg) for pain relief after thoracotomy and hys-
repeated as needed. Naloxone is a short-acting antagonist and a terotomy in baboons, with postoperative analgesia lasting up to
second dose may be necessary to avoid the return of respiratory 24 hours. Morphine, 0.01 mg/kg given intrathecally as a sin-
depression. This may be of importance in trying to antagonize gle dose, has been reported to provide excellent postoperative
respiratory depression caused by administration of long-lasting analgesia for 18–24 hours in P. troglodytes with no concomitant
buprenorphine. clinically recognizable hypotension. Alternatively, an epidural
Coadministration of opioids with NSAID’s takes advantage catheter can be inserted closer to the incision site and 2–3 ml
of desirable properties of each drug. The desired result of these of a diluted (0.125%) bupivicaine administered in combination
combinations is achievement of effective and reliable analgesia with morphine 0.075 mg/kg.
360 SULLI J. POPILSKIS ET AL.

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 Chapter 13

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Dogs and Cats

Elizabeth Armitage-Chan

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
II. Preanesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
A. Historical Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
B. Physical Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
C. Laboratory Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
D. Preanesthetic Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
III. Anesthetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
A. Routes of Drug Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
B. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
C. Endotracheal Intubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
D. Anesthesia Using Inhaled Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
E. Total Intravenous Anesthesia (TIVA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
F. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
IV. Preanesthetic Medications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
A. Sedatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
B. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
C. Anticholinergic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
V. Induction of Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
A. Propofol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
B. Barbiturates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
C. Etomidate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
D. Dissociative Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
E. Alphaxalone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
F. Other Long-Acting Injectable Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
G. Volatile Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
VI. Anesthetic Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
A. Volatile Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
B. Agents for Total Intravenous Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
VII. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
A. Depth of Anesthesia Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
B. Physiological Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
VIII. Supportive Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
IX. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
X. Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
A. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
B. NSAIDs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

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C. Local Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379

D. Ketamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
XI. Specific Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
A. Breed Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
B. Craniotomy and Intracranial Lesions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
C. Thoracotomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
D. Cardiovascular Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
E. Orthopedic Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
F. Cesarean Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
G. Neonatal Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
H. Prolonged Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
I. Considerations for Cats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Suggested Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

I. INTRODUCTION not being recovered, agents that have unfavorable recovery

characteristics (for example, a prolonged duration of effect or
unacceptable emergence phenomena) can be utilized. In this
Dogs and cats have a long history of being used as research
situation, although it remains imperative to prevent sensory
models. Their extensive use in laboratory animal medicine,
transmission of noxious stimuli during the operative period,
together with the wide range of procedures performed in clini-
ongoing pain management does not require consideration. In sit-
cal veterinary medicine, indicates that there is a huge selection
uations where ongoing analgesia cannot be adequately provided,
of reported anesthetic protocols, each with individual benefits
euthanasia while still anesthetized may be the most acceptable
and disadvantages. This diversity in published anesthetic tech-
and humane option.
niques can be overwhelming when attempting to determine the
Since the first edition of this book, developments have
optimal anesthetic protocol for use in a particular animal model.
been made in a number of areas relevant to the anesthetic
In addition, there are important differences between cats and
management of laboratory animals. Newer agents such as
dogs in their responses to anesthetic and analgesic agents, and
medetomidine, propofol, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs
it is important to recognize that cats should not be treated as
(NSAIDs) (carprofen, meloxicam, etodolac, and deracoxib),
miniature dogs, but instead require special consideration.
and new volatile anesthetics (isoflurane, sevoflurane, and des-
Selection of anesthetic agents depends on many criteria,
flurane) have become commonplace in clinical anesthesia of
including provision of analgesia for invasive procedures, mini-
dogs and cats; there have been improvements in perianesthetic
mization of effects on investigated parameters, and maintenance
care, with concomitant decreases in anesthetic-related mortality
of stable physiological homeostasis, thus minimizing the risk of
(Brodbelt et al., 2005), and new concepts in pain management.
unexpected intraprocedural complications and mortality. The
All of these can be extrapolated for use in laboratory animal
state of general anesthesia includes the provision of all com-
anesthesia. Such developments will improve the overall man-
ponents of the anesthetic triad: loss of consciousness and
agement of the animal, while under anesthesia, and increase the
retrograde amnesia, analgesia (absence of sensation of nox-
chance of a successful anesthetic outcome, enhance the well-
ious stimuli), and muscle relaxation. This concept of balanced
being of the animal in terms of relief from pain and stress, and
anesthesia cannot be provided by a single agent—there are no
provide options for tailoring the anesthetic technique to meet
anesthetics available that meet all these criteria—and therefore,
the requirements of the research model.
combinations of several agents are used. Use of anesthetic and
sedative agents in combination is also recommended to reduce
the required doses of individual drugs, thereby minimizing the
II. PREANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
adverse physiological effects that occur at higher concentra-
tions. When devising an anesthetic protocol, it is therefore
important to include sedation (for some procedures, utilization A number of preparatory steps should be undertaken prior
of heavy sedation is an acceptable alternative to general anes- to anesthetizing the animal. These include assessment of the
thesia), analgesia (both preemptive and into the postoperative animals’ health status, which is important in predicting as accu-
period), anesthetic induction and maintenance agents, as well rately as possible the response to anesthetic agents. Many anes-
as means to provide perioperative monitoring and physiological thetics can adversely affect cardiovascular, respiratory, central
support. nervous, hepatic, renal, or gastrointestinal function, particu-
The plan to either recover the animal from the anesthesia, larly if a preexisting disease is present. Infectious, congenital,
or euthanatize it while still anesthetized, is an important fac- or developmental disorders (such as cardiac disease, respiratory
tor when designing the anesthetic protocol. If the animal is tract infection, gastrointestinal disorders, and chronic renal or
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 367

hepatic disease) can occur even in purpose-bred animals with behavior (abnormal behavior may indicate disease or pain) and
optimal husbandry. temperament are also important parts of the physical examina-
tion. Although it may be tempting to use the same anesthetic
drug combinations for all animals within a group, an individ-
A. Historical Information
ual that is more anxious or nervous will require higher sedative
doses to achieve the same level of sedation as an animal that is
In combination with physical examination of the animal, his-
more relaxed. Similarly, the presence of pre-existing pain will
torical information (e.g., obtained from daily records or vendor
mean that more analgesics are required following a particular
profiles) may reveal unexpected abnormalities in health sta-
procedure than would be required for the same procedure in an
tus that may alter the animals’ responses to general anesthesia.
animal not initially in pain.
Although anesthetic risk may not be increased, any deviation
from completely normal health may alter the response to anes-
thesia and surgery in such a way that the data obtained are C. Laboratory Data
unusable, making an individual unsuitable for a particular study.
Even in healthy animals, individuals of the same species can The benefits of preanesthetic laboratory data are controver-
have varying responses to sedatives and anesthetics (Barter sial. Several studies (Roizen, 2005) indicate that, for patients
et al., 2004), and therefore information regarding previous anes- undergoing minimally invasive procedures, who are free from
thetic procedures is extremely helpful. It is important that daily systemic disease (on the basis of historical and physical exam-
records are kept up to date, and they should be scrutinized ination data), anesthetic management is not altered by the
in detail before an animal is anesthetized, to ensure that there availability of laboratory data. Despite this, preanesthetic blood
have been no recent events that may influence the response to testing is routinely performed in many human and veteri-
anesthesia and surgery. nary hospitals. Laboratory testing should, in the first instance,
be dictated by history and physical examination findings–any
abnormalities detected at this stage should be investigated fur-
B. Physical Examination
ther by laboratory evaluation. Many institutions advocate a
baseline hematocrit and total protein level prior to anesthesia
Besides the requirement for up-to-date animal history, it is
in all cases. This has a number of benefits: (1) it is quick,
important to perform a physical examination of the animals to be
easy, and inexpensive to perform; (2) it provides preproce-
anesthetized prior to the procedure. When performed frequently
dural information which could be referred to in the event of
on each individual, any deviation from the normal physical
intraoperative hemorrhage; and (3) the values are altered in
examination can be readily detected, and should prompt further
many disease states. The test is very nonspecific—disorder of
investigation before the animal is deemed suitable for general
almost any organ system, as well as dehydration, will result in
anesthesia.
an abnormality in one or both parameters; however, it is a useful
Minimum requirements for the physical examination should
screening test to be used to direct further testing in the result
include collection of baseline values for heart rate, respira-
of an abnormal finding. Blood glucose should be tested in very
tory rate, and rectal temperature (see Table 13-1 for normal
young animals, which are at risk of developing hypoglycemia.
ranges), auscultation of the thorax for abnormal respiratory
or cardiac sounds, palpation of the abdomen, examination of
mucous membrane color and capillary refill time, and assess- D. Preanesthetic Preparation
ment of peripheral pulse quality. Assessment of the animal’s
Prior to anesthesia, animals should be fasted to reduce the
TABLE 13-1 risk of regurgitation and aspiration of gastric contents, and to
Normal Physiological Data in Dogs and Cats minimize respiratory impairment. For dogs and cats, a period of
6–12 hours is sufficient; water should be available throughout
Canine Feline
this time and does not need to be removed until the animal is
Heart rate (beats/min) 70–120 (large dogs have 140–180 sedated. An intravenous (IV) catheter should be placed prior to
lower and small dogs induction of anesthesia; this ensures venous access if there is
higher values) some complication during anesthetic administration, and facil-
Respiratory rate (breaths/min) 10–30 (or panting if 15–30 (panting not
itates IV administration of anesthetic agents (some of which
excited) a normal finding)
Capillary refill time (seconds) <2 <2 are highly irritant, slow in onset, or ineffective if injected
Rectal temperature 100.5–102.5◦ F 100.5–102.5◦ F extravascularly). It is beneficial to do this after the preanesthetic
38–39◦ C 38–39◦ C sedation; in all but the most tractable of animals, the calming
Hematocrit (%) 37–55 31–46 effect of the sedative minimizes the stress and struggle asso-
Serum total protein (g/dl) 6.0–7.5 6.0–8.4
ciated with catheterization. Suitable sites for venous catheter
Blood glucose (mg/dl) 60–110 70–140
placement in dogs and cats are the cephalic vein (most common),
368 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

and the medial and lateral saphenous veins. Placement of jugu- overdosing. This is also preferable to induction of anesthesia by
lar venous catheters, if required, is best performed under heavy inhaled gases, which increases personnel exposure to volatile
sedation or general anesthesia. Good restraint is required dur- agents, increases the risk of regurgitation, and is more difficult
ing catheter placement; the dog or cat should be held with the to titrate accurately. Total inhalation anesthesia, i.e., without the
limb extended and the head under control. The skin over the use of an injected induction agent, has also been associated with
vein should be clipped and aseptically prepared, and follow- increased anesthetic mortality in some species (Johnston et al.,
ing catheter placement, the catheter should be firmly secured 1995). Once anesthesia has been induced, it can be maintained
with tape. If the animal is to be left unattended, some means using either inhaled or IV agents.
of preventing the catheter being chewed out may be required
(additional bandaging, or an Elizabethan collar).
B. Chemical Restraint
Additional preparation is focused on consideration of
complications (e.g., hemorrhage, hypothermia, bradycardia,
A state of heavy sedation can be obtained by using a single
hypoventilation, or apnea), preparing for their occurrence (e.g.,
dose of IV- or IM-injected sedative or anesthetic. In some cases,
availability of additional IV fluids, external heating devices, and
this may be preferred to ongoing anesthetic administration, and
means to support ventilation), and ensuring correct functioning
some procedures can be adequately performed under heavy
of the anesthetic machine and monitoring equipment. The equip-
sedation. In general, such procedures should be noninvasive (do
ment used for the administration of anesthetics is described in
not require entry into a body cavity) and nonpainful, examples
detail in Chapter 6, and will not be discussed here.
including imaging studies [radiography, magnetic resonance
imaging (MRI)] and minor instrumentation (e.g., placement
of central and arterial catheters). When the patient is under
III. ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUES such deep sedation that they are immobile and unresponsive to
stimulation, they should be considered to be anesthetized, and
therefore monitored and supported as such, as adverse effects
A. Routes of Drug Administration
on cardiovascular and respiratory functions are frequently as
severe as those that occur during a traditional anesthetic. To
A number of different routes are available for the adminis-
obtain sustained immobilization with a single injection, large
tration of anesthetics, although some agents are only effective
drug doses may be required, with a resultant increase in the
when administered by a particular route. In dogs and cats,
severity of adverse drug effects. IM sedative combinations that
injectable agents are most frequently given by IV, intramuscular
are suitable for the provision of chemical restraint in healthy ani-
(IM), and subcutaneous (SQ) injection. IM or SQ routes are use-
mals include ketamine/midazolam or ketamine/medetomidine
ful for the administration of preanesthetic sedatives; compared
combinations in cats and medetomidine/opioid combinations
to IV dosing, these are technically easier, quicker, and evoke
in dogs. The dosing information for these drug combinations is
less stress for the unsedated dog or cat. IM injections can be
provided in Table 13-2.
performed into the muscles of the cranial thigh (quadriceps), or
the lumbar epaxial muscles. Injections into the caudal thigh (the
semimembranosus and semitendinosus muscles) risk damaging C. Endotracheal Intubation
the sciatic nerve and are associated with inferior uptake of drug
compared to that injected into the quadriceps and lumbar spinal Whether anesthesia is maintained with a volatile or injectable
musculature (Autefage et al., 1990). Compared to SQ injection, agent, endotracheal intubation is recommended as a means to
uptake and onset of the action of IM-injected drugs is more rapid provide supplemental oxygen, prevent aspiration of material
and reliable. In addition, once under anesthesia, decreases in the into the respiratory tract, and enable ventilatory support in the
animal’s peripheral perfusion (due to decreased cardiac output, event of hypoventilation or apnea. All anesthetics in common
use of vasoconstrictors, or hypothermia) decrease the uptake usage depress the respiratory system, and therefore there is a
of SQ drugs and may render them unpredictable or ineffective. risk of hypoxemia if oxygen is not administered. The use of
Intraperitoneal injection of anesthetics is also reported; how- an endotracheal tube instead of a facemask reduces environ-
ever, this has disadvantages over IM or SQ dosing, including mental contamination and exposure of personnel to anesthetic
the risk of organ laceration, and increased stress and discomfort. gases. Maintenance of a patent airway can also be achieved
The ease of IM injections in dogs and cats make intraperitoneal using tracheostomy or a laryngeal mask; however, endotra-
drug administration unnecessary. cheal intubation is the easiest method and is associated with
For induction of anesthesia, IV drug administration is usu- few complications. The larynx of both the dog and the cat can
ally the preferred method. When administering rapidly acting be easily visualized with the aid of a laryngoscope. Spasm of
anesthetic agents intravenously, they can be titrated exactly to the arytenoid cartilages of the feline larynx immediately after
the desired effect (often the stage at which endotracheal intuba- anesthetic induction is a common occurrence that impedes the
tion is possible), minimizing the risk of inadvertent under- or passage of an endotracheal tube; this reflex can be inhibited by
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 369

TABLE 13-2
Sedative Combinations for Use in Dogs and Cats

Route Comments

Dogs
Butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg + IM or IV (reduce dose Deep sedation, immobility. Profound
medetomidine 10–15 μg/kg by 50%) cardiovascular effects. Antagonize
using IM atipamezole (5 ×
medetomidine dose)
Acepromazine 0.02–0.05 mg/kg + IM or IV (reduce by 50% Moderate sedation (acepromazine dose
butorphanol 0.2 mg/kg or morphine and avoid morphine) dose of 0.02 mg/kg results in mild
0.5 mg/kg sedation), usually ambulatory

Cats
Ketamine 10 mg/kg + midazolam IM Deep sedation, minimal cardiovascular,
0.2 mg/kg and respiratory effects
Ketamine 5 mg/kg + medetomidine IM Deep sedation, profound cardiovascular
15–20 μg/kg effects. Antagonize with IM atipamezole
(2.5 × medetomidine dose)
Ketamine 5 mg/kg + butorphanol IM Moderate sedation
0.2 mg/kg + acepromazine
0.05 mg/kg
Oxymorphone 0.1 mg/kg + IM Mild sedation
acepromazine 0.05 mg/kg

Note: Doses are based on author’s clinical use, and may differ from other published dose ranges.

the topical administration of 0.1 ml of a 2% lidocaine solution of volatile agent required, although the reduction achieved by
onto the larynx, using a 1 ml syringe with the needle removed using nitrous oxide is less marked in the cat compared to other
(to avoid damage to the laryngeal mucosa), thus facilitating species, particularly humans. Advantages of volatile anesthet-
tracheal intubation. As large a diameter as possible, cuffed ics are that they are eliminated through the respiratory tract and
endotracheal tube should be selected to provide the best pro- thus are nondependent on metabolism for recovery, and that
tection of the respiratory tract from fluid aspiration. The cuff they can be easily titrated, enabling rapid increase and decrease
should be slowly inflated, while simultaneously administering a in anesthetic depth (particularly with the newer, lower solubil-
positive pressure breath to a pressure of 15–20 cm water, until ity agents). Most volatile agents also provide muscle relaxation,
a leak around the tube can no longer be heard. Selection of thereby fulfiling two components of the anesthetic triad. Analge-
a large tube, and inflation of the cuff in this way, provides sia, the third component of a balanced anesthetic, is minimal and
airway protection without impairing tracheal mucosal perfu- insufficient for painful procedures after which the animal is to
sion (leading to pressure necrosis and rupture or tearing of the recover. Disadvantages compared to injected anesthetics include
trachea), a particular problem in cats (Mitchell et al., 2000). the need for specialist equipment for administration (vaporizer,
Tracheal damage may also result from direct trauma caused anesthetic machine, gas source, breathing circuit, and scavenge
by twisting of the endotracheal tube, most commonly during system) and environmental contamination, resulting in person-
repositioning of the animal. To reduce this risk, the animal nel exposure and atmospheric pollution. Cardiovascular and
should be disconnected from the anesthetic breathing circuit respiratory depression occurs and is dose related, increasing the
during repositioning, such that movements of the breathing concentrations increasing the severity of hypotension, hypoven-
tubes do not result in movement of the endotracheal tube within tilation, and bradycardia. Volatile anesthetics decrease cerebral
the trachea. oxygen requirement; therefore, low doses decrease intracranial
pressure (ICP). However, higher doses cause cerebral vasodila-
tion (which may be augmented by hypercapnia if ventilation is
D. Anesthesia Using Inhaled Agents not assisted), and therefore ICP is elevated.
Volatile anesthetic agents can be used for both induction and
maintenance of general anesthesia. The dose requirements are E. Total Intravenous Anesthesia (TIVA)
similar across the species, and therefore similar inhaled con-
centrations are used in dogs and cats. Incorporating nitrous With a few exceptions (very long-acting injectable agents),
oxide into the carrier gas mixture helps to decrease the amount the alternative to maintaining anesthesia with a volatile agent is
370 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

to use a continuous IV infusion of the anesthetic agent. TIVA IV. PREANESTHETIC MEDICATIONS
may be required because of a contraindication to volatile agents
(e.g., malignant hyperthermia susceptibility), or if the loca-
A. Sedatives
tion of the procedure dictates that an anesthetic machine is not
available (e.g., within an MRI scanner). Although exceedingly
The aims of the preanesthetic medication are to sedate the
rare, malignant hyperthermia has been reported in dogs and cats
animal, to provide a smooth, controlled anesthetic induction
(Bellah et al., 1989; Nelson, 1991), and if the research popu-
and recovery with minimal excitement phase, to reduce the
lation has this genetic mutation, a total IV technique must be
doses (and adverse effects) of anesthetic induction and main-
employed. If TIVA is selected and the animal is to be recov-
tenance agents, and to provide analgesia, where necessary, for
ered at the end of the procedure, it is appropriate to select a
painful procedures. The preanesthetic medication (the premedi-
short-acting, rapidly eliminated drug, to minimize drug accu-
cant) therefore usually includes both a sedative and an analgesic
mulation and prevent excessively long recovery time. Propofol
component. Drug combinations are preferable to the use of a
is frequently used for this purpose, although accumulation and
single agent; the combination of different drug classes has a
prolonged recovery may occur in cats. Most TIVA protocols
synergistic effect on sedation, producing a better result with
have cardiovascular and ventilatory effects that are comparable
lower drug doses. Even in healthy animals, the dose-reducing
to anesthesia using a volatile agent, and therefore supplemen-
effects of the drug combinations are beneficial as the depressant
tal oxygen should be provided and cardiovascular parameters
effects of anesthetics and sedatives on cardiovascular func-
monitored.
tion are dose-related and nonlinear, and escalate dramatically
above the normal clinical dose range. Table 13-2 lists some
recommended sedation combinations.
F. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents

In the anesthetic management of humans, neuromuscular

1. Acepromazine
blocking agents such as suxamethonium and vecuronium are
frequently used to enable orotracheal intubation and to sup- Acepromazine is a very commonly used sedative in dogs and
press the patient’s own respiratory efforts during mechanical cats. It is used to provide sedation and anxiolysis, facilitating
ventilation. In consequence, many anesthetic protocols devised animal handling and procedures such as IV catheterization. The
for dogs and cats in research include neuromuscular block- dose range (when combined with additional agents) is 0.02–
ers. However, in these species, neuromuscular blockade is not 0.05 mg/kg, with cats requiring the higher doses. Larger dogs
required for either intubation or assisted ventilation. Neuro- tend to require lower mg/kg doses than small breeds, and few
muscular blocking agents, such as atracurium, are used for dogs require more than a total dose of 3 mg. The doses within
intraocular surgery, where it is necessary to keep the eye in the clinical range tend to produce sedation of 6–12 hour dura-
a central position, and are sometimes used in delicate surgical tion, although there is much interindividual variability and,
procedures close to vital structures, where small movements by particularly in dogs, at doses exceeding 0.05 mg/kg the inten-
the patient could be disastrous (for example, some neurological sity of sedation is not significantly increased, but duration of
or vascular surgery). However, for the most part, nearly all pro- action will become very prolonged (Hall, 1991). Reduction
cedures can be adequately performed without muscle paralysis. in volatile anesthetic requirement is maximal at 0.06 mg/kg
Whenever a neuromuscular blocker is used, respiratory muscles (Heard, 1986). The main adverse effect is antagonism of vas-
are paralyzed, and therefore ventilation must be assisted. There cular α1 -adrenoreceptors, resulting in vasodilation, decreased
is also a loss of the skeletal muscle activity that is usually uti- systemic vascular resistance, and arterial hypotension. This
lized to assess anesthetic depth, such as the palpebral reflex, is usually insignificant within the recommended dose range
and loss of tone of the jaw musculature. It is therefore more dif- in the healthy animal; however, it will cause cardiovascular
ficult to ensure that the animal is adequately anesthetized, and collapse in an animal with hypotension or hypovolemia (for
that analgesia is sufficient. The anesthetist must instead rely on example, experimentally induced sepsis or hemorrhage). His-
cardiovascular parameters as an indicator of analgesia and anes- torically, drugs related to acepromazine (phenothiazines) have
thetic depth; however, interpretation is complicated by other been associated with a decrease in seizure threshold, and have
factors that alter cardiovascular activity, such as plasma-volume been avoided in seizure-risk animals. Although this may be
status, hemorrhage, and acid–base changes. Neuromuscular the case for some phenothiazines, there is no evidence that
blockers should only be used in combination with general anes- acepromazine increases seizure risk, particularly at the doses
thesia, and it is extremely unethical to administer these agents recommended for clinical use, and most clinical anesthesiol-
without a coadministered anesthetic. Whenever neuromuscu- ogists are comfortable using these doses of acepromazine in
lar blockers are utilized, institutional ethics committees should animals with seizure disorders.
demand to be fully satisfied that a state of unconsciousness Sedation is enhanced when acepromazine is combined with
would be ensured. opioid agents, either pure agonists (such as hydromorphone,
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 371

morphine), when there is an additional beneficial analgesic agonist would also be reversed following the administration of
effect, or agonist–antagonists (butorphanol). The combina- atipamezole.
tion of butorphanol with acepromazine produces sedation in
dogs with minimal effects on heart rate and respiratory func-
3. Benzodiazepines
tion, and is a useful premedicant for nonpainful procedures.
Opioid–acepromazine combinations are less effective in cats; Drugs in this category include diazepam and midazolam.
however, sedation can be improved by adding ketamine to the Clinically, benzodiazepines are useful in high-risk patients, as
drug combination. they have no significant cardiovascular and respiratory effects
at usual doses. However, they produce little or no sedation in
healthy dogs and cats, and paradoxical excitement is occasion-
2. α2 -Adrenoreceptor Agonists
ally seen in both species. They may be used in combination
The most commonly used α2 agonist in dogs and cats is with an opioid to provide light sedation prior to anesthesia. A
medetomidine; others include xylazine and dexmedetomidine. dose-sparing effect on volatile agents is reported; however, this
All these agents produce deep sedation, even when used in is less pronounced compared to that of other sedatives. Anecdo-
low doses, in both cats and dogs. When high doses are used, tally, the quality of sedation achieved appears to be better when
often in combination with ketamine or an opioid, deep sedation benzodiazepines are administered intravenously than by the IM
or anesthesia is accompanied by severe cardiovascular effects route. Benzodiazepines are also muscle relaxants and therefore
(vasoconstriction, bradycardia, and decrease in cardiac output). are useful to counteract ketamine-induced muscle rigidity.
Although heart rate increases, stroke volume is decreased by
the addition of an anticholinergic (Alibhai et al., 1996), and
therefore overall cardiac performance is not improved. In addi- B. Opioids
tion, the use of anticholinergics with α2 agonists increases the
work of the heart, thus, risking myocardial injury. In general, the Opioids have both sedative and analgesic properties, and are
addition of an anticholinergic is therefore unnecessary, although commonly used as a component of the anesthetic premedication.
may be tolerated in young healthy animals without cardiovas- Pure agonists, such as morphine, hydromorphone, methadone,
cular compromise. Even low doses of α2 agonists depress the and oxymorphone, are excellent analgesics in both dogs and
cardiovascular system more than is seen with other commonly cats. Partial agonists (buprenorphine) provide less-potent anal-
used anesthetic and analgesic agents, and therefore, the use of gesia, which is suitable for minimally painful procedures;
α2 agonists is restricted to young (not neonatal), healthy animals however, sedation is also less intense than that achieved using
that are undergoing simple procedures with a low risk of compli- pure agonists, or kappa-receptor agonists such as butorphanol.
cations. Compared to use as a premedicant, they are much more Side effects of the opioids, particularly pure-agonist agents,
useful in combination with butorphanol (in dogs) or ketamine include vomiting and mild respiratory depression, which is
(in cats) for chemical restraint for noninvasive procedures that usually insignificant in the awake animal. Once anesthetized,
do not require general anesthesia. Because of the cardiovas- animals that have had large doses of opioids may require assisted
cular effects, animals that have been given these drugs should ventilation; the need for this can be evaluated by capnometry.
always be closely monitored, regardless of whether the animal Because of the minimal effects of the opioids on the cardiovas-
is subsequently anesthetized. Monitoring is complicated by the cular system, large doses can be used to reduce the requirement
cardiovascular effects, which typically result in pale/cyanotic for other sedative and anesthetic drugs if a cardiovascular-
mucous membranes and poor peripheral pulse quality (often sparing protocol is required (e.g., for cardiovascular studies).
pulses cannot be palpated), many monitors (pulse oximetry, High doses frequently cause bradycardia, which can be treated
oscillometric blood pressure) failing or becoming inaccurate using an anticholinergic agent. Morphine and meperidine can
in these conditions. cause histamine release, and therefore should not be admin-
The advantage of the α2 agonists is the availability of an istered intravenously (morphine can be administered by very
antagonist, which completely reverses both sedative and car- slow IV infusion); all other opioids can be administered by any
diovascular effects. Medetomidine and dexmedetomidine can parenteral route.
be antagonized using atipamezole (the dose is 5 times the
administered dose of medetomidine, or 10 times the dose of
dexmedetomidine in dogs; half this dose is given to cats). C. Anticholinergic Agents
Except in an emergency, when it should be given intravenously,
atipamezole is best administered by the IM route to avoid exces- Anticholinergics inhibit neurotransmission in the parasympa-
sively rapid recovery and associated tachycardia, arrhythmias, thetic nervous system and include atropine (0.02–0.04 mg/kg)
and hypertension. Onset of action is fast, and signs of recovery and glycopyrrolate (0.01–0.02 mg/kg). They are typically used
are typically observed within 2–5 minutes of IM administra- in the anesthetic period to counteract the sympatholytic and
tion. It should be noted that the analgesic effects of the α2 vagal stimulant effects of most anesthetics, particularly high
372 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

doses of opioids, and thus prevent vagally mediated bradycar- response can be blunted by a small dose of lidocaine (0.5 mg/kg
dia. Other causes of increased vagal tone are also indications in dogs, 0.1–0.2 mg/kg in cats) given intravenously immediately
for the use of anticholinergics, and include young age (less than prior to propofol administration.
6 months old), and surgical procedures of the eyes and peri-
orbital region, stimulation of which may elicit an oculocardiac
reflex with profound bradycardia. They are also useful to pre- B. Barbiturates
vent hypersalivation associated with ketamine use in cats, which
can lead to respiratory obstruction. Barbiturate drugs suitable for induction of anesthesia include
When indicated, the anticholinergic agent is usually incorpo- thiopental (sodium pentothal) and sodium pentobarbital. Pre-
rated into the premedicant drug combination. Anticholinergics viously, thiamylal and methohexital were also widely used;
can also be used intraoperatively to treat parasympathetic- however, these short-acting barbiturates have largely been
associated bradycardia. Titration of dose to desired effect is superseded by propofol. Thiopental is a useful induction agent
not possible, and marked tachycardia may follow anticholin- in both dogs and cats; when compared to propofol, it is currently
ergic use. Paradoxically, a transient period of bradycardia more cost-effective, does not support bacterial growth, and is
or atrioventricular block may be seen immediately after drug safer to use for consecutive day dosing in cats. As with propofol,
administration. apnea and hypotension may occur immediately following anes-
thetic induction. The duration of action is longer than propofol, a
single injection (usually dosed at up to 10 mg/kg, but dependent
on anesthetic premedicant) provides 20–30 minutes of anesthe-
V. INDUCTION OF ANESTHESIA
sia, and residual sedation may persist for several hours after
recovery. Recovery quality can be poor if additional sedative
A. Propofol agents have not been administered. Thiopental is available in
several concentrations; however, because of the high pH of
Propofol is widely used for induction of anesthesia in many the solution, concentrations greater than 2.5% should not be
species. Its main benefit is a rapid and complete anesthetic used in small animals. The high alkalinity solution is a tissue
recovery: after a single injection, recovery usually occurs irritant, and skin necrosis and sloughing can occur follow-
within 10–20 minutes, and is associated with minimal resid- ing extravascular injection. Thiopental should therefore only
ual sedation. Like all IV anesthetic induction agents, propofol be administered via an IV catheter. With both thiopental and
should be administered only until the desired anesthetic depth pentobarbital, administration of multiple doses results in drug
is reached (generally to allow endotracheal intubation), and the accumulation and markedly prolongs recovery. None of the bar-
dose required to achieve this depends on the extent of preanes- biturates have any analgesic effect, and a weak anti-analgesic
thetic sedation and the health status of the animal. However, effect is described. It is therefore necessary to provide analgesia
most dogs and cats are anesthetized with a dose of propofol of if painful procedures are performed.
up to 4 mg/kg. The most significant adverse effects of this agent Pentobarbital is longer-acting than thiopental and may be
are vasodilation, leading to arterial hypotension, and apnea. useful in prolonged anesthetic procedures. Depending on the
These are particularly profound following rapid injection, and premedicant selected and dose used, a single dose of 15 mg/kg
propofol should always be administered slowly, over a period pentobarbital may provide 1–2 hours of anesthesia without the
of 30–60 seconds. Propofol has been associated with anemia, need for an additional maintenance agent (Hatch et al., 1986;
anorexia, prolonged anesthetic recovery, and general malaise Hsu, 1985). Recovery can be associated with excitement and
when used on consecutive days in cats (Matthews et al., 2004), paddling, and residual sedation persists for several hours. There-
and therefore if anesthesia is required on a daily basis, an alter- fore, alternate agents are often selected if the animal is to
nate induction agent should be used in this species. The use of recover from anesthesia. The therapeutic index of pentobarbi-
contaminated propofol has been associated with surgical wound tal is narrow (doses of 4–5 times the anesthetic dose are used
infections in dogs (Heldmann et al., 1999); this likely relates to for euthanasia), due to marked respiratory depression, vasodi-
the ability of the lipid and glycerol-based solvent to support lation, and direct myocardial effects. Close attention to dose
bacterial growth, and emphasizes the importance of discard- and physiological monitoring is therefore required and oxygen
ing opened vials after 6 hours. Propofol does not have any should be provided, with the ability to support ventilation if
analgesic properties, and when used without adequate preanes- necessary.
thetic sedation, is often associated with an excitement phase,
with myoclonus and paddling frequently observed. Some ani-
mals exhibit a marked pain response when propofol is injected. C. Etomidate
Although this is sometimes erroneously attributed to extravas-
cular injection, it more likely indicates correct IV injection, and Etomidate is popular in cardiovascular studies because it
appears to occur most commonly when a small vein is used. This elicits no changes in cardiovascular function. There is a high
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 373

incidence of associated excitement, which may include pad- E. Alphaxalone

dling, vocalization, panting, urination, and defecation, partic-
ularly if preanesthetic sedation is inadequate. An important Alphaxalone is a steroid anesthetic that is associated with
effect of etomidate is suppression of glucocorticoid synthesis by minimal cardiovascular and respiratory effects. It can be admin-
the adrenal gland. This is particularly pronounced if etomidate istered by IV or IM injection, and provides anesthesia of approx-
infusions are used; however, even single doses have an effect, imately 20 minutes duration. It is noncumulative; therefore,
reducing cortisol production for up to 6 hours in dogs (Dodam doses can be repeated to prolong anesthesia without prolonging
et al., 1990) and cats (Moon, 1997). The adrenal effects of eto- recovery time. The previously available formulation (Saffan™)
midate infusion have been associated with increased mortality in had a Cremophor solvent which caused histamine release and
people (Newby and Edbrooke, 1983), and therefore prolonged which prevented its use in dogs (due to a high incidence of
etomidate administration is not recommended. anaphylactoid reactions). However, a new Cremophor-free for-
mulation (Alfaxan™, cyclodextran-based) has been introduced
in Europe and Australia, and is likely to be available in the near
D. Dissociative Anesthetics future in the United States. This preparation does not cause
histamine release and is suitable for IV administration in both
The dissociative anesthetics in common use are ketamine and cats and dogs. The short duration of action, rapid and complete
tiletamine (as a component of Telazol™). Ketamine is a useful recovery, and minimal cardiovascular and respiratory effects
anesthetic agent in dogs and cats: in combination with a ben- make this agent ideal for short procedures. Excitement can occa-
zodiazepine (ketamine 5 mg/kg, benzodiazepine 0.25 mg/kg), sionally be seen during anesthetic recovery, particularly if the
IV injection produces rapid induction of anesthesia that lasts animal has not received a sedative as part of its premedicant;
for 20–30 minutes. It can also be given by IM injection and, however, this can usually be prevented by providing a quiet
particularly in cats, it is a useful sedative (Table 13-2). When environment, with minimal stimulation, in which the animal
used in combination with other anesthetics, it imparts few car- can recover. As with other induction agents, alphaxalone has
diovascular or respiratory effects, and has minimal effects on no analgesic activity. Similarly to propofol, the cyclodextran
other organ systems. In high doses, or when used with min- preparation of alfaxalone contains no preservative; therefore,
imal other anesthetics or sedatives, sympathomimetic effects unused drug remaining in opened vials should be discarded.
are unmasked, and in these circumstances ketamine can cause
tachycardia (most commonly), hypertension, and increased
arrhythmogenicity. In most clinical cases, however, the use of F. Other Long-Acting Injectable Agents
ketamine is associated with cardiovascular stability. Ketamine
is also reported to have direct myocardial depressant effects; Although rarely used in clinical veterinary medicine (due to
however, these are only unveiled in the absence of an intact unfavorable recovery characteristics), long-acting agents such
sympathetic nervous system (e.g., in bilateral adrenalectomy or as urethane, chloral hydrate, and chloralose are suitable for
high thoracic subarachnoid anesthesia). Because of the nature prolonged anesthesia or terminal studies, where delayed and
of dissociative anesthesia, ketamine does not produce global unpredictable recovery is inconsequential. At clinical doses,
dampening of central nervous function, and may increase neu- these agents are typified by lack of cardiovascular effects,
ronal activity in certain regions of the brain. For this reason, and are suitable for certain cardiovascular studies. Urethane
it is avoided in animals with a seizure risk, or in those that requires specialist handling due to carcinogenic properties.
have intracranial lesions. Electroencephalographic recordings Chloral hydrate and chloralose produce only a light plane of
may also be affected. Unlike other induction agents, ketamine anesthesia at doses supporting cardiovascular and respiratory
has some analgesic activity, and provides a valuable compo- function; higher doses producing deeper anesthesia cause res-
nent to multimodal analgesic strategies. The minimal effects piratory depression. These agents are used only rarely, but where
on physiological homeostasis, and the provision of a small the animal is going to be euthanized, without recovering from
amount of analgesia, make it a useful agent for anesthesia anesthesia, they may be useful.
induction.
Tiletamine, usually used in combination with zolazepam, has
properties similar to those of ketamine, and can be administered G. Volatile Agents
by IV or IM injection. In clinical practice, it is often given intra-
muscularly to control aggressive dogs and cats, due to its deep The use of volatile agents for induction of anesthesia is occa-
sedation effects. Adverse effects are similar but of greater inten- sionally necessary for certain investigations, but has a number
sity than ketamine—tachycardia and hypertension are more of disadvantages. The anesthetic agent may be delivered using
commonly observed, and there is a longer duration of sedative either a facemask or induction chamber (suitable for cats and
action. Recovery from tiletamine–zolazepam is unpredictable, small dogs); however, many facemasks do not closely conform
and unfavorable emergence reactions are common. to the variable anatomy of the canine and feline face. This leads
374 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

to leakage of gases around the mask, diluting the inhaled anes- TABLE 13-3
thetic mixture and slowing anesthetic induction. In addition, use Physical Characteristics of Volatile Anesthetic Agents Significant
of a mask that is too large will increase equipment dead space, for Canine and Feline Anesthesia
increasing the work of breathing and causing rebreathing of car- Solubility (blood/gas
bon dioxide. Volatile agent induction methods invariably lead MAC (dogs) MAC (cats) partition coefficient)
to environmental contamination and exposure of personnel to
high levels of anesthetics. If the animal has not been adequately Halothane 0.9 1.0 2.54
Isoflurane 1.3 1.6 1.46
sedated prior to anesthetic induction, there is often a marked Sevoflurane 2.3 2.6 0.68
excitement phase; the animal will struggle and become stressed, Desflurane 7.2 9.8 0.42
leading to catecholamine release with resultant hypertension
and arrhythmias. It is therefore recommended to sedate the ani-
mal, if possible prior to an inhalant anesthetic induction, if such
a technique is necessary. Once the animal is adequately anes- TABLE 13-4
thetized, the trachea should be intubated for ongoing anesthetic Acceptable Ranges for Measured Parameters in Anesthetized
administration. Dogs and Cats
In order to achieve a rapid anesthetic induction, the newer, Parameter Acceptable range
low-solubility agents (isoflurane and sevoflurane) are preferred
over higher solubility agents (halothane). The addition of nitrous Arterial blood pressure (mmHg) Mean: 60–100
Systolic: 100–140
oxide to the inhaled gas mixture (ensuring a delivered oxy- Heart rate (per minute) Dogs: 60–140
gen component of at least 30%) further accelerates anesthetic Cats: 100–180
induction. Desflurane, an even lower-solubility agent with faster Arterial hemoglobin oxygen saturation (%) >95
pharmacokinetics, is not suitable for use as an induction agent End-tidal carbon dioxide (mmHg) 30–55
due to its low potency (high concentrations are required for Respiratory rate (per minute) 4–20
anesthetic induction, which are difficult to deliver), airway irri-
tation, and ability to cause high levels of catecholamine release
in lightly anesthetized animals (“sympathetic-storm”). Com-
pared to sevoflurane, isoflurane has a more noxious smell and particularly after a long anesthetic duration. Recovery from
causes a higher incidence of airway irritation; therefore, where inhalational anesthesia will be lengthened by prolonged anes-
there is a choice of agents, sevoflurane is usually selected. Once thetic exposure, as well as by hypothermia and hypoventilation.
an adequate plane of anesthesia has been reached, it is acceptable The amount of anesthetic delivered (i.e., delivered percentage
to change volatile agents for ongoing anesthetic maintenance over the anesthetic period) and other anesthetic, analgesic, and
(usually after tracheal intubation). sedative agents administered will also influence recovery time.
All the volatile anesthetics decrease heart rate, blood pressure,
and minute ventilation; therefore, these should be closely mon-
itored. A decrease in anesthetic administration is indicated if
VI. ANESTHETIC MAINTENANCE
measured parameters fall below acceptable levels (Table 13-4).
Halothane depresses cardiac output more than the other agents;
Maintenance of anesthesia may be achieved using an inhaled however, systemic vascular resistance is better maintained than
volatile agent, or total IV technique. with the newer agents, which are more potent vasodilators.
Halothane use is also associated with a higher incidence of car-
diac arrhythmias, due to sensitization of the myocardium to
A. Volatile Anesthetics catecholamines. Selection of volatile agent therefore depends
on the procedure to be performed, any physiological derange-
All the commonly used volatile anesthetics (halothane, ments in the study animal, and any cardiovascular parameters
sevoflurane, isoflurane, and desflurane) are suitable for use in of interest. Nitrous oxide can be added to the anesthetic gas
dogs and cats, and the concentrations required for anesthesia mixture, reducing the amount of volatile agent required and the
(which depends on the administration of other analgesic and fraction of inspired oxygen. A small amount of additional anal-
sedative agents, but is usually between 1 and 1.5 minimal alve- gesia is also provided. When using a nonrebreathing anesthetic
olar concentration (MAC) with surgical stimulation) are shown circuit, a ratio of nitrous oxide to oxygen of up to 70:30 can
in Table 13-3. Recovery from anesthesia is dependent on sev- be administered. However, when using a rebreathing circuit,
eral factors including anesthetic solubility; it is most rapid particularly at low gas flow rates, the administered gas mixture
from desflurane and slowest from halothane. Recovery from should contain at least 50% oxygen and total gas flow should
sevoflurane anesthesia is more rapid than from isoflurane; how- be at least 15 ml/kg/min (Haskins and Knapp, 1982). Chapter 6
ever the difference is frequently of minor practical significance, elaborates on the use of different anesthetic breathing systems.
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 375

B. Agents for Total Intravenous Anesthesia depth and vital signs, supplementation with analgesics to reduce
anesthetic dose, and provision of physiological support.
TIVA can be performed using a single injection of a long-
acting agent, such as pentobarbital, or by administering an
A. Depth of Anesthesia Monitoring
infusion or repeated incremental doses of short-acting agents.
Thiopental accumulates with repeat dosing, and therefore recov-
Monitoring anesthetic depth is similar in dogs and cats. As
ery time is unacceptably long for clinical use. In dogs and cats,
anesthetic depth increases, jaw tone drops, eyes rotate ven-
the most commonly selected agent for this purpose is therefore
trally and medially, and palpebral reflex disappears. As the
propofol, administered either by infusion (0.1–0.4 mg/kg/min)
depth increases further, eye position reverses, regaining a cen-
or by repeated bolus injections of 1–2 mg/kg. Administration
tral position, pupillary light reflexes are lost, and there is
by infusion produces a smoother anesthetic, and usually results
no corneal reflex. (It should be noted, however, that corneal
in lower total propofol consumption. If necessary for accu-
reflexes should never be evaluated in an animal that may recover
rate dosing, propofol can be diluted using 5% dextrose in
from anesthesia, due to the risk of corneal damage.) At this
water (D5W). Anecdotally, tolerance to propofol infusion has
stage, anesthesia is too deep, severe cardiovascular dysfunc-
been noted in dogs, with prolonged anesthesia (several days
tion is probable, and such signs should prompt an immediate
duration) requiring escalating propofol doses. Anesthesia using
decrease in anesthetic delivery. Cardiovascular parameters are
propofol infusion in cats is not ideal, and although widely per-
also valuable in assessing anesthetic depth; as anesthesia deep-
formed, this is generally due to lack of an acceptable alternative.
ens, the heart rate and arterial blood pressure decrease. These
Although propofol does not accumulate in dogs and therefore
changes are nonspecific, hypotension may result from hemor-
is ideal for repetitive or infusion use, impaired metabolism
rhage and hypovolemia, and increase in heart rate may reflect
in cats means that it does accumulate (albeit to a less extent
anemia, hypoxemia, hypercapnia, pain, hypoglycemia, elec-
than thiopental), and therefore recovery is prolonged follow-
trolyte abnormalities, and hypovolemia. If the anesthetist has
ing propofol infusion (Pascoe et al., 2006). To minimize this
no access to the face, anesthetic depth can also be evaluated
problem, propofol dose can be reduced by coadministering
by anal tone and limb withdrawal reflexes (both decrease as
additional agents such as fentanyl (0.3–0.7 μg/kg/min), mor-
anesthesia deepens).
phine (1–4 μg/kg/min), ketamine (10–20 μg/kg/min), midazo-
Electroencephalogram-based anesthesia monitors, such as
lam (0.35 μg/kg/min), or medetomidine (0.5–1.0 μg/kg/min).
bispectral index and spectral entropy, are also used to moni-
The use of morphine or fentanyl, as well as reducing propofol
tor anesthetic depth. The value and accuracy of these compared
consumption and thereby improving cardiovascular and respi-
to the assessments described above are controversial, particu-
ratory function, also has the advantage of providing analgesia.
larly in veterinary species. Although some reliability has been
In contrast to other species, dogs and cats can generally not
described in dogs anesthetized with a volatile agent (Greene
be anesthetized by an opioid infusion alone, and therefore
et al., 2002), such measurements are highly dependent on anes-
always require an additional anesthetic agent. As with a volatile
thetic protocol, e.g., anesthetic depth when ketamine is used
agent-based anesthetic technique, heart rate, respiratory rate,
cannot be reliably evaluated (Hans et al., 2005). Bispectral index
and blood pressure tend to decrease in a dose-related fashion.
is also unreliable in anesthetized cats (March and Muir, 2003).
These should therefore be monitored, with appropriate steps
Even if such a monitoring device is in place, because of the
taken to maintain acceptable cardiovascular and respiratory
current lack of reliability in dogs and cats, it should not be used
function.
as an alternative to evaluation of reflexes and hemodynamic
changes.

VII. MONITORING
B. Physiological Monitoring

Negative effects on organ function and homeostasis are Monitoring respiratory and cardiovascular parameters is
unavoidable in most anesthetic protocols. As previously dis- essential during the anesthetic period, due to the high risk of
cussed, most anesthetics depress the cardiovascular and respi- compromised function. Values outside the acceptable range
ratory systems, leading to decreased tissue oxygen delivery and (listed in Table 13-4) may indicate changes in anesthetic depth,
risking organ damage and death. The most important means to or alert the anesthetist to a change in physiological status.
minimize this effect and ensure a favorable outcome at the termi- Peripheral pulse quality is a useful indicator of cardiovascu-
nation of anesthetic is to maintain the animal’s anesthetic depth lar function, and should be assessed even with the availability
as light as possible, and use the minimum amount of anesthetic of electronic monitoring devices. Sites for palpation of periph-
drugs, while ensuring immobility, lack of sensation of noxious eral pulses include the dorsal metatarsal, palmar metacarpal,
stimuli, and lack of recall. Since anesthetic requirement varies and lingual arteries on the dorsomedial aspect of the hind feet,
among individuals, this requires close monitoring of anesthetic palmar aspect of the fore feet (proximal to the largest pad), and
376 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

ventral aspect of the tongue (either side of midline), respectively. inhalation of cool, dry gases, exposure of open body cavi-
These sites are preferred to the femoral pulses, as detection of ties, and the use of surgical preparation solutions. Hypothermia
peripheral pulse quality is a better indicator of cardiovascular results in a number of complications, which are described in the
function, femoral pulses persisting even with significant impair- following section.
ment of cardiac output. Mucous membrane color is a useful
indicator of peripheral perfusion, and should remain pink, with
a capillary refill time of less than 2 seconds, throughout the
VIII. SUPPORTIVE CARE
anesthetic period. Pallor or cyanosis may indicate hypothermia,
hemorrhage or other causes of hypovolemia, or hypoxemia.
Additional monitoring equipment includes devices for blood Basic physiological support required by the majority of anes-
pressure, oxygen saturation, and measurement of carbon diox- thetized animals includes IV fluids and a heat source. During
ide and body temperature. Blood pressure monitoring is highly the anesthetic period, the animal is not drinking, has increased
recommended, as perfusion of vital organs is dependent on insensible fluid losses due to evaporation (from the respiratory
a mean arterial pressure greater than 60 mmHg. This is usu- tract due to the inhalation of nonhumidified gases, and from
ally assured when systolic pressure is greater than 100 mmHg, open body cavities), and loses water due to translocation into
although very low diastolic pressure may occur if high con- traumatized tissues and hemorrhage. In the absence of excessive
centrations of anesthetics are administered, which will cause a blood loss, infusion of 5–10 ml/kg/h of a balanced electrolyte
large drop in mean arterial pressure. Blood pressure exceed- crystalloid solution (such as lactated Ringer’s solution, LRS)
ing acceptable range may indicate stress associated with pain or is recommended during the anesthetic period. Fluid replace-
lightening of anesthetic depth, and is frequently an indicator that ment to compensate for blood loss should be in addition to this
additional analgesics are required. Invasive blood pressure mon- infusion rate; if colloids (e.g., hydroxyethyl starch) or blood
itoring can be performed by placement of an arterial catheter products are used, the volume required is equal to the volume
attached to a manometer or transducer into the digital or femoral of blood lost. If crystalloids are used for volume replacement,
arteries; however, noninvasive methods of blood pressure mon- administration of up to 3–4 times the volume of blood lost is
itoring require less technical expertise and are often equally required to maintain a euvolemic state (Muir and Wiese, 2004).
valuable. Blood pressure monitoring by Doppler technique is the Most healthy anesthetized dogs and cats can tolerate a loss of
most common method in cats due to their small body size—this 10% of total blood volume (with appropriate fluid therapy);
makes placement of arterial catheters more difficult, and many however, hemorrhage in excess of this requires transfusion of
oscillometric blood pressure monitors fail to produce a reading. blood products. Since blood volume is approximately 90 ml/kg
Pulse oximetry and capnography are used to provide an indi- in dogs and 60–70 ml/kg in cats, a 15 kg dog would be at severe
cation of ventilatory function. Increases in end-tidal carbon risk after a loss of 135 ml of blood, whereas a normal-sized cat
dioxide (see Table 13-4) are usually caused by hypoventi- can only afford to lose 30 ml of blood. In cats and smaller dogs,
lation due to excessive anesthetic depth, although this may it is therefore particularly important to pay close attention to
indicate equipment failure causing carbon dioxide rebreathing. surgical hemorrhage.
Decreases may indicate hyperventilation (often associated with Hypothermia is a common complication of anesthesia, and
stress caused by pain or awareness), or may be caused by a is a particular problem in cats and small or young dogs, due
decrease in cardiac output and pulmonary perfusion, increasing to an increased surface-area-to-volume ratio (which increases
physiological dead space. A sudden drop in end-tidal carbon heat loss) and poor thermoregulation (impaired in neonates and
dioxide, which cannot be explained by equipment disconnec- suppressed by opioids and most anesthetics). Hypothermia-
tion, should prompt urgent investigation into the possibility associated morbidity includes increased risk of surgical site
of cardiac arrest. Low values of oxygen saturation obtained infection, coagulopathy, cardiovascular and respiratory depres-
by pulse oximetry typically indicate inadequacy of ventila- sion, and decreased metabolism of anesthetic drugs (hence
tion, although it can also occur if peripheral perfusion is prolonging recovery). Hypothermia-induced hypotension and
compromised. bradycardia are poorly responsive to anticholinergic and sym-
Monitors such as pulse oximeters and noninvasive blood pres- pathomimetic agents, hence are difficult to reverse and may be
sure devices tend to work reliably in dogs and cats, although sufficiently severe to contribute to anesthetic death. Anesthetic
reliability decreases in the presence of poor cardiovascular requirement is closely related to body temperature, with a 5%
function. In general, failure of these monitors or unexpected decrease in MAC for every degree-centigrade temperature drop,
readings should provoke investigation into the well-being of the and therefore inadvertent overdose may occur in the hypother-
anesthetized animal, as most monitors function accurately in mic animal. Unless hypothermia is a desirable component of
the uncomplicated animal, but develop inaccuracies and poor the experimental protocol (e.g., for cardio- or neuroprotection
reliability if cardiovascular function is compromised. during a decreased perfusion state), external heating devices
The importance of temperature monitoring relates to the (circulating warm water blankets, forced air warmers) should
high incidence of hypothermia caused by anesthetic agents, be used and temperature monitored.
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 377

Due to the cardiovascular and respiratory depressant effects buprenorphine 0.02 mg/kg) and low doses of sedatives (such as
of most anesthetics, it may be necessary to support cardiac and acepromazine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg or medetomidine 0.5–2 μg/kg),
ventilatory function. In the first instance, anesthetic overdose given intravenously for rapid onset of action, is often indicated.
should be assumed, and attempts made to decrease anesthetic Achieving a good quality of sedation from the premedication
administration. The need for assisted ventilation can be guided can help smooth the recovery period, although this may need to
by capnography, and should be provided if the end-tidal car- be repeated after long procedures.
bon dioxide consistently exceeds 60 mmHg despite appropriate In the absence of intraoperative complications (such as hem-
anesthetic depth. Even in situations where the animal is not intu- orrhage or hypothermia), resolution of anesthetic-depressed
bated, supplemental oxygen should be provided to compensate respiratory and hemodynamic function coincides with the stage
for depressed ventilation. of recovery when the animal will no longer tolerate the endotra-
Cardiovascular depression may manifest as bradycardia or cheal tube (Polis et al., 2001). Attention to heart rate, respiratory
arterial hypotension. Cut-off values for acceptable heart rate rate, and mucous membrane color should therefore continue
depend on the animal’s preanesthetic values; however, in gen- even after discontinuation of anesthetic, at least until recov-
eral, heart rate should be maintained above 100 beats/min in ery of swallowing and cough reflexes. Evaluation of mucous
cats, and 60 beats/min in dogs. If the heart rate is consistently membrane color is particularly important after withdrawing sup-
below these values and is not coupled with high arterial blood plemental oxygen, to ensure that the animal does not become
pressure, then treatment with an anticholinergic may be war- cyanotic. Following long or complicated procedures, contin-
ranted (with appropriate caution taken if the bradycardia is ued supplemental oxygen provision may be required into the
related to administration of an α2 agonist; see description of postoperative period to prevent hypoxemia caused by residual
these agents later in this chapter). Mean arterial blood pressure respiratory depression. Depending on the agents used and dura-
values below 60 mmHg require attention to prevent renal dam- tion of anesthesia, it may be several hours before recovery to
age. Devising a balanced anesthetic protocol that includes pre- sternal recumbency and standing is achieved.The animal does
medication and adequate analgesia will usually enable healthy not necessarily require continuous monitoring once the endo-
animals to be anesthetized without administering high concen- tracheal tube is removed and heart and respiratory rate have
trations of anesthetic. Therefore, in most healthy animals, an returned to preanesthetic values. However, occasional mon-
acceptable mean arterial blood pressure will be achieved by itoring, the frequency of which is dictated by the duration
maintaining a light anesthetic depth and provision of perioper- and invasiveness of the procedure performed, should continue
ative IV fluids. Increasing the rate of IV fluid infusion may be until the animal is able to stand, as sedation, cardiopulmonary
beneficial in the face of persistent hypotension. More aggressive depression, and decrease in temperature may recur. Hourly eval-
treatment of persistent cardiovascular depression may require uation of heart rate, respiratory rate, mucous membrane color,
infusion of α- or β- adrenergic agonists, such as dopamine, and pain control are suggested for 2–6 hours following inva-
dobutamine, or norepinephrine, if acceptable under the con- sive procedures (e.g., thoracotomy, prolonged laparotomy, and
ditions of the study. Such therapies are usually only required craniotomy) or where hemorrhage is possible. Prolonged seda-
in the presence of severe cardiovascular derangements such as tion, or cardiovascular or respiratory depression should also
those resulting from severe hemorrhage, cardiac failure, or sep- prompt assessment of body temperature; however, repeated
sis. Where these are present, a means to support cardiovascular measurements of rectal temperature are not required if the
function should be incorporated into the initial study protocol, animal is otherwise recovering well, and frequent checking
if survival at the end of the anesthetic period is intended. of body temperature may be distressing for the animal. After
painful procedures, sufficiency of analgesia should continue
to be frequently evaluated (decreasing gradually from hourly
assessments to 2–3 times/day), particularly when changes in
IX. RECOVERY
analgesic regimen are made, with the ability to administer
additional analgesics if required.
The recovery period incorporates the time from cessation of
anesthetic to tracheal extubation, and continues until the ani-
mal is sufficiently stable to be left unattended. Typically, as
X. ANALGESIA
the animal recovers, there is a progressive return of palpebral
reflex and jaw tone, increase in respiratory rate, uncoordinated
motor efforts, and endotracheal tube intolerance. Nystagmus Drugs used for analgesia include opioids, NSAIDs, and local
may be seen; however, this is less common in dogs and cats anesthetics. Optimal analgesia is provided by combining drugs
than in other species. Recovery from anesthesia may be associ- from different classes, a concept known as multimodal analge-
ated with a period of excitement or dysphoria. Distinguishing sia, that produces superior analgesia using lower drug doses than
this from postoperative pain is difficult, and therefore treat- is achieved using a single agent. Providing adequate analgesia
ment with analgesics (such as hydromorphone 0.05 mg/kg or for surgical procedures involves the administration of analgesic
378 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

prior to, and continued for the duration of, the noxious stimu- agonist–antagonist that acts only at the opioid kappa receptor,
lation (usually, and most conveniently, as part of the anesthetic is useful in sedation combinations, but has largely been replaced
premedication). Administering the analgesic prior to the onset of by buprenorphine for analgesia for mild pain in dogs and cats.
painful stimuli provides preemptive analgesia and is more suc- Compared to buprenorphine, butorphanol has a short dura-
cessful than administration after the onset of pain (Penderis and tion of action and minimal efficacy. Guidelines for analgesic
Franklin, 2005). The choice of analgesia and duration of postop- management using these agents are shown in Table 13-5.
erative treatment vary according to the pain intensity of the pro- In addition to intermittent parenteral administration, there
cedure performed (extent of tissue trauma, amount of visceral are a number of alternate methods of dosing opioids. The use of
handling, and incision length). The presence of preoperative transdermal drug delivery systems enables continued uptake of
pain and increased stress or anxiety also increase pain response fentanyl or buprenorphine for a 3-day period after patch place-
(Kalkman et al., 2003). It is therefore essential to tailor the ment. There is a delay of up to 24 hours (in dogs) and 6–12 hours
analgesic regimen to the procedure to be performed; however, (in cats) after placement for onset of activity, and therefore either
because of interindividual variability in pain response, it is also the patch should be placed the day prior to surgery, or alternate
necessary to include the provision of increasing analgesic dosing methods for analgesic management should be used during this
to animals with greater than anticipated postoperative pain. time. Patches should not be cut or stapled, as this will lead
Pain assessments should be performed frequently. Pain to rapid and unpredictable drug release. If partial patches are
behavior differs greatly in dogs and cats, and it is important to be required, a better alternative is to remove only half of the pro-
aware of the signs of postoperative discomfort. Familiarity with tective cover, thus leaving only half the patch in contact with
the normal preoperative behavior of individual dogs and cats the skin. Table 13-5 lists the recommendations for transdermal
is highly beneficial in pain assessment, and deviation from the fentanyl patch sizes.
animal’s normal posture, behavior, or demeanor should provoke In addition to parenteral routes, injectable buprenorphine
concern for the quality of pain management. Pain evaluation can be administered orally in cats, since it exhibits transbuccal
involves interacting with the animal, as responses to locomotion, absorption in this species. Bioavailability is 100%; therefore,
handling and gentle wound palpation are extremely informative. the oral dose is the same as the parenteral dose (0.02 mg/kg),
In both species, the animal may adopt a hunched or otherwise and the duration of action is also the same (up to 6 hours). As
abnormal posture if it is painful. Dogs may vocalize, particu- long as the pain intensity is not severe, buprenorphine is a use-
larly upon lesion palpation, while cats are more likely to become ful drug for postoperative analgesia, due to the longer duration
quiet and withdrawn, hiding in the rear of their housing. Lack of of action compared to pure opioid agonists (the longest-acting,
appetite, inability to lie down, and unwillingness to interact with e.g. morphine, only provide up to 4 hours of analgesia). Epidural
a known handler may also indicate a painful state. Physiological administration of preservative-free morphine (0.1–0.2 mg/kg, in
parameters, such as heart rate, are frequently used to assess pain, a volume of 0.1 ml/kg, diluted in sterile saline if necessary) pro-
but are relatively poor indicators when compared to behavioral duces an even longer duration of analgesia, with up to 18 hours
and postural changes. Recognition of pain is described in more efficacy after a single injection. Although demanding a greater
detail elsewhere in this text. level of skill than other routes of drug administration, this
technique, described in Wetmore and Glowaski (2000), can be
quickly learned and epidural injection is generally achievable in
A. Opioids dogs and cats that are not overweight. The duration of analgesia
provided is ideal where personnel availability limits the ability
Opioids provide the basis of surgical pain management. to perform 4–6 hourly analgesic injections. Attention should be
Because of their minimal adverse effects (predominantly res- paid to urination, as transient urinary retention is a possible side
piratory depression, but this usually occurs at high doses or in effect; however, this can be managed by expressing the bladder
the deeply anaesthetized animal, and is diminished in the pres- or passing a urinary catheter. Liposome-encapsulated opioids
ence of pain), they are an ideal component of the anesthetic are emerging into veterinary medicine; these produce analge-
protocol. Although vomiting may occur after the preanesthetic sia for several days after a single parenteral dose (Smith et al.,
dose, subsequent postoperative doses elicit this response less 2003). When such medications become more widely available,
frequently. Pure opioid agonists (morphine, hydromorphone, they will be very useful for postoperative analgesia. Sustained
and methadone) provide the greatest level of analgesia; partial release oral opioid formulations (see Table 13-5) are useful for
agonists (buprenorphine) should be reserved for less painful animals awake enough to tolerate oral medications.
procedures, or used 1–2 days postoperatively when pain inten-
sity has lessened. Partial agonists exhibit a ceiling effect to
analgesic efficacy, and therefore there is an upper limit to B. NSAIDs
the amount of analgesia that can be provided. In contrast,
when using pure agonists, dose can be increased to pro- NSAIDs can be used in combination with opioids, produc-
vide additional analgesia if required. Butorphanol, an opioid ing an excellent synergistic effect. There are many NSAIDs
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 379

TABLE 13-5
Options for Analgesia in Dogs and Cats

Drug(s) Doses, comments

Morphine, methadone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg SQ/IV (not IV morphine)/IM every 4 hours

Oral sustained release morphine tablets: 0.5 mg/kg/day
Hydromorphone, oxymorphone 0.05–0.1 mg/kg SQ/IV/IM every 4 hours
For moderate to severe pain combine with additional analgesic type
(e.g. local anesthetic, NSAID, ketamine)
Buprenorphine 0.02 mg/kg SQ/IV/IM every 6 hours. For mild-moderate pain,
e.g. minimally invasive surgery, or >24–48 hours after
laparotomy/thoracotomy
Transdermal fentanyl Cats and dogs up to 10 kg: 25 μg/h patch
Dogs 10–25 kg: 50 μg/h patch
Dogs >25 kg: 2 × 50 μg/h patches (better than 100 μg/h patch)
Patch takes 6–12 hours (cats), 24 hours (dogs) for maximal effect.
Duration of analgesia = 3 days
Epidural analgesia Preservative-free morphine: 0.1–0.2 mg/kg, diluted in sterile water or
0.9% saline to a volume of 0.1 ml/kg, injected into epidural space at
lumbosacral junction. Provides 12–18 hours analgesia
NSAIDs Excellent synergistic effect with opioids
Carprofen (dogs) 4 mg/kg/day PO or IV
Meloxicam (dogs) 0.3 mg/kg once PO or SQ. 0.1 mg/kg/day for >1 day use
See text for recommendations in cats
Local anesthetics Via chest tube (thoracotomy pain) or wound catheter: 1.5 mg/kg bupivacaine
or ropivacaine every 8 hours
Intraarticular: 0.1–0.2 ml/kg bupivacaine or ropivacaine at end of surgery
Excellent analgesia when combined with opioids +/− NSAIDs
Ketamine 10–20 μg/kg/min, combined with opioid analgesia
Compatible with LRS
For anesthesia maintenance IV fluid infusion rate (10 ml/kg/h),
add 60–120 mg ketamine to 1 l LRS
For postoperative maintenance fluid infusion (2 ml/kg/h),
add 300–600 mg ketamine to 1 l LRS

Note: Doses are based on author’s clinical use, and may differ from other published dose ranges.

available for use in dogs, including carprofen, meloxicam, keto- practice; its liquid formulation for oral dosing facilitates accu-
profen, and etodolac, most of which require only 24-hourly rate dosing for animals of low body weight (compared to
dosing. Recommended doses are shown in Table 13-5. Care splitting large dose tablets). Meloxicam, along with carprofen
should be taken not to exceed the recommended dosing regi- and ketoprofen, are available in an injectable formulation, which
mens, as adverse effects on renal, hepatic and gastrointestinal is useful for perioperative administration in both dogs and cats.
function may result. NSAIDs use is contraindicated in ani-
mals that are vomiting, anorexic, or have diarrhea, because
of the increased risk of gastrointestinal ulceration and subse- C. Local Anesthetics
quent perforation. They are also contraindicated in animals that
have undergone (or will undergo) a period of decreased tissue Local anesthetic nerve blocks provide desensitization of a
perfusion as a result of experimental protocol (e.g., vessel cross- particular region for a period of up to 8 hours (if ropivacaine
clamping, induced hypovolemia). This is because blood supply or bupivacaine are used). Not all surgical sites are conducive
to the liver, kidneys, and gastrointestinal tract will be compro- to nerve blocks; however, the digits, rostral mandible and max-
mised, which when combined with the toxic effects of NSAIDs illa, and distal forelimb can be desensitized using a ring block,
on these organs, carries a significant risk of organ damage. mandibular, infraorbital, or brachial plexus block, respectively.
The cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) specific inhibitors (deracoxib The use of local anesthetics in chest drains (analgesia of the
and firocoxib) theoretically have fewer adverse effects than thorax and cranial abdomen) or intraarticular administration
traditional NSAIDs; however, practically this may not be the (e.g., after arthrotomy or arthroscopy) (Hoelzler et al., 2005)
case, and monitoring for complications is still warranted. Cats also provides effective analgesia, particularly when used as a
are more prone to complications (usually nephrotoxicity) than component of a multimodal protocol (Table 13-5). Local anes-
dogs. However, meloxicam is commonly used in cats in clinical thetics may be infused into fenestrated catheters (Diffusion
380 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

catheter™ , MILA International, Kentucky) sutured into surgical occur in all individuals, but is unpredictable; therefore, it is
wounds. This is particularly effective for analgesia of areas of recommended not to use this agent in this breed. Most other
extensive soft-tissue resection, e.g., amputations and skin flaps “breed sensitivities” relate to disease states that are overrepre-
(Wolfe et al., 2006). Lidocaine is also available as a transdermal sented in a given breed (e.g., hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in
patch (Lidoderm™ ). However unlike fentanyl and buprenor- Maine Coon cats), and are not significant if the animal does
phine patches, systemic absorption is minimal and the patch is not exhibit such abnormalities. Brachycephalic breeds (typified
designed to be placed directly over the painful area for a local by English Bulldogs, Pugs, etc.) may develop severe respira-
effect. The patch is placed for 12-hourly on/off cycles. Anec- tory obstruction during the perianesthetic period if the airway
dotally, such patches seem beneficial when placed immediately is not secured (and particularly immediately after tracheal extu-
to the side of a surgical incision, to supplement opioid-based bation); however, individuals within these breeds that are not
postoperative analgesia. Placement over painful joints (e.g., markedly brachycephalic will be minimally affected. Inherited
osteoarthritis) may also be effective. clotting factor deficiencies, such as Von Willebrand’s deficiency
in Doberman Pinschers and factor VII deficiency in Beagles,
may result in profound increases in surgical bleeding, and should
D. Ketamine
therefore be considered in susceptible populations.
Although not previously thought to be an effective analgesic,
ketamine has been shown to increase the level of analgesia pro- B. Craniotomy and Intracranial Lesions
vided when used in combination with other analgesic agents
(Robertson and Taylor, 2004; Wagner et al., 2002). It is not an During procedures where elevated ICP is a concern, such
effective analgesic when used alone, but as part of a multimodal as the presence of cerebral edema or hemorrhage, it may be
analgesic combination, particularly with opioids, it is able to necessary to select an anesthetic protocol that minimizes eleva-
provide enhanced relief from both visceral and somatic sources tions in ICP or protects against periods of cerebral ischemia. In
of pain. When used as an analgesic, ketamine is typically admin- the healthy brain, matching of cerebral blood flow to neuronal
istered as an infusion (see Table 13-5), during and after surgery, activity is effectively controlled by autoregulation. However,
and since it is compatible with both 0.9% saline and LRS, can in the presence of lesions such as surgical trauma, hemor-
be added to the animal’s intraoperative or postoperative mainte- rhage, hydrocephalus, or edema, autoregulation is impaired and
nance fluids. However, even if incorporated into the anesthetic blood supply is dependent on a balance between systemic blood
premedicant or induction protocol, and thus administered as a pressure and ICP. Elevations in ICP may result from hypercap-
bolus IV or IM injection, it may provide some preemptive anal- nia, jugular venous occlusion, coughing on intubation (caused
gesia. It is particularly effective in complex pain states, such by insufficient anesthetic depth), and use of ketamine. Agents
as surgical procedures in the presence of preexisting pain (e.g., that markedly decrease cardiac output may also impair cerebral
multiple surgeries on the same animal, induced arthritis), nerve blood flow, and include acepromazine, α2 agonists, and large
damage (e.g., nerve ligation, thermal or chemical burns), or doses of most volatile and injectable anesthetic agents. Opi-
extensive tissue damage. oids are not contraindicated in intracranial disease, as long as
the animal is monitored and treated for hypoventilation. Either
volatile agents or TIVA may be used for maintenance of general
XI. SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS anesthesia, as long as cardiovascular and respiratory functions
are supported and steps are taken to use the minimum dose
(no greater than 1–1.5 MAC for the volatile agents is recom-
A. Breed Variability
mended for maintenance of cerebral autoregulation). Thiopental
may offer some protection from cerebral ischemia, and is the
In general, there is little breed variation in anesthetic
author’s preferred induction agent for clinical cases of seizures
response, and in most circumstances, there is only a small
or elevated ICP.
number of breeds used for laboratory purposes. However, a
small number of breeds warrant particular mention, as they
may be encountered occasionally. Greyhounds, lurchers, and C. Thoracotomy
similar breeds (collectively known as sighthounds) demonstrate
prolonged recovery (greater than 8 hours) when exposed to Any of the anesthetic protocols described earlier in the chap-
thiobarbiturates (thiopental and thiamylal), due to alterations ter are suitable for routine thoracotomy; however, nitrous oxide
in drug redistribution and hepatic metabolism (Sams et al., should not be included due to the risk of postoperative pneu-
1985). With the exception of prolonged or terminal procedures, mothorax. Thoracic surgery is generally classified as one of the
alternate anesthetic induction agents should therefore be used. procedures causing severe postoperative pain. The presence of
Certain Boxer dogs demonstrate syncope, marked bradycardia, such pain, in addition to causing distress and suffering, will
and hypotension when exposed to acepromazine—this does not impair breathing, leading to hypoventilation, hypoxemia, and
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 381

increased risk of postoperative pneumonia. Pure opioid ago- mild-to-moderate cardiovascular compromise, but it should not
nists are required for the management of thoracotomy pain for be used in cats with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Maintenance
the first 24–48 hours postoperatively. However, since high doses of general anesthesia with minimal interference with cardio-
of these agents may also depress ventilation, respiratory rate vascular function can be achieved using low concentrations
should be monitored, at least in the initial postoperative period. (<MAC) of volatile agents, supplemented with infusion of
Analgesics such as ketamine, NSAIDs, and local anesthetics an opioid, such as fentanyl (0.1–0.7 μg/kg/min). High doses
(intercostal nerve block perioperatively, and via the chest tube of opioids may decrease cardiac output by causing brady-
postoperatively), which do not depress ventilation, are very use- cardia; however, this can be overcome by administering an
ful additions to an opioid-based analgesic plan, reducing the anticholinergic agent.
opioid dose required to allow effective management of pain.
Administration of opioids via epidural injection is also useful
and has fewer respiratory side effects. Animals that are undergo- E. Orthopedic Conditions
ing thoracotomy in a clinical setting frequently have underlying
pulmonary or pleural space disease, and may require oxygen Anesthesia for orthopedic procedures is typified by mini-
supplementation and drainage of pleural contents (air, effusion) mal physiological derangements, and therefore many anesthetic
prior to anesthetic induction. This is not usually the case for management strategies are suitable. It is important to care-
laboratory animals; however, these precautionary procedures fully consider analgesic management for such patients, whether
should be carried out if indicated. for surgically induced conditions (such as osteotomy, arthrode-
Positive pressure ventilation is necessary for animals under- sis) or chemically induced arthritis. NSAIDs provide excellent
going thoracotomy. Ventilator settings may require alteration analgesia for orthopedic pain, especially when combined with
after opening the thorax, due to a change in respiratory com- opioid agonists. There is much literature available regarding
pliance, particularly if a pressure-cycled ventilator is used. To the effects of the NSAIDs on bone and cartilage healing, with
maintain normocapnia and adequate oxygenation, mechanical contradiction between various reports. In clinical veterinary
ventilation should ideally be guided by capnometry and pulse medicine, this is not perceived as a significant problem, and
oximetry, with arterial blood gas analysis being helpful for more many dogs and cats with long bone fractures receive NSAIDs
complicated procedures (e.g., prolonged surgeries, extensive as part of their perioperative and postoperative analgesia reg-
lung resection). Very few animals require neuromuscular block- imen, without repercussions of nonunions or delayed healing.
ade for mechanical ventilation, and if the animal is “bucking” or Microscopic evidence of altered healing is reported with NSAID
fighting the ventilator, an excessively light plane of anesthesia, use, particularly in experimental and rodent models; however,
inadequate analgesia, or ineffective ventilator settings should be the clinical relevance of this is questionable. It is important to
assumed and corrected. Ventilatory management can be partic- note that the dramatic synergy between the analgesic effects of
ularly challenging in thoracoscopic procedures, where pleural NSAIDs and opioids implies that if an NSAID is not adminis-
insufflation leads to lung collapse, or those involving one-lung tered, e.g., because microscopic evaluation of bone or cartilage
ventilation, in which marked ventilation–perfusion mismatch repair is integral to the study, much higher doses of opioids will
can occur. All volatile anesthetics impair hypoxic pulmonary be required. Doses exceeding those listed in Table 13-5 will
vasoconstriction; however, this phenomenon also occurs when frequently be needed for adequate pain control.
an injectable technique is used (albeit to a lesser extent). At the The anatomical location of many orthopedic lesions means
end of the procedure, particular attention should be paid to respi- that local and regional anesthetic techniques can frequently be
ratory function during the recovery period, as residual anesthetic employed to enhance analgesia. Analgesia for hindlimb pro-
effects may cause hypoventilation, leading to hypercapnia and cedures can be provided by epidural administration of opioids
cyanosis. and/or local anesthetics, whereas forelimb analgesia, particu-
larly of structures distal to the elbow, can be provided using
a brachial plexus nerve block. Analgesia for arthrotomy can be
D. Cardiovascular Conditions enhanced by the use of intraarticular local anesthetics. Descrip-
tions of the techniques for these nerve blocks and epidural drug
There are many examples of situations where anesthesia injections can be found in Skarda (1996) and Wetmore and
of animals with cardiovascular compromise is required (e.g., Glowaski (2000). Unless catheters are placed for continuous
induced hypovolemia or sepsis) or where a cardiovascular- drug administration, the duration of analgesia provided by local
sparing protocol is needed (e.g., for measurements of car- nerve blocks (6–8 hours using ropivacaine or bupivacaine) is
diovascular parameters). Anesthetic agents that have minimal limited, and therefore these should not provide the sole means of
effects on cardiovascular function include the opioids, benzodi- analgesia. Instead, these techniques are particularly useful when
azepines, alphaxalone, and etomidate. Ketamine typically does performed prior to surgery, providing excellent preemptive anal-
not depress the cardiovascular system, although mild tachycar- gesia. Systemic opioids and NSAIDs should then be continued
dia may occur. This agent is generally suitable for animals with into the postoperative period. Assessment of adequacy of pain
382 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

relief can be easily performed when only one limb is affected, mechanisms, hypothermia occurs frequently in the anesthetized
as untreated pain will result in decreased use of the leg, and gait neonate, and therefore rigorous support of body temperature
asymmetry. should begin immediately after anesthetic induction.

F. Cesarean Section H. Prolonged Anesthesia

The aims of anesthesia for cesarean section are to minimize In certain procedures, there may be a requirement to main-
depression of the neonates, and enable a rapid anesthetic recov- tain general anesthesia for long periods (>24 hours). When this
ery such that the dam can quickly nurse the kittens/puppies. occurs, whether or not recovery from anesthesia is anticipated is
Analgesia is complicated by a desire to avoid sedation and res- an important factor in determining the anesthetic plan. For many
piratory depression in the neonates; epidural administration prolonged procedures, infusions of pentobarbital (5 mg/kg/h)
of morphine (Table 13-5) is an excellent solution and avoids or thiopental (5–10 mg/kg/h) provides a stable plane of anes-
placental transfer of drugs. Rapid-acting anesthetic agents are thesia; however, due to drug accumulation, dose requirements
recommended; an example of a suitable anesthetic protocol is will decrease with time and recovery will be very prolonged
IV midazolam (0.2 mg/kg) followed by propofol, dosed to per- after termination of drug administration. If the animal is to
mit endotracheal intubation, and sevoflurane or desflurane for recover from anesthesia, analgesia must be incorporated into
maintenance of general anesthesia. Epidural morphine injec- the anesthetic protocol for painful procedures; opioids such as
tion can be performed immediately after anesthetic induction; morphine (50–200 μg/kg/h), hydromorphone (25 μg/kg/h), or
alternatively, buprenorphine (0.02 mg/kg) can be administered fentanyl (5–25 μg/kg/h) may be given by infusion, which help
immediately after the neonates have been delivered. This is to decrease the required dose of the anesthetic agent. For pro-
the less satisfactory of the two analgesic protocols, due to longed anesthesia where eventual recovery is anticipated, propo-
the absence of provision of preemptive analgesia. The use of fol frequently provides the basis of the anesthetic technique.
NSAIDs is not recommended, as these readily transfer across Depending on the administration of other agents, propofol is
the placenta and into the milk, and are not suitable for neonates. administered at the rate of 0.1–0.4 mg/kg/h, with a possible
tolerance developing over several days. The coadministration
G. Neonatal Anesthesia of midazolam (0.35 μg/kg/min), ketamine (10–20 μg/kg/min),
lidocaine (50 μg/kg/min), or an opioid (see above) helps to
Dogs and cats may be regarded as neonates for up to decrease the dose of propofol required. In healthy animals, all
1 month after birth, although susceptibility to hypothermia these anesthetic protocols are generally tolerated for long peri-
and hypoglycemia persists for longer periods (particularly in ods, as long as basic cardiovascular and respiratory monitoring
small breeds). Fasting is poorly tolerated, and therefore food and support (e.g., supplemental oxygen, assisted ventilation) is
should be withheld for only short periods (2–4 hours) prior to provided. Prolonged propofol administration results in hyper-
general anesthesia. Hepatic and renal function is decreased com- triglyceridemia (Gronert et al., 1998); however, pancreatitis has
pared to the adult, resulting in alterations in drug metabolism not been reported as a complication in either dogs or cats. For
(increasing both magnitude and duration of effect) and sus- anesthetic procedures lasting longer than 24 hours, nutritional
ceptibility to hypoglycemia. Pharmacokinetics of many drugs support is important. As with shorter procedures, ongoing mon-
are altered; owing to the altered distribution of cardiac out- itoring of anesthetic depth (to guide changing dose requirements
put, low plasma protein level, and changes in metabolism, the over time) and physiological parameters is required.
responses to individual drugs can be difficult to predict. It is
therefore recommended to initially use low doses of drugs, I. Considerations for Cats
administered incrementally to achieve the desired effect, and to
select short-acting or reversible agents. Suitable options include For most anesthetic agents, the doses provided and adverse
benzodiazepines, opioids, propofol, and volatile anesthetics. effects expected are the same in both dogs and cats. However,
Hypovolemia is poorly tolerated, as mechanisms to regulate cats have a number of metabolic and physiological differences
fluid balance are impaired, and rapid administration of IV fluids compared to dogs, which are relevant to anesthetic management.
to correct hypovolemia is more likely to result in edema than Cats have reduced hepatic glucuronidation capacity, and there-
restoration of effective circulating fluid volume. Cardiac output fore metabolism of drugs may be delayed and effects prolonged.
and systemic blood pressure are heavily dependent on heart rate, This is particularly important when injectable anesthetics are
rather than increases in cardiac contractility and systemic vas- administered in repeated doses or by continuous infusion, when
cular resistance, and therefore bradycardia should be promptly the lower end of the provided dose range should be selected. It is
treated by decreasing anesthetic depth and administration of particularly apparent for propofol, the repeated administration
anticholinergic agents. Due to a large surface-area-to-volume of which has important consequences in cats (see earlier propo-
ratio, minimal fat deposits, and impaired thermoregulatory fol discussion). The difference in hepatic metabolism also has
13. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN DOGS AND CATS 383

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K.G.M. (2003). Preoperative prediction of severe postoperative pain. Pain
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Pascoe, P.J. (2000). Perioperative pain management. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small anesthetic depth in cats anesthetized with isoflurane. Am. J. Vet. Res. 64(12),
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1426–1432. Hosp. Assoc. 40(4), 255–260.
384 ELIZABETH ARMITAGE-CHAN

Mitchell, S.L., McCarthy, R., Rudloff, E., and Pernell, R.T. (2000). Tracheal Roizen, M.F. (2005). Preoperative evaluation. In “Anesthesia.” (R.D. Miller,
rupture associated with intubation in cats: 20 Cases (1996–1998). J. Am. Vet. ed.), 6th ed., pp 927–997. Churchill Livingstone, Philadelphia, PA.
Med. Assoc. 216(10), 1592–1595. Sams, R.A., Muir, W.W., Detra, R.L., and Robinson, E.P. (1985). Comparative
Moon, P.F. (1997). Cortisol suppression in cats after induction of anesthesia pharmacokinetics and anesthetic effects of methohexital, pentobarbital, thi-
with etomidate, compared with ketamine–diazepam combination. Am. J. Vet. amylal, and thiopental in Greyhound dogs and non-Greyhound, mixed-breed
Res. 58(8), 868–871. dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 46(8), 1677–1683.
Nelson, T.E. (1991). Malignant hyperthermia in dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. Skarda, R.T. (1996). Local and regional anesthetic and analgesic tech-
198(6), 989–994. niques: Dogs. In “Lumb and Jones’ Veterinary Anesthesia.” (J.C. Thurmon,
Muir, W.W., and Wiese, A.J. (2004). Comparison of Lactated Ringer’s Solution W.J. Tranquilli, and G.J. Benson, eds.), 3rd ed., pp 426–447. Lipincott
and physiologically balanced 6% hetastarch plasma expander for the treat- Williams and Wilkins, Pennsylvania, PA.
ment of hypotension induced via blood withdrawal in isoflurane-anesthetized Smith, L.J., Krugner-Higby, L., Clark, M., Wendland, A., and Heath, T.D.
dogs. Am. J. Vet. Res. 65(9), 1189–1194. (2003). A single dose of liposome-encapsulated oxymorphone or morphine
Newby, D.M., and Edbrooke, D.L. (1983). Influence of sedation on mortality provides long-term analgesia in an animal model of neuropathic pain. Comp.
in trauma patients. Lancet 1(8338), 1381. Med. 53(3), 280–287.
Pascoe, P.J., Ilkiw, J.E., and Frischmeyer, K.J. (2006). The effect of the duration Wagner, A.E., Walton, J.A., Hellyer, P.W., Gaynor, J.S., and Mama, K.R. (2002).
of propofol administration on recovery from anesthesia in cats. Vet. Anaesth. Use of low doses of ketamine administered by constant rate infusion as an
Analg. 33(1), 2–7. adjunct for postoperative analgesia in dogs. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 221(1),
Penderis, J., and Franklin, R.J. (2005). Effects of pre- versus post-anaesthetic 72–75.
buprenorphine on propofol-anaesthetized rate. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 32(5), Wetmore, L.A., and Glowaski, M.M. (2000). Epidural analgesia in veterinary
256–260. critical care. Clin. Tech. Small Anim. Pract. 15(3), 177–188.
Polis, I., Gasthuys, F., Van Ham, L., and Laevens, H. (2001). Recovery times Wolfe, T.M., Bateman, S.W., Cole, L.K., and Smeak, D.D. (2006). Evaluation of
and evaluation of clinical hemodynamic parameters of sevoflurane, isoflurane a local anesthetic delivery system for the postoperative analgesic management
and halothane anaesthesia in mongrel dogs. J. Vet. Med. 48(7), 401–411. of canine total ear canal ablation—a randomized, controlled, double-blinded
Robertson, S.A., and Taylor, P.M. (2004). Pain management in cats—past, study. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 33(5), 328–339.
present and future. Part 2. Treatment of pain—Clinical pharmacology. J.
Feline Med. Surg. 6(5), 321–333.
 Chapter 14

Anesthesia and Analgesia of Ruminants

Alexander Valverde and Thomas J. Doherty

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
II. Physiological and Anatomical Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
A. Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
B. Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
C. Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
D. Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
E. Musculoskeletal System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
III. Premedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
A. Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
B. Drug Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
C. Sedation and Premedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
IV. Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
A. Recommendations for General Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
B. Induction of Anesthesia in Small Ruminants and Calves . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
C. Induction of Anesthesia in Adult Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
D. Remote Capture of Ruminants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
V. General Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
A. Anesthetic Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
B. Endotracheal Intubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
C. Intubation of Small Ruminants and Calves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
D. Intubation of Adult Cattle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
E. Maintenance of Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
F. Recovery from Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
VI. Local and Regional Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
A. Local Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
B. Epidural and Spinal Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
C. Technique of Epidural Injections in Small Ruminants and Calves . . . . 402
D. Paravertebral Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
E. Nerve Blocks of the Eye and Adnexa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
F. Intravenous Regional Anesthesia (Bier’s Block) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
VII. Anesthesia for Husbandry Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
A. Dehorning and Disbudding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
B. Castration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
VIII. Monitoring the Anesthetized Patient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
A. Depth of Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
B. Cardiovascular Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
C. Respiratory Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

385
386 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

D. Anesthetic Agent Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406

E. Body Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
IX. Intraoperative Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
A. Fluid Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
B. Support of Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
C. Treatment of Intraoperative Hypotension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
X. Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
A. Alpha2 Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
B. Ketamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
C. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
D. Lidocaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
E. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

I. INTRODUCTION and are active during mastication of food but not rumination,
since they contribute mainly to moistening and lubrication of
food and less so to buffering of the stomach acidity (Kay,
Ruminants are commonly used in research as models related
1960). The submaxillary saliva is mucous and slightly cloudy,
to human and veterinary studies. Cardiovascular, pulmonary,
whereas the parotid saliva is fluid and clear (Kay, 1960).
orthopedic, and pharmacokinetic models often use small rumi-
Parotid saliva is isotonic with plasma but contains higher con-
nants as the species of choice due to similarities to humans and
centrations of K+ (13 mmol/L), HCO− 3 (112 mmol/L), HPO4
2−
the convenience of size and ease of handling of these species. +
(48 mmol/L), and Na (170 mmol/L), and lower concentrations
Examples include the use of sheep and goats for in vivo and
of Cl− (11 mmol/L). Submaxillary saliva has lower concen-
in vitro studies of cardiac models for treatment of pulmonary
trations of HCO− 2−
3 (9 mmol/L), HPO4 (5 mmol/L), and Na
+
embolism, cardioversion, effects of cardiac drugs, heart valve + −
(9 mmol/L), and similar concentrations of K and Cl than
replacement, models of pharmacokinetics of corticosteroids in
parotid saliva (Kay, 1960). The pH of saliva is highly alkaline
the sheep fetus, and models for joint and bone healing among
(pH 8.1) and helps to maintain a higher pH in the rumen (pH
others (Aydin et al., 2006; de Haan et al., 2006; Kandel et al.,
5.5–7.0) than in the abomasum (pH 3) (Leek, 1993).
2006; Schmitz-Rode et al., 2006; Schwab et al., 2006; Simsek
The effects of anesthesia on saliva secretion are not well
et al., 2001; Timek et al., 2006; Viateau et al., 2006).
known, especially if the stimulatory effect of active-induced
secretion during feeding is absent during anesthesia. However,
clinical observation indicates that saliva production is excessive
II. PHYSIOLOGICAL AND ANATOMICAL in anesthetized ruminants compared to other species, and for
CONSIDERATIONS this reason the airway should always be protected with a cuffed
endotracheal tube. In one study, submaxillary production was
A. Size similar in conscious and anesthetized sheep, although the com-
position of the saliva was different in both states (Kay, 1960).
The size of small ruminants may be advantageous to some It is also not known how the proportional contribution of the
studies and facilitate handling and modeling aspects of human different salivary glands to total saliva production is affected
research. Small animal anesthetic circuits are appropriate for during anesthesia. Similarly, the saliva produced during gen-
delivery of inhalation anesthetics in small ruminants. Con- eral anesthesia is generally fluid and mucous in nature. The
versely, the size and behavior of large ruminants (adult cattle) accumulation of saliva in the pharynx may cause a problem fol-
should be considered when planning studies that require gen- lowing extubation if accumulated saliva is not removed prior to
eral anesthesia due to the need for facilities and equipment to extubation either by (1) lowering the head or (2) by suctioning
provide adequate methods of restraint. the saliva from the pharynx. Administration of anticholinergics
drugs (e.g., atropine and glycopyrrolate) to decrease saliva-
tion is not indicated. Anticholinergics may adversely affect
B. Digestive System gastrointestinal motility and, although the volume of saliva
may be decreased, the water content of saliva is decreased
Saliva production is high in small ruminants and cattle. making it more viscous and more difficult to clear from
Sheep can produce 6–16 L/day, whereas cattle have a daily the airway.
output of 60–160 L (Leek, 1993). Most of the saliva is pro- The ruminant stomach (ruminoreticulum, abomasum, and
duced by the parotid salivary glands, primarily during feeding omasum) represents 49% of the wet tissue mass of the total
and rumination. The submaxillary glands produce less saliva gastrointestinal tract in adult sheep and only 22% in the new-
(about one-eighth of the amount secreted by the parotid glands) born. The ruminant stomach holds approximately 115–150 L in
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 387

adult cattle and 15–18 L in sheep and goats (Habel, 1975), repre- ruminants are not considered to be capable of true vomiting.
senting approximately 25–35% of the total body mass. Ruminal In the authors’ experience, active regurgitation is most likely to
activity is usually complete after 8 weeks of age if the animal has occur in the presence of ruminal stasis resulting in a buildup
been ingesting progressively larger amounts of roughage before of ruminal fluid prior to surgery. Enormous volumes (>50 L)
this age to initiate salivary gland and ruminoreticular develop- of fluid can build up in the rumen during rumen stasis, and the
ment (Leek, 1993). At around 8 weeks of age, the proportionate rapid exit of large volumes of fluid certainly gives the impression
sizes of the ruminoreticulum, abomasum, and omasum are sim- that this is an active process. Cattle with ruminal atony and
ilar to those of the adult animal, representing 69, 23, and 8% for a distended fluid-filled rumen are obviously poor subjects for
the ruminoreticulum, abomasum, and omasum, respectively, of anesthesia. Conversely, passive discharge of the ruminoreticular
the total gastrointestinal tract (Leek, 1993). contents through relaxed sphincters occurs during a deep plane
The rumen contains a large quantity of ingesta and produces a of anesthesia (Dunlop and Hoyt, 1997; Steffey, 1986).
large volume of gas through the process of fermentation. Mate- Due to the large volume of ruminal contents, regurgitation
rials in the rumen become partitioned into three primary zones must be managed in the anesthetized ruminant. Regurgitation
based on their specific gravity. The upper portion is the gas may occur with the animal in any position but is more likely
layer, while grain and fluid-saturated roughage sink to the bot- to occur in dorsal. Regurgitation per se is not the problem but
tom of the rumen and freshly ingested roughage float in the rather the ensuing entry of ruminal contents into the airway.
middle layer. The rate of flow of solid material through the The significant size and weight of the gastrointestinal tract
rumen is quite slow and dependent on size and density. Water may pose complications to the cardiovascular and respira-
flows rapidly through the rumen and seems to have a critical tory systems during general anesthesia, due to compression
role in flushing out particulate matter. of major vessels and displacement of the diaphragm into the
Fermentation in the rumen produces up to 40 L/h of CO2 thoracic cavity during recumbency. These events interfere with
and methane (CH4 ) gas within 2–4 hours after a meal in adult venous return and lung expansion, predisposing to low cardiac
cattle and up to 5 L/h in sheep and goats. These gases are elim- output, low blood pressure, low arterial oxygen partial pres-
inated through eructation at intervals of 1–2 minutes (Leek, sures (PaO2 ), and high arterial carbon dioxide partial pressure
1993), a process linked to ruminal contractions. Eructated gases (PaCO2 ). Therefore, reducing the weight of the gastrointesti-
pass up the esophagus and much of it is inspired into the lungs nal tract by fasting the animal before anesthesia ameliorates
and later expired. This expiration of ruminal gases can lead to the negative effects on cardiorespiratory function. Withholding
errors in the measurement of inhalation anesthetics (see Sec- food for up to 48 hours has been recommended in adult cattle
tion VIII, D.). Methane is not absorbed across the ruminal wall. (Blaze et al., 1988) and up to 24 hours in small ruminants and
Bloat or tympany is the result of ruminoreticulum distention by calves capable of rumination (Dunlop and Hoyt, 1997).
accumulated gas that cannot be eructated. Heavy sedation and Fasting the animal reduces the volume of ruminal contents,
general anesthesia inhibit ruminoreticular motility and impair but the rumen never completely empties. Excessive fasting
eructation. results in a reduction of ruminal flora due to the decrease in sub-
Regurgitation is part of rumination and is an active pro- strate and this leads to ruminal hypomotility and ketosis in some
cess to return the cud from the ruminoreticulum to the oral cases. Reducing the water intake prior to anesthesia is equally
cavity for further chewing. Anesthetic drugs in general have as important as reducing food intake, because continued water
an inhibitory effect on rumination at sedative or anesthetic intake in this circumstance results in a relative increase in the
doses. Interestingly, drugs with alpha2 -adrenergic activity, such liquid contents of the rumen and predisposes to regurgitation.
as epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine, can enhance The young ruminant (4–6 weeks) is essentially a monogastric
epithelial receptors in the rumen to initiate rumination (Leek, as it exists primarily on milk or a milk substitute and has not yet
1993). Xylazine has stimulatory effects on rumination; how- transitioned to rumination. Generally, milk or milk substitute is
ever, these stimulatory effects are overridden by its central only fed twice daily and should not be withheld prior to anes-
alpha2 inhibitory actions and rumination ceases. Local admin- thesia. Anesthesia should be planned so that the calf ingests a
istration of xylazine into the celiac or left gastric arteries will liquid meal approximately 2 hours beforehand.
avoid central inhibition and stimulate rumination (Leek, 1993).
During anesthesia, ruminoreticular contents can flow toward
the oral cavity due to loss of sphincter control from the cardia C. Respiratory System
and caudal esophageal sphincters. This type of regurgitation
is observed during superficial and deep planes of anesthesia In general, ruminants of the Bovidae family, but not other
(Dunlop and Hoyt, 1997; Steffey, 1986). An incomplete plane families of ruminants (including Cervidae, Camelidae, and
of anesthesia, especially while attempting intubation that results Giraffidae), have significantly higher resting respiratory rates
in stimulation of the larynx and a cough reflex, can provoke for their body mass than other mammals. This difference is
an explosive discharge of ruminoreticular contents giving the attributed to the larger size of the rumen in the Bovidae family
impression of a reflex process analogous to vomiting. However, that exerts a respiratory load, which decreases lung compliance
388 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

TABLE 14-1
Cardiorespiratory Values for Conscious Ruminants

Variable Adult cattle Calf Sheep Goat

Respiratory rate 28 27–32 32–54 24–37

(breaths/min)
Tidal volume 12 9 7 11
(ml/kg)
Heart rate 55–65 85–95 80–104 73–90
(beats/min)
Cardiac index 119 90–127 144 132
(ml/kg/min)
Systolic/diastolic, mean 155/105, 147/97, 125/96, 105/70,
arterial blood pressure 123 116 109 86
(mmHg)
Fig. 14-1 Lateral view of head of sheep showing oral and nasal cavity. Note
the rostrodorsal positioning of the epiglottis (1), which hinders the entrance to
Source: Abraham et al. (1981); Celly et al. (1997b); Ewaldsson et al.
the laryngeal cavity making orotracheal intubation difficult.
(2006); Gallivan et al. (1989); Haerdi-Landerer et al. (2005); Hikasa et al.
(1998); Kästner et al. (2005); Lin et al. (1989); McGuirk et al. (1990);
Mitchell et al. (1983); Mortola and Lanthier (2005); Olsson et al. (2001);
Prassinos et al. (2005); Reinhold et al. (2002); Rioja et al. (2008); Skarda
et al. (1982); Suzuki et al. (2005); Valverde et al. (1989).
95 mmHg at 90 minutes (Blaze et al., 1988). PaO2 for the two
groups was 160 mmHg at 60 and 90 minutes for the fasted group,
and 75 and 55 mmHg at 60 and 90 minutes, respectively, for
and forces a rapid and shallow breathing pattern to produce an the nonfasted group, despite administration of 100% O2 (Blaze
energetically efficient system (Mortola and Lanthier, 2005). In et al., 1988). Both groups of cows had similar minute ventila-
fact, tidal volumes for cattle, sheep, and goats have been demon- tion (tidal volume × respiratory rate), which makes it likely that
strated to be less than predicted values determined in other fewer differences due to ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) distribution
mammalian species that include nonruminants and other fam- were present in the fasted group (Blaze et al., 1988).
ilies of ruminants (Mortola and Lanthier, 2005) (Table 14-1). The reduction in lung volume caused by recumbency and the
Because of this adaptation of Bovidae, the respiratory depres- effects of the weight and bloating of abdominal contents on the
sive effects of anesthetics may impose a more profound effect on diaphragm were thought to be responsible for the reduction in
blood gases than in other species, due to a decrease in respiratory measured dynamic compliance of the lung and increased airway
rate and tidal volume. resistance that lead to the arterial blood gas differences between
Ruminants can represent a challenge for endotracheal intu- the two groups (Blaze et al., 1988). It is also probable that higher
bation due to several factors: (1) sharp molar teeth and a narrow cardiac outputs were present in the fasted cows, although this
and long oral cavity can easily damage endotracheal tubes and parameter was not measured.
make placement of laryngoscopes with wide blades difficult; In this same study, fasted cows were shown to regurgitate
(2) adult cattle are intubated blindly; and (3) in ruminants, the more often and in larger volumes than nonfasted cows (Blaze
entrance to the laryngeal cavity is set obliquely and faces ros- et al., 1988). Although this may seem paradoxical, the greater
trodorsally, which makes the angle of entry for the endotracheal fluid content in the rumen of fasted animals facilitates passive
tube more difficult than in other species (Fig. 14-1). regurgitation during anesthesia and the lower ruminal content
The right cranial lobe bronchus originates from the trachea reduces the amount of bloat from fermentation.
at the level of the third rib and not from the mainstem bronchus Fasting also raises the ruminal pH to 8.0, which in addi-
as in other species. The tip of the endotracheal tube should tion to the fewer and smaller food particles from the reflux is
not reach this point in the smaller ruminants to avoid one-lung less likely to cause pulmonary damage from aspiration (Steffey,
ventilation and possibly collapse of the right cranial lobe. 1986). Low gastric pH and large volumes determine the sever-
Progressive hypercarbia is common in fasted and nonfasted ity of aspiration pneumonitis in human anesthesia; therefore,
ruminants and increases in magnitude over time, although the the higher pH that results from fasting is beneficial. The larger
PaCO2 is usually higher in nonfasted animals. The effect of reflux volumes observed in fasted animals can be drained by
fasting was investigated in halothane-anesthetized (1.14% end- positioning the head slightly lower than the rest of the body,
tidal), spontaneously breathing cows in left lateral recumbency. providing that a cuffed endotracheal tube has been placed to
One group was deprived of food for 48 hours and water for prevent leakage into the lungs.
12 hours, while the control group was not fasted and had Small ruminants may show less dramatic changes in the
access to water. Fasted cows had PaCO2 values of approxi- PaO2 and less impact on V/Q abnormalities because of their
mately 67 mmHg at 60 minutes and 72 mmHg at 90 minutes, size; however, PaCO2 can increase markedly under general
whereas nonfasted animals reached 75 mmHg at 60 minutes and anesthesia with inhalants and this effect is dose-dependent.
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 389

Values above 100 mmHg have been observed in spontaneously and neuropathy do not become evident until the animal attempts
breathing sheep maintained with inhalant anesthetics. It is also to stand. The dependent muscles are most affected and the
believed that goats are less affected than sheep. In one study, triceps and gluteals are at the greatest risk for myopathy. Com-
goats maintained with total intravenous anesthetic drugs (TIVA) monly affected nerves are the radial, peroneal, and tibial.
that included ketamine and propofol or with inhalant anesthesia Occasionally, the facial nerve is damaged from the pressure
using sevoflurane (2.3% end-tidal) were able to maintain PaCO2 of a halter.
at similar acceptable levels, between 45 mmHg and 47 mmHg Padding of the surgery table is imperative for all ruminants,
(Larenza et al., 2005). but the padding needs to be at least 12–15 inches thick for large
Nonrespiratory functions of the lung include defense mech- cattle. All padding needs to be covered with a waterproof mate-
anisms against blood-borne pathogenic agents by phagocytes rial. In lateral recumbency, the uppermost limbs need to be
attached to the pulmonary capillary endothelium, common in supported in a position parallel to the tabletop. This reduces
ruminants, pigs, and cats. These cells are known as pulmonary pressure on the lower limbs. The lowermost thoracic limb must
intravascular macrophages (PIMs) and are capable of trapping be pulled forward to prevent the triceps muscle and radial nerve
blood cells, bacteria, and particulates from circulating blood from becoming trapped between the ribcage and tabletop. Rope
by endocytosis (Winkler, 1988). These functions of PIMs are restraints on the limbs and head should be padded, or removed
served in other species, including dogs, humans, and laboratory if this can be done safely, to prevent damage.
animals, by very similar morphological cells known as Kupffer
cells, found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow (Winkler,
1998). The significance of the PIMs in regards to anesthe-
III. PREMEDICATION
sia obeys other functions of these cells, as they are capable
of secreting prostaglandins and other inflammatory mediators,
which regulate pulmonary hemodynamics under normal situa- A. Restraint
tions, but may result in drastic changes that lead to pulmonary
hypertension, hypoxemia, and pulmonary edema. These alter- Restraint of small ruminants and dairy calves is not prob-
ations have been seen with transfusion reactions (Halmagyi lematic due to their small size and docile behavior, so special
et al., 1963) and in response to alpha2 -adrenergic anesthet- equipment is not necessary. An experienced handler can usually
ics (Celly et al., 1999) in sheep and less frequently in other restrain small ruminants and young calves. Sheep, but not goats,
ruminants. tolerate being restrained or “set up” on their rump. Also, sheep
tolerate restraint in lateral recumbency better than do goats.
Sheep also endure restraint in slings.
D. Cardiovascular System However, restraint of adult cattle, and on occasion calves
of beef breeds, may necessitate specialized facilities for safety
Similar to other species, cardiovascular function is impaired reasons. A chute with a head restraint is absolutely necessary
in a dose-dependent fashion by anesthetics. Normal values for for certain techniques when dealing with large cattle. A hoisting
conscious ruminants are presented in Table 14-1. mechanism may be necessary to lift cattle onto the surgery table,
As previously noted, size also plays a role in recumbent and specialized padding is required to prevent muscle and nerve
animals, as the weight of viscera compresses major vessels damage in the recumbent animal.
and affects venous return and cardiac output (Dunlop et al., A tilt table can be used for restraint and to facilitate some
1994). surgical procedures on adult cattle. The animal is led to the
Fasting for 48 hours has been shown to decrease heart rate table, which is in the vertical position. The head is tied to the
and cause sinus arrhythmia in adult cattle, and heart rate does table and two straps (one around the chest and the other around
not return to baseline until 24–48 hours of resumption of normal the belly) are used to secure the animal to the table. Once the
feeding (McGuirk et al., 1990). animal is secured, the table is tilted to the horizontal position.
At the end of the procedure, the table is returned to the vertical
position to deposit the animal on the ground. In many cases,
E. Musculoskeletal System this procedure can be performed on the awake or lightly sedated
animal.
Proper positioning of ruminants during anesthesia is impor-
tant to facilitate blood flow to muscles and avoid pressure over
1. Casting Harness
nerves, especially in the larger ruminants. Ischemia of muscles
and nerves can result in myopathy and neuropathy, respec- Heavily sedated cattle generally become ataxic and, if proper
tively. Contributing factors are large body mass, prolonged handling facilities are not available, the animal may fall in an
recumbency, inadequate padding of body and limbs, improper awkward position risking airway obstruction. A casting harness
positioning, and intraoperative hypotension. Myopathy (Fig. 14-2) can be used to induce recumbency and restrain the
390 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

Fig. 14-2 Use of a double half-hitch casting harness. The harness is usually applied to the lightly sedated animal and facilitates casting and restraining the
animal in sternal recumbency.

sedated animal. The halter is secured to a stout post in the ground performed safely or easily. This method is convenient when adult
and the animal is eased into sternal recumbency by pulling cattle are restrained in a chute and access to the tail is available.
backward on the rope.
C. Sedation and Premedication
B. Drug Administration
Drugs used for tranquilization/sedative properties vary in
their effects on the different ruminant species. A drug with
Drugs for sedation and anesthesia can be administered intra-
marked sedative effects may be recommended in an adult cow
venously or intramuscularly. Intramuscular (IM) injections are
to facilitate handling, whereas drugs with less sedative effects
usually given into the semimembranous or semitendinosus mus-
or lower doses of the drug may be required in small ruminants
cles. Small volumes of injectate can be given in the neck
due to the ease of handling.
muscles.
Many surgical procedures (e.g., abdominal exploration) can
be performed on standing, awake cattle using restraints (e.g.,
1. Jugular Vein chutes) and either regional or local anesthesia. Sedation may be
In tractable animals, a jugular vein is generally used for IV also be used in combination with local or regional anesthesia to
drug administration. A catheter can readily be placed in the facilitate some surgical interventions.
jugular vein of ruminants; however, the jugular vein may be However, it is important to realize that ruminants, unlike
difficult to catheterize in large bulls due to the thickness of horses, are likely to become recumbent once sedated and this
the neck and skin. Desensitizing the skin over the vein, with can be especially problematic if an animal becomes recumbent
lidocaine, facilitates the procedure in all cases. In most cattle, during abdominal surgery or while restrained in a chute. In
and many calves, it is prudent to make a small stab incision contrast, if the surgery is to be performed with the animal recum-
(e.g., no. 10 scalpel blade) in the skin over the vein. This makes it bent, sedation will facilitate restraint. Sheep and goats are quite
easier to insert the catheter and reduces the likelihood of damage likely to become recumbent after even mild sedation, but this
to the catheter as it goes through the skin. is usually not a cause for concern, unless planning standing
abdominal surgery, which is not commonly performed in the
small ruminants.
2. Auricular Vein Sedation is generally induced prior to the induction of general
The auricular vein is sometimes used in large bovines where anesthesia. In this case, sedation will allow more control of the
access to the jugular is restricted either by the thickness of the animal, reduce the dose of induction drugs(s) and facilitate a
neck or by the animal’s temperament. Also, this vein is rela- controlled induction, and in some cases reduce the dose of the
tively easily catheterized in small ruminants with large ears. maintenance anesthetic(s) and provide analgesia.
The cephalic and saphenous veins are infrequently used for drug A review of these drugs has been presented elsewhere in this
delivery. book. This brief review will outline the most important aspects
of these drugs in ruminants.
3. Tail Vein
1. Alpha2 Agonists
The tail vein may be used for injection of small volumes
of a sedating (e.g., xylazine) or tranquilizing drug (e.g., ace- Alpha2 agonists are the most reliable drugs in terms of seda-
promazine), especially when jugular administration cannot be tion and analgesia in the ruminant. The binding ratios to receptor
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 391

TABLE 14-2
Common Doses for Sedative Drugs in Ruminants

Adult cattle Calf Sheep Goat

Variable (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Acepromazine 0.02; IV, IM 0.02; IV, IM 0.02; IV, IM 0.02; IV, IM

Medetomidine 0.04; IV, IM 0.03; IV, IM 0.02–0.3; IV, IM 0.02; IV, IM
Xylazine 0.05–0.1; IV, IM 0.05–0.3; IV, IM 0.05–0.2; IV, IM 0.02–0.1; IV, IM
Detomidine 0.01; IV, IM 0.03; IV, IM 0.03; IV, IM 0.03; IV, IM
Romifidine 0.05; IV, IM 0.05; IV, IM 0.05; IV, IM 0.05; IV, IM
Diazepam N/R 0.25–0.5; IV 0.25–0.5; IV 0.25–0.5; IV
Midazolam N/R 0.1–0.3; IV, IM 0.1–0.3; IV, IM 0.4; IV, IM
Morphine 0.25–0.5; IV, IM 0.25–0.5; IV, IM 0.5; IV, IM 2; IV, IM
Butorphanol 0.05; IV, IM 0.05; IV, IM 0.1–0.5; IV, IM 0.05–0.1; IV, IM
Pentobarbital 2; IV 2; IV N/A N/A

Note: N/R: not recommended; N/A: not available.

Source: Carroll et al. (2005); Celly et al. (1997a); Doherty et al. (1986, 1987, 2002, 2004); Dunlop and Hoyt (1997);
Haerdi-Landerer et al. (2005); Hodgson et al. (2002); Hsu et al. (1989); Kyles et al. (1995); Lin and Riddell (2003); O’Hair et
al. (1988); Ranheim et al. (2000); Rioja et al. (2008); Skarda et al. (1990); Stegmann (1998); Thompson et al. (1989, 1991);
Valverde et al. (1989); Waterman et al. (1991a).

TABLE 14-3
Common Doses for Induction Drugs in Ruminants

Adult cattle Calf Sheep Goat

Variable (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)

Pentobarbital N/R N/R 20–25 20–25

Thiopental 5–10 5–10 5–10 5–10
Propofol N/R 3–5 3–5 3–5
Ketamine 2–2.5 5–10 5–10 10
Pentobarbital/xylazine 2/0.1 2/0.1 N/A N/A
Xylazinea /ketamine 0.05–0.1/2–2.5 0.05–0.1/3–5 0.03–0.05/3–5 0.05–0.1/3–5
Ketamine/midazolam 2–2.5/0.04 4/0.4 4/0.4 4/0.4
Ketamine/diazepam 2–2.5/0.04 4/0.4 4/0.4 4–5/0.4–0.5
Xylazinea /ketamine/diazepam 0.05/2/0.1 0.05/3/0.4 0.03/5/0.4 0.03/5/0.4
Tiletamine–zolazepam N/A 4 4 4
(1:1 mixture)
Xylazinea /tiletamine–zolazepam N/A 0.05/2 0.05/2 0.05/2
Xylazinea /ketamine/guaifenesin 0.05/2/75 0.05/2/75 0.05/2/75 0.05/2/75
Xylazinea /thiopental/guaifenesin 0.05/5/75 0.05/5/75 0.05/5/75 0.05/5/75

Note: N/R: not recommended; N/A: not available.

Source: Dunlop and Hoyt (1997); Greene (2003); Kyles et al. (1995); Lin et al. (1989); Pablo et al. (1997); Prassinos et al.
(2005); Thurmon (1986); Reid et al. (1993).
a
Can be substituted by equipotent dose of another alpha2 agonist.

subtype populations (alpha2 /alpha1 ) of alpha2 agonists are: superficial laminae of the dorsal horn (Bouchenafa and
medetomidine—1,620:1, romifidine—340:1; detomidine— Livingston, 1987) and centrally in the periaqueductal gray area
260:1; and xylazine—160:1 (Virtanen et al., 1988). The analge- of the midbrain, the site of origin of the descending inhibitory
sia, sedation, and cardiovascular effects associated with alpha2 pathways of pain, modulate the release of norepinephrine.
receptor agonists are alpha2 mediated; however, alpha1 activ- The sedative effects of alpha2 agonists are dose dependent
ity is responsible for mediating some cardiovascular effects. with rapid onset and result in mild sedation to recumbency.
Common routes of administration for alpha2 agonists include Ruminants are very sensitive to the effects of xylazine. Cat-
intravenous (IV), IM, epidural, and intrathecal (Tables 14-2– tle and small ruminants may require only one-tenth or less of
14-4). the xylazine dose used in other species. However, the dose of
Alpha2 adrenergic receptors located supraspinally and other alpha2 agonists in ruminants is similar to other species
spinally mediate analgesia. Spinal alpha2 receptors in the (Lin and Riddell, 2003; Ranheim et al., 2000). There is no clear
392 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

TABLE 14-4
Common Routes and Doses for Analgesic Drugs in Ruminants

Duration of action
Variable Dose (mg/kg) Route (hours) Species

Morphine 0.05–0.5 IM, IV 6 Cattle

0.5 IM, IV 4–6 Goat
0.1 Epidural 6–12 Cattle (diluted to 5–10 ml with
sterile saline); goat (diluted to 3–5 ml
with sterile saline
or 1.5 mg/kg of bupivacaine)
Meperidine 5 IM 0.25–0.5 Sheep, cattle
Butorphanol 0.05–0.2 IM, IV 1–3 Sheep, goat
Buprenorphine 0.0015–0.006 IM, IV 0.75–3.5 Sheep
Fentanyl 0.01 IV 1–2 Sheep
Xylazine 0.05–0.2 IM, IV 2–4 Sheep, goat, cattle
0.05 Epidural 2 Cattle (diluted to 5 ml with sterile saline)
0.05–0.1 Epidural/ 1–2 Sheep, goat (diluted to 2–3 ml with
intrathecal sterile saline)
Detomidine 0.003–0.01 IM, IV 2–4 Sheep, goat, cattle
0.04 Epidural 3 Cattle (diluted to 5 ml with sterile saline)
0.01 Intrathecal 1 Sheep (diluted to 2 ml with sterile saline)
Medetomidine 0.005–0.01 IM, IV 2–4 Sheep, goat, cattle
0.015 Epidural 3–7 Cattle (diluted to 5 ml with sterile saline);
goat (diluted to 3–5 ml with sterile saline)
Romifidine 0.003–0.02 IM, IV 2–4 Sheep, goat, cattle
0.05 Intrathecal 1–2 Goat (diluted to 2–3 ml with sterile saline)
Lidocaine 2.5 IV 1 Goat (CRI at 0.05–0.1 mg/kg/min)
0.2–0.4 Epidural 1–2 Cattle
0.4–2.0 Epidural 1–2 Sheep, goat
Bupivacaine 1.5–1.8 Epidural 2–3 Sheep, goat
0.05 Epidural 2–3 Cattle

Source: Modified from Valverde and Doherty (in press).

explanation for these differences between xylazine and other effects and subsequent hypotension from central and peripheral
alpha2 agonists when comparing receptor density and receptor effects. This biphasic response is less common after xylazine
subtype population (Törneke et al., 2003) or pharmacokinetics administration, where hypotension is usually the response, and
of xylazine (Garcia-Villar et al., 1981) in the different species. tends to be longer lasting after detomidine and romifidine
The difference appears to be of pharmacodynamic origin, since (Carroll et al., 2005; Celly et al., 1997b; Doherty et al., 1986;
alpha2 agonists cause a conformational change on binding of Kästner et al., 2005; Rioja et al., 2008; Stegmann, 1998).
receptors, which facilitates contact with the G-protein and the Small ruminants may be more sensitive than cattle to the
clinical effect (i.e., sedation) (Gilman, 1987). In cattle, using effects of alpha2 agonists on respiratory function, particu-
in vitro techniques with brain tissue, the affinity for binding larly if these drugs are given rapidly intravenously at relatively
of the G-protein to the receptor is higher for xylazine than for high doses. In contrast, IM administration of a low dose of
detomidine, when compared to pigs and rats, reflecting higher xylazine (0.05 mg/kg) was reported to have minimal effect on
coupling efficiency in cattle (Törneke et al., 2003). cardiorespiratory function (Grant and Upton, 2001) in sheep.
The most common cardiovascular effects from alpha2 ago- The respiratory effects of alpha2 agonists vary from tachyp-
nists are associated with the central and peripheral effects nea in sheep to bradypnea in other ruminants, and undesirable
on alpha1 and alpha2 receptors. Central effects on alpha2 effects on gas exchange and blood gases in sheep and to less
receptors decrease the sympathetic discharge and release of extent in other ruminants. There is variability among the dif-
norepinephrine and lead to hypotension and reduced cardiac ferent breeds and even among individuals of the same breed of
output. Peripheral effects on alpha2 and alpha1 receptors result sheep on their response to alpha2 agonists. A recent review
in an increase in vascular resistance and blood pressure, which on the effects of alpha2 agonists in sheep (Kästner, 2006)
elicit a parasympathetic response that results in bradycardia and summarizes the possible mechanisms that lead to hypoxemia
atrioventricular block. Therefore, it is possible to see a biphasic and pulmonary edema. These side effects are dose-dependent
response characterized by initial hypertension from peripheral and a direct consequence of alpha2 agonists because alpha2
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 393

antagonists, such as idazoxan and atipamezole, but not alpha1 TABLE 14-5
antagonists, such as prazosin, prevent them. Relief of side Common IV Doses for Antagonist Drugs in Ruminants
effects is possible if antagonists are administered shortly after
Cattle Sheep Goat
(less than 10 minutes) the onset of side effects, but not if Variable (mg/kg) (mg/kg) (mg/kg)
histopathological changes have already occurred in the lungs.
Histological changes include interstitial and alveolar edema Idazoxan 0.03–0.1 0.05 N/A
from capillary rupture that require time for repair (Celly et al., Atipamezole 0.03–0.1 0.005 100
Tolazoline 0.3 2 N/A
1999; Kästner, 2006). The degree of induced hypoxemia is Yohimibine 0.125 0.125–0.2 N/A
similar for the different alpha2 agonists (xylazine, romifidine, Flumazenil N/A 0.02 N/A
detomidine, and medetomidine), despite the different selectivity Naloxone N/A 0.2 N/A
for alpha2 and alpha1 receptors, and can outlast the duration of
sedation (Celly et al., 1997b). Note: N/A: not available.
Cellular and mechanical mechanisms are implicated in Source: Carroll et al. (2005); Celly et al. (1997a); Doherty et al. (1986,
1987, 2002); Dunlop and Hoyt (1997); Haerdi-Landerer et al. (2005);
the onset of hypoxemia and pulmonary edema. Increases in Hodgson et al. (2002); Hsu et al. (1989); Kyles et al. (1995); Lin and
transpulmonary pressure, decreases in pulmonary compliance, Riddell (2003); O’Hair et al. (1988); Rioja et al. (2008); Skarda et al. (1990);
pulmonary congestion from increases in pulmonary and sys- Stegmann (1998); Thompson et al. (1989, 1991); Waterman et al. (1991a).
temic vascular resistance, and release of prostaglandins and
vasoactive substances from PIMs contribute to different extents
to hypoxemia (Celly et al., 1997b, 1999; Kästner, 2006).
The alpha2 agonists should be used with caution in the IV will generally produce recumbency of dairy cattle; but the
last trimester of pregnancy, since xylazine has been shown to effects are less predictable in beef cattle, especially the less tame
increase myometrial tone in the cow and goat, associated with animals. Alternatively, a lower dose of xylazine can be given,
an increase in uterine vascular resistance, a decrease in uterine and the animal can be cast with a casting harness (Fig. 14-2)
blood flow, and a decrease in PaO2 in the mother and fetus Regurgitation may be more likely when higher doses of xylazine
(Hodgson et al., 2002; Jansen et al., 1984; LeBlanc et al., are used.
1984; Sakamoto et al., 1996). Detomidine appears to have For sedation of small ruminants, a low dose of an alpha2 drug
less effect on uterine electrical activity in the cow (Jedruch and (e.g., xylazine 0.03 mg/kg and medetomidine 0.006 mg/kg)
Gajewski, 1986). can be given IM, and further sedation can be achieved with
Other effects of alpha2 agonists include increased urine pro- a benzodiazepine (e.g., diazepam 0.1–0.5 mg/kg, IV) or a
duction associated with hyperglycemia (Carroll et al., 2005; combination of diazepam and ketamine given, to effect, IV. Low
Ranheim et al., 2000). Hyperglycemia is caused by inhibition doses of alpha2 agonists (e.g., xylazine 0.03 mg/kg, IM) facil-
of insulin secretion from binding of alpha2 agonists to pancreatic itate handling of small ruminants prior to induction of general
beta-cells (Angel et al., 1990). anesthesia and do not prolong recovery significantly.
The effects of alpha2 agonists, including analgesia, can be The reported comparative sedating effects of IV administered
reversed by specific antagonists, such as idazoxan, atipame- alpha2 agonists in sheep indicate that 0.15 mg/kg xylazine is
zole, tolazoline, and yohimbine (Doherty et al., 1986, 1987; equivalent to 0.03 mg/kg detomidine, 0.03 mg/kg medetomi-
Haerdi-Landerer et al., 2005; Hsu et al., 1989; Skarda et al., dine, or 0.05 mg/kg romifidine (Celly et al., 1997b).
1990; Thompson et al., 1989, 1991) (Table 14-5). Yohimbine is
less effective than other antagonists.
2. Phenothiazines
Acepromazine is the most commonly used phenothiazine in
a. Clinical considerations
ruminants (Table 14-2). Sedation caused by acepromazine is
Xylazine is the most commonly used member of the group, less profound and slower in onset (up to 10 minutes after IV
but detomidine, medetomidine, or romifidine may be used. administration) than for alpha2 agonists (Hodgson et al., 2002).
Because these drugs have profound effects on many organ Acepromazine does not have analgesic properties; however,
systems, the animal’s physical status, dose, and route of admin- similar to effects in other species, it can decrease the dose of
istration should be considered carefully when pondering their inhalant anesthetics (minimum alveolar concentration—MAC)
use. Because of the effects of xylazine and possibly other alpha2 (Doherty et al., 2002).
agonists on uterine contractions and uterine blood flow, their use Cardiorespiratory effects are minimal, with no change in
is not recommended in heavily pregnant ruminants. heart rate, a slight decrease in respiratory rate with no conse-
The degree of sedation is dose-related. Cattle may remain quences on arterial blood gases, and minimal effects on uterine
standing following lower doses (e.g., xylazine 0.01 mg/kg, IV), blood flow (Hodgson et al., 2002). Due to its alpha-adrenergic
but it is best to avoid this group of drugs if standing abdominal blocking properties acepromazine may potentiate hypotension
surgery is planned. If xylazine is used alone, a dose of 0.1 mg/kg in volume-depleted animals.
394 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

Acepromazine used as a preanesthetic, at a relative high unpredictable following IM administration. Midazolam is water
IV dose of 0.5 mg/kg in sheep, prevented the occurrence of soluble and nonirritating to tissues.
epinephrine-induced dysrhythmias from cardiac sensitization in The excitement that may occur from IV administration of ben-
halothane-anesthetized and conscious sheep (Rezakhani et al., zodiazepines to conscious sheep or goats appears to be related
1977). It is likely that lower doses of acepromazine in ruminants to the low doses and the speed of administration. Moderate
also have an antiarrhythmic effect, as it has been shown in other doses of diazepam (0.2–0.5 mg/kg, IV), administered slowly,
species including dogs (Dyson and Pettifer, 1997). give a short period of sedation and recumbency, which may
be sufficient for short, nonpainful procedures. For more reli-
able sedation, diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) can be combined with
a. Clinical considerations
ketamine (2–3 mg/kg) and the mixture can be given, slowly
Despite the minimum sedation caused by acepromazine, it IV to effect. An alternative is to administer the benzodiazepine
appears to reduce the dose of induction drugs and decreases with an alpha2 agonist (Tables 14-2–14-4).
the MAC of volatile anesthetics in ruminants (Doherty et al.,
2002). Since the MAC reducing effects are not dose related, it
4. Opioids
is recommended that the lowest dose be used.
In adult cattle, especially large bulls, it is observed that low Opioids are less commonly used in ruminants than in other
doses of acepromazine (10–15 mg, IV) exert a mild sedating species (Tables 14-2–14-4). Opioid receptors, classified as mu,
effect and the animals remain standing. Acepromazine can also kappa, and delta (OP3, OP1, and OP2, respectively) are present
be combined with a very low dose of xylazine (0.01 mg/kg, IV) throughout the body and are responsible for the desirable anal-
for sedating large cattle, and animals generally remain standing gesic effects. As in other species, the use of opioids in ruminants
at these doses. can be associated with adverse behavioral effects from central
nervous system (CNS) stimulation, which mask the sedative
effects of these drugs. Despite the excitatory effects, mor-
3. Benzodiazepines
phine (2 mg/kg, IV) administered to anesthetized goats has been
Diazepam and midazolam are the most commonly used drugs shown to decrease the MAC of isoflurane, probably due to its
in this group (Tables 14-2 and 14-3). Zolazepam has also been analgesic properties (Doherty et al., 2004). Conversely, butor-
used combined with tiletamine to induce general anesthesia in phanol (0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IV) had no significant effect on MAC
calves (Lin et al., 1989). Benzodiazepines have minimum and of isoflurane in goats under the same study conditions (Doherty
transient cardiorespiratory effects and are safe to use in small et al., 2002), which may indicate that the kappa effects may be
ruminants and calves for sedation and restraint, despite the less important for the type of noxious painful stimulus used or
potential for initial excitement. These drugs should not be used that the adverse behavioral effects from butorphanol were more
in adult cattle because of the risk of ataxia and difficult control obvious than those from morphine.
during the excitement phase. In adult cattle, benzodiazepines In adult cows, the administration of butorphanol (0.05 mg/kg,
are more commonly used as part of an induction technique. IV) with alpha2 agonists (xylazine or detomidine) resulted in
Salivation is commonly observed in sheep (Kyles et al., 1995) shorter duration of sedation than when the alpha2 agonists were
but is minimal in goats (Stegmann, 1998). used individually. In addition, half of the cows receiving deto-
Diazepam (0.4 mg/kg, IV) in sheep and midazolam midine with butorphanol exhibited nystagmus (Lin and Riddell,
(0.4 mg/kg) in goats lowered PaO2 and did not affect PaCO2 2003). In sheep, butorphanol (0.1–0.2 mg/kg, IV) caused behav-
after IV administration; however, the degree of hypoxemia is ioral changes (Waterman et al., 1991a). These effects are less
of a lesser magnitude and duration (less than 15 minutes) than likely to occur if the drug is given subcutaneously, as a higher
with alpha2 agonists (Celly et al., 1997a; Stegmann, 1998). dose of butorphanol (0.5 mg/kg) induced sedation and analgesia
The actions of benzodiazepines on gamma-aminobutyric acid when administered subcutaneously (O’Hair et al., 1988).
(GABA)/benzodiazepine receptors play a role in antinocicep- The presence of opioid receptors in the brain, spinal
tion as demonstrated in midazolam-treated sheep undergoing cord, and joints allow administration of opioids by systemic,
mechanical and thermal stimulation (Kyles et al., 1995). The spinal/epidural, and intraarticular routes. Their effects can be
effects of benzodiazepines can be reversed with flumazenil or reversed by naloxone (Table 14-4).
sarmazenil; however, there is generally no need for reversal or
benzodiazepines, unless grossly overdosed (Table 14-5).
a. Clinical considerations
Opioids do not provide reliable sedation in ruminants and
a. Clinical considerations
may cause behavioral changes that result in agitation and chew-
The use of diazepam and midazolam as sedatives is generally ing. However, their administration to the anesthetized patient
restricted to small ruminants and calves. Diazepam is generally is less likely to cause excitement and is useful due to their
given IV, as it is a tissue irritant and its absorption is somewhat analgesic properties. Intraoperative morphine (2 mg/kg, IV)
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 395

reduced the isoflurane MAC in goats by approximately 29% 8. Observe the animal closely during recovery and maintain it
(Doherty et al., 2004). Morphine has not been observed to pro- in sternal until it is has regained adequate muscle strength
duce adverse effects in awake small ruminants (0.5 mg/kg, IM) to do so unaided.
or cattle (0.25–0.5 mg/kg, IM) when administered for analgesic
The benefits of fasting include:
purposes (authors’ observations).
1. Prevention of bloating.
5. Pentobarbital 2. Reduced severity of aspiration pneumonitis.
3. Decreased weight of gastrointestinal tract.
Pentobarbital is a short-acting anesthetic that in subanesthetic 4. Improvement of respiratory function.
doses (2 mg/kg, IV) causes moderate sedation for about 30 5. Improvement of cardiovascular function.
minutes in adult cows without causing recumbency, although
mild-to-moderate ataxia is observed (Valverde et al., 1989). The
effects of this dose on arterial blood gases, respiratory rate, heart B. Induction of Anesthesia in Small Ruminants and
rate, blood pressure, and rumen motility is minimal. Similar Calves
effects have been observed in calves using the same dose.
Pentobarbital is also used as an induction agent (Tables 14-2 In general, all animals should be sedated prior to anesthesia
and 14-3). induction for reasons previously stated. Anticholinergics are not
routinely administered.
a. Clinical considerations
The interesting feature of pentobarbital-induced sedation in 1. Pentobarbital
cows is that they remain standing, which makes its use ideal for Pentobarbital requires significant biotransformation to be
facilitating movement of animals from place to place. If used eliminated. It is a relatively short-acting barbiturate in small
prior to xylazine administration in cattle the combination will ruminants in comparison to other species due to differences in
induce a light plane of anesthesia sufficient to allow intubation biotransformation (Davis et al., 1973). While animals awaken
of the airway. The disadvantage is that a relative large volume of from pentobarbital anesthesia at approximately the same plasma
injection is needed in adult cattle, and therefore an IV catheter concentrations (5–8 mg/L), these plasma concentrations are
is recommended. reached at approximately 100 minutes in the goat compared
to 900 minutes in the dog.
Cardiorespiratory effects include an increase in vascular
IV. INDUCTION resistance and heart rate, and stable blood pressures. Respi-
ratory rate can be significantly depressed resulting in increased
PaCO2 and decreased PaO2 .
A. Recommendations for General Anesthesia

To reduce the incidence of gastrointestinal associated prob- a. Clinical considerations

lems it is important to:
The use of pentobarbital alone as an induction agent is exclu-
1. Fast ruminants for at least 24 and up to 48 hours prior to sive to small ruminants due to the faster biotransformation. In
induction of general anesthesia or heavy sedation. awake or mildly sedated sheep or goats, 20–25 mg/kg IV of
2. Withhold water for 12–18 hours. pentobarbital is required to induce unconsciousness. Half of the
3. Place an endotracheal tube to protect the airway. pentobarbital dose is given rapidly and the remainder is admin-
4. Assure that the animal is adequately anesthetized prior to istered over 5 minutes. In the moderately or heavily sedated
attempting passage of the endotracheal tube. animal, the dose is reduced accordingly.
5. Retain the animal in sternal until the endotracheal tube is
secured. In adult cattle, due to the difficulty in maintaining
2. Thiopental
them in sternal, the experienced anesthetist can intu-
bate in lateral recumbency if the intubation is completed Thiopental is an ultra-short acting barbiturate that provides
promptly. smooth and rapid induction (Table 14-3). The quality of recovery
6. Recover the animal in sternal recumbency. is poor if animals are not premedicated.
7. Retain the endotracheal tube in position until the animal Recovery from an induction dose of thiopental results pri-
starts to swallow and remove it while the animal is sternal. marily from redistribution of the drug from the highly perfused
If there is any indication that ruminal contents are present areas (i.e., CNS) to the less well-perfused tissues (i.e., skele-
in the pharynx, or mouth, flush the oral cavity and drain, tal muscle) and is longer than for other newer induction drugs,
or suction, the pharynx prior to extubation. such as propofol. In goats administered thiopental (8 mg/kg, IV)
396 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

for induction and maintained under halothane anesthesia for 30 the maintenance of anesthesia. The potential for apnea and
minutes, the time to recovery of the swallowing reflex (11 min- hypoxemia from propofol administration at induction can be
utes), first head movement (20 minutes), sternal recumbency (38 handled by provision of oxygen by mask and by administering
minutes), and standing (44 minutes) are at least double those recommended doses to effect.
of goats administered propofol (3 mg/kg, IV) and halothane
(Prassinos et al., 2005).
Apnea is common after rapid and/or excessive administration 4. Ketamine
of thiopental. Decreased respiratory rate is also common with a
Ketamine induces a dissociative state of anesthesia, in which
concomitant decrease in PaO2 and increase in PaCO2 ; therefore,
muscle tone is increased in the absence of drugs with muscle
O2 administration and ventilatory support is recommended.
relaxant properties, and peripheral reflexes are maintained. It
Heart rate tends to increase and blood pressure decrease after
is recommended that ketamine be combined with drugs that
thiopental administration (Prassinos et al., 2005; Thurmon,
provide sedation or muscle relaxation to facilitate induction and
1986), and because of the depressive effects on myocardial
intubation (Table 14-3). Significant salivation can also occur
function, cardiac output tends to decrease and dysrhythmias
from ketamine during intubation (Prassinos et al., 2005).
are likely (Thurmon, 1986).
Ketamine-induced stimulation of the sympathetic system
Solutions of thiopental are irritant to tissues, especially if
may improve cardiovascular function; however, it also can
high concentrations are used, so care must be taken to avoid
depress the myocardium through its negative inotropic effects
perivascular leakage.
(Bovill, 2006). The net effect is that heart rate may increase,
but cardiac output and blood pressure remain unchanged
a. Clinical considerations or decreased. The effects of induction doses of ketamine
(10 mg/kg), propofol (3 mg/kg), and thiopental (8 mg/kg) in
Thiopental is not commonly used for induction of anesthesia
goats were similar for heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory rate,
in small ruminants or calves, primarily because better conditions
and arterial blood gases (Prassinos et al., 2005). The recovery
for intubation occur following ketamine–diazepam adminis-
time of goats receiving ketamine was longer than for propofol
tration. If used alone, a large dose of thiopental is required
or thiopental (Prassinos et al., 2005).
(15–20 mg/kg, IV) and is likely to result in a period of apnea.
The inhibitory effects of ketamine on the N -methyl-d-
Lower doses (5–10 mg/kg, IV) are adequate for induction in
aspartate (NMDA) receptor can result in an apneustic pattern,
premedicated animals.
characterized by periods of apnea during inspiration. The effects
of ketamine on the NMDA receptor are also responsible for its
3. Propofol analgesic effects (Himmelseher and Durieux, 2005).
The cardiorespiratory effects and lack of analgesic properties
of propofol are very similar to those of thiopental (Table 14-3). a. Clinical considerations
Respiratory and cardiac depression can be expected especially if
Ketamine should not be used alone for induction of anes-
higher than required doses are administered. Major differences
thesia in the unsedated animal. Ketamine is not a complete
include less arrhythmogenic potential and more rapid recov-
anesthetic, even at the highest dose, and induces adverse effects,
ery from a single dose or from a constant-rate infusion. An
such as neuronal toxicity, which are dose-related. The adverse
advantage of propofol is its short context-sensitive half-life,
effects are reduced by prior sedation with an alpha2 agonist
which make it an almost ideal agent to maintain anesthesia
or benzodiazepine or by simultaneous administration with a
as a constant-rate infusion. Unlike thiopental, propofol does
benzodiazepine.
not have cumulative effects and results in smooth recoveries
(Prassinos et al., 2005).
It has been suggested that apnea induced by propofol is more
5. Alpha2 Agonist–Ketamine
related to dose than to rate of administration (Prassinos et al.,
2005). Inductions are smooth, although myoclonic activity of Various combinations of xylazine and ketamine have been
the face or extremities observed in other species has also been used to induce anesthesia by either the IV or IM route. Xylazine
described in goats (Pablo et al., 1997). (0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IM or IV) and ketamine (3–5 mg/kg, IV or
5–10 mg/kg, IM) will induce anesthesia of varying length.
Administration of large doses of alpha2 agonists can cause
a. Clinical considerations
severe respiratory depression and a prolonged recovery.
Propofol has no real advantage for induction over ketamine– Due to the potential for regurgitation, the airway should be
diazepam in routine situations; however, it is a good choice for protected with a cuffed endotracheal tube, and supplemental
induction in cesarian section. Its short context-sensitive half- oxygen should be provided to offset the respiratory depres-
life facilitates its administration as a constant-rate infusion for sion and hypoxemia. Other alpha2 agonists (e.g., medetomidine
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 397

0.005–0.01 mg/kg, IV or IM) can be substituted for xylazine; Since the mixture of tiletamine–zolazepam is rapidly acting
however, the same concerns exist. following IM administration and can be reconstituted in a small
volume of alpha2 agonist, it is useful for remote capture of
nondomestic or unapproachable animals.
6. Ketamine–Benzodiazepine
Anesthesia may be induced with IV administration of 9. Inhalational Agent
ketamine and either diazepam or midazolam. The advantage
of these combinations is the relative lack of cardiorespiratory The technique of “mask induction” has been recommended
depression; however, rapid administration of the mixture can because of a rapid recovery from anesthesia. The authors do
cause a temporary apnea. For this reason, it is safest to give the not recommend this method for a number of reasons: (1) mask
combination slowly to effect, even if this results in more of the induction is polluting to the local environment; (2) inhalational
mixture being administered. drugs are not good analgesics; and (3) inhalational agents cause
Relatively large doses of both drugs are needed to induce dose-dependent cardiovascular depression. Also, if this method
anesthesia in goats, if no other sedative agent is used con- alone is used for induction, intubation may not be feasible as
currently. Ketamine (5 mg/kg) and diazepam (0.5 mg/kg) are it can be difficult to get the animal deep enough to abolish the
mixed and initially one-quarter of the dose is administered IV to swallowing reflex.
induce relaxation and allow the goat to be placed on the surgery
table in sternal while oxygen is administered. The remainder
is then given in increments over approximately 2 minutes until C. Induction of Anesthesia in Adult Cattle
the required depth of anesthesia is reached for intubation. The
combination of midazolam (0.4 mg/kg) and ketamine (4 mg/kg) General anesthesia of adult cattle presents unique problems
has also been recommended (Stegmann, 1998). due to their size and temperament. Adequate facilities, per-
Lower doses of each drug have been reported to be adequate sonnel, and equipment must be available before considering
for intubation of sheep (Dunlop and Hoyt, 1997) which may be anesthesia of adult cattle. While a variety of induction tech-
a result of sheep being more sensitive to the drug or perhaps niques have proven effective, only those in common use are
more rapid administration of the drug. described here.
It is thought that problems with regurgitation are less likely if
the induction process is gradual and controlled and if the animal
7. Xylazine–Ketamine–Diazepam is adequately anesthetized prior to attempting intubation.
In healthy sheep, goats, and calves, the combination of
xylazine, ketamine, and diazepam is one of the most com- 1. Alpha2 Agonist–Ketamine–Diazepam
monly used mixtures. Animals are given a low dose of xylazine Following alpha2 agonist-induced sedation (e.g., xylazine),
(0.03 mg/kg, IM) and mild sedation becomes evident in 10–15 anesthesia can be induced with ketamine or preferably a mixture
minutes. Ketamine (5 mg/kg) and diazepam (0.3–0.5 mg/kg) are of ketamine and diazepam IV. Xylazine can be administered IV
mixed and given IV to effect as described above. The remainder (0.05 mg/kg) or IM (0.05–0.15 mg/kg), but not all cattle become
of the mixture is generally given when the animal is intubated recumbent at these doses. Higher doses of xylazine may be more
and being ventilated. likely to induce regurgitation, so it is probably best to use lower
The advantages of adding xylazine are an increased ease of doses of xylazine and employ a casting harness to make the
handling, added analgesia, and a reduction in the induction animal recumbent. Depending on the degree of sedation, anes-
and maintenance doses of inhalational anesthetic. Recovery is thesia can be induced, to effect, with ketamine (2–2.5 mg/kg)
minimally affected by the addition of xylazine at this dose. and diazepam (0.05–0.1 mg/kg). Diazepam provides additional
sedation and relaxation.
8. Xylazine–Tiletamine–Zolazepam
2. Alpha2 Agonist–Ketamine–Guaifenesin
The mixture is similar to ketamine–diazepam in that an
NMDA antagonist (tiletamine) is combined with a GABA ago- Adding guaifenesin to the induction regimen increases the
nist (zolazepam). The combination is commercially available as degree of muscle relaxation and may provide some seda-
a powder containing either 250 mg of each drug. However, the tion. Following an alpha2 agonist (e.g., xylazine 0.1 mg/kg,
mixture is reported to be a poor analgesic and is best combined IM; 0.05 mg/kg, IV) premedication, ketamine (2–2.5 mg/kg) is
with an alpha2 agonist if it is to be used for restraint in short sur- mixed with guaifenesin (50–75 mg/kg) and approximately half
gical procedures. It is not commonly used in small ruminants, of the mixture is initially infused rapidly, IV, until the animal is
but a dose of 2 mg/kg IM or IV and xylazine (0.05 mg/kg, IM) adequately relaxed to insert a dental speculum and assess readi-
will induce anesthesia of about 15-minute duration. ness for intubation. The remainder of the mixture can be given
398 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

more slowly, as required. Relatively large volumes of guaifen- V. GENERAL ANESTHESIA

esin are needed (0.5–1 L of 5% solution), and while this may
be considered a disadvantage, it is also advantageous in that the
A. Anesthetic Equipment
likelihood of apnea is greatly reduced by the provision to give
the mixture over a longer period.
Small ruminants and small calves do not generally need spe-
Another method is to give approximately half the guaifen-
cial anesthetic machines, ventilators, or endotracheal tubes.
esin and then administer the ketamine separately as a bolus.
General anesthesia of adult cattle requires a large animal anes-
However, mixing the drugs allows for a more gradual induction.
thesia machine and large endotracheal tubes and surgery tables.
A hoisting mechanism is necessary to lift cattle onto the surgery
table and special padding is required to prevent muscle and nerve
3. Alpha2 Agonist–Thiopental–Guaifenesin damage in the recumbent adult.
In this method, thiopental (4–5 mg/kg) is added to guaifenesin
(50–75 mg/kg) and the mixture is infused, to effect, follow-
ing premedication with an alpha2 agonist, as described above. B. Endotracheal Intubation
This method provides good relaxation and reduces the dose of
thiopental needed for induction. Intubation of the airway is necessary in the anesthetized rumi-
nant to prevent the aspiration of saliva and ruminal fluid. In
addition, endotracheal intubation is an effective method for
4. Alpha2 Agonist–Pentobarbital delivery of oxygen and inhalational anesthetics. Endotracheal
intubation is relatively easy in small ruminants but is more
Anesthesia can be induced with pentobarbital (2 mg/kg, difficult in adult cattle.
IV) following alpha2 -induced sedation (e.g., xylazine 0.05– In adult cattle, it is necessary to use a dental speculum, such as
0.1 mg/kg IV). This same technique can also be employed in a Drinkwater gag (Fig. 14-3), to pry the jaws open and protect
calves. the tube from injury. The molar teeth of ruminants are rather
sharp and can cause damage to the endotracheal tube or the
hand of the intubator.
D. Remote Capture of Ruminants Direct visualization of the larynx is not possible in adult
cattle as the view is obstructed by the protuberance (torus
On occasion, it is necessary to deliver drugs to ruminants by linguae) on the tongue. It is important that the animal is
some remote method. This is most likely to be necessary in an adequately anesthetized before attempting to place the gag
adult bovine, either because the animal has escaped from the and pass the endotracheal tube. The head and neck must be
holding facilities or because it is dangerous to approach. extended. Ideally, ruminants should be intubated while in ster-
For drug delivery at relatively close range (<3 m) a pole nal recumbency to reduce the chance of passive reflux of ruminal
syringe is adequate; however, for longer distances a blow pipe contents.
(5–10 m), pistol (up to 20 m), or rifle (20–40 m) is necessary. Endotracheal tubes should have an intact cuff and it is advis-
Due to the relatively small volume of solution that can be deliv- able to place the largest tube possible to prevent foreign material
ered (3–10 ml), and the need for a rapid onset of effect, the from entering the larynx. In adult cattle (450–600 kg), a tube
drug options are limited. Also, it is desirable that the drug(s) be size of 24–26 mm internal diameter is required. Once inserted,
reversible and readily available in a hospital setting. the cuff should be inflated and the tube secured to the head,
Alpha2 agonists can be used alone to induce recumbency but with tape or bandage material, before moving the head or
very large doses are required. In a study in free-ranging cat- repositioning the animal.
tle, xylazine (0.55 mg/kg) or medetomidine (0.04 mg/kg, IM) A number of techniques can be used for the intubation of
alone was successful in inducing immobilization in approxi- ruminants. Orotracheal intubation is the preferred method as
mately 10 minutes while reversal was achieved with atipamezole the nasal passages of ruminants are relatively narrow. The nasal
(0.06 mg/kg, IV) (Arnemo and Soli, 1993). passages of sheep and goats are easily damaged and may bleed
The dose of alpha2 agonists can be reduced considerably by profusely; thus, nasotracheal intubation is not recommended.
the addition of ketamine (3–5 mg/kg) or tiletamine–zolazepam
(2–3 mg/kg). Drug regimens based on ketamine or tiletamine–
zolazepam (Telazol® ) and alpha2 agonists are generally the most C. Intubation of Small Ruminants and Calves
readily available. Telazol can be reconstituted with the alpha2
agonist to decrease the volume. Detomidine and medetomidine Sheep have a slightly larger airway than goats and, depend-
are more potent than xylazine and have a smaller volume, and ing on their size, will generally require a tube of 8.5–14.0 mm
thus are more suitable than xylazine for this purpose. internal diameter. Many goats are of smaller size, and goats
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 399

Fig. 14-3 Images of Drinkwater gags. A specific gag is used for the right and left side (A). Inset shows how the gags are curved to fit the dental arcade (B).

50–70 kg generally accommodate a tube of size 7.5–9.0 mm. gently grasps the larynx with the free hand when attempting to
Tubes of size 11–14 mm are required for calves 50–70 kg. A pass the tube. An experienced person can perform this maneuver
mouth gag is generally not necessary for small ruminants. Tubes rapidly.
are secured in place by tying them around the maxilla or behind
the ears.
D. Intubation of Adult Cattle
1. Direct Visualization of the Larynx
1. Blind Intubation
This is easiest to achieved animal in sternal recumbency. As
the head is short and the dorsum of the tongue less prominent With this method, the head and neck are extended and the
than in the adult bovine, the larynx is generally easy to visualize endotracheal tube is passed blindly toward the larynx while the
using a laryngoscope. A blade of length 20 cm is adequate for free hand stabilizes the larynx by gripping it gently. This method
most small ruminants and small calves; however, a 40 cm blade is not very successful in adult cattle as the endotracheal tube
is necessary to reach the larynx of larger calves and sheep. usually gets lodged in the fossa linguae in front of the torus
Once the animal is adequately anesthetized, an assistant holds linguae.
the mouth open using two lengths of gauze bandage and the head Using a stomach tube as a guide increases the likelihood of
and neck are extended. The blade of the laryngoscope is used to success, as it is narrower and more likely to pass into the phar-
depress the epiglottis to allow visualization of the rima glottidis. ynx. Once the stomach tube enters the airway it acts as a guide
In most cases, passage of the endotracheal tube is facilitated by for the endotracheal tube, which is passed over it into the trachea.
the use of a stylet to stiffen the tube. The stomach tube is then removed.

2. Blind Intubation 2. Direct Palpation of the Larynx

This is easy to perform in small ruminants. However, the This method is especially helpful in large cattle where the
technique does take some practice, and the animal must be ade- oral cavity is large enough to accommodate the forearm of the
quately anesthetized to be successful. The animal can be placed intubator and the endotracheal tube. A dental speculum is abso-
in sternal or lateral recumbency (avoid placing the animal in lutely necessary to pry the jaws apart but the animal should be
dorsal until the airway is secured). adequately anesthetized. The intubator passes the free hand into
The mouth is opened, as described above, and the head and the pharynx while the driving hand guides the tube into the oral
the neck are extended. If the animal is in lateral, an assistant can cavity toward the pharynx. The intubator then grasps the end of
hold the mouth open while gently extending the head over his the endotracheal tube with the free hand and directs it into the
or her hip. The intubator passes the tube into the pharynx and larynx.
400 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

However, if the intubator has a large forearm or if the oral isoflurane. Interestingly, the effects of 1–2 MAC of sevoflurane,
cavity is not sufficiently large, there may not be enough room isoflurane, and halothane resulted in similar cardiac outputs in
to perform this procedure. In such cases, a stomach tube can goats under conditions of IPPV and spontaneous ventilation
be passed down the endotracheal tube to act as a guide. Since (Hikasa et al., 1998).
the stomach tube is of narrower bore and more flexible than Halothane undergoes rather extensive (20–25%) metabolism
the endotracheal tube, this method leaves more room for the compared to isoflurane (<1%) and sevoflurane (∼5%). Its
operator’s arm. increased solubility in fat gives it a somewhat longer induction
Before attempting intubation, the stomach tube should be and recovery time.
passed down the lumen of the endotracheal tube to ensure that N2 O is less commonly used in ruminant anesthesia for a vari-
it fits, and verify that the endotracheal tube can be passed freely ety of reasons. On the positive side, N2 O reduces the MAC
over it. of the volatile anesthetics; however, high-inspired percentages
are required and this may result in the inadvertent administra-
tion of a hypoxic mixture if inspired oxygen is not monitored.
E. Maintenance of Anesthesia N2 O diffuses into air-filled cavities (i.e., gastrointestinal tract)
and may result in distention of viscera. The use of N2 O is not
1. Inhalational Anesthetics recommended.
Inhalational anesthetics are commonly used for maintenance
of anesthesia in ruminants of all types. Nowadays, the most 2. Total Intravenous Anesthesia
commonly used drugs are isoflurane and sevoflurane. Halothane Regardless of the method of total IV anesthesia used, it is
is less frequently used but has proven to be an acceptable drug strongly advised to intubate the airway and provide supplemen-
for maintenance of anesthesia in ruminants. tal oxygen.
The cardiorespiratory depression from inhalant anesthetics is
dose-dependent. MAC is the alveolar concentration of inhala-
a. Xylazine–ketamine–guaifenesin
tion anesthetic that prevents movement in 50% of subjects in
response to a noxious stimulus (Table 14-6). This means that A method of total IV anesthesia that has been described for
the higher the MAC fraction delivered to the patient, the more cattle (Greene, 2003) consists of adding xylazine (50 mg) and
pronounced the cardiovascular depression. The drugs used for ketamine (1–2 g) to 1 L of 5% guaifenesin. Anesthesia can be
premedication usually lower MAC. maintained by infusing the mixture at 1–2 ml/kg/h, depending
Dose-dependent decreases in cardiac output, stroke vol- on the drugs used for premedication and induction and the type
ume, blood pressure, tidal volume, and respiratory rate, and of surgery to be performed. The drug mixture can be made
dose-dependent increases in PaCO2 are common with all up accordingly for smaller ruminants. One advantage of this
inhalant anesthetics. Cardiovascular function is depressed to technique is reduced cardiovascular depression compared to
a greater extent with intermittent positive pressure ventilation inhalational agents.
(IPPV) than with spontaneous ventilation due to the effects of
positive pressure on venous return and cardiac function, and b. Thiopental–guaifenesin
also due to the effects of decreasing the stimulatory effects of
PaCO2 on the sympathetic system. Anesthesia can also be maintained with an infusion of
Halothane has a stronger negative inotropic effect; therefore, thiopental and guaifenesin. For adult cattle, thiopental (2–3 g)
cardiac output is more affected with halothane. In addition, is added to 1 L of 5% guaifenesin and infused to effect. The
halothane affects vascular resistance less than sevoflurane or amount used will depend on the type of sedation, the induction
regimen, and the procedure in question, but is in the range 2–
3 ml/kg/h. This regimen should not be used to provide prolonged
TABLE 14-6 anesthesia.
Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC) Values (%) of
Commonly Used Inhalants in Ruminants
c. Partial intravenous anesthesia
Inhalant Cattle Sheep Goat
This involves the combined use of inhalational and injectable
Halothane 0.76 0.69 0.96 anesthetics. The inhalational anesthetics are rarely used as the
Isoflurane 1.27 1.19–1.53 1.14–1.43 sole drug for maintenance of anesthesia. Isoflurane is supple-
Sevoflurane N/A 3.3 2.33 mented by infusions of lidocaine and ketamine and the end-tidal
isoflurane concentration for maintenance can be reduced to
Note: N/A: not available.
Source: Bernards et al. (1996); Brett et al. (1989); Cantalapiedra et al.
0.5–0.6%.
(2000); Doherty et al. (2002, 2004, 2007); Gregory et al. (1983); Hikasa et Ketamine infused at 50 μg/kg/min is expected to give a
al. (1998); Lukasik et al. (1998). MAC reduction of approximately 50% (Doherty et al., 2007),
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 401

and an infusion of 25 μg/kg/min reduces MAC by about 30% areas of incomplete block if the infiltration method is used. In
(Queiroz-Castro et al., 2006). A loading dose (1–2 mg/kg) may such circumstances, regional anesthesia can be achieved with
be necessary if ketamine is not used for induction or if the a paravertebral block of the nerves that supply this anatomi-
infusion is not started soon after induction with ketamine. cal area. The use of systemic lidocaine has also been described
A lidocaine infusion (100 μg/kg/min) reduced MAC by for analgesic effects; although it is understandable that gen-
approximately 20% in goats (Doherty et al., 2007); however, the eral anesthesia cannot be accomplished by this route. However,
plasma lidocaine concentrations were lower than those reported it is possible to achieve regional anesthesia by infusing local
in other species using similar infusion rates. It appears that small anesthetics into a peripheral vessel (see Sections VI and F).
ruminants rapidly clear lidocaine; thus, higher infusion rates In animals of low body mass, it is important to avoid sys-
(e.g., 150–200 μg/kg/min) are recommended. A loading dose temic toxicity with local anesthetics. The toxic dose is related
of 2.5 mg/kg is administered over 5 min. to blood concentrations of the local anesthetic. Injection of local
anesthetic into the horn bud of a kid goat is an example of a sit-
uation where toxicity may arise. The small body mass of the kid
F. Recovery from Anesthesia
together with the extreme vascularity of the horn bud may result
in a toxic concentration of local anesthetic. There are no estab-
The duration of recovery depends on the type and amount of
lished toxic doses of local anesthetics for ruminants, although
drug(s) used. Delivery of anesthetic drug(s) is discontinued in
it is commonly mentioned that up to 10 mg/kg of lidocaine and
anticipation of recovery. If an inhalational anesthetic has been
3–4 mg/kg of bupivacaine can result in toxicity.
administered, increasing the fresh gas flow will hasten the elim-
Toxicity is dependent on multiple factors, rather than dose
ination of anesthetic from the circuit. If the animal has been
alone. In fact, toxicity is related to plasma concentrations,
ventilated mechanically, it is best to maintain on the ventilator
which are dependent on dose, the site of injection, degree
until spontaneous breathing returns.
of absorption from the site, concurrent administration of
Prior to extubation, the animal should be placed in sternal
other drugs (e.g., combined with epinephrine), health status,
recumbency, which is usually followed by the escape of ruminal
and interindividual variation. Therefore, a dose of 10 mg/kg
gases up the esophagus. The pharynx should be drained by either
lidocaine may only be toxic if given IV. In humans peak
lowering the head or by suction. Once extubated, the animal
plasma concentrations for other routes than IV follow the
should be kept in sternal until it has adequate muscle tone to be
order: intercostal > epidural > brachial plexus > subcutaneous
able to right itself from lateral.
(Rosenberg et al., 2004).
Ruminants generally recover quietly from anesthesia and are
CNS is most sensitive to lidocaine toxicity and signs include
content to remain sternal until ready to stand.
depression with sedation, visual disturbances followed by exci-
tation and muscle twitching, unconsciousness, and seizures.
The cardiovascular and respiratory systems are more resistant
VI. LOCAL AND REGIONAL ANESTHESIA
to toxicity, although cardiovascular depression and respira-
tory arrest can occur. Bupivacaine predominantly affects the
A. Local Anesthetics cardiovascular system.

Lidocaine, bupivacaine, and mepivacaine are the most com-

B. Epidural and Spinal Anesthesia
monly used local anesthetics in ruminants. Their mechanism of
action involves blockade of sodium channels to prevent depolar-
Spinal anesthesia is a form of regional anesthesia involving
ization of nociceptors. Lidocaine and mepivacaine are shorter
the injection of drugs into the spinal fluid. This method is not
acting than bupivacaine due to their lower protein binding at the
routinely practiced in ruminants.
receptor, but faster in onset because of a more physiological
Epidural anesthesia is a form of regional anesthesia involving
constant of dissociation that facilitates passage through cell
the injection of drugs into the epidural space. The method can be
membranes.
used to provide complete anesthesia where motor and sensory
Local anesthetics can be administered by perineural injection,
block occurs or analgesia, which generally involves a partial sen-
by infiltration at nerve endings in the skin, and by injection into
sory block. The epidural space is separated from the surrounding
the epidural/intrathecal space to provide anesthesia of the cor-
spinal cord and cerebrospinal fluid by the meninges. Epidural
responding innervated area. The simplest method of providing
anesthesia can be divided into two types, posterior and anterior.
anesthesia is to infiltrate the surgical site with local anesthetic.
This is easily performed for procedures such as suturing a small
1. Posterior Epidural
skin incision or removing a superficial tumor where only the
skin has to be anesthetized. Anesthesia of the body wall, such In posterior epidural, motor control of the pelvic limbs
as is necessary for abdominal surgery, requires anesthesia of all is maintained and the animal remains standing. Thus, this
layers including the peritoneum and is more likely to result in technique is most commonly used to perform procedures on
402 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

the perineum or tail of standing cattle. This technique does not C. Technique of Epidural Injections in Small
desensitize the scrotum or udder. It is less commonly used in Ruminants and Calves
small ruminants.
The site for a posterior epidural injection is the sacrococ- The epidural injection can be made with the animal in sternal
cygeal or first intercoccygeal space. Elevating and lowering the or lateral, depending on the preference of the operator. However,
tail while palpating the area can identify the space at which the more even spread of anesthetic, and hence a greater chance of
tail hinges. In younger cattle, the movement of the tail ceases bilateral block will occur with the animal in sternal. In goats
at the sacrococcygeal space; however, in older cattle the sacro- and young calves the lumbosacral space is easily palpable, but
coccygeal space is ossified and the site of injection is the first may be less obvious in large, well-nourished sheep. Flexing the
intercoccygeal space. lumbosacral spine will help to locate the site.
A 20- or 18-gauge needle is passed, in the midline, between For most small ruminants and calves, a 20-gauge, 7.5 cm
the vertebrae at a 10–15◦ angle to perpendicular. The needle is spinal needle is suitable; however, the space can be very narrow
inserted to a depth of 3–5 cm, depending on the animal’s size. in small goats, necessitating the use of a 22-gauge spinal needle.
On occasion, blood will flow from the hub and, in this case, the The landmarks are easily located. The distinct dorsal spinous
needle should be withdrawn slightly. If the needle is correctly processes of the lumbar vertebra readily distinguish them from
placed, there is minimal resistance to injection. The position of the sacral vertebrae. Also, a line joining the anterior borders
the needle can be verified by placing a drop of local anesthetic of the ilium crosses the spinous process of the last lumbar
or saline on the needle hub and, if placement is correct, the drop vertebra.
will run down the hub due to the relatively negative pressure in The operator places an index finger of the free hand in the
the epidural space. center of the depression between the last lumbar vertebra and
The usual volume of injectate for a posterior block in adult the first sacral vertebra. Depending on whether the animal is in
cattle is 5–6 ml of 2% lidocaine. Volumes of >10 ml may cause dorsal or lateral, the heel of the hand holding the spinal needle
weakness of the pelvic limbs resulting in recumbency. is rested on the animal or the edge of the table for security, as
the needle is made to enter the skin immediately in front of
the index finger and is advanced into the epidural space. This
2. Anterior Epidural
distance is relatively short, especially in goats. Determining a
The technique creates anesthesia of the caudal abdomen and, lack of resistance as the needle passes into the epidural space
depending on the volume of local anesthetic administered, a is somewhat subjective and dependent on the bore and bevel of
variety of abdominal surgical procedures can be performed. the needle.
The technique is used commonly in small ruminants for On occasion, an inadvertent spinal tap happens and this
abdominal or pelvic surgery, most often to supplement gen- becomes evident when spinal fluid drips from the hub follow-
eral anesthesia or sedation. In small ruminants and calves, the ing removal of the stylet. If this occurs, the spinal needle can
technique involves the injection of drugs into the lumbosacral be withdrawn slightly to reposition it in the epidural space or
space. However, if a sufficient volume of drug is injected at the the injection can be given into the spinal fluid. If a spinal injec-
sacrococcygeal or intercoccygeal space it will migrate forward tion is given, it is generally recommended that the epidural dose
to create an anterior epidural block. be reduced by about 30–50%. In any case, spinal and epidural
Since the administration of a local anesthetic at the lum- injections should be given slowly.
bosacral space results in motor and sensory block of the pelvic The dose of local anesthetic necessary depends on the loca-
limbs, the animal is unable to stand. For this reason, ante- tion of the surgical site and lower doses are necessary if the
rior epidural block is not commonly practiced in adult cattle as surgery involves the pelvis or pelvic limbs. The sacrococcygeal
they may injure themselves when motor control is lost or when injection of lidocaine (2%) at a rate of 1 ml/5 kg should produce
attempting to stand. Nevertheless, the technique is sometimes anesthesia of the abdomen almost to the umbilicus. A lower dose
performed for cesarian operations on cows using a low flank will suffice for pelvic anesthesia.
approach. In this instance, 20 ml of 2% lidocaine is adminis-
tered, into the spinal fluid, at the lumbosacral space and the
cow is guided into sternal recumbency. Care must be exercised D. Paravertebral Anesthesia
to ensure that the animal has sufficient motor control before
allowing it to stand. The return of tail tone and leg movement This technique is used most commonly in cattle to provide
indicates that the cow is ready to stand. unilateral anesthesia of the abdomen for surgery on the standing
Another concern is that a high anterior epidural may result animal.
in hypotension due to blockade of the sympathetic tone, which Generally, thoracic nerve 13 and lumbar nerves 1 and 2 must
results in vasodilation. Hypotension is more likely to develop be blocked. Lumbar nerve 3 is also blocked to provide better
when a larger volume of local anesthetic is given to desensitize anesthesia of the caudal third of the abdominal flank. This tech-
the anterior abdomen and in animals that are hypovolemic. nique is not suitable for surgery of the ventral abdomen. The
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 403

Fig. 14-4 Dorsal view of lumbar area depicting dorsal and ventral branches of lumbar nerve and location of needles for proximal (1) and distal (2) paravertebral
block.

process involves the perineural injection of local anesthetic in 2. Distal Block (Fig. 14-4)
proximity to the spinal nerves as they emerge from the vertebral
The distal or lateral approach is used to block the dorsal and
canal. The dorsal and ventral branches of each nerve must be
ventral branches of the nerves as they cross over and under,
blocked if complete anesthesia of the flank is desired.
respectively, the corresponding transverse process. In adult cat-
tle, approximately 10 ml of lidocaine is injected above and below
1. Proximal Block (Fig. 14-4) the transverse process. The injection is started at the tip of the
process and the local anesthetic is deposited along the process,
Each spinal nerve emerges in front of a lumbar transverse as the needle is advance toward the spine. It is important to
process and then divides into a dorsal and ventral branch. Both keep the needle close to the process; otherwise, the anesthetic
branches of the nerve can be blocked by a single injection at this is deposited in soft tissue and the block may fail.
location. In this method, called the proximal block, the needle
is inserted vertically, about 5 cm lateral to the dorsal spinous
process in cattle, so that it just strikes the anterior rim of the E. Nerve Blocks of the Eye and Adnexa
transverse process behind the nerve to be blocked. The needle
is then walked off the rim and directed deeper to penetrate the Surgery of the eye is relatively uncommon in ruminants;
intertransverse ligament. This ligament is readily palpable in however, enucleating is sometimes performed for conditions
thin animals. such as squamous cell carcinoma. It is possible to perform an
In adult cattle, about 10–15 ml of lidocaine are deposited enucleation with the animal standing, using either a four-point
just below the ligament and approximately 5 ml are injected injection (retrobulbar block) to block the deep orbital nerves or
above the ligament as the needle is withdrawn. The volume of a Peterson block to anesthetize the nerves as they exit the skull.
local anesthetic is reduced appropriately in small ruminants and Eye surgery in small ruminants is generally performed under
calves. general anesthesia.
404 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

1. Four-Point Block (retrobulbar) the animal’s systolic blood pressure to prevent arterial flow to
the extremity. A cuff pressure of about 200 mmHg is generally
In the awake, adult bovine, the animal is restrained in a chute
sufficient; however, it is important to maintain the tourniquet
and the head is secured. An 18- or 20-gauge 3-inch needle is
inflated during the procedure.
inserted into the orbit at 12:00, 3:00, 6:00, and 9:00 positions.
If a pneumatic tourniquet is not available, the circulation can
The injections can be made through the eyelids, if desired. The
be occluded using a piece of rubber tubing. In cattle, a length
operator uses an index finger to deflect the globe away from the
of bicycle tire inner tube works well as a tourniquet.
needle as it is inserted. The orbital septum must be penetrated;
A more effective method is to exsanguinate the extremity
otherwise, the local anesthetic may be deposited subconjuncti-
using an Esmarch rubber bandage. The limb is tightly wrapped,
vally. The operator generally perceives the point when the needle
from distal to proximal, before applying the tourniquet. The
penetrates the septum. In adult cattle, 5–10 ml of anesthetic are
tourniquet can be left in place for about 1 hour; however, the
deposited at each site. Proptosis indicates a successful block.
unsedated animal will become uncomfortable by this stage.
A disadvantage of this technique is that there is a chance
The choice of local anesthetic is less critical in adult rumi-
that the injection could damage the optic nerve. There is also
nants; however, toxicity may result in small ruminants if a
a chance, albeit small, that the anesthetic could enter the cere-
large volume of local anesthetic is suddenly released into the
brospinal fluid, as the meninges extend around the optic nerve.
circulation following deflation of the cuff, so the choice of
drug is important. Lidocaine is most commonly used. Bupiva-
2. Peterson Block caine should be avoided in small ruminants because the volume
This is technically more difficult than the four-point block. used may cause myocardial toxicity. Also, it is important that
This block is not as reliable as the four-point block but is less epinephrine-containing solutions are not used.
likely to have complications. The nerves are blocked as they The volume of injectate will be influenced by the size of the
exit the skull at the foramen orbitorotundum. The animal is limb and the location of the tourniquet. The presence of cellulitis
restrained with its nasal bones parallel to the ground. in the limb will affect diffusion of anesthetic and a larger volume
The needle is passed just in front of the rostral border of the is required in such cases. In adult cattle, 30–40 ml of lidocaine
coronoid process, in a notch formed by the zygomatic arch and may be necessary. In sheep and goats, 10–20 ml of lidocaine will
supraorbital process, and directed slightly ventrally and poste- suffice. The local anesthetic is injected slowly and anesthesia
riorly for about 3–4 inches in the adult bovine until it strikes develops in about 5 minutes. Pressure builds up in the venous
bone. The local anesthetic (15–20 ml, 2% lidocaine) is injected system as the injection progresses, and to prevent leakage and
at this location. hematoma formation around the site of venipuncture, gentle
pressure should be applied over the site.
Sensation returns soon after deflation of the tourniquet. It is
3. Auriculopalpebral Block recommended that the tourniquet not be deflated for at least 15
Auriculopalpebral anesthesia produces motor block of the minutes following the injection, especially in animals of low
upper eyelid, thus facilitating examination of the eye. The needle body mass, to reduce the likelihood of toxicity. It may also help
is passed through the skin at the end of the zygomatic arch and if the tourniquet is re-inflated after about 20 seconds, to release
local anesthetic solution (5–10 ml, 2% lidocaine) is deposited, the local anesthetic solution in stages.
subcutaneously, at the dorsal border of the arch.

VII. ANESTHESIA FOR HUSBANDRY

F. Intravenous Regional Anesthesia (Bier’s Block) PROCEDURES

IV regional anesthesia (IVRA) is a method suited to providing

A. Dehorning and Disbudding
anesthesia of the distal limb for procedures such as surgery of
the digits. The technique was first described by August Bier in
Dehorning or disbudding of ruminants is routinely performed
1808 as a method of providing anesthesia of the distal limbs in
to prevent damage to herd mates or handlers. The procedure is
human patients.
less stressful if it is performed at a young age before the horn
The procedure is generally performed with the animal in lat-
develops to adult size.
eral recumbency. Sedation is recommended as pain results from
In cattle, the sensory nerve supply to the horn arises from the
tourniquet application, especially if the procedure is prolonged.
superior maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerves. However, it
An IV catheter is placed in a distal vein of the limb in ques-
is possible that a branch of cervical nerve two (C2 ) supplies the
tion; however, a butterfly needle may suffice. The circulation in
caudal area of the horn.
the extremity is then isolated from the proximal portion of the
limb by placing a tourniquet proximal to the site of injection. If 1. The cornual branch of the zygomatico-temporal nerve
a pressure cuff is used, it is inflated to a pressure greater than is blocked along the temporal ridge, roughly halfway
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 405

In kid goats, disbudding is a very stressful procedure and

care must be taken to avoid overdose of the local anesthetic.
Since the horn bud is very vascular, there is a rapid uptake of
drug from the injection site, and the small body mass makes
overdose of anesthetic a concern. It is recommended that kids
be anesthetized with xylazine (0.05 mg/kg, IM) and ketamine
(10 mg/kg, IM) for disbudding. Recovery is complete within an
hour and the process is much less traumatic for the kids. A non-
steroidal anti-inflammatory (e.g., flunixin meglumine 2 mg/kg,
IV or IM) is recommended for postoperative analgesia.

B. Castration

Castration of ruminants is routinely practiced and is less

stressful if done when the animals are young. Although cas-
tration in the very young animal has been performed without
anesthesia, the use of anesthesia is discouraged. The procedure
can be performed under local anesthesia in cattle; however,
smaller animals, especially young sheep and goats, could be
anesthetized with xylazine (0.05 mg/kg, IM) and ketamine
(10 mg/kg, IM) as described for disbudding. Castration of older
sheep and goats must be performed carefully to prevent hem-
orrhage postoperatively. In such cases, sedation (e.g., xylazine
Fig. 14-5 The lateral view of a goat’s head demonstrates the locations for
nerve block for dehorning an adult goat. The cornual branch of the lacrimal
0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IM) will allow the animal to be restrained on a
nerve (zygomatico-temporal) is blocked behind the root of the supraorbital surgical table and improve surgical conditions.
process (1) and the cornual branch of the infratrochlear nerve is blocked at the For a complete anesthesia of the surgical site the scrotal skin
dorsomedial margin of the orbit (2). and spermatic cord must be blocked. Local anesthetic can be
injected directly into the spermatic cord using a small-bore nee-
dle (22-gauge) to reduce the likelihood of hematoma formation.
between the lateral canthus of the eye and the base of the Since local anesthetic is rapidly absorbed from this site, it is
horn. important to be aware of the risk of toxicity. In small lambs and
2. The cornual branch of the infratrochlear nerve passes over kids, 1 ml of lidocaine in each cord will be adequate. The scrotal
the orbital rim close to the medial canthus and dorsal to skin is anesthetized by local infiltration of lidocaine.
the eye. As in the case of dehorning or disbudding, a nonsteroidal
3. Cutaneous branches of C2 may be blocked by injecting anti-inflammatory (e, g., flunixin meglumine 2 mg/kg, IV or
local anesthetic close to the dorsal midline of the neck and IM) is recommended for postoperative analgesia.
level with the base of the ear.
4. In a small percentage of animals the frontal nerve inner-
vates the horn; however, this nerve is not possible to block VIII. MONITORING THE ANESTHETIZED
as it runs deep in the temporal fossa or within the horn. PATIENT
The cornual nerves of sheep and goat are very similar to
those of cattle. Cervical nerve 2 is less likely to innervate the The degree of monitoring depends on a number of factors
horn of the sheep and goat. In the goat, the cornual branch of the including the type of anesthetic and surgical procedure and
zygomatico-temporal nerve is often referred to as the cornual physical status of the animal, and the facilities available. At
branch of the lacrimal nerve (Fig. 14-5). minimum, the depth of anesthesia, heart rate and pulse pres-
1. The cornual branch of the lacrimal nerve (zygomatico- sure, and respiratory rate should be monitored. Most research
temporal) is blocked behind the root of the supraorbital facilities will have the necessary equipment to measure blood
process. The needle is inserted to a depth of 1–1.5 cm, and pressure and monitor the heart rate and rhythm.
as close as possible to the root of the supraorbital process.
2. The cornual branch of the infratrochlear nerve is at the A. Depth of Anesthesia
dorsomedial margin of the orbit and is generally palpable.
The needle is inserted close to the margin of the orbit to a There is no single measure that can be used to gauge the depth
depth of about 0.5 cm. of anesthesia. Thus, reliance is placed on clinical evaluation and
406 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

monitoring equipment to assess anesthetic depth. Obviously, to estimate pulse pressure. The heart rate may be counted by
motor movement, either spontaneous or in response to surgical digital palpation or measured from an ECG or blood pressure
stimulation, indicates an inadequate plane of anesthesia. Move- curve. Digital palpation of the artery is the simplest method of
ment may involve the limbs or head or chewing movements. monitoring pressure but the method is subjective.
Esophageal contraction is another indication of inadequate Blood pressure can be measured directly or indirectly.
anesthesia and this can be followed by regurgitation. The bovine
1. Direct blood pressure in ruminants is usually recorded
esophagus is unique in that it consists of striated muscle for its
from a catheter in the medial auricular branch of the rostral
entire length. In humans, a link has been established between
auricular artery. This artery is readily catheterized in adult
the depth of anesthesia, for certain anesthetics, and lower
cattle and in lop-eared goats but may be quite difficult to
esophageal movement. In the case of halothane anesthesia, the
catheterize in animals with small ears.
frequency of lower esophageal contractions can predict move-
2. Indirect blood pressure can be measured using either the
ment in response to a skin incision; however, this relationship
Doppler or oscillometric methods. With both techniques,
did not exist when humans were anesthetized with N2 O and
the width of the cuff should be 40% of the circumfer-
alfentanil (Sessler et al., 1989).
ence of the tail or limb. False readings may occur from
The palpebral reflex and rotation of the eye are generally used
incorrectly sized cuffs or, in the case of the Doppler,
as indicators of anesthetic depth. The palpebral reflex, which is
improper placement of the probe.
elicited by stroking the eyelashes, progressively weakens as the
depth of anesthesia increases and is absent or sluggish in surgical Cardiac output is not commonly monitored during anesthe-
planes of anesthesia. During surgical anesthesia with inhala- sia, unless this is part of the research protocol. However, the
tional anesthetics the eye is central initially but rotates ventrally technique has become less complex, and relatively noninva-
as the anesthetic plane deepens until only the sclera is visible. In sive methods (e.g., lithium dilution and partial carbon dioxide
a very deep plane of anesthesia the eye will again become cen- re-breathing methods) are now available.
tral, but this stage of anesthesia is distinguished by the loss of
palpebral and corneal reflexes and severe cardiovascular depres-
C. Respiratory Function
sion. In comparison, when using multimodal anesthesia, the eye
can remain in a central position corresponding to light surgical
The objectives of respiratory monitoring are to ensure ade-
anesthesia under inhalational drugs.
quate oxygenation of the blood and adequate removal of carbon
The corneal reflex should be present at all times; however,
dioxide. In the absence of monitoring apparatus, the minimum
it is recommended that this reflex not be elicited, as corneal
assessment should include determination of respiratory rate and
damage may result. Nystagmus is not present during surgical
mucous membrane color. Monitoring chest wall and abdominal
anesthesia.
movement and the movement of the re-breathing bag will help
Anal tone is not a very precise method of assessing anesthetic
in the evaluation of respiratory function. Measurement of end-
depth, but may be helpful when there is no access to the animal’s
tidal carbon dioxide partial pressure (ETCO2 ) and arterial blood
head. Stimulation of the anus causes reflex contraction of the
gases give a more complete assessment of respiratory function.
anal sphincter and absence of this reflex indicates too deep an
anesthetic plane. 1. Arterial carbon dioxide can be measured directly using
Physiological indicators may be used to gauge anesthetic blood gas analysis or indirectly using end-tidal analy-
depth; however, it must be understood that commonly monitored sis. End-tidal carbon dioxide monitors (capnographs) are
parameters, such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiratory readily available. End-tidal CO2 values generally underes-
rate, are subject to a variety of influences. Nevertheless, a rapid timate the PaCO2 and increases in dead space ventilation
increase in heart rate and blood pressure is a strong indication increase this end-tidal to arterial gradient. Capnographs
of an inadequate plane of anesthesia. give a breath-by-breath analysis of changes in ETCO2 .
The partial pressure of the inhalational anesthetic in the 2. Arterial blood gas analysis remains the most accurate
expired gases gives a good indication of the expected depth of method of determining the partial pressures of oxygen and
anesthesia. Expired partial pressures closely reflect brain partial carbon dioxide in the animal’s blood. The availability of
pressures, once equilibration has occurred. At 1 MAC, or less, patient-side analyzers has made this method of analysis
an animal is expected to be inadequately anesthetized, unless more available.
supplementary anesthetics are used. 3. Pulse oximetry makes the estimation of oxygen saturation
available on a continuous basis. The probe is usually placed
on the tongue but alternate sites are the nostril, lip, vulva,
B. Cardiovascular Function and prepuce. If the system is functioning properly, a value
<90% indicates hypoxemia. The method may not always
Cardiovascular monitoring involves, at a minimum, monitor- give reliable readings, especially if peripheral perfusion is
ing heart rate and rhythm and palpation of a peripheral artery poor.
14. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF RUMINANTS 407

D. Anesthetic Agent Concentration is adequate (Nisanevich et al., 2005). Fluid volumes would need
to be increased appropriately if hemorrhage occurs.
As previously stated, the expired partial pressure of an inhala-
tional anesthetic gives a close approximation of its partial
B. Support of Ventilation
pressure in the brain. Thus, anesthetic agent monitoring allows
a more accurate approach to delivering anesthetic agents.
The effects of the anesthetic drugs and the position of
A potential problem in ruminants is interference with anes-
the animal depress ventilation in the anesthetized animal.
thetic measurement by methane. Methane is inhaled in eructated
In recumbency, the pressure of the abdominal viscera on the
gases and later expired. The exhaled methane may interfere with
diaphragm reduces its movement. Hypoventilation is common
anesthetic gas analysis if short-wavelength infrared (IR)-based
during ruminant anesthesia and it is preferred to ventilate all
technology is used. Methane absorbs IR light at a wavelength
anesthetized ruminants.
of 3.3 μm and thus can interfere with anesthetic measurements
For most small ruminants and calves, a 1.5–2 L bellows is
made with the so-called short-wavelength IR. Most modern
adequate. A tidal volume of 10–15 ml/kg is generally sufficient
anesthetic monitors function in the 10–13 μm range and are
and a rate of 8–12 breaths/min is used. Adequacy of ventilation is
not affected by expired methane.
facilitated by the use of a capnograph and ETCO2 values are kept
in the range of 30–40 mmHg. In recovery, ventilator support is
maintained until the animal starts to breath spontaneously.
E. Body Temperature

Monitoring of body temperature is especially important in C. Treatment of Intraoperative Hypotension

animals of low body mass. Anesthetics alter thermoregulation,
and placing animals on cold surfaces, and maintaining a low Intraoperative hypotension occurs in all species, especially
environmental temperature, facilitate heat loss. Hypothermia when inhalational anesthetics are used for maintenance of anes-
adversely affects a variety of physiological processes including thesia. In adult horses, there is a strong correlation between
blood coagulation and wound healing. intraoperative hypotension and the incidence of postopera-
Every effort should be made to prevent heat loss and active tive myopathy and the same is probably true for adult cattle.
heating should be used when possible. A warm air blanket is the Hypotension may also arise secondary to hypovolemia and
most effective method of active heating. Radiant heat sources decreases in vascular resistance (see anterior epidural).
should be used with caution and placed such that the patient Initially, volume deficits should be corrected and the anes-
does not become overheated or burned. thetic plane should be lightened if the animal is deemed to
In recovery, the animal should be dried thoroughly, as wet be excessively deep. If the hypotensive state is secondary
hair or wool will exacerbate heat loss. A hand-held hair dryer to anesthetic drug-induced myocardial depression, it should
works well to dry small ruminants and calves postsurgery. respond promptly to an inotrope. Dobutamine is a cardios-
elective inotrope with a wide dose range (0.5–5 μg/kg/min).
Dobutamine is diluted in normal saline and given to effect.
IX. INTRAOPERATIVE SUPPORT

A. Fluid Administration X. ANALGESIA

General anesthesia affects fluid balance such that the ratio of Analgesic drugs most commonly used in ruminants include
infused fluids retained in the interstitial space increases dramat- opioids, alpha2 agonists, local anesthetics, and nonsteroidal
ically (Connolly et al., 2003). Traditionally, crystalloid fluids anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), administered either alone
have been administered, in large volumes, to surgical patients. or in various combinations. Routes of administration of these
While there are definite advantages of fluid administration in drugs can include IV, IM, epidural, local infiltration, and intraar-
this setting, there are also disadvantages. Potential advantages ticular. Analgesic techniques used in ruminants have been
of fluid administration include an increase in cardiac output and recently reviewed (Valverde and Doherty, in press; Valverde
blood pressure with associated increases in oxygen delivery to and Gunkel, 2005).
tissues. However, excess fluid administration has been shown
to increase morbidity and mortality in certain groups of criti-
cally hypotensive trauma patients of patients by impairing organ A. Alpha2 Agonists
function (Watters et al., 2006).
Based on the data from human patients, it appears that for In addition to the analgesic/sedative effects from systemic
elective abdominal surgeries a crystalloid fluid rate of 4 ml/kg/h administration mentioned in previous sections of this chapter,
408 ALEXANDER VALVERDE AND THOMAS J. DOHERTY

alpha2 agonists can also be administered by the epidural route D. Lidocaine

to provide analgesia (Table 14-4). Epidural administration
results in marked analgesia to anesthesia of the perineum, The uses of lidocaine and other local anesthetics for local
hindlimbs, and abdomen. Systemic absorption also occurs as and regional anesthesia have been described in a previous
the doses used epidurally are similar to IM/IV doses and the section (Table 14-4). In addition, administration of IV lido-
absorption is considerable from the epidural space into the caine has become popular due to the systemic analgesic effects
systemic circulation. Therefore, sedation and cardiorespiratory through its inhibitory actions on primary afferents A-delta and
effects are similar to systemic use (Aminkov and Hubenov, C fibers-evoked responses and spinal dorsal horn neurons, pref-
1995; Mpanduji et al., 2000). Paresis has been induced by erentially in painful conditions of visceral origin (Ness, 2000).
xylazine but not other alpha2 agonists (Aminkov and Hubenov, Studies in other species have demonstrated dose-dependent
1995). reductions in MAC of inhalant anesthetics (Doherty and Frazier,
1998; Valverde et al., 2004). In goats, lidocaine at 2.5 mg/kg
loading dose and 0.05–0.1 mg/kg/min decreased isoflurane
B. Ketamine MAC by 20% (Doherty et al., 2007).

Ketamine is now recognized as an analgesic drug at sub- E. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs

anesthetic and anesthetic doses due to its inhibitory effects
on the NMDA receptor. Subanesthetic doses have not been Phenylbutazone (2–6 mg/kg, PO, IV), flunixin (1–2 mg/kg,
investigated in ruminants. PO, IV), ketoprofen (2–3 mg/kg, PO, IV), and aspirin
Epidural administration of doses of 1–2.5 mg/kg can provide (100 mg/kg, PO) are the most commonly used NSAIDs in rumi-
short-lasting (30 minutes or less) dose-dependent analgesia in nants. Blockade of the cyclo-oxygenase (COX) enzymes by
sheep, goats, and cattle. However, ataxia is common from these NSAIDs results in attenuation of inflammation and nocicep-
doses (Aithal et al., 1996; Guedes et al., 2006; Lee et al., 2003). tion by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins and reducing
Considering its short duration and side effect, this route is not sensitization of nociceptors to noxious and non-noxious stim-
practical. uli. Most of NSAIDs used in ruminants are COX inhibitors and
do not spare the homeostatic effects of this enzyme on gastric
and renal function. Therefore, they should be used cautiously
C. Opioids and doses and frequency of administration should be within
recommended ranges.
Opioids have been shown to be more effective in small rumi- Although frequently used, analgesic effects of NSAIDs have
nants than cattle. In sheep IV butorphanol, buprenorphine, not been thoroughly documented in ruminants. In addition, the
fentanyl, and meperidine have proven effective in pain mod- use of phenylbutazone is prohibited by the FDA in dairy cattle
els against thermal and pressure stimulation (Nolan et al., 1987, 20 months of age or older due to its prolonged half-life and the
1988; Waterman et al., 1991a, 1991b) (Table 14-4). The behav- risk of toxicity from its metabolites in humans (Haskell et al.,
ioral changes from opioids are less common in animals requiring 2003).
pain control; however, their side effects should be considered
when selecting an opioid and the animal should be observed
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 Chapter 15

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Swine

Alison C. Smith and M. Michael Swindle

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
II. Breed, Anatomic, and Physiologic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
III. Anesthetic Delivery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
IV. Inhalational Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
A. Nitrous Oxide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
B. Isoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
C. Sevoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
D. Desflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
V. Injectable Anesthetics and Tranquilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
A. Tranquilizers, Sedatives, and Anticholinergics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
B. Dissociative Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
C. Barbiturates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
D. Opioid Infusions and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
E. Miscellaneous Injectables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
VI. Regional Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
VII. Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
VIII. Intraoperative Monitoring and Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
IX. Cardiac Arrhythmias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
X. Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
XI. Postsurgical Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
XII. Special Anesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
A. Malignant Hyperthermia (MH) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
B. Recognition of MH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
C. Triggering Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
D. Prevention and Management of MH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
E. Treatment and Management of the MH Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
XIII. Cardiopulmonary Bypass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
A. Fundamentals and Description of CPB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
B. Choice of Priming Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
C. Myocardial Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
D. Anticoagulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
E. Arterial Pump Flow Rates (APFR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
F. Measurement and Monitoring During CPB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
G. Central Venous Pressure (CVP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
H. Left Atrial and Pulmonary Wedge Pressure (LA & PWP) Measurement 429

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

413
414 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

I. Termination of CPB or “Weaning off the Pump” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429

J. Anesthetic Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
K. Anesthesia for Normal (MH-Free) Pigs for CPB . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
L. CPB Anesthesia for MH Positive Pigs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
M. Recent Developments in CPB in Swine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
XIV. Summary and Additional Reference Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Appendix Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
A1: Dissociative Anesthetics and Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
A2: Tranquilizers, Hypnotics, and Sedatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
A3: Miscellaneous Anesthetic and Perioperative Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
A4: NSAID and Opioid Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
A5: Protocol for Routine Surgery without Physiologic Measurements . . . . . . . . . 435
A6: Protocol for Nonsurvival Teaching Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
A7: Opioid Infusion Protocol for Cardiopulmonary Bypass with Cardiac
Compromise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
A. Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436

I. INTRODUCTION to be: Yucatan miniature pig—15 kg; Yucatan micropig—12 kg;

Hanford miniature pig—19 kg; and a Yorkshire domestic pig—
36 kg. Both miniature and domestic pigs achieve sexual maturity
This chapter is an updated version of the book chapter on
between 4 and 6 months of age. If the same pigs are compared
porcine anesthesia that was written for the first edition of this
at 6 months of age, the comparative body weights would be
textbook. In the first edition, the submission on cardiopul-
expected to be even more diverse with a weight range of over
monary bypass (CPB) and malignant hyperthermia (MH) was
70 kg. Consequently, matching miniature and domestic stocks
written by William J. Ehler, DVM. He is not a coauthor on
of pigs by body weight to compare pharmacologic actions could
this version of the chapter; however, his original submission is
be misleading because of the potential age differences. When
retained mostly intact with updates from the literature.
considering the hemodynamic effects of anesthetics on studies
Since the publication of the first edition of the textbook, a
using different stocks, it is not appropriate to compare the pigs
significant amount of information concerning the use of swine
by body weight without indexing to body surface area (Smith
in biomedical research has been published. This includes sev-
et al., 1990; Swindle, 2007).
eral textbooks on swine in research (Bollen et al., 2000; Pond
Within the same stock, differences in response to anesthetics
and Mersmann, 2001; Swindle, 1998, 2007; Tumbleson and
can be age related (Buckley et al., 1979; Crane et al., 1975;
Schook, 1996) and reference books on laboratory animal anes-
Gootman et al., 1986). In a study comparing the differences
thesia and analgesia which include swine (Flecknell, 1996;
in various parameters among three stocks of miniature pigs,
Hawk et al., 2005).
all of which were 4 months of age, significant differences were
found between the heart weight:body weight ratio, peak systolic
pressure, right ventricular peak pressure, mean arterial pressure,
II. BREED, ANATOMIC, AND PHYSIOLOGIC right atrial pressure, mean pulmonary artery pressure (PAP), and
CHARACTERISTICS pulmonary vascular resistance when using equivalent anesthetic
conditions (Smith et al., 1990).
When using swine in research, the investigator should take In a European study, comparing Gottingen and Yucatan
into consideration that differences exist between domestic (com- miniature pigs with farm pigs in an acute cardiovascular pro-
mercial farm breeds) and miniature swine, as well as between tocol, only minor differences between stocks were found when
breeds within both categories, even though all are classified as they were weight matched at 20–25 kg. The farm pigs tended
Sus scrofa domestica. Within the same breed and type of pig, to develop dysrhythmias and have a shorter stabilization period
differences related to age, weight, and sex may become appar- than either of the miniature breeds. TheYucatan had higher abso-
ent. Genetically, there may be differences between sources of the lute hemodynamic values. For their studies, these differences
same breed and, many times, domestic swine are crossbreeds. were considered insignificant (Benharkate et al., 1993).
All these factors must be taken into consideration when consid- Consequently, comparisons of the response to various anes-
ering the physiologic effects of an anesthetic agent during an thetic agents in swine should be made with caution when the
experiment (Swindle, 2007). experimental animals are not of the same stock, age, and weight
Miniature breeds are more mature than domestic swine at the (Buckley et al., 1979; Smith et al., 1990; Swindle, 2007).
same body weight. For example, at 12 weeks of age the compar- Swine are prone to vasospasm and many of the peripheral
ative body weights of various types of pigs would be expected vessels are not readily visualized, which may make vascular
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 415

access difficult for inexperienced personnel. Swine are also

highly susceptible to ventricular arrhythmias, have fragile pul-
monary tissue which may be damaged by over-inflation with
mechanical respirators, and have a left hemizygous vein which
drains the intercostal vessels into the coronary sinus. All these
factors should be considered when selecting anesthetic agents
and their method of delivery to swine (Bobbie and Swindle,
1986; Smith et al., 1989; Swindle, 2007; Swindle et al., 1986,
1988).

III. ANESTHETIC DELIVERY

The most reliable sites for vascular access and injections of

anesthetics in laboratory swine have been previously reviewed
and illustrated (Bobbie and Swindle, 1986; Swindle, 2007;
Swindle, 1983). Intramuscular (IM) injections may be given in
the major muscles of the thigh and in the neck. The semimem-
branous and semitendinosus muscles of the caudal thigh as well
as the gluteal muscles of the cranial thigh are both acceptable
sites for giving large-volume IM injections. The muscle mass Fig. 15-1 Pig in a humane restraint sling being induced under anesthesia
with a face mask.
of the dorsolateral neck region is a good site for small-volume
injections.
Subcutaneous (SC) injections may be given in the neck or cannulated by inserting a needle into the thoracic inlet at the
in the flank. The pig is a fixed-skin animal, like humans, and midpoint of an imaginary line between the point of the scapulo-
does not have a SC region as large or accessible as other animal humeral joint and the manubrium sterni with the needle angled
species. By experience we have found that the anesthetic and toward the midline.
analgesic agents that are labeled for IM injection can be given Restraint of the pig for injections or for delivery of inhalant
SC. SC injections in the neck are less painful than IM injections anesthetics via face mask may be very stressful. A humane
with the same agents. The method of delivering a SC or IM restraint sling (Fig. 15-1) has been described (Panepinto et al.,
injection with a butterfly catheter is described below. 1983) and variations of the method have been developed by
The peripheral blood vessels are not easily visualized in most individual laboratories (Houpt, 1986; Swindle, 2007). This
pigs. The ear veins are the most common site for intravenous restraint method is comfortable for the pig and most will readily
(IV) injections. The veins are located on the lateral and medial accept suspended restraint after a few training sessions. Manual
dorsal ear margins and the artery is centrally located. restraint by suspending the pig by the rear legs, use of snout
The cephalic vein is located on the cranial aspect of the foreleg snares, or tying to a V-trough is stressful and should be discour-
between the carpus and the elbow joint, is readily accessible, and aged. Small pigs may be manually restrained and larger pigs
can be palpated if a tourniquet is placed around the elbow joint. may be herded into the corner of a pen using a panel.
If blood flow through the vessel is occluded by the thumb and Small needle sizes (20–22 g) can be used for most animals
if the skin is rotated laterally, as is commonly done in the dog, for IV, IM, or SC injections. Large-gauge needles (14–16 g)
the vessel will collapse and become inaccessible.The cephalic used for venipuncture in domestic farm breeds are unnecessary
vein also crosses the medial aspect of the shoulder and can be and contraindicated in animals <60 kg. Teflon-coated catheters
distended in dorsal recumbency by putting digital pressure on may lose their outer covering when being passed through the
the thoracic inlet. skin unless the skin is incised. As an alternative, polyethylene
In the rear leg the lateral and median saphenous veins are gen- intravascular catheters or butterfly catheters may be used. IM or
erally unreliable for anesthetic delivery because of their small SC injections may be given by positioning a butterfly catheter
size. The femoral vessels may be approached percutaneously into the injection site with a quick open-handed slap technique
but are more frequently used for vessel cannulation following while holding the wings of the butterfly between two fingers.
surgical exposure. The catheter is connected to a length of extension tubing, which,
The external jugular veins are deep in the pig and lie in the in turn, is attached to a syringe. The neck of the pig is lightly
same plane as the internal jugular veins and carotid arteries. slapped with the hand several times prior to inserting the nee-
These vessels are best used for surgical cannulation or blood dle. While simultaneously administering a slap, the needle is
sampling and would probably only be used in an emergency inserted. The pig will generally not notice the catheter and the
situation for anesthetic delivery. The cranial vena cava may be injection can be administered without manual restraint.
416 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

Some of the chemical restraint methods discussed in this

chapter may be necessary to reduce stress in swine prior
to handling, venipuncture, or other invasive techniques such
as catheterization. If combination injections are being used,
administration of the tranquilizer/sedative drug separately may
help reduce the stress. For example, if you are using ketamine
and acepromazine, administration of the acepromazine 5–10
minutes prior to ketamine may reduce the stress associated with
the more irritating ketamine injection.
A simple method of endotracheal intubation has been
described for swine under 50 kg (Swindle, 2007). Swine are
placed in dorsal recumbency and the epiglottis is visualized
using a straight laryngoscope blade (Figs. 15-2, 15-3, 15-4,
15-5, and 15-6). A topical anesthetic, i.e., lidocaine, is sprayed
on the larynx as prophylaxis against laryngospasm. The tip of the
epiglottis is depressed with the tip of the laryngoscope against Fig. 15-4 View of the oral cavity after the epiglottis (arrow) has been
the base of the tongue, and firm pressure with the blade of the displaced from the hard pallate.
laryngoscope presses the maxilla against the surface of the table.

Fig. 15-5 View of the epiglottis (white arrow) after the endotracheal tube
Fig. 15-2 Equipment and supplies for intubation of a pig. (black arrow) has been passed into the larynx.

Fig. 15-3 Position of the pig for endotracheal intubation in dorsal Fig. 15-6 The endotracheal tube has had the cuff inflated, been taped to the
recumbency. maxilla and connected to the gas anesthesia machine.
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 417

With the laryngoscope blade at a 45◦ angle, the larynx can now administered anesthetic agent. In swine, the combination of
be visualized as it is pressed against the ventral surface of the nitrous oxide and halothane or isoflurane causes less cardio-
neck and the vocal cords can be visualized by looking down the vascular depression than equipotent levels of either agent used
path of the blade. The tip of the endotracheal tube is passed into alone (Lundeen et al., 1983; Manohar and Parks, 1984a–c).
the larynx while still being visualized. Once the tube is at the The primary advantage of using nitrous oxide is derived from
larynx further passage may be obstructed by the laryngeal diver- the ability to reduce the requirement of other volatile anesthet-
ticulum, which can be easily traumatized by the tube. Passage ics resulting in less cardiovascular depression than when greater
may be facilitated by gently rotating the tube 90◦ while simul- concentrations of these agents are used alone with oxygen. How-
taneously applying forward pressure. This forward corkscrew ever, because of its lower potency in swine, the reduction in the
motion should facilitate passage without undue force. requirement of other volatile agents is not as great as in man.
When using this method, it is contraindicated to have an assis- Use of nitrous oxide combined with oxygen in a 1/2:2/3 ratio of
tant hold the jaw open because this causes the laryngeal–tracheal nitrous oxide to oxygen will significantly reduce the amount of
passage to bend at an angle that makes intubation difficult. Inex- the inhalant anesthetic required, which may be appropriate for
perienced anesthetists may find stylets to be helpful, but they some protocols (Swindle, 2007).
are generally unnecessary. A standard laryngoscope blade with
a length of less than 195 mm is usually indicated. An endo-
tracheal tube of 5–8 mm internal diameter and 22–30 cm long B. Isoflurane
can be used for swine under 50 kg. If more than minor force is
required to pass the tube, then either the tube is too large or else Isoflurane MAC values for young swine of the age com-
the angle of the laryngoscope blade is less than 45◦ . monly used in research range from 1.45% (Lundeen et al., 1983)
The more conventional method of placing pigs in sternal to 2.04% (Eger et al., 1988) with an average MAC value of
recumbency and using specialized laryngoscopes and assistants 1.58% (Greene et al., 2004). Variations in reported values can
to hold the mouth open is generally necessary in swine over be attributed to differences in experimental methodologies, age
50 kg of body weight. In this case, modification of the laryngo- and breeds of swine, and body temperature. The reported MAC
scopes for extra length may be necessary. Endotracheal tubes, value for neonatal piglets ranging in age from 2 days to 17 days
9–14 mm internal diameter, are recommended for swine over is 1.2% (Schieber et al., 1986).
50 kg. Isoflurane has a wide margin of cardiovascular safety
(Weiskopf et al., 1989a, 1989b). Isoflurane produces a dose-
dependent depression of the cardiovascular system character-
IV. INHALATIONAL ANESTHESIA ized by decreases in aortic pressure, cardiac output, and stroke
volume. However, when compared to older agents the depres-
sant effects of isoflurane are less and occur at higher anesthetic
The older inhalational anesthetic agents such as halothane,
concentrations (Gilbert et al., 1989). Use of nitrous oxide as
methoxyflurane, and enflurane should be discontinued as anes-
an adjunct to isoflurane anesthesia maintains heart rate, cardiac
thetics in research protocols. They are not as effective as the
output, and rate-pressure product, an indicator of myocardial
newer agents and also have significant human health issues asso-
oxygen uptake, near values for conscious animals (Lundeen
ciated with their use. The two primary agents used nowadays are
et al., 1983). Myocardial blood flow is decreased in a dose-
isoflurane and sevoflurane with a lesser usage of desflurane.
related manner, especially in the endocardium. However, the
ratio of endocardial to epicardial perfusion remains near 1
A. Nitrous Oxide (Manohar and Parks, 1984).
The hemodynamic changes produced by isoflurane are
Use of nitrous oxide as a sole anesthetic agent in swine, as in more profound in newborn piglets (2–17 days) than in more
other animal species, is contraindicated because its low potency mature animals. Like human infants, neonatal piglets develop
results in the inability to maintain a surgical plane of anes- moderate-to-severe bradycardia and marked hypotension with
thesia. Issues concerning human exposure, diffusion hypoxia preservation of cardiac output. The neonatal response has been
during recovery, and diffusion into gas-filled spaces need to be attributed to the imbalance in the state of development of the
considered when using this agent. autonomic nervous system characterized by a well-developed
The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) for nitrous parasympathetic nervous system and an immature sympathetic
oxide in swine is 195 volume % (Tranquilli et al., 1985), similar nervous system. While the margin of safety for isoflurane in
to nitrous oxide MAC in other species (Steffey and Eger, 1985). neonatal swine is relatively low, it is greater than that for equipo-
Although Eisele et al. (1985) reported a lower value of 162 tent concentrations of halothane because it better preserves
volume % for nitrous oxide MAC, both studies documented a cardiac output (Schieber et al., 1986).
quantitative difference between man and swine in the ability of The scientific literature is conflicting regarding the effects of
nitrous oxide to decrease the requirement for a concomitantly isoflurane on the coronary circulation (Priebe, 1989). Much
418 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

of the confusion may be due to differences in methodology effects and visceral organ perfusion characteristics of sevoflu-
as well as species differences in coronary anatomy and patho- rane are analogous to those of isoflurane, with the exception
physiology (Cheng et al., 1992). While there is evidence that of decreased cerebral blood flow at 1–1.5 MAC (Manohar and
isoflurane causes direct coronary vasodilation (Gilbert et al., Parks, 1984). The cerebral blood flow response is the opposite
1988), there is no convincing evidence that isoflurane, in of that which occurs with isoflurane, nitrous oxide, and most
swine with a normal coronary circulation, impairs myocardial other inhalant agents, which may give it an advantage in neu-
oxygenation (Priebe, 1989). The contribution of isoflurane to roanesthesia (Holmström et al., 2004). There are dose-related
myocardial ischemia by the mechanism of coronary steal in depressions of cardiac output, stroke volume, mean aortic pres-
human patients with coronary artery disease will probably sure, and left ventricular work without an increase in heart rate
continue to be debated. Experimental and clinical evidence (Manohar and Parks, 1984). It has no appreciable effects upon
suggests that isoflurane is potentially dangerous to a subset of the pressure relationships associated with hypoxic or hyperoxic
patients with coronary artery disease and “steal-prone” coro- pulmonary vasoconstriction (Kerbaul et al., 2000). It has a MAC
nary anatomy (Priebe, 1989). Results of recent studies in a swine value of approximately 2.66%, which results in rapid induc-
model of collateral-dependent myocardium indicate that nei- tion and recovery when using it as a sole agent in isocapnic
ther isoflurane nor halothane at clinically useful concentrations pigs (Manohar and Parks, 1984; Martin-Cancho et al., 2003;
produced myocardial ischemia by either intercoronary or trans- Martin-Cancho et al., 2004; Natalini, 2001).
mural redistribution of regional myocardial blood flow (Cheng Sevoflurane concentration required for anesthesia is reduced
et al., 1992). with administration of nitrous oxide (50–70%) or xenon (15–
Compared to halothane, significantly greater infusion rates 60%) in a linear fashion (Hecker et al., 2003; Manohar and
of epinephrine are required to induce cardiac dysrhythmias in Parks, 1984). Sevoflurane is metablolized at approximately 3%
isoflurane-anesthetized swine (Weiskopf et al., 1989). Unlike as compared to isoflurane and desflurane, which are metabolized
enflurane, isoflurane does not produce seizure activity (Rampil <1% (Natalini, 2001).
et al., 1988). Sevoflurane should be considered as the primary alter-
Isoflurane, compared to halothane, administered in 50% native to isoflurane especially in cases involving depressed
nitrous oxide and oxygen for swine undergoing liver transplan- hemodynamics or neurological procedures.
tation was associated with higher intraoperative blood pressures,
shorter anesthetic recovery times, and better long-range survival
(Eisele et al., 1986). In miniature swine, hepatic metabolism D. Desflurane
occurred at low alveolar concentrations of halothane but not
with isoflurane (Halsey et al., 1971). In swine undergoing Experimental studies with chronically instrumented swine
laparotomy, the administration of either isoflurane or fentanyl in have been utilized to obtain data regarding the anesthetic
concentrations that decreased mean arterial pressure by ≤30% effects of desflurane. The effects of desflurane in swine appear
provided adequate hepatic oxygen supply.Halothane, at con- to be similar to those in humans (Weiskopf et al., 1992).
centrations that produced a similar degree of hypotension, or Desflurane is pungent which makes mask induction more
isoflurane concentrations producing decreases in blood pres- difficult.
sure exceeding 30% were associated with inadequate hepatic The MAC for desflurane in swine, determined by using
oxygen supply (Gelman et al., 1987). the tail-clamp technique, was 8.28%. A more consistent and
Isoflurane does not cause hepatic injury. Determinations of higher MAC value of 10.00% was obtained by clamping the
plasma alanine aminotransferase (ALT), an indicator of hep- dewclaw. The difference in MAC values was attributed to the
atocellular necrosis, were not increased over baseline values difference in the type of stimulus applied and the use of the tail-
after prolonged isoflurane anesthesia in swine (Holmes et al., clamp technique underestimated the anesthetic requirement of
1990). Although isoflurane administration results in a three-fold pigs because it was not a supramaximal stimulus (Eger et al.,
increase in concentrations of plasma fluoride ions, the degree 1988). The same authors later determined the MAC value for
of biotransformation is minimal and not associated with renal desflurane in humans to be 7%, which correlated with the obser-
toxicity (Koblin et al., 1989). vation that the MAC values for other anesthetic agents in swine
Given the many advantageous properties of isoflurane, it are higher than those in humans (Weiskopf et al., 1992). The car-
should be considered as the inhalation agent of choice for swine diovascular effects of desflurane in swine are similar to those
at this time. of isoflurane, producing vasodilation, hypotension, and dose-
dependent myocardial depression. The cardiovascular effects of
desflurane were studied at 0.8, 1.2, and 1.6 MAC and com-
C. Sevoflurane pared with the data obtained while the animals were conscious
and with equipotent concentrations of isoflurane. Desflurane
Sevoflurane is similar in characteristics to isoflurane; how- produced decreases in mean arterial blood pressure and stroke
ever, it may be safer for high-risk patients. The hemodynamic volume in a dose-related manner despite increases in right-
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 419

and left-heart filling pressures and a dose-dependent decrease V. INJECTABLE ANESTHETICS AND
in systemic vascular resistance (SVR). Heart rate increased TRANQUILIZERS
above the conscious state at 0.8 MAC, while cardiac output was
unchanged. At higher concentrations the heart rate decreased but
A. Tranquilizers, Sedatives, and Anticholinergics
remained greater than that of conscious animals. However, con-
centrations above 0.8 MAC caused a dose-dependent decrease
The phenothiazine derivative tranquilizers are acceptable for
in cardiac output despite increased right- and left-heart preload.
sedation either as a sole agent or combined with anesthetics.
Dose-dependent decreases in oxygen consumption and left ven-
Acepromazine (0.11–1.1 mg/kg IM, IV, SC) (Benson and Thur-
tricular minute work, calculated as the product of systolic blood
mon, 1979; Gross, 2001; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle,
pressure, cardiac output and a rate constant, were also observed
2007; Swindle and Bobbie, 1983) is the most commonly used
(Armbruster et al., 1997; Karzai et al., 1997; Weiskopf et al.,
agent in this class, although dosages have been reported for pro-
1988).
mazine (0.44–2.0 mg/kg IM, IV, SC) (Benson and Thurmon,
The margin of safety for desflurane, defined as the ratio
1979; Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986;
of fatal anesthetic concentration to MAC, is between that of
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983) and chlorpromazine (0.5–4 mg/kg
isoflurane and other halogenated anesthetics. High concentra-
IM, IV, SC) (Benson and Thurmon, 1979; Bolin and Runnels,
tions of desflurane, similar to isoflurane, result in a progressive
1992; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle and Bobbie, 1983).
decrease in mean aortic pressure and cardiac output without
This class of tranquilizers produces an alpha-adrenergic block-
affecting heart rate. However, neither parameter was a useful
ade in higher doses, which may be a contraindication for their
indicator of impending cardiovascular collapse. The most use-
use in some cardiovascular studies.
ful indices of imminent cardiovascular collapse were decreases
Benzodiazepine tranquilizers used in swine include diazepam
in mixed venous PO2 , mixed venous oxyhemoglobin saturation,
and midazolam. Diazepam (0.5–10 mg/kg SC, IM or 0.44–
and the ratio of oxygen transport to oxygen consumption, which
2 mg/kg IV) is usually combined with other agents (Benson
occurred within 0.5 MAC of the fatal anesthetic concentration
and Thurmon, 1979; Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Schranz et al.,
(Weiskopf et al., 1989).
1988; Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986). It has also been given as
Desflurane anesthesia does not produce adverse cardio-
a continuous IV infusion (1 mg/kg/h) (Riou et al., 1988). The
vascular effects combined with the commonly used anes-
benzodiazepines provide good hypnosis and sedation in swine;
thetic adjuncts atropine, succinylcholine, atracurium, fentanyl,
however, they are associated with hypothemia with prolonged
thiopental, naloxone, and nitrous oxide (Weiskopf et al.,
use (Danneberg et al., 1986). This hypothemia can be profound
1990). Desflurane does not lower the myocardial threshold for
and life-threatening especially if combined with other anesthetic
epinephrine-induced dysrhythmias (Weiskopf et al., 1989).
agents. A specific benzodiazepine reversal agent, flumazenil,
Prolonged anesthesia with desflurane does not produce hep-
has been developed but its use has not been described in swine
atic injury. Plasma ALT levels were determined before anesthe-
(Branson and Gross, 2001).
sia, at the end of anesthesia, and 3–8 days after exposure to either
Midazolam (100–500 μg/kg IM or IV) is a water-soluble ben-
desflurane or isoflurane. ALT activity was never increased above
zodiazepine which has been described as a sole agent providing
baseline levels at any time nor were there differences between
deep sedation for 20 minutes with minimal depression of the
the hepatic effects of isoflurane and desflurane (Holmes et al.,
cardiovascular and respiratory systems (Goodrich et al., 2001;
1990).
Smith et al., 1991). Higher dosages of midazolam (1 mg/kg
Desflurane undergoes little to no metabolism. Plasma fluo-
IV) have been used in anesthetized swine (Ochs et al., 1987).
ride concentration is used as an index of desflurane metabolism.
Continuous IV infusions have been administered at a rate of
At the end of a total dose of 5.4 MAC hours of desflurane anes-
0.6–1.5 mg/kg/h (Swindle, 2007). Other benzodiazepines have
thesia, plasma fluoride concentration did not change. A 17%
been described for experimental use in swine and include bro-
increase in plasma fluoride concentration occurred 4 hours after
tizolam (1–10 mg/kg PO) (Danneberg et al., 1986), lorazepam
anesthesia, but this level was markedly below that associated
(0.1 mg/kg IV or intraosseous) (Pender et al., 1991), climazo-
with subclinical renal toxicity (Koblin et al., 1989).
lam (Becker, 1986), and flurazepam (2 mg/kg IV or PO) (Ochs
Desflurane has been identified as a trigger for MH in those
et al., 1987).
breeds that are susceptible (Wedel et al., 1991). It has also been
Butyrophenone tranquilizers used in swine include droperi-
demonstrated to cause higher cerebral blood flow and intracra-
dol, fluanisone, and azaperone. Droperidol and fluanisone are
nial pressure than isoflurane or sevoflurane (Holmström et al.,
not routinely used as sole agents in swine and will be discussed
2004).
with combination drugs. Azaperone was introduced as an agent
Given its similarity in anesthetic effects and the substantially
to prevent fighting in swine but has been used as a preanesthetic
greater cost of desflurane compared to that of isoflurane, its
(2–4 mg/kg IM) or it may be used as an immobilizing agent
choice over isoflurane, currently, cannot be justified. Desflurane
in a higher dosage (5.3–8 mg/kg IM) with minimal depression
also requires an electrically heated, pressurized vaporizer for
of cardiovascular function (Gross, 2001; Portier and Slusser,
delivery.
420 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

1985; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle, 2007; Thurmon Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Short, 1987; Swindle and Bobbie,
and Tranquilli, 1986). 1983; Tranquilli et al., 1982; Worek et al., 1988).
The alpha-2-adrenergic agonist agents xylazine (2 mg/kg IM) Ketamine has been combined with a wide variety of other
(Benson and Thurmon, 1979; Gross, 2001; Riebold and Thur- agents either as a preanesthetic or to produce a surgical plane
mon, 1986; Swindle, 1991a, 1991b, 2007; Thurmon and of anesthesia for minor procedures.
Tranquilli, 1986) and medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg IV) have been Ketamine (33 mg/kg IM) combined with acepromazine
described in swine, usually in combination with other agents (1.1 mg/kg IM) provides chemical immobilization with muscle
(Vainio et al., 1992). None of these agents has been described relaxation that lasts approximately 30 minutes and is useful as a
as providing sedation in swine without combination with other preanesthetic but the combination is slightly cardio-depressant
agents. Xylazine has only transient analgesic activity in swine (Benson and Thurmon, 1979; Riebold et al., 1995; Swindle
and produces hypotension and 1–3◦ heart block and is not sat- and Bobbie, 1983). Ketamine (15 mg/kg IM) combined with
isfactory as a sole agent (Benson and Thurmon, 1979; Riebold diazepam (2 mg/kg IM) or azaperone (2 mg/kg IM) produces a
and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle, 1991, 2007; Thurmon and Tran- state similar to that in the case of the ketamine–acepromazine
quilli, 1986). Medetomidine can be reversed by atipamezole combination; however, because of the slow onset of action of
(Flecknell, 1997). Alpha-2 agonists are not effective sedatives the drugs, diazepam and azaperone are usually administered
or analgesics when used alone in swine. 15–20 minutes prior to the ketamine (Riebold and Thurmon,
Reversal agents have not been routinely used in swine; 1986). Ketamine (33 mg/kg IM) and midazolam (500 μg/kg
however, doses are reported for yohimbine (1 mg/kg IV) (Arm- IM) have been used in our laboratory to provide up to 45
stead et al., 1988) and atipamezole, 0.24–1 mg/kg, any route minutes of immobilization with a single injection; however,
(Flecknell, 1996). the combination leads to a profound hypothermia and requires
Anticholinergics are useful in swine to dry secretions of the 1–4 hours to recover a righting reflex. Ketamine (10 mg/kg IV)
oral cavity and respiratory tract and to provide a vagolytic effect and medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg IV) provide 30 minutes of deep
during endotracheal intubation or tracheal suctioning. Atropine sedation; however, it is accompanied by profound but reversible
(0.05 mg/kg IM or 0.02 mg/kg IV) or glycopyrrolate (0.004– hemodynamic depression (Vainio et al., 1992).
0.01 mg/kg IM) may be used to produce these effects (Benson Ketamine (20 mg/kg IM) combined with xylazine (2 mg/kg
and Thurmon, 1979; Riebold et al., 1995; Swindle and Bobbie, IM) has been described as a combination for immobilization and
1983). Anticholinergics are indicated to prevent bradycardia minor surgery. The analgesic effects of the xylazine are transient
caused by vagal stimulation during intubation, secondary to and last only approximately 5 minutes in swine (Swindle, 2007).
induction, or preanesthetic agents such as opioids. With expe- However, it is possible to intubate swine using this combination
rience, the routine use of these agents is not necessary unless and the cardiodepression associated with xylazine can be over-
the heart rate falls below 60 beats per minute. Sinus tachycardia come with anticholinergics (Cantor et al., 1981; Kyle et al.,
can result from indiscriminate use. 1979; Trim and Gilroy, 1985). Ketamine (2 mg/kg), xylazine
(2 mg/kg), and oxymorphone (0.075 mg/kg) may be adminis-
tered IV or the dose may be doubled for IM administration to
B. Dissociative Agents provide short-term chemical restraint suitable for minor surgery
(Breese and Dodman, 1984). Ketamine (20 mg/kg IM) and cli-
Dissociative anesthetic agents, specifically ketamine, are the mazolam (0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM) provide immobilization similar to
most commonly used injectable anesthetic agents in swine. that induced by the ketamine–diazepam combination (Becker,
These agents provide rapid and safe immobilization with min- 1986). A combination for continuous IV infusion, which
imal depression of the cardiovascular system. However, they provides minimal cardiopulmonary depression in swine, has
provide poor muscle relaxation and little visceral analgesia; been developed (Thurmon et al., 1986). Ketamine (1 mg/ml),
consequently, they are usually combined with other agents (Ben- xylazine (1 mg/ml), and glycerol guaiacolate (5%) mixed in 5%
son and Thurmon, 1979; Boschert et al., 1996; Loscher et al., dextrose solution is administered as a 1 ml/kg IV bolus followed
1990; Riebold et al., 1995; Swindle, 2007; Swindle and Bob- by a continuous infusion of 1 ml/kg/h. Meperidine (2.2 mg/kg
bie, 1983). Ketamine has been combined with a wide variety of IM) and azaperone (2.2 mg/kg IM) followed in 20 minutes by
other agents either as a preanesthetic or to produce a surgical ketamine (22 mg/kg IM) and morphine (2.2 mg/kg IM) provides
plane of anesthesia for minor procedures. up to 1 hour of immobilization without splenic enlargement
Ketamine (11–33 mg/kg IM) as a sole agent provides approxi- (Hoyt et al., 1986).
mately 30 minutes of immobilization characterized by catatonia. A tiletamine–zolazepam combination (2–8.8 mg/kg IM) is
This muscle rigidity makes intubation difficult, at best, in swine commercially available and provides 20 minutes of immobi-
which are anesthetized with ketamine alone. As a sole agent it lization suitable for minor surgery. However, the combination
is unsatisfactory for performing major surgery even if adminis- does produce hypothermia and cardiodepression and would
tered as an IV infusion of 3–10 mg/kg/h because of inadequate not be recommended for use in cardiopulmonary or renal
analgesia and muscle relaxation (Benson and Thurmon, 1979; compromised animals (Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Swindle,
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 421

1991, 2007). This agent has been combined with xylazine The ultrashort-acting thiobarbiturates may be utilized either
(2.2 mg/kg IM) to produce a surgical plane of anesthesia; how- alone or following preanesthesia with ketamine, ketamine
ever, the combination can produce profound cardiopulmonary combinations, or other chemical restraint agents in order to
depression and prolonged recovery (Swindle, 1991). The car- induce a surgical plane of anesthesia or abolish the swallowing
diodepressive effects are exacerbated when it is combined with reflex in order to facilitate endotracheal intubation. Thiopen-
alpha-2-aderenergic agonists and they last longer than the period tal (6.6–25 mg/kg IV) is commonly used for these procedures
of anesthesia (Swindle, 2007). (Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swin-
In a comparison of Telazol® (4.4 mg/kg IM), ketamine dle, 1991, 2007; Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986). Thiopental
(2.2 mg/kg IM), Telazol (4.4 mg/kg IM)–ketamine (2.2 mg/kg (3–6 mg/kg/h) can be used as a continuous IV infusion to pro-
IM)–xylazine (2.2 mg/kg IM), and Telazol (4.4 mg/kg IM)– vide prolonged barbiturate anesthesia (Swindle, 1991, 2007;
xylazine (2.2 mg/kg IM), all four induced chemical restraint (Ko Swindle et al., 1988; Worek et al., 1988). Because the thiobar-
et al., 1993). However, only the combinations with xylazine biturates are rapidly eliminated by the kidney, they have a short
were suitable for intubation and short-term anesthesia. There recovery time.
was no significant difference in the effects of Telazol–xylazine Pentobarbital (20–40 mg/kg IV) is an intermediate-acting
when ketamine was added. Additional studies were per- barbiturate that can be used for prolonged general anesthesia.
formed using Telazol (4.4 mg/kg IM)–ketamine (2.2 mg/kg Pentobarbital is more cardiodepressant than the thiobarbitu-
IM)–butorphanol (0.22 mg/kg IM) and Telazol (4.4 mg/kg IM)– rates and may require prolonged recovery time postoperatively
ketamine (2.2 mg/kg IM)–azaperone (0.88 mg/kg IM) without due to its prolonged metabolism by the liver (Bolin and Run-
any substantial improvement in quality of anesthesia (Ko et al., nels, 1992; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle, 1991, 2007;
1997). However, no hemodynamic data were collected dur- Swindle et al., 1988; Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986). Pen-
ing this study and the combinations are not recommended for tobarbital can be administered as a continuous IV infusion
cardiovascular studies until hemodynamic studies have been (5–15 mg/kg/h), which may be particularly useful for nonsur-
conducted to determine their exact effects (Ko et al., 1993, vival studies (Buckley et al., 1979; Swindle, 2007; Worek et al.,
1997). Improvement in outcomes of complex cardiovascular 1988).
protocols has been demonstrated by elimination of these agents
and combinations for anesthesia (Swindle, 2007).
Most of the IM combinations provide only 20–30 minutes
of anesthesia suitable for minor procedures or for induc- D. Opioid Infusions and Combinations
tion prior to maintenance with an inhalant anesthetic. Of
all of the combinations discussed, only ketamine–xylazine, Continuous IV infusions of opioids have been used with other
ketamine–midazolam, ketamine–xylazine–glycerol guaiaco- anesthetics to enhance analgesia and produce balanced anesthe-
late, and tiletamine–zolazepam–xylazine abolish the swallow- sia, and, in higher doses, to produce anesthesia for experimental
ing reflex adequately to make endotracheal intubation possible cardiac surgery. The main advantages of using high-dose opioid
without the use of additional anesthetic agents. anesthetic techniques are that they produce minimal depres-
sion of cardiac function and tprovide protection against cardiac
arrhythmias (Ehler et al., 1985; Lunn et al., 1979; Merin et al.,
C. Barbiturates 1982; Schumann et al., 1994; Swindle et al., 1986).
Fentanyl and sufentanil are the most commonly used agents
Barbiturates can be used for general anesthesia and the phar- for opioid infusion techniques in swine. The agents may be used
macologic effects in swine are similar to those in other species. alone for induction or following light sedation to facilitate IV
The pig is prone to apnea secondary to their administration access. Fentanyl is given as an IV bolus (50 μg/kg) after initi-
and the use of dilute solutions (1–2.5%) for IV bolus injec- ating a continuous IV infusion of 30–100 μg/kg/h (Ehler et al.,
tions is recommended.The severe cardiopulmonary depression 1985; Gelman et al., 1987; Swindle et al., 1986). Sufentanil is
associated with prolonged administration of these agents may more potent and is started as an IV infusion at 15–30 μg/kg/h
be alleviated by the use of continuous IV infusions rather than and then an IV bolus of 7 μg/kg is administered (Schumann
repeated IV boluses. Dosages are affected by many factors et al., 1994; Swindle et al., 1993). Starting the IV infusion prior
including age and the use of other chemical restraint agents. to the bolus prevents muscle rigidity, which is frequently associ-
As in other species, the dosages are guidelines and barbiturates ated with these drugs. Some animals may require supplemental
should be administered to effect with careful monitoring of vital anesthesia with other agents such as isoflurane and nitrous
signs (Riebold and Thurmon, 1986; Swindle, 1991; Thurmon oxide. For this reason, paralytic agents should not be used until
and Tranquilli, 1986). A continuous infusion of ketamine (9– there is assurance that the animal is adequately anesthetized.
19 mg/kg/h IV) and pentobarbital (6.5–18 mg/kg/h IV) has been Opioid infusion techniques produce a profound bradycardia dur-
demonstrated to be useful for long-term anesthesia (Goldmann ing the IV bolus phase, which can be controlled by anticholiner-
et al., 1999; Hanneman et al., 2004). gics. The heart rate stabilizes during the maintenance infusion.
422 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

Monitoring heart rate and blood pressure are sensitive indicators short-term acute cardiovascular studies, droperidol 2 mg/kg IM
of an adequate level of analgesia with these techniques. followed by flumitrazepam 50 μg/kg IV for induction followed
Fentanyl 0.005 mg/kg IV combined with thiopental 12.5 mg/kg by alpha-chloralose 60 mg/kg IV with a maintenance infusion
IV for induction followed by fentanyl 0.0025 mg/kg q20–30 of 20 mg/kg/h was deemed satisfactory. Hemodynamics were
minutes, thiopental 1 mg/kg q30 minutes IM, and midazolam stable for 2–3 hours (Benharkate et al., 1993).
0.25 mg/kg has also been used. However, this combination Etomidate (4–8 mg/kg IV) has been used as a sedative in
would probably provide more stable anesthesia if given as a con- swine with minimal analgesia and muscle relaxation. When
tinuous infusion rather than repeated boluses (Oldhafer et al., combined with azaperone (2 mg/kg IM) sedation and analge-
1993). sia suitable for minor surgery or preanesthesia can be produced
Fentanyl–droperidol is no longer available commercially as (Holzehuh and Cremonesi, 1991). It has also been used to induce
a combination. However, it has been used in a combination anesthesia at 0.6 mg/kg IV followed by a ketamine infusion of
(0.4 mg fentanyl/ml and 20 mg droperidol/ml) for IM injection 10 mg/kg/h (Worek et al., 1988).
at a dose of 1 ml/13.5 kg or 0.25–0.5 ml/kg IV. The combination Propofol is an IV hypnotic agent that has been described
produces short-term immobilization suitable for preanesthesia for use in swine after induction with azaperone and thiopental
or minor surgery. As in other species it is associated with muscu- (Foster et al., 1992). It provides effective sedation and muscle
lar movement, salivation, and hypersensitivity to sound (Benson relaxation for anesthesia with minimal depression of cardiovas-
and Thurmon, 1979; Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986). It may be cular function. Analgesia is only adequate for major surgery
combined with ketamine (11 mg/kg IM) at a dose of 1 ml/13.5 kg if infused at the higher dosages and then it becomes car-
IM of the fentanyl–droperidol mixture (Benson and Thurmon, diodepressant. Induction of anesthesia by bolus injections of
1979; Cantor et al., 1981; Riebold and Thurmon, 1986). This 0.83–1.66 mg/kg IV was followed by incremental IV boluses
combination provides 30 minutes of anesthesia suitable for approximating an infusion rate of 14–20 mg/kg/h. In a simi-
minor surgery. lar experiment, propofol was administered as an IV infusion of
Naloxone (0.5–2.0 mg/kg IV) can be used to reverse opioids 12 mg/kg/h to demonstrate its safety in malignant hyperthemia
(Benson and Thurmon, 1979; Gross, 2001; Nishijima et al., susceptible swine (Raff and Harrison, 1989) and also its effec-
1988; Swindle, 2007; Trudeau et al., 1988). Alternatively, opi- tiveness for a teaching protocol in laparoscopic surgery at the
oid mixed agonists–antagonists (nalbuphine, butorphanol, and same rate (Ramsey et al., 1993). It is best utilized in infusion
pentazocine) can be used to reverse opioids while maintaining combinations with other agents and has been combined suc-
postoperative analgesia (Flecknell, 1996). cessfully as an IV infusion of propofol (2.0–4.4 mg/kg/h), mida-
zolam (0.4–0.7 mg/kg/h), and fentanyl (0.003–0.005 mg/kg/h)
(Kaiser et al., 2003, 2006).
E. Miscellaneous Injectables Metomidate (4 mg/kg IV) has been given following preanes-
thesia with azaperone (2 mg/kg IM). The metomidate had to
A mixture of the pregnanediones, alphaxalone, and be repeated as bolus injections every 15–30 minutes but could
alphadolone is commercially available in Europe. It may be probably be used as a continuous IV infusion (Svendsen and
administered at a dose of 6–8 mg/kg IM followed by 2–3 mg/kg Carter, 1989). It has also been used as a premedication at
IV. This combination is short acting, lasting only 4–10 min- 5 mg/kg IM with azaperone 6 mg/kg IM followed by IV atropine
utes, and its use with barbiturates is contraindicated (Bolin and 0.01 mg/kg, metomidate 2.5 mg/kg, fentanyl 0.01 mg/kg, and
Runnels, 1992; Flecknell, 1987; Glen et al., 1979). droperidol 1 mg/kg. Analgesics were repeated as indicated
Another combination available in Europe is etorphine– (Kreimeier et al., 1993). These combinations provided rela-
acepromazine (0.245 mg/10 kg IM). Etorphine can be reversed tively stable cardiovascular function with minimal depression
by diprenorphine (0.3 mg/kg IM) or naloxone 0.01–0.05 mg/kg for short-term acute studies. However, others (Thurmon and
IV. The use of these combinations does not have any specific Tranquilli, 1986) have reported that the metomidate dosage
advantages over the anesthetic agents available in the United should be increased to 15 mg/kg to enhance the anesthetic state.
States, and cardiovascular depression and muscle rigidity may Even at this dosage, metomidate has questionable anesthetic
be encountered (Bolin and Runnels, 1992; Glen et al., 1979). value when compared to other combinations.
Alpha-chloralose has been used in the past for non-survival
experimental procedures as a continuous infusion providing
VI. REGIONAL ANALGESIA
minimal cardiac depression and a sparing effect on the barore-
ceptors. Its use as a sole agent is discouraged, because of its
questionable analgesic value, if other methods such as high dose Regional analgesia is the reversible loss of sensation to a
narcotic or propofol infusions can be substituted (Silverman and limited body area without loss of consciousness. Most surgical
Muir, 1993). Alpha-chloralose can be administered to swine at procedures in a research setting are performed under general
a dose of 55–86 mg/kg IV followed by a continuous IV infusion anesthesia. However, regional anesthesia may be indicated for
to effect for maintenance (Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986). For brief surgical procedures or when physiologic alterations due
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 423

to general anesthesia are to be avoided. Knowledge of porcine for 8–12 hours. Low dosages of 0.005–0.01 mg/kg IM have been
anatomy and mastery of the technical skills are required for reported, but this dose is found to be inadequate for major surgi-
successfully providing regional anesthesia. To minimize stress cal procedures such as organ transplantation and hence the drug
and achieve immobilization, regional anesthesia should be per- is routinely administered in a dose range of 0.01–0.05 mg/kg IM
formed using sedatives and with the animal physically restrained or SC q12h (Hermansen et al., 1986; Rodriguez et al., 2001).
in a sling. The most commonly used local analgesic is lidocaine The lower dosages may be used IV as a preemptive analgesic.
with a duration of action of 90–180 minutes. Longer-acting local Buprenorphine patches have been developed but their use in
analgesics, such as bupivacaine, provide 180–300 minutes of swine has not been described. We have not found buprenor-
analgesia (Short, 1987). phine to be a significant respiratory depressant as determined
Injection of a local analgesic at the surgical site, or infiltration by postoperative monitoring of blood gases.
analgesia, places the agent in direct contact with nerve endings. Fentanyl patches can be effective; however, their dosage
In research, this technique is best suited for minor, minimally is widely variable depending upon breed, age, location of
invasive procedures (e.g., auricular venipuncture). Any patho- patch, heat, moisture, and procedure. Overdosage and removal
logical process involving the injection site, such as infection for human drug abuse are possibilities to be considered. A
or decreased vascularization, would be an contraindication for starting dosage is 5 μg/kg/h when the effects are unknown
regional analgesia. The most commonly used form of regional (Harvey-Clark et al., 2000; Swindle, 2007; Wilkinson et al.,
analgesia in farm swine is epidural analgesia at the lumbosacral 2001). The newer generation of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
space using morphine (0.1 mg/kg). Descriptions of this tech- drugs (NSAIDs) discussed below are a better choice for most
nique for farm swine have been published (Scarda, 1996; Short, of the procedures.
1987; St. Jean and Anderson, 1999; Swindle, 1986, 2007). The The newer NSAIDs have been determined to provide signifi-
depth of spinal needle penetration is dependent on the size of cant analgesia for major surgical procedures in swine. Included
the animal. This technique provides analgesia by depositing the in this class of analgesics are: carprofen (2 mg/kg SC, q24h;
analgesic within the epidural space. It will produce analgesia 2–3 mg/kg PO, q12h), flunixin (1–4 mg/kg SC or IM, q12–24h),
caudal to the umbilicus suitable for laparotomy or cesarian sec- ketoprofen (1–3 mg/kg IM or SC, PO, q12h), ketorolac (1 mg/kg
tion. Epidural analgesia is contraindicated in animals that are PO, IM or SC, q12h), and meloxicam (0.4 mg/kg SC, q24h).
in a state of shock or toxemic because of sympathetic block- Short-term administration of these agents does not cause signif-
ade resulting in hypotension (Swindle, 1986). The economic icant interference with platelet levels, gastrointestinal function,
and logistic factors that recommend epidural analgesia for farm or healing. Carprophen, flunixin, and meloxicam are labeled for
swine generally do not apply to research settings. However, the use in swine in Europe (Swindle, 2007).
technique may be useful in certain abdominal procedures that For musculoskeletal pain, phenylbutazone may be admin-
preclude the use of general anesthetics. istered 10–20 mg/kg PO q12h. Aspirin (10–20 mg/kg q4–6h)
The primary indication for paravertebral analgesia in research may also be used. Enteric-coated products are recommended
involves control of postoperative pain following thoraco- due to the porcine predisposition for gastric ulcers. Oral medi-
tomy. This technique has been utilized successfully to con- cation is readily accepted in canned dog food or chocolate syrup
trol thoracotomy-related pain prior to the availability of the (Swindle, 1991; Swindle et al., 1988).
longer-acting analgesics currently available (Swindle, 2007). The current preferred analgesics are the newer generation
NSAIDs given preemptively prior to making the skin incision.
For major procedures this may be combined with infiltration of
the incision with a local anesthetic, nerve blocks, and/or epidural
VII. ANALGESIA
injections of morphine. NSAIDs may also be combined with
opioids, if required, for severe pain control. The initial dose
Most opioid analgesics have a short half-life in swine limiting may be the only one required, depending upon the drug chosen
their use as postoperative analgesics. Included in this category and based upon the clinical assessment of pain. Prolonged use
are fentanyl (0.05 mg/kg IM q2h; 50–100 μg/kg/h IV infusion), of analgesics may complicate recovery because of poor appetite
sufentanil (5–10 μg/kg IM q2h; 15–30 μg/kg/h IV infusion), and depressed cognitive function (Swindle, 2007).
meperidine (2–10 IM mg/kg q4h), oxymorphone (0.15 mg/kg
IM q4h), and pentazocine (1.5–3 mg/kg IM q4h) (Blum, 1988;
VIII. Intraoperative Monitoring and Support
Flecknell, 1984, 1987; Swindle, 1991). The short-acting opi-
oids fentanyl and sufentanil can be administered as continuous
IV infusions. Morphine has been reported to cause excitement The focus of intraoperative monitoring is to support the car-
in nonpainful swine similar to the adverse reaction reported for diovascular and pulmonary systems and maintain core body
cats. Butorphanol (0.1–0.3 mg/kg IM q4–6 h) is longer acting temperature. Careful attention to trends in the parameters that
and has few side effects in swine. Buprenorphine is the postop- are monitored will help prevent anesthetic complications from
erative analgesic of choice because in higher doses, it is effective developing. Interpretation and integration of vital signs and
424 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

measured variables should be based on the knowledge of the suctioning of the trachea, or surgical manipulation of the pul-
physiologic effects of the anesthetic agents that have been given monary bronchus (Swindle et al., 1986). Miniature swine seem
and the health status of the animal. Selection of the parameters to be less susceptible to cardiac arrhythmias than commercial
to be monitored should be tailored to the surgical procedure. For breeds probably due to their greater maturity per kilogram of
uncomplicated or brief surgeries, monitoring of vital signs and body weight (Swindle, 2007; Swindle et al., 1988).
ECG may be adequate. However, for more complex cases such Use of bretyllium (3.0–5.0 mg/kg IV) every 30 minutes prior
as cardiovascular procedures, monitoring parameters may also to and during such manipulations will prevent the majority of
include aortic blood pressure, CVP, PAP, and blood gas analysis. ventricular arrhythmias. If the injection is administered slowly
Anesthetic depth is assessed by combining several clinical IV and not repeated more often than every 30 minutes, cardio-
observations. The normal range for heart rate is between 70 vascular hemodynamics will be minimally affected (Schumann
beats/min and 150 beats/min with less than 70 considered to be et al., 1993; Swindle, 1991; Swindle et al., 1986). However,
bradycardia. Generally, young animals tend to have faster heart bretyllium is currently off the market and amiodarone can be
rates than older animals. Heart rate will vary considerably with used as a substitute. Following a loading dose of 10–12 mg/kg
the different preanesthetic and anesthetic agents used. Fentanyl IV an infusion of 0.5–3.5 mg/kg/h is given for maintenance. The
and xylazine will produce slower heart rates while atropine and infusion rate has to be reduced if hypotension occurs.
ketamine can cause tachycardia. Lidocaine infusions (2–4 mg/kg IV bolus followed by
Ocular reflexes are not reliable indicators of anesthetic depth 50 mcg/kg/min continuous IV infusion) may also be used for
for swine. Instead, laxity of jaw tone, absence of a pedal reflex prevention of such arrhythmias. If ventricular fibrillation or
in response to a painful stimulus, and a stable heart rate indicate cardiac asystole occurs, countershock (10 joules internal pad-
that a surgical plane of anesthesia has been achieved. dles or 200–400 joules external paddles) is more effective than
The quality of the peripheral pulse is more difficult to assess chemical agents. Pig skin has high electrical resistance, and
in swine than in other species. However, pulse pressure can be minimal settings of external defibrillator paddles are ineffective
monitored using the saphenous, sublingual, and radial arteries. (Schumann et al., 1994).
The color of the mucous membranes should be pink, which A technique involving the use of calcium channel block-
indicates adequate blood oxygen saturation. It does not assess ers and nitroglycerin in combination with bretyllium in order
blood carbon dioxide content. to enable catheterization of coronary vessels without cardiac
The best means of assessing the adequacy of lung gas arrhythmias has been published (Rogers et al., 1988).
exchange is by performing blood gas analysis on an arterial
blood sample or using a pulse oximeter. The medial saphenous
and dorsal auricular arteries can be catheterized percutaneously
X. SUPPORT
for this purpose.
The most accessible vessels for direct blood pressure monitor-
ing are the external jugular vein, common carotid artery, and the Intraoperative fluids are typically administered through an ear
femoral vessels. With experience, all but the common carotid vein catheter. A balanced electrolyte solution, such as lactated
artery can be catheterized percutaneously. However, catheteri- Ringers, should be given at a maintenance rate of 5–10 ml/kg/h.
zation can be accomplished most quickly by performing a vascu- Administration of warmed IV fluids will help maintain body
lar cut-down and is the recommended method (Swindle, 2007). temperature during prolonged surgeries.
ECG monitoring is recommended to detect dysrhythmias. General anesthetic agents, particularly inhalation agents, pro-
Normal swine have a prolonged Q-T interval that may appear duce hypothermia, which can be significantly exacerbated by
abnormal to those unfamiliar with interpreting porcine ECG’s. neglecting to take measures in the operating room to reduce heat
Because miniature swine are practically hairless, no hair loss. Core body temperature should be monitored by placement
removal is necessary to establish good contact using ECG of a probe either rectally or in the thoracic esophagus. Body
patches designed for human use. The anesthetist should remem- temperature should be maintained using thermal support such
ber that ECG monitoring only assesses the electrical activity as circulating water blankets.
of the heart, which can be completely normal in the face of For prolonged anesthesia in all species, supporting home-
inadequate circulatory function. ostasis becomes of prime importance. The pig is very prone to
hypothermia because it is relatively hairless and has a large body
surface area. Hypothermia occurs in the pig within the first hour
of anesthesia especially if peripheral vasodilators are used. Ther-
IX. CARDIAC ARRHYTHMIAS
mal support is of vital importance for prolonged procedures.
Swine are prone to pulmonary edema and pooling of blood in the
Swine are prone to development of fatal cardiac arrhyth- abdominal viscera during anesthesia and support of homeosta-
mias secondary to manipulation of the heart during cardiac sis by administration of IV fluids, and monitoring of blood gases
surgery or vagal stimulation following endotracheal intubation, is important. Postoperative apnea can be a problem especially
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 425

if agents like pentobarbital are used. Swine should be weaned anesthetic complication during surgical procedures (Ehler et al.,
from respirators and their ability to breathe without assistance 1985; Swindle et al., 1988). The condition has not been reported
should be monitored. in miniature swine.
The pathophysiology of MH involves an inability of the
affected animal to control intracellular ionized calcium levels
XI. POSTSURGICAL CARE resulting in a rise in intracellular calcium (Endo, 1977; Put-
ney, 1979). The earliest detectable changes in MH appear in
Frequent monitoring is the hallmark of good postoperative the venous effluents from skeletal muscle and reductions in
care. During recovery from anesthesia, vital signs and surgi- pH and PO2 , and increases in lactate, PCO2 , potassium, and
cal incisions should be monitored and recorded frequently as temperature (Gronert, 1980).
needed. Greatest attention should be given to the cardiovascular Stress and exercise may be key considerations preoperatively.
and respiratory systems. Extubation should be performed only Potent preanesthetic regimes described elsewhere in this chapter
after a strong swallowing reflex is apparent. Transport cages are strongly advised. Ketamine, opioids, and benzodiazepines
designed for dogs are satisfactory for recovering swine up to have all been successfully employed (Ehler et al., 1985; Swin-
50 kg. Pigs weighing more than 50 kg can be recovered to the dle, 1991). Past and present reviews of the literature suggest a
point of extubation by placing the animal in lateral recumbency common pathway of excessive myoplasmic Ca++ . Lopez et al.
atop a sling. Circulating water blankets can be used with either (1988) reported Ca++ is primarily due to excessive release of
method. With large swine, water blankets can be placed both calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
atop and below the animal. Kaplan (1991) succinctly describes the metabolic chain of
Administration of analgesics at the end of general anesthesia, events. Excessive myoplasmic calcium leads to
prior to the perception of pain, will reduce the complications of 1. activation of contractile elements;
hypoventilation, hypercapnia, and hypoxemia associated with 2. hydrolysis of ATP;
major surgery. Use of an opioid agonist–antagonist will provide 3. heat production;
adequate analgesia but not cause further respiratory depression. 4. O2 consumption;
Facilities and equipment should be available to deal with com- 5. CO2 and lactate production;
plications encountered during recovery. Suction should be on 6. uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation; and
hand to clear airway passages of excessive secretions. In the 7. eventual cell breakdown and release of intracellular con-
event of laryngospasm or airway obstruction, ready access to tents [creatine kinase (CK), K+ , Ca++ , myoglobin, etc.].
intubation supplies, including a laryngoscope, is necessary. A
means of providing supplemental oxygen and continued fluid
administration may also be necessary during recovery from
anesthesia. B. Recognition of MH
The pharmacokinetics of some of the newer broad-spectrum
antibiotics have not been established in swine. As a rule of The first cardinal clinical sign of MH is an elevation in end-
thumb, use of the human pediatric dose and dosing sched- tidal CO2 (ETCO2 ). A rise of 5–10 mmHg above an established
ule should be followed when adapting human medications baseline is highly suspect. Concurrent tachycardia and tachyp-
for swine. The authors have successfully used the following nea and an increase in temperature (not always) should further
antibiotic regimen for swine for various cardiac and fetal sur- alert the anesthetist/anesthesiologist. The increased metabolic
gical procedures: ceftriaxone 50–100 mg IV, perioperatively rate results in an increased PaCO2 > 45–50 mm, a decreased
followed by oral cephradine (mixed with canned dog food) pH < 7.25, base deficit <−8, central venous desaturation,
25–50 mg every 12 hours. and hypercarbia which may occur within 5–10 minutes. If
unchecked, fulminant MH will progress to rhabdomyolysis with
severe hyperkalemia >6, increased serum CK, myoglobine-
mia, myoglobinuria (a cola-colored urine), unstable blood
XII. SPECIAL ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
pressure, and then bradycardia with resulting asystole (from
hyperkalemia).
A. Malignant Hyperthermia (MH) It should be noted that an increase in ETCO2 and tachycardia
may also result from excessive heating of the patient (i.e., heat-
MH is a genetic condition in certain breeds of domestic swine, ing blanket, ambient temperature, or covers) or hypoventilation,
such as the Landrace, Yorkshire, and Pietrain. The condition is or light anesthesia, or other equipment malfunctions.
transmitted as an autosomal dominant gene (Hal genotype). The There is another syndrome that occurs in the postoperative
ryanodine receptor gene (ryr-1 locus) is the probable site (Fuji rather than the induction period in swine, which is genetically
et al., 1991; Geers et al., 1992; Houde et al., 1993; Mick- distinct from MH. However, the signs are very similar and the
elson et al., 1988). MH has been encountered in the pig as an symptomatic treatment is the same except that dantrolene is
426 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

ineffective. This syndrome tends to occur in related pigs but has TABLE 15-1
yet to be genetically defined (Swindle, 2007). Drugs Used to Manage
Malignant Hyperthermia

Dantrolene
C. Triggering Agents Sterile H2 O to reconstitute dantrolene
Sodium bicarbonate
Dextrose 50%
Kaplan (1991) has listed triggering drugs: succinylcholine, Insulin
halothane, isoflurane, enflurane, sevoflurane, and desflurane. Mannitol 25%
Indeed all modern volatile inhalation anesthetics tested can Furosemide
trigger MH, although halothane seems to be the most potent.
Barbiturates (i.e., pentothal) have the unique property of delay-
ing MH episodes in animals and can be said to be the safest. Dantrolene, a mild muscle relaxant and antipyretic, is admin-
Other IV drugs (droperidol, diazepam, midazolam, etomidate, istered 5 mg/kg PO 10–12 hours prior to surgery. It is repeated 2
ketamine, propofol, and narcotics), muscle relaxants (pancuro- hours prior to surgery. An alternate administration is 3.5–5.0 mg
nium, vecuronium, atracurium, doxacurium, and mivacurium), IV 1 hour preoperatively with repeated hourly dosages (Ehler
ester local anesthetics, and N2 O are considered safe. Anti- et al., 1985). Inhalation and triggering agents are avoided.
cholinesterases, atropine, and glycopyrrolate are safe and can
be used for reversal of neuromuscular blockade if needed. E. Treatment and Management of the MH Crisis

In addition to the regular supplies and drugs, the drugs listed

D. Prevention and Management of MH in Table 15-1 must be immediately available to manage a MH
episode. Although relatively expensive, dantrolene is the effec-
The successful prevention and avoidance of MH in suscep- tive treatment for MH. It decreases the release of Ca++ from
tible swine has been previously described by appropriate breed the sarcoplasmic reticulum and rapidly reverses the MH episode.
selection and prophylactic treatment (Ehler et al., 1985; Swindle Administer enough dantrolene to completely normalize all signs
et al., 1986). of MH. Failure to do so may cause recrudescence (Flewellen and
Dantrolene is the drug of choice for the treatment and preven- Nelson, 1982; Kaplan, 1991; Littleford et al., 1991; Rosenberg,
tion of MH. It is a lipid-soluble hydantoin derivative that acts 1988).
distal to the end-plate within the muscle fiber (Gronert et al., The recommendations for treatment of fulminant MH episode
1976). It is most effective when administered while there is ade- are listed in Table 15-2 as outlined by Kaplan (1991).
quate muscle perfusion. It is for this reason that the immediate Cardiac arrests and dysrhythmias during MH are almost
postbypass dose of dantrolene is administered at the maxi- always the result of hyperkalemia compounded by acidosis. The
mum perfusion temperature of 34◦ C, rather than earlier in the heart muscle itself is not involved in the pathophysiology of MH.
postbypass course (see below). Dantrolene attenuates calcium Aggressive treatment of the acidosis and hyperkalemia gener-
release without affecting uptake, by action upon the connections ally relieves the dysrhythmias. CaCl2 should be considered only
between the transverse tubules and the terminal cisternae of the as a last resort. Lastly, calcium channel blocking agents should
sarcoplasmic reticulum (Flewellen and Nelson, 1982; Quintin not be used due to the synergistic effect of dantrolene leading
et al., 1981; Rittenhouse, 1974). to cardiovascular collapse (Kaplan, 1991).
The porcine minimum effective dose of dantrolene for MH
prophylaxis has been demonstrated to be in the range of 3.5–
XIII. CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS
5 mg/kg (Flewellen and Nelson, 1982; Gronert, 1980). With this
experimental information, we elect to administer a prophylactic
dose prebypass and attenuating doses postbypass. This segment of the chapter is a general overview and
At effective doses, dantrolene is not associated with serious guide to performing survival CPB in swine. The following is
toxicity. Even very high doses do not produce muscle paralysis, a brief description of CPB, a stepwise description including
although weakness may result (Flewellen and Nelson, 1982; equipment, anesthesia, flow rates, hemodynamics and hemato-
Gronert, 1980). This weakness appears to cause anorexia and logic parameters, adjunct pharmaceutical agents, and surgical
decreased activity, which were ameliorated with lower doses of connections. We will discuss some of the anesthetic options suc-
oral dantrolene (3 mg/kg vs. 5 mg/kg). The only adverse effect of cessfully used (Mohr et al., 1996; Smerup et al., 2004; Swindle,
the drug reported in the literature has been hepatic dysfunction 2007).
in man (Schneider and Mitchell, 1976), which has not been CPB is, by definition, an extracorporal pumping system that
seen with oral administration of less than 3 weeks duration. temporarily replaces the physiological functions of the car-
This effect has not been observed in pigs. diopulmonary system. If the swine to receive CPB do not have
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 427

TABLE 15-2
Treatment of Malignant Hyperthermia Emergency

1. STOP ALL TRIGGERING AGENTS immediately. Continue with safe agents if surgery cannot be stopped immediately.
2. HYPERVENTILATE with 100% O2 . Use new circuit and soda lime. Change to “clean MH machine”.
3. ADMINISTER DANTROLENE 2.5 mg/kg IV immediately. Continue until all signs normalize (total dose
up to 10–20 mg/kg). Maintain IV dantrolene 1 mg/kg qoh.
4. CORRECT METABOLIC ACIDOSIS—HCO3 1–2 meq/kg IV stat. Follow ABGs.
5. HYPERKALEMIA—HCO3 ; or glucose 1/2 g/kg and regular insulin 0.15 μ/kg.
6. COOLING—Iced saline, cooling blanket, body cavity lavage, extracorporeal circulation.
7. ARRHYTHMIAS—If persistent, procainamide IV 3 mg/kg start. Max. 15 mg/kg.
8. MONITORS—ABG, VBG, (CVP OR PA), UOP, T◦ (central), end-tidal CO2 , K+ , Ca++ , lactate,
CK urine myoglobin, PT, PTT, platelets.
9. MAINTAIN UOP >1 ml/kg/h—Mannitol, furosemide, volume.
10. TRANSFER TO ICU when stable.
11. OBSERVE IN ICU—Stable 24–28 hours. Monitor for recrudescence and late complications.
12. CONVERT TO ORAL DANTROLENE when extubated and stable. 1 mg/kg PO q6 h × 24–28 h.
13. Malignant Hyperthermia Association of the United States 24-hour hotline: 209-634-4917.

Note: ABG = arterial blood gases; VBG = venous blood gases; CK = creatine kinase; CVP = central venous pressure;
PA = pulmonary artery; UOP = urine output; PT = prothrombin time; PTT = partial thromboplastin time. Modified from
“Suggested Therapy for Malignant Hyperthermia Emergency,” Malignant Hyperthermia Association of the United States
(MHAUS).

a propensity for MH or cardiovascular compromise the choice 1985). Venous blood is usually withdrawn through a single right
of anesthetic agent does not significantly affect the outcome. atrial cannula for most of the CPB procedures (10–25 kg pigs).
There appears to be no evidence that would justify one IV or An alternate double cannula system placed retrograde into the
inhalational agent over the other in healthy normal animals. Ulti- superior and inferior vena cavae has been used in swine heavier
mately the choice may be dictated by the individual protocol. than 40–50 kg. The double cannula system has the advantage of
Conversely, if MH is a deciding factor, there is a drastic dif- placing less tension on the friable right atrium.
ference in selecting “nontriggering” IV anesthetic agents and Venous drainage is usually gravity-driven into the venous
muscle relaxants. Many of the techniques used in the surgical reservoir. A Sarnes 7000 roller pump or Biomedicus pump
laboratory have had their initiation from techniques described in Model 520 or 540 drives the blood through an arterial filter
various texts, which were then modified. If an inhalation agent back into the aorta.
is chosen, it can be delivered during CPB through the oxygen Membrane oxygenators are now used for all survival pro-
supply to the oxygenator. cedures. Oxygenators are intrinsically not biocompatible. The
CPB requires a team approach with effective communi- blood gas interface represents a nonphysiologic state. CPB
cations. The perfusionist manages composition of priming procedures <2 hours duration have shown no clinically sig-
solutions, perfusion flows, supplemental fluids, and blood. The nificant difference between membrane or bubble oxygenators.
anesthetist/anesthesiologist manages drugs, i.e., anesthetics, Membrane oxygenators are preferred when longer perfusions
muscle relaxants, and vasoactive agents. The surgeon and perfu- (>2 hours) are to be performed. Both microemboli formation
sionist control cardioplegia and usually temperature regulation and blood trauma are reduced with membrane oxygenators.
of the heart.

B. Choice of Priming Solutions

A. Fundamentals and Description of CPB
For porcine CPB, we use fresh porcine blood from donors
The system includes a pump (either roller or pulsatile), an under general opioid or barbiturate anesthesia. We generally
oxygenator to imitate lung function (either bubble or mem- collect 2–3 units of blood to prime the bypass pump depending
brane), PVC tubing, canulas, and filters. For a more detailed upon the weight of the animal to be bypassed. Additional fresh
description of by-pass circuitry and the variations that are used, whole blood may be needed postCPB. A neuroendocrine stress
the reader is referred to several texts (Bain, 1988; Gravlee, response may be initiated in the recipient if the last unit of blood
1993a, 1993b; Reed and Stafford, 1989). from the donor is used. This is due to the stress of terminal
Blood is withdrawn before it reaches the heart, is oxygenated hemorrhage in the donor (Swindle, 2007). Crystalloid solutions
with CO2 removed, and is then filtered and returned to the either alone or combined with blood have also been used but care
systemic arterial tree distal to the aortic valve. The step-by-step is taken to keep the hematocrit >25. There is no consensus as
surgical procedure has been previously described (Ehler et al., to what constitutes an ideal prime.
428 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

C. Myocardial Protection improve tissue perfusion and oxygenation and are associated
with more mechanical blood damage and a greater risk of
Myocardial protection during CPB is yet another topic of con- embolism from microbubble formation (Bain, 1988). Moder-
troversy and is beyond the scope of this paper. The single most ate hypothermia allows for lower APFR, i.e., core temperature
decisive factor is the effective application of myocardial preser- of 28◦ C results in 50% decrease in O2 requirements. An
vation techniques during CPB by the surgeon and perfusionist. APFR of 60–80 ml/kg/min is satisfactory in chilled larger swine
“The three components of myocardial protection by cardiople- (>25 kg) at 25◦ C. Small swine (<10 kg) have an increased
gia are the choice of an effective solution, the maintenance of metabolic requirement; hence, a higher perfusion rate of
electromechanical inactivity and the use of profound topical 80–100 ml/kg/min is required to maintain adequate tissue oxy-
hypothermia. Each need consideration if maximal protection is genation. Flow rates are reduced as hypothermia progresses.
to be achieved” (Braimbridge, 1988).
There are three basic methods that are used in combination
as indicated by the procedure. F. Measurement and Monitoring During CPB
1. Chemical cardioplegia, i.e., Buckberg’s solution: 5% dex-
trose in 0.2% NaCl 550 ml, KCl 20 meq, THAM 200 ml, Total management of CPB and the subsequent “weaning off
CPD 50 ml. One part Buckberg:4 parts oxygenated blood. the pump” and termination of CPB require the continuous mon-
An alternative is cold Plegisol® (Abbott Laboratory, North itoring and measurements of all physiological parameters. The
Chicago, IL) slurry with 10 meq biocarbonate/L. primary purpose is to assure adequate O2 and CO2 exchange
2. Electrical fibrillation, i.e., 1–6 volts 60 cycle to cause and tissue perfusion. Although the respirator is turned off during
continual ventricular fibrillation, applied through small CPB, a slight positive pressure or periodic sighs are advanta-
electrodes directly to the heart. geous to minimize pulmonary atelectasis postoperatively.
3. Hypothermic cardioplegia: spontaneous cardiac arrest We monitor the following parameters continuously:
occurs when the myocardial temperature falls below 20◦ C.
Saline slush is applied directly to the heart as it lies in the ECG/HR Differs according to size and breed
bowl-like tacked-up pericardium. During this period of Mean arterial pressure 50 mmHg ± 5
inactivity and myocardial temperature, metabolic rate and Central venous pressure 0–5 mmHg during CPB;
O2 consumption are markedly reduced (Reed and Stafford, 8–12 mmHg pre/postCPB
1989). Arterial pump pressure <200 mmHg (depending upon
circuit and cannula sizes)
Systemic venous O2 70 ± 5%
D. Anticoagulation (SvO2 ) saturation
Systemic vascular 800–1,400 dyne s cm−5
Adequate anticoagulation cannot be overemphasized prior resistance (SVR)
to the onset of CPB. Systemic heparinization is initiated Core temperature Esophageal, rectal probes, and/or
with 300 units/kg IV. The adequacy of heparinization must be with tympanic membrane probes
checked at this point by measuring the activated clotting time (most sensitive)
(ACT). We routinely maintain an ACT of 350 seconds (Gravlee, Blood temperature In both venous and arterial lines
1991b). (Note: arterial <38◦ C)
Protamine sulphate is used as a reversal agent at the comple- Coolant temperature 40◦ C (in heat exchanger) (Note:
tion of CPB if needed. A 1.3:1 protamine to heparin reversal ratio the temperature gradient in C◦
is used to neutralize heparin administered during extracorporeal between the coolant in the heat
circulation. As a general rule 1 mg protamine will neutralize exchanger and venous return should
approximately 100 units of heparin, 90 units of sodium heparin be 10–12◦ C)
bovine lung, 100 units of calcium heparin porcine intestinal
mucosa, and 115 units of sodium heparin porcine intestinal
We monitor the following as needed:
mucosa. Protamine should not be used if the ACT falls <180
seconds and problems with bleeding have not been encountered, PaO2 , PaCO2 PaO2 between 100 and 200 mmHg; PaCO2
and should be administered slowly to avoid hypotension. 40 mmHg ± 4
Arterial pH 7.38–7.42
Base excess 0 to −5
E. Arterial Pump Flow Rates (APFR) Hematocrit >18% (prefer > 25%)
K+ 4.5–5.5 mmol/L
Beginning arterial input from the pump should be ACT >300 seconds
2.4 L/m2 /min (Moffitt et al., 1962). Higher flow rates do not
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 429

TABLE 15-3 TABLE 15-4

Suggested CPB Hematocrit Range at Different Cardiac Index (CI) and Hypothermia Temperatures
Temperatures in Humans for Cardiopulmonary Bypass

Temperature range (◦ C) Hematocrit range (%) Temperature (◦ C) CI

30–37 25–30 37 2.2–2.4

23–30 20–25 34–37 2.0–2.2
15–22 15–20 30–34 1.8–2.0
28–30 1.6–1.8
Source: Gravlee (1993). 24–28 1.6–1.8
18–24 1.5–1.6

Note: CI × body surface area (BSA) = Perfusion flow rate.

LA and PWP are monitored as needed. A general rule is to
match the pressure pre- and post CPB.
Assessment of O2 delivery during CPB, hypothermia, hemod- H. Left Atrial and Pulmonary Wedge Pressure (LA &
ilution, and deep anesthesia are difficult at best. During PWP) Measurement
normothermic perfusion, flows exceeding 2.2 L/m2 /min are
usually sufficient, but might become inadequate in the presence Left atrial pressure can be determined using a balloon-tipped
of rewarming, “light” anesthesia, or especially low hemat- Swan-Ganz catheter. We introduce the catheter into the femoral
ocrit levels (<18%). Hypothermia decreases O2 consumption vein using the Seldinger technique (Gaymes et al., 1995). We
approximately 7%/◦ C, and pump flows can be reduced pro- introduce an 18-gauge angiocath into the vein, withdraw the
portionately (Gravlee, 1991a). Thus, reduced O2 consumption stylet, and then introduce a guide wire through the angiocath.
allows one to safely reduce perfusion flow rates, hematocrit, or With the guide wire in place the angiocath is withdrawn over the
both without compromising O2 delivery during hypothermia. guide wire. An appropriate-size (8 French) catheter introducer
As a general rule of thumb, the percent hematocrit is is then inserted into the femoral vein over the guide wire and the
approximately equal to temperature in degree celsius during guide wire is withdrawn. The introducer is sutured into place
hypothermia. Gravlee suggests CPB hematocrit ranges at vary- with 2-0 Prolene. The Swan-Ganz catheter is then advanced up
ing temperatures in man (see Table 15-3). He alerts the reader the inferior vena cava through the right atrium, into the right
that these recommendations have not been subjected to rigorous ventricle, and out into the PA measuring PAP, in the “wedged”
scientific validation (Gravlee, 1993). position (balloon tip expanded); the pulmonary capillary wedge
When CPB is initiated, the arterial BP falls and then slowly pressure (PCWP) is measured and is an index of left atrial pres-
rises to normal or above normal levels during CPB. What sure. The Swan-Ganz catheter also can measure cardiac output
the “ideal pressure” may be is controversial. Mean pressure by thermodilution measurement techniques. Normal left atrial
<30 mmHg is below the critical closing pressure of some vas- pressure is 5–15 mmHg. Left ventricular function can be mon-
cular beds, and significant underperfusion of tissue may result itored. PWP is a useful index of myocardial function when
(Table 15-4) (Bain, 1988). “weaning off ” or coming off CPB.

G. Central Venous Pressure (CVP) I. Termination of CPB or “Weaning off the Pump”

Normal CVP in normothermic-anesthetized swine on inter- The core temperature should be stabilized at preCPB levels
mittent positive pressure ventilation is approximately 4– before warming is initiated. Generally termination of CPB is
10 mmHg. During CPB, venous pressure drops to zero. When uneventful. When CPB is terminated the heart will either func-
CPB is completed and normal circulation restored, the CVP is tion effectively or not function at all. Cardiac performance is the
useful in determining volume replacement by adding 25–50- limiting factor in most instances. Hence, it may be necessary
ml increments from the pump. CVP monitoring is beneficial to reinstitute CPB. Adequate cardiac output will not result until
through the early postoperative period to judge volume adjust- blood volume is restored in the pig. Usually we slowly occlude
ments. Bain (1988) reported that the baseline CVP in a well- the venous return line with a tubing clamp until the surgeon
sedated patient on intermittent positive pressure ventilation is decides the right atrium and PA are subjectively “back to nor-
about 4–5 mmHg higher postoperatively. We have observed sim- mal”. Arterial perfusion is stopped. Further volume expansion
ilar trends. CVP in these ranges are acceptable. It should be is administered in 25–50-ml increments to maintain a sys-
noted that a progressive sustained rise in CVP postoperatively tolic pressure of 100 mmHg ± 10. Conversely, overexpansion
is a hallmark for cardiac failure or peripheral vasoconstriction may put the heart into cardiac failure. Gradually titrating back
(◦ SVR) if colloids were not infused. toward pre-CPB pressures has worked best for our laboratory.
430 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

Impatience can result in perilous premature termination of CPB. (1991b) reports “while it might superficially appear that this
Subsequently, hearts that may have performed well with a little would immediately lighten the anesthetic plane, the occurrence
more recovery time may need to be treated with high doses of is potentially counterbalanced by an increase in the plasma ratio
inotropes. This in turn can potentially delay myocardial recovery of free drug to protein-bound drug (enhancing drug available to
(Gravlee, 1991a). If cardiac output is inadequate CPB should cross the blood-brain barrier) and acute reduction in perfusion
be resumed and the heart allowed a more reasonable recovery to some peripheral vascular beds (discouraging redistribution
period. Continue at reduced CPB flows within normal tissue into peripheral compartments)”. In addition, drugs with rela-
oxygenation limits as previously described (SvO2 70 ± 5%). tively large apparent volumes of distribution (such as fentanyl)
When the myocardium has rested for 5–10 minutes the “wean- have redistributed before CPB, leaving a rather substantial drug
ing process” is repeated. Once successful separation from CPB “sink” in both central and peripheral compartments. Gravlee
has been completed, the recovery phase begins. reports plasma levels of fentanyl rise after separating from
During the recovery period, electrocardiographic, tempera- CPB, probably because pulmonary reperfusion re-establishes
ture, and arterial and venous pressure monitoring is continued. plasma compartment access for drug that has been sequestered
Arterial blood gas tensions, hematocrit, and serum electrolytes in the lungs. This appears to hold true for other opioids and
are obtained hourly or more frequently if clinical conditions dic- probably propofol. The synthetic opioids bind to the mem-
tate. Whole blood is administered to maintain the CVP between brane circuit and tubing, hence reducing the anesthetic agent
8 mmHg and 12 mmHg. Once monitoring parameters indicate a available.
return to homeostasis, the pigs are withdrawn from mechanical It is important to recognize that anesthetic regime will
ventilation usually between 3 hours and 5 hours after completion be quite different with hypothermic CPB versus normother-
of the surgical procedure, without the use of anticholinesterase mic CPB. Anesthetics, muscle relaxants, and vasoactive drug
agents to reverse neuromuscular blockade. Throughout this requirements are directly proportional to the patient’s core
initial postoperative period a slow rewarming process via warm- temperature.
ing blanket and manipulation of environmental temperature is Upon reviewing the veterinary and human anesthesia liter-
undertaken. Oxygen must be provided as required. Negative ature, one can be overwhelmed with the myriad of anesthetic
pressure is re-established in the thoracic cavity through the use protocols available. The bottom line is two-fold: (1) the anes-
of a surgically implanted chest tube. Suction is applied either thetic regime must be consistent with the protocol’s goal; and
continuously or intermittently using a Heimlich valve, water trap (2) he anesthetist/anesthesiologist must completely understand
or similar device. Output of air or blood is recorded and replaced the agents selected and feel comfortable with their use.
as necessary. Excessive bleeding through the chest tubes has not Numerous studies have investigated the effect of anesthetics
been a problem. on the outcome of CPB. The common conclusion was that the
In the absence of complications, the pig is removed from the choice of agents used—IV or inhalational—had no effect on
ICU cage the morning following surgery when ambulation and the outcome of CPB (Slogoff and Keats, 1989; Tuman et al.,
oral alimentation are begun. The chest tubes are removed 24 1989). Taking into account that swine and humans appear to
hours after surgery. react pharmacokinetically similarly, one can interpolate if MH
This description of CPB has had routine success in our lab- is not a factor.
oratories; however, variations between laboratories may dictate Techniques that have evolved at our institution for swine with
changes in the described procedures. For a more indepth under- and without the MH factor are described below.
standing of the complexities and physiological trespass of CPB
the reader is referred to three excellent texts (Gravlee, 1991a;
Reed and Stafford, 1989; Taylor, 1988).
K. Anesthesia for Normal (MH-Free) Pigs for CPB

Any of the anesthetic regimes described previously can be

J. Anesthetic Management
used. The inhalation agents are excellent selections, alone or
in combination with opioids, benzodiazepines, or propofol. In
Anesthesia for CPB, for the most part, encompasses the tra-
combination with a broad selection of muscle relaxants, swine
ditional goals of anesthesia: adequate analgesia, hypnosis, and
anesthesia takes on all the benefits of “balanced anesthesia”
muscle relaxation. These can be met with minor changes in anes-
described elsewhere in this chapter.
thetic techniques used for general surgery described elsewhere
in this chapter. But the anesthetist must take into consideration
the “physiologic trespass” one is inducing with CPB. Numerous
investigators have addressed plasma levels of anesthetics pre-, L. CPB Anesthesia for MH Positive Pigs
during, and postCPB (Buylaert et al., 1989; Holley et al., 1982;
Okutani et al., 1988; Reves et al., 1989). Plasma levels decrease Preoperatively the pigs are treated with a single oral dose
proportionately to volume of the priming solution used. Gravlee of dantrolene, 5 mg/kg, on the afternoon before surgery (Ehler
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 431

et al., 1985; Gronert et al., 1976). This dose of dantrolene is been rewarmed to 34◦ C, ventilation with 100% oxygen is rein-
repeated 2 hours before surgery. stituted, and the pig is slowly withdrawn from CPB. At this time
Ketamine hydrochloride is administered at a dose of 30 mg/kg additional pancuronium bromide, 0.15 mg/kg, and dantrolene,
intramuscularly, after which a steel IV needle is inserted 1.0 mg/kg, are administered by slow IV infusion. We have not
into an ear vein. Anesthetic induction is performed using found it necessary to use temporary pacing in any of our exper-
IV sodium thiopental, 10 mg/kg. The animals are intubated imental animals. Oral dantrolene, 3 mg/kg q8h, is continued for
orotracheally with a 5.6 mm cuffed endotracheal tube. Early three doses. If deep hypothermia is not used, cold cardioplegia,
maintenance of anesthesia consists of 100% oxygen, utilizing as previously described in this chapter, is used for myocardial
an oxygen-flushed anesthesia machine. (Note: Swine are sub- protection.
ject to apnea with barbiturate induction. Ventilate immediately
at 18–20 ml/kg at 20–25 cycles/min.)
With secure venous access in place, a “high-dose” opioid M. Recent Developments in CPB in Swine
technique is initiated with fentanyl, 50–100 μg/kg/h intra-
venously (Ehler et al., 1985; Lunn et al., 1979; Quintin Problems related to weaning swine from CPB from such
et al., 1981; Swindle, 1991; Swindle et al., 1986). Pancuro- issues as neurological failure and postperfusion pulmonary
nium bromide, 0.15 mg/kg, and dantrolene, 4 mg/kg, are also hypertension have been a predominant source of failure
administered intravenously at this time (Ehler et al., 1985). Pan- (Cameron et al., 1992; Swindle, 2007). Since the publication
curonium bromide has been reported to have some protective of the first edition of this textbook, several laboratories have
effect over MH in MH-susceptible swine (Hall et al., 1976; Short developed techniques that have improved the outcome of these
et al., 1976). Sufentanil citrate, 5.0–7.0 μg/kg IV followed by procedures (Belanger et al., 2003; Li et al., 2004; Pokela et al.,
15–30 μg/kg/h and vecuronium, 0.1 mg/kg IV loading dose fol- 2002; Smerup et al., 2004; Swindle, 2007). Many of the com-
lowed by 30 mg/kg/h is an alternative regime (Schumann et al., plications associated with pulmonary failure can be prevented
1994). by administration of methylprednisolone 500 mg IV (Smerup
We selected the high-dose narcotic anesthetic technique in an et al., 2004) or indomethacin 50 mg suppositories (Swindle,
effort to avoid a stress response in the perioperative period. 2007) prior to the induction of CPB. Sildentafil 12.5 mg PO is
It is known that the use of fentanyl in a dose of 50 μg/kg being investigated in humans to treat pulmonary hypertension
can prevent the rise in cortisol, growth hormone, and glu- postCPB, but its use has not been reported in swine.
cose commonly associated with the stress response (Hall et al.,
1978).
XIV. SUMMARY AND ADDITIONAL
During normothermic procedures, pigs have a propen-
REFERENCE MATERIAL
sity for fatal cardiac arrhythmias from cardiac manipulations.
Amiodarone, dosed as previously described, is an effec-
tive preventative agent during thoracic surgery. It may be Tables of commonly used drugs are listed in Appendix Tables
repeated by slow IV infusion every 30 minutes without affect- 15-A.1–15-A.7. These charts do not include indications and
ing hemodynamics (Swindle, 1985; Swindle et al., 1986, contraindications of the agents administered. They also exclude
1988). the use of continuous IV infusions of parenteral agents. Please
Depending upon the procedure being performed, deep refer to the text for those details.
hypothermia and circulatory arrest may be used. Upon com-
pletion of the procedure, rewarming is begun. When the pig has
432 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

Appendix Tables

TABLE 15-A.1
Dissociative Anesthetics and Combinations

Route of Approximate
Drug name (generic) Dose (mg/kg) administration duration References

Ketamine* 11–33.0 IM, SC, IV 30 minutes Benson and Thurmon, 1979

Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Short, 1987
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Boschert et al., 1996
Flecknell, 1996
Tranquilli et al., 1982
Woreck et al., 1988
Ketamine–acepromazine* 33.0 Riebold et al., 1995
1.1 IM, SC 30 minutes Boschert et al., 1996
Flecknell, 1996
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Ketamine–diazepam* 5.0 Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
2.0 IM, SC 20 minutes Boschert et al., 1996
Flecknell, 1996
Ketamine–medetomidine* 10.0 Vainio et al., 1992
0.2 IV, IM, SC 30 minutes Flecknell, 1996, 1997
Ketamine–azaperone 15.0 Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
2.0 IM, SC 20 minutes Boschert et al., 1996
Flecknell, 1996
Ketamine–midazolam 33.0
500 μg IM, SC 45 minutes Swindle, 2007
Ketamine–xylazine 20.0 IM, SC 20 minutes Boschert et al., 1996
2.0 Kyle et al., 1979
Cantor et al., 1981
Trim and Gilroy, 1985
Ketamine–xylazine–oxymorphone 2.0
2.0 IV, IM, SC (2× dose) 20 minutes Breese and Dodman, 1984
0.075
Ketamine–climazolam 20.0
0.5–1.0 IM, SC 20 minutes Becker, 1986
Ketamine–meperidine–azaperone–morphine 22.0
2.2 IM, SC 1h Hoyt et al., 1986
2.2
2.2
Tiletamine–zolazepam (Telazol) 2.0–8.8 IM, SC 20 minutes Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Swindle, 1991
Telazol–xylazine 2.0–8.8 Ko et al., 1993, 1997
2.2–4.4 IM, SC 20–45 minutes Swindle, 1991
Telazol–ketamine 4.4
2.2 IM, SC 20–30 minutes Ko et al., 1993
Ketamine–Telazol–xylazine 2.2
4.4 IM, SC 20–30 minutes Ko et al., 1993
2.2
Telazol–ketamine–butorphanol 4.4
2.2 IM, SC 45 minutes Ko et al., 1997
0.22
Telazol–xylazine–azaperone 4.4 Ko et al., 1997
2.2 IM, SC 30 minutes
0.88
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 433

TABLE 15-A.2
Tranquilizers, Hypnotics, and Sedatives

Drug name (generic) Dose (mg/kg) Route of administration Approximate duration References

Acepromazine* 0.11–1.1 IM, IV, SC 6–8 hours Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Promazine 0.44–2.0 IM, IV, SC 6–8 hours Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Chlorpromazine 0.5–4.0 IM, IV, SC 6–8 hours Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Diazepam* 0.5–10 IM, SC 2–4 hours Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Diazepam 0.44–2.0 IV 2 hours Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Schranz et al., 1988
Midazolam* 0.1–0.5 IM, SC, IV 20 minutes Oldhafer et al., 1993
Goodrich et al., 2001
Smith et al., 1991
Brotizolam 1–10 PO 2.4 hours Smith et al., 1991
Danneberg et al., 1986
Lorazepam 0.1 IV 12–24 hours Pender et al., 1991
Climazolam 2.0 IV 20 minutes Becker, 1986
Portier and Slusser, 1985
Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Xylazine 0.2 IM, SC 5 minutes Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
Swindle, 1991a
Etomidate 4.0–8.0 IV 15 minutes Holzchuh and Cremonesi, 1991
Metomidate 4.0 IV 15 minutes Svendsen and Carter, 1989
Fentanyl–droperidol 1 ml/13.5 kg IM, SC Benson and Thurmon, 1979
0.25–0.5 ml/kg IV 20 minutes Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
Ketamine 11.0 Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Fentanyl–droperidol 1 ml/13.5 kg IM, SC 30 minutes Cantor et al., 1981
Riebold and Thurmond, 1986
Alphaxolone/Alphadolone 6.0–8.0 IM, SC Glen et al., 1979
2.0–3.0 IV 4–10 minutes Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Flecknell, 1987
Etorphine–Acepromazine 0.025 IM, SC 20 minutes Glen et al., 1979
Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Flecknell, 1987
Etomidate–azaperome 4.0–8.0 IV
2.0 IM, SC 15–45 minutes Holzehuh and Cremonesi, 1991
Propofol 0.83–1.66 IV 10–15 minutes Foster et al., 1992
Raff and Harrison, 1989
Ramsey et al., 1993
Metomidate–azaperone 4.0–15.0 IV Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
2.0 IM, SC 15–30 minutes Svendsen and Carter, 1989
434 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

TABLE 15-A.3
Miscellaneous Anesthetic and Perioperative Drugs

Drug name Dose Route of Approximate

(generic) (mg/kg) administration duration References

Atropine* 0.05 IM, SC 30 minutes Riebold et al., 1995

0.02 IV 30 minutes Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Glycopyrrolate 0.004–0.01 IM, SC 30 minutes Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Riebold et al., 1995
Swindle and Bobbie, 1983
Thiopental* 6.6–25.0 IV 10–20 minutes Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
Swindle, 1991
Pentobarbital 20–40 IV 20–30 minutes Bolin and Runnels, 1992
Riebold and Thurmon, 1986
Thurmon and Tranquilli, 1986
Swindle, 1991
Swindle et al., 1988
Naloxone 0.5–2.0 IV Benson and Thurmon, 1979
Nishijima et al., 1988
Trudeau et al., 1988
Yohimbine 1.0 IV Armstead et al., 1988
Bretyllium 3.0–5.0 IV 30 minutes Swindle et al., 1986
Amiodarone* 10–12 IV 30 minutes Swindle, 2007

TABLE 15-A.4
NSAID and Opioid Analgesics

Drug name Dose Route of Approximate

(generic) (mg/kg) administration duration References

Fentanyl 0.05 IM, SC 2 hours Flecknell, 1984

Flecknell, 1987
Swindle, 1991
Blum, 1988
Sufentanil 0.005–0.01 IM, SC 2 hours Flecknell, 1984
Flecknell, 1987
Swindle, 1991
Blum, 1988
Meperidine 2.0–10.0 IM, SC 4 hours Flecknell, 1984
Flecknell, 1987
Swindle, 1991
Blum, 1988
Oxymorphone 0.15 IM, SC 4 hours Flecknell, 1984, 1987
Swindle, 1991
Blum, 1988
Pentazocine 1.5–3.0 IM, SC 4 hours Flecknell, 1984, 1987
Swindle, 1991
Blum, 1988
Butorphanol 0.1–0.3 IM, SC 4–6 hours Flecknell, 1984
Swindle, 1991
Flecknell, 1987
Buprenorphine 0.05–0.1 IM, SC 8–12 hours Hermansen et al., 1986
Rodriguez et al., 2001
Swindle, 1991
Phenylbutazone 10–20 PO 12 hours Swindle, 1991
Swindle et al., 1988

(Continued)
15. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN SWINE 435

TABLE 15-A.4
Continued

Drug name Dose Route of Approximate

(generic) (mg/kg) administration duration References

Aspirin 10 PO 4–6 hours Swindle, 1991

Swindle et al., 1988
Flunixine 1–4 IM, SC 12–24 hours Swindle, 2007
Ketorolac 1 PO, IM, SC, IV 12 hours Swindle, 2007
Ketoprofen 1–3 IM, SC, PO 12 hours Swindle, 2007
Meloxicam 0.4 SC 24 hours Swindle, 2007
Carprophen 2–3 IM, SC, PO 24 hours Swindle, 2007

Note: This chart does not include indications and contraindications of the agents administered. It also
excludes the use of continuous IV infusions of parenteral agents. Please refer to the text for details.

TABLE 15-A.5
Protocol for Routine Surgery without Physiologic Measurements

Preanesthesia Induction Maintenance

Atropine 0.05 mg/kg SC Isoflurane 0.5–2.0%

Ketamine 33.0 mg/kg SC Isoflurane via face mask 4–5% Deliver in oxygen:nitrous oxide
Acepromazine 1.1 mg/kg SC

TABLE 15-A.6
Protocol for Nonsurvival Teaching Laboratories

Preanesthesia Induction Maintenance

Atropine 0.5 mg/kg SC Pentobarbital 20–40 mg/kg IV Pentobarbital 5–15 mg/kg/h IV

Ketamine 33.0 mg/kg SC or or
Acepromazine 1.1 mg/kg SC Thiopental 6.6–25.0 mg/kg IV Thiopental 3.0–6.0 mg/kg/h IV

TABLE 15-A.7
Opioid Infusion Protocol for Cardiopulmonary Bypass with Cardiac Compromise

Preanesthesia Induction Maintenance

Fentanyl 30–50 μg/kg IV or Fentanyl 50–100 μg/kg/h IV or Supplement as required with 0.25–0.5%
sufentanil 7–15 μg/kg IV sufentanil 1–30 μg/kg/h IV isoflurane or with 1.0–2.0% sevoflurane
436 ALISON C. SMITH AND M. MICHAEL SWINDLE

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 Section IV

Practical Anesthesia and Analgesia of

Nontraditional Laboratory Animal Species
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 Chapter 16

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Ferrets

Jeff Ko and Robert P. Marini

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
II. Preanesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
A. Physical Status and Anesthetic Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
B. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Blood Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
III. Anesthetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
A. Physical Restraint, Catheter Placement, Drug Administration, and
Endotracheal Intubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
IV. Preanesthesia: Sedative and Analgesic Drugs in Ferrets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
A. Acepromazine, Diazepam, Midazolam, Xylazine, Medetomidine, and
Dexmedetomidine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
B. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
C. Neuroleptic Sedative Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
D. Dissociative Injectable Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
E. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
V. Anesthetic Induction and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
A. Injectable Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
B. Inhalant Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
VI. Monitoring Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
VII. Recovery and Pain Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
VIII. Special Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
A. Prolonged Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
B. Neonatal Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
IX. Authors’ Preferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
A. Ko . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
B. Marini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

I. INTRODUCTION
used in dogs and cats for anesthesia and pain manage-
ment are used safely in ferrets. However, due to the higher
Ferrets are useful and popular animal models for biomed- metabolic rate, smaller body size and weight of ferrets, there
ical research. Many of the sedative and anesthetic agents are some significant differences in terms of drug dosages

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

443
444 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

and anesthetic management. The purpose of this chapter III. ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUES
is to discuss the use of various sedatives, injectable and
inhalant anesthetic combinations, as well as analgesics in
A. Physical Restraint, Catheter Placement, Drug
ferrets. Techniques for cardiorespiratory monitoring are also
Administration, and Endotracheal Intubation
covered.
The principles for restraining a cat are also applied to the
ferret. The recommended physical restraint is to scruff the
ferret with one hand and hold the hindlimbs and hips with
II. PREANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS the other, gently stretching the ferret (Evans and Springsteen,
1998). Alternatively, a towel can be wrapped around the fer-
A. Physical Status and Anesthetic Selection ret while the animal is vertically suspended by the scruff with
hindlimbs supported. Intravenous (IV) catheters are placed into
The selection of the anesthetic combination depends on jugular, cephalic, or lateral saphenous veins for IV drug and
the physical status, age, and temperament of the ferret; the fluid administration (Evans and Springsteen, 1998). Tail veins
type, length, and invasiveness of procedure; and familiarity have also been used for catheter placement. Ferret skin is tough
with and availability of anesthetics. In addition, anesthetic and contains a large amount of subcutaneous fat (Mason, 1997),
cost also plays a role in drug selection. Understanding which adds to the challenge of IV catheterization. A small knick
anesthetic drug actions and effects on the cardiorespira- in the skin made with the beveled edge of a 20-gauge needle or
tory system will help ensure the safety of the anesthetized a small blade will ease the insertion of the IV catheter. A short
ferret. 22- or 24-gauge over-the-needle style catheter (Evans and
Springsteen, 1998) should be used, though smaller ferrets may
require a 26-gauge catheter instead.
Anesthetic agents are administered subcutaneously (SC) at
B. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Blood Work the dorsal aspect of the neck. The thigh or expaxial muscles are
used for intramuscular (IM) drug administration (Mason, 1997).
Signalment information should include a physical examina- For a small blood sample (e.g., for glucose measurement), per-
tion and blood work that indicates the hydration and glycemic cutaneous venipuncture on the lateral or caudal tail vein works
status, electrolyte and acid–base balance, anemia, or presence well. Larger volumes may be collected from the jugular vein
of infection. Minimal blood work for a generally healthy fer- or cranial vena cava. Endotracheal intubation is necessary for
ret should include a packed cell volume (PCV), total protein effective administration of inhalant anesthetics, proper control
(TP), blood glucose (BG), and blood urea nitrogen (BUN). The of airway, and institution of positive ventilation. Endotracheal
physical exam should reveal a heart rate of 180–250 beats/min, intubation is achieved following anesthetic induction. A cuffed
a respiratory rate of 30–40 breaths/min, and a body tempera- endotracheal tube with a 3-mm internal diameter is best for fer-
ture of 100–104◦ F (37.7–40◦ C). Prior to surgery and anesthesia, rets weighing more than one kg. Smaller ferrets may require an
ferrets require only 3–4 hours of fasting, as prolonged fast- uncuffed 2.5-mm or less internal diameter endotracheal tube. A
ing may induce a profound hypoglycemic state; gastric transit straight Miller number 0 blade or a curved Macintosh number
time is short in ferrets. Along with a prolonged recovery from one laryngeal blade with illumination can be used to visualize
anesthesia, this may also profoundly disturb the acid–base the laryngeal opening of the ferret. Intubation of the ferret is
balance of the ferret. Dehydrated ferrets should be hydrated very similar to that of the cat. Following anesthetic induction
with lactated Ringer’s solution (LRS) based on the severity (except in diseased or unconscious ferrets), the ferret is held in
of dehydration. Usually, 10 ml/kg preoperatively will alleviate sternal recumbency, the mouth is opened with two gauze strips,
dehydration in preparation for surgery. The glycemic status will one holding the upper jaw and the other holding the lower jaw
help determine the volume of 5% dextrose supplementation both behind the canines, and the tongue is exteriorized with a cotton
pre- and intraoperatively. Successful management of long, inva- swab and held with a piece of gauze. The gauze strips placed
sive procedures requires close monitoring of the perioperative behind the canines on the upper and lower jaws open the mouth
glycemic status during the experiment. In addition to 5% dex- while permitting maximum view of the laryngeal opening for the
trose, intraoperative LRS will maintain normal blood pressure person who will intubate. It also prevents injury to the assistant
and help alleviate the deficit from both sensible and insensible holding the ferret’s mouth in the event the plane of anesthesia
fluid lost. Alternatively, 5% dextrose in LRS will maintain eug- is too light. A small amount of topical lidocaine spray applied
lycemia and preserve blood pressure simultaneously. Anemic at the laryngeal opening may facilitate the endotracheal intuba-
ferrets should receive a blood transfusion prior to surgery. Fer- tion but is not necessary. Ferrets are less likely to have laryngeal
rets lack discernable blood groups; cross matching is, therefore, spasms than cats. Proper intubation can be confirmed by visual-
unnecessary. izing “fogging” on the wall of the endotracheal tube, coughing
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 445

and gagging following endotracheal intubation, demonstration TABLE 16-1

of condensation on a dental mirror placed at the oral end of Analgesic Durations of Various Anesthetic Combinations in Ferrets
the tube, or deflection by exhaled air of hair held at the oral
Toe pinch Skin pinch Tail clamp
end of the tube. Capnography can also be used to demonstrate analgesia analgesia analgesia
the cyclic changes of CO2 concentration which indicate proper Drug combinations (IM) (minutes) (minutes) (minutes)
placement of the tube.
Medetomidine (80 μg/kg) 10 ± 8 20 ± 19 16 ± 14
Medetomidine (80 μg/kg), 90 ± 4a 92 ± 4a 91 ± 8a
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
IV. PREANESTHESIA: SEDATIVE AND Medetomidine (80 μg/kg), 93 ± 4a 91 ± 5a 95 ± 0a
ANALGESIC DRUGS IN FERRETS butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
ketamine (5 mg/kg)
Xylazine (2 mg/kg) 40 ± 27 32 ± 18 35 ± 17
Acepromazine, diazepam, midazolam, xylazine, and medeto-
midine have been evaluated for ferret sedation (1-6). The clinical Xylazine (2 mg/kg), 54 ± 11 43 ± 10 69 ± 5
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
effects and reliability of these sedatives range from minimal
Xylazine (2 mg/kg), 69 ± 12 63 ± 15 81 ± 19
effect to profound sedation (Tables 16-1 and 16-2). Recently,
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
dexmedetomidine becomes commercially available in the USA. ketamine (15 mg/kg)
It has been clinically evaluated by the author (Ko) in ferrets with Diazepam (3 mg/kg) 0 0 0
similar outcome as those observed with medetomidine.
Diazepam (3 mg/kg), 0 0 4±9
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
Diazepam (3 mg/kg), 16 ± 23 10 ± 18 20 ± 25
A. Acepromazine, Diazepam, Midazolam, Xylazine,
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
Medetomidine, and Dexmedetomidine ketamine (15 mg/kg)
Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg) 0 0 0
Acepromazine, diazepam, midazolam, xylazine, and medeto-
Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg), 7 ± 14 2±5 16 ± 19
midine have been evaluated for ferret sedation (Evans and butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
Springsteen, 1998; Ko et al., 1997, 1998a; Marini and Fox, Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg), 8 ± 10 7 ± 10 30 ± 26
1998; Mason, 1997; Morrisey et al., 1996). The clinical effects butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
and reliability of these sedatives range from minimal effect to ketamine (15 mg/kg)
profound sedation (Tables 16-1 and 16-2). In ferrets, acepro-
a
mazine is rapidly absorbed following IM injection (Ko et al., If not reversed with atipamezole. All results modified from references
1998a). Ferrets receiving acepromazine at 0.1 mg/kg in an IM Brown (1997), Canadian Pediatric Society (2000), Marini (1994a), Ko (1998c).
Medetomidine in this table can be replaced with 40 μg/kg of dexmedetomidine
injection are sedated within 3 minutes, assume lateral recum- for the similar effects.
bency within 6–13 minutes of drug administration, and are
immobilized (in a position of dorsal recumbency) for approx-
imately 40–50 minutes. The rapid onset of lateral recumbency problems associated with IM administration of diazepam. The
may be related to the disproportionally faster rates of drug transition to lateral recumbency can be associated with excite-
uptake in ferrets compared to (Muir and Birchard, 1997) dogs ment, restlessness, lateral pacing, anxiousness, and sensitivity
and cats. This dose of acepromazine is adequate for ear cleaning, to noise (Ko et al., 1998a). The large IM injection volume of
nail clipping, blood collection, or radiology, but is inade- diazepam (5 mg/ml) also presents a challenge due to the small
quate for intubation. The ferrets are completely mobile after muscle mass of ferrets. Treated ferrets may exhibit temporary
approximately 60 minutes (Ko et al., 1998a). Higher doses of lameness during the recovery period, presumably the result of
acepromazine (0.2–0.5 mg/kg, IM or SC) prolong the recov- the large injection volume as well as the propylene glycol base
ery (Ko et al., 1998a), but a lower dose of acepromazine (Ko et al., 1998a). The poor quality of sedation and muscle relax-
(0.05 mg/kg, IM) is unable to induce reliable sedation in healthy ation, failure to achieve tolerance to intubation, resistance to
ferrets (Ko et al., 1998a). Due to profound vasodilation associ- ear cleaning and nail clipping, and consistent response to noise
ated with alpha-adrenergic blockade hypothermia does occur stimuli are features of diazepam administration in the ferret (Ko
during the prolonged recovery period. Acepromazine, espe- et al., 1998a).
cially at higher doses, should be used with caution in dehydrated Midazolam can be used in ferrets with less pain upon injection
ferrets as it may precipitate hypotension. and more complete absorption following IM administration. The
Diazepam also induces a relatively quick onset of lateral concentration of midazolam is identical to that of diazepam
recumbency in ferrets. Sedation occurs within 4–5 minutes and (5 mg/ml); consequently, the large injection volumes in the fer-
induces a 30- to 40-minute recumbency following diazepam ret (3 mg/kg) remain a concern. Dysphoric reactions, such as
(3 mg/kg, IM) administration (Ko et al., 1998a). There are restlessness, difficult handling, and pacing and vocalization,
446 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

TABLE 16-2
Sedative and Anesthetic Characteristics of Various Injectable Anesthetic Combinations in Ferrets

Time from injection

Time from injection to Duration of Duration of to complete
lateral recumbency dorsal recumbency endotracheal intubation mobilization
Drug combinations (IM) (minutes) (minutes) (minutes) (minutes)

Medetomidine (80 μg/kg) 3±1 >120a 16 ± 14 >120

Medetomidine (80 μg/kg), 3±1 >120a 91 ± 8a >120
butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg)
Medetomidine (80 μg/kg), 2 ± 0.5 >180a 95 ± 0a >180
butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg),
ketamine (5 mg/kg)
Xylazine (2 mg/kg) 2 ± 0.9 68 ± 20 35 ± 17 71 ± 19
Xylazine (2 mg/kg), 2 ± 0.6 82 ± 4 69 ± 5 86 ± 9
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
Xylazine (2 mg/kg), 1±1 94 ± 13 81 ± 19 106 ± 13
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
ketamine (15 mg/kg)
Diazepam (3 mg/kg) 3±1 43 ± 8 0 51 ± 12
Diazepam (3 mg/kg), 3±1 79 ± 11 4±9 85 ± 12
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
Diazepam (3 mg/kg), 4±5 75 ± 34 20 ± 25 95 ± 48
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
ketamine (15 mg/kg)
Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg) 5±3 49 ± 11 0 56 ± 12
Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg), 5±1 79 ± 11 16 ± 19 85 ± 12
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg)
Acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg), 1 ± 0.6 75 ± 34 30 ± 26 95 ± 48
butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg),
ketamine (15 mg/kg)

a
If not reversed with atipamezole. All results modified from references Brown (1997), Canadian Pediatric Society (2000), Marini
(1994a), Ko (1998c). Medetomidine in this table can be replaced with 40 μg/kg of dexmedetomidine for the similar effects.

are reported in dogs and cats in association with the use of and medetomidine is reversed with yohimbine (Sylvina et al.,
midazolam (both IV and IM), and preclude its use as a sole agent 1990) and atipamezole (Ko et al., 1997), respectively. To reverse
in healthy dogs and cats (Ilkiw, 1992). Midazolam and diazepam xylazine (2 mg/kg, IM), the yohimbine dose is 0.5 mg/kg, IM
behave similarly in ferrets and neither is recommended for use (Sylvina et al., 1990). To reverse medetomidine (80 μg/kg, IM),
as the sole compound for sedation in healthy ferrets. The cost the atipamezole dose is the same volume of, or five times the
of midazolam is higher than that of diazepam. medetomidine dose (400 μg/kg, IM) (Ko et al., 1997).
Unlike acepromazine and diazepam, xylazine and medetomi- Acepromazine, diazepam, and midazolam do not have anal-
dine are potent sedatives in ferrets. Both xylazine (2 mg/kg) and gesic properties in the ferret (Table 16-1). Ferrets sedated with
medetomidine (80 mcg/kg) induce rapid immobilization within these sedatives respond to toe and skin pinches with a padded
3–5 minutes following IM injection (Ko et al., 1997, 1998a). hemostat and tail clamping throughout the period of immobi-
The quality of the sedation is excellent when compared to the lization (Morrisey et al., 1996). On the other hand, xylazine and
sedation induced by acepromazine or diazepam alone (Ko et al., medetomidine produce 10–40 minutes of analgesia to padded
1997, 1998a). Xylazine and medetomidine produce profound hemostat toe and skin pinches and tail clamping (Ko et al., 1997,
muscle relaxation adequate for ear cleaning and nail clipping 1998a). It is important when sedating ferrets for painful proce-
but not for intubation (Ko et al., 1997, 1998a). The duration dures to consider not only the sedative properties but also the
of immobilization (in dorsal recumbency) induced by xylazine analgesic properties of the sedative agent.
is approximately 40–70 minutes (Ko et al., 1998a). The dura- Xylazine and medetomidine have more significant depres-
tion of immobilization after medetomidine, if not reversed, is sive effects on the heart rate and systolic blood pressure
greater than 150 minutes. The sedation induced by xylazine than acepromazine and diazepam. The heart rate in ferrets
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 447

sedated with acepromazine or diazepam (209–214 beats/min) Buprenorphine is an opioid partial agonist. It has a slow onset
does not change significantly from baseline or presedation but long duration of action. Following IM administration, the
values (224–236 beats/min), while the heart rate following effect of buprenorphine is observed within 30 minutes and lasts
xylazine or medetomidine sedation is significantly decreased approximately 8 hours (Stoelting, 1987). It is postulated that
(107–127 beats/min) (Ko et al., 1997, 1998a). Systolic blood the long duration of action is due to the slow dissociation of
pressure and respiratory rate both significantly decrease follow- buprenorphine from μ receptors (Stoelting, 1987). Buprenor-
ing administration of any of these sedatives (Ko et al., 1997, phine is used clinically for pain management in ferrets with
1998a); however, all values remain within the acceptable lim- a suggested dosage of 0.01 mg–0.03 mg/kg (IV, IM, or SC)
its (Ko et al., 1998a). In ferrets sedated with these agents and every 8–12 hours (Orcutt, 1998). Buprenorphine (0.02 mg/kg,
breathing room air, the hemoglobin saturation remains within IM) provides good analgesia for up to 6 hours after soft-tissue
normal limits (Ko et al., 1998a). surgery in ferrets. Higher doses of buprenorphine may not pro-
vide any further significant analgesia due to its ceiling effect.
The sedation induced by this dose of buprenorphine appears to
B. Opioids be mild and the mental status of the ferret can be still moni-
tored with ease. Butorphanol is an opioid agonist–antagonist;
Opioid agonists, such as morphine, fentanyl, hydromor- its suggested dose is 0.1–0.5 mg/kg, IM or SC (every 2–4 hours)
phone, and buprenorphine, and agonist–antagonists, such as (Brown, 1997; Orcutt, 1998).
butorphanol, are used for analgesia in preemptive and post-
operative analgesia, or in combination with a sedative as a
neuroleptic–analgesic in ferrets. The recommended clinical C. Neuroleptic Sedative Combinations
doses of opioids in combination with other sedatives in fer-
rets are listed in Tables 16-2 and 16-3. Clinically, morphine and When combined with acepromazine or diazepam in healthy
hydromorphone can be used for anesthetic premedication in fer- ferrets, the analgesic effect of butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg, IM) is
rets. The use of opioids as a premedication provides three advan- unreliable and induces minimal analgesia as assessed by skin
tages, sedation, preemptive analgesia, and an anesthetic sparing and toe pinch and tail clamp (Ko et al., 1997, 1998a, 1998d). In
effect. Morphine (0.25–0.75 mg/kg, SC or IM) or hydromor- contrast, combining the same dose of butorphanol to xylazine
phone (0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IM or SC) induces mild-to-moderate or medetomidine significantly improves the analgesic prop-
sedation in healthy ferrets. Fentanyl at 5–10 mcg/kg can be erties of the neuroleptic–analgesic combination (Table 16-2).
given IV during the surgery to reduce inhalant anesthetic con- When analgesia is desired with an acepromazine–butorphanol
centrations. The use of anticholinergic agents, such as atropine or diazepam–butorphanol combination, a butorphanol dose
(0.04 mg/kg, IM) or glycopyrrolate (0.01 mg/kg, IM), is neces- higher than 0.2 mg/kg is recommended. A higher dose of butor-
sary because these doses of opioid agonists induce bradycardia phanol (i.e., 0.4 mg/kg) is also recommended for preemptive
(heart rate less than 70–80 beats/min) in ferrets. Morphine at or postoperative analgesia in ferrets. The analgesic duration is
lower doses (0.025–0.5 mg/kg) induces vomiting in ferrets; the approximately 2–4 hours.
frequency of emesis increases with increasing dosage (Barnes Butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg) does not facilitate the speed of
et al., 1991). Hydromorphone is less likely to induce eme- immobilization with acepromazine, diazepam, xylazine, and
sis. Morphine and hydromorphone-treated ferrets do not appear medetomidine, but it does increase the duration of immobiliza-
profoundly sedated, but often do not resist handling and manip- tion by approximately 15–20 minutes (Table 16-1) (Ko et al.,
ulation. When using morphine and hydromorphone sedation, IV 1997, 1998a, 1998d). The xylazine–butorphanol combination
catheterization, bandage changing, or other similar procedures provides the most reliable sedation, while the diazepam–
can be performed with minimal resistance. This is a great advan- butorphanol combination induces the poorest quality of sedation
tage for postoperative ferrets, because opioids provide not only in healthy ferrets (Ko et al., 1998d). Ferrets sedated with
sedation but also analgesia. Opioid administration also provides these neuroleptic–analgesic combinations cannot be intubated,
an anesthetic-sparing effect. The isoflurane minimal alveolar which emphasizes that neuroleptic–analgesic combinations
concentration (MAC) in ferrets is 1.52% (Murat and Hous- only induce profound sedation, not general anesthesia (Ko et al.,
mans, 1988). The concentration of isoflurane used for anesthesia 1998d). However, butorphanol (0.1 mg/kg) combined with
during minimally invasive procedures in ferrets is 2% (Marini medetomidine (80 mcg/kg) does permit intubation in ferrets,
et al., 1994b). Morphine (0.25 mg/kg, IV), hydromorphone and this is attributed to the potency of medetomidine (Ko et al.,
(0.05 mg/kg, IV), and butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg, IV) all have 1997). The pain and lameness associated with diazepam injec-
isoflurane-sparing effects ranging from 10 to 35% (Ko, unpub- tion remains a concern when using a diazepam–butorphanol
lished data). The isoflurane-sparing effect of butorphanol is less combination in ferrets (Ko et al., 1998d). Combined with the
than that with morphine and hydromorphone in ferrets. The poor quality of sedation, the use of this combination in healthy
sparing effect of opioids may lessen the intraoperative cardiores- ferrets is precluded. Midazolam (0.2 mg/kg, IM) and hydromor-
piratory depression produced by inhalant anesthetic agents. phone (0.05–0.1 mg/kg, IM) or morphine (0.5–1 mg/kg, IM)
448 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

TABLE 16-3
Neuromuscular Blocking Agents in the Ferret

Degree of Duration of
Agent Initial dose block (%) Onseta Intervala actiona Infusion regimen

Succinylcholine 0.15 mg/kg IV 1 ml/kg/h

(reversal by edrophonium)c
Gallamine hydrochlorided 3.6 mg/kg 3.6 mg/kg/h
Vecuroniume 0.25 mg/kg IV 0.25 mg/kg 1 hour IV
G-1-64f 62 (16)b mcg/kg 86 (2.8) 1.6 (0.21) 4.6 (0.60) 10.5 (1.40)
Mivacuriumf 12 (1.1) 88 (1.6) 2.7 (0.21) 3.3 (0.40) 10.1 (1.20)
Atracuriumf 67 (7.3) 80 (1.8) 1.7 (0.12) 3.4 (0.50) 7.3 (0.50)
Succinylcholinef 150 (20) 91 (5.6) 0.9 (0.07) 1.6 (0.40) 2.7 (0.52)

a
Values shown are in minutes; the values in parenthesis are SEM.
b
Values shown for all agents below G-1-64 inclusive are means; the values in parenthesis are SEM.
c
Marini and Fox (1998).
d
Roe et al. (1992).
e
Yu et al. (2005).
f
Gymerek et al. (1999).

appears to induce a more reliable sedation and better analgesia induced lateral recumbency within 2–3 minutes following IM
in ferrets (authors’ clinical experience). These combinations are injection (Moreland and Glaser, 1985). Although both combi-
well tolerated as a premedication for IV catheterization or face nations effectively immobilize the ferret, incomplete analgesia
mask induction with an inhalant anesthetic. occurs with the diazepam–ketamine combination (Moreland
As with other opioids, combining butorphanol with a seda- and Glaser, 1985). Ketamine and diazepam–ketamine ele-
tive is not without cardiorespiratory side effects. Butorphanol vate heart rate, exceeding baseline values, while heart rate
causes a decrease in blood pressure when administered with decreases following administration of the xylazine–ketamine
diazepam, acepromazine, xylazine, and medetomidine (Ko combination (Moreland and Glaser, 1985). Ventricular pre-
et al., 1997, 1998a, 1998d). When combined with xylazine or mature contractions (VPC) can be seen when using any of
medetomidine, the respiratory depressant effect of butorphanol the three combinations but are more frequently seen with the
is magnified as evidenced by a decreased respiratory rate and xylazine–ketamine combination (Moreland and Glaser, 1985).
increased exhaled CO2 concentrations (Ko et al., 1997, 1998d). The xylazine–ketamine combination induces acceptable muscle
This respiratory depressive effect is augmented greatly when relaxation, analgesia with adequate duration of anesthesia, and
morphine or hydromorphone is used. Hypotension also devel- a smooth recovery. One of the authors routinely uses ketamine
ops 70 minutes postinjection with a diazepam–butorphanol (30 mg/kg IM) and xylazine (3 mg/kg IM) for anesthetic induc-
combination (Ko et al., 1998d). A similar decrease in blood pres- tion in young, healthy ferrets. Anesthesia is adequate for
sure and respiratory depression occurs with the use of morphine, endotracheal intubation, endoscopy, and procedures of similar
oxymorphone, or hydromorphone in ferrets (authors’ clinical stimulus. However, use of this combination requires close moni-
experience). toring for cardiac arrhythmias (Moreland and Glaser, 1985) and
atropine should be used as a premedicant.
Acepromazine, midazolam, and medetomidine also have
D. Dissociative Injectable Combinations been used in combination with ketamine in ferrets. A combi-
nation of acepromazine (0.3 mg/kg) and ketamine (30 mg/kg)
Tiletamine, which is chemically similar to ketamine, is more works well for chemical restraint during blood collection (Evans
potent and has a longer duration of effect than ketamine. Clini- and Springsteen, 1998). Mixed in a 9:1 volume ratio (ketamine
cally, tiletamine is proprietarily combined with zolazepam and 100 mg/ml; acepromazine 10 mg/ml) and administered at a
marketed as Telazol (Lumb and Jones, 1984). Both ketamine dose of 1 ml/3–4 kg, the ketamine–acepromazine combina-
and Telazol are used in ferrets. When used alone, ketamine tion is acceptable for induction and maintenance of light
produces several side effects including poor muscle relax- anesthesia (i.e., acepromazine 0.25–0.33 mg/kg and ketamine
ation, rough recoveries, and possible convulsions (Lumb and 22.5–30 mg/kg) (Evans and Springsteen, 1998). Midazolam
Jones, 1984). To eliminate these side effects, ketamine is (0.4 mg/kg) and ketamine (15 mg/kg) induce adequate sedation
used frequently in combination with diazepam, acepromazine, for IV catheterization and could be used as a premedica-
xylazine, and other injectable anesthetics (Lumb and Jones, tion protocol (Evans and Springsteen, 1998). Medetomidine
1984). Ketamine (60 mg/kg), xylazine (2 mg/kg)–ketamine (80 mcg/kg) combined with ketamine (5 mg/kg) and admin-
(25 mg/kg), and diazepam (3 mg/kg)–ketamine (35 mg/kg) istered intramuscularly induces lateral recumbency within
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 449

3 minutes with consciousness and mobility completely restored and xylazine (0.6 mg/kg) rapidly induces lateral recumbency
after atipamezole (400 mcg/kg, IM) (Ko et al., 1997). If anes- and allows intubation (Ko et al., 1996). When glycopyrro-
thesia is not reversed with atipamezole, the lateral recumbency late (0.01 mg/kg) is co-administered with this combination, it
persists for up to 3 hours. The medetomidine–ketamine com- decreases salivation and prevents bradycardia. However, pro-
bination is useful as an induction and injectable anesthetic fuse salivation with frequent sneezing is common when Telazol
combination, inducing approximately 60 minutes of analgesia, (22 mg/kg) is administered alone despite coadministration of
excellent muscle relaxation, and tolerance to endotracheal intu- glycopyrrolate (Ko et al., 1996). Due to a prolonged, rough
bation for approximately 45 minutes following drug administra- recovery associated with opisthotonus, paddling, and swimming
tion (Ko et al., 1997). The duration of the analgesic effects of this motions, the use of high doses of Telazol is not recommended
combination, as assessed by toe and skin pinch and tail clamp, as a sole agent of injectable anesthesia in the ferret (Ko et al.,
is three times longer than when medetomidine is administered 1996). In addition, the occurrence of hypoxemia during the
alone (Ko et al., 1997). Similar findings were observed using anesthesia period is not uncommon when using Telazol alone or
medetomidine (0.2 mg/kg IM) and ketamine (10 mg/kg IM) in combination; therefore, oxygen insufflation is recommended
in two related species, the European mink (Mustela lutreola) (Ko et al., 1996).
and the polecat (M. putorius) (Fournier-Chambrillon et al.,
2003).
It is not uncommon to use ketamine with neuroleptic– E. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents
analgesic combinations in ferrets. Ketamine (15 mg/kg, IM),
combined with diazepam (3 mg/kg)–butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg), Neuromuscular blocking agents are occasionally required in
acepromazine (0.1 mg/kg)–butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg), or xylazine ferrets, especially in the context of prolonged nonsurvival stud-
(2 mg/kg)–butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg), induces lateral recum- ies, e.g., in neurophysiologic experimentation. The depolarizing
bency and analgesia. However, the duration of recumbency is agent, succinylcholine, apparently behaves as a nondepolariz-
not increased with the addition of ketamine to the neuroleptic– ing agent in the ferret (Tsai et al., 1990). Dosages for the agents,
analgesic combinations (Ko et al., 1998c). The duration of gallamine, vecuronium, and alcuronium (Table 16-4) have
analgesia is less than 10 minutes and few ferrets can be intu- apparently been derived empirically and may not be ideal for
bated when using the diazepam–butorphanol–ketamine and clinical procedures from which animals are expected to recover.
acepromazine–butorphanol–ketamine combinations (Ko et al., Neuromuscular blocking agents present special challenges to
1998c). Limb twitching and body movements are also common investigators, in that attention to depth of anesthesia is criti-
with these combinations, which is inadequate when complete cal. Guidelines promulgated by the National Institute of Health
immobilization is required (Ko et al., 1998c). In contrast, the (National Institutes of Health, 1991) and the National Research
xylazine–butorphanol–ketamine combination provides approx- Council (National Research Council of National Academy of
imately 60–80 minutes of analgesia with complete immobiliza- Sciences, 2003) should be used by investigators and Institutional
tion and 60-minute duration of intubation tolerance (Ko et al., Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs) in developing
1998c). monitoring regimens for ferrets in which paralytics are used.
Cardiac arrhythmias, such as a profound respiratory sinus
arrhythmia and second-degree AV heart block, are commonly
seen with all three ketamine combinations (Payton and Pick,
V. ANESTHETIC INDUCTION AND
1989). VPC and ventricular bigeminy are observed in fer-
MAINTENANCE
rets treated with the xylazine–butorphanol–ketamine combina-
tion. Hypotension has not been reported; however, respiratory
depression is a common side effect of all three ketamine A. Injectable Anesthesia
combinations, and hypoxemia has been seen in xylazine–
butorphanol–ketamine treated ferrets (Payton and Pick, 1989). The Telazol–ketamine–xylazine and xylazine (2 mg/kg)–
Oxygen insufflation, atropine premedication, and close mon- ketamine (25 mg/kg) combinations are preferred because of
itoring for arrhythmias is strongly recommended when using their smooth induction and recovery, good muscle relaxation,
ketamine neuroleptic–analgesic combinations in ferrets (Payton and consistent analgesia (Ko et al., 1998b). In an attempt
and Pick, 1989). to improve the duration of intubation tolerance and analgesia
The use of Telazol and its combinations are reported exten- and shorten the rough recovery, Telazol can be combined with
sively. Telazol has the advantage of a rapid induction of xylazine and butorphanol. A high dose of Telazol (3 mg/kg)
immobilization with a small injection volume (Mason, 1997). At with xylazine (3 mg/kg) and the Telazol (1.5 mg/kg)–xylazine
concentrations of 12 and 22 mg/kg IM, Telazol provides excel- (1.5 mg/kg)–butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg) combination both have a
lent immobilization, though muscle relaxation and analgesia small injection volume (0.02–0.05 ml for a 1–1.5 kg ferret),
is inconsistent when using the lower dose (Payton and Pick, rapid smooth induction and immobilization (within 2 minutes
1989). Telazol (3 mg/kg) combined with ketamine (2.4 mg/kg) of injection), with a longer duration of endotracheal intubation
450 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

TABLE 16-4
Telazol and its Combinations in Ferrets

Injection to lateral Duration of dorsal Analgesic Intubation Injection to complete

Drugs (all IM) recumbency recumbency duration duration mobilization Comments

Telazol (22 mg/kg) 1.4 ± 0.4 70. ± 27 T 17 ± 14 15 ± 15 188 ± 42 Rough recovery,

S 17 ± 11 VPC were noted
TL 16 ± 13
Telazol (3 mg/kg) 1.3 ± 0.2 62 ± 15 T 33 ± 11 43 ± 6 101 ± 10 Hypoxemia—oxygen
supplementation needed
Ketamine (2.4 mg/kg) S 30 ± 10
Xylazine (0.6 mg/kg) TL 34 ± 12
Telazol (1.5 mg/kg) 1.7 ± 0.7 72 ± 12 T 14 ± 14 5 ± 10 74 ± 13 Chemical restraint only
Xylazine (1.5 mg/kg) S 5±6
TL 17 ± 15
Telazol (3 mg/kg) 1.5 ± 0.9 103 ± 13 T 38 ± 27 26 ± 29 117 ± 20
Xylazine (3 mg/kg) S 30 ± 12
TL 41 ± 26
Telazol (1.5 mg/kg) 1.3 ± 0.4 114 ± 23 T 100 ± 12 84 ± 21 115 ± 23 Hypoxemia—100% oxygen
supplementation needed
Xylazine (1.5 mg/kg) S 68 ± 13
Butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg) TL 90 ± 17

Note: T, toe pinch; S, skin pinch; TL, tail clamp. All results modified from references Litchtenberger(2006), Lumb and Jones (1984).

tolerance and analgesia (Table 16-4). However, cardiorespira- With premedicants such as acepromazine, diazepam, xylazine,
tory depression is profound when using the Telazol–xylazine– medetomidine, medetomidine or dexmedetomidine reduce the
butorphanol combination (Ko et al., 1998b). As with other induction dose of propofol to 1–3 mg/kg. Propofol depresses
Telazol combinations, oxygen insufflation is recommended for myocardial contractility in ferrets (Cook and Housmans, 1994).
hypoxemia (Ko et al., 1998b). The negative inotropic effect of propofol results from a decrease
An injectable combination of Telazol, medetomidine (or in intracellular Ca++ availability consequent to inhibition of the
dexmedetomidine), and butorphanol has been recently devel- transsarcolemmal Ca++ influx (Cook and Housmans, 1994).
oped. The Telazol powder is diluted with 2.5 ml of medeto- IV propofol administration in clinically healthy ferrets rapidly
midine (1 mg/ml) or dexmedetomidine (0.5 mg/ml) and 2.5 ml induces oxygen desaturation. As in dogs and cats, respiratory
of butorphanol (10 mg/ml) to form a final volume of 5 ml in the depression, as well as apnea, may also occur following rapid
Telazol bottle. This is administered at a dose of 0.03 ml/kg, IM propofol administration. Ferrets should be intubated quickly
and appears to be an economical, effective, and relatively safe and provided with immediate oxygen supplementation when
combination for ferrets (Ko, unpublished data). propofol is used.
Another total injectable combination is medetomidine
(80 mcg/kg, IM), ketamine (5 mg/kg, IM), and butorphanol
(0.2 mg /kg, IM) combination. This combination provides a B. Inhalant Anesthesia
surgical plane of anesthesia for 60–80 minutes with intubation
tolerance. The advantages of inhalant anesthesia over injectable anesthe-
Propofol can be used in ferrets, but there are several disadvan- sia in ferrets are as follows: (1) a higher concentration of oxygen
tages. Propofol must be administered intravenously. The thick is provided with the inhalant anesthetic (provided nitrous oxide
skin of the ferret makes IV drug administration difficult; there- is not used), (2) the depth of anesthesia is easily adjusted, and
fore, it is best to premedicate the ferret with a sedative prior (3) recovery times are generally shorter. Since a very high per-
to induction. Some practitioners use propofol for intraosseous centage of isoflurane (99%) and sevoflurane (97%) is eliminated
injection through a catheter in a long bone of the ferret. The via respiration, recovery from inhalant anesthetics is almost
advantages of propofol include rapid induction of unconscious- completely independent of liver or kidney metabolism. This
ness, with less tissue irritation than thiopental if perivascular and other features of inhalant anesthesia make their use in the
injection does occur. An induction dose of propofol (6–8 mg/kg) critically ill ferret especially advantageous (Orcutt, 1998). The
without premedication rapidly induces unconsciousness with a disadvantages of inhalant anesthesia include cost, the bulky
relaxed jaw tone, greatly facilitating endotracheal intubation. machine and equipment required, and pollution of the operating
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 451

room when intubation is not achieved and only a face mask is and dp/dt (an index of contractility) as the expired concentration
used for anesthetic maintenance. of sevoflurane increases (MacPhail et al., 2004). Heart rate, cen-
Isoflurane and sevoflurane can be used in ferrets; halothane tral venous pressure, coronary vascular resistance, myocardial
is no longer available commercially. The blood–gas solubility oxygen extraction ratio, and τ (the time constant of relax-
of isoflurane and sevoflurane at 37◦ C is 1.46 and 0.68, respec- ation) remain unchanged. Cardiac external work decreases, as
tively (Paddleford, 1999). The small solubility of sevoflurane does myocardial oxygen consumption, causing increased car-
accounts for the rapid induction and recovery times. Isoflu- diac efficiency at higher concentrations of sevoflurane. These
rane has been the most commonly used inhalant anesthetic in findings indicate that sevoflurane is a safe inhalant anesthetic
ferrets. Ferrets can be induced with a chamber similar to that in ferrets for clinical and research settings (MacPhail et al.,
used for cats. Alternatively, ferrets can be wrapped with tow- 2004). Isoflurane decreases hematocrit, hemoglobin concentra-
els to expose only the head for face mask induction. In healthy tion, and red blood cell counts by 30–38% and plasma protein
ferrets, premedication with a sedative calms the ferret and facil- 20–26% from preanesthetic baseline values in ferrets (Marini
itates face mask induction. Sevoflurane is nonpungent and is et al., 1994a, 1994b, 1997). Changes in plasma volume and
potentially an ideal agent for face mask induction (Paddleford, splenic sequestration of red blood cells induced by hypotension
1999). secondary to these inhalant anesthetics are possible mechanisms
Profuse salivation may be associated with isoflurane cham- (Marini et al., 1994a, 1997). Isoflurane anesthesia in ferrets
ber or face mask induction in ferrets. This may obscure the view causes splenic sequestration of RBCs which is partially reversed
of the laryngeal opening and complicate endotracheal intuba- by phenylephrine infusion or termination of anesthesia. Anes-
tion. The use of atropine (0.04 mg/kg, IM) or glycopyrrolate thetists should be prepared to administer fluids and/or blood
(0.01 mg/kg, IM) may reduce salivation. This method of induc- transfusions for isoflurane-anesthetized anemic, geriatric, or
tion induces profound struggling and excitement in the ferret debilitated ferrets (Litchtenberger, 2006). Sevoflurane may also
due to large volume barrier and slow buildup of inhalant anes- cause these hematologic index changes in the ferret, as clini-
thetic concentration within the induction chamber. Furthermore, cal experience indicates that it decreases red and white blood
chamber induction takes longer, uses more inhalant anesthetic, cell counts, hematocrit, hemoglobin concentration, and plasma
and generates more pollution when the chamber is opened. protein from preanesthetic baseline values. Further studies to
Chamber induction is therefore not recommended for use in elucidate the hematological changes from sevoflurane in the
ferrets. For face mask induction, a small mask covers just the ferret are needed.
nose and mouth of the ferret or alternatively, the entire head is
placed inside the mask for induction. The anesthetic machine is 1. Nonrebreathing Circuits
connected to a nonrebreathing circuit (e.g., a Bain or modified
Inhalant anesthesia is maintained using a Bain or a modi-
Jackson Reese). During face mask induction, oxygen flow is
fied Jackson Rees nonrebreathing circuit. The total oxygen flow
set to 1 L/min with 5% isoflurane or 8% sevoflurane. A towel
rate at induction is 1 L/min and reduced to 300–500 ml/min
gently wrapped around the ferret minimizes struggling during
to minimize the heat loss from the airway. A 200–250 ml/kg
induction. The eyelid aperture and muscle tone of the ferret will
oxygen flow rate is considered adequate to eliminate CO2 in
determine when induction has occurred (Imai et al., 1999). In a
spontaneously ventilated small animals. Since most vaporizers
nonpremedicated ferret, face mask induction achieves a plane
require a minimum oxygen flow rate of 350 ml/min to deliver an
of anesthesia suitable for endotracheal intubation in approxi-
accurate anesthetic concentration, a flow rate of 200 ml/kg in a
mately 3–4 minutes. Premedication with a sedative or sedative
1 kg ferret may be too low for certain vaporizers. Use of higher
combination shortens this time.
flow rates ensures nonrebreathing but does so at the expense of
The published MAC of isoflurane at 37◦ C is 1.52 (Murat
excessive use of inhalant agent and carrier gas (Marini et al.,
and Housmans, 1988). A surgical plane of anesthesia in ferrets
1994a).
requires 1.3–1.5 times the MAC of isoflurane (1.97–2.28%). The
MAC of sevoflurane in the ferret has not been well documented.
2. Ventilators
For skin growth removal, the requirement of sevoflurane in fer-
rets without premedication ranges from 2.5 to 4.5% (authors’ There are several commercial ventilators (Matrix Hallowell,
clinical experience). Sevoflurane and isoflurane have been com- Model 300 Anesthetic ventilator or Surgivet model SAV 2500)
pared in species closely related to the domestic ferret, the with an interchangeable bellow adapted to animals from ferrets
Siberian polecat (M. eversmanni) and the black-footed ferret to dogs and cats. It is capable of delivering a tidal volume from 0
(M. nigripes) (Gaynor et al., 1997). Sevoflurane produces a more to 300 ml. The tidal volume of ferrets is similar to that of cats and
rapid induction and maintains blood pressure better as compared can be estimated as 10–15 ml/kg. This ventilator may be used
to isoflurane. Sevoflurane should be an appropriate anesthetic with this tidal volume, a respiratory rate of 8–10 breaths/min,
for black-footed ferrets (Gaynor et al., 1997). Sevoflurane pro- and a peak inspiratory pressure not exceeding 10–15 cm of water
vides a dose-dependent decrease in arterial blood pressure, left (Marini et al., 1997). Capnography readings of end-tidal CO2
ventricular pressure, systemic vascular resistance, aortic flow, (ETCO2 ) or partial pressure of CO2 in the arterial blood can be
452 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

used to titrate the minute volume (respiratory rate/min × tidal of pulsatile arterial blood in the tissue bed, calculates the per-
volume) of the ferret by either adjusting the respiratory rate, centage of oxyhemoglobin present in the arterial blood, and
tidal volume, or both to achieve an ETCO2 between 35 and provides the pulse rate of the monitored ferret. The pulse oxime-
45 mmHg. Other ventilators capable of delivering small tidal ter probe can be placed on the tongue, the paw, or at the tip of
volumes may also be used (Litchtenberger, 2006). the tail to obtain a reading in the ferret. Pulse oximetry has
rapidly become standard care in anesthetized ferrets; however,
motion (e.g., shivering), ambient light, poor peripheral blood
flow from hypotension or vasoconstriction, electrical noise
VI. MONITORING TECHNIQUES
from electrocautery, increased carboxyhemoglobin and methe-
moglobin levels, and dark skin color can affect the function of
The circulation (cardiovascular function), oxygenation (res- the pulse oximeter. A pulse oximeter reading less than 90% is an
piratory function), ventilation (cardiorespiratory function), indication of hypoxia. Enriched oxygen (100%) should be pro-
body temperature, and depth of anesthesia of the sedated or vided, and respiratory function should be monitored. Artificial
anesthetized ferret must be monitored closely. Use of a stetho- ventilation should be provided if respiratory depression occurs.
scope, esophageal stethoscope, or other audible heart monitor Subjective evaluation of ventilation efficiency of an anes-
aids in assessing the “presence,” “absence,” “regularity,” or thetized ferret is performed by observing chest wall movement
“irregularity” of the heart beat. Alternatively, digital palpation or reservoir bag excursion when the ferret is connected to an
of a peripheral pulse provides a subjective feeling of “presence” anesthesia machine with a nonrebreathing circuit. Auscultation
or “absence”; “strong” or “weak”; “regular” or “irregular.” of breathing sounds via an esophageal stethoscope or an audi-
Assessing capillary refill time of the ferret provides a subjec- ble respiratory monitor determines only respiratory rate and the
tive assessment of tissue perfusion; a capillary refill time longer absence or presence of respiration. Thermistor probes placed
than 3 seconds suggests poor tissue perfusion. Electrocardiog- on the endotracheal tube adapter are available and give a digital
raphy (ECG) is a continuous and accurate assessment of cardiac display of respiratory rate.
arrhythmia. A lead II ECG can be applied with an ECG adhe- Objective evaluation and monitoring of ventilation efficiency
sive pad on the right and left forepaws and the left rear paw. requires either blood gas analysis or capnometry. Arterial blood
Alternatively, an ECG clip on the skin of the fore and rear limbs gas analysis measures arterial blood pH, bicarbonate, and partial
also works. Base-apex leads with the right arm (RA) and left pressures of oxygen and CO2 . PaCO2 is an index of venti-
leg (LL) leads placed next to each other on the right side of the lation efficiency. A less expensive alternative is capnometry,
neck region and the left arm (LA) lead placed on the left side which measures ETCO2 and provides a numerical display of
of the thorax caudal to the heart is another alternative. Lead I CO2 concentration in the expired air. ETCO2 is the partial pres-
or lead III should be selected on the ECG monitor for a clear sure of CO2 at the end of exhalation and reflects the partial
reading of the ECG wave form. Arterial blood pressure pro- pressure of CO2 in the alveoli. The measurement of ETCO2 is
vides information regarding blood flow to the tissues. Arterial useful for determining optimal minute ventilation, hypoventila-
blood pressure may be monitored using noninvasive methods tion, airway disconnection, or airway obstruction. A capnograph
such as a Doppler ultrasound probe coupled with a pressure cuff presents a graphic display of exhaled CO2 gas and ETCO2
and sphygmomanometer or an automated oscillometric device. concentration and also calculates the respiratory rate of the
The advantage of automated oscillometric device (e.g., Cardell patient. ETCO2 concentrations between 35 and 45 mmHg are
blood pressure monitor, Sharn Veterinary Inc. Tampa, FL) over considered normal in anesthetized ferrets. ETCO2 higher than
Doppler ultrasonic device is that the oscillometric is automated 45 mmHg indicates potential ventilation deficiency, while a low
and requires neither experience nor labor of the operator. The ETCO2 indicates either hyperventilation or a low pulmonary
blood pressure cuff can be placed on the assessable limb or circulation.
placed at the base of the tail with the hair clipped. An infant size Monitoring body temperature in the anesthetized ferret is
cuff (size one) can be used. The Doppler ultrasound probe can very important. A temperature probe placed into the esophagus
be placed at the ventral aspect of the paw, or at the base of the or rectum provides continuous body temperature monitoring.
ventral aspect of the tail to get a good signal. Hypothermia can result in bradycardia, hypotension, prolonged
If mean arterial blood pressure is below 60 mmHg, organ recovery, and ultimately death. Moderate-to-severe hypother-
and tissue perfusion is inadequate in an anesthetized ferret. mia (body temperature below 95◦ F or 35◦ C) requires active
Normal systolic blood pressure for an anesthetized ferret is warming. Using towels, insulated surgery tables, warm water
90–120 mmHg. Diastolic blood pressure ranges from 55 to heating blankets, and active forced hot air warmers are effective
90 mmHg. for preventing hypothermia. After surgery, a hair dryer on the
Objective methods for evaluating a ferret’s oxygenation low warm setting will facilitate body warming.
include using blood gas analysis for partial pressure of oxy- The depth of anesthesia should be monitored throughout
gen in arterial blood (PaO2 ), hemoximetry, and pulse oximetry. the procedure to verify that the proper plane of anesthesia is
Pulse oximetry provides a noninvasive, continuous detection maintained. Palpebral reflexes, eyelid aperture, ventral rotation
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 453

TABLE 16-5
Analgesic drug Dosages for Ferrets

Drug/route Dose/route Effects Duration Indications

Opioids
Butorphanol 0.2–0.8 mg/kg, Analgesia/sedation 1–2 hours For mild-to-moderate degree
SC, IM or IV of pain
Morphine 0.25–1 mg/kg, Analgesia/sedation; 3–4 hours For mild-to-severe degree
SC, IM, or IV may vomit, bradycardia of pain
may occurs with doses
higher than 0.5 mg/kg
Hydromorphone 0.025–0.1 mg/kg, Analgesia/sedation, 1–2 hours For mild-to-severe degree
SC, IM or IV occasionally vomit, of pain
bradycardia and
respiratory depression
may occur
Fentanyl 4–10 μg/kg, Analgesia; bradycardia 30 minute For immediate relief of
IM or IV and respiratory severe pain
depression may occur
Buprenorphine 0.01–0.02 mg/kg, Analgesia, slow onset 6–8 hours
SC, IM, IV of effect
Alpha-2 agonists
Medetomidine 0.02–0.04 mg/kg, Analgesia—moderate 30–60 minutes Need sedation with analgesia
SC, IM or IV sedation
Dexmedetomidine 0.01–0.03 mg/kg
SC, IM, IV
Xylazine 1–2 mg/kg Analgesia—moderate 30–50 minutes Need sedation with analgesia
sedation
NSAID
Ketoprefen 1–2 mg/kg, Analgesia, 24 hours In combination with opioids for
SC, IM, IV, PO anti-inflammation severe pain with longer-lasting
analgesia effect
Caprofen 2–4 mg/kg, Analgesia, 24 hours In combination with opioids for
SC, IM, IV, PO anti-inflammation severe pain with longer-lasting
analgesia effect
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg, Analgesia, 24 hours In combination with opioids for
SC, IM, IV or PO anti-inflammation severe pain with longer-lasting
analgesia effect
Local anesthetic
Lidocaine 2 mg/kg, Local analgesia 60 minutes Alleviate pain locally
local infiltration
Bupivacaine 1 mg/kg, Local analgesia 4–6 hours Alleviate pain locally
local infiltration
Mepivacaine 2 mg/kg, Local analgesia 2–3 hours Alleviate pain locally
local infiltration

of the eyeballs, reaction to surgical stimulation, and cardiores- Pain assessment is difficult in ferrets due to the innate
piratory variables all indicate the anesthetic depth of the ferret. ability of ferrets to hide pain. Analgesic agents that work
The depth of anesthesia should be increased if any one of these in dogs, cats, and humans are likely effective in ferrets.
indicates inadequate anesthesia. Preemptive, multimodal pain management techniques using
various analgesic agents acting via different pain pathways
work well in the ferret. Opioids (butorphanol, buprenorphine,
hydromorphone, morphine, and fentanyl), alpha-2 agonists
VII. RECOVERY AND PAIN MANAGEMENT
(xylazine, medetomidine), dissociatives (ketamine, tiletamine
as part of Telazol), local anesthetics (lidocaine, bupivacaine),
Considerations for recovery in ferrets are similar to those and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs, carpro-
encountered in other animals. Attention to heat, energy, and fen, ketoprofen, meloxicam) are effective analgesic agents for
hydration are critical to successful recovery in this species. ferrets.
454 JEFF KO AND ROBERT P. MARINI

Opioids can be included in the anesthetic premedication to is precluded by wrapping the kit in gauze or placing it in the
alleviate intraoperative and postoperative pain with repeated finger of a latex glove, covering the surgery plate with surgical
dosing. Lidocaine (2 mg/kg) or bupivacaine (1–2 mg/kg) can drape, minimizing anesthesia time, and avoiding the use of dry
be diluted with saline and infiltrated at the surgical site prior to ice. Kits should be re-warmed under a heat lamp before return
and after the surgery to alleviate pain. Using an NSAID as part to the jill. Only pluriparous jills that have demonstrated good
of the multimodal analgesic agent following surgery will reduce maternal qualities should be used. Some investigators manip-
inflammation and pain in the ferret. Ferrets, like cats, are defi- ulate only one-half of the litter so that lactation failure in the
cient in the glucuronidation pathway (Litchtenberger, 2006) and jill does not occur should surgically manipulated animals fail to
may metabolize NSAIDs slowly; therefore, ferrets are prone to nurse robustly.
NSAID toxicity, including renal failure, perforation or ulcera- With regard to the induction of anesthesia, it is likely that
tion of the gastrointestinal tract, and bleeding. However, one or the animals experience the same discomfort and response that
two doses of NSAID following surgery are likely to improve the are experienced by any other animal with similar disruptions
quality and duration of analgesia when combined with opioids to homeostasis. This is transient, however, and the animals
or other analgesic agents (Table 16-5). The authors like to use are so small and have so much surface area that cooling is
carprofen at 4 mg per kg, SC or meloxicam at 0.2 mg/kg, SC not prolonged. Cooling slows nerve transmission and this
for ferrets. presumably is the mechanism by which anesthesia eventually
occurs. The authors have experienced variable loss rates, but 80–
100% survival is not uncommon if the operator is experienced.
VIII. SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS Monitoring is minimal due to the small size of the neonate
and the nature of the anesthetic. Hemorrhage greater than
that required to imbue two cotton-tipped applicator swabs with
A. Prolonged Anesthesia blood impacts negatively on survival. Spontaneous respirations
may not recur during the procedure. There is no hemodynamic
Anesthetic regimens for prolonged nonsurvival studies have monitoring, simply the absence of respiration and movement.
been modified from those used in other species. Inhalant anes- With regard to postoperative care, opioids are avoided
thetics at anesthetic concentrations may dampen responses because they typically have a prolonged duration of effect in
under study. The use of nitrous oxide in conjunction with isoflu- neonates and may depress respiration and suckling (Davis,
rane reduces the requirement for the latter due to the carrier gas 1991). NSAIDS or local anesthetic techniques with diluted
effect. It should not be used in excess of 70% of the total gas agents could conceivably be used.
flow. Disadvantages of nitrous oxide, e.g., cost, abuse poten- The consensus is that neonatal humans have the neurologic
tial, failure of absorption by activated charcoal, and diffusion maturity to experience pain; certainly they have behaviors that
hypoxia in the survival setting, must all be considered when are subjectively aversive to potentially noxious stimuli (Anand
planning to adopt its use in an anesthetic regimen. A combi- et al., 2006; Canadian Pediatric Society, 2000). They also show
nation of injectable agents administered either as constant-rate hemodynamic and humoral responses that are consistently asso-
infusions or as intermittent boluses may be used in the setting ciated with the experience of pain. Ferrets have certain sensory
of subanesthetic concentrations of inhalants for the purpose of systems, e.g., the visual system that are extremely altricial at
preserving desired physiologic responses. Opioids, dissocia- birth; research on neonatal pain or the development of the “pain
tives, propofol, benzodiazepines, and neuromuscular blockers pathways” in this species, to the author’s knowledge, does not
are some of the agents used for this purpose in other species. exist. The use of analgesic agents may be required by IACUCs
These techniques must have IACUC-approved provisions for as acceptance of the phenomenon of neonatal pain grows, and as
monitoring adequate depth of anesthesia. practice evolves towards standard administration of these agents
Additional agents used for long-term anesthesia in acute to neonates subjected to surgical procedures.
studies include urethane and barbiturates (Roe et al., 1992).

B. Neonatal Anesthesia IX. AUTHORS’ PREFERENCES

One method of inducing hypothermia in kits is by wrap-

A. Ko
ping them in moist gauze and placing them in a container of
crushed ice until spontaneous movement and respiration have
Telazol–medetomidine (or dexmedetomidine)–butorphanol
stopped. Forty-five minutes of hypothermia in crushed ice typ-
combination in ferrets:
ically yields ten minutes of surgical anesthesia. Maintenance of
anesthesia is produced by placing the kit on a bed of crushed (a) 0.02 ml/kg, IM for moderate-to-profound sedation for
ice or an ice-cooled glass plate. The development of frostbite diagnostic procedures or face mask induction.
16. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN FERRETS 455

(b) 0.03–0.04 ml/kg, IM for anesthesia induction for endo- acepromazine-butrophanol-ketamine, and xylazine-butorphanol-ketamine in
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and endotracheal tube. sevoflurane on hemodynamic and cardiac energetic parameters in ferrets.
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 Chapter 17

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Other Mammals

Jeff Wyatt

I. Marsupialia: Marsupials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

A. Family Didelphidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
B. Family Phalangeridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
C. Family Potoroidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
D. Family Petauridae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
E. Manual Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
F. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
G. Vascular Access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
H. Fluid Therapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
II. Scandentia and Insectivora: Insectivores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
A. Family Tupaiidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
B. Family Soricidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
C. Manual Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
D. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
E. Blood Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
III. Rodentia: Nontraditional Species of Laboratory Rodents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
A. Suborder Castorimorpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
B. Suborder Myomorpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
C. Manual Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
D. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
E. Intraoperative Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
F. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
G. Suborder Sciuromorpha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
H. Suborder Hystricomorpha—Chinchillas, Guinea Pigs, Degus . . . . . . . . . 468
IV. Lagamorpha: Pikas, Hares . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
A. Family Leporidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
B. Family Ochotonidae . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
V. Xenarthra: Edentates (Armadillos) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
A. Nine-Banded Armadillo—Dasypus novemcinctus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
VI. Chiroptera: Bats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
A. Manual Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
B. Chemical Restraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
C. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
D. Blood Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
VII. Carnivora: Bears, Hyena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
A. Grizzly or Brown Bear—Ursus arctos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
B. Spotted Hyena—Crocuta crocuta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
VIII. Prosimii: Gray Mouse Lemur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
A. Gray Mouse Lemur—Microcebus murinus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

457
458 JEFF WYATT

The discipline of comparative medicine contributes to a greater

understanding of life through studies defining and comparing
organisms and processes. Animals other than traditional lab-
oratory species offer unique anatomical, physiological, and
developmental characteristics making them valuable models
for the study of human disease and disorders. Nontraditional
species of laboratory mammals useful in biomedical research
are described with attention to principles of anesthesia and
analgesia.

I. MARSUPIALIA: MARSUPIALS

Marsupials have short gestations, undeveloped neonates,

extended development and lactation in the pouch, metabolic Fig. 17-1 Virginia opossum—Didelphis virginiana.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
rates 26–35% lower than those of equivalently sized eutherian
mammals, and lower core body temperatures, making them
uniquely interesting for biomedical research applications (Holz,
2003; Pye, 2001). The marsupials most commonly used in
biomedical research are found in four families including rel-
atively small species compared to the more familiar macropod
kangaroos and wallabies found in zoos.
Order Marsupialia
Family Didelphidae (New World opossums)
Didelphis virginiana (Virginia opossum)
Monodelphis domestica (short-tailed opossum)
Family Phalangeridae (Australian opossums)
Trichosurus vulpecula (brushtail opossum)
Family Potoroidae
Potorous tridactylus (long-nosed potoroo)
Fig. 17-2 Brushtail opossum—Trichosurus vulpecula.
Bettongia gaimardi (Tasmanian bettong) Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
Family Petauridae
Petaurus breviceps (sugar glider)
attachment to nipples for 3–4 weeks (Moore and Myers, 2006).
The short-tailed opossum has a rudimentary flap of abdom-
A. Family Didelphidae inal skin instead of a pouch (Johnson-Delaney, 2006). The
short-tailed opossum is used in studies of exercise metabolism
1. Virginia Opossum—Didelphis virginiana (Schaeffer et al., 2005), developmental anatomy and physiol-
The Virginia opossum, North America’s only marsupial, is ogy (Kraus and Fadem, 1987; Robinson and Van de Berg, 1994;
nocturnal and weighs 3.7–6.4 kg (Fig. 17-1). They play dead or Stolp et al., 2005), ultraviolet radiation–induced melanoma
“possum” when threatened by a predator. Their gestation is of (Robinson and Van de Berg, 1994), and cytogenetics (Kraus
13 days with a 95–105-day pouch life (Newell and Berg, 2003). and Fadem, 1987). There is no orbital sinus for blood collection
The Virginia opossum is used for studies of gastric banding (Kraus and Fadem, 1987).
(O’Rourke et al., 2006), parasitism (DeStefani et al., 2006;
Dubey et al., 2000), infectious disease (Fitzgerald et al., 2003), B. Family Phalangeridae
metabolism (Weber and O’Connor, 2000), snake venom toxicity
(Neves-Ferreira et al., 2000), neuron regeneration (Wang et al., 1. Brushtail Opossum—Trichosurus vulpecula
1999), and toxicology (Liapis et al., 1997).
The brushtail opossum weighing 1.2–4.5 kg is an arboreal,
nocturnal marsupial found commonly throughout Australia and
2. Short-tailed Opossum—Monodelphis domestica
Tasmania and is considered an agricultural pest (Fig. 17-2).
The short-tailed opossum is a small marsupial (90–155 g) Their gestation is of 18 days with a 16-week pouch life (Meyer,
found throughout the forests of Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, and 2000). The brushtail opossum is used for studying oxytocic and
Paraguay. Their gestation is of 14–15 days with postpartum vasopressor neurohypophyseal peptides (Bathgate et al., 1992).
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 459

C. Family Potoroidae and neonates (Carpenter, 2005; Hernandez-Divers, 2004; Holz,

2003; Pye, 2001; Shima, 1999; Wallach and Boever, 1983) and
1. Long-nosed Potoroo—Potorous tridactylus is the technique recommended by the author. Premedication
of sugar gliders with butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg IM) contributes
The potoroo is a rabbit-sized marsupial common to Australia
to a smooth induction when using a chamber or face mask for
and Tasmania weighing up to 1.8 kg with a 38-day gesta-
delivery of isoflurane (Hernandez-Divers, 2004). Enflurane and
tion and 130-day pouch life (Landesman, 1999). They are
sevoflurane may be used to effect (Carpenter, 2005). Preanes-
used for studies of nonshivering thermogenesis (Nicol, 1978),
thetic fasting of 4–6 hours is recommended, since regurgitation
metabolism (Umminger, 1975), parotid salivary gland function
under anesthesia is possible (Holz, 2003). Other injectables
(Beal, 1992), respiratory physiology (Baudinette et al., 1993;
provide adequate anesthesia for minor procedures or endo-
Nicol et al., 1977; Ryan et al., 1983), and sperm anatomy and
tracheal intubation (Table 17-1). Premedication with atropine
motility and reproductive toxicology (Bryant and Rose, 1985).
0.02–0.05 mg/kg IM, IV, SQ (Carpenter, 2005; Holz, 2003) or
2. Tasmanian Bettong or Rat Kangaroo—Bettongia glycopyrrolate 0.01–0.02 mg/kg IM, IV, SQ (Carpenter, 2005;
gaimardi Shima, 1999) can aid in control of hypersalivation (Tables 17-2
and 17-3).
The Tasmanian bettong is a 1.2–2.3-kg nocturnal marsupial,
extinct in Australia after introduction of the red fox but fairly G. Vascular Access
common in Tasmania. Their gestation is of 21 days and pouch
life of 14 weeks (Lundrigan and Gallego, 2005). They are The jugular, femoral, lateral coccygeal, and cephalic veins are
used for studying thyroid function (Rose and Kuswanti, 2004), accessible for blood collection or catheterization (Holz, 2003;
nonshivering thermogenesis (Rose et al., 1999), reproduc- Wallach and Boever, 1983). The ventral tail vein of the Virginia
tive endocrinology (Rose and MacFayden, 1997), and muscle opossum may be used for blood collection as well as catheteri-
physiology (Ye et al., 1995). zation (Johnson-Delaney, 2006; Wallach and Boever, 1983).

D. Family Petauridae H. Fluid Therapy

1. Sugar Glider—Petaurus breviceps For marsupials used in research, 50–100 ml/kg/day of crystal-
loid fluids may be administered subcutaneously using a butterfly
The sugar glider is a small (80–140 g) Australian, arboreal catheter (Johnson-Delaney, 2006). A femoral intraosseous
marsupial gaining popularity in the U.S. pet trade. They have a catheter may be used for fluid replacement in sugar gliders,
gliding membrane extending between the fore and hind limbs. short-tailed opossums, and Virginia opossums by first anes-
They become torpid at cool temperature extremes. The gestation thetizing the animal and aseptically preparing the hip area as
is of 16 days with a 70-day pouch life (Passata, 1999). They if for surgery. After an optional local skin block (2% lidocaine),
are used for studies of thermoenergetics (Holloway and Geiser, a 1 in., 18–22-gauge hypodermic or spinal needle is placed into
2001a, 2001b), aerobic metabolism (Holloway and Geiser, the proximal aspect of the femur through a small skin inci-
2001a, 2001b), depression (Jones et al., 1995), metabolism sion. After taping the needle in place, administer warmed fluids
(Bradley and Stoddardt, 1990), angiography (Buttery et al., at 5 ml/h. Avoid fluids with glucose since marsupials develop
1990), gliding physiology (Endo et al., 1998), and transthyretin cataracts and hepatic lipidosis with dextrose-containing fluids
expression (Duan et al., 1995). (Johnson-Delaney, 2006).

E. Manual Restraint II. SCANDENTIA AND INSECTIVORA:

INSECTIVORES
The small marsupials used in biomedical research may be
firmly gripped behind the head and the tail base or hind legs for
placement in an anesthetic induction chamber or administration Insectivores used in biomedical research include shrews
of intramuscular injections (Holz, 2003; Pye, 2001; Wallach (Sorex sp, Cryptotis sp, Suncus sp, Tupaia sp) and hedgehogs
and Boever, 1983). Sugar gliders may be restrained in a bag all with rapid heart rates (up to 800 beats/min for shrews),
with head exposed for mask induction with isoflurane or leg high metabolic rates, rod-prominent retinas, small brains with
exposed for IM injection (Pye, 2001). few fissures, low body temperatures 91–95◦ F (33–35◦ C), and
seasonal torpor or hibernation at temperatures less than 65◦ F
(18◦ C) (Barbiers, 2003; Fine et al., 1986; Wallach and Boever,
F. Chemical Restraint
1983).
Isoflurane is the agent of choice for both induction via mask Order Scandentia
(3–5%) or chamber as well as maintenance (1–3%) for adults Family Tupaiidae
460 JEFF WYATT

TABLE 17-1
Injectable Anesthetics for Marsupials

Species Drug dosage and route References

a
All opossums Ketamine 20 mg/kg IM plus xylazine 10 mg/kg IM Holz, 2003
Tiletamine/zolazepam 5–10 mg/kg IM Holz, 2003; Pye, 2001; Wallach and Boever, 1983
Tiletamine/zolazepam 1–3 mg/kg IV Pye, 2001
Short-tailed opossum Ketamine 40 mg/kg IM hind limb Robinson and Van de Berg, 1994
Potoroos Ketamine 30 mg/kg IM plus xylazine 6 mg/kg IM Holz, 2003
Tiletamine/zolazepam 3.3–19.1 mg/kg IM Pye, 2001
Tiletamine/zolazepam 14.7 mg/kg IM Schobert, 1987
Ketamine 30 mg/kg IM (1 hour duration) Pye, 2001
Bettong Pentobarbital 60 mg/kg IP for terminal perfusion Ye et al., 1995
Sugar glidersb Ketamine 30 mg/kg IM plus xylazine 6 mg/kg IM Holz, 2003
Ketamine 20 mg/kg IM followed with isoflurane Carpenter, 2005; Pye, 2001
Tiletamine/zolazepam causes neurologic syndromes and death at 10 mg/kg Carpenter, 2005; Pye, 2001
Virginia opossum Tiletamine/zolazepam 10–20 mg/kg IM supplemented with ketamine Shima, 1999
10–25 mg/kg IM or 5–10 mg/kg IV (do not supplement with tiletamine/
zolazepam due to prolonged recovery)
Brushtail opossum Ketamine 50 mg/kg IM plus xylazine 10 mg/kg IM Bathgate et al., 1992
Tiletamine/zolazepam 10 mg/kg IM Pye, 2001
Tiletamine/zolazepam 7.7–11.5 mg/kg IM Schobert, 1987

a
Reversal with yohimbine 0.2 mg/kg IV or atipamezole 0.05–0.4 mg/kg IV.
b
Provided with heat during anesthesia to prevent torporous state.

TABLE 17-2 include ophthalmology (Cao et al., 2003; Siegwart and Norton,
Sedatives and Tranquilizers—Short-Tailed Opossum, Virginia 2005), neurology (Remple et al., 2006; Chuncher and Somana,
Opossum, Sugar Glider 2006), gallstone induction (Schwaier, 1979), hepatocellular car-
cinoma (Cao et al., 2003), and kinematics (Fischer et al., 2002;
Drug Dosage and route References
Vinyard et al 2005).
Diazepam 0.5–2 mg/kg IM, PO, IV Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Butorphanol 0.1–0.4 mg/kg SQ, IM q Johnson-Delaney, 2006
6–8 hours B. Family Soricidae
Medetomodine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM with Johnson-Delaney, 2006
ketamine 2–3 mg/kg IM 1. Etruscan or Pygmy Shrew—Suncus etruscus
Diazepam 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
(sugar glider) The pygmy shrew is the smallest living mammal weigh-
ing 1.8–3 g and measuring 1.38–1.97 in. long. It has a high
metabolic rate with high-energy demands, eating crickets
Tupaia glis (common tree shrew) and mealworms in captivity (Ferry and Olson, 2005). Uses
Order Insectivora in biomedical research include studies of muscle physiology
Family Soricidae (Anjum et al., 2006; Peters et al., 1999), metabolism (Magnanou
Suncus etruscus (Etruscan, pygmy shrew) et al., 2005), and oxygen transport (Fons et al., 1997).
Suncus murinus (Asian house musk shrew)
Sorex araneus (long-tailed shrew) 2. Asian House Musk Shrew—Suncus murinus
Cryptotis parva (small-eared shrew)
The musk shrew is a mouse-sized insectivore (23–147 g)
with a high metabolic rate requiring multiple feeding periods
A. Family Tupaiidae
(Fig. 17-3). They are invasive and emit a musky odor thwart-
ing predators (Lench and Yahnke, 2004). Uses in research
1. Common Tree Shrew—Tupaia glis
include studies of periodontitis (Takata et al., 1999), behav-
The common tree shrew is a 142 g squirrel-sized omnivore ior (Tsuji et al., 1999), emesis (Lau et al., 2005; Uchino et al.,
classified as a primate in 1965 due to musculature, brain, skull, 2006), metabolism (Suzuki et al., 2006; Takeuchi et al., 2006),
and eye development and reproductive characteristics, but later immunology (Suzumoto et al., 2006), gastroenterology (Yi
reclassified in the Order Scandentia, a highly specialized insec- et al., 2006), and reproductive physiology (Kaneko et al., 2003;
tivore (Lundrigan and Cisneros, 2005). Research applications Temple, 2004).
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 461

TABLE 17-3
Analgesics for Small Marsupial Species

Species Drug Dosage and route References

Short-tailed opossum Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg SQ, IM q 8 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006

Butorphanol 0.1–0.5 mg/kg SQ, IM q 6–8 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Carprofen 1.0 mg/kg PO, SQ q 12–24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO SQ q 24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Virginia opossum Buprenorphine 0.1 mg/kg SQ, IM q 8–12 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Butorphanol 0.1–0.5 mg/kg SQ, PO q 6–8 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Carprofen 1.0 mg/kg PO, SQ q 12–24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO, SQ q 24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Sugar glider Buprenorphine 0.01 mg/kg SQ, IM q 6–8 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
0.01–0.05 mg/kg IM q 8–12 hours Pye, 2001
Butorphanol 0.2–0.5 mg/kg IM q 8 hours Pye, 2001
0.5 IM mg/kg Pollock, 2002
0.5 IM mg/kg q 8 hours Carpenter, 2005
Butorphanol 1.7 mg/kg plus acepromazine 1.7 mg/kg, Carpenter, 2005
both given PO to prevent self-trauma at incision site
Ketamine 10 mg/kg plus acepromazine 1 mg/kg, both given
SQ to prevent self-trauma at incision site
Morphine 0.1 mg/kg SQ, IM q 6–8 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Carprofen 1.0 mg/kg PO, SQ q 24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO, SQ q 24 hours Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Flunixin meglumine 0.1–1.0 mg/kg IM q 12–24 hours Carpenter, 2005

Fig. 17-3 Musk shrew—Suncus murinus.

Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
Fig. 17-4 Small-eared shrew—Cryptotis parva.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

3. Eurasian Shrew—Sorex araneus

The Eurasian shrew, a small insectivore weighing 5–14 g, bur- environmental toxicology (Darmani et al., 2005; Mock et al.,
rows underground and eats primarily earthworms and spiders 2005), emesis (Darmani and Crim, 2005), and renal physiology
(Taylor, 2002). Uses in research include studies of neurol- (Goldstein and Newland, 2004).
ogy (JN et al., 2006), evolutionary genetics (Bannikova et al.,
2006; Bassett et al., 2006), metabolism (Ochocinska and Taylor,
C. Manual Restraint
2005), and ophthalmology (Peichl et al., 2000).
Clear acrylic tubes facilitate visual examination of shrews
4. Small-eared Shrew—Cryptotis parva
and hedgehogs without stress associated with manual restraint
The least shrew, weighing from 4 to 6.5 g, plays a valu- (Barbiers, 2003; Isenbugel and Baumgartner, 1993). Repeated
able role in controlling insects throughout the Americas (Fox, attempts and prolonged restraint may lead to cardiogenic shock
1999a, 1999b) (Fig. 17-4). Uses in research include studies of and death (Isenbugel and Baumgartner, 1993). Gloves should
462 JEFF WYATT

be worn when handling species (e.g., Sorex cinereus, Solen- anesthetic of choice (Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005; Isen-
don pardoxus) that produce venom from submaxillary glands bugel and Baumgartner, 1993; Wallach and Boever, 1983).
(Barbiers, 2003). Heavy stroking over the back or holding Endotracheal intubation with feeding tubes or catheters is
the head downward toward a surface encourages the reluctant possible but difficult due to the small oral cavity (Barbiers,
hedgehog to unroll (Pye, 2001). 2003; Carpenter, 2005). Premedication with butorphanol (0.05–
0.4 mg/kg SQ) or buprenorphine (0.01 mg/kg SQ) contributes
D. Chemical Restraint to a smooth induction in an inhalation chamber (Hernandez-
Divers, 2004). Monitor body temperature, since small body
Isoflurane administered by face mask or induction cham- size may predispose to hypothermia during anesthetic episodes.
ber (3–5%) with face mask maintenance (0.5–3.0%) is the Small shrews may be at risk of hyperthermia during stress
(Barbiers, 2003). Injectable analgesics (Table 17-4) and anes-
TABLE 17-4 thetics (Table 17-5) are typically given intramuscularly into the
Injectable Analgesics for Hedgehogs (which may be orbicularis panniculi muscle between spines, the anterior thigh
Applied to Other Insectivores) musculature, or triceps muscle of hedgehogs. The orbicularis
Drug Dosage and route References panniculi muscle, which allows the hedgehog to curl up into
a ball, extends from the skull over the midline and laterally to
Buprenorphine 0.1 mg/kg SQ, IM Carpenter, 2005 the nonspiny, haired ventrum. Avoid the dorsal neck region as
q 6–8 hours
an injection site due to the presence of brown fat which may
0.01–0.5 mg/kg Carpenter, 2005
SQ, IM q 8–12 hours delay absorption. Preanesthetic treatment with atropine 0.01–
0.01 mg/kg SQ IM Johnson-Delaney, 2006 0.04 mg/kg IM is recommended for hedgehogs (Carpenter,
q 6–8 hours 2005) and should be considered for other insectivores.
Butorphanol 0.05 mg/kg SQ q 8 hours Carpenter, 2005
0.05–0.1 mg/kg SQ, Carpenter, 2005 E. Blood Collection
IM q 8 hours
0.2–0.4 mg/kg SQ, Carpenter, 2005
IM q 6–8 hours
Small samples may be collected from the lateral saphenous,
0.05–0.4 mg/kg SQ, Johnson-Delaney, 2006 cephalic, jugular, or femoral veins. Hematocrits may decrease
IM q 6–8 hours significantly during hibernation (Barbiers, 2003; Wallach and
Morphine 0.1 mg/kg IM Johnson-Delaney, 2006 Boever, 1983).
Naloxone 0.1 mg/kg SQ, IM Johnson-Delaney, 2006
q 6–8 hours
III. RODENTIA: NONTRADITIONAL SPECIES OF
Flunixin 0.03 mg/kg Carpenter, 2005
meglumine IM q 8 hours LABORATORY RODENTS
0.3 mg/kg SQ q 24 hours Carpenter, 2005
Carprofen 1.0 mg/kg PO, Johnson-Delaney, 2006 Rodents other than Rattus norvegicus, Mus musculus, Cavia
SQ q 12–24 hours
porcellus, and Meriones unguiculatus described below offer
Meloxicam 0.2 mg/kg PO, Johnson-Delaney, 2006
unique anatomic and physiologic characteristics making them
SQ q 24 hours
valuable for scientific studies (Fine et al., 1986).
TABLE 17-5
Injectable Anesthetics for Insectivores

Drug Dosage and route Comments References

Diazepam 0.5–2.0 mg/kg IM Mild sedation Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005;

Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Ketamine 5–20 mg/kg IM Used in combination with xylazine or valium Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005
Medetomidine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM Light sedation Carpenter, 2005; Johnson-Delaney, 2006
0.2 mg/kg IM Heavy sedation Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Medetomidine plus ketamine 0.2 mg/kg SQ; 2.0 mg/kg SQ; Reverse with atipemazole 1.0 mg/kg IM; Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005
plus fentanyl 0.1 MG/kg SQ reverse with naloxone 0.16 mg/kg IM
Ketamine plus medetomidine 5 mg/kg IM; 0.1 mg/kg IM Reverse with atipamezole 0.3–0.5 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus xylazine 10–20 mg/kg IM; 2 mg/kg IM Wallach and Boever, 1983
Ketamine plus xylazine 10 mg/kg IM; 2 mg/kg IM For endotracheal intubation of tree shrew Ohl et al., 1999
Ketamine plus xylazine 10–20 mg/kg IM; 1 mg/kg IM 20–30 minutes anesthesia in shrews Isenbugel and Baumgartner, 1993
Tiletamine/zolazepam 1–5 mg/kg IM Prolonged recovery Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005
Xylazine 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM Given with ketamine; reverse with Yohimbine Barbiers, 2003; Carpenter, 2005
0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 463

Order Rodentia (from Latin, rodere, to gnaw) and Quimby, 2002), reproduction (Ewel, 1972), thermoregu-
Suborder Castorimorpha lation (Bradley and Yousef, 1975), and hearing (Heffner and
Family Geomyidae: pocket gophers (true gophers) Heffner, 1990).
Family Heteromyidae: kangaroo rats and kangaroo
mice
Suborder Myomorpha
2. Family Heteromyidae
Family Cricetidae: hamsters, rice rat, pack rat, voles
Family Muridae: true mice & rats, gerbils, multimam- a. Kangaroo rat—Dipodomys sp.
mate rat, sand rat, cotton rat
Two species of kangaroo rats (D. spectabilis and D. merriami)
Family Nesomyidae: white-tailed rat
weigh 35–180 g, hop like kangaroos and are found throughout
Suborder Sciuromorpha
the western United States (Fig. 17-6). Uses in research include
Family Sciuridae: squirrels, woodchucks, prairie
studies of behavior (Preston and Jacobs, 2005), renal physi-
dogs
ology, water conservation (Banta and Holcombe, 2002), and
Suborder Hystricomorpha
decompression sickness (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002).
Family Chinchillidae: chinchillas, viscachas
Family Octodontidae: degu
Family Caviidae: cavies, guinea pigs
B. Suborder Myomorpha

A. Suborder Castorimorpha Myomorphs include hamsters, rats, mice, gerbils„ and

voles. All rodents in this suborder have a myomorphous zygo-
Castorimorphs include beavers, pocket gophers, and kanga- masseteric system where masseter muscles extend over an
roo rats. All rodents in this suborder have a sciuromorphous expanded and tilted zygoma as seen in sciuromorphs and an
zygomasseteric system where the ventral surface of the zygoma enlarged foramen seen in hystricomorphs (Korth and Emry,
tilts and broadens into a zygomatic plate with the masseter lat- 1991).
eralis extending forward onto the rostrum and the masseter
superficialis extending forward along the zygoma (Korth and
Emry, 1991).
1. Family Cricetidae

1. Family Geomyidae a. Rice rat—Oryzomys palustris

a. Pocket gopher—Geomys sp., Thomomys sp. The rice rat is a 40–80 g South American rat used for studies
of periodontal disease (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002), repro-
Pocket gophers are small rat-sized rodents with fur-lined duction (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002; Edmonds and Stetson,
cheek pouches; these are found in the Canadian and U.S. Rocky 1995; Edmonds et al., 2003), and environmental toxicology
Mountains (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002) (Fig. 17-5). Research (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002; Smith et al., 2006a, 2006b)
applications include studies of molecular evolution (Donnelly (Fig. 17-7).

Fig. 17-5 Pocket gopher—Geomys sp. Fig. 17-6 Kangaroo rat—Dipodomys sp.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library. Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
464 JEFF WYATT

Fig. 17-9 Deer mouse—Peromyscus maniculatus.

American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

Fig. 17-7 Rice rat—Oryzomys palustris.

Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

Fig. 17-10 Meadow vole—Microtus pennsylvanicus.

Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

Fig. 17-8 Allegeheny wood rat—Neotoma floridana.

American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library. throughout North America (Fig. 17-9). Uses in biomedical
research include studies of zoonoses (Rizvanov et al., 2006),
reproduction (Trainor et al., 2006), genetics, physiology, aging,
b. Pack rat—Neotoma sp.
cataracts, and behavior (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002; Martin
The five species of wood rats used in research (N. floridana, et al., 2006).
N. albigula, N . mexicana, N. cinerea, and N. fuscipes) are most
well known for their foraging behavior of carrying shiny objects
d. Voles and meadow mice—Microtus sp.
to large nests (Fig. 17-8). Research applications include studies
of infectious disease, parasitology, toxicology (Boyle and Dear- Seven species of voles weighing 30–40 g are found in Europe
ing, 2003; Dearing et al., 2006), and snake venom toxicology and North America (Fig. 17-10). Uses in research include
(Donnelly and Quimby, 2002). studies of thermogenesis (Wang et al., 2006), reproductive
physiology (Bales et al., 2007; Hayes and De Vries, 2007), car-
diology (Grippo et al., 2007), environmental toxicology (Smith
c. White-footed or deer mouse—Peromyscus sp.
et al., 2006a, 2006b), nutrition, epilepsy, behavior, infectious
Two species of deer mice (white-footed mouse—P. leuco- and parasitic disease, diabetes mellitus, and atherogenic diets
pus and deer mouse—P. maniculatus), weighing 19–22 g, range (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002).
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 465

Fig. 17-11 Grasshopper mouse—Onychomys torridus. Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

e. Cane mice—Zygodontomys brevicauda

The cane mouse, weighing about 100 g, is found throughout
Central and South America. Uses in research include studies
of reproduction, photoperiod, and infectious disease (Donnelly
and Quimby, 2002; Fulhorst et al., 1999).

f. Grasshopper mouse—Onychomys sp.

Two species of the grasshopper mouse (O. torridus and
O. leucogaster), weighing 30–60 g, are found in prairies and
deserts of North America from Canada through Mexico
(Fig. 17-11). Uses in research include studies of muscle physiol-
ogy (Satoh and Iwaku, 2006), infectious and parasitic diseases,
cancer induction, and epilepsy (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002).
Fig. 17-12 Cotton rat—Sigmodon hispidus.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
2. Family Muridae (includes Mus muris, Rattus norvegicus)
a. Sand rat—Psammomys obesus 2002). Uses in biomedical research include studies of para-
sitology (Holt et al., 2006; Hurkova-Hoffmanova et al., 2007),
The fat sand rat, found in North Africa, weighs 125–208 g renal physiology (Ntshotsho et al., 2004), and carcinogenesis
and has black skin, large black eyes, a black tail tip fur tuft, and (Helfrich et al., 2004; Koga et al., 2002).
light brown to red body fur (Biagi and Myers, 2004). Biomedical
research applications for the obese sand rat include studies of the c. Cotton rat—Sigmodon hispidus
pancreas (Jorns et al., 2006; Vedtofte et al., 2007), nutritionally
induced type 2 diabetes (Kaiser et al., 2005; Shafrir et al., 2006), The cotton rat weighing 80–130 g is found from the
fatty liver (Maislos et al., 2006), and disk degeneration and Mid-Atlantic United States through Argentina (Donnelly and
spondylosis (Adler et al., 1983). Quimby, 2002; Sainsbury, 2003) (Fig. 17-12). They resist
manual restraint and are best handled with gloves or mechani-
cally restrained in transfer tubes or nest boxes. Uses in research
b. Multimammate rat—Mastomys natalensis
include studies of infectious (Ottolini et al 2005; Williams et al.,
The multimammate rat, an African rodent, weighs 20–80 g 2005; Yim et al., 2005) and parasitic disease, carcinogenesis,
and has 8–18 pairs of mammary glands (Donnelly and Quimby, and environmental toxicology (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002).
466 JEFF WYATT

3. Family Nesomyidae Donnelly and Quimby, 2002; Sainsbury, 2003) and is the
method preferred by the author. Sedatives and tranquilizers
a. White-tailed rat—Mystromys albicaudatus
administered 30–60 minutes prior to face mask (0.5–3%) or
The white-tailed rat is an African rat weighing 75–185 g chamber induction may ensure a smoother induction (Table 17-
(Donnelly and Quimby, 2002) used in studies of infectious dis- 6). Inhalation anesthetic administration in rodents that are
ease (Shepherd et al., 1989; Waggie et al., 1986), parasitology difficult to handle may best be accomplished by placing the
(Donnelly and Quimby, 2002), diabetes mellitus (Donnelly and rodent inside an opaque nest box or an extending tube from the
Quimby, 2002), and carcinogenesis (Roebuck and Longnecker, home cage into an induction chamber. Frequent observations of
1979; Yamamoto et al., 1972). depth of anesthesia are required if the rodent cannot easily be
seen inside the nest box. Dangerously high levels of anesthetic
may be produced when using a chamber with cotton or gauze
C. Manual Restraint soaked in inhalant anesthetic (Sainsbury, 2003). Once the right-
ing reflex is lost, anesthesia in nontraditional laboratory rodents
Nontraditional species of laboratory rats, mice, voles, and may be maintained by inhalation anesthesia (face mask or intu-
gophers described above are commonly fractious and difficult bation) or by injectable agents (Tables 17-7–17-9). The author
to manually restrain. In Rattus sp. and Mus sp., manual restraint also uses injectable anesthetics and analgesics recommended
techniques should be performed using gloves and with great for M. musculus and R. norvegicus in nontraditional mouse and
caution to avoid tail injury (degloving or amputation) if the rat species. Atropine administered at 0.05 mg/kg SQ (Sainsbury,
animal struggles (Cantwell, 2001; Carpenter, 2005, Donnelly 2003) or 0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM or SQ (Carpenter, 2005) or glycopy-
and Quimby, 2002; Sainsbury, 2003). rrolate at 0.01–0.02 mg/kg SQ (Carpenter, 2005) reduces oral
and respiratory mucus secretions.
D. Chemical Restraint
E. Intraoperative Management
Isoflurane inhalation anesthesia via induction chamber (3–
5%) minimizes complications with manual restraint of wild For prevention of tissue trauma, hypovolemia, and hypother-
or easily stressed rodents (Cantwell, 2001; Carpenter, 2005; mia, nontraditional laboratory mouse, rat, and gopher species
should be given the same attention as given to M. musculus and
R. norvegicus. Subcuticular, absorbable sutures reduce post-
TABLE 17-6 operative chewing of sutures and hence eliminate the need for
Sedatives and Tranquilizers for all handling for suture removal (Sainsbury, 2003).
Nontraditional Mouse and Rat Species
(Especially Useful 30–60 Minutes Prior to TABLE 17-8
Isoflurane Mask or Chamber Induction) Analgesics for Nontraditional Laboratory Mice and Rats

Drug Dosage Drug Dosage

Diazepam 2.5–5.0 mg/kg IP Buprenorphine 0.01–0.05 mg/kg SQ q 8–12 hours

Midazolam 2.5–5.0 mg/kg IP Butorphanol 1–5 mg/kg SQ q 3–4 hours
Acepromazine 0.5–5.0 mg/kg IP Flunixin meglumine 2–5 mg/kg SQ q 8–12 hours

All dosages are from Sainsbury (2003). All dosages are from Sainsbury (2003).

TABLE 17-7
Injectable Anesthetics for all Nontraditional Laboratory Rat and Mouse Species

Drug Dose Reversal

Ketamine plus diazepam 20–100 mg/kg IP/IM; 2–8 mg/kg IP/IM na

Ketamine plus acepromazine 40–150 mg/kg IP/IM; 0.5–5.0 mg/kg IP/IM na
Tiletamine/zolazepam 22–80 mg/kg IM/IP na
Alphaxolone/alphadolone (Saffan™) 40–150 mg/kg IP na
Fentanyl/fluanisone/midazolam (Hypnorm/Hypnovel™) 2.7–10 ml/kg IPa Butorphanol 2 mg/kg IP
Fentanyl/fluanisone (Hypnorm™) 0.4–1.0 ml/kg Butorphanol 2 mg/kg IP
Fentanyl/droperidol (Innovar Vet™) 0.44–0.9 ml/kg IM Butorphanol 2 mg/kg IP
Ketamine plus medetomidine 40–100 mg/kg; 0.25–1.0 mg/kg IP Atipemazole

All dosages are from Sainsbury (2003).

a
One part of fentanyl/fluanisone plus two parts of sterile water and one part of midazolam (5 mg/ml initial concentration).
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 467

TABLE 17-9
Species-Specific Drugs

Species Drug Dosage and route References

White-tailed rat Sodium pentobarbital 60 mg/kg IP Donnelly and Quimby, 2002

Sodium pentobarbital 40–50 mg/kg IP Padovan, 1985
Pack rat (wood rat) Ketamine 30–110 mg/kg IM Donnelly and Quimby, 2002
Degu Ketamine plus diazepam 40–50 mg/kg IM; 0.8–1 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
Diazepam 1–5 mg/kg IM, PO, IV—sedation Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Butorphanol 1–5 mg/kg SQ q 4 hours—sedation Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Medetomidine 0.1 mg/kg SQ—sedation Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Buprenorphine 0.05 mg/kg SQ q 8–12 hours—analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Butorphanol 0.4–2.0 mg/kg SQ q 8–12 hours –analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meperidine 10–12 mg/kg SQ q 2–3 hours –analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Morphine 2–5 mg/kg SQ q 4 hours—analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Naloxone 0.05 mg/kg SQ, IP once—analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Oxymorphone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg q 6–12 hours—analgesia Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Peromyscus sp. Ketamine plus xylazine 50 mg/kg IM; 50 mg/kg IM provides 31–79 minutes of anesthesia Silverman and Ingram, 1986
All species of mice
Ketamine 30–40 mg/kg IM (short-term chemical restraint) Wallach and Boever, 1983
Sodium pentobarbital 30–70 mg/kg IP (dilute stock solution 1:10) Wallach and Boever, 1983
Fentanyl/droperidol (Innovar Vet™) 0.5–0.7 ml/kg IM Wallach and Boever, 1983

F. Recovery TABLE 17-10

Injectable Anesthetics for Ground Squirrels
A recovery area for small rodents (<500 g) and larger rodents
should be 35–37◦ C and 25–35◦ C, respectively. Ambient tem- Drug Dosage

perature should be reduced to 20–25◦ C once the righting reflex Ketamine plus xylazinea 85.5 (±3.4) mg/kg IM; 10.6 (±0.5) mg/kg IM
returns. Dusty bedding should be avoided to prevent airway caudal thigh
obstruction. Isotonic fluids (50–100 ml/kg) warmed to 37◦ C Ketamine plus xylazinea 85.6 (±4) mg/kg SQ; 10.7 (±0.7) mg/kg SQ
scruff of neck
and administered subcutaneously may prevent postoperative
dehydration (Carpenter, 2005; Sainsbury, 2003).
All dosages are from Olson and McCabe (1986).
a
Provides 20–30 minutes of surgical anesthesia in Richardson’s ground squirrels
with induction time of 1–2 minutes and no respiratory depression.
G. Suborder Sciuromorpha

Sciuromorphs include dormice, squirrels, chipmunks, prairie

dogs, and woodchucks. All rodents in this suborder have a sci- carcinoma, and cholesterol gallstone formation (Donnelly and
uromorphous zygomasseteric system where the ventral surface Quimby, 2002).
of the zygoma tilts and broadens into a zygomatic plate with Manual restraint: Wild-caught ground squirrels are difficult
the masseter lateralis extending forward onto the rostrum and to manually restrain. They may be transferred from a nestbox
the masseter superficialis extending forward along the zygoma to a sac by placing the nest box in a sac and opening the nest
(Korth and Emry, 1991). box. The squirrel is subsequently anesthetized using injecta-
bles through the sac or by isoflurane induction in a chamber
(Sainsbury, 2003).
1. Family Sciuridae—Squirrels, Prairie Dogs, Woodchucks Chemical restraint: Induction using isoflurane in a chamber
(3–5%) requires minimal handling and reduces the likelihood
a. Ground squirrels—Spermophilus sp.
of trauma from handling (Sainsbury, 2003). Anesthesia is main-
The two species of ground squirrel most commonly used in tained by administering isoflurane (0.5–3%) via a mask, an
research, S. richardsonii (Richardson’s ground squirrel) and S. endotracheal tube, or injectables (Table 17-10).
tridecemlineatus (13-lined ground squirrel) inhabit the prairies,
tundra, and mountain deserts of northwestern United States
b. Black-tailed prairie dog—Cynomus ludovicianus
and western Canada. Ground squirrels weigh 85–1,000 g dou-
bling their weight prior to hibernation. Uses in research include Black-tailed prairie dogs are squirrel-like rodents weigh-
studies of hibernation, hepatitis B infection, hepatocellular ing 0.7–1.4 kg and inhabiting the Great Plains from southern
468 JEFF WYATT

Saskatchewan to northern Mexico (Donnelly and Quimby, c. Woodchuck—Marmota monax

2002) (Fig. 17-13). Uses in research include studies of biliary
The eastern woodchuck, a 2.5–5.0-kg sciurid rodent, is found
physiology, gallstone formation, clostridial diarrhea, oxygen
throughout the midwestern and eastern United States and south-
consumption, hibernation, and monkeypox infection (Donnelly
ern Canada (Bellezza et al., 2002) (Fig. 17-14). Woodchucks,
and Quimby, 2002; Harlow and Braun, 1995; Wallach and
as obligate hibernators, experience a doubling of body weight
Boever, 1983; Xiao et al., 2005).
in the summer while preparing for hibernation and 50% weight
Manual restraint: Manual restraint is not recommended
loss during fall and winter hibernation (Bellezza et al., 2002;
because most prairie dogs are wild caught, since captive breed-
Young and Sims, 1979). They are used in research programs to
ing is problematic. Leather gloves should be used if manual
study viral hepatitis, obesity, energy balance, and hibernation
restraint is required. Stressed prairie dogs will prolapse anal
(Bellezza et al., 2002; McKenzie et al., 2006; Young and Sims,
glands and may become dyspneic, since they are obligate nasal
1979).
breathers (Klaphake, 2006).
Manual restraint: Elkhide elbow-length leather gloves are
Chemical restraint: Isoflurane inhalation anesthesia via
used, to protect against serious bites from aggressive individu-
induction chamber (3–5%) followed by face mask or endotra-
als. The woodchuck is pinned behind the neck with one hand
cheal intubation to effect requires minimal handling of unco-
while the opposite hand grasps the base of the tail for sub-
operative animals (Hernandez-Divers, 2004; Johnson-Delaney,
sequent intramuscular injections (alternating gastrocnemius or
2006; Sainsbury, 2003) and is recommended by the author. Pre-
quadriceps muscles for serial injections) or placement in an
medication with butorphanol (0.2 mg/kg SQ, IM) contributes to
isoflurane anesthesia induction chamber or face mask (Bellezza
a smooth induction (Hernandez-Divers, 2004). Injectable anes-
et al., 2002; McKenzie et al., 2006; Sainsbury, 2003; Young and
thetics including combinations of ketamine with acepromazine,
Sims, 1979).
xylazine, and diazepam provide short-term anesthesia (Table
Chemical restraint: Isoflurane may be administered via induc-
17-11). Sedatives and analgesics for prairie dogs, including
tion chamber or face mask (3–5%) and given to effect via
diazepam, butorphanol, medetomidine, meperidine, morphine,
face mask or endotracheal intubation for maintenance (Bellezza
naloxone, oxymorphone, carprofen, and meloxicam, are listed
et al., 2002; Sainsbury, 2003). Injectable anesthetics including
in Table 17-12.
combinations of ketamine and xylazine; fentanyl and droperi-
dol; pentobarbital; ketamine and medetomidine; and xylazine,
tiletamine, and zolazepam are listed in Table 17-13. Considera-
tion must be given to seasonal body condition (i.e., fat content)
when anesthetizing wild or hibernating marmots (Beiglbock and
Zenker, 2003; Young and Sims, 1979).

H. Suborder Hystricomorpha—Chinchillas,
Guinea Pigs, Degus

Hystricomorphs include porcupines, guinea pigs, chinchillas,

agoutis, pacas, mole rats, and sand rats. All rodents in this subor-
der have a hystricomorphous zygomasseteric system including
an enlarged masseter medialis passing through an enlarged
infraorbital foramen, a masseter superficialis originating on the
Fig. 17-13 Black-tailed prairie dog—Cynomis ludovicianus. front edge of the zygoma, and a masseter lateralis extending
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library. over most of its length (Korth and Emry, 1991).

TABLE 17-11
Injectable Anesthetics for Prairie Dogs

Drug Dosage and route References

Ketamine plus acepromazine 40–50 mg/kg IM; 0.4–0.5 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
Ketamine plus xylazine 100–150 mg/kg IM; 10–20 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
Yohimbine (reversal) 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IV Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus diazepam 20–30 mg/kg IM; 0.4–0.6 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
Ketamine plus midazolam 5–10 mg/kg IM; 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Propofol 3–5 mg/kg IV Carpenter, 2005
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 469

TABLE 17-12
Sedatives and Analgesics for Prairie Dogs

Drug Dosage and route References

Diazepam 1–5 mg/kg IM, IP, IV—sedative Johnson-Delaney, 2006

Butorphanol 2 mg/kg SQ q 2–4 hours—sedative Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Medetomidine 0.1–0.3 mg/kg—sedative Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Buprenorphine 0.01–0.05 mg/kg SQ, IP q 6–12 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Butorphanol 0.4–2.0 mg/kg SQ q 8–12 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meperidine 10–20 mg/kg SQ q 2–3 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Morphine 2–5 mg/kg SQ q 4 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Naloxone 0.05 mg/kg SQ, IP once—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Oxymorphone 0.2–0.5 mg/kg q 6–12 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Ketoprofen 1–5 mg/kg SQ, IM q 12–24 hours—analgesic Carpenter, 2005
Carprofen 1 mg/kg PO q 12–24 hours—analgesic Carpenter, 2005
1–4 mg/kg PO, SQ q 24 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006
Meloxicam 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO, SQ q 24 hours—analgesic Johnson-Delaney, 2006

1. Family Chinchillidae—Chinchillas (Chinchilla laniger)

Chinchillas inhabit high elevations (3,000–5,000 m) of the
Chilean Andes Mountains. The chinchillas kept as pet or
research animals in North America are all descendents of 13
founders wild caught in 1927. They are relatively easy to han-
dle without sedation, breed readily in captivity, have a long
lifespan (20 years), and have large, accessible tympanic bul-
lae. Uses in research include studies of otitis media, parasitism,
atherosclerosis, cerebral blood flow, and reproduction (Don-
nelly and Quimby, 2002) (Fig. 17-15).

a. Manual restraint
Fig. 17-14 Woodchuck—Marmota monax. Chinchillas are relatively easy to handle and best restrained by
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library. firmly grasping the base of the tail with one hand and supporting

TABLE 17-13
Injectable Anesthetics for Woodchucks

Drug Dosage and route Comments References

Ketamine 20 mg/kg IM Chemical restraint only Young and Sims, 1979

Ketamine plus xylazine 50 mg/kg IM; 5 mg/kg IM 20 minutes anesthesia plus half dose for supplement Bellezza et al., 2002
Sodium pentobarbital 2–6 mg/kg IV Sublingual vein or implanted catheter (20–40 minutes Bellezza et al., 2002
anesthesia)
50 mg/kg IP Lean animals in Spring Young and Sims, 1979
35 mg/kg IP Fat animals in Fall Young and Sims, 1979
Fentanyl/droperidol Innovar Vet™ 0.35 ml/kg IM Reversed with naloxone Bellezza et al., 2002; Clark and
Olfert, 1986
Ketamine plus xylazine 40 mg/kg IM; 3 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Ketamine plus xylazine 60 mg/kg IM; 20 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in late Summer/Fall fat marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Ketamine plus xylazine 80 mg/kg IM; 20 mg/kg IM Long-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Ketamine plus medetomidine 35 mg/kg IM; 0.25 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Ketamine plus medetomidine 60 mg/kg IM; 0.2 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in late Summer/Fall fat marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Ketamine plus medetomidine 70 mg/kg IM; 0.5 mg/kg IM Long-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Tiletamine/zolazepam plus xylazine 15 mg/kg IM; 3 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Tiletamine/zolazepam plus xylazine 15 mg/kg IM; 10 mg/kg IM Short-term surgery in late Summer/Fall fat marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a
Tiletamine/zolazepam plus xylazine 20 mg/kg IM; 10 mg/kg IM Long-term surgery in Spring lean marmots Beiglbock and Zenker, 2003a

a
Free ranging Marmota marmota.
470 JEFF WYATT

the ventrum with the other hand extending two fingers between include studies of behavior (Gos et al., 2006; Ovtscharoff et al.,
the forelegs (Clark and Olfert, 1986; Klaphake, 2006). 2006), Alzheimer’s disease (Inestrosa et al., 2005), sleep, diges-
tion, drug tolerance, diabetes mellitus, and cataract formation
b. Chemical restraint (Donnelly and Quimby, 2002).
Isoflurane anesthesia may be induced by chamber or mask Analgesics and anesthetics are listed in Table 17-9.
(3–5%) and maintained to effect by mask or endotracheal intu-
bation (Sainsbury, 2003) or injectable anesthetics (Table 17-14).
Atropine (0.1–0.2 mg/kg IM, SQ) or glycopyrrolate (0.01– IV. LAGAMORPHA: PIKAS, HARES
0.02 mg/kg SQ) reduces oral and respiratory mucus secretions
(Carpenter, 2005). Analgesics are listed in Table 17-15.
Sylvilagus floridanus (eastern cottontail rabbit)
Lepus americanus (snowshoe hare)
2. Family Octodontidae
Ochotona rufescens (Afghan pika)
a. Degu—Octodon degus Ochotona princeps (Colorado pika)
The degu or trumpet-tailed rat weighing 170–300 g is found The order Lagamorpha contains two Families: Leporidae
in the Chilean Andes Mountains (Fig. 17-16). Uses in research (rabbits and hares) and Ochotonidae (pikas).

TABLE 17-15
Analgesics for Chinchillas

Drug Dosage and route References

Acetylsalicylic acid 100–200 mg/kg PO q Carpenter, 2005

6–8 hours
87 mg/kg PO Pollock, 2002
Buprenorphine 0.05 mg/kg q 8–12 hours Carpenter, 2005;
Pollock, 2002
Butorphanol 0.2–2.0 mg/kg SQ, IM q Carpenter, 2005;
4 hours Pollock, 2002
Morphine 2–5 mg/kg SQ q 2–5 hours Pollock, 2002
Carprofen 4 mg/kg SQ q 24 hours Carpenter, 2005
Flunixine meglumine 1–3 mg/kg SQ q 12 hours Carpenter, 2005;
Pollock, 2002
Ketoprofen 1 mg/kg SQ, IM q Carpenter, 2002
Fig. 17-15 Chinchilla—Chinchilla laniger. 12–24 hours
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

TABLE 17-14
Injectable Anesthetics for Chinchillas

Drug Dosage and route References

Acepromazine 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM—preanesthetic Carpenter, 2005

Ketamine 20–40 mg/kg IM (light sedation) Carpenter, 2005; Clark and Olfert, 1986
Ketamine plus acepromazine 40 mg/kg IM; 0.5 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus diazepam 20–40 mg/kg IM; 1–2 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus midazolam 5–10 mg/kg IM; 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus xylazine 35–40 mg/kg IM; 4–8 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
Yohimbine (reversal) 0.5–1.0 mg/kg IV Carpenter, 2005
Ketamine plus xylazine 10–20 mg/kg IM; 0.4–0.5 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
Ketamine plus xylazine 40 mg/kg IM; 2 mg/kg IM Henke et al., 2004
Ketamine plus medetomidine 5 mg/kg IM; 0.06 mg/kg IM Henke et al., 2004
Midazolam plus medetomidine plus fentanyl 1 mg/kg IM; 0.05 mg/kg IM; 0.02 mg/kg IM Henke et al., 2004
Reversed within 5 minutes with
(otherwise 109 minutes anesthesia)
Flumezanil plus atipemazole plus naloxone 0.1 mg/kg SQ; 0.5 mg/kg SQ; 0.05 mg/kg SQ Henke et al., 2004
Pentobarbital 35–40 mg/kg P Carpenter, 2005
40 mg/kg IP Clark and Olfert, 1986
Tiletamine/zolazepam 20–40 mg/kg IM Carpenter, 2005
40 mg/kg IM Clark and Olfert, 1986
11–44 mg/kg IM Schobert, 1987
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 471

Fig. 17-16 Degu—Octodon degus.

Fig. 17-17 Snowshoe hare—Lepus americanus.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

A. Family Leporidae

The genus Lepus contains the only true hares. The snow-
shoe hare, weighing 1.43–1.55 kg, is found throughout Canada
and northern United States (Carpenter, 2003) (Fig. 17-17).
Uses in research include studies of hybrid fertilization (Marston
et al., 1965), brucellosis (Miller and Neiland, 1980), endopara-
sites (Measures and Anderson, 1983), adrenal function (Smith
et al., 1978), and western equine encephalomyelitis (Kiorpes
and Yuill, 1975).
The eastern cottontail rabbit, weighing 0.8–1.5 kg, is the most
widely distributed of any Sylvilagus ranging throughout North
America (Mikita, 1999). Uses in research include studies of
babesiosis (Spencer et al., 2006) and West Nile Virus viremia
(Tiawsirisup et al., 2005). Fig. 17-18 Nine-banded armadillo—Dasypus novemcinctus.
Photo credit: John Adamski, Seneca Park Zoo, Rochester, NY.

1. Manual and Chemical Restraint

Techniques for both the snowshoe hare and eastern cotton- V. XENARTHRA: EDENTATES (ARMADILLOS)
tail rabbit may be adapted from methods published for the
laboratory rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculi). A. Nine-Banded Armadillo—Dasypus novemcinctus

The former name of the Order Edentata, containing armadil-

B. Family Ochotonidae
los, sloths, and anteaters, suggests toothlessness, which is
true only for the anteater (Gillespie, 2003) (Fig. 17-18). The
The Afghan and Colorado pika (also called conies or
new name for the Order Xenarthra, refers to xenarthrous ver-
mouse hares), weighing 125–400 g, inhabit the mountains of
tebrae, which have secondary articulations between lumbar
Afghanistan and western United States and Canada, respectively
vertebrae as well as between the ischium and adjacent vertebrae.
(Jansa, 1999). The pika’s body temperature averages 104.2◦ F,
Xenarthrous vertebrae provide flexibility and support in eden-
close to the lethal limit (Carpenter, 2003). The Afghan pika
tates, especially the armadillo (Gillespie, 2003). D. novemcinc-
is most commonly used in studies of locomotion (Witte et al.,
tus, weighing 3.7–7.7 kg, ranges from southern United States
2002), parasitism (Okamoto et al., 1990), electromyography
to Argentina. Leathery skin surrounds ossified dermal plates
(Biederman et al., 2000), and iron storage disease (Madarame
forming a hinged carapace that permits the armadillo to roll
et al., 1990).
up into a ball. After delayed implantation of one fertilized egg
and a gestation of 120 days, four same-sex quadruplets are born
1. Manual and Chemical Restraint
(Fox, 1999a, 199b). Armadillos, as well as other edentates, have
Techniques used in the guinea pig (C. porcellus) may be used low thyroid activity, low metabolic rates, and low body tempera-
for the pika (Carpenter, 2003). tures (32–35◦ C), allowing them to survive long periods of apnea
472 JEFF WYATT

(30–40 minutes) (Divers, 1986). The nine-banded armadillo is VI. CHIROPTERA: BATS
the only edentate commonly used in biomedical research. Uses
in research include studies of leprosy (Job, 1991; Job et al.,
Bats are one of the most widespread mammals on earth
1993), immunology (Santos-Argumedo et al., 1995), respira-
second only to rodents (Heard, 2003). The suborders Microchi-
tory physiology (Frappell et al., 1998), reproduction (Baggato
roptera and Megachiroptera separate small insectivorous
et al., 2000), and metabolism (Boily and Knight, 2004).
from larger fruit-eating bats (Pye, 2001). Three families
of Microchiropterans—Phyllostomidae, Vespertilionidae, and
Mormoopidae—have been studied in biomedical research (Fine
1. Manual Restraint et al., 1986).

Armadillos do not usually attempt to bite but have powerful Family Phyllostomidae (new world leaf-nosed bats)
legs and sharp claws that may inflict injury. They may be picked Phyllostomus discolor (lesser spear-nosed bat)
up by their sides (Divers, 1986; Gillespie, 2003). Restraining by Glossophaga soricina (long-tongued bat)
the tail alone results in self-injury as the armadillo unexpectedly Carolia perspicillata (short-tailed fruit bat)
jerks away from the handler (Gillespie, 1993). The handler must Desmodus rotundus (common vampire bat)
be careful not to get fingers pinched under the carapacial plates Family Vespertilionidae (evening bats)
as they curl up when handled. Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat)
Family Mormoopidae (mustached bats)
Pteronatus parnellii (Parnell’s mustached bat)

2. Chemical Restraint Uses in research include studies of echolocation (O’Neill,

1985; Sherwood et al., 2005; Zhou and Jen, 2006), West Nile
Armadillos may hold their breath up to 10 minutes making Virus infection (Davis et al., 2005), rabies, equine encephalitis,
induction with isoflurane in a chamber or face mask difficult Herpes simplex infection, reproduction, hibernation, and sali-
(Divers, 1986; Gillespie, 1993). Premedication with injectable vary anticoagulants (Fine et al., 1986) (Figs. 17-19 and 17-20).
anesthetics followed by administration relaxes the armadillo and
minimizes breath holding (Gillespie, 2003). Once induced at
3–5% isoflurane or by injectables, armadillos may be intubated
with polyethylene tubing (0.6–1.3 cm) and maintained with 1–
2% isoflurane (Divers, 1986; Gillespie, 1993). Table 17-16 lists
injectable anesthetics. The thigh is the best site to administer
an IM injection (Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000). Atropine
(0.04 mg/kg IM) controls salivation (Gillespie, 1993; Wallach
and Boever, 1983).

3. Blood Collection
Blood may be collected from the superficial femoral vein of
an anesthetized armadillo (Divers, 1986) or the caudal tail vein
located on the ventrum between the second, third, and fourth Fig. 17-19 Big brown bat—Eptesicus fuscus.
bony tail segments (Gillespie, 2003). Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

TABLE 17-16
Injectable Anesthetics for Armadillos

Drug Dosage and route References

Ketamine plus diazepam 24 mg/kg IM; 0.1 mg/kg IM Divers, 1986

Ketamine plus acepromazine 10–20 mg/kg IM; 0.1 mg/kg IM Gillespie, 1993
Sodium pentobarbital 25 mg/kg IV—superficial femoral vein Divers, 1986
Fentanyl/droperidol Innovar Vet™ 0.2–0.25 ml/kg IM Wallach and Boever, 1983
Tiletamine/zolazepam 8.5 mg/kg IM—up to 40 minutes anesthesia for minor surgery Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000
Ketamine plus xylazine 40 mg/kg IM; 1 mg/kg IM up to 40 minutes anesthesia for minor surgery Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000
Ketamine plus medetomidine 7.5 mg/kg IM; 0.075 mg/kg IM up to 40 minutes anesthesia for minor surgery Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000
…reversed by atipamezole 0.0375 mg/kg IM standing within 1–16 minutes Fournier-Chambrillon et al., 2000
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 473

Fig. 17-20 Parnells’ mustached bat—Pteronatus parnellii.

Fig. 17-21 Grizzly bear—Ursus arctos.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library.

C. Recovery
A. Manual Restraint
Microchiropterans should be lightly wrapped in a drape to
Soft pliable leather gloves and butterfly nets may be used
prevent erratic wing flapping until they are coordinated well
for handling microchiropterans weighing 10–50 g. The body is
enough to crawl out (Heard, 2003).
palmed with wings gently folded while the head is restrained
between the thumb and the middle finger with index finger
placed on top of the head (Pye, 2001). Care should be taken
D. Blood Collection
to avoid bending wings in unnatural positions, traumatizing
flapping wings, pulling locked toes causing distal femoral
The external jugular vein may be used for blood collection
epiphyseal fractures, and injuring teeth while biting gloves
but care should be taken to avoid fatal hematoma (Heard, 2003).
(Constantine, 1986; Pye, 2001; Wallach and Boever, 1983).
Blowing air on the bat encourages it to relax its jaw (Constan-
tine, 1986). Manual restraint should be minimized to reduce
stress and hyperthermia (Heard, 2003). VII. CARNIVORA: BEARS, HYENA

A. Grizzly or Brown Bear—Ursus arctos

B. Chemical Restraint The brown or grizzly bear, weighing 150–750 kg and stand-
ing up to 8 ft tall, range in the mountains and meadows of
Inhalant anesthesia via face mask or induction chamber northwestern United States, Canada, and Alaska (Dewey and
(5%) followed by maintenance (2–3%) by face mask is Ballenger, 2002; Ramsay, 2003). Bears are studied in the wild
recommended (Pye, 2001) and preferred by the author. Gly- as well as in zoo and vivarium settings. Grizzly bears housed at
copyrrolate (0.01 mg/kg IM) reduces pharyngeal secretions. Washington State University Bear Center are enrolled in stud-
Microchiropterans should not be preoperatively fasted to pre- ies of heart, muscle, bone physiology, and disuse osteoporosis
vent hypoglycemia. Under general anesthesia, wings should during hibernation (Barboza et al., 1998; Farley and Robbins,
be folded and the animal placed on a warm water–circulating 1995; Hilderbrand et al., 2000; Nelson et al., 2003). Additional
heating pad. The wing patagium may be irritated and dam- studies of disuse osteoporosis (Donahue et al., 2003, 2006a,
aged by alcohol- and iodine-containing compounds (Heard, 2006b), depression (Tsiouis, 2005), and disuse muscle atrophy
2003). Dosages for most of the injectable anesthetics described (Shavlakadze and Grounds, 2006) make the bear an interesting
for megachiropterans have not been published for microchi- animal model of human disease (Fig. 17-21).
ropterans (Heard, 2003; Pye, 2001). Ketamine (10–20 mg/kg
IM) plus xylazine (2 mg/kg IM) provides general anesthesia
1. Manual Restraint
in the little brown bat. Sodium pentobarbital (30–50 mg/kg
IP) may be used for general anesthesia as long as rectal tem- Bears may not safely be manually restrained (Ramsay, 2003)
perature is maintained between 37 and 40◦ C (Wallach and but may be trained by operant conditioning to accept handheld
Boever, 1983). injections and oral dosing (author’s experience).
474 JEFF WYATT

TABLE 17-17
Injectable Anesthetics for Grizzly Bears

Drug Dosage and route Reversal

Tiletamine/zolazepam 7–9 mg/kg IM na

Ketamine plus xylazine 10–11 mg/kg IM; Yohimbine,
1–11 mg/kg IM 0.125 mg/kg IM, IV
Tiletamine/zolazepam 2 mg/kg IM; Atipamezole,
plus medetomidine 0.06 mg/kg IM 0.3 mg/kg IM, IV

All dosages are from Ramsay (2003). Narcotics (etorphine, carfentanyl)

typically used in zoos and free ranging wildlife are also described (Ramsay,
2003).

2. Chemical Restraint
Anesthesia is most commonly induced by the use of projectile
darting systems (CO2 pistol or rifle) or pole syringe adminis-
tering anesthetic agents (Table 17-17). The neck and shoulder
areas of bears have the thinnest fat layer requiring a 2–3 in.
needle to ensure intramuscular injection (author’s experience;
Wallach and Boever, 1983). After induction with injectable
agents, anesthesia is best maintained with isoflurane to effect
(1.5–3%) administered via endotracheal intubation and is the
Fig. 17-22 Spotted hyena—Crocuta crocuta.
method preferred by the author. Photo credit: John Adamski, Seneca Park Zoo, Rochester, NY.

3. Vascular Access TABLE 17-18

The lingual, saphenous, and cephalic vein may used for IV Injectable Anesthetics for Hyena
access via catheter or handheld syringe. The jugular vein may Drug Dosage and route References
also be used for IV access but may be too deep to catheterize
without a cutdown (Ramsay, 2003; author’s experience). Ketamine plus xylazine 4–6 mg/kg IM; Baskin et al., 2006
1 mg/kg IM
Ketamine plus xylazine 10 mg/kg IM; Wallach and
B. Spotted hyena—Crocuta crocuta 2 mg/kg IM Boever, 1983
Ketamine plus xylazine 10 mg/kg IM; Divers, 1986
0.5 mg/kg IM
The spotted hyena, one of three hyena species, is classified Ketamine plus xylazine 13.2 mg/kg IM; Ramsay, 2003
in the subfamily Feloidea, making it more related to felids and 6.3 mg/kg IM
viverrids than canines (Ramsay, 2003) (Fig. 17-22). They weigh Yohimbine reversal 0.125 mg/kg IV, IM
40–86 kg and are found in Sub-Saharan Africa. The clitoris and Tolazoline reversal 3.7 mg/kg IV, IM
penis of the female and male hyena are quite similar in size while Tiletamine/zolazepam 4–6 mg/kg IM Ramsay, 2003
flaccid or erect with a single opening at the tip of the glans
Vascular access: The cephalic and jugular veins may be used for catheteriza-
clitoris and penis. Due to this unique anatomical characteris- tion or blood collection (Divers, 1986).
tic, spotted hyena have emerged as an interesting animal model
for studying common urogenital sinus (Baskin et al., 2006). limbs for intramuscular injection through a fence (author’s
The clitoris is enlarged forming a pseudopenis with no external experience).
vagina. The masculinized genitalia and dominant behavior of the
female and lifelong androgen secretion by the ovaries makes the
breeding colony of hyena maintained at University of Califor- 2. Chemical Restraint
nia Berkeley interesting animals to study (Browne et al., 2006;
Hyena should be preoperatively fasted 12–16 hours as prac-
Cunha et al., 2005; Glickman et al., 2006; McFadden et al.,
ticed with other carnivores to prevent aspiration of stomach
2006).
contents. Injectable anesthetics may be delivered by handheld
syringes in trained hyena, via projectile dart (blowpipe or CO2
1. Manual Restraint
pistol) or a pole syringe. These are listed in Table 17-18. After
Hyenas require chemical restraint for safe handling. They induction with an injectable agent, anesthesia may be main-
may be trained through operant conditioning to offer body tained using isoflurane (1.5–3%) to effect via endotracheal
17. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN OTHER MAMMALS 475

TABLE 17-19
Injectable Agents for Chemical Restraint of
Prosimians

Drug Dosage and Route

Acepromazine 0.5–2 mg/kg PO

Diazepam 0.5–2.5 mg/kg PO, IV
Ketamine 10 mg/kg IM
Tiletamine/zolazepam 3–5 mg/kg IM
Medetomidine 0.05 mg/kg IM
Butorphanol 0.4 mg/kg IM

All dosages are from Junge (2003).

TABLE 17-20
Injectable Anesthetics for Prosimians

Drug Dosage and route (mg/kg IM)

Ketamine plus medetomidine 5 mg/kg IM; 0.05 mg/kg IM

Butorphanol plus medetomidine 0.4 mg/kg IM; 0.04 mg/kg IM;
plus ketamine 3 mg/kg IM
Butorphanol plus medetomidine 0.4 mg/kg IM; 0.04 mg/kg IM;
plus midazolam 0.3 mg/kg IM
Fig. 17-23 Mouse lemur—Microcebus murinus.
Photo credit: American Society of Mammalogists, Mammal Images Library. All dosages are from Junge (2003).

intubation (Divers, 1986; Ramsay, 2003) and is the method pre-

nest box into a cloth sac for subsequent intramuscular injection
ferred by the author. Premedication with atropine (0.04 mg/kg
or placement in an isoflurane induction chamber (Junge, 2003).
IM) reduces salivation (Divers, 1986).
2. Chemical Restraint
3. Vascular Access
Mouse lemurs may be placed in an isoflurane induction cham-
The cephalic and jugular veins may be used for catheterization ber (3–5%) and maintained to effect via face mask (Junge,
or blood collection (Divers, 1986). 2003). The author’s preference for chemical restraint of the
mouse lemur is tiletamine/zolazepam (5–10 mg/kg IM) diluted
VIII. PROSIMII: GRAY MOUSE LEMUR 1:10 in sterile water. Care must be taken to avoid hypother-
mia during anesthesia just as with any small laboratory animal
(Tables 17-19 and 17-20).
Prosimians are ancestrally extant primates including lemurs,
tarsiers, lorises, and galagos. Recent articles describe the anes- 3. Vascular Access
thetic management of a variety of prosimians in wild, zoo, or
No veins are accessible for catheterization but subcutaneous
primate center settings as part of behavioral or health assessment
fluids may be given as described for mice and rats. A small
studies (Junge, 2003; Junge and Louis, 2005; Miller et al., 2007;
blood sample (<0.3 ml) may be collected by advancing a 25-
Williams et al., 2003).
gauge needle on a tuberculin syringe at a 45◦ angle accessing a
coccygeal blood vessel located approximately one-third down
A. Gray mouse lemur—Microcebus murinus the ventral midline of the tail (personal experience and personal
communication from E.E. Louis DVM, Omaha Henry Doorly
The gray mouse lemur, weighing up to 60 g and found only in Zoo).
the forests of Madagascar, has emerged as an interesting animal
model of Alzheimer’s disease. The aging, gray mouse lemur
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 Chapter 18

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Birds

John W. Ludders

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
II. The Pulmonary System: Form, Function, and Implications for Anesthetic
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
A. Pulmonary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
B. Ventilation Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
C. Gas Exchange Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
D. Control of Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
E. Cardiovascular System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
III. Specific Considerations for Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
A. Physical Restraint and Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
B. Fasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
C. Injectable Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
D. Inhalant Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
E. Breathing Circuits and Fresh Gas Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
F. Induction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
G. Minimum Alveolar Concentration (MAC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
H. Halothane, Isoflurane, and Sevoflurane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
I. Adjuncts to General Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
J. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
K. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
IV. Euthanasia of Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
V. Recommended Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497

I. INTRODUCTION
in the design and implementation of anesthetic protocols for
research projects involving birds. For these reasons, much of
A prerequisite for effectively anesthetizing birds is an under- this chapter will focus on these two systems.
standing of avian anatomy, physiology, and pharmacology. Of Drugs will be discussed in general terms, but some specific
these, the avian pulmonary and cardiovascular systems are cru- drugs and doses used in specific avian species to produce spe-
cially important and tend to be the source of frequent problems cific effects will be discussed in some detail. This approach

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

481
482 JOHN W. LUDDERS

TABLE 18-1
Selected Drugs and Doses Used for Anesthesia of Birds

Drug Dose Comment

Equithesin Consists of: pentobarbital 9.6 g/L, chloral hydrate 42.6 g/L, and
Chickens 2.5 ml/kg, IMa magnesium sulfate 21.2 g/L in propylene glycol, ethanol, and
water to make 1 L.a Surgical anesthesia cannot be achieved with
this drug when used alone
Pentobarbital Intravenous injections must be administered slowly. One-fourth
Chickens 30 mg/kg, IV, IMb to one-third of the total dose is administered initially over
Turkey 26–30 mg/kg, IVb 2–3 minutes, the bird’s response is assessed, and additional
Herring gull 60–84 mg/kg, IMb drug is administered slowly as needed
Phenobarbital When given intravenously, slow administration is mandatory.
Chickens 130–170 mg/kg, IV, IMb One-fourth to one-third of the total dose is administered
Ducks 160 mg/kg, IV initially over 3–5 minutes, the effects are assessed, and additional
drug is injected slowly as needed over 5–10 minutes to achieve the
desired plane of anesthesia. In some birds, I have stopped
injections for 10 minutes to allow the drug to reach a peak effect,
and then given additional drug as needed over several minutes to
achieve satisfactory anesthesia
Propofol Hypoventilation, hypoxemia, and cardiac arrhythmias occurred
Chickens 4.5–9.7 mg/kg, IVc frequently Apnea was a common problem and did cause
Ducks (canvasback) 15 mg/kg, IV (loading dose)d some deaths
0.8 mg/kg, IV (infusion)d
Ducks (mallard) 8.8 mg/kg, IVe All ducks developed apnea after inductione
Turkey (wild) 5 mg/kg, IVf Apnea at induction is common. Hypoxemia and hypercarbia
developed over 15 minutes of anesthesia
Telazol® (combination
of tiletamine and
zolazepam)
Ducks 13 mg/kgg One death in 34 anesthetic episodesg
Lidocaine 1–2 mg/kg, IM, IV, SQ Local anesthetics may be used in birds for local/regional
anesthesia, but dosing limits must be strictly followed to avoid
toxic levels and effects, especially in small birds. A lidocaine
(2%) dose of 1 mg/kg, IM for a 30 g bird is a volume of 0.001 ml,
which is impossible to administer accurately given syringes
commonly available.

a
Christensen et al. (1987).
b
Fedde (1978).
c
Lukasik et al. (1997).
d
Machin and Caulkett (1998).
e
Machin and Caulkett (1999).
f
Schumacher et al. (1997).
g
Carp et al. (1991).

to drugs may pose a dilemma for some investigators. If a end of this chapter and to Table 18-1. In addition, some general
researcher is using pigeons in eye research, he or she may ques- comments and suggestions regarding the selection of drugs for
tion the applicability of information concerning the production selected types of research studies are included in Table 18-2.
of mydriasis in double-crested cormorants or blue-fronted ama- I must be honest with the reader and state here at the outset
zons to pigeons. However, studies of pigeons that deal with this that I have a bias in favor of using inhalant anesthetics in birds,
specific topic, for example, do not exist, so what is presented specifically the use of isoflurane. My reasons for this are dis-
are data that are based on good studies regardless of the species cussed in detail throughout this chapter, some of them being
involved. This information is a starting point for a researcher that inhalants, specifically isoflurane, are among the safest if
who uses birds in research and who will have to extrapolate the not the safest anesthetics for birds; they make it possible to con-
information to the species he or she is working with while also trol the depth of anesthesia to a degree that is not possible with
using good professional judgment. For a compendium of drugs injectable drugs, and isoflurane, in my opinion and experience,
and doses useful for anesthetic management of avian species, provides a degree of cardiac stability and safety not seen with
the reader is referred to the list of suggested readings at the other anesthetics.
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 483

TABLE 18-2
Some General Comments and Suggestions Regarding the Selection of Drugs for Selected Types of Research Studies

Type of study Comments

Respiratory system If the objective is to preserve respiratory control mechanisms, phenobarbital is a reasonable choice
for general anesthesia, keeping in mind that the drug has little, if any, analgesic properties. If a bird
is to be recovered from anesthesia, recovery will be prolonged (up to 24 hours), and the investigator
must provide analgesia. In my opinion, it is more humane to euthanize a bird at the end of a study
session if a long-acting barbiturate is used so as to avoid complications that often arise during
prolonged, stormy recoveries
Cardiovascular system The inhalant isoflurane may be used, but the potential for cardiac arrhythmias developing is still
possible, especially if PaCO2 is >50 torr. Equithesin, in combination with diazepam, has been used
to anesthetize birds undergoing thoracotomy
Hepatic Isoflurane is a reasonable anesthetic for these types of studies because it is minimally metabolized
compared to sevoflurane and especially halothane. To avoid any question of effects on hepatic
function, injectable anesthetics, even the short-acting propofol, cannot be recommended, because
their elimination requires some degree of hepatic metabolism/physiology which may affect the
results of research. However, Telazol® has been used for anesthesia of ducks undergoing multiple
liver biopsies seemingly without adverse effects on the biopsy results (Carp et al., 1991)
Renal Anesthetic drugs devoid of renal effects may be used and include the inhalant isoflurane and
injectable anesthetics such as phenobarbital or equithesin. Sevoflurane produces compound A
as a result of interaction with dry carbon dioxide absorbent, and this compound may affect renal
function. This may not be an issue when using a nonrebreathing circuit
Field studies Propofol has been recommended as a drug that may be useful in field studies because it provides
rapid induction to and recovery from anesthesia. A study involving ducks anesthetized for insertion
of intra-abdominal transmitters (Machin and Caulkett, 2000) demonstrated that propofol, compared
to isoflurane, was less likely to cause nest abandonment.
Isoflurane delivered by metering oxygen from an E cylinder through a free-standing vaporizer
to a nonrebreathing circuit has been used in field situations

Source: Carp et al. (1991), Machin and Caulkett (2000).

II. THE PULMONARY SYSTEM: FORM, FUNCTION, In all avian species, the tracheal cartilages form complete
AND IMPLICATIONS FOR ANESTHETIC rings (McLelland, 1989a), but there are significant species-
MANAGEMENT related variations in tracheal anatomy. For example, the emu
and ruddy duck have an inflatable sac-like diverticulum (tracheal
sac) that opens from the trachea (McLelland, 1989a). Some pen-
A. Pulmonary System
guins and petrels have a median tracheal septum that extends
cranially from the tracheal bifurcation and divides the trachea
The avian respiratory system consists of two separate and
into right and left channels, for a variable length depending
distinct functional components: a component for ventilation
on the species (McLelland, 1989a). Depending on the species,
(conducting airways, air sacs, thoracic skeleton, and muscles of
some birds have complex tracheal loops or coils that may be
respiration), and a component for gas exchange (parabronchial
located in the caudal neck, within the keel, or within the thorax
lung) (Ludders and Matthews, 1996). These two components,
and the keel.
which do not exist in mammals, can be used to advantage when
The fact that birds generally have relatively long necks and
anesthetizing birds, specifically when using inhalant anesthetics
trachea, not to mention tracheal loops and coils, has important
such as halothane, isoflurane, or sevoflurane.
implications for tracheal dead space, an important considera-
tion during general anesthesia. The typical bird trachea is 2.7
B. Ventilation Component
times longer than that of a comparably sized mammal, but it
is 1.29 times wider, the net result being that the resistance
1. Larynx, Trachea, and Syrinx
to flow imposed by the longer trachea is minimized (Brown
The avian larynx, located at the base of the tongue, protrudes et al., 1997; McLelland, 1989a). Tracheal dead space volume
into the pharynx as a somewhat heart-shaped mound (McLel- is increased in birds to about 4.5 times that of comparably
land, 1989a). Unlike in mammals, birds do not have an epiglottis sized mammals, but their relatively low respiratory frequency,
and when the tongue is pulled gently forward out of the mouth, approximately one-third that of mammals, ensures that the
the larynx is easily visualized in most birds (Fig. 18-1). effect of the larger tracheal dead space volume on measures
484 JOHN W. LUDDERS

exchange tissues of the lung (Brown et al., 1997; McLelland,

1989b).
The primary bronchus enters the lung ventrally and obliquely
at the junction of the cranial and middle thirds of the lung, and
then passes dorsolaterally to the lung surface, where it turns
caudally in a dorsally curved course until at the caudal lung
margin it opens into the abdominal air sac. (Duncker, 1972). A
secondary bronchus is any bronchus that arises from a primary
bronchus. Many of the medioventral and lateroventral secondary
bronchi open into the cervical, clavicular, cranial thoracic, or
abdominal air sacs.

(a)
3. Air Sacs
Birds have nine air sacs: two cervical, an unpaired clavicular,
two cranial thoracic, two caudal thoracic, and two abdominal
air sacs. The air sacs are thin-walled structures composed of
simple squamous epithelium covering a thin layer of connective
tissue with very few blood vessels (McLelland, 1989b). To a
varying extent, depending upon the species, diverticula from
air sacs aerate cervical vertebrae, some of the thoracic verte-
brae, vertebral ribs, sternum, humerus, pelvis, and head and
body of the femur (McLelland, 1989b). From a functional point
of view, the air sacs may be thought of as bellows to the lungs
because they provide a tidal flow of air to the relatively rigid
avian lung (Scheid, 1979). Based on their bronchial connec-
tions, air sacs are grouped into a cranial group consisting of the
(b) cervical, clavicular, and cranial thoracic air sacs, and a caudal
group consisting of the caudal thoracic and abdominal air sacs
Fig. 18-1 (a) Tongue and larynx. Once a bird is induced to anesthesia, light (Fedde, 1980). The volume of the air sacs is distributed approx-
pressure applied to the intermandibular space elevates the tongue so that it can
be gently grasped and pulled forward to aid in visualizing the larynx. (b) Larynx.
imately equally between the cranial and caudal groups (Scheid
By gently pulling out the tongue, the larynx is brought into view and makes and Piiper, 1989a). During ventilation, all air sacs are effec-
intubation easier. tively ventilated, with the possible exception of the cervical air
sacs, and the ratio of ventilation to volume is similar for each
air sac (Scheid and Piiper, 1989a).
of ventilation is decreased (McLelland, 1989a). As a result,
In birds, unlike in mammals, both inspiration and expira-
minute tracheal ventilation is only about 1.5 to 1.9 times that of
tion are active processes that require muscular activity. With
mammals (McLelland, 1989a).
contraction of the inspiratory muscles, the internal volume of
The syrinx, the sound-producing organ in birds, is located at
the thoracoabdominal cavity increases and, since the air sacs
the junction of the trachea and the mainstem bronchi. Its shape,
are the only volume-compliant structures within the body cav-
size, and location are extremely variable among avian species,
ity, volume changes occur mainly in the air sacs (Scheid and
but its location explains why gas flowing through the trachea
Piiper, 1989a). During inspiration, pressure within the air sacs
of an anesthetized, intubated bird, especially during positive
becomes negative relative to ambient atmospheric pressure, and
pressure ventilation, can produce sound.
air flows from the atmosphere into the air sacs and across the
gas exchange surfaces of the lungs.
2. Bronchi
Because air sacs are vessel-poor, they neither participate in
Unlike the mammalian lung, which has 23 orders of branch- gas exchange (Magnussen et al., 1976) nor play a major role in
ing of the bronchial system before reaching the gas exchange the uptake of inhalant anesthetics. Nor, as has been suggested
area, birds have only 3 orders of branching of the bronchial sys- (Christensen et al., 1987), do air sacs accumulate or concentrate
tem before reaching the gas exchange tissues (Brown et al., anesthetic gases. Indeed, in a study of anesthetized, sponta-
1997). The avian bronchial system consists of a primary neously breathing pigeons, it was found that the concentration
bronchus (extrapulmonary and intrapulmonary), secondary of isoflurane in the abdominal air sacs was always lower than
bronchi, and tertiary bronchi (parabronchi), the last of which, the concentration measured at the end of the endotracheal tube
along with the para-peribronchial mantle of tissue, forms the gas (Hellebrekers et al., 1991).
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 485

4. Ventilation Components and Considerations can impose significant resistance to ventilation, a feature that
for Anesthesia becomes an even greater hazard when such tubes develop par-
tial or complete obstructions, an all too frequent occurrence as
Any bird larger than a cockatiel or heavier than 100 g can be
a result of the accumulation of mucus and the development of
intubated (Klide, 1973), but one must keep in mind the unique
mucus plugs. Mucus production during anesthesia can be copi-
tracheal features, as outlined above, that may interfere with intu-
ous, and the inspired gases, which are cold and dry, have a drying
bation. Most birds are easy to intubate, but some are difficult
effect that makes the mucus thick and tenacious. Obstruction of
because of either their unique oropharyngeal anatomy or their
an endotracheal tube can be detected by observing the bird’s
size. For example, psittacine species, especially smaller birds
pattern of ventilation. As the airway progressively occludes, it
such as parakeets, can be difficult to intubate because of the
is observed that the expiratory phase is prolonged. An artificial
awkward location of the glottis at the base of the humped, fleshy
sigh (inspiration) usually confirms the presence of an obstruc-
tongue (Sedgwick, 1980). Small birds such as chicks (Gallus
tion because the abdominal wall is observed to rise and expand
sp.) can be intubated, but their size limits the size of commer-
in a seemingly normal manner, but returns slowly, or not at
cially available endotracheal tube that can be used for intubation.
all, to its end-expiratory position. This problem must be cor-
As a result, investigators may resort to using intravenous (IV)
rected quickly either by extubating the bird, cleaning the tube
catheters as endotracheal tubes (Fig. 18-2; Roberson et al.,
and reinserting it, or replacing it with a fresh tube. Airway noises
2000). This can be an effective means for intubating and deliv-
may be heard as the tube becomes more obstructed with mucus;
ering inhalant anesthetics to small birds, but the design features
typically, there is a gurgling noise similar to that made by a
of IV catheters and their potential for harm to the avian tra-
child blowing air through a straw in a thick milkshake. An
chea must be considered. Compared to commercially available
anticholinergic, such as atropine (0.04 mg/kg) or glycopyrro-
endotracheal tubes which possess some degree of flexibility and
late (0.01 mg/kg), may reduce mucus production and lessen the
thermoplasticity, IV catheters are relatively stiff and their tips
risk of developing mucus plugs.
are relatively sharp. For these reasons, IV catheters may cause
If an endotracheal tube has a cuff, either it should not be
tracheal trauma (abrasion or puncture) if they are not inserted
inflated or it must be inflated with extreme care; in small birds,
carefully into the trachea. Furthermore, a catheter of appropri-
it is preferred not to inflate the cuff. As mentioned, the trachea is
ate circumference must be selected so that there is some degree
composed of complete cartilaginous rings, and an overly inflated
of gas leak around itself (Roberson et al., 2000). If the catheter
cuff can traumatize the tracheal mucosa at the very least, or at
completely fills the trachea, volotrauma may occur to the air
the very worst it may rupture the tracheal rings; my experience
sacs and possibly barotrauma to the lungs.
has been that when an endotracheal tube cuff is overinflated,
There are significant risks associated with intubation, espe-
the tracheal rings rupture longitudinally rather than circumfer-
cially in small birds. Tubes with small internal diameters
entially. Damage to the trachea may not become evident for
several days after intubation when the processes of healing and
fibrotic narrowing of the trachea finally cause signs of dyspnea.
Most general anesthetics produce muscle relaxation, the
degree of which depends on the anesthetic. Because both
inspiratory and expiratory muscle activity is essential for ven-
tilation in birds, any depression of muscle activity will affect
ventilatory efficiency. Electromyograms from cocks lightly
anesthetized with pentobarbital demonstrated that inspiratory
and expiratory muscles of ventilation were equally depressed
by the anesthetic (Fedde et al., 1964). Although barbiturates
depress ventilation in birds, birds anesthetized with these drugs
retain their ability to respond to inspired CO2 (Osborne and
Mitchell, 1977, 1978), but this is not true for all anesthetics (see
Section III.D).
The position of a bird during anesthesia can significantly
Fig. 18-2 Endotracheal tubes used for intubating birds. From left to right:
affect its ventilation, especially when placed on its back (dorsal
red rubber tube cut so that it has a beveled tip; note the rough edges and points at recumbency) (King and Payne, 1964). There are a number of
the end of the tube, all of which may damage the tracheal mucosa. A 14-gauge factors that contribute to this phenomenon, including the weight
1.75 inch catheter on an endotracheal tube connector. A cuffed endotracheal of the abdominal viscera that compress the abdominal air sacs
tube made of silicone. The next three endotracheal tubes are made of polyvinyl thereby reducing their effective volume, and effectively reduc-
chloride; although not clearly visible, the last two of the three have a Murphy
eye, a desirable design feature in any endotracheal tube. Cole tube (last tube on
ing the bird’s tidal volume. A well-conditioned bird with large,
right); note the shoulder, the point at which the tube narrows; the narrow end heavy pectoral muscles and which is in dorsal recumbency, will
of the tube is inserted into the trachea and the shoulder rests against the larynx. not only have to deal with the compressive effects of the pectoral
486 JOHN W. LUDDERS

muscle mass, but will have to expend considerable inspiratory inspiration and expiration, the direction of gas flow in the
effort to lift the keel against gravity. paleopulmonic parabronchi is unidirectional, whereas it is bidi-
In general, a bird should be kept at as light a plane of anesthe- rectional in the neopulmonic parabronchi (Fig. 18-3) (Fedde,
sia as possible so as to reduce muscle relaxation. The ideal body 1980; Scheid and Piiper, 1989a). The unidirectional flow of gas
position for an anesthetized bird is lateral recumbency because through the intrapulmonary primary bronchus, the secondary
this position minimally impedes the movement of the keel, and bronchi, and the paleopulmonic parabronchi is governed by
the abdominal viscera do not lie directly over and compress the aerodynamic valves and not by mechanical valves (Banzett et al.,
abdominal and caudal thoracic air sacs. 1987, 1991; Brown et al., 1995, 1997; Butler et al., 1988; Jones
et al., 1981; Kuethe, 1988; Scheid and Piiper, 1989a; Wang
et al., 1988). Aerodynamic valves occur as a consequence of
C. Gas Exchange Component
the orientation of secondary bronchial and air sac orifices to the
direction of gas flow, elastic pressure differences between the
1. Tertiary Bronchus or Parabronchus
cranial and caudal group of air sacs, and gas convective inertial
The basic unit for gas exchange in birds is the tertiary forces (Banzett and Lehr, 1982; Banzett et al., 1987; Brown
bronchus, or parabronchus, and its mantle of surrounding tis- et al., 1995; Butler et al., 1988; Kuethe, 1988; Wang et al.,
sue. The parabronchi are long narrow tubes, the inner surfaces of 1988).
which are pierced by numerous openings into chambers called A cross-current model of gas exchange describes the rela-
atria. Arising from the floor or abluminal surface of the atria tionship between gas and blood flows within the avian lung. In
are funnel-shaped ducts, the infundibula, that lead to air capil- birds, there is no equivalent to mammalian alveolar gas because
laries measuring 3–10 μm in diameter that anastomose to form parabronchial gas continuously changes in composition as it
a three-dimensional network, intimately interlaced with a sim- flows along the length of the parabronchus (Scheid and Piiper,
ilarly structured network of blood capillaries (Duncker, 1972; 1970). The avian lung is so highly efficient at gas exchange
McLelland, 1989b). It is within this mantle of interlaced air that the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in end-parabronchial
and blood capillaries, the peri-parabronchial tissue, that gas gas (PE CO2 ) can exceed the partial pressure of carbon dioxide
exchange occurs. The avian lung is rigid and has a constant vol- in arterial blood (Pa CO2 ), and the partial pressure of oxygen
ume during all phases of ventilation (Klika et al., 1997, 1998; in end-parabronchial gas (PE O2 ) can be lower than the partial
McLelland, 1989b). pressure of oxygen in arterial blood (Pa O2 ) (Piiper and Scheid,
There are two types of parabronchial tissue in the avian lung: 1973; Powell and Hopkins, 2004; Powell and Scheid, 1989).
paleopulmonic and neopulmonic. Paleopulmonic parabronchial
tissue consists of essentially parallel, minimally anastomos-
2. The Gas Exchange Components and Considerations for
ing parabronchi and is found in all birds. By comparison,
Anesthesia
neopulmonic parabronchial tissue is a meshwork of anasto-
mosing parabronchi located in the caudolateral portion of One must always consider assisting or controlling a bird’s
the lung; its degree of development is species-dependent ventilation during general anesthesia. During positive pressure
(McLelland, 1989b). Penguins and emus only have paleopul- ventilation, be it manual or mechanical, it is possible that the
monic parabronchi. Pigeons, ducks, and cranes have both direction of gas flow within the avian lung may be reversed.
paleopulmonic and neopulmonic parabronchi with the neopul- Should such a reversal occur, however, it does not affect gas
monic parabronchi accounting for 10–12% of the total lung exchange in the avian lung because the efficiency of the cross-
volume (Fedde, 1980). In fowl-like birds and song birds, the current model does not depend on the direction of flow (Scheid
neopulmonic parabronchi are more developed and may account and Piiper, 1989a). Studies in which blood gases were col-
for 20–25% of the total lung volume (Fedde, 1980). The volume lected from mechanically, bi-directionally ventilated birds, did
of respiratory gas in the avian respiratory system is estimated to not show an adverse effect of mechanical ventilation on gas
be between 100 ml/kg and 200 ml/kg, of which the volume of gas exchange (Ludders et al., 1989a; Pettifer et al., 2002; Piiper
in the parabronchi and air capillaries accounts for only 10% of et al., 1970).
the total volume. By comparison, the respiratory gas volume of Because of the flow-through nature of the avian respiratory
a dog is 45 ml/kg, of which pulmonary gas volume accounts for system, it is possible to ventilate birds by flowing a continuous
96% of the total. Thus, the ratio of gas in the lungs to tidal vol- stream of gas through the trachea and lungs, and out through a
ume is much smaller in birds than in mammals, which suggests ruptured or cannulated air sac (Burger and Lorenz, 1960; Burger
that in birds, especially under anesthesia, the consequences of et al., 1979). This same technique can be used to induce and
apnea, especially hypoxemia, may occur more rapidly than in maintain anesthesia in birds (Burger and Lorenz, 1960; Jaensch
mammals. et al., 2002; Whittow and Ossorio, 1970; Wijnberg et al., 1991),
Although the paleopulmonic and neopulmonic parabronchi and it offers a unique, effective means to maintain anesthesia for
are histologically indistinguishable from each other, the procedures that require full, unimpeded access to the head. It is
direction of gas flow differs within the two types: during also possible to cannulate an abdominal air sac and flow inhalant
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 487

A - Inspiration opulmonic parabronchi

Pale

Intraclavicular Ventrobronchi Dorsobronchi

sac

ry bronch
lmona us Abdominal
apu
Intr sac

Trachea Cranial Caudal

thoracic thoracic
Primary sac
Syrinx sac
bronchus

Segmentum
accelerans Laterobronchus

B - Expiration opulmonic parabronchi

Pale

Intraclavicular Ventrobronchi Dorsobronchi

sac

ry bronch
lmona us Abdominal
apu
Intr sac

Trachea Cranial
Caudal
thoracic
thoracic
Syrinx Primary sac
sac
bronchus

Segmentum
accelerans Laterobronchus

Fig. 18-3 Direction of gas flow in the avian pulmonary system. This drawing of the right paleopulmonic lung and air sacs of a bird shows the pathway of gas
flowing through the pulmonary system during (A) inspiration and (B) expiration. For the purpose of clarity, the neopulmonic lung is not shown. Adapted from
Fedde (1980) and Brown et al. (1997).

anesthetic through the air sac, across the lung and out via the Despite the lack of change in blood gases in this study, the
trachea; this technique has been described in birds as small as tidal volume increased significantly and there was a doubling
zebra finches (Fig. 18-4) (Nilson et al., 2005). In one study of of minute ventilation coupled with a slight but insignificant
ducks in which arterial blood gases were compared before and increase in respiratory frequency. However, a report involv-
after cannulation of the clavicular air sac, the arterial blood gases ing sulphur-crested cockatoos (Cacatua galerita) reported that
(Pa O2 and Pa CO2 ) remained unchanged (Rode et al., 1990). the clavicular air sac was not an appropriate route for air sac
488 JOHN W. LUDDERS

chemoreceptors (IPCs) that are inhibited by high lung PCO2 ,

excited by low lung PCO2 , and provide phasic feedback for the
control of breathing, specifically the rate and depth of breath-
ing (Gleeson and Molony, 1989; Hempleman et al., 2000, 2003;
Shoemaker and Hempleman, 2001). These IPCs are not the sole
receptors stimulated by inhaled gas containing CO2 , as stimu-
lation of arterial and central chemoreceptors also occurs (Fedde
et al., 2002). However, there may be differences in the respon-
siveness of a bird to CO2 depending upon the ecologic niche
that it occupies. For example, the CO2 responsiveness of IPC in
chickens, ducks, emus, and pigeons is greater than the IPC of
burrowing owls, an avian species that lives underground where
the concentration of CO2 is higher than that of above-ground
dwelling birds (Hempleman and Burger, 1985; Kilgore et al.,
1985). What exactly this implies for anesthetic management is
unknown, but it suggests that under anesthesia there may be
species differences in responsiveness to CO2 .
Fig. 18-4 Cannulation of the caudal thoracic air sac for delivery of the Just as in mammals, injectable and inhalant anesthetics used
inhalant anesthetic isoflurane to a zebra finch. Isoflurane in oxygen is delivered
in birds can depress both central and peripheral respiratory con-
to the hub of the 20-gauge IV catheter. The flow of gas passes through the
air sac, across the pulmonary gas exchange surfaces, and out the mouth and trol mechanisms. More specifically, a number of studies have
nares from where it is scavenged. Photo and permission to publish is kindly shown that inhalants depress the responsiveness of a number of
provided by Paige C. Nilson (Cornell University) and Professor Stephanie A. peripheral control mechanisms that directly or indirectly affect
White (University of California at Los Angeles). ventilation (Bagshaw and Cox, 1986; Molony, 1974; Pizarro
et al., 1990). As stated before, anesthetic-induced depression of
cannulation and delivery of anesthetic gas because anesthesia ventilation, including the mechanisms that control ventilation,
could not be maintained in the cockatoos when isoflurane was can be minimized by maintaining a light plane of anesthesia.
insufflated through this air sac (Jaensch et al., 2002). This sug-
gests that there may be species differences as to which air sac is
best used for cannulation and delivery of inhalant anesthetics. E. Cardiovascular System
As mentioned, the avian lung lacks a significant functional
residual volume, and this limits the period of time that a bird The avian heart is a four-chambered muscular pump that
can remain apneic during anesthesia. During the induction of separates venous blood from arterial blood. Birds have larger
anesthesia in birds, especially waterfowl, apnea and bradycardia hearts, larger stroke volumes, lower heart rates, and higher car-
can occur and may last up to 5 minutes. Anesthetic gases are diac output than mammals of comparable body mass (Grubb,
not required to elicit this response as it may occur by placing a 1983). Birds also have higher blood pressures than do mam-
mask snugly over a bird’s beak and face. This response has been mals (Grubb, 1983; Sturkie, 1986a). The atria and ventricles are
referred to as a dive response, but it is a stress response mediated innervated by sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves (Sturkie,
by stimulation of trigeminal receptors in the beak and nares, 1986a), and norepinephrine and epinephrine are the princi-
at least such is the case in diving ducks (Butler, 1988; Jones pal sympathetic neurotransmitters while acetylcholine is the
et al., 1988; Woakes, 1988). During the stress response, blood principal parasympathetic neurotransmitter. Excitement and
flow is preferentially distributed to the kidneys, heart, and brain handling can increase the concentration of norepinephrine and
(Jones et al., 1979). When this stress occurs in birds, it makes epinephrine, especially epinephrine, in the heart and blood
safe induction of anesthesia a challenge. This response may (Sturkie, 1986a). This has significant implications for anesthetic
be ameliorated by the use of premedicants such as diazepam, management because inhalant anesthetics, especially halothane,
midazolam, or butorphanol. sensitize the myocardium to catecholamine-induced cardiac
arrhythmias. In addition, hypoxia, hypercapnia, and anesthetics,
the last depending on the type and dose, depress cardiovascular
D. Control of Ventilation function.
The conduction system of the avian heart consists of the
Birds have a central respiratory pattern generator, central sinoatrial node, the atrioventricular node and its branches, and
chemoreceptors that are sensitive to PCO2 , and many periph- Purkinje fibers (Sturkie, 1986b). The pattern of Purkinje fiber
eral chemoreceptors that are similar to those found in mammals distribution within the ventricular myocardium is responsible
(Gleeson and Molony, 1989). Birds have a unique group of for QRS morphology. In birds, Purkinje fibers completely
peripheral receptors located in the lung called intrapulmonary penetrate the ventricular myocardium from endocardium to
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 489

to reduce as much as possible the stress of handling; to accom-

P-R S-T
Segment
plish this, proper restraint technique is crucial. In addition to
Seg.
P
T the stress of handling, improper capture or restraint can cause
physical trauma, including fractures of wings or legs. Because
1 cm-1mv
millivolts

0.1

birds cannot dissipate heat through their skin, they can become
R stressed and easily overheated with prolonged restraint. In gen-
eral, a bird must be restrained so that its wings and legs are firmly
Ta wave but gently controlled and not allowed to flap or kick about. For
long-necked birds, such as herons and cranes, the neck must be
P-R controlled so that head, eye, and neck trauma is avoided.
Interval Proper restraint is also necessary to protect personnel working
Q-T with birds. Each avian species has its own unique and effective
Interval
mechanisms for defense. Certainly with small species, such as
song birds, their defensive mechanisms are of little concern, but
larger birds can pose a challenge, especially to inexperienced
handlers. Birds of prey, for example, use their talons and inflict
severe physical trauma on a handler or assistant, and the risk of
S
infection from such wounds is high. Although most birds of prey
QRS
do not bite, some, such as great horned owls, will use their talons
and beak to great effect. Psittacines have very strong beaks that
0.005
can cause severe soft tissue injury. Cranes and herons will use
0.05 seconds their long, pointed beaks in a spearing manner and seem to focus
Fig. 18-5 An ECG from a pigeon. To those unfamiliar with the avian ECG on the handler’s eyes. Understanding the physical characteristics
complex, an ECG trace from a normal bird may have the appearance of ventric- and defensive strategies that birds may use is crucial to providing
ular tachycardia primarily because of the large negative S wave. From Lumeij restraint that is safe for both the bird and the people handling it.
and Stokhof (1985). Every bird should be subject to a thorough physical examina-
tion prior to anesthesia. A number of excellent texts describe in
detail the techniques for physical examination and what to look
epicardium and the pattern of ventricular activation is described for in specific avian species (Cooper, 2002; Fowler and Miller,
as type 2b, a pattern that may facilitate synchronous myocar- 2003; Ritchie et al., 1994). In general, quiet observation of a
dial contraction at high heart rates (Keene, and Flammer, 1991). bird in its cage provides a great deal of information. A bird’s
Electrocardiograms have been described for a number of avian awareness of and attention to its environment, body form and
species (Keene and Flammer, 1991; Kisch, 1951; Lumeij and posture, feather condition, and respiratory rate all provide clues
Stokhof, 1985; Sturkie, 1986; Zenoble, 1981; Zenoble and to its physical condition. Birds should be removed from their
Graham, 1979). To those who are unfamiliar with the avian cage and examined, with particular attention given to the nares
electrocardiogram (ECG) but are familiar with the typical mam- and mouth. A stethoscope with a pediatric head should be used
malian ECG, the normal avian QRS complex has the appearance to examine the heart and lungs. At the same time, the sharpness
of ventricular tachycardia (Fig. 18-5). of the keel should be determined as this is a good indicator of
muscle mass and body fat.

III. SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR

B. Fasting
ANESTHESIA
Fasting of birds prior to anesthesia and surgery has been
A. Physical Restraint and Examination controversial. Arguments against fasting stem from a concern
that fasted birds may become hypoglycemic because of their
Physical restraint is extremely stressful for birds, even for high metabolic rate and poor hepatic glycogen storage (Altman,
those that outwardly appear to be calm. For example, geese 1980; Franchetti and Klide, 1978). However, because of the
supposedly acclimated to handling and restraint and that seemed hazards associated with regurgitation in minimally fasted birds,
outwardly calm, had significant increases in stress-related hor- some practitioners recommend that avian species, regardless
mones when handled and restrained (Le Maho, et al., 1992); of size, be fasted overnight (Harrison, 1991). A reasonable
thus, a bird’s behavioral signs do not accurately reflect the milieu approach is to hold a bird off food long enough for the upper
interior (Paul-Murphy and Ludders, 2001). A stressed bird is a GI tract to empty, usually overnight in large birds and 4–6
challenge to anesthetize, so appropriate efforts must be made hours in smaller birds (Sinn, 1997). My experience with healthy
490 JOHN W. LUDDERS

waterfowl, cranes, chickens, and psittacines suggests that an Dorrestein, 1991; Schmidt-Nielsen, 1991; Sedgwick and
overnight fast in these birds is not deleterious and reduces the Pokras, 1988). More important, the general principles underly-
incidence of regurgitation-associated problems such as aspira- ing allometric scaling serve as a rational basis for understanding
tion of regurgitated material. If a bird has a full crop, it can how drug doses are affected by body mass or metabolic rate. A
be held upright during induction with a finger positioned just simple but specific example puts these principles and concepts
below the mandible so as to block the esophagus (Sinn, 1997). into perspective. Dosing guidelines for ketamine in birds reflect
Once the bird is anesthetized, the crop can be emptied by plac- the allometric concept that drug doses are inversely related to
ing a finger covered with gauze over the choanal slits to prevent body mass. For example, a recommended dose for ketamine in a
food from entering the nasal cavity, and then milking the food small psittacine weighing less than 100 g is 0.07–0.10 mg/g, IM,
contents out of the crop and esophagus (Sinn, 1997). At the end while a bird weighing over 500 g would receive 0.03–0.06 mg/g,
of anesthesia, the oral cavity should be checked for and cleaned IM (McDonald, 1989). Allometric scaling formulas are useful
of food material to prevent aspiration. for highly polar drugs (e.g., aminoglycosides), or drugs that do
not require significant biotransformation prior to secretion (e.g.,
ketamine), but allometric calculations become more compli-
C. Injectable Anesthetics
cated and imprecise when attempting to apply them to drugs that
require several pathways of biotransformation (Kollias, 2006).
Injectable anesthetics are used frequently to produce anes-
There is very little information about the pharmacodynam-
thesia in birds and they have many advantages including low
ics of drugs commonly used in birds, but it is known that there
cost, ease of use, and rapid induction of anesthesia; expensive
can be significant differences in response among birds to the
equipment is not required for delivery or maintenance of anes-
same drug (Dorrestein and van Miert, 1988; Redig et al., 1984).
thesia, and pollution of the work environment is not an issue (see
For example, the commercially available form of ketamine
Table 18-1 for a selected list of drugs and doses). However, there
consists of a racemic mixture of its levorotatory and dextro-
are inherent disadvantages associated with their use including
rotatory forms. In great horned and snowy owls, this racemic
significant variation between species and individuals in terms
mixture characteristically induces chemical restraint and anes-
of dose and response, difficulty in delivering a safe volume
thesia of poor quality (Redig et al., 1984). When great horned
to small birds, ease in overdosing by any route, and difficulty
owls receive only the dextrorotatory form of ketamine, anes-
in maintaining surgical anesthesia without severe cardiopul-
thesia induction is smoother with fewer cardiac arrhythmias,
monary depression, especially for long periods of time; once an
whereas the levorotatory form is associated with inadequate
injectable anesthetic drug is given the bird’s recovery depends
muscle relaxation, cardiac arrhythmias, and excited behavior
upon metabolic and excretory mechanisms. Functionally, the
during recovery (Redig et al., 1984). Whether these differences
latter consideration means that recoveries may be prolonged
are due to differing pathways for drug metabolism among birds,
and violent (Franchetti, and Klide, 1978). An injectable tech-
production of pharmacologically active metabolites, or differ-
nique is acceptable for procedures that require anesthesia for up
ences in types of receptors or receptor sensitivity are not known.
to 20–30 minutes, but an inhalant technique is far better when
It is incumbent upon the investigator who is working with a par-
anesthesia of longer duration is required.
ticular species of a bird to be familiar with the typical, expected
response of that species to drugs that are being considered for
1. Pharmacologic Considerations
anesthesia.
Pharmacologic principles that apply to mammals also
apply to birds. Pharmacokinetics describe the bioavailability, 2. Injection Sites
absorption, distribution, biotransformation, and excretion of a
Subcutaneous (SQ) injection sites include the area over the
drug, information that can be used to determine drug dose and
back between the wings, the wing web, and the skin fold in the
route of administration. The fate of a drug in the body, including
inguinal region. The pectoral and thigh muscles can be used for
protein binding, volume of distribution, biotransformation, and
intramuscular (IM) injections. Twenty-five or 27 gauge hypo-
excretion, differs from species to species because the relation-
dermic needles should be used for SQ, IM, or IV injections.
ship between biotransformation and excretion is determined by
The ulnaris vein, dorsal metatarsal vein, and jugular vein can be
metabolic factors and heredity (Dorrestein, 1991). A frequent
used for IV injections as well as for catheterization. In general,
misconception is that all birds are similar pharmacologically, but
the right jugular vein is larger and easier to visualize than the
such an approach can lead to undesirable consequences includ-
left jugular vein, and it is an easy vessel from which to draw
ing limited efficacy or intoxication, even among closely related
blood or to catheterize.
avian species (Dorrestein, 1991). There are alternative methods
available for determining safe, effective doses of drugs used
3. Specific Drugs
in birds. Allometric scaling and the concepts of physiologic
time are recognized and accepted alternatives for determining Ketamine, diazepam, xylazine, or medetomidine have been
drug doses in lieu of pharmacokinetic data (Boxenbaum, 1982; used to induce anesthesia of relatively short duration in a variety
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 491

of birds. Ketamine produces a state of catalepsy and can be Medetomidine, a more potent and specific α2 -adrenergic ago-
given by any parenteral route; doses range from 10 mg/kg nist than xylazine, has been used alone in birds (Cherdchanpipat
to 200 mg/kg depending on species and route of administra- et al., 1989; Leonardi et al., 2004; Mohammad et al., 1997;
tion. Drugs such as diazepam, midazolam, or xylazine have Pollock et al., 2001; Sandmeier, 2000), or in combination with
been combined with ketamine in order to prolong or improve other drugs (Abass et al., 1999; Atalan et al., 2002; Blogg
the quality of ketamine anesthesia, provide muscle relaxation, et al., 1998; Kalpravidh 1991; Leonardi et al., 2004; Lumeij
or provide additional analgesia. When used alone, ketamine and Deenik, 2003; Machin and Caulkett, 1998; Mohammad
produces suitable chemical restraint for minor surgical and diag- et al., 1997; Pollock et al., 2001; Sandmeier, 2000) to produce
nostic procedures, but it is not a general anesthetic and is not sedation or anesthesia. When used alone, its degree of seda-
suitable for major surgical manipulations (McGrath et al., 1984; tion and duration of effect are variable and depend on dose
Salerno and van Tienhoven, 1976). Higher doses of ketamine and species. In zebra-doves (Geopelia striata) injected with
only serve to prolong its duration of action while decreasing its medetomidine (250 μg/kg, IM), the onset of sedation occurred
margin of safety (McGrath et al., 1984). within 9 minutes and lasted for 5 hours (Cherdchanpipat et al.,
Diazepam is a tranquilizer with excellent muscle relaxant 1989). In domestic pigeons, a combination of medetomidine
properties. As with all tranquilizers, it lacks analgesic properties (125 μg/kg, IM) and ketamine (30 mg/kg, IM) provided a deeper
and should not be viewed as providing additional analgesia when plane of anesthesia with better analgesia than did a combination
combined with primary anesthetics such as ketamine. Diazepam of diazepam (2 mg/kg, IM) and ketamine (60 mg/kg, IM), but
can be used to tranquilize a bird prior to mask induction with the level of anesthesia was unreliable in that birds exhibited vio-
an inhalant anesthetic, thus reducing the stress and struggling lent wing flapping (Lumeij and Deenik, 2003). Recovery was
associated with anesthetic induction. An important feature of rapid and smooth in the pigeons given medetomidine–ketamine
diazepam is that its duration of action is short and recovery is and prolonged in pigeons given diazepam–ketamine (Lumeij
not prolonged. and Deenik, 2003).
Midazolam is a more potent, longer acting benzodiazepine. To hasten recovery from or treat an overdose of an
In Canada geese, midazolam (2 mg/kg, IM) induced adequate α-adrenergic agonist, an α-adrenergic antagonist such as tola-
tranquilization for radiography that lasted up to 20 minutes after zoline, yohimbine, or atipamezole can be used. Turkey vultures
injection (Valverde et al., 1990). Mean arterial blood pressure anesthetized with a combination of xylazine and ketamine
remained stable, and arterial blood gases were unchanged from regained consciousness approximately 4 minutes after tolazo-
baseline values (Valverde et al., 1990). In a study of quail (Col- line (15 mg/kg) was given intravenously (Allen and Oosterhuis,
inus virginianus), midazolam (6 mg/kg, IM) produced heavy 1986). Red-tailed hawks anesthetized with a combination of
sedation in 9 out of 10 birds and mild sedation in one; time xylazine and ketamine recovered from anesthesia significantly
to peak onset of sedation was 10 minutes after administration faster after receiving yohimbine than birds not receiving the
and, as judged by heart and respiratory rates, there were no antagonist (Degernes et al., 1988). In addition, a yohimbine
alterations in cardiopulmonary function (Machin and Caulkett, dose of 0.1 mg/kg was effective and did not produce clinically
2000). Midazolam appears to be a safe drug that can be used to significant cardiopulmonary changes (Degernes et al., 1988).
facilitate induction of anesthesia or provide a variable period of In domestic pigeons, the effects of anesthesia with medetomi-
sedation for minor, nonpainful procedures such as radiography. dine, butorphanol, and ketamine were incompletely reversed
In raptors and pigeons, the effects of midazolam last for sev- with atipamezole injected intramuscularly 60 minutes after the
eral hours after the termination of anesthesia. Although there ketamine was injected; arousal was observed to occur within 10
have been no reports of complications associated with midazo- minutes of injection (Atalan et al., 2002).
lam and prolonged recoveries, such recoveries are considered Propofol has been used in a variety of birds, including chick-
an undesirable feature of any drug. ens (Lukasik et al., 1997), pigeons (Fitzgerald and Cooper,
Xylazine, an α2 -adrenergic agonist with sedative and anal- 1990), barred owls and rheas (Clippinger et al., 2000), red-tailed
gesic properties, has been used for minor surgical and diag- hawks and great horned owls (Hawkins et al., 2003), canvas-
nostic procedures. It has profound cardiopulmonary effects, back and mallard ducks (Machin and Caulkett, 1998, 2000),
including second-degree heart block, bradyarrhythmias, and barn owls (Mama et al., 1996; Mikaelian, 1991), Hispaniolan
increased sensitivity to catecholamine-induced cardiac arrhyth- parrots (Langlois et al., 2003), a common buzzard and tawny owl
mias. To enhance its sedative and analgesic properties, xylazine (Mikaelian, 1991), spectacled and king eiders (Mulcahy et al.,
is frequently combined with other anesthetic drugs such 2003), and wild turkeys (Schumacher et al., 1997). Its effects are
as ketamine. In some species, when used alone in high characterized by a rapid onset of action, but the speed of recov-
doses, xylazine can cause respiratory depression, excite- ery may be variable and is species dependent. A characteristic
ment, and convulsions (Samour et al., 1984). Hypox- side effect of the drug is hypoventilation, or apnea, and hypox-
emia and hypercapnia were observed in Pekin ducks given emia. In chickens and pigeons, propofol produced respiratory
xylazine or a combination of xylazine and ketamine (Ludders depression and apnea, and the lethal dose appeared to be close
et al., 1989b). to the induction dose in these species (Fitzgerald and Cooper,
492 JOHN W. LUDDERS

1990; Lukasik et al., 1997). In red-tailed hawks and great horned Lidocaine can be used in birds for local anesthesia, but the dose
owls, propofol decreased effective ventilation and recovery was must not exceed 4 mg/kg, which is difficult to achieve in very
prolonged with some birds exhibiting moderate to severe signs small birds unless the drug is diluted. Although local anesthetics
of CNS excitation (Hawkins et al., 2003). Hispaniolan parrots provide sufficient local or regional anesthesia, they do nothing
anesthetized with propofol had prolonged recoveries compared for the stress induced by physical restraint and handling of an
to when they were anesthetized with isoflurane (Langlois et al., awake bird.
2003). Wild turkeys, induced (5 mg/kg, IV) to anesthesia and
maintained (0.05 mg/kg/min, IV) with propofol, became apneic
5. Opioids, Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs,
and remained so for 10–30 seconds after induction; their res-
and Pain
piratory rate was significantly decreased at 4 minutes after
administration of propofol and remained so throughout the The lack of an anthropocentric type of response by birds to
period of infusion (Schumacher et al., 1997). Two male turkeys pain does not necessarily mean that they do not perceive pain or
developed severe transient hypoxemia, one at 5 minutes and the that it does not cause them distress. It may be that the behavioral
other at 15 minutes after induction (Schumacher et al., 1997). or physiological variables associated with pain in birds have not
The turkeys stood after an average of 11 minutes following been adequately characterized, and there are a number of reasons
discontinuation of the propofol infusion (Schumacher et al., for this (Paul-Murphy and Ludders, 2001). To accurately assess
1997). pain in birds requires that the observer be familiar with normal
Surgical anesthesia can be maintained for relatively long peri- and pain-associated behavior of a given species as well as of the
ods of time (1–12 hours) by using intermediate- or long-acting individual bird (Clyde and Paul-Murphy, 1999). An example
barbiturates, or combinations of drugs with an intermediate serves to make this point: of all the normal behaviors that a
duration of effect. Pentobarbital (25–30 mg/kg, IV) can pro- chicken can display, dust bathing is the single best behavioral
duce anesthesia for several hours (Fedde, 1978). However, the indicator of pain, and this behavior is significantly reduced in
drug requires 10–15 minutes to achieve its full effect, so it must chickens with arthritis (Vestergaard and Santora, 1999). Dust
be administered initially as a bolus consisting of half the total bathing, however, is not a normal behavior of other avian species
dose with the remainder titrated over several minutes until the and so it cannot be used as an indicator of pain in other birds.
desired plane of anesthesia is achieved. Patience is indeed a The problem of recognizing pain in birds has been confused
virtue when using this drug to produce anesthesia in birds. by research investigating the effects of opioids in birds. In
Phenobarbital is a long-acting barbiturate that can produce contrast to studies of the analgesic effects of opioids in mam-
long-lasting anesthesia, up to 24 hours when administered at mals, the objective of opioid studies in birds has been, in
130 mg/kg (Fedde, 1978). Its onset of action is very slow, requir- general, to evaluate their effect on learned behavior, not anal-
ing as much as 30 minutes before surgical anesthesia is achieved. gesia (Fitzgerald and Cooper, 1990; France and Woods, 1987;
As is true for pentobarbital, additional doses of phenobarbital Herling et al., 1984; Leander, 1983; Leander and McMillan,
can be administered as needed to deepen the plane of anesthesia, 1977). The few studies evaluating the analgesic effects of opi-
but there is a narrow margin between satisfactory anesthesia and oids in birds are conflicting. In one study, morphine produced
severe respiratory and cardiac depression to the point of death. If hyperalgesia (Hughes, 1990), while in another it produced anal-
patience is a virtue when using pentobarbital, it is a near saintly gesia (Bardo and Hughes, 1978). The results of a study in
characteristic when using phenobarbital! chickens indicated that motor deficits associated with the admin-
Equithesin is a combination of pentobarbital, chloral hydrate, istration of morphine might mask its analgesic effects (Rager
and magnesium sulfate; it is not available commercially and and Gallup, 1986). More recent studies of mu opioids suggest
those who use it make it themselves. It does not produce a sur- that their analgesic effects can be variable. For example, fen-
gical plane of anesthesia in domestic fowl when used alone, tanyl (0.01 and 0.02 mg/kg, IM) was rapidly absorbed when
but according to one report, it does produce surgical anesthesia given to white cockatoos (Cacatua alba) weighing 572 ± 125 g,
lasting for as long as 90 minutes when combined with diazepam and its elimination half-life was 1.2–1.4 hours (Hoppes et al.,
(Christensen et al., 1987). This latter finding is somewhat 2003). In the same study, fentanyl was given at 0.02 mg/kg,
surprising because diazepam is devoid of analgesic properties. IM, or 0.2 mg/kg, SQ, and in terms of response to pain, there
was no difference in response times between saline injection
and fentanyl at the lowest dose even though plasma levels for
4. Local Anesthetics
over two hours following its administration were at concentra-
Local anesthetics have produced seizures and cardiac arrest in tions considered analgesic in humans.(Hoppes et al., 2003). The
birds (Fedde, 1978), but these problems have occurred as a result higher dose provided significant analgesia in some birds while
of gross overdosing in small birds (Franchetti and Klide, 1978). caused excitement in others, but its delivery required a large
For example, 0.1 ml of lidocaine 2% (20 mg/ml) administered volume (approximately 2.3 ml per 572 g bird) (Hoppes et al.,
intramuscularly or subcutaneously to a 30 g parakeet is equiv- 2003). In African gray parrots, buprenorphine (0.1 mg/kg, IM),
alent to 67 mg/kg, a gross and toxic overdose for any animal. a partial mu agonist, had no analgesic effects when compared
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 493

to saline (Paul-Murphy et al., 1999). These studies suggest that

mu opioids provide inadequate analgesia to birds.
Kappa opioids such as butorphanol appear to provide effec-
tive analgesia to birds. Kappa opioid receptors account for
76% of the radiolabeling of pigeon forebrain tissues, a find-
ing that may explain why kappa opioid agonists like butor-
phanol, and not mu opioids, are effective analgesics in birds
(Mansour et al., 1988). Butorphanol has been shown to pro-
duce analgesia in cockatoos and African gray parrots (Curro
et al., 1994; Paul-Murphy and Ludders, 2001; Paul-Murphy Flange made out of Flange made out of
et al., 1999). sheet of light rubber latex rubber glove

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) can be used

to provide analgesia to birds, but there can be significant phar- (a)
macokinetic differences depending on the drug and the species
(Baert and De Backer, 2003) that may, as in mammals, result
in significant gastrointestinal or renal toxicity (Mulcahy et al.,
2003; Oaks et al., 2004; Paul-Murphy and Ludders, 2001).
Carprofen administered at 1 mg/kg, SQ, has been recommended
for analgesia (Paul-Murphy and Ludders, 2001), but another
study of chickens with sodium urate-induced articular pain sug-
gests that a dose of 30 mg/kg may be necessary for effective
analgesia (Hocking et al., 2005). The latter study also recom-
mended that ketoprofen for analgesia be administered at a dose
of 12 mg/kg (Hocking et al., 2005).

D. Inhalant Anesthetics
(b)

Inhalant anesthetics, especially isoflurane, are considered Fig. 18-6 Masks. (a) A variety of “home made” masks assembled from
the anesthetics of choice for birds, and they offer several syringe cases and liberal amounts of tape, a key ingredient in their construction.
advantages for patient management not provided by injectable An important feature of any mask is that it fits snuggly over a bird’s beak or
bill so that oxygen and anesthetic gas are delivered to the bird and not the work
drugs (Ludders and Matthews, 1996; Roberson et al., 2000). environment. The two masks on the right have flanges made of light rubber
Advantages include rapid induction and recovery, especially (black flange) or latex rubber (white) from a surgical glove to make a tighter
when inhalant anesthetics with low blood-gas solubility are seal around a bird’s beak or head. (b) A chicken being induced to anesthesia with
used (isoflurane and sevoflurane), easier control of anes- isoflurane in oxygen, delivered with a coaxial nonrebreathing circuit attached to
thetic depth, the concurrent use of oxygen with inhalants a mask typically used for masking dogs to anesthesia. The black rubber flange
fits snuggly around the bird’s neck and minimizes but does not prevent pollution
which provides respiratory support, and fast recovery that is of the work environment with waste anesthetic gas.
independent of metabolic or excretory pathways. A disad-
vantage is that the delivery of the potent inhalants requires
special equipment such as a source of oxygen, a vaporizer, F. Induction Methods
a breathing circuit, and a mechanism for scavenging waste
anesthetic gases, the latter unnecessary in a field (outdoor) The number and the variety of techniques which may be
situation. used for inducing anesthesia in birds by inhalation anesthet-
ics are only limited by the anesthetist’s imagination. Birds can
be induced with commercially available masks designed for
E. Breathing Circuits and Fresh Gas Flows small animals, or with homemade masks fabricated from plas-
tic bottles, syringe cases, syringe barrels, or breathing hose
Nonrebreathing circuits, such as the Bain circuit or Norman connectors. Mask induction techniques can be used in a wide
elbow, are ideal for use in birds because they offer minimal variety and size of birds, from the very small up to and includ-
resistance to patient ventilation. An additional advantage to the ing emu (Fig. 18-6). Mask inductions are unsatisfactory in adult
plastic Bain circuit is that it is light in weight, an advantage when ostriches. Birds can be induced to anesthesia by inserting their
used in very small birds. When a nonrebreathing circuit is used, heads into a clear plastic bag into which oxygen and anesthetic
oxygen flows should be two to three times minute ventilation, vapor are introduced via a nonrebreathing circuit. They can also
or 150–200 mL · kg−1 · min−1 . be induced to anesthesia in a clear, leak-proof chamber, but a
494 JOHN W. LUDDERS

TABLE 18-3 (Korbel, 1998; Ludders, 1992; Ludders et al., 1988, 1989a,
Minimum Anesthetic Concentration (MAC) for Three Inhalant 1990; Naganobu et al., 2000, 2003). More specifically, as the
Anesthetics—Halothane, Isoflurane, and Sevoflurane—in Birds concentration of anesthetic increases the partial pressure of car-
Bird Halothane (%) Isoflurane (%) Sevoflurane (%)
bon dioxide in arterial blood increases significantly. Anesthetic
index (AI) is a measure of the tendency for an inhalant anesthetic
Chicken 0.85a 1.25b 2.21c to cause respiratory depression and apnea (Regan and Eger,
Cockatoo – 1.44d – 1967); the lower the AI of an inhalant anesthetic, the greater
Duck 1.05e 1.32f –
Sandhill crane – 1.35g –
is its depressant effect on ventilation. In ducks anesthetized
with halothane, AI was found to be 1.51 or lower (Ludders,
a
Ludders et al. (1988). 1992), while the AI for ducks anesthetized with isoflurane was
b
Naganobu and Hagio (2000). 1.65 (Ludders et al., 1990). These AI values are considerably
c
Naganobu et al. (2000). lower than those reported for dogs (Steffey and Howland, 1977,
d
Curro et al. (1994). 1978), cats (Steffey and Howland, 1977), or horses (Steffey
e
Ludders (1992).
f
Ludders et al. (1990).
et al., 1977), and suggest that halothane and isoflurane depress
g
Ludders et al. (1989a). ventilation more in birds than in mammals.
The effect of halothane on blood pressure can be variable.
In chickens and ducks, increasing concentrations of halothane
disadvantage of this technique is that the anesthetist is not in cause a decrease in mean arterial blood pressure (Goelz et al.,
physical contact with the bird and is unable to get a feel for 1990; Ludders et al., 1988), or no change (Ludders, 1992).
how the bird is responding to the anesthetic. In addition, birds In contrast, isoflurane appears to consistently cause a dose-
in a chamber can injure themselves as they pass through stage dependent decrease in mean arterial blood pressure (Goelz et al.,
II anesthesia, the involuntary excitement stage. Whatever tech- 1990; Greenlees et al., 1990; Ludders et al. 1989a, 1990), pos-
nique is used, the anesthetist must take precautions to prevent sibly because of isoflurane-associated peripheral vasodilation.
anesthetic gas pollution of the work environment. When using Sevoflurane in chickens has been reported to decrease blood
a mask it should fit snugly over the bird’s beak and face, or over pressure in a dose-dependent manner during controlled ventila-
its entire head. If a plastic bag or chamber is used, it should be tion, but not during spontaneous ventilation, probably because
free of leaks. Once induction is completed, the bag or chamber of the attendant hypercapnia (Naganobu et al., 2003).
must be removed from the work area without “dumping” the Cardiac arrhythmias frequently occur in birds anesthetized
anesthetic gas contents into the workplace environment. with halothane. In contrast, cardiac stability is one of the per-
ceived clinical advantages of isoflurane. However, in an electric
fibrillation model, isoflurane was found to lower the thresh-
G. Minimum Anesthetic Concentration (MAC)
old for electric fibrillation more so than halothane (Greenlees
et al., 1990). The reasons for the discrepancy between clini-
The MAC of an inhalant anesthetic that produces anesthe-
cal experience and the result of this study are not clear, but
sia in mammals exposed to a noxious stimulus is a measure that
hypoventilation, a common occurrence during general inhalant
provides a description of concentration and effect of an inhalant,
anesthesia, may have been a contributing factor. Not only
and it applies equally to all inhalant anesthetics. For birds,
does hypoventilation make it difficult to control the plane of
because they do not have an alveolar lung, MAC is defined as
anesthesia, it can have a variety of adverse effects on car-
the minimal anesthetic concentration required to prevent gross
diopulmonary function through direct or indirect mechanisms.
purposeful movement in a bird subjected to a noxious stimulus
For example, in 6 of 12 ducks held at a constant end-tidal
(Ludders et al., 1989a). In birds MAC is determined in a manner
halothane concentration of 1.5% while PaCO2 was varied from
similar to how it is determined in mammals; thus, the MAC val-
40 mmHg to 80 mmHg, unifocal and multifocal cardiac arrhyth-
ues for halothane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane in birds (Ludders,
mias occurred (Naganobu et al., 2001). The mean PaCO2 at
1992; Ludders et al., 1988, 1989a, 1990; Naganobu et al.,
which arrhythmias developed was 67 ± 12 mmHg; in five of six
2000, 2003) are similar to MAC values reported for mammals
ducks with arrhythmias, the arrhythmias disappeared after CO2
(Table 18-3) (Quasha et al., 1980).
inhalation was terminated (Naganobu et al., 2001). To avoid
hypoventilation and hypercarbia during general inhalant anes-
H. Halothane, Isoflurane, and Sevoflurane thesia, ventilation in birds should be assisted or controlled using
either manual or mechanical means.
Halothane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane are the most com- Nitrous oxide can be used as an adjunct to general anesthe-
monly used inhalant anesthetics in birds. Of these three sia in birds, but not as the sole anesthetic (Arnall, 1961). A
inhalants, isoflurane is preferred for use in birds. Halothane, study of pigeons showed that nitrous oxide (50%) decreases
isoflurane and sevoflurane, at all end-tidal anesthetic concen- the concentration of isoflurane necessary to maintain a suit-
trations and in a dose-dependent manner, depress ventilation able plane of anesthesia by only 11% (Korbel et al., 1996).
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 495

This confirms that nitrous oxide is a weak anesthetic and must double-crested cormorants (Phalacrocorax auritus), vecuro-
not be used as the sole anesthetic for birds undergoing painful nium alone or in combination with atropine and phenylephrine
procedures. As with any anesthetic gas or vapor, nitrous oxide were evaluated as mydriatics (Loerzel et al., 2002). The cor-
is not uniquely sequestered or concentrated in air sacs. The morants were treated with each of the four drug treatments:
decision to use nitrous oxide depends on whether a bird has ade- atropine (1%); vecuronium (total 0.16 mg/eye); atropine with
quate pulmonary function and whether sufficient oxygen can be vecuronium; and atropine plus phenylephrine (2.5%), followed
delivered to meet its metabolic demands. Thirty percent oxygen by vecuronium. The treatment of atropine, phenylephrine and
(balance nitrous oxide) is generally considered the minimum vecuronium provided the most consistent dilation with larger
fraction of inspired oxygen to be delivered to an anesthetized average pupil size and longer average duration of effect; no side
animal so as to meet its metabolic needs and prevent hypox- effects from vecuronium were observed in these birds (Loerzel
emia. However, if 30% oxygen is delivered to a bird that also et al., 2002).
is anesthetized with an inhalant anesthetic such as isoflurane,
the bird may hypoventilate to such a degree that it will become
hypoxic despite the administration of 30% oxygen. When using J. Monitoring
nitrous oxide, 50% oxygen is generally delivered so as to avoid
hypoventilation-associated hypoxemia. Birds must be monitored during anesthesia. Physiologic vari-
Nitrous oxide may cause problems in some avian species. For ables to monitor include respiratory rate and tidal volume,
example, pelicans have SQ pockets of air that do not commu- oxygenation, heart rate and rhythm, body temperature, and mus-
nicate with the respiratory system, and the use of nitrous oxide cle relaxation. Both respiratory rate and tidal volume should
in these birds can result in SQ emphysema (Reynold, 1983). be monitored during anesthesia in order to assess the ade-
quacy of ventilation and the depth of anesthesia. Respiratory
frequency by itself is often misleading as to the adequacy of
I. Adjuncts to General Anesthesia ventilation and anesthetic depth. High respiratory frequencies
in an anesthetized bird do not necessarily indicate that the bird
Muscle paralytics may be useful in the anesthetic man- is light or that it is hyperventilating. More often high respira-
agement of birds, especially during long surgical procedures tory frequencies are associated with small tidal volumes and a
requiring adequate muscle relaxation and immobility. However, greater proportion of dead space ventilation than with effective
muscle paralytics are devoid of any analgesic or anesthetic prop- ventilation (Ludders et al., 1989). The end result is hypercarbia.
erties and for this reason they must never be used alone in any Ventilation can be monitored by watching the frequency and
animal including birds. Atracurium is a nondepolarizing muscle the degree of motion of the sternum or movements of the breath-
relaxant with short duration of effect and minimal cardiovas- ing circuit reservoir bag. Capnography can also be used to
cular effects. Its neuromuscular and cardiovascular effects in monitor ventilation in birds, but accurate sampling of airway
anesthetized chickens have been reported (Nicholson and Ilkiw, gas for measurement of CO2 may require adjustments in sam-
1992). The effective dose associated with 95% twitch depression pling flow rate so as to adjust for fresh gas flows and type of
in 50% of birds (ED95/50 ) given atracurium was 0.25 mg/kg, breathing circuit which may affect the accuracy of measuring
and ED95/95 was calculated to be 0.46 mg/kg. The duration CO2 (Edling et al., 2001). When monitoring ventilation in birds,
of action of the 0.25 mg/kg dose was 34.5 ± 5.8 minutes, and respiratory pauses longer than 10 to 15 seconds should be treated
47.8 ± 10.3 minutes at the highest dose of 0.45 mg/kg. Edropho- by lightening the plane of anesthesia and ventilating the bird by
nium (0.5 mg/kg, IV) reversed the effects of atracurium. There either periodically squeezing the reservoir bag or using a pos-
were small, but statistically significant, changes in cardiovas- itive pressure mechanical ventilator. During positive pressure
cular variables, in that heart rate decreased and blood pressure ventilation, airway pressure should not exceed 15–20 cm H2 O
increased after atracurium was administered, but these changes pressure to prevent volutrauma to the air sacs. The adequacy
were considered unimportant clinically (Nicholson and Ilkiw, of ventilation can be assessed by noting the color and capillary
1992). refill time of mucous membranes. The color of the cere and
The avian iris has skeletal muscles that control pupillary beak or bill can give an indication of the adequacy of cardiopul-
diameter and for this reason neuromuscular paralytics have monary function and oxygenation. For example, chickens with
been used to produce mydriasis. In a study of three paralytics combs or wattles that are normally a red or pink color, will lose
(d-tubocurarine, pancuronium, and vecuronium) and two auto- their color (typically they develop a yellow color) when cardiac
nomic drugs (atropine and phenylephrine) administered to three output or oxygenation is poor.
avian species—adult cockatoos (Cacatua sulphurea), African Pulse oximeters can be used to monitor oxygenation, but the
gray parrots (Psittacus erithacus), and blue-fronted Amazon typical pulse oximeter is designed to measure oxygenated and
parrots (Amazona aestiva)—vecuronium produced the most deoxygenated mammalian hemoglobin, not avian hemoglobin.
consistent and greatest pupillary dilatation and did so with the Although pulse oximeters may track trends in oxygenation,
fewest systemic side effects (Ramer et al., 1996). In juvenile they tend to underestimate oxygenation levels at high oxygen
496 JOHN W. LUDDERS

saturation levels and overestimate oxygenation levels at lower plane of surgical anesthesia, raising or lowering the environ-
saturation levels because of the differences between avian and mental temperature, or wetting the bird’s legs with alcohol. In a
mammalian hemoglobin (Schmitt et al., 1998). report involving Hispaniolan Amazon parrots, the most effec-
The heart is an electromechanical pump, and the blood ves- tive method for maintaining body temperature was a forced-air
sels are the conduits for its output. Although the ECG provides warming device (Rembert et al., 2001). Even though such a
information about the electrical activity of the heart, it does device may not prevent an initial drop in core body tempera-
not provide information about pump function. The adequacy ture, in this report it appeared to maintain body temperature
of pump function is assessed by monitoring mucous membrane within a clinically acceptable range (Rembert et al., 2001).
color and refill time, blood pressure, and by palpating peripheral
pulses. The ECG can be monitored by using standard bipolar
K. Recovery
and augmented limb leads. To assure adequate skin contact so
as to gain an interference-free signal, ECG clips can be attached
Birds must be lightly restrained during recovery so that they
to hypodermic needles inserted through the skin at the base of
do not flop around and cause serious neck, wing, or leg injuries
each wing and through the skin at the level of each stifle. Alter-
to themselves. Struggling and flopping behavior can be pre-
natively, the ECG clips can be attached to stainless steel wires
vented by lightly wrapping a bird with a towel, but wrapping it
that have been inserted through the prepatagium of each wing
too tightly may impede sternal movements and impair breath-
and the skin at the lateral side of each stifle; the size of the wire
ing. Wrapping also can lead to excessive retention of body heat
to be used depends on the size of the bird. Twenty- or 22-gauge
and cause hyperthermia. If a bird has not been fasted prior to
wire can be used in birds heavier than 500 g. Appropriately sized
anesthesia, regurgitation may occur during recovery. Keeping a
hypodermic needles are used to insert the wires through the skin.
bird intubated during the recovery phase helps to maintain an
Pump function can be assessed by monitoring the pulsations
open airway and protect it from regurgitated material.
of blood through a peripheral artery or by monitoring blood
pressure. It is possible to directly monitor arterial blood pres-
sure in birds heavier than 4 kg, but this technique is not feasible
IV. EUTHANASIA OF BIRDS
in smaller birds. The Doppler flow probe (Parks Electronics,
Aloha, Oregon) is an effective device for monitoring blood flow
in small birds, and blood flow or blood pressure in birds of mod- A full discussion of acceptable methods of euthanasia of birds
erate to large size. With the Doppler probe secured in position is not possible in this section; for a full discussion of this subject
over a peripheral artery, pulse rate and rhythm can be deter- the reader is referred to the 2000 Report of the AVMA Panel
mined. The probe can be placed over a digital artery, and a on Euthanasia (2001) In short, an IV injection of a concen-
sphygmomanometer attached to a cuff placed around the leg can trated solution of pentobarbital is a very effective and humane
be used to indirectly measure arterial blood pressure. Another means for euthanizing birds. Decapitation, although aestheti-
technique that can be used to monitor the heart is to tape the cally unpleasant, is considered humane. Wringing a bird’s neck
Doppler device probe to the lateral thoracic wall over the heart. is not euthanasia and is unacceptable. I also have reservations
This provides an audible monitor of the beating heart, but it does concerning thoracic compression, which has been advocated
not provide information about pump function or blood pressure. as a means of euthanizing birds in field conditions. My reser-
Body temperature should be monitored for a number of vations stem from the fact that the mechanism by which this
reasons. The stress associated with anesthesia and surgery is technique supposedly produces euthanasia ignores some funda-
minimized when birds are maintained at or near their normal mental aspects of avian anatomy (Ludders, 2001). Advocates of
body temperature. During anesthesia it is not unusual to see thoracic compression state that this technique stops the heart and
major fluctuations in body temperature, but hypothermia is the lungs from moving. Anyone who has tried to resuscitate a bird
most common problem, one that decreases the amount of anes- by compressing the keel after a cardiac arrest knows how diffi-
thetic needed to maintain anesthesia, causes cardiac instability, cult it is to compress the heart and generate a pulsatile flow of
and prolongs recovery. In well-insulated birds (feathers, drapes, blood. This is probably because of the cushioning and protective
heating pads) hyperthermia can occur and also cause cardiac effects of the thoracic air sacs around the heart. As mentioned
instability and an increased demand for oxygen. Body temper- previously, the avian lung is a relatively rigid organ located in the
ature can be reliably monitored with an electronic thermometer dorsal portion of the thoracic cavity, so it is impossible to stop
and a long flexible thermistor probe inserted into the esophagus that which never moves. It is my belief that this method causes
to the level of the heart. Cloacal temperature can vary signifi- death by suffocation, a method that is not necessarily rapid nor
cantly over time due to movements of the cloaca that affect the pain and stress free; there must be minimal pain and stress for a
position of the thermometer or thermistor probe. Body temper- technique to be considered euthanasia. When in doubt about the
ature can be adjusted by inserting or removing pads or blankets humaneness of a technique for euthanizing a bird, the benefit of
between the bird and cold surfaces, using circulating warm the doubt should always go to the bird and this technique, until
water blankets (not electric heating pads), maintaining a light proven otherwise, seems dubious.
18. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN BIRDS 497

V. RECOMMENDED READING Burger, R.E., Meyer, M., Graf, W., and Scheid, P. (1979). Gas exchange in
the parabronchial lung of birds: Experiments in unidirectionally ventilated
ducks. Respir. Physiol. 36(1), 19–37.
Heard Darryl, J. (2001). Analgesia and anesthesia. Vet. Clin. Butler, J.P., Banzett, R.B., and Fredberg, J.J. (1988). Inspiratory valving
North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 4(1), 35–45 Joanne Paul-Murphy in avian bronchi: Aerodynamic considerations. Respir. Physiol. 72(2),
and John W. Ludders 147–167 Moha Abou–Madi. 241–255.
Butler, P.J. (1988). The exercise response and the “classical” diving response
Fedde, M.R. (1978). Drugs used for avian anesthesia: A during natural submersion in birds and mammals. Can. J. Zool. 66, 29–39.
review. Poult. Sci., 57(5), 1376–1399. [NB: although an old Carp, N.Z., Saputelli, J., Halbherr, T.C., et al. (1991). A technique for liver
article, it contains a great deal of useful information concerning biopsy performed in Pekin ducks using anesthesia with Telazol. Lab. Anim.
drugs, doses, and their acceptability for producing anesthesia Sci. 41, 474–475.
in birds.] Cherdchanpipat, S., Shupchukum, K., Pongpichayasiri, K., and Kalpravidh,
M. (1989). Dose-response study of medetomidine in birds. Thai J. Vet. Med.
19(2), 65–73.
Christensen, J., Fosse, R.T., Halvorsen, O.J., and Morild, I. (1987). Comparison
of various anesthetic regimens in the domestic fowl. Am. J. Vet. Res. 48(11),
1649–1657.
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 Chapter 19

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Reptiles

Dorcas P. O’Rourke and Audrey L. Jenkins

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
II. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501
III. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
IV. Anesthetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
V. Physical Restraint and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
VI. Anesthesia of Venomous Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
VII. Routes of Drug Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
VIII. Inhalant Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
IX. Injectable Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
X. Local/Regional Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
XI. Total Intravenous Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
XII. Neuromuscular Blocking Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
XIII. Preanesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
XIV. Anesthetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
XV. Anesthetic Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
XVI. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
XVII. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
XVIII. Pain Management/Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
XIX. Prolonged/Repeated Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
A. Field Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509

I. INTRODUCTION II. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

Reptiles are not typically considered traditional laboratory Unlike mammals and birds, reptiles are poikilothermic;
animals; however, they are frequently subjects of both basic sci- they rely on warm ambient temperatures to maintain normal
ence and ecological research. Class Reptilia is comprised of four metabolic processes. With very few exceptions, such as female
orders, three of which are commonly encountered in a research pythons shivering to raise body temperature during egg incu-
setting: Squamata (snakes and lizards), Chelonia (turtles), and bation, reptiles require an external heat source and the ability
Crocodilia (crocodilians). to move into and away from the heat as needed. Maintaining a

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

501
502 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

TABLE 19-1
Normal Temperature Ranges

Temperature RH (%)

Snakes
Boa constrictor (Boa constrictor) 28–34◦ C (82–93◦ F) 50–70
Corn snake (Elaphe guttata) 25–30◦ C (77–86◦ F) –
King snake (Lampropeltis getulus) 23–30◦ C (73–86◦ F) 50–70
Chelonians
Common box tortoise (Terrapene) 20–27◦ C (68–81◦ F) 60–80
carolina
Red-eared slider (Trachemys) 22–30◦ C (72–86◦ F) 80–90
scripta elegans
Lizards
Green iguana (textitIguana iguana) 29–38◦ C (85–100◦ F) 60–80
Crocodilian
American alligator (Alligator) 30–35◦ C (86–95◦ F) –
mississippiensis
Fig. 19-1 The snake glottis is located behind the tongue sheath and is easily
visualized.
Source: Carpenter et al. (2001).

reptile at suboptimal temperatures during and after anesthesia

predisposes the animal to immune suppression and subsequent
infection. If the environmental temperature is too low, induc-
tion can be slow and recovery times are prolonged (Arena and
Richardson, 1990). Furthermore, if room temperature during
anesthesia is cooler than during recovery, lipid-soluble agents
may be released from body fat and cause anesthetic relapse
(Bennett, 1991). Elevation of environmental temperature also
causes increased oxygen demand, and reptiles recovering from
anesthesia may be unable to generate a compensatory increase
in respiration due to anesthetic-induced respiratory depression
(Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). Temperature preference ranges Fig. 19-2 A laryngoscope can be used to depress the basihyal valve and
have been published for many reptiles, and there can be con- access the glottis in crocodilians.
siderable variation among species (Table 19-1). If information
is unavailable for a particular species, a range of 26–32◦ C is With the exception of crocodilians, reptile lungs are simple,
generally acceptable (Page, 1993; Schaeffer, 1994). endothelium-lined sacs. In some species, the lungs terminate in
Anatomically, the reptilian glottis is positioned more rostrally air sacs, which may serve as air reservoirs, function in defense
than the mammalian laryngeal opening and is typically easier (by making the animal look larger), or play a role in maintaining
to visualize. In snakes, the glottis lies immediately behind the buoyancy when swimming. Paired lungs are present in crocodil-
tongue sheath; this anterior location allows the snake to continue ians, turtles, and lizards. Most snakes have a single, functional
breathing while slowly swallowing a large prey (Fig. 19-1). The right lung and vestigial left lung. Care must be exercised when
glottis is located at the base of the fleshy tongue in turtles and providing assisted ventilation to reptiles, as the lungs and air
many lizard species. Crocodilians have a large basihyal valve sacs are delicate and easily damaged by overinflation (Jacobson,
(epiglottis), which forms a seal with the soft palate and per- 1993).
mits them to submerge while holding prey in their mouths. This A true muscular diaphragm is lacking in reptiles, and ven-
adaptation prevents easy visualization of the glottis, and a laryn- tilation occurs as a result of movement of the intercostal,
goscope is needed to depress the basihyal valve and expose the abdominal, and trunk muscles. The ribs in turtles are fused
glottis (Schaeffer, 1997) (Fig. 19-2). The dilator glottis muscle to the carapace (bony shell); therefore, turtle intercostal mus-
opens the glottis during respiration (Bennett, 1991); otherwise, cles cannot be moved. Turtles must use their limbs and pelvic
it is tightly closed and difficult to intubate. girdle to assist in ventilation (Bennett, 1991). Turtle lungs are
Tracheal structure varies among the reptile orders. Snakes and situated dorsally, immediately below the carapace; therefore,
lizards have incomplete tracheal rings. Conversely, turtles and placing a turtle in dorsal recumbancy during anesthesia can
crocodilians have complete tracheal rings, which are susceptible result in compression of the lungs by abdominal viscera. If
to damage by overinflated cuffed endotracheal tubes. an anesthetized turtle is placed in dorsal recumbency, assisted
19. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES 503

ventilation (approximately 4–6 breaths/min) should be provided be exercised not to exceed the recommended maximum doses
(Bennett, 1991; Millichamp, 1988). for these drugs when they are being infused.
The three factors that control reptile respiration are hypercap-
nia, hypoxemia, and environmental temperature. Low oxygen
concentration stimulates respiration in reptiles. Many reptiles
V. PHYSICAL RESTRAINT AND HANDLING
increase tidal volume in response to elevated environmental
temperatures and elevated carbon dioxide levels, while low oxy-
gen concentrations cause increase in respiratory rate. If a reptile Reptiles should be restrained securely but carefully, to pre-
is recovered from anesthesia using oxygen supplementation, the vent injury to the animal and the handler. Snakes should have
oxygen-rich environment may result in decreases in both res- the body supported and the head restrained during injection.
piratory rate and tidal volume, thereby hindering the recovery Cylindrical plexiglass tubes (Fig. 19-3) protect the handler from
effort (Schumacher and Yelen, 2006; Wang et al., 1998). potential bites, while allowing access to injection sites. The
tubes can also be adapted to allow delivery of inhalants for
induction. Snakes will typically crawl into a tube without much
III. PREANESTHETIC EVALUATION AND coaxing, because instinct drives them to escape into a safe retreat
PREPARATION when threatened. Restraint of large snakes typically requires
more than one handler.
Lizards should be restrained behind the head and supported
Reptiles should be fasted prior to anesthesia if they have
minimally at the pectoral and pelvic girdles. Most species of
recently eaten. Gastrointestinal transit time is variable from
lizards can inflict painful bites, and unlike snakes, lizards typi-
species to species, and animals with slow transit times may
cally bite and do not release (Fig. 19-4). Many lizards will slap
require fasting for several days (Arena and Richardson, 1990;
with their tails as a defensive behavior; this can be quite painful,
Millichamp, 1988). A minimum fast of 24–48 hours prior to
particularly with large animals. Autotomy, or tail amputation in
anesthesia has been recommended (Page, 1993). Preanesthetic
a fracture plane, is an escape mechanism shared by multiple
evaluation should include an accurate weight, baseline heart
species; therefore, lizards should not be restrained by the tail.
rate and respiratory rate, and a thorough physical examina-
Turtles will, typically, either move their limbs frantically in an
tion. Hydration status should be assessed, and any fluid deficits
attempt to escape or withdraw into their shells. Most turtles can
corrected. Daily water requirement for most reptiles is approx-
be handled by holding the sides of the shell mid-body. Certain
imately 30 ml/kg/day (Schumacher, 2000). A complete blood
species, however, have very long necks and can easily reach this
count (CBC) and plasma biochemistry values are often useful;
site; these animals should be restrained by the back of the shell.
however, animal-size limitations and lack of published normal
Turtles also have claws and can scratch while trying to escape.
values for many species may preclude the use of these tests. If
Crocodilians can be quite large and especially difficult to han-
possible, a packed cell volume (PCV), total protein (TP), and
dle and restrain. Smaller animals, similar to lizards, should be
blood glucose levels should be obtained (Schumacher andYelen,
restrained behind the head, with forelimbs and hindlimbs sup-
2006). Normal values for selected species are in Table 19-2.
ported. Crocodilians will use their tails to deliver a very strong
and painful blow; the tail should always be securely restrained.
Large crocodilians require at least two individuals for safe,
IV. ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUES
effective restraint. These animals are best handled with one per-
son situated over the shoulders restraining the head, while the
Reptiles can be anesthetized with either inhalant or injectable second individual controls the hindlimbs and tail. All crocodil-
agents. Inhalants are preferred because of the relatively rapid ian species will attempt to roll when restrained; handlers should
induction and recovery times. They also allow better control be alert to this behavior and restrain the animals to prevent
of anesthetic depth. The disadvantages of inhalants include the rolling. Crocodilians have powerful jaws and can inflict serious
need for precision vaporizers, oxygen sources, and endotracheal injury to personnel if not properly controlled. However, if the
intubation. mouth is closed, the jaws can easily be held shut until bands or
Injectable anesthetics can be used in reptiles. For agents tape are placed around the snout. Care should be taken to avoid
delivered via the IM route, the advantages include ease of covering the nares if this type of muzzle is applied.
administration, especially in large or potentially dangerous
species. Disadvantages of most injectables include compara-
tively long induction and recovery times when compared to
VI. ANESTHESIA OF VENOMOUS SPECIES
inhalants. With the exception of propofol, which requires IV
administration, control of anesthetic depth is also quite limited.
Local or regional anesthesia has some application, particu- Venomous species pose additional risks when handling and
larly with larger species or in certain field situations. Care must inducing anesthesia. Two species of lizards (Gila monster and
504 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

TABLE 19-2
Hematologic and Serum Biochemical Values

Alligator Green iguana Red-eared slider Yellow rat snake

Measurements (Alligator sp.)a (Iguana iguana)b (Trachemys scripta)c (Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata)d

Hematology
PCV (%) 20–30 25–38 25–33 –
RBC (106 /μl) 0.61–1,040 1.0–1.9 0.3–0.8 –
Hgb (g/dl) 509–12.0 6–10 8.0 –
MCV (fl) 327–450 165–305 310–1,000 –
MCH (pg) – 48–78 95–308 –
MCHC (g/dl) 27–47 20–38 31 –
WBC (103 /μl) 6.4–10.2 3–10 – –
Heterophils (%) – 0.35–5.2 – –
Lymphocytes (%) – 0.5–5.5 – –
Monocytes (%) – 0–0.1 – –
Eosinophils (%) – 0–1.7 – –
Basophils (%) – 0–0.3 – –
0–0.5 – –
Chemistries
AP (IU/L) – 50–290 81–343 55–130
ALT (IU/L) – 5–68 – 7–29
AST (IU/L) 360 5–52 0–419 15–103
Bilirubin, total (mg/dl) – – – –
BUN (mg/dl) – 6.0–15.0 22 –
Calcium (mg/dl) 2.6 8.8–14.0 14–15 3.6
Chloride (mEq/L) 112 117–122 97–107 131
Cholesterol (mg/dl) 0–298 104–333 – –
Creatine kinase (IU/L) – – 1,093–1,483 200–1,231
Creatinine (mg/dl) – – – –
Glucose (mg/dl) 45–122 169–288 20–113 15–586
LDH (IU/L) 7–120 – 2,389–4,861 86–320
Magnesium (mEq/L) 1.5 – 2.2 2.5
Phosphorus (mg/dl) – 4–6 3.7–4.3 2.5
Potassium (mEq/L) 3.8–5.9 1.3–3.0 4.3–8.3 4.9
Protein, total (g/dl) 5.1–6.1 5.0–7.8 4.3–6.5 –
Albumin (g/dl) 1.8 2.1–2.8 – –
Globulin (g/dl) – 2.5–4.3 – –
A:G (ratio) – – – –
Sodium (mEq/L) 145 158–183 133–140 162
Thyroxine (μg/dl) – – – –
Triglycerides (mg/dl) – 53–691 – –
Uric acid (mg/dl) 1.0–4.1 1.2–2.4 1 –

a
Frye, 1994; Suedmeyer, 1991.
b
Divers et al., 1996; Frye, 1994.
c
Crawshaw, 1996; Frye, 1994; Jacobson, 1988.
d
Ramsey and Dotson, 1995.

beaded lizard) and many snake species have venom glands with Plexiglass tubes of appropriate size should be used for
varying degrees of toxicity. It is critically important to know restraint. The tube diameter should be large enough to allow
the species of snake and its basic behavior before attempting to the snake to crawl inside easily, but small enough to prevent
handle it. A minimum of two people should always be present it turning around on itself. Once the front end is safely inside
if venomous reptiles are to be manipulated. Antivenom should the tube, the handler can securely hold the tube and the snake’s
be locally available and a clear set of procedures for dealing body, and the animal will be unable to move either forward
with envenomations must be developed and implemented to or backward (Fig. 19-5a). An injectable anesthetic can then be
protect personnel. It is essential that all personnel handling given, or an inhalant can be administered via the free end of the
venomous reptiles be appropriately trained, and all venomous tube. When the snake is anesthetized, it can be removed from the
reptiles should be handled with extreme caution, even when tube and carefully intubated. Extreme caution is necessary when
they are anesthetized. working around the fangs, to prevent accidental inoculation of
19. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES 505

(a)
Fig. 19-3 Cylindrical plexiglass tubes facilitate restraint of aggressive or
venomous snakes.

(b)

Fig. 19-5 (a) and (b) Endotracheal intubation is easy to perform in most
species and helps to ensure adequate anesthesia.

proximal humerus have been cannulated in lizards, and the distal

Fig. 19-4 In contrast to snakes, lizards typically bite and do not release. humerus has been used for intraosseous administration in turtles
(Heard, 1993). Oral administration of anesthetics and analgesics
venom. If a tube is not available, a modified squeeze cage can is unreliable. Likewise, the SC route can result in prolonged and
be fashioned and used to restrain the animal for injection. A unreliable induction and recovery times (Schumacher andYelen,
third option is to introduce the inhalant anesthetic directly into 2006).
the snake’s cage. Depth of anesthesia must be verified before Endotracheal intubation is a relatively easy process in most
attempting to remove the animal. reptiles, and is recommended to ensure adequate anesthetic
induction and ventilation (Fig. 19-5b). Reptiles are hypoxia tol-
erant and can convert to anaerobic metabolism. Some species
VII. ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION can remain apneic for hours (Bennett, 1991). Animals should be
premedicated with an appropriate inhalant or injectable agent.
Lidocaine can be applied to the glottis before intubation (Heard,
Most injectable anesthetics and analgesics are administered 1993; Nevarez et al., 2002). Once intubated, animals should be
via the IM route. Paravertebral muscles are the most common ventilated at 4–8 breaths/min (Schumacher and Yelen, 2006).
injection site in snakes. Turtles, lizards, and crocodilians may be
injected in the forelimbs. IV injections can be given in the ven-
tral coccygeal vein of snakes and most lizards (Schaeffer, 1997;
VIII. INHALANT ANESTHESIA
Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). Some turtles have an accessible
dorsal venous sinus on the dorsal midline of the tail (Haskell
and Pokras, 1994; Lawton, 1992). The turtle’s jugular vein can Isoflurane is the agent of choice. Animals are induced at
also be used for IV injections or percutaneous catheterization. 4–5% and maintained at 1–3%. Isoflurane should be deliv-
Snakes require a cutdown procedure to access the right jugular ered through a precision vaporizer. A nonrebreathing circuit
vein. Lizards have a ventral abdominal vein, which is large and is appropriate for most reptile species; very large animals
can be used for catheterization and delivery of IV drugs and flu- (<10 kg) may require a standard circle system. Oxygen flow
ids. If a vein is not accessible, intraosseous administration can rates vary from 0.2 L/min to 1.0 L/min, depending on size of
be used in some reptiles. The distal femur, proximal tibia, and the reptile (Heard, 1993). Isoflurane provides rapid induction
506 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

and recovery, and minimally depresses cardiovascular function X. LOCAL/REGIONAL ANESTHESIA

(Nevarez et al., 2002; Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). Addition
of butorphanol as an analgesic does not appear to significantly
Lidocaine and bupivacaine can be used in reptiles for proce-
impact cardiovascular function (Mosley et al., 2003, 2004).
dures requiring local anesthesia. Lidocaine provides more rapid
Sevoflurane has been used in reptiles. Short induction and
analgesia, while bupivacaine has a longer duration of action.
recovery times and rapid changes in anesthetic depth are char-
Lidocaine can be infiltrated locally at 2–5 mg/kg. Bupivacaine
acteristic of this inhalant. In desert tortoises, sevoflurane caused
doses range from 1 mg/kg to 2 mg/kg. Because of potential toxic
a decrease in blood pressure but not in the heart rate (Rooney
side effects, lidocaine doses should not exceed 10 mg/kg, and
et al., 1999). Sevoflurane has been used successfully in mon-
bupivacaine doses should not exceed 4 mg/kg (Schumacher and
itors (Bertelsen et al., 2005) and iguanas (Hernandez-Divers
Yelen, 2006).
et al., 2005). Recommended concentrations of sevoflurane, if
used alone, in reptiles are 7–8% for induction and 3.5–4.5% for
maintenance (Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). XI. TOTAL INTRAVENOUS ANESTHESIA
Prior to widespread availability of isoflurane and sevoflurane,
halothane was used in reptiles. Due to its high vapor pressure,
halothane can rapidly reach lethal concentrations and should Propofol has been used in reptiles for IV anesthesia induction
always be delivered through a precision vaporizer. Animals can prior to intubation and maintenance with an inhalant. In lizards
be induced with 3–5% and maintained at 1–2%. Although there and snakes, 3–5 mg/kg is recommended; the range in turtles is
are some reports of halothane use in an open-drop system, there 2–5 mg/kg. If venous access is not possible in turtles and lizards,
is a significant risk of mortality with this method (Schaeffer, intraosseous administration is an option (Schumacher andYelen,
1997). 2006). Propofol has been used as the sole anesthetic in iguanas.
Anesthesia occurred within 3 minutes following delivery of a
5 mg/kg induction dose; maintenance rate was 0.5 mg/kg/min
(Bennett et al., 1998). In snakes, an IV injection of 5–10 mg/kg
IX. INJECTABLE ANESTHESIA will provide 30–45 minutes of general anesthesia. Propofol can
cause respiratory and cardiac depression; therefore, intubation
Ketamine can be administered intramuscularly in com- and assisted ventilation are recommended (Mitchell, 2003).
bination with other agents for anesthetic induction prior
to intubation and for minor procedures. Most commonly,
ketamine is combined with medetomidine. A ketamine– XII. NEUROMUSCULAR BLOCKING AGENTS
medetomidine combination was used to successfully anes-
thetize both juvenile and adult alligators. Juveniles required Neuromuscular blocking agents have been used in the past
higher doses (10 mg/kg IM ketamine; 0.2 mg/kg IM medeto- to immobilize large crocodilians to facilitate handling. Because
midine) than adults (7.5 mg/kg IM ketamine; 0.13 mg/kg IM these drugs do not provide any analgesia, it is recommended to
medetomidine). Medetomidine was reversed with atipamezole use more appropriate agents, such as ketamine–medetomidine,
(1.2 mg/kg IM for juveniles; 0.69 mg/kg IM for adults) (Heaton- for any procedure that has the potential to cause pain or distress.
Jones et al., 2002). Ketamine–medetomidine (10 mg/kg IM
ketamine; 0.2 mg/kg IM medetomidine) provided anesthetic
XIII. PREANESTHESIA
depth sufficient for skin incision and suturing in red-eared slid-
ers. Atipamezole (1 mg/kg IM) was used for reversal (Greer
et al., 2001). In gopher tortoises, ketamine–medetomidine As described earlier in this chapter, various anesthetic combi-
(5 mg/kg ketamine; 0.1 mg/kg medetomidine) administered nations such as ketamine–medetomidine are used to anesthetize
intravenously allowed short-term immobilization sufficient reptiles prior to intubation and maintenance with inhalants.
for minor diagnostic procedures. Reversal with atipamezole Opioids such as butorphanol (0.4–2.0 mg/kg SC, IM, IV) and
(0.5 mg/kg IV) accelerated recovery but caused severe hypoten- buprenorphine (0.02–0.2 mg/kg IM, IV), if used alone, provide
sion; therefore, the authors recommended not using this drug minimal to moderate sedation; however, they may decrease
intravenously (Dennis and Heard, 2002). breath holding and struggling (Schumacher and Yelen, 2006).
Tiletamine–zolazepam has been used for minor procedures Opioids are more effective when combined with a dissocia-
and as a premedication to facilitate endotracheal intubation. This tive such as ketamine or a benzodiazepine such as diazepam.
agent has been effective in lizards (4–6 mg/kg IM), snakes (2– Diazepam [0.2–2 mg/kg IM, IV (0.2–1 mg/kg IM, IV for tur-
5 mg/kg IM), and crocodilians (5–10 mg/kg IM). Butorphanol tles)] and midazolam (1–2 mg/kg IM, IV) are often used in com-
can be added at 1–4 mg/kg to provide analgesia. Recovery bination with dissociative anesthetic agents to produce sedation.
times can be prolonged with tiletamine–zolazepam anesthesia A combination of ketamine (20–40 mg/kg) and midazolam
(Mitchell, 2003; Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). (2.0 mg/kg IM) produced more effective sedation in turtles than
19. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES 507

midazolam alone (Bienzle et al., 1991). Atropine and glycopy- ketamine–medetomidine, tiletamine–zolezapam–butorphanol,
rrolate are not typically used in anesthetic regimens for reptiles or similar combinations are frequently used for anesthetic induc-
(Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). tion to facilitate intubation. If venous access is possible, propo-
Hypothermia was historically used as a sole anesthetic agent fol is preferred; it allows rapid induction and, more importantly,
in reptiles. Hypothermia immobilizes animals, but conclusive rapid recovery when compared to other injectable agents.
data documenting its efficacy as an analgesic are lacking. Addi- The author recommended that the strategy for anesthetic
tionally, hypothermia can cause immune system depression and induction is propofol IV followed by intubation and main-
tissue damage. Therefore, hypothermia is not considered an tenance with an inhalant. If venous or intraosseous access
appropriate sole anesthetic method for reptiles (Heard, 2001; is unsuccessful, ketamine–medetomidine IM should be used.
Schaeffer, 1997; Schumacher and Yelen, 2006). Commonly used anesthetic agents are listed in Table 19-3.
The author recommended that the strategy for premedica-
tion is to maintain the reptile at its preferred temperature, XV. ANESTHETIC MAINTENANCE
and provide warmed balanced electrolyte solution if fluids are
indicated. If needed, butorphanol or butorphanol–diazepam can
be administered. Isoflurane and sevoflurane are the preferred inhalant anes-
thetics for maintenance. Animals should be maintained at their
preferred temperature throughout the procedure. Intraoperative
fluids should be given if necessary. Balanced electrolyte solu-
XIV. ANESTHETIC INDUCTION
tions such as 0.9% NaCl should be used at an infusion rate
of 5–10 ml/kg/h (Heard, 2001). Assisted ventilation should be
As discussed earlier, reptiles can be induced with an inhalant provided throughout the procedure.
directly by face mask; however, breath holding may pro- The author recommended that the strategy is to use isoflurane
long induction times to unacceptable lengths. Most reptiles for anesthetic maintenance with assisted ventilation through-
can be directly intubated while awake, although this method out the procedure. Maintenance of preferred temperature is
is somewhat challenging (especially in turtles). Therefore, essential.

TABLE 19-3
Commonly Used Anesthetics in Reptiles

Agent Lizards Snakes Crocodilians Chelonians

Lidocaine 2–5 mg/kg local 2–5 mg/kg local 2–5 mg/kg local 2–5 mg/kg local
Bupivacaine 1–2 mg/kg local (max 1–2 mg/kg local 2–5 mg/kg local 1–2 mg/kg local
dose 4 mg/kg) (max dose 4 mg/kg) (max dose 4 mg/kg)
Diazepam 0.2–2 mg/kg IM, IV 0.2–2 mg/kg IM, IV 0.2–2 mg/kg IM, IV 0.2–1 mg/kg IM, IV
Isoflurane Induction 4–5% Induction 5% Induction 5% Induction 4–5%
Maintenance 1.5–3% Maintenance 2–3% Maintenance 2–3% Maintenance 2–3%
Sevoflurane Induction 7–8% Induction 7–8% – Induction 7–8%
Maintenance 2.5–4.5% Maintenance 2.5–4.5% Maintenance 2.5–4.5%
Ketamine 5–20 mg/kg IM, IV 10–60 mg/kg IM 20–40 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe 5–50 mg/kg IM, IV
(sedation to 40–80 mg/kg (anesthesia)e
Ketamine–medetomidine 10 mg/kg (K) + 0.1–0.3 mg/kg – 10 mg/kg (K) + 0.2 mg/kg (M) juvenile 10 mg/kg (K) + 0.2 mg/kg
(M) IMc (M) IMb
7.5 mg/kg (K) + 0.13 mg/kg (M) IM adulta
Ketamine–midazolam – – – 20–40 mg/kg (K) + (M)
2.0 mg/kg IMd
Medetomidine 0.05–0.1 mg/kg IM 0.1–0.15 mg/kg IM – 0.03–0.15 mg/kg IM
Midazolam 1–2 mg/kg IM, IV 1–2 mg/kg IM, IV – 1–2 mg/kg IM, IV
Tiletamine–zolazepam 2–6 mg/kg IM, IV 2–6 mg/kg IM 5–10 mg/kg SC, IM, ICe (sedation), 2–4 mg/kg IM
10–40 mg/kg (anesthesia)f
Propofol 3–5 mg/kg IV, IO 3–5 mg/kg IV 10–15 mg/kg IVf 2–5 mg/kg IV, IO

Source: Schumacher and Yelen, 2006.

a
Heaton-Jones et al., 2002.
b
Greer et al., 2001.
c
Divers, 1999.
d
Bienzle et al., 1991.
e
Schumacher, 1996.
f
Lloyd, 1999.
508 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

XVI. MONITORING TABLE 19-4

Commonly used Analgesics in Reptiles (all Species)

During anesthetic induction, reptiles relax anterior to poste- Agent Dosage/route Frequency (hours)
rior; recovery occurs in the opposite direction (Heard, 2001;
Butorphanol 0.4–2.0 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 12–24
Schaeffer, 1997). Reflexes that are commonly used to mea-
Buprenorphine 0.02–0.2 mg/kg SC, IM 12–24
sure anesthetic depth in reptiles include righting reflex, tail Carprofen 1–4 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV 24
and toe withdrawal, cloacal pinch, and palpebral reflex (turtles Ketoprofen 2 mg/kg SC, IM 24
and most lizards). In snakes and lizard species with spectacles Meloxicam 0.1–0.2 mg/kg PO 24
(scales covering the eye), palpebral and corneal reflexes cannot Flunixin meglumine 0.5–2 mg/kg IM 12–24
be evaluated. Lack of corneal reflex and dilated, unresponsive
Source: Schumacher and Yelen, 2006.
pupils indicate an anesthetic plane that is too deep (Heard, 2001;
Schumacher and Yelen, 2006).
Intraoperative monitoring is commonly accomplished with tremors, increased respiration and heart rate, and increased
Doppler ultrasonic flow detector, electrocardiography, and/or aggression are classic indicators of pain in these species.
pulse oximetry. The Doppler probe should be placed over the Analgesics should be administered to all reptiles undergo-
heart or carotid artery. The coccygeal artery can be used in ing procedures that may cause pain (Table 19-4). Opioids
snakes and lizards. A pencil probe is used in turtles, and is such as butorphanol (0.4–2.0 mg/kg SC, IM, IV q12 h–24 h)
placed at the thoracic inlet. and buprenorphine (0.02–0.2 mg/kg SC, IM q12 h–24 h) are
Electrocardiography is frequently used to monitor reptiles commonly used for postsurgical analgesia. Meloxicam (0.1–
during anesthesia. Leads are placed as in mammalian species. 0.2 mg/kg PO q24 h), ketoprofen (2 mg/kg SC, IM q24 h), and
Snakes should have leads placed cranial and caudal to the heart. carprofen (1–4 mg/kg PO, SC, IM, IV q24 h) have also been
Reptile electrocardiograms have essentially the same compo- used, especially for orthopedic pain. Ketoprofen and carpro-
nents as mammalian electrocardiograms (Heard, 2001; Nevarez fen can be used for chronic pain, but care should be taken to
et al., 2002). avoid renal and gastrointestinal complications (Schumacher and
The use of pulse oximetry in reptiles has prompted some Yelen, 2006).
discussion. Some authors confirm the usefulness of this tech- Nonpharmacologic pain management has application to rep-
nology (Nevarez et al., 2002). Others question the accuracy of tiles. Providing appropriate environmental temperatures, return-
this method in determining oxygen saturation, due to the pres- ing animals to familiar home cages, and ensuring that animals
ence of normal high methemoglobin levels in reptiles (Heard, can retreat to covered areas where they feel secure will decrease
2001). Reflectance anal probes can be placed in the oral cavity stress and increase comfort levels.
of reptiles, and can be used to monitor heart rate and trends in
oxygen saturation.
XIX. PROLONGED/REPEATED ANESTHESIA

XVII. RECOVERY
If a reptile is to be anesthetized for a single prolonged
procedure, inhalants are preferred over injectable agents.
Maintenance of the reptile at its preferred temperature is Supplemental anesthesia with injectables other than propofol
critical during the recovery phase. Circulating water blankets, can result in inability to accurately control anesthetic depth,
critical care units, and radiant heat sources are used to maintain potential overdosing, and extremely prolonged recovery times.
appropriate temperature. Caution must be exercised to prevent Likewise, because of minimal tissue accumulation, ability to
the reptile from overheating as well as chilling. When recov- control anesthetic depth, and rapid induction and recovery,
ering from anesthesia, the animal should remain intubated and inhalants are recommended for repeated anesthesia.
observed until it is breathing spontaneously. If apnea occurs,
the reptile can be ventilated manually with room air using an
ambu-bag. Supplemental oxygen is not recommended in normal A. Field Anesthesia
recoveries, as this will inhibit spontaneous respiration.
Field anesthesia poses unique challenges for individu-
als working with reptiles. Fortunately, availability of small,
XVIII. PAIN MANAGEMENT/ANALGESIA
portable anesthetic vaporizers has enabled researchers to cre-
ate field stations equipped with inhalant anesthesia (Fig. 19-6).
Manifestation of pain in reptiles can be more challenging In some situations requiring brief anesthesia or immobilization,
to recognize than in mammals. Most reptiles do not vocalize; open-drop systems can be used with inhalants such as isoflurane.
however, signs such as hunched posture, abnormal movements, Use of inhalants permits more rapid release of animals following
19. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN REPTILES 509

Frye, F.L. (1994). “Reptile Clinician’s Handbook.” Krieger Publishing Co,

Malabar, FL.
Greer, L.L., Jenne, K.J., and Diggs, H.E. (2001). Medetomidine–ketamine
anesthesia in red-eared slider turtles (Trachemys scripta elegans). Contemp.
Top. Lab. Anim. Sci. 40, 9–11.
Haskell, A., and Pokras, M. (1994). Nonlethal blood and muscle tissue
collection from redbelly turtles for genetic studies. Herpetol. Rev. 25,
11–12.
Heard, D.J. (1993). Principles and techniques of anesthesia and analgesia for
exotic practice. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. 23, 1301–1327.
Heard, D.J. (2001). Reptile anesthesia. Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract.
4, 83–117.
Heaton-Jones, T.G., Ko, J.C.H., and Heaton-Jones, D.L. (2002). Evalua-
tion of medetomidine–ketamine anesthesia with atipamezole reversal in
American alligators (Alligator mississippiensis). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 33,
36–44.
Hernandez-Divers, S.M., Schumacher, J., Stahl, S., and Hernandez-Divers, S.J.
(2005). Comparison of isoflurane and sevoflurane following premedication
with butorphanol in the green iguana (Iguana iguana). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 36,
169–175.
Jacobson, E.R. (1988). Use of chemotherapeutics in reptile medicine. In “Exotic
Fig. 19-6 Portable isoflurane vaporizer anesthesia units can be used for field Animals.” (E.R. Jacobson and G.V. Kollias, Jr., eds.), pp 35–48. Churchill
anesthesia. Livingstone, New York.
Jacobson, E.R. (1993). Snakes. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. 23,
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Mitchell, M. (2003). Ophidia (Snakes). In “Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine.”
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Arena, P.C., and Richardson, K.C. (1990). The relief of pain in cold-blooded Mosley, C.A., Dyson, D., and Smith, D.A. (2003). The cardiac anes-
vertebrates. ACCART News 3, 1–4. thetic index of isoflurane in green iguanas. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 222,
Bennett, R.A. (1991). A review of anesthesia and chemical restraint in reptiles. 1565–1568.
J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 22, 282–303. Mosley, C.A., Dyson, D., and Smith, D.A. (2004). The cardiovascular dose-
Bennett, R.A., Schumacher, J., Hedjazi-Haring, K., and Newell, S.M. response effects of isoflurane alone and combined with butorphanol in the
(1998). Cardiopulmonary and anesthetic effects of propofol administered green iguana (Iguana iguana). Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 31, 64–72.
intraosseously to green iguanas. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 212, 93–108. Nevarez, J.G., Pettifer, G.R., and Mitchell, M.A. (2002). Anesthesia case of the
Bertelsen, M.F., Mosley, C.A., Crawshaw, G.J., Dyson, D.H., and Smith, D.A. month. A suitable choice for anesthetic management of a green iguana for an
(2005). Anesthetic potency of sevoflurane with and without nitrous oxide orchidectomy. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 220, 982–985.
in mechanically ventilated Dumeril monitors. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 227, Page, C.D. (1993). Current reptilian anesthesia procedures. In “Zoo and Wild
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of ketamine and midazolam in snapping turtles (Chelydra serpentina). Vet. Ramsey, E.C., and Dotson, T.K. (1995). Tissue and serum enzyme activities
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Crawshaw, G.J. (1996). Comparison of plasma biochemical values in blood and Sevoflurane anesthesia in desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii). J. Zoo Wildl.
blood-lymph mixtures from red-eared sliders, Trachemys scripta elegans. Med. 30, 64–69.
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Divers, S.J., Redmayne, G., and Aves, E.K. (1996). Haematological and tory animal species. In “Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals.”
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Schumacher, J. (1996). Reptiles and amphibians. In “Lumb and Jones’ Veteri- Suedmeyer, W.K. (1991). Iron deficiency in a group of American alli-
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Schumacher, J. (2000). Fluid therapy in reptiles. In “Kirk’s Current Veterinary Wang, T., Smits, A.W., and Burggren, W.W. (1998). Pulmonary function in rep-
Therapy 13 Small Animal Practice.” (J.D. Bonagura, ed.). W.B. Saunders, St. tiles. In “Biology of the Reptilia”. Vol. 19, Morphology G: Visceral Organs.
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Schumacher, J., and Yelen, T. (2006). Anesthesia and analgesia. In “Reptile Reptiles, St. Louis, MO.
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Louis, MO.
 Chapter 20

Anesthesia and Analgesia in Amphibians

Dorcas P. O’Rourke and Audrey L. Jenkins

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
II. General Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
III. Preanesthetic Evaluation and Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
IV. Anesthetic Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
V. Physical Restraint and Handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
VI. Routes of Drug Administration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
VII. Immersion Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514
VIII. Volatile Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
IX. Injectable Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
X. Topical/Regional Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
XI. Preanesthesia/Anesthesia Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
XII. Anesthetic Maintenance and Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
XIII. Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
XIV. Pain Management/Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
XV. Field Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
XVI. Larval Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518

I. INTRODUCTION
metabolic processes. Like reptiles, each amphibian species has
a preferred temperature range. There is, however, considerable
Two orders of Class Amphibia are commonly used in variation among species, and amphibians can be found in a wide
research. Anurans (frogs and toads) are found in virtually all variety of temperate and tropical habitats (Table 20-1). Preferred
animal facilities, and caudates (salamanders) are frequently temperature ranges for a given species should be obtained if at
subjects of developmental and ecological research. all possible. If this data is unavailable, temperate frogs can be
kept at approximately 20–25◦ C and tropical frogs at 25–30◦ C
(Raphael, 1993). Many salamander species live under leaf litter
II. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
in cool environments, or in cool water streams in mountain-
ous regions. These temperate species prefer ranges of 10–16◦ C
Amphibians are poikilothermic and therefore rely on exter- (Jaeger, 1992). Tropical salamanders may be kept at 15–20◦ C
nal heat sources to generate adequate body temperatures for (Raphael, 1993).

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

511
512 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

TABLE 20-1
General Temperature Ranges

Temperate Tropical

Frog/toada 20–25◦ C 25–30◦ C

(68–77◦ F) (77–86◦ F)
Salamandera,b 10–16◦ C 15–20◦ C
(50–60.8◦ F) (59–68◦ F)

a
Raphael, B.L. (1993). Amphibians. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim.
Pract. 23, 1271–1286.
b
Jaeger, R.G. (1992). Housing, handling and nutrition of salamanders.
In “The Care and Use of Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish in Research.”
(D.O. Schaeffer, K.M. Kleinow, and L. Krulisch, eds.), pp 25–29.
S.C.A.W.

Fig. 20-1 In addition to breathing through gills, Xenopus tadpoles will gulp
air at the water’s surface.
Amphibian respiratory anatomy is as variable as tempera-
ture preference. Most amphibians begin life as aquatic larvae,
with gills as the primary organ for oxygen exchange. Some lar-
vae (for instance, Xenopus tadpoles and Ambystoma tigrinum
larvae) have lungs as well as gills, and swim to the water’s
surface to gulp air (Fig. 20-1). Many salamander larvae also
utilize cutaneous respiration for a significant portion of oxygen
exchange. Adult frogs have paired lungs; in some species, car-
tilage reinforces the lungs. Adult salamanders may have lungs,
gills, both lungs and gills, or neither (Fig. 20-2). One group
of salamanders, the plethodontid salamanders, lack lungs and
breathe solely through cutaneous respiration. The buccopharyn-
geal cavity is highly vascular and is also used for respiration. In
species that breathe through lungs, inspiration begins by con-
traction of throat muscles, which depress the floor of the buccal
cavity. This has the effect of pulling air through the nostrils and Fig. 20-2 The axolotl is a salamander that breathes through feathery external
filling buccal cavity with air. Consequently, closure of the nos- gills.
trils, opening of the glottis, and elevation of the buccal cavity
floor then force air into the lungs. To remove air from the lungs,
the buccal floor is depressed while the nares are closed and the
glottis is open. Then the nares are opened, the glottis is closed,
and the buccal floor is elevated to force air out of the mouth
(Duellman and Trueb, 1986). The trachea of most amphibians
is extremely short, and caution must be taken if intubation is
attempted (Wright, 2001). Both low oxygen and elevated carbon
dioxide levels stimulate respiration in most amphibians (Van
Vliet and West, 1992). High oxygen levels inhibit respiratory
movements in amphibians.
Amphibian skin is highly glandular. There are two basic types
of skin glands: mucous and granular. Mucous glands are numer-
ous and found over the entire body surface. They secrete a slimy
mucus, which serves to keep skin moist and facilitate cutaneous Fig. 20-3 Mucous glands cover the entire body of the amphibian.
respiration (Fig. 20-3). Mucus also protects the skin from abra-
sive trauma and inhibits pathogen entry. Granular glands are
less abundant than mucous glands, and may be scattered over the predators. Other toxins secreted by granular glands include hal-
body or clustered. The parotoid glands of toads, which appear as lucinogens and neurotoxins. Different types of granular glands
raised areas behind the eyes, are examples of clustered granular can secrete a variety of substances, including pheromones and
glands. Parotoid glands secrete cardiotoxins designed to deter antimicrobial compounds (Clarke, 1997).
20. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN AMPHIBIANS 513

TABLE 20-2
Hematologic and serum biochemical values

Measurements African clawed frog Bullfrog Leopard Frog Japanese Newt Axolotl
(Xenopus laevis)a (Rana catesbeiana)b (Rana pipiens)c (Cynops pyrrhogaster)d (Ambystoma mexicanum)e

Hematology
PCV (%) – 30.1 (25–39) 24.6 (31–39.9) 40.0 (38.1–41.9) –
Hgb (g/dl) 14.86 6.8 (5.12–11.06) 26.75 (2.4–9.6) – –
WBC (103 /μl) 8.2 20.5 (11.6–32.7) – – –
Neutro/heter (%) 8.0 (6.9–9.1) 60.9 (40.0–86.1) 26.5 (11–48) 28.0 (26.4–30.6) 60.9 (57.3–64.5)
Lymphocytes (%) 65.3 (62.6–68.0) 26.8 (16.3–39.8) 53.4 (29–75) 3.0 (2.6–3.4) 26.4 (24.6–28.2)
Monocytes (%) 0.5 2.9 (1.0–5.0) 11.0 (5–24) 6.0 (5.0–7.0) –
Eosinophils (%) – 5.8 (2.0–11.9) 7.3 (4–11) 4.0 (3.3–4.7) 6.1 (4.2–8.0)
Basophils (%) 8.5 (7.1–9.9) 3.5 (0.6.0) 4.4 (0.9) 57.0 (3.8–60.2) 0.1 (0.0–0.2)
– –

Chemistries
Sodium (mEq/L) – 118.6 (99–144) – – –
Potassium (mEq/L) – 3.62 (1.92–5.84) – – –
Chloride (mEq/L) – 108.6 (1.0–116) – – –
Albumin (g/dl) – 1.58 (1.02–2.67) – – –
Calcium (mg/dl) – 8.31 (6.0–11.2) – – –
Creatinine (mg/dl) – 4.83 (1.07–12.3) – – –
AST (IU/L) – 48.1 (23–80) – – –
ALT (IU/L) – 12.4 (7–20) – – –
LDH (IU/L) – 117 (50–260) – – –
Phosphorus (mg/dl) – 8.83 (4.1–13.7) – – –
Magnesium (mEq/L) – 2.41 (1.33–4.09) – – –
Uric acid (mg/dl) – 13.4 (1.3–30.2) – – –
Urea (mg/dl) – 84.2 (30.1–180) – – –
Glucose (g/L) – 0.5 (0.1–0.98) – – –

a
Carpenter, J.W. (2005). Exotic animal formulary, ed 3, WB Saunders, St Louis.
b
Coppo, J.A., Mussart, N.B., and Fioranelli, A. (2005). Blood and urine physiological values in farm-cultured Rana catesbeiana (Anura: Ranidae) In Argentina.
Rev. Biol. Trop. (Int. J. Trop. Biol) 53(3–4), 545.
c
Rouf, M. A. Hematology of the leopard frog, rana pipiens. Copeia, Vol. 1969, No. 4. (Dec. 5, 1969), pp. 682–687.
d
Pfeiffer, C.J. Pyle, H. and Asashima, M. (1990). Blood cell morphology and counts in the Japanese newt (Cynops pyrrhogaster). J Zoo Wildlife Med. 21(1),
56–64.
e
Ussing, A.P. and Rosenkilde, P. (1995). Effect of Induced Metamorphosis on the Immune System of the Axolotl, Ambystoma mexicanum General and
Comparative Endocrinology 97(3), 308–319.

While hematologic and serum biochemical data are limited, Dechlorinated water should be kept on hand to ensure hydration
Table 20-2 provides values for a few of the more common of the animal and to prepare anesthetic solutions for immersion
species used in research. anesthesia.

III. PREANESTHETIC EVALUATION AND IV. ANESTHETIC TECHNIQUES

PREPARATION
Immersion anesthesia is the preferred method for most
Although aspiration of stomach contents is rare in amphib- amphibian species. Advantages include ease of administration
ians, they should be fasted, if possible, prior to anesthesia. and maintenance and applicability to both aquatic and terres-
Recommended fasting time for small frogs (less than 20 g body trial animals. Inhalants can be used, but care must be taken to
weight) is 4 hours. Medium-sized frogs and insectivorous sala- avoid desiccating animals from high oxygen flow rates delivered
manders should be fasted for 48 hours, while larger amphibians through a face mask. Injectable drugs can be used for anesthe-
that eat vertebrates require at least 7 days (Wright, 2001). The sia, but these agents have much narrower margins of safety and
small body size of most amphibians may preclude collection of prolonged recovery times.
extensive laboratory data; however, a physical evaluation should Hypothermia was once widely thought to be appropriate
be performed to ensure the animal is healthy and well hydrated. for anesthesia of amphibians, but several recent reviews of
514 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

hypothermia have refuted this premise (Green, 2003; Machin,

2001; Martin, 1995; Schaeffer, 1997), and concluded that
hypothermia should not be used to immobilize amphibians for
any potentially painful procedure.

V. PHYSICAL RESTRAINT AND HANDLING

Amphibians must be restrained firmly but gently, and care

must be taken to preserve the integrity of the protective mucous
layer. Nonpowdered latex or nitrile gloves should be used when
handling amphibians, to protect the animals’ delicate skin as
well as to prevent toxic skin secretions from getting on the
handler. When dealing with large species that may possess
the ability to eject toxins from the parotoid glands, such as
the marine toad, eye protection is also advisable. Small amphib-
ians can be manually restrained in one hand. The tails of many
salamanders will break off if grabbed (autotomy—a predator
avoidance mechanism); therefore, cautious restraint of these
species is warranted. Larger species should be grasped around
the pectoral and pelvic girdles, with the body supported as much
as possible (Fig. 20-4). Many large frogs and salamanders can
inflict painful bites, so caution must be exercised when handling
these animals. It is always advisable to have drugs and sup-
plies prepared and arranged beforehand to minimize the time
amphibians must be manually restrained. Fig. 20-4 Larger amphibians should be supported around the pectoral and
pelvic girdles when restrained. Moistened, nonpowdered gloves should be worn
to protect the animal’s delicate skin.
VI. ROUTES OF DRUG ADMINISTRATION

The most common method of anesthetizing amphibians is

immersion anesthesia. Animals should be placed in a clean con-
tainer in a solution of anesthetic dissolved in dechlorinated water
(Fig. 20-5). Additional containers of dechlorinated water should
be kept on hand for moistening the amphibian if needed dur-
ing the procedure, and as a recovery tank for aquatic species.
Inhalant agents can be administered to amphibians, through
mask induction or in a chamber. If the animal is intubated,
the endotracheal tube should be inserted only a short distance
because the trachea of most species is very short (Wright,
2001). Injectable anesthetics can be administered intracoelomi-
cally, intramuscularly, or intravenously (Table 20-3). Some frog
species have paired lymphatic structures, called dorsal lymph Fig. 20-5 Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is the preferred anesthetic
sacs, located subcutaneously under the skin of the back. These agent for amphibians. Due to its acidity, it should be buffered.
structures communicate with the venous circulation and offer
an excellent site for injection.
powder, which is easily dissolved in dechlorinated water. When
dissolved, formation of methanesulfonic acid creates an acidic
solution. In this environment, the MS-222 is ionized and less
VII. IMMERSION ANESTHESIA
bioavailable, resulting in longer induction times and shorter
periods of effective anesthesia. The acidic solution is also
Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) is the preferred agent irritating to amphibian skin (Cakir and Strauch, 2005; Downes,
for amphibian immersion anesthesia. It is available as a white 1995). Therefore, all solutions of MS-222 should be buffered.
20. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN AMPHIBIANS 515

TABLE 20-3
Commonly used Anesthesia in Amphibians

Agent Salamanders/frog Larval/aquatic Toads

Tricaine methane sulfonate (MS-222) buffereda 500 mg/L–2 g/L immersion 200–500 mg/L immersion 1–3 g/L immersion
Propofolb 9.5 mg/kg i.c. (sedation)
30 mg/kg i.c. (anesthsia)
Ketaminec 50–150 mg/kg SC, IM, IV 50–150 mg/kg SC, IM, IV, dorsal lymph sacs
Isofluraned 0.03–0.06 ml/g dermal

a
Arena, P.C., and Richardson, K.C. (1990). The relief of pain in cold-blooded vertebrates. ACCART News 3, 1–4. Cooper, J.E. (1987). Veterinary work with
non-domesticated pets IV. Lower verebrates. Br. Vet. J. 143, 193–202. Crawshaw G.J. (1993). Amphibian medicine. In “Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine.” (M.E.
Fowler, ed.): 3rd ed., pp 131–139. Saudners, Philadelphia. Stetter M.D. (2001). Fish and amphibian anesthesia. Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 4(1), 69–82.
b
Von Esse, F.V. and Wright, K.M. (1999). Effect of intracoelomic propofol in white’s tree frogs, pelodryas caerulea. Assoc Reptilian Amphibian Vet. 9(3).
c
Crawshaw G.J. (1993). Amphibian medicine. In “Zoo and Wild Animal Medicine.” (M.E. Fowler, ed.), 3rd ed., pp 131–139. Saudners, Philadelphia. Wright,
K.M. (2006). Overview of amphibian medicine. In “Reptile Medicine and Surgery.” (D.R. Mader, ed.), pp 941–971. WB Saunders, St. Louis.
d
Smith J.M. and Stump, K.C. (2000). Isoflurane Anesthesia in the African Clawed Frog (Xenopus laevis). Comp. Top. 39, 39–42.

Several methods for buffering MS-222 have been described. The anesthesia is required. MS-222 is commonly used for repeat
pH of a 1 g/L MS-222 solution can be raised from 3.0 to 7.0 by anesthesia in Xenopus oocyte harvest. In this authors’ experi-
addition of 34 mL of 0.5 M Na2 HPO4 to 2 L of the 1 g/L MS-222 ence, no adverse effects or anesthetic tolerance developed with
solution (Downes, 1995; Schaeffer, 1997). Sodium bicarbonate repeated use of MS-222.
can also be used as a buffer, at 420–1,050 mg/L (10–25 mEq/L) Clove oil, with eugenol as its principal chemical constituent,
(Crawshaw, 1992; Schaeffer, 1997). If MS-222 is used fre- has been used for years in dentistry procedures. This agent has
quently, it can be prepared as a stock solution at 10 g/L, then also been used to chemically restrain fish, and has been inves-
diluted and buffered as necessary for individual procedures. The tigated in amphibians. One study found that immersion in a
stock solution should be stored in a dark container away from 310–318 mg/L clove oil solution induced anesthesia in leopard
light to avoid anesthetic breakdown (Stetter, 2001). Stoskopf frogs within 15 minutes. Anesthetic duration was widely vari-
(1995) recommends that stock solutions be changed monthly; able, and gastric prolapse was common with the use of this
however, the shelf life can be extended if refrigerated or frozen. agent (Lafortune et al., 2001). A second study in fish concluded
Dosage recommendations for MS-222 vary according to that clove oil was effective for immobilization, but had more
species and developmental stages. Larval amphibians and prolonged recovery times and a narrower margin of safety than
totally aquatic, gilled species tend to be more sensitive and can MS-222. This study also stated that fish anesthetized with clove
be anesthetized with 200–500 mg/L MS-222. Salamanders and oil were more reactive to needle stick than fish anesthetized
frogs typically require 500 mg/L to 2 g/L, and toads are reported with MS-222, and that the analgesic properties of clove oil are
to need 1–3 g/L MS-222 for anesthesia (Arena and Richardson, unknown (Sladky et al., 2001).
1990; Cooper, 1987; Crawshaw, 1993; Stetter, 2001). A recent Chlorbutanol (chlorotone), an alcohol, has historically been
study demonstrated that 200 mg/L MS-222 abolished righting used at 0.2% to anesthetize amphibians. Although once used
reflex and nociceptive reflex in leopard frogs (Rana pipiens), and for survival procedures in a variety of species, newer and more
decreased recovery times (Cakir and Strauch, 2005); however, effective anesthetics are available; and chlorbutanol is now
induction times were longer with the lower concentration. largely used at much higher doses to euthanize field-collected
Benzocaine, an immersion anesthetic related to MS-222, amphibians.
has been used in amphibians. Benzocaine is more potent than
MS-222 and causes rapid induction, but has a much narrower
margin of safety. In one study, all leopard frogs anesthetized with VIII. VOLATILE ANESTHESIA
200 mg/L benzocaine for a prolonged period became hypoxic
and required resuscitation (Cakir and Strauch, 2005). Benzo- Isoflurane is the volatile anesthetic most commonly used for
caine is less soluble in water than MS-222; consequently, it amphibians. Animals can be induced with 3–5% in a chamber.
must first be dissolved in ethanol to increase water solubility Induction time can exceed 20 minutes. Care should be taken to
(Crawshaw, 1993). ensure the chamber interior is moistened to prevent the amphib-
MS-222 appears to be the safest anesthetic agent for pro- ian from drying out during induction. Larger amphibian species
longed procedures. Dripping maintenance concentrations onto with lungs can be intubated (using an uncuffed, short endotra-
the animal or periodic re-immersion into a maintenance concen- cheal tube) and maintained with assisted ventilation on lower
tration anesthetic bath will generally suffice when prolonged concentrations (Crawshaw, 1993).
516 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

IX. INJECTABLE ANESTHESIA Wagner, 1989). Due to the permeability of amphibian skin, all
local anesthetics should be used with caution.
Propofol has been evaluated as an anesthetic agent in two
species of frogs. Three doses of propofol were delivered intra- XI. PREANESTHESIA/ANESTHETIC INDUCTION
coelomically in three White’s tree frogs. Low dose (9.5 mg/kg)
produced sedation, 30 mg/kg resulted in a deeper anesthetic
plane, and 53 mg/kg caused death of the animal. Complete The anesthetic agent most commonly used in amphibians is
recovery took 16 hours (Von Esse and Wright, 1999). A second MS-222. The animal is placed directly into the buffered solu-
study injected 10 mg/kg propofol perivascularly into the sub- tion of appropriate concentration. During induction, the righting
lingual plexus of 12 leopard frogs. Although sedation or light reflex is lost. Light anesthesia is characterized by loss of right-
anesthesia was observed in all frogs, no animals reached a plane ing reflex, corneal reflex, and lack of abdominal respiration
of surgical anesthesia (Lafortune et al., 2001). (Stetter, 2001; Wright, 2006). Deep (surgical) anesthesia is indi-
Ketamine has been used for restraint and minor procedures. cated by loss of withdrawal reflex and gular (throat) respiratory
Dose ranges of 50–150 mg/kg have been administered SC, IM, movements (Crawshaw, 1993; Stetter, 2001; Wright, 2006).
IV, or into the dorsal lymph sacs. Induction times, level of Once this level is achieved, the amphibian can be removed from
anesthetic depth, and recovery times vary greatly with species the anesthetic solution and prepared for the procedure. Pre-
(Crawshaw, 1993; Wright, 2006). Tiletamine–zolazepam was emptive analgesics can be given at this time. Induction times
found to be extremely species variable, and unreliable as an will vary with species and concentration, but should take about
anesthetic agent in frogs (Letcher and Durante, 1995). 15–20 minutes. The authors’ preferred strategy is direct induc-
Barbiturates have long been used as anesthetic agents in mam- tion using the appropriate concentration of MS-222, followed
mals, with doses needed to abolish both the righting reflex and by preemptive administration of an alpha-adrenergic analgesic
nociceptor response well below a lethal range. Recent studies, such as xylazine.
however, demonstrate that these agents are ineffective in provid-
ing the same level of analgesia in both larval and adult bullfrogs.
Levels of barbiturates such as thiopental needed to suppress the XII. ANESTHETIC MAINTENANCE AND
nociceptor response in amphibians overlapped with lethal levels MONITORING
(Downes and Courogen, 1996; Downes et al., 1999).
Once the amphibian has been induced with MS-222, it can
be removed from the anesthetic solution. In the authors’ experi-
X. TOPICAL/REGIONAL ANESTHESIA ence, at least 30 minutes of surgical anesthesia can be achieved
for X . laevis oocyte harvest using a buffered 1 g/L MS-222
Isoflurane has been used topically to anesthetize amphibians. solution, ample time for completion of the surgical proce-
Stetter (2001) described combining 3 mL isoflurane, 1.5 mL dure. If supplemental anesthesia is required for more prolonged
water, and 3.5 mL KY jelly into a closed container and agitating procedures, dilute anesthetic solution can be dripped on the
the mixture until uniform viscosity was achieved. The solution amphibian’s skin (Fig. 20-6). If inhalant isoflurane is used for
can be applied directly to the dorsal surface of the amphibian at larger terrestrial species, the amphibian can be intubated and
0.025–0.035 mL/g (Stetter et al., 1996). Lower doses are ade- ventilation assisted to maintain anesthesia. Topical isoflurane
quate for salamanders, frogs, and newts; while toads require will provide 45–80 minutes of anesthesia (Stetter, 2001). At
higher doses. After application of the solution, the amphibian surgical levels of anesthesia, pulmonary and gular respiration
is placed in a closed container until anesthetized, typically for will cease and the amphibian will breathe entirely transder-
5–15 minutes. Any residual anesthetic solution is then wiped mally (Crawshaw, 2003). Therefore, it is critical to keep the
from the dorsum with a saline-soaked gauze. The duration of skin moist throughout the anesthetic period. The heart rate can
anesthesia is 45–80 minutes (Stetter, 2001). be monitored visually, or with a Doppler flow detector, ECG,
Another dermal application study used a 2 × 2 cm2 or or ultrasound (Crawshaw, 2003; Stetter, 2001). The authors’
3 × 3 cm2 absorbent pad with moisture-proof backing saturated preferred strategy is to maintain animals on MS-222, supple-
with 0.03–0.06 mL/g isoflurane to induce anesthesia in Xenopus menting if necessary, keeping animals moist with dechlorinated
laevis. Anesthesia was reached in 3–12 minutes, and animals water, and using visual observation of heart rate for monitoring.
remained anesthetized for 4–57 minutes (Smith and Stump,
2000).
XIII. RECOVERY
Lidocaine and bupivacaine both inhibit nerve fiber conduc-
tion in amphibians (Bainton and Strichartz, 1994; Dalkilic et al.,
2004), and use of lidocaine alone and in combination with other Once the procedure is complete, the amphibian can be rinsed
anesthetic agents has been reported (Brown, 1995; Narins and in clean, dechlorinated water to remove any residual anesthetic.
20. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN AMPHIBIANS 517

Stevens, 2004). When choosing a drug for pain relief, con-

sideration for the species is paramount because the effect can
vary greatly between species. Machin (1999, 2001) provides
an excellent summary of research describing amphibian pain
fibers, pathways, and receptor systems. Stevens (2004) summa-
rizes his laboratory’s significant contributions to understanding
opioid receptor function in amphibians, using the acetic acid
wiping response in the leopard frog, R. pipiens, first described
by Pezalla (1983). Subsequently, this model has been widely
used to evaluate other analgesic compounds as well. Although
this test specifically addresses cutaneous and not visceral pain,
it provides a sound scientific basis for determining appropriate
analgesic use in amphibians.
Morphine (114 mg/kg in the dorsal lymph sac) provided
maximum analgesia for at least 5 hours in leopard frogs
(Stevens et al., 2001). This study also documented signifi-
cant analgesia for the same period with the following agents
delivered by the same route: chlorpromazine (32 mg/kg), chlor-
diazepoxide (90 mg/kg), and buprenorphine (14 mg/kg); and
Fig. 20-6 Supplemental anesthesia can be delivered by dripping a dilute
solution onto the amphibian’s skin.
less effective analgesia with ketorolac (26 mg/kg) and butor-
phanol (33 mg/kg). Brenner et al. (1994) documented greater
than 8 hours of analgesic efficacy with dexmedetomidine, an
Recovery from immersion anesthesia can take over 30 min- alpha-2 adrenergic, at 120 mg/kg injected into the dorsal lymph
utes; recovery from inhalants is usually more rapid. Withdrawal sac. Terril-Robb et al. (1996) demonstrated 12–24 hours of anal-
reflexes return first, followed by regular respiration and righting gesia with xylazine (10 mg/kg intracoelomic), another alpha-2
reflex. Caution should be taken to avoid unnecessary warm- adrenergic. They also documented 12 hours of analgesia with
ing because cutaneous respiration cannot meet the metabolic butorphanol (25 mg/kg intracoelomic). Sedation and depres-
demands of increased body temperature. Ambient recovery tem- sion of motor reflexes associated with administration of opioids
peratures of 60–70◦ F are appropriate for most species (Stetter, and alpha-2 adrenergics in mammals have not been observed in
2001). amphibians (Machin, 2001).

XIV. PAIN MANAGEMENT/ANALGESIA

XV. FIELD ANESTHESIA

Amphibians and other nonmammalian vertebrates can

Ease of transportation and administration makes MS-222 the
demonstrate four basic behaviors to painful stimuli. These are
agent of choice for many field studies. Lower concentrations
startle responses; vigorous nonspecific escape responses; vocal-
can be used for immobilization and brief procedures. Higher
ization; and rubbing, wiping, or biting at the source of the pain
concentrations can be used for surgical or other painful proce-
(Green, 2003; Machin, 1999). There are a number of drugs
dures. If euthanasia is required, lethal concentrations of MS-222
that can be utilized for the relief of pain. Opioids are anal-
can be used. Alternatively, surgical concentrations followed by
gesics that work by binding to receptors found principally in the
physical methods are appropriate.
central nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. While a
number of various receptor sites exist, the four most prevalent
are mu (μ), kappa (κ), delta (δ), and sigma (σ). Morphine is
considered a true opioid agonist, exerting its effects at the mu
XVI. LARVAL ANESTHESIA
receptor site. Buprenorphine is a partial mu agonist, meaning
that only a partial activation occurs subsequent to its binding.
Lastly, butorphanol is a partial opiate agonist/antagonist. Its Many amphibian larvae are aquatic and breathe through gills.
agonist activity occurs at the kappa and sigma receptors, while They are also more sensitive to the effects of anesthetics. There-
its antagonist properties occur at the mu site. It is for this rea- fore, concentrations of immersion anesthetics should be lower
son that care must be taken when using butorphanol with a true than for adult or terrestrial species. When anesthetizing larvae,
agonist such as morphine, because butorphanol will compete fresh dechlorinated water from the animals’ home tank should
with morphine for the same site (Heavner, 1997; Machin, 1999; be on hand and used as a recovery solution.
518 DORCAS P. O’ROURKE AND AUDREY L. JENKINS

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for anesthesia of bullfrogs and leopard frogs. JAVMA 207, 80–82.
Arena, P.C., and Richardson, K.C. (1990). The relief of pain in cold-blooded Machin, K.L. (1999). Amphibian pain and analgesia (review). J. Zoo Wildl.
vertebrates. ACCART News 3, 1–4. Med. 30, 2–10.
Bainton, C.R., and Strichartz, G.R. (1994). Concentration dependence of Machin, K.L. (2001). Fish, amphibian, and reptile analgesia. In “Analgesia and
lidocaine-induced irreversible conduction loss in frog nerve. Anesthesiology Anesthesia.” Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot. Anim. Pract. 4, P19–P33.
81, 657–667. Martin, B.J. (1995). Evaluation of hypothermia for anesthesia in reptiles and
Brenner, G.M., Klopp, A.J., Keason, L.L., and Stevens, C.W. (1994). Anal- amphibians. ILAR J . 37, 186–190.
gesic potency of alpha adrenergic agents after systemic administration in Narins, P.M., and Wagner, I. (1989). Noise susceptibility and immunity of
amphibians. J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 270, 540–545. phase locking in amphibian auditory-nerve fibers. J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 85,
Brown, C.S. (1995). Rear leg amputation and subsequent adaptive behavior 1255–1265.
during reintroduction of a green tree frog, Hyla cinerea. Bull. Assoc. Reptile Pezalla, P.D. (1983). Morphine-induced analgesia and explosive motor behavior
Amphib. Vet. 5, 516–517. in an amphibian. Brain Res. 273, 297.
Cakir, Y., and Strauch, S.M. (2005). Tricaine (MS-222) is a safe anesthetic Raphael, B.L. (1993). Amphibians. Vet. Clin. North Am. Small Anim. Pract. 23,
compound compared to benzocaine and pentobarbital to induce anesthesia 1271–1286.
in leopard frogs (Rana pipiens). Pharmacol. Rep. 57, 467–474. Schaeffer, D.O. (1997). Anesthesia and analgesia in nontraditional labora-
Clarke, B.T. (1997). The natural history of amphibian skin secretions, their tory animal species. In “ Anesthesia and Analgesia in Laboratory Animals.”
normal functioning, and potential medical applications. Biol. Rev. Camb. (D.F. Kohn, S.K. Wixson, W.J. White, and G.J. Benson, eds.), pp 337–378.
Philos. Soc. 72, 365–379. Academic Press, San Diego.
Cooper, J.E. (1987). Veterinary work with non-domesticated pets IV. Lower Sladky, K.K., Swanson, C.R., Stoskopf, M.K., Loomis, M.R., and Lewbart,
vertebrates. Br. Vet. J. 143, 193–202. G.A. (2001). Comparative efficacy of tricaine methanesulfonate and clove
Crawshaw, G.J. (1992). Medicine and disease of amphibians. In “The Care and oil for use as anesthetics in red pacu (Piaractus brachypomus). Am. J. Vet.
Use of Amphibians, Reptiles and Fish in Research.” (D.O. Schaeffer et al., Res. 62, 337–342.
eds.), pp 41–48. Scientist Center for Animal Welfare, Bethesda. Smith J.M., and Stump, K.C. (2000). Isoflurane anesthesia in the African clawed
Crawshaw, G.J. (1993). Amphibian medicine. In “Zoo and Wild Animal frog (Xenopus laevis). Comp. Top. 39, 39–42.
Medicine, Current Therapy.” (M.E. Fowler, ed.), 3rd ed., pp 131–139. Stetter, M.D. (2001). Fish and amphibian anesthesia. Vet. Clin. North Am. Exot.
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Crawshaw, G.J. (2003). Anurans (Anura, Salienta): Frogs, Toads. In “Zoo and Stetter, M.D., Raphael, B., Indiviglio, F., and Cook, R.A. (1996). Isoflurane
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Dalkilic, N., Bariskaner, H., Dogan, N., Demirel, I., and Ilhan, B. (2004). The Stevens, C.W. (2004). Opioid research in amphibians: An alternative pain model
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Downes, H. (1995). Tricaine anesthesia in amphibia: A review. Bull. Assoc. Stevens, C.W., Maciver, D.N., and Newman, L.C. (2001). Testing and
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Downes, H., and Courogen, P.M. (1996). Contrasting effects of anesthetics in Stoskopf, M.K. (1995). Anesthesia of pet fish. In “Current Veterinary Ther-
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Downes, H., Koop, D.R., Klopfenstein, B., and Lessov, N. (1999). Retention Philadelphia.
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Biochem. Physiol. C Pharmacol. Toxicol. Endocrinol. 124, 203–210. the analgesic effects of butorphanol tartrate, xylazine hydrochloride, and
Duellman, W.E., andTrueb, L. (1986). “Biology ofAmphibians.” McGraw-Hill, flunixin meglumine in leopard frogs (Rana pipiens). Comp. Top. 35, 54.
New York. Van Vliet, B.N., and West, N.H. (1992). Functional characteristics of arte-
Green, S.L. (2003). Postoperative analgesics in South African clawed frogs rial chemoreceptors in an amphibian (Bufo marinus). Respir. Physiol. 88,
(Xenopus laevis) after surgical harvest of oocytes. Comp. Med. 53, 244–247. 113–127.
Heavner, J.E. (1997). Pharmacology of analgesics. In “Anesthesia andAnalgesia Von Esse, F.V., and Wright, K.M. (1999). Effect of intracoelomic propofol in
in Laboratory Animals.” (D.F. Kohn, S.K. Wixson, W.J. White, and G.J. White’s tree frogs, Pelodryas caerulea. Bull. Assoc. Reptil. Amphib. Vet. 9,
Benson, eds.), pp 43–56. Academic Press, San Diego. 7–8.
Jaeger, R.G. (1992). Housing, handling and nutrition of salamanders. In “The Wright, K.M. (2001). Restraint techniques and euthanasia. In “Amphibian
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K.M. Kleinow, and L. Krulisch, eds.), pp 25–29. Scientists Center for Animal pp 111–122. Krieger, Malabar.
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dine, clove oil and propofol for anesthesia of leopard frogs, (Rana pipiens).
J. Herpe. Med. Surg. 11, 13–18.
 Chapter 21

Anesthesia and Restraint of Laboratory Fish

Michael Stoskopf and Lysa Pam Posner

I.Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
II.Fish and Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
III.Physical Restraint of Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
IV. Basic Principles and Application of Anesthesia in Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
V. Monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
VI. Anesthetic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
A. Immersion Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
B. Injectable Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
VII. Analgesic Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
A. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
B. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
VIII. Nonchemical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
A. Hypothermia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
B. Electroanesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
IX. Euthanasia in Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
A. Suitable Methods for Euthanasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
B. Unsuitable Methods for Euthanasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533

I. INTRODUCTION
impact the precision and even accuracy of data from invasive
procedures. Induction of anesthesia should always be consid-
Properly administered anesthesia and analgesia are particu- ered, even for relatively minor manipulations of fish, whenever
larly important in the management of fish in a research setting. a quiet and compliant subject would improve the outcome of the
Often, they are the only suitable approaches to obtaining reliable research. This is equally true for very small and very large fish
and repeatable data. The issues of the perception of pain by fish, that present physical challenges to safe handling.
or the level of pain that might be expected from a procedure are The technology of providing anesthesia to fish has taken
not the only issues to consider, and may not be the overriding important steps forward in the past decade, though there remains
factors in deciding to apply anesthesia to a fish. Proper appli- considerable opportunity for improving our understanding of
cation of anesthesia to fish spares not only the subjects but also the optimal approaches to providing for the comfort of fish
the researchers from stresses and situations that can seriously being manipulated in research settings. One of the significant

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

519
520 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

challenges lies in the extreme diversity of the Piscean taxon. activation to the higher brain centers, the telencephalon, in both
There are more distinct species of fish than of all other vertebrate goldfish and trout (Dunlop and Laming, 2005). Fish also have
taxa combined (Official Lists and Indexes of Names, 1987), and an endogenous opioid system with both kappa and mu recep-
they are adapted to an amazing breadth of environmental con- tors in the brain, suggestive of an evolved need for modulation
ditions through a wide range of significant adaptations. Many of neuronal responses to complex factors including nociception
of these adaptations could impact the response of a species to (Brooks et al., 1994). All of these points, i.e., evidence of a
anesthetic and analgesic agents. Even within the relatively nar- functional neurologic pathway for nociception, reactive com-
row range of teleost species routinely used in research, there plex behavioral responses and learned avoidance behavior to
are important differences in physiology that bear consideration noxious stimuli, and endogenous chemical modulation analo-
and beg for a deeper understanding of the interactions between gous to those used by mammals, suggest it is likely that fish do
anesthetic agents and fish physiology. For example, some infor- perceive painful stimuli. It is therefore incumbent upon inves-
mation is available regarding the impact of water temperature tigators working with fish to provide anesthesia and analgesia
on the absorption of antibiotics in fish, but far less is docu- for invasive and potentially painful procedures.
mented about anesthetic agents. Freshwater species should be Evaluation of pain in fish is difficult and not well standard-
expected to absorb and excrete agents differently from eury- ized. There is no single physiologic or behavioral parameter
haline and saline species because of the radical differences in that is documented to be well correlated with pain in fish. As
their handling of ionic homeostasis, but these differences are not with terrestrial animals, a combination or matrix of behaviors
well studied. Commonly used laboratory fish are generally very and physiologic parameters needs to be evaluated. Fish in pain
hardy species, often adapted to low-flow and low-quality waters have been shown to change positions in the water column, show
in their native habitats. They respond well to routine anesthe- avoidance, display rocking behaviors, and have increased oper-
sia procedures, but fishes from pelagic and fast flowing stream cular movements and decreased appetite (Harms et al., 2005;
habitats can be more challenging to anesthetize. A lot remains to Sneddon et al., 2003). Pain in mammals has been shown to
be learned to allow optimization of anesthesia protocols across cause adverse physiologic changes, such as increased sympa-
the physiological diversity of the fishes. However, the need for thetic tone, increased cardiac demands, increased metabolic
more knowledge should not be used as a crutch to avoid the use rate, and delays in healing. Allowing fish to remain in pain,
of anesthesia and analgesia in fish in research settings. It should besides being inhumane, should therefore be expected to affect
rather be seen as a key reason for insisting on the application of research parameters, and should be avoided whenever possible.
anesthesia and analgesia at every opportunity where, with even
slight adjunct effort, we might learn more about the physiology
of fish responses to state-of-the-art techniques.
III. PHYSICAL RESTRAINT OF FISH

Physical restraint of fish in laboratory settings is usually

II. FISH AND PAIN
required for catching and transferring individuals or groups
of fish between holding systems to experimental conditions.
The International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP, Though “netting” fish is considered a routine procedure, if
1994) defines pain as “an unpleasant sensory and emotional improperly done, it can cause significant harm to the fish and
experience associated with actual or potential tissue damage, or to the quality of the research data obtained from the fish. These
described in terms of such damage.” It further states that “the deleterious effects can be minimized by using proper catching
inability to communicate verbally does not negate the possibility techniques, and by appropriate selection of equipment. It should
that an individual is experiencing pain and is in need of appro- also be understood that fish can be acclimated to catch and trans-
priate pain-relieving treatment” (IASP, 1994). According to this fer procedures using behavioral techniques very similar to those
definition, animals do not need to communicate to experience employed for mammals. When frequent transfers are expected
pain, but some may argue that animals cannot have the emo- in a laboratory, the effort to acclimate the fish to the routine is
tional experience of pain and thus do not feel pain, but rather an excellent investment that will repay the scientist many times
only react to nociception (the perception of a noxious stimuli). over in terms of saved time and improved data.
Because fish lack the structure analogous to the mammalian The use of mesh nets is not the optimal approach to catching
neocortex, it has been argued that they do not feel pain. This and transferring most small fish species. A better approach does
reasoning is also used as a rationale for not providing analge- not employ nets at all, or makes use of solid net-like devices
sia following invasive procedures. Fish do have well-developed called bag nets. Even very finely meshed nets sold commer-
avoidance behavior and physical reaction to noxious stimuli cially in pet stores for handling small fish are made of relatively
(Sneddon et al., 2003), and perhaps more telling, it has been stiff and abrasive material, which can damage the protective
shown that fish have nociceptors that respond to pressure, prick, mucous layer of the fish and cause very fine abrasions. The
and heat. Stimulation of those nociceptors causes neuronal impact of abrasive nets is easier to appreciate on larger species
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 521

such as goldfish and carp. Handling these fish using nets sold to some degree, safe harborages, and with the constant provision
commercially for fishermen or aquaculture harvesting can cause of proper water quality and life support, fish can be humanely
abrasions, which can often be seen with the unaided eye and may restrained sufficiently to allow various types of noncontact or
take many days to heal. Swim-through nets made from very minimal contact data collection for prolonged periods. Unfortu-
soft mesh materials such as those used to manufacture women’s nately, many research questions requiring chronic preparations
pantyhose are most appropriately used for slower swimming focus on issues with fish unsuited to chronic restraint without
species like koi or carp. The device consists of a hoop, usually anesthesia. Particularly when invasive dissection or implants
on a handle, and a long open-ended tunnel for a bag. The fish is are involved, these types of experiments should be conducted
encouraged to swim into the net, and then the handler grasps the under anesthesia, and in cases where surgical dissections are
far end of the tunnel with one hand to close the net as the fish extensive, these should not be survival procedures.
swims calmly down the tunnel. To release the fish after transfer,
the handler merely releases the end of the tunnel and allows the
fish to swim out forward, avoiding the need to flip the net or
IV. BASIC PRINCIPLES AND APPLICATION OF
force the fish against the grain of even the fine mesh of the tun-
ANESTHESIA IN FISH
nel. These devices should be considered for use in larger fish,
where capture with a bag net or box trap would result in very
heavy larger volumes of water that are difficult to lift. The basic principles of anesthesia in fish will be quite famil-
Bag nets and box traps should be used to capture smaller iar to most scientists with experience in proper anesthesia of
fish in laboratory settings. If properly used, they avoid forcing mammals. However, it may be a bit of a surprise that many
the fish to contact the surface of the capture device and are at of the principles also apply to fish. If in doubt, the anesthetist
least as effective and efficient in catching fish as the traditional should assume that principles that apply to mammals do apply to
small mesh nets sold in pet stores. Bag nets resemble traditional fish as well. Fish responses to anesthetic agents are affected by
nets, but rather than a mesh bag, a solid, usually clear plas- their physiologic state at the time of induction. A quiet, undis-
tic bag is attached to the net frame and handle. Box traps are turbed environment prior to the induction, and calm transfers to
similar in concept, but are solid-walled containers, usually with- the induction system help ensure a smoother and more efficient
out a handle. The keys to effective techniques of catching fish induction. Withholding food for 24 hours prior to the induction
for transfer or examination are patience and slow anticipatory is not a hardship for most fish, even for very small tropical ones.
placement of the capture device. Ideally, obstacles and hiding While regurgitation in fish does not hold the same degree of
places should be removed from the system the fish are being potential for harm that is present for mammals, it can disrupt an
caught from; however, in some cases, properly designed “furni- induction or a procedure, and is easily avoided with a preanes-
ture” or enrichment materials can be used as in situ box traps to thesia fast. Fish should be anesthetized using measured doses of
facilitate catching species that like to hide from predators. The the agent, and careful records of the amounts of drug and timing
bag net or box trap should be maneuvered to come from behind of application should be taken to guide future procedures and
the swimming fish. When the fish is within the perimeter of the to serve as a reference when troubleshooting unexpected data
bag or box, then the device is tilted and brought to the surface, results in experiments. The most successful fish anesthesiolo-
trapping the swimming fish within a contained volume of water. gists carefully assess fish size and condition prior to induction
Some of the water can be decanted carefully if needed, but the and select measured doses based on experience with many pro-
fish and water are then removed from the system and moved to cedures with the species. With experience, they may be able to
where the fish needs to be studied or relocated. These devices anesthetize several fish essentially simultaneously, and be able
can even be used for induction of anesthesia without further to observe, monitor, and record the events successfully. When
handling of the fish, although care should be taken to carefully anesthetizing a species of fish that you have never had experi-
rinse the devices of residual anesthetic agents before they are ence with, it is best to limit yourself to anesthetizing one fish
used again to catch fish from holding systems. at a time, and it is even more important to carefully record all
Some experimental protocols require chronic restraint of fish. observations and administrations in the anesthesia record. Fish
These protocols may be very necessary for collecting sophisti- should be followed for at least 24 hours after a procedure before
cated physiologic data from a fish. However, these protocols concluding that there were no untoward effects of the anesthe-
can be very challenging to implement in a humane manner. The sia. Selection of the induction agent will often depend on the
nature of the species of fish and the level of acclimation of the experiments planned, but there is no substitute for experience
individual fish to the situation play a large role in whether or with the agent and the species being anesthetized when it comes
not this type of experiment can be performed humanely without to having excellent results.
anesthesia. Species that tend to occupy crevasses and remain Essentially all routes of administration that are used in mam-
more or less sessile most of their day are more appropriate for malian anesthesia are technically available for fish, including
these applications than schooling and more pelagic species. The oral, intramuscular (IM), intravenous (IV), and intraperitoneal
restraint devices for these species can be constructed to resemble (IP) injection. The route of administration most commonly
522 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

used for fish anesthesia is immersion in a concentration of the gills to air, and some fish are quite adapted to this, there are
anesthetic agent. The technique is analogous to the use of gas physiologic consequences even for lungfish. Care should be
induction chambers for mammals. The agents are absorbed pri- taken to minimize the time that fish are out of water or their
marily across the gills of the fish and exert their impact centrally. gills are not exposed to water.
Prior to placing an animal in an immersion induction solution,
the recovery water should be prepared and made readily avail-
V. MONITORING
able to immediately receive a fish with an overdose or untoward
reaction to the drug. Proper aeration to ensure adequate oxy-
genation should be maintained for both the induction and the Monitoring fish during anesthesia is a science that needs fur-
recovery water. ther development. In most cases, monitoring is still limited
Injection sites for fish vary to some degree with the fish to visual observation of movement and respiratory rate and
species, but IM injections are most commonly given above the effort. Advances in the use of electrocardiographic and other
lateral line, usually in the area under the dorsal fin. IP injections physiologic monitoring are being made in larger species, but
are most commonly given with a needle angled forward and the challenge of monitoring small species remains relatively
toward midline, entering the fish on the body wall just up from unsolved. The lack of physiologic monitoring during routine
the ventral surface of the fish, between the pelvic fin and the fish anesthesia contributes significantly to the many areas of
anus. Doses of injectable drugs should be administered based ignorance that persist relative to the impact of anesthetic agents
on the recorded weight of the fish. Often, considering the value of fish physiology. Investigators with concerns about the poten-
in reducing stress on the fish prior to induction, this is done by tial impact of anesthesia on a physiologic system under study
first estimating the weight of the fish and then actually weigh- should be strongly encouraged to run pilot studies monitoring
ing the anesthetized fish to develop a useful length-to-weight the systems they are concerned about in fish anesthetized with
conversion table. agents with different properties.
Once anesthetized, fish should be handled gently and with It is possible to categorize the stages and planes of anesthesia
care to avoid damaging their protective mucous layer and thin in fish through observation of basic swimming, respiratory, and
skin epithelium. It is important to avoid the contact of the fish cardiovascular patterns (Table 21-1). Many of the key responses
with dry surfaces, even dry human hands. Wet latex or nitrile of fish to anesthesia can be monitored with minimal or no tech-
gloves are preferable to bare hands. All surfaces that the fish nical assistance. Useful reflexes include the menace reflex and
directly contacts should ideally be moist and smooth. During the righting reflex. In fact, these might better be referred to
anesthesia, fish must be supplied with adequately oxygenated as responses rather than reflexes because of the complexity of
water to breathe. In prolonged procedures or when fish are held their execution. The menace reflex of fish cannot be assessed
in very deep planes of anesthesia that reduce respiratory effort, by the closing of eyelids, of course, but fish will startle and try
it may be necessary to artificially supply the needed volumes of to move their head when an object approaches their eye. It is
oxygenated water to maintain the physiology of the fish. Though not necessary to touch the eye for this response. The response
fish can survive their removal from water and exposure of their can be extinguished by overuse, just as occurs in mammals.

TABLE 21-1
Stages of Anesthesia

Stage Plane Descriptor Behavior of fish

0 Normal Swimming actively; reactive to external stimuli; equilibrium normal; muscle tone normal
I 1 Light sedation Voluntary swimming continues; slight loss of reactivity to visual and tactile stimuli; respiratory rate normal;
equilibrium normal; muscle tone normal
I 2 Deep sedation Voluntary swimming stopped; total loss of reactivity to visual and tactile stimuli; slight decrease in respiratory
rate; equilibrium normal; muscle tone slightly decreased; still responds to positional changes
II 1 Light narcosis Excitement phase may precede in increasing respiratory rate; loss of
tone decreased; still responds to positional changes weakly
II 2 Deep narcosis Ceases to respond to positional chances; decrease in respiratory rate to approximately normal; total loss of
equilibrium; no efforts to right itself; muscle tone decreased; some reactivity to strong tactile and vibrational
stimuli; suitable for external sampling, fin biopsies, gill biopsies
III 1 Light anesthesia Total loss of muscle tone; Responds to deep pressure; further decrease in respiratory rate; suitable for minor
surgical procedures
III 2 Surgical anesthesia Total loss of reactivity; respiratory rate very low; heart rate slow
IV Medullary collapse Total loss of gill movement followed by cardiac arrest in several minutes

Source: Stoskopf (1993).

21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 523

The righting reflex is particularly useful for judging the induc- of fish without making direct contact with the fish. The heart
tion of anesthesia by immersion. The fish is gently held in the rate and the quality of contractility are assessed directly by view-
water and turned to dorsal recumbency. Fully awake fish are ing real-time images of the heart. Rather high-quality probes of
difficult, if not impossible, to grasp. As induction proceeds, the 10–12 MHz are required to visualize the heart of small fish effec-
fish can be held but it struggles against the manipulation of turn- tively. Pulse oximetry, a means of monitoring oxygen saturation
ing it on its back. With further induction, there is a delay in the of blood in mammals, has not been particularly useful in fish,
time taken for the fish to coordinate its finning motions to right primarily because of the challenges of locating sensors in posi-
itself. Next, the animal becomes unable to right itself but will tions that reliably can detect pulse. Differences in hemoglobin
still make fin and body motions in an effort to do so. Finally, the characteristics also make calibration of the saturation infor-
fish will quietly remain in dorsal recumbency making no effort mation and interpretation challenging even when readings are
to change position, indicating a deep state of central nervous obtained. With further advances in monitoring equipment being
system (CNS) depression. made, it is possible that devices suitable for more effective
The respiratory rate can also be monitored with no special monitoring of fish anesthesia will become available in the future.
equipment. The rate and strength of opercular excursion can
be visualized and monitored with only a timepiece that reads
to the second. The accurate evaluation of the strength of oper- VI. ANESTHETIC AGENTS
cular excursion does require some experience, particularly in
observing the species of fish being anesthetized in a nonstress-
There are a great number of agents available that have
ful awake condition to understand normal baseline gilling rates
been used to render laboratory fish compliant for experimen-
and excursion. Weak opercular motions will not be as effec-
tal manipulation. Researchers have generally had the advantage
tive at moving oxygenated water across the gill surfaces, as the
of ready access to a wide range of chemicals, and because
shallow and ineffective respiration in mammals fails to optimize
research fish do not usually enter the human food supply, reg-
gas exchange in the lungs. During induction, gilling rates often
ulations designed to prevent chemical contamination of food
increase initially in response to the handling and initial expo-
have not inhibited the creativity of experimentalists. Over the
sure to the chemicals, but as induction proceeds, gilling rates
years, a large number of chemicals and agents have been applied
generally fall to normal and, with many agents, then proceed to
to fish in the hopes of inducing “anesthesia,” with varying
subnormal rates and excursions.
degrees of success. However, only a few of these agents have
The heart rate of fish is more challenging to monitor than the
found widespread usage sufficient to allow even a basic under-
respiratory effort without some supplementation to the senses.
standing of their effects and optimal application. We will focus
Even for very large fish, it is challenging to visualize the move-
our discussions primarily on those agents which are currently
ment of the relatively rigid body wall in the region of the heart.
actively used by fish anesthesiologists for routine anesthesia
Detection of a pulse in fish is an art that has yet to be well
of fish. Many fish “anesthetics” reported in published compi-
developed. For relatively large fish, the esophageal stethoscope
lations have been used only sporadically and usually without
and modifications of the concept can be used to obtain good
the adjunct assessment of key physiologic impacts of the drug.
information about heart rate and, to some extent, depending on
For the most part, those drugs are no longer employed in fish
experience, the quality of heart contraction. The device is passed
anesthesia, although they do seem to be rediscovered on occa-
through only a very short distance to lie within the esophagus
sion. We include those agents in a secondary category of drugs
over the region of the heart. This is not yet an option in the small
that have been used but without recommendation for their use.
fish more commonly used in research facilities because of the
Finally, a number of agents are listed in many compilations of
lack of suitably sized instruments and the need for amplification.
fish anesthesia agents that either have little or no efficacy, have
Nor are Doppler and pulse oximetry devices available that are
serious untoward effects on the patient, or present distinct health
suitably miniaturized to be used on fish as small as the gold fish
risks to humans in application. We mention these in a separate
or even smaller. Doppler devices designed for dogs and cats can
section of agents not recommended for use in fish anesthesia.
be used effectively in moderately sized and larger fish. When
external electrical signals are not a component of the experimen-
tal activity, it is possible to monitor the electrocardiogram (ECG) A. Immersion Agents
of fish. The conductivity of water makes it possible to achieve
this monitoring without placing electrodes on the fish; how- Immersion agents are those that produce anesthesia when
ever, standard ECG machines developed for mammals are not the fish is immersed in water in which the anesthetic agent
suitable for the task. Special preamplification of the electrical is dissolved. Although the agent must be water soluble, some
signals is required to obtain readable ECGs of fish in this manner agents must first be dissolved in organic solvent and then diluted
(Altimiras and Larsen, 2000). Another very sophisticated way with water. Concentrations are generally calculated as parts
to obtain heart rate of anesthetized fish uses ultrasonography. per million (ppm), which is equivalent to milligrams per liter
Again, the aquatic medium makes it possible to image the heart (mg/L). Other less frequently used units may be seen in the
524 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

literature, such as grams per cubic meter of water (g/m3 ) which the fish manually around the tank. For very small fish, this can
is used when drugs are being applied to very large volumes of be accomplished using a small cotton-tipped swab or similar
water. This is rarely, if ever, appropriate for anesthetizing fish soft device such as a microsurgical point to move the lower jaw
in a research setting. To develop and practice good immersion of the fish down and back up simulating normal respiration.
anesthesia in fish, it is very important that measured doses be Experience is a very important component of administering
administered. Measured volumes of known concentration stock anesthesia and that is particularly true for immersion anesthesia
solutions of anesthetic should be added to measured or reason- of fish. Generally, anesthesia of fish should be conducted on one
ably accurately estimated volumes of water for induction, and fish at a time, although with experience anesthesiologists can
maintenance additions should also be carefully measured. The administer immersion anesthesia to large numbers of fish at one
practice of addition of dry agent haphazardly to unmeasured time. Even experienced fish anesthesiologists find it prudent to
volumes of water to save time is not appropriate. perform careful trials with a small number of fish one at a time
Ideally, immersion agents should provide rapid immobiliza- when anesthetizing a new fish species they are not familiar with
tion and rapid recovery, and have a wide safety margin (i.e., or when using a new agent.
therapeutic concentration should be much smaller than the lethal
concentration). When at all possible, a separate tank should 1. Best Practices Agents for Use in Fish
be dedicated for use with anesthetics. When using immersion
agents, water quality is particularly important. Water with simi- a. Tricaine methanesulfonate (3-aminobenzoic acid ethyl
lar salinity, hardness, pH, dissolved oxygen, and temperature to ester methanesulfonate: MS-222, TMS, Tricaine,
which the fish are acclimated should be used. The ideal situation Metacaine, Fiquel)
would be to use water from the tank where the fish are normally Tricaine is the only anesthetic approved by the United States
housed if that water is not seriously compromised. The anesthe- Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for fish intended as food
sia tank should be aerated, and there needs to be a method for and is the most commonly used agent for the anesthesia of fish.
continuous flow of water over the gills (i.e., manual movement
of fish, or active flow through a tube placed near the gills, to Chemistry. Tricaine is a white crystalline powder that has a
ensure constant flow of water over the gills). water solubility of 1.25 g/ml at 20◦ C. A stock solution of 10 g/L
There are four stages of anesthesia for aquatic species, which can be stored in an airtight container at room temperature. The
are similar to anesthetic stages used in other species (Thur- solution should be stored in darkened containers, as sunlight
mon, 1996) (Table 21-1). Lighter planes of anesthesia might will cause the solution to turn brown. The addition of tricaine to
be acceptable when only restraint is needed. For fish undergo- water at relevant doses will cause the water to become acidic. At
ing painful procedures or surgery, deeper planes are required. 100 mg/L, the pH of the solution can be as low 5. It is therefore
The ideal anesthetic depth is a compromise achieving slow, recommended to buffer the solution with sodium bicarbonate
steady, and effective opercular movement without response to to a pH between 7.0–7.5. This is most readily accomplished by
stimulation. supersaturating the premixed solution of MS-222 with sodium
The ability to rapidly recover fish from anesthesia is one of bicarbonate. This can be accomplished for stock solutions. The
the advantages of the proper use of immersion agents; how- precipitate sometimes reported with the procedure is simply
ever, the pharmacokinetics of the immersion agents should be undissolved sodium bicarbonate. Care should be taken not to
kept in mind when managing the immersion. A drug continues decant this residual when taking from the stock solution. More
to be absorbed by the fish so long as the fish is maintained in important to the efficacy of the stock solution is the formation
a concentration of the drug in the water. This may be neces- of an oily substance on the surface of the solution. This occurs
sary to maintain the anesthesia, but depending upon the agent when the order of solution is reversed and water is buffered
being used, the compartmentalization of drug within the fish can prior to adding the anesthetic agent to the stock solution. The
result in depot formation that will prolong the recovery from the same condition occurs with excessive exposure to light, which
anesthetic. To recover fish from immersion-induced anesthesia, can also cause a browning of the solution. The appearance of an
the fish is placed in well-aerated, high-quality, anesthetic-free oily substance on the surface of the stock solution, cloudiness of
water. Manual movement of the fish through the water can be the stock solution that will not settle down, or darkening of the
used to force water though the mouth and over the gills, to solution all indicate that the stock solution should be discarded
facilitate depuration of the anesthetic and delivery of oxygen and new stock made. The shelf life of stock solutions can be
to the fish. Effective use of this technique requires some expe- extended by refrigeration, protection from exposure to light,
rience and an understanding of the anatomy of the fish. It is and even freezing the solution. The most popular stock solution
quite challenging to achieve effective water movement over the used is made up to a concentration of 10 g/L, which allows easy
gills in this manner for smaller fish. Simply opening and clos- calculation for working in 100 mg/L dilutions.
ing the mouth under water in a manner mimicking the motions
of the awake fish can be just as effective in pumping water over Mechanism of action. Tricaine is a water-soluble chemical
the gills, and poses less risk to the patient compared to moving structurally related to benzocaine. It is a local anesthetic that
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 525

works by blocking the conduction of sodium channels. It is aqueous solution is acidic and should be buffered with sodium
reasonable to question if the lack of movement seen in fish anes- bicarbonate in a manner similar to that described for tricaine.
thetized with tricaine is at least partially associated with blocked Humans exposed to quinaldine have reported irritation to eyes
conduction of muscle as opposed to true CNS depression. and airways (Bowser, 2001).
There is evidence of impact on nervous tissues as tricaine does
decrease neural conduction in toadfish (Palmer and Mensinger, Mechanism of action. Quinaldine has been purported to work
2004). The structurally related drug, lidocaine, has also been through mechanisms similar to those postulated for tricaine
shown to be analgesic and to function as a CNS depressant when (DeTolla et al., 1995), but even less is known of the exact
given centrally in domestic mammals (Doherty and Frazier, mechanisms of action.
1998; Valverde et al., 2004). It is possible that tricaine may
act similarly in fish.
Anesthetic effects. Quinaldine has been used for fish anes-
Anesthetic effects. Tricaine is rapidly absorbed via gill dif- thesia and is more commonly used for collection of fish in
fusion, and provides a fairly rapid induction and recovery. tide pools and coral reefs than is tricaine. In higher concentra-
The early stages can show some excitatory effects similar to tions, it can cause a rapid induction. Recovery characteristics
those seen in terrestrial animals as they pass through an exci- are more variable than with tricaine, in part because of the rel-
tatory state (Stage II anesthesia) before becoming immobile. atively uncontrolled dosing that occurs with the drug in some
Once immobile, tricaine is able to completely abolish muscle applications. Quinaldine often does not completely stop muscle
movement. movement, and many anesthetists find it more appropriate for
Tricaine has been shown to cause physiologic changes in sedation than for induction of surgical anesthesia. Long-term
fish, including increased cortisol, glucose, hematocrit, and lac- sedation/anesthesia has been associated with mortality (Yanar
tate (Cho and Heath, 2000). High doses (100 mg/L) of tricaine and Kumlu, 2000). Quinaldine can be an irritant to gills and
decrease dorsal aortic pressure in Chinook salmon (Hill and cause corneal damage, particularly when administered at high
Forster, 2004). concentrations for rapid immobilization in captures or when
using unbuffered stock solutions administered directly onto the
Dose. There is a wide range of doses recommended for anes- fish rather than mixing the stock into the anesthesia bath water
thesia of fish with tricaine in the literature, and this can be (Stoskopf, 1993).
primarily attributed to the variety of species, fish size, and even
the density of fish in a group being induced. Its wide margin Dose. As would be expected, the dose of quinaldine varies
of safety in most applications also plays a role in broadening with fish species, fish size, water temperature, and pH. Quinal-
the range of doses found to be “successful” in the literature. dine is more effective in alkaline water, and in water with a
Tricaine is more potent in warm water and in soft water, and pH < 5, quinaldine is not effective (Bowser, 2001). At compa-
thus doses should be adjusted accordingly. Lower doses should rable doses, larger fish are more heavily sedated and recovery
be used for sedation or with physiologically compromised or is more prolonged in warmer water. Quinaldine is generally
diseased fish. administered at concentrations of 15–60 mg/L to induce anes-
Tricaine is routinely administered at a dose between 25 thesia or profound sedation. The most frequently used induction
and 100 mg/L for anesthesia. Most commonly used laboratory dose for small laboratory fish species is 50 mg/L. Species dif-
species of fish are induced quite suitably at 100 mg/L. Tricaine ferences in response to the drug can be marked. For example,
is used at doses between 400 and 500 mg/L for euthanasia by 25 mg/L will routinely cause loss of equilibrium in less than
anesthetic overdose. 4 minutes for salmonids, but for tilapia reported induction doses
range between 50 and 1000 mg/L (DeTolla et al., 1995).
Withdrawal. Although tissue concentrations of tricaine are Quinaldine can be administered in combination with tricaine,
demonstrated to be near zero within 24 hours after adminis- and it is felt this mixture produces a faster induction. The most
tration in salmonids (Bowser, 2001), the kinetics of the drug common ratio of administration is 10:1, tricaine:quinaldine
would be expected to vary with a wide range of factors including sulfate (Rodger, 1999).
water temperature and body composition of the fish. Therefore,
the US FDA requires a 21-day withdrawal for fish used for food
c. Imidazole anesthetics (metomidate: marinil, methomidate;
or release into the wild (FDA, 2005).
etomidate: amidate, R7464)
These agents are listed in our grouping of the best prac-
b. Quinaldine sulfate (2-methylquinoline: quinate)
tice agents primarily because they are used extensively as
Chemistry. Quinaldine sulfate is a crystalline powder with so-called “stress-free anesthesia agents”. We actually do not feel
a solubility of 1.04 g/L in water. Stock solutions should be they represent best practice agents but they may have specific
stored in dark containers and protected from sunlight. The uses in certain situations. Unfortunately, the stress-free aspects
526 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

attributed to these drugs are a complete misnomer. Metomi- that the decrease in cortisol production that occurs with the use
date and etomidate block the 11-beta-hydroxylation of cortisol of these drugs results in an increase in melanocyte-stimulating
both in mammals and in fish. This seriously perturbs the com- hormone (Harms and Bakal, 1994). Normal color returns after
plex positive and negative feedback pathways for control of the recovery from the anesthetic. Metomidate has been successfully
neuroendocrine cascade. The lack of an increase in circulating used as an immersion agent, but has also been used successfully
cortisol in fish given these drugs has been misinterpreted as to anesthetize turbot and halibut when used intravenously and
being due to the drug-relieving stress. This is not the case. The orally (Hansen et al., 2003).
fish are experiencing the same stress, but are not able to respond
to it by producing cortisol. This misinterpretation has resulted in Doses. Metomidate: 0.5–10 mg/L; 3 mg/kg IV; 7 mg/kg, oral
the misguided use of the drugs at low doses to “manage stress” in (Hansen et al., 2003). Etomidate: 2–20 mg/L.
fish shipments and transports. These drugs at appropriate doses
do provide a degree of immobilization and an apparent lack of
reaction to noxious stimuli. However, it is important to empha- d. Eugenol [4-allyl-2-methoxy-phenol: clove oil, isoeugenol,
size that while plasma cortisol increases that occur when using AQUI-S (2-methoxy-4-propenyl phenol)]
other fish anesthetics or even in minimally handling fish do not AQUI-S is a 50% eugenol solution that is approved for use in
occur with these drugs, this is a false picture of their neuroen- fish in Australia, New Zealand, Chile, and Korea, where it has
docrine profile, which is characterized by increased levels of no withdrawal time for fish destined for human consumption or
hormones produced by the pituitary attempting to overcome the release to the wild. The active ingredient, eugenol, is classified
synthetic blockade of cortisol production. Researchers should by the FDA as GRAS (generally regarded as safe), but the use
be cautious when interpreting stress response in fish exposed to of the compound for anesthesia of food fish is not approved.
imidazole anesthetics.

Chemistry. Eugenol is a pale yellow liquid from the tree Euge-

Chemistry. Metomidate and etomidate are imidazole com- nia aromatica. It is poorly water-soluble and must be dissolved
pounds. Metomidate is a white powder soluble in water and in ethanol (1:9) before dilution into water. The proprietary
ethanol. Etomidate is marketed as an aqueous solution com- formulation of AQUI-S is sufficiently soluble to allow direct
mercially prepared in 35% propylene glycol. addition to induction water.

Mechanism of action. Imidazole anesthetics are gamma- Mechanism of action. The mechanism of action of eugenol
aminobutyric acid (GABA) receptor agonists that produce in fish is unknown, but it has been used extensively as a topi-
anesthesia and amnesia in mammals (Stoelting, 1999). They cal anesthetic in human dentistry, and its mechanism of action
are poor muscle relaxants and provide no analgesia. The effi- may be similar to that of other local anesthetics (e.g., tricaine,
cacy of imidazoles in fish is greater in more alkaline water, and lidocaine).
therefore doses should be decreased with increasing pH of the
water.
Anesthetic effect. Eugenol can cause immobility in fish. In
Chinook salmon, a high dose (60 mg/L) of anesthesia with
Anesthetic effects. Imidazole anesthetics have a wide safety eugenol is accompanied by a decrease in heart rate, cardiac
margin in fish and produce a rapid induction with a more output, dorsal aortic pressure, and stroke volume (Hill and
prolonged recovery than induction, and these rates are dose Forster, 2004). Anesthesia with eugenol is reported to cause a
dependent (Amend and Goven, 1982). Metomidate at high con- 75% decrease in arterial oxygen (PaO2 ) in fish (Hill and Forster,
centrations (6–10 mg/L) is reported to cause no change in heart 2004), and an increase in catecholamines, glucose, and hema-
rate, cardiac output, dorsal aortic pressure, or stroke volume in tocrit (Cho and Heath, 2000; Hill and Forster, 2004; Sladky
Chinook salmon (Hill and Forster, 2004), but little physiologic et al., 2001). It is possible that what appear as depression to the
data is published on the effects on commonly used research CNS are the effects of hypoxemia.
fish species. The effects reported in salmon are similar to what
has been reported in humans and other mammals (Stoelting,
1999). As mentioned earlier, metomidate has been suggested Dose. Eugenol: 25–60 mg/L; AQUI-S: 20–60 mg/L.
to block the stress response. Imidazole anesthetics (e.g., meto-
midate and etomidate) interrupt cortisol synthesis in mammals 2. Infrequently Used Agents in Fish
by suppressing the enzyme 11-beta-hydroxylase, which is nec-
a. Benzocaine (ethyl aminobenzoate: anesthesin, anesthone,
essary for cortisol production (Stoelting, 1999). Fish exposed
ethyl aminobenzoate, orthesin, parathesin)
to metomidate can have dark skin discoloration after exposure.
Because cortisol inhibits the release of ACTH and ACTH stim- Benzocaine is commonly used as a local anesthetic for
ulates the melanocyte-stimulating hormone, it is hypothesized humans (e.g., cough drops, sunburn aid). It is structurally
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 527

similar to tricaine, but lacks the sulfate moiety of tricaine, which Anesthetic effect. Lidocaine produces a quick induction but
renders the latter to be highly soluble in water. Benzocaine has long recovery and causes cardiovascular depression. Increased
been used to produce anesthesia and for euthanasia. There is efficacy and decreased toxicity are seen when lidocaine is
no particular benefit of this agent over the closely related and administered with sodium bicarbonate (Carrasco et al., 1984).
FDA-approved tricaine. The investigators should be guided to
use tricaine unless there is a specific reason that drug would Dose. Lidocaine has been administered at 250–350 mg/L with
interfere with the data being collected. The similarities between 1 g/L of sodium bicarbonate.
the drugs would make this a very rare situation.

Chemistry. Benzocaine occurs in two forms: a crystalline salt c. Volatile anesthetics (halothane, isoflurane, sevoflurane)
(benzocaine HCl) that is soluble in water at 0.4 g/L, and a Although these agents are well studied in mammals and do
nonwater-soluble basic form that must be dissolved in ethyl work through mechanisms that would be expected to induce
alcohol at a concentration of 0.2 g/ml before it is sufficiently analgesia and anesthesia in fish, the challenges of their proper
soluble in water to create a functional induction dose. The HCl safe use and achieving appropriate induction times with cur-
salt of benzocaine can be prepared as a stock solution of 100 g/L, rently available technology keep them from being placed in the
which should be stored in a dark container and protected from category of “best practice agents.”
light. As with tricaine, benzocaine should be buffered with
sodium bicarbonate to raise the pH to 7.0–7.5.
Chemistry. Volatile anesthetics are lipophilic and do not
always mix well with water. They can be added to the water
Mechanism of action. Benzocaine is a local anesthetic that tank or distributed into the water by spraying the solution using
blocks sodium channel conduction. a syringe with a 25 g needle. Alternatively, it can be bubbled
through the water with oxygen through an anesthetic vaporizer
Anesthetic effects. Benzocaine produces a fairly rapid induc- (Stetter, 2001).
tion and recovery from anesthesia. However, even at high doses,
fish may retain some locomotor activity. Respiration is rapidly Mechanism of action. Volatile anesthetics produce anesthesia,
depressed. Benzocaine is highly fat soluble, so obese or gravid analgesia, and amnesia by activating the inhibitory neuro-
females may have prolonged recoveries. transmitter GABA receptors in the CNS. Activation of GABA
receptors causes postsynaptic hyperpolarization which prevents
Dose. Wide dose range reflects different species, size, water ascending neural transmission. It is also likely that volatile
temperature, and water hardness. Anesthesia can be accom- inhalants block the activation of the excitatory neurotransmitter
plished with concentrations between 25 and 200 mg/L. Euthana- glutamate.
sia can be accomplished with 3–5 times the concentration
needed to produce anesthesia. Anesthetic effect. Induction can be slow with the excitement
stages observed. It is likely that the slow induction is due to
b. Lidocaine (xylocaine, lignocaine) the difficulty in reaching therapeutic concentrations in water
because the volatile agents are continually being vaporized and
Lidocaine is generally not considered as suitable an immer- lost to the environment. At therapeutic concentrations, immo-
sion agent as tricaine, although it is used commonly for local bility can be reached and recovery is quick following removal
injectable analgesia. Investigators seeking to use this drug for from anesthetic exposure (Stetter, 2001).
general anesthesia of their fish should be directed to the use of
tricaine unless there is a specific demonstrated reason to believe
that tricaine would interfere with the quality or usefulness of the Dose. Isoflurane: 0.25–0.75 ml/L (Stetter, 2001).
data collected. Fish require similar inhalant concentrations as mammals to
be effective (similar minimum alveolar concentration, MAC)
(Steffey, 1996). However, dosing is imprecise as agents are
Chemistry. Lidocaine is available in two forms: a hydrochloric highly volatile and vaporize quickly. This causes significant
salt that is water soluble and a non-water-soluble basic form changes to the water concentration and can increase atmospheric
that must be dissolved in acetone or alcohol before diluting in concentrations exposing laboratory personnel to the anesthetic.
water. The ability to scavenge vaporized liquid is required. Due
to imprecision of dose and the exposure to humans, and the
Mechanism of action. Lidocaine is a local anesthetic that need to scavenge waste gas, this method of anesthesia is rarely
blocks sodium channel conduction (see information on suitable for the laboratory setting without highly specialized
tricaine). equipment.
528 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

3. Inappropriate Agents for Use in Fish Dose. Phenoxyethanol is rarely used in modern research, and
investigators should be directed to use other drugs such as
a. Propanidid (epontol, sombrevin)
tricaine.
This drug is an ultra-short-acting, nonbarbiturate, general
anesthetic that was used successfully in human medicine until
c. Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
it was prohibited from sale in the 1980s following anaphylactic
reactions. CO2 has a long history of use for sedation/anesthesia of fish.
It is inexpensive and can be delivered as a gas bubbled from
Chemistry. Propanidid is insoluble in water, and thus must first compressed gas tanks via air stones, or generated by use of
be dissolved in alcohol to a 5% stock solution before adding to bicarbonate-of-soda antacids, in field situations. Approximately
water. 200 mg/L of it is needed to immobilize fish. However, the gen-
eration of CO2 simultaneously displaces oxygen and increases
the acidity of water. The combination would not be expected to
Mechanism of action. Propanidid is presumed to work as a be physiologically benign for the fish. Very high concentrations
GABA receptor agonist, but its mechanism of action in fish is of CO2 are required for sedation/anesthesia in mammals, and it
unknown. is unlikely that CO2 produces analgesia. Therefore, CO2 should
not be considered as an appropriate agent for anesthesia of fish.
Anesthetic action. Propanidid produces short- and long-term
anesthesia. The data with those reports are insufficient to estab-
lish whether or not anesthesia and analgesia are achieved. 4. Not Recommended for Use in Fish
Application of the drug is associated with significant respira- a. Diethyl ether
tory and metabolic acidosis, with minimal changes to blood
chemistry (Thorsteinsson, 2002). Diethyl ether has a long history in human and veterinary
medicine as an anesthetic. Although it produces reliable anes-
thesia in mammals, it is extremely flammable. Its vapors are
Dose. Propanidid is administered at 1.5–3 ml/L of an unspec- denser than air, and will accumulate if proper ventilation is not
ified stock solution. There is no compelling reason to pursue present. Simple static electricity can ignite the ether vapors.
this compound as a fish anesthetic. Diethyl ether should only be used inside a fume hood, and thus
is not recommended for use in fish anesthesia.
b. Phenoxyethanol [2-phenoxyethanol phenyl ether: phenyl
cellosolve, phenoxethol, 2-phenoxyethanol (2-PE)] b. Chloral hydrate
Due to a low therapeutic index, and the potential for cardio- Chloral hydrate is a sedative that has been used extensively in
vascular and toxic effects, phenoxyethanol is a poor choice as veterinary medicine, particularly in equine patients. It produces
anesthetic. sedation and muscle relaxation but does not produce analgesia or
anesthesia, and therefore it is not recommended as an anesthetic
Chemistry. Phenoxyethanol is an organic compound that has a agent for fish.
water solubility of 27 g/L at 20◦ C. It is a topical irritant, and care
should be taken to protect human skin and eyes from contact. c. Urethane
There is no reason to believe it is any less irritating to fish tissues,
and thus application should only occur by exposing fish to the Urethane has previously been used in the laboratory setting to
lowest dilution needed for effect. anesthetize laboratory animals and fish. However, urethane is an
established animal carcinogen and has been classified as “rea-
sonably anticipated to be a human carcinogen” (Program, 1983),
Mechanism of action. Mechanism of action of phe- and thus should be not used in the routine laboratory setting.
noxyethanol is unknown in fish.

d. Halothane
Anesthetic action. Phenoxyethanol causes rapid induction and
recovery; however, fish may maintain muscle movement. Car- Halothane is a volatile anesthetic that has been used exten-
diovascular parameters are depressed, and there is potential sively in human and veterinary medicine, and can be used
for liver, kidney, and corneal damage. Fish may show initial successfully to anesthetized fish. In people, hepatitis has been
hyperactivity when first exposed, which is different from the reported following exposure to halothane (Stoelting, 1999). As
excitement of Stage II anesthesia and most likely attributable to discussed previously, anesthesia of fish produces a significant
the irritant properties of the chemical. amount of environmental exposure to the agent. Thus, halothane
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 529

is not recommended for this purpose due to the risks associated Dose. Ketamine can be administered at 30 mg/kg IV (anes-
with human exposure. thesia <3 min) or 10–80 mg/kg IM. The very wide range of IM
doses is indicative of the relatively sparse research on the effi-
cacy and safety of this agent. As with other animals, it does
e. Chlorobutanol
appear to have a wide margin of safety, and there may be signif-
Chlorobutanol has been used successfully to anesthetize fish, icant interspecies differences in susceptibility. Another factor
but has been reported to be toxic in small fish (Canadian Council that affects the required dose is the level of excitement of fish
on Animal Care, 2005). It poses human health hazards as it at the time of injection.
is irritating to skin and eyes. Inhalation of large quantities can
cause unconsciousness (Thorsteinsson, 2002). Since it provides b. Alpha-2 agonists (e.g., xylazine, dexmedetomidine,
no benefit over other available agents, it is not recommended medetomidine)
for use.
Chemistry. Alpha-2 agonists are crystalline substances that
are water soluble.
B. Injectable Agents
Mechanism of action. Alpha-2 agonists bind and activate
Injectable agents can be used successfully in fish intramus- alpha-2 adrenergic receptors, resulting in sedation and anal-
cularly or intravenously. This method does require either fish gesia. At least five alpha-2 receptors have been identified in
handling before anesthesia which can increase stress, or the abil- zebrafish (Ruuskanen et al., 2005).
ity to dart or pole-syringe fish. For the researcher who needs to
anesthetize a large number of fish or routinely anesthetize fish,
Anesthetic effects. Zebrafish show a dose-dependent decrease
this method may be less advantageous than immersion agents.
in locomotion following dexmedetomidine administration
(Ruuskanen et al., 2005). It is possible that activation of alpha-2
1. Best Practices Agents receptors might also provide analgesia as it does in mammalian
a. Ketamine (ketaject, ketaset) species.
Alpha-2 antagonists (e.g., yohimbine, atipamezole) are effec-
Chemistry. Ketamine is a white crystalline powder. One gram tive reversal agents (Williams et al., 2004).
of ketamine is soluble in 5 ml water or 14 ml alcohol. Commer-
cially prepared ketamine is a water-soluble liquid with a pH of
Dose. Medetomidine 0.06–4.0 mg/kg IM (given with ketamine).
3.5–5.5.

c. Propofol
Mechanism of action. Ketamine is an N -methyl-d-aspartate
(NMDA) antagonist that produces dissociative anesthesia by Chemistry. Propofol is an alkyl-phenol commercially avail-
dissociating the thalamo-cortical and limbic systems. In mam- able as an emulsion with a pH of 7–8.5.
mals, it produces anesthesia and provides analgesia. It has been
suggested that ketamine provides better somatic than visceral Mechanism of action. Propofol is a GABA receptor ago-
analgesia, but this distinction is inaccurate. NMDA antago- nist that produces anesthesia in mammals (Stoelting, 1999). It
nists has been shown to interrupt pain transmission in the dorsal provides good muscle relaxation but no analgesia.
horn of the spinal cord, mediating somatic, visceral, neuropathic
and orthopaedic pain, often at subanesthetic doses (Visser and
Schug, 2006). Anesthetic effects. In sturgeon, propofol produced light anes-
thesia accompanied with respiratory depression and bradycardia
(Fleming et al., 2003).
Anesthetic effects. Administration of ketamine is most com-
monly accomplished with an IM injection, although the anes-
thetic effects are more reliable intravenously. As in terrestrial Dose. 3.5–7.5 mg/kg IV (Fleming et al., 2003).
mammals, following administration of ketamine, fish may
struggle or show excitement during the early stages of anes- 2. Infrequently Used Agents
thesia. During deeper anesthesia, muscle relaxation may still be
a. Alphaxalone–alphadolone (saffan, althesin)
poor when ketamine is used alone. Muscle relaxation may be
improved by the addition of an alpha-2 agonist (e.g., xylazine). This agent is a steroid anesthetic not available in the United
Ventilation is minimally affected with ketamine alone, but may States, but commonly used in Europe and Australia in dogs and
be decreased when used in combination with an alpha-2 agonist cats. The older formulation had a Cremophor base and could
in sturgeon (Fleming et al., 2003). cause histamine release with swelling, pruritus, and edema. The
530 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

newer formulation (Alphaxalone CD) is alphaxalone only and Anesthetic effects. It is possible to use barbiturates intra-
does not contain the Cremophor base. venously in larger fish, but the difficulty of restraining larger
fish for IV injections makes this technique less useful for routine
Chemistry. Saffan is a poorly water-soluble synthetic steroid. anesthesia in research fish.
Each milliliter contains 9 mg alfaxalone plus 3 mg alfadolone.
Dose. Thiopental 10–30 mg/kg IM; Pentobarbital 30–72 mg/kg
Mechanism of action. Steroid anesthetics activate the IM.
inhibitory GABA receptor producing anesthesia and muscle
relaxation. d. Diazepam
Diazepam has been used as an oral as well as an injectable
Anesthetic action. Alphaxalone–alphadolone can produce
agent to sedate individual fish for safer handling and at lower
sedation and anesthesia in a variety of fish. At higher doses,
doses to stimulate appetite. It has been used effectively as a
the induction is fairly rapid (within 5 minutes) but recovery to
sedative in larger groups but does not induce general anesthesia
normal swimming can take up to 5 hours (Harvey et al., 1987).
or even mobility at the doses that have been applied. Published
data on the effects of this drug on fish species commonly used
Dose. 0.3–1.5 ml/kg IM. in research laboratories is not readily available.

b. Azaperone (suicalm, stressnill) Chemistry. Diazepam has a water solubility of 3 g/L.The com-
mercially available liquid is 5 mg/ml with a vehicle that is 40%
Azaperone is a butyrophenone neuroleptic sedative/hypnotic
propylene glycol and 10% ethanol. It is a Schedule IV controlled
that is related to the drug haloperidol used in people with psy-
drug.
chiatric disorders. Azaperone has been extensively used in pigs
to prevent fighting and stress.
Mechanism of action. Diazepam is a benzodiazepine that
Chemistry. The commercial form is available in an aqueous produces sedation by activating GABA receptors in the CNS.
solution at 40 mg/ml.
Anesthetic effects. Diazepam produces muscle relaxation and
CNS depression, but does not produce anesthesia or provide
Mechanism of action. Butyrophenones are dopamine (D2)
analgesia. This type of drug is best used in conjunction with
receptor antagonists. They also have agonist effects at serotonin
other anesthetics and/or analgesics.
receptors and block activation of the reticular activating system.

Dose. 1–4 mg/kg IM.

Anesthetic action. Azaperone does not produce anesthesia or
analgesia but can be used as an anxiolytic. Fish administered
with azaperone do not show stress behaviors when netted or e. Gallamine triethiodide (Flaxedil)
moved to a new environment (Latas, 1987).
Gallamine is a competitive, nondepolarizing neuromuscular
Dose: 4 mg/kg directly onto gills.
blocker (NMB) that has been extensively used to immobilize
alligators and crocodiles as well as fish.
c. Barbiturates (pentobarbital, thiopental)
The barbiturates are often reported as potential fish anesthet- Chemistry. Gallamine is supplied as 2% solution of gallamine
ics in reviews, but apparently have only very rarely been applied. triethiodide, which needs to be protected from light.
They have been used on occasions to euthanize fish. Little actual
experience with these drugs in fish is reported in the literature. Mechanism of action. NMBs work by blocking the binding
of acetylcholine to its receptor at the neuromuscular junction
Chemistry. These drugs are all derived from barbituric acid. causing paralysis of skeletal muscle. Neuromuscular blockers
They are commercially available in aqueous solutions with a do not produce any CNS depression or provide any analgesia. It
basic pH. They are a class II controlled drug in the United States. is considered inhumane and unacceptable to administer NMB
without a CNS depressant to mammals and should be considered
Mechanism of action. Barbiturates are commonly used anes- just as unacceptable for single agent use in fish.
thetics in mammals. They cause anesthesia by activation
and enhancement of GABA receptors in the CNS producing Anesthetic action. Although NMBs do not provide sedation or
unconsciousness and amnesia. analgesia, they do provide immobility and chemical restraint.
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 531

The paralysis of skeletal muscle can affect the muscles used the changes to creatine kinase indicating a diminished muscle
for respiration. The NMB, succinylcholine, can cause complete injury (Harms et al., 2005).
cessation of respiration and death when used in fish. Gallamine
does appear to preserve gilling when properly dosed. Its use
alone in a painful procedure cannot be recommended.
VIII. NONCHEMICAL METHODS

Dose. Gallamine: 1–3 mg/kg IM.

A. Hypothermia
3. Regional Anesthesia (Lidocaine, Bupivacaine) Arguments are frequently given for the use of hypothermia
Local anesthetics prevent the cranial migration of pain per- as an immobilizing method and even as an anesthetic for fish.
ception by blocking sodium channel conduction. Local anes- The question is quite complex, and based primarily on extrap-
thetics can be used in fish as adjunct to general anesthesia or in olation of data from other species including humans. Many of
place of it. If the fish is not anesthetized, the injection of local the fisheries-based investigators inappropriately equate anes-
anesthetic can be painful and the manual restrain needed can be thesia with immobilization, and little, if any, work has been
stressful. published assessing the actual issues looking at this method
of hypothermic analgesia or anesthesia in fish (Hovda, 2000).
Dose. Lidocaine 4–10 mg/kg. Earlier work evaluating the physiologic impacts of lethal and
sublethal hypothermia on fish suggests that extreme caution be
used in considering this approach. Research has shown that
VII. ANALGESIC AGENTS expected electrolyte and fluid shifts in tissues occur in fish
exposed to acute and chronic temperature shifts, and that the
rate of application of hypothermia, the acclimation tempera-
A. Opioids ture of the fish being induced, as well as the temperature being
applied as the endpoint of hypothermia affect survival and a
There is evidence for the presence of mu and kappa opioid wide range of physiologic and biochemical processes in fish
receptors in teleost fish (Alvarez et al., 2006; Darlison et al., (Elliott, 1981; Houston et al., 1968; Mark et al., 2002). While
1997). This implies an endogenous opioid system that might be the ability of hypothermia to immobilize fish is clearly estab-
manipulated to provide analgesia for research fish. lished, there is insufficient evidence to suggest that the process
provides anesthesia or analgesia.
1. Butorphanol Hypothermia applications in humans are frequently cited as
a basis for the use of the method in fish, but it should be pointed
Butorphanol is a kappa opioid agonist that results in sedation out that humans subjected to surgical hypothermia to reduce
and analgesia in mammals. The use of butorphanol (0.4 mg/kg the impacts of hypoxia in certain types of surgery are under
IM) in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) preoperatively prevents general anesthesia before the technique is applied. Humans
behavioral changes (Harms et al., 2005), suggesting either experiencing hypothermia resulting in frostbite while conscious
decreased pain or stress or both. Butorphanol is a Schedule generally report severe pain followed by localized numbness
IV controlled drug. before hypoesthesia occurs (Berg et al., 1999). Rewarming of
tissue has also been described as painful. Further investigation
2. Morphine into the impact on neural processing and the detailed impacts of
Morphine is a mu opioid agonist that results in analgesia and the application of the technique is needed before hypothermia
sedation in mammals. Morphine (5 mg/kg) has been shown to can be an accepted means of providing anesthesia for fish used
attenuate postsurgical behaviors and decrease operculum rate in research.
in rainbow trout following a noxious stimulus (Sneddon, 2006;
Sneddon et al., 2003). Naloxone has been shown to block
responses seen with administration of morphine. Morphine is a B. Electroanesthesia
Schedule II controlled drug.
Our understanding of electroanesthesia remains rudimentary.
The method immobilizes fish rapidly and hence has been recom-
B. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) mended for minor procedures particularly where large numbers
of fish are involved (DeTolla, 1995) and very specialized equip-
NSAIDs are commonly used drugs in human and veterinary ment has been developed for the application of electroanesthesia
medicine. Ketoprofen (2 mg/kg IM) did not prevent behavioral in wild fish for large-scale management assessments (United
changes following noxious stimuli in koi carp, but did attenuate States Patent 5305711). Studies on salmonids have shown that
532 MICHAEL STOSKOPF AND LYSA PAM POSNER

electroanesthesia is a good alternative to MS-222 for short- plasma cortisol concentrations over time in eels anesthetized
duration (<1 minute) immobilization (Gunstrom and Bethers, with electroanesthesia supporting this supposition. However,
1985; Orsi and Short, 1987; Sterritt et al., 1994) and the use the same is true of eels anesthetized with chemical anesthe-
of electroanesthesia offers quick recovery of immobilized fish sia. Eels, in particular, require much higher levels of chemical
(Gunstrom and Bethers, 1985). anesthesia for induction than most other teleost fish, and their
Research in the area of human pain relief and anesthesia response to exposure to these agents should not be ignored
reflected a major interest in the potential for electroanesthesia when comparing the efficacy of electroanesthesia, particularly
and analgesia in the late 1960s to early 1970s, and mechanis- for extrapolation to other fish groups.
tic assessments of the techniques began at that time. However,
the evaluation of electroanesthesia in fish suffers from the same
problems seen in the evaluation of other anesthetic modalities IX. EUTHANASIA OF FISH
for fish. Sophisticated physiologic assessments of anesthetized
fish are fairly rare. The reliance on plasma cortisol concen-
The goal of euthanasia of fish is the same as in all other species
trations as a measure of anesthetic quality is fraught with
(AVMA Panel on Euthanasia, 2001). It should be performed
challenges, and there is an important need to determine stan-
quickly, humanely, and with minimal stress to the animal. The
dardized multifaceted methods for assessing quality in fish.
unique differences in fish anatomy, physiology, and metabolism
Recent studies comparing electroanesthesia and chemical anes-
need to be addressed when designing a plan for euthanasia.
thesia in juvenile Japanese eel (Anguilla japonica) provide a
Euthanasia may be accomplished by drug overdose or physical
good example (Chiba et al., 2006). The researchers looked at the
methods. Unfortunately, many unsuitable methods have been
impact on plasma cortisol concentrations of eels anesthetized
proposed and used in fish species.
using one of the several protocols used in electroanesthesia and
electroshocking (100 V, 2A—AC or 240 V, 6A—AC applied for
30 seconds and 500 V, 5A—DC or 1,000 V, 5A—DC pulsed A. Suitable Methods for Euthanasia
for 30 seconds). These results were compared to the effects of
the chemical anesthetics 2-PE and tricaine methanesulfonate 1. Chemical Overdose
(MS-222) on plasma cortisol concentrations. Plasma cortisol
concentrations similar to those observed in eels anesthetized Fish should be placed in water with anesthetic agents suffi-
with 2-PE, and somewhat elevated over what might be expected cient to quickly anesthetize and then euthanize the fish (AVMA
as baseline cortisol levels based on studies in other fish species, Panel on Euthanasia, 2001). The fish should be left in treated
were observed in eels anesthetized with the lowest voltage water for 10 minutes after movement has stopped.
method (100 V). These results on their own would have been Tricaine: 400–500 mg/L.
consistent with the findings of earlier studies in goldfish using Benzocaine: >250 mg/L.
MS-222 anesthesia to compare with electroanesthesia (Singly Phenoxyethanol: 0.5–0.6 mg/L.
and Chavin, 1975). However, the investigators noted that the Pentobarbital: 60–100 mg/kg IV or IP.
plasma cortisol concentrations in eels exposed to low voltage
were significantly elevated over the levels found in eels anes- a. CO2
thetized with the higher voltage AC or DC electroanesthesia
methods, possibly supporting a conclusion that higher voltages CO2 has been used to sedate and euthanize fish. It has been
provide better anesthesia. Equally perturbing were the results applied by bubbling the gas through water using airstones or
of the MS-222 anesthetized eels, which showed the highest by chemical generation of CO2 in the water. CO2 euthanasia is
plasma cortisol concentrations of all groups studied. This dis- accepted with caveats as humane in mammals (AVMA Panel
parity, however, was most likely due to a quirk in the sampling on Euthanasia, 2001). Further research should be conducted
protocols where blood samples were drawn as soon as the fish on this agent and its impacts on fish. The common product,
were deemed anesthetized rather than at a set time point after ini- Alka-seltzer™, and other carbonating antacids when added to
tiation of induction with the chosen agent. As in other vertebrate water produce CO2 . At high levels, CO2 does produce CNS
species, there is a time lag in the response of elevated circulat- depression, however, in a tank atmosphere; it is more likely that
ing cortisol concentrations and this time lag varies among fish the fish die from hypoxemia.
species to some degree. The use of high voltage caused a much
more rapid induction, allowing plasma samples to be obtained 2. Physical Methods
much earlier after initial exposure than when the 100-V method
a. Decapitation
was employed. Similarly, the induction time for MS-222 in the
protocol used in the study was much longer than the 2-PE induc- Decapitation is an acceptable form of euthanasia, but because
tion time, likely explaining much higher cortisol concentrations fish are tolerant to hypoxia, decapitation should be followed by
in MS-222 anesthetized eels. The investigators saw increases in pithing to quickly stop brain activity. Because of differences
21. ANESTHESIA AND RESTRAINT OF LABORATORY FISH 533

in anatomy and difficulty in restraint, decapitation and pithing Amend, D.F., Goven, B.A., et al. (1982). Etomidate: Effective dosages for a
should be conducted by a person experienced in the techniques. new fish anesthestic. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 111, 337–341.
When possible, decapitation should be performed following AVMA Panel on Euthanasia. (2001). Report of AVMA Panel on Euthanasia.
JAVMA 218, 669–696.
induction of anesthesia. Berg, A., Aas, P., et al. (1999). Lokale frostskader. Tidsskr. Nor. Laegeforen.
119(3), 382–385.
b. Cranial concussion Bowser, P. (2001). Anesthetic option for fish. In “Recent Advances in Vet-
erinary Anesthesia and Analgesia: Companion Animals.” (R. Gleed and
Cranial concussion is an acceptable method of euthana- J. Ludders, eds.). International Veterinary Information Service, Ithaca, NY;
sia. Unfortunately, some fish recover consciousness, and thus http://www.IVIS.org.
Brooks, A.I., Standifer, K.M., et al. (1994). Opioid binding in giant toad and
cranial concussion should be followed by decapitation, exsan-
goldfish brain. Receptor 4(1), 55–62.
guination, or pithing. The procedure should be conducted by a Carrasco, S., Sumano, H., and Navohro-Fierro, R., (1984). The use of
person experienced in the proper application of the technique in lidocaine–sodium bicarbonate as an anesthetic in fish. Aquaculture 41,
the species being euthanized. When possible, cranial concussion 161–163.
should be performed following induction of anesthesia. Canadian Council on Animal Care. (2005). Anesthetic and sedative
drugs dosages fishes. Canadian Council on Animal Care; http://www.
ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/Guidelines_Policies/GUIDES/ENGLISH/V1_
93/APPEN/APPXIII.HTM.
B. Unsuitable Methods for Euthanasia Chiba, H., Hattori, T., et al. (2006). Comparison of the effects of chemical
anesthesia and electroanesthesia on plasma cortisol levels in the Japanese eel
1. Cooling Anguilla japonica. Fish. Sci. 72, 693–695.
Cho, G.K., and Heath, D.D. (2000). Comparison of tricaine methanesulphonate
Although cooling ectotherms will decrease movement and (MS222) and clove oil anaesthesia effects on the physiology of juvenile chi-
metabolism, there is no evidence that it provided anesthesia nook salmon Oncorhynchus tshawytscha (Walbaum). Aquaculture Res. 31,
or analgesia. Many fish species are tolerant to cold and freeze. 537–546.
Euthanasia by cooling/freezing should be considered inhumane. Darlison, M.G., Greten, F.R., et al. (1997). Opioid receptors from a lower
vertebrate (Catostomus commersoni): Sequence, pharmacology, coupling
to a G-protein-gated inward-rectifying potassium channel (GIRK1), and
2. Asphyxia evolution. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 94(15), 8214–8219.
DeTolla, L., Srinivas, S., et al. (1995). Guidelines for the care and use of fish
Asphyxia is not recommended due to the extended period of in research. ILAR J. 37(4). Available at: http://dels.nas.edu/ilar_n/ilarjournal/
time required for the fish to lose consciousness. Furthermore, 37_4/37_4Guidelines.shtml.
certain fish are resistant to hypoxia, and therefore the time to Doherty, T.J., and Frazier, D.L. (1998). Effect of intravenous lidocaine on
death can be quite prolonged. halothane minimum alveolar concentration in ponies. Equine Vet. J. 30(4),
300–303.
Dunlop, R., and Laming, P. (2005). Mechanoreceptive and nociceptive
3. Formalin Immersion responses in the central nervous system of goldfish (Carassius auratus) and
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). J. Pain 6(9), 561–568.
It is quite unfortunate that formalin immersion of live fish Elliott, J. (1981). “Some Aspects of Thermal Stress on Freshwater Teleost.”
has been cited as an appropriate method for euthanasia of fish Academic Press, London.
in a number of publications including guidelines from scientific FDA. (2005). Database of approved animal drug products. http://dil.vetmed.
societies that should be more cautious in their recommenda- vt.edu/Display/NadaBrowse.cfm?NadaString=200–226.
Fleming, G.J., Heard, D.J., et al. (2003). Evaluation of propofol and
tions. The technique cannot be considered humane and should medetomidine–ketamine for short-term immobilization of Gulf of Mexico
not be employed even when logistical challenges of field con- sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus de soti). J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 34(2), 153–158.
ditions are involved. Fish immersed in 10% buffered formalin Gunstrom, G., and Bethers, M. (1985). Electrical anesthesia for handling large
immediately exhibit extreme distress behaviors, rapid gilling, salmonids. Prog. Fish-Culturist 47, 67–69.
and efforts to escape the solution, as would be predicted con- Hansen, M.K., Nymoen, U., et al. (2003). Pharmacokinetic and pharmaco-
dynamic properties of metomidate in turbot (Scophthalmus maximus) and
sidering the irritant properties of formalin. They survive in the halibut (Hippoglossus hippoglossus). J. Vet. Pharmacol. Ther. 26(2), 95–103.
solution far longer than would be expected, in some cases for Harms, C.A., and Bakal, B. (1994). Techniques in fish anesthesia. Proceed-
many hours (Stoskopf, personal observation). This technique ings of the American Association of Zoo Veterinarians and Association of
should not be condoned. Reptilian and Amphibian Veterinarians.
Harms, C.A., Lewbart, G.A., et al. (2005). Behavioral and clinical pathology
changes in koi carp (Cyprinus carpio) subjected to anesthesia and surgery
with and without intra-operative analgesics. Comp. Med. 55(3), 221–226.
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injection of immobilizing drugs in to fish using a laser-aimed underwater dart
Altimiras, J., and Larsen, E. (2000). Non-invasive recording of heart rate and gun. Proc. Int. Assoc. Aquatic Anim. Med. 18, 144–152.
ventilation rate in rainbow trout during rest and swimming. Fish go wireless! Hill, J.V., and Forster, M.E. (2004). Cardiovascular responses of Chinook
J. Fish Biol. 57, 197–209. salmon (Oncorhynchus tshawytscha) during rapid anaesthetic induction
Alvarez, F.A., Rodriguez-Martin, I., et al. (2006). New kappa opioid receptor and recovery. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. C Toxicol. Pharmacol. 137(2),
from zebrafish Danio rerio. Neurosci. Lett. 405(1–2), 94–99. 167–77.
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Houston, A.H., Reaves, R.S., et al. (1968). Environmental temperature and the Sneddon, L.U. (2006). Raleigh, (personal communication with L.P. Posner);
body fluid system of the fresh-water teleost. I. Ionic regulation in thermally e-mail.
acclimated rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 25(2), Sneddon, L.U., Braithwaite, V.A., et al. (2003). Novel object test: Examining
563–581. nociception and fear in the rainbow trout. J. Pain 4(8), 431–440.
International Association for the Study of Pain. (1994). “Classification of Steffey, G. (1996). “Lumb & Jones’ Veterinary Anesthesia.” Lea & Febiger
Chronic Pain.” IASP Press, Seattle, Washington, DC. Book, Baltimore, MD.
Latas, P. (1987). The use of azaperone in the Spiney dogfish Squalus acanthus. Sterritt, D., Elliot, S., et al. (1994). Electrical anesthesia for immobilizing adult
Proc. Int. Assoc. Aquatic Anim. Med. 18, 157–165. coho salmon in freshwater. North Am. J. Fish. Manag. 14, 453–456.
Mark, F.C., Bock, C., et al. (2002). Oxygen-limited thermal tolerance in Antarc- Stetter, M. (2001). “Fish and Amphibian Anesthesia.” WB Saunders, Philadel-
tic fish investigated by MRI and (31)P-MRS. Am. J. Physiol. Regul. Integr. phia, PA.
Comp. Physiol. 283(5), R1254–R1262. Stoskopf, M.K. (ed.). (1993). “Fish Medicine.” WB Saunders, Philadelphia,
Official Lists and Indexes of Names and Works in Zoology. (1987). International PA.
Commission on Zoological Nomenclature; http://www.iczn.org/Official_ Stoelting, R. (1999). “Pharmacolgy and Physiology in Anesthetic Practice.”
Lists_Indexes_pdfs.htm Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia, PA.
Orsi, J., and Short, J.W. (1987). Modifications in electrical anesthesia for Thorsteinsson, V. (2002). Tagging methods for stock assessment and research
salmonids. Prog. Fish-Culturist 49, 144–146. in fisheries. Marine Research Institute, Reykjavik, Iceland, pp 108–111.
Palmer, L.M., and Mensinger, A.F. (2004). Effect of the anesthetic tricaine Thurmon, J. (1996). “Lumb & Jones’ Veterinary Anesthesia.” Lea & Febiger
(MS-222) on nerve activity in the anterior lateral line of the oyster toadfish, Book, Baltimore, MD.
Opsanus tau. J. Neurophysiol. 92(2), 1034–1041. Valverde, A., Doherty, T.J., et al. (2004). Effect of lidocaine on the minimum
Program, N.T. (1983). Urethane. Report on Carcinogens. US Department of alveolar concentration of isoflurane in dogs. Vet. Anaesth. Analg. 31(4), 264–
Health and Human Services. 271.
Rodger, H. (1999). “Fish.” British Small Animal Veterinary Association, Visser, E., and Schug, S.A. (2006). The role of ketamine in pain management.
Cheltenham. Biomed. Pharmacother. 60(7), 341–348.
Ruuskanen, J.O., Peitsaro, N., et al. (2005). Expression and function of alpha- Williams, T.D., Rollins, M., et al. (2004). Intramuscular anesthesia of bonito and
adrenoceptors in zebrafish: Drug effects, mRNA and receptor distributions. Pacific mackerel with ketamine and medetomidine and reversal of anesthesia
J. Neurochem. 94(6), 1559–1569. with atipamezole. J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 225(3), 417–421.
Singly, J., and Chavin, W. (1975). Serum cortisol in normal goldfish (Carassius Yanar, M., and Kumlu, M. (2000). The anesthetic effect of quinaldine sul-
auraturs L.). Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 50(A), 77–82. phate and or diazepam on sea bass juveniles. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci. 25,
Sladky, K.K., Swanson, C.R., et al. (2001). Comparative efficacy of tricaine 185–189.
methanesulfonate and clove oil for use as anesthetics in red pacu (Piaractus
brachypomus). Am. J. Vet. Res. 62(3), 337–342.
 Chapter 22

Anesthesia and Analgesia of Invertebrates

Cornelia Gunkel and Gregory A. Lewbart

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
II. Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
A. Mollusks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
B. Annelids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
C. Arachnida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
D. Crustaceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
E. Insects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
F. Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
G. Echinoderms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
III. Pain and Analgesia in Invertebrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
IV. Euthanasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

I. INTRODUCTION
invertebrates do not feel pain; thus, the use of invertebrates
serves as an “alternative” when proposals are reviewed by the
Some invertebrate species like the octopus, horseshoe crab, Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Fur-
and various species of insects have been utilized in research thermore, use of invertebrate species makes the process of
laboratories for decades. Their contribution has led to knowl- IACUC oversight easier, because there are no animal welfare
edge about pesticides and heavy metal toxicity, vision and color regulations in the United States on invertebrate use. The Ani-
perception, embryology, and a long list of diseases including mal Welfare Act and Public Health Service (PHS) policy do
multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s disease. not cover invertebrates, although accreditation by Association
Invertebrates are playing an ever-increasing and important for the Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal
role in research. The elevated awareness and influence of animal Care International (AAALAC) may require IACUC oversight
welfare and the attempts and efforts of “refinement, reduction, for invertebrates housed in a central facility. The U.S. Depart-
and replacement” of vertebrate species in research and teach- ment of Agriculture has an “Information Resource on the Care
ing has had an impact on the invertebrate animal model. The and Use of Invertebrates” (AWIC Resource Series No. 8, 2000),
public perception that invertebrates are more acceptable than which has an extensive number of references for invertebrates
vertebrates in research settings is mainly due to the belief that in research.

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

535
536 CORNELIA GUNKEL AND GREGORY A. LEWBART

The controversial discussion about animal welfare and pain methanesulfonate (MS-222) has been described as useful for
recognition in invertebrates is ongoing; most changes have been relaxation and anesthetizing various species of snails (Joosse
initiated from the U.K. and other European countries (Cooper, and Lever, 1959; Mutani, 1982), with an onset time of 60
2006). It is hoped that the increased veterinary interest in inver- minutes and a long-lasting effect.
tebrate medicine will result in more research, leading to more Anesthesia via isoflurane for terrestrial snails requires an
appropriate care for invertebrate species in clinical and research anesthetic chamber with the ability for fresh anesthetic agent
settings and, perhaps, animal welfare regulations. The UFAW inflow and waste gas scavenging (Girdlestone et al., 1989).
Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory Ani- The minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of isoflurane in
mals has in its 7th edition (volume 2) a section on advanced the pond snail is 1.09 (Girdlestone et al., 1989). Induction
invertebrates with references (Poole, 1999). Several reviews, is fast (<10 minutes), but there may be an excitatory period.
references, and recommendations have recently been published A disadvantage is the need to take the animal out of the
on behaviors and husbandry of different invertebrate species chamber for a procedure, resulting in fluctuation of anesthetic
(Anderson and Wood, 2001; Smith and Berkson, 2005; Wood depth and increased work area pollution. In addition, the depth
and Anderson, 2004). This may reflect an increased interest in of anesthesia may not be adequate for some surgical proce-
animal welfare for invertebrates and may lead to a change in dures. A successfully anesthetized snail lacks body and tentacle
perception about these animals and their needs. withdrawal following gentle stimulation. Persistent tentacle
This chapter reviews common anesthetic techniques for inver- withdrawal reflex while under inhalant anesthesia may sug-
tebrates with a focus on those species that are frequently seen gest an insufficient surgical depth (Girdlestone et al., 1989).
in laboratory facilities. Ketamine and propofol do not induce anesthesia, and might
even have an excitatory effect (Woodall and McCrohan, 2000).
Ketamine in combination with xylazine may have toxic effects
(Martins-Sousa et al., 2001).
II. ANESTHESIA Sea snails are commonly anesthetized with intracoelomic
administration of magnesium sulfate or MgCl2 . Induction can
be fast (2–5 minutes) and smooth, with good muscle relaxation.
A. Mollusks
Halothane and MS-222 appear to be ineffective (administered
as immersion or intracoelomic) anesthetic agents in sea snails
There are about 100,000 described species in this diverse and
(Clark et al., 1996).
extensive phylum, with members that occupy terrestrial, fresh-
Abalones are commercially farmed, and this practice fre-
water, and marine environments. A number of references (e.g.,
quently requires physical examination and sizing, pear-seeding,
Lewbart, 2006; Ruppert et al., 2004) provide more information
and removal of the animals from tanks for harvesting and main-
and background on molluscan natural history, anatomy, and
tenance (White et al., 1996). Research involving abalone is
physiology. Three major and economically important groups of
focused on furthering knowledge of its natural history. Remov-
mollusks (gastropods, cephalopods, and bivalves) are presented
ing abalones from the substratum is often only possible with
here.
mechanical assistance due to their attachment ability. Forced
removal may result in injury leading to morbidity or even mor-
tality. Therefore, an anesthetic or relaxing agent may help to
1. Gastropods
avoid stress and mechanical injuries related to dislodging. Pro-
The gastropods are a large recognizable group that includes tocols used for this purpose and in abalone research include
the abalone, conchs, limpets, nudibranchs, sea hares, slugs, and 2-phenoxyethanol (1–2 ml/L), benzocaine (100 mg/L), ethanol
snails, among others. Most are aquatic and have an external (3%), magnesium sulfate (20–240 g/L), and sodium pentobarbi-
calcium carbonate shell, muscular foot for locomotion, gills for tal (1 ml/L) (Aquilina and Roberts, 2000; Edwards et al., 2000).
respiration, and a well-developed head with eyes and paired White et al. (1996) found magnesium sulfate to be successful as
tentacles. Gastropods move slowly and are generally easy to an immersion anesthetic (4–22 g/100 ml) with higher concen-
restrain manually. trations necessary for larger animals. Induction time was fast
Snails can be anesthetized using 5% ethanol or menthol (5–8 minutes) and recovery uneventful (requiring 3–35 minutes,
(Flores et al., 1983) and with inhalant agents such as isoflu- depending on the dose and anesthesia time). Phenoxyethanol
rane (Girdlestone et al., 1989). A commercial 10% Listerine® administered at 0.5–3.0 ml/L results in a fast induction period
solution (ethanol 21.9%, menthol 0.042%) in normal Lymnaea (1–3 minutes) and good recovery time (5–20 minutes) (White
saline has been used to anesthetize snails in research settings et al., 1996). Nembutal (sodium pentobarbital, 1 ml/L) produces
(Woodall et al., 2003). Sodium pentobarbital at 400 mg/L in good muscle relaxation, with an induction time of 15 minutes
water has been reported with a very slow 8-hour onset, but and complete recovery (Aquilina and Roberts, 2000). Clove
good effects and a low mortality rate (Martins-Sousa et al., oil (0.5–1.5 ml/L) and propylene phenoxytol (2.5 ml/L) are not
2001). A combination of sodium pentobarbitone and tricaine recommended, because both agents can cause high mortalities
22. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF INVERTEBRATES 537

(Aquilina and Roberts, 2000; Edwards et al., 2000). Benzocaine concentration via dilution may be necessary to adjust anesthetic
(0.1 g/L) and MS-222 (1 g/L) are ineffective as muscle relax- depth.
ants (Aquilina and Roberts, 2000). Both MS-222 and propylene Octopuses are anesthetized similarly to cuttlefish. Two com-
phenoxytol cause excitation upon induction, resulting in copi- monly employed anesthetics are ethanol and MgCl2 . Andrews
ous mucus production and loss of pigmentation (Aquilina and and Tansey (1981) reported that ethanol (2% v/v in seawater) can
Roberts, 2000). produce excitement during the short induction time (increased
Recovery from any anesthetic protocol includes thorough respiratory rate, escape attempts, and inking). Induction time
washing of the animal(s) and exposure to fresh-flowing sea- was 4 minutes, and time to full recovery was 2.5 minutes.
water at their optimal temperature (usually 18◦ C) until muscle Ethanol (2%) is apparently not effective in cold-water species
strength returns. (below 15◦ C) (Gleadall, 2006).
MgCl2 is the preferred anesthetic for use in cephalopods. It
is employed by preparing an isotonic solution of 7.5% MgCl2
2. Cephalopods
6H2 O (in distilled water) mixed with an equal volume of sea-
This group of predatory and highly specialized mollusks water (Messenger et al., 1985; Scimeca and Forsythe, 1999).
include familiar forms such as the chambered nautilus, cut- Induction time is normally between 1.5 and 13 minutes with a
tlefish, octopuses, and squids. Some cephalopod species have short period of hyperventilation followed by a gradual increase
been extensively studied. Most cephalopods are pelagic and in arm flaccidity and loss of righting reflexes. It is considered
have the ability for fast locomotion. They have well-developed to be a very smooth process by some investigators (Culloty
nervous systems including excellent vision and tactile ability, and Mulcahy, 1992; Messenger et al., 1985). Respiration will
closed circulatory systems, and relatively high metabolic rates. decrease and eventually cease, if the anesthetic concentration is
Most species have an internal skeleton, with the exception of not properly diluted. The gills should be intermittently or con-
the octopuses (no skeleton) and chambered nautilus (external stantly perfused with anesthetic seawater. The time of recovery
shell). from MgCl2 is usually fairly fast (1–10 minute), but may depend
When stressed, which occurs readily, cephalopods often elicit on procedure length and type (up to 20 minutes after longer
a defensive response termed “inking.” Cephalopods can be procedures).
difficult to handle without sedation. Buckets, plastic nets, or There remains a question whether MgCl2 produces adequate
other objects may be used to capture, restrain, or contain sedation and analgesia via the blocking of nerve transmission
cephalopods, but handlers should bear in mind that these species and neurotransmitter release, or acts only as a neuromuscular
are “specialized escape artists” (Wood and Anderson, 2004). blocking agent. Differences in vertebrate versus invertebrate
Cephalopods should be anesthetized in their own envi- anatomy/physiology, as well as routes of administration, may
ronmental seawater to maintain the appropriate mineral and play a role, but the issue remains unresolved (Clark et al.,
electrolyte balance. The two most commonly used anesthetic 1996), and further research is needed to evaluate MgCl2 as an
agents in cephalopods are MgCl2 and ethanol. A cuttlefish was anesthetic. An analgesic, such as ketoprofen or butorphanol
successfully anesthetized for surgery with 1.5–3% ethanol (15– (extrapolating dosing regimens from the lower vertebrate litera-
30 ml/L) diluted in seawater (Harms et al., 2006). Induction ture), should be added to the protocol for any painful procedure
may be rapid (1 minute), especially at higher doses, and dilu- to make best effort at adequate patient care, even though we
tion to a lower concentration (10–15 ml/L) to decrease the risk of do not currently have pharmacokinetic or efficacy data for
overdosing should be considered. During induction with lower analgesic agents in cephalopods.
concentrations of ethanol, occasional transient excitement has The use of urethane has been well documented (Andrews
been noted (Harms et al., 2006). If the procedure cannot be per- and Tansey, 1981; Gleadall, 1991; Messenger et al., 1985) and
formed with the animal submerged, anesthesia can be facilitated was routinely used in the 1970s and 1980s. Despite good anes-
with a recirculating anesthesia system (Lewbart and Harms, thetic results, the traumatic effects on the animals were severe
1999), in which the anesthetic concentration of water may be (excitement during the induction phase); furthermore, its car-
adjusted to the depth of anesthesia desired. cinogenic, irritant, and hemolytic side effects preclude its use.
When MgCl2 is used as an anesthetic agent, a 7.5% stock solu- CO2 , chloroform, and chloral hydrate are unsuitable anesthetic
tion is prepared with distilled water (Gore et al., 2005; Scimeca agents in cephalopods due to high mortality (Garcia-Franco,
and Forsythe, 1999). This stock solution is mixed with a known 1992; Gleadall, 1991).
volume of seawater to prepare an anesthetic concentration suit- Hypothermia, despite its popularity and common presence
able for induction. A final concentration of 6.8 g/L (100 ml of the in the literature, is not an adequate anesthetic and should not
stock solution mixed with 1 L of seawater) was reported to have be used in cephalopods due to a lack of analgesic and muscle
an induction time of 6–12 minutes without side effects (Gore relaxing properties. Mortalities and distress have been reported
et al., 2005). Due to the size of most mature cuttlefish, a total (Bower et al., 1999), and may be due to underestimation of car-
water volume of 5–10 L is commonly required. Induction is nor- diovascular and respiratory compromise during hypothermia,
mally smooth and without a period of excitation. Decreases in as well as during the warming phase.
538 CORNELIA GUNKEL AND GREGORY A. LEWBART

Recovering cephalopods must be placed into anesthesia-free and there is no contraction of soft tissues following stimulation
seawater. For optimal results, the recovery water should be cir- (Norton et al., 1996).
culated and aerated in an appropriately sized container. Gentle Minimal handling before placing oysters into the anesthe-
and slow mantle massage can be used if spontaneous respiration sia container will improve the anesthetic effects and open-
is not present. As the animal awakens, the extended and flaccid ing. Recovery time is generally short (less then 30 minutes),
tentacles will retract in response to light pinching. Cephalopod although a number of variables (anesthetic concentration, length
resuscitation includes squeezing and relaxation of the whole of procedure, and temperature) can affect recovery (Norton
mantle/body to facilitate anesthesia-free water circulation over et al., 1996). Recovery tanks should be well aerated.
the gills and hemolymph through the body (Harms et al., 2006). MgCl2 has variable effects on oysters. Some workers describe
Respiratory rate and pattern are frequently used to monitor little effect of MgCl2 in pearl oysters (Mills et al., 1997; Norton
anesthetized cephalopods, but depth of anesthesia is difficult to et al., 1996) because of long induction times (1–2 hours). Cul-
assess. Adequate anesthesia is likely when there is no detectable loty and Mulcahy (1992) report good anesthetic effects with
response to tactile and surgical stimuli, e.g., withdrawal of long induction and recovery times (90 minutes) at 3.5%. The
appendices, contraction of the skin around the eye in response to efficacy of MgCl2 depends on the species and the concentra-
pressure on the globe, and withdrawal of the animal in response tion. Chloral hydrate and MS-222 are not effective in oysters
to a skin pinch over the eye. Further indicators of anesthetic (slow induction and recovery) and are associated with mortal-
depth are the inability to regain normal posture after disturbance, ity (some may be related to the low pH of unbuffered MS-222)
loss of normal posture, and flaccidity of the arms (Andrews and (Norton et al., 1996).
Tansey, 1981). Cessation of respiration may indicate a criti- Anesthesia of a scallop may be required for adductor muscle
cally deep level of anesthesia, because respiration is normally relaxation. Depth of anesthesia/relaxation is considered ade-
spontaneous. quate when handling/stimulating the mantle tissue fails to result
Normal resting values for 100–800 g Octopus vulgaris is 26– in valve closure. Recovery is often defined as the ability for
30 breaths/min (Andrews and Tansey, 1981). A Doppler probe valve closure in response to handling (Heasman et al., 1995).
placed on the dorsal area (above the aorta) or behind the gills MgCl2 is the anesthetic compound of choice in scallops due
(above either branchial heart) can be used to monitor heart rate to its consistent and rapid induction and recovery. The agent is
and blood flow. A pulse oximeter may be used for heart rate but predissolved in seawater and then added to an aerated induc-
will likely give false readings due to the presence of hemocyanin tion container for a concentration of 30–50 g/L. Induction times
instead of hemoglobin. The pallial organs can be observed in at these concentrations are in the range of 2–6 minutes. The
transparent species (esp. with MgCl2 ). recovery time in scallops anesthetized with MgCl2 seems to be
consistently short (10 minutes) regardless of the concentration
or water temperature (Heasman et al., 1995).
3. Bivalves
Chloral hydrate has variable effects on scallops with signif-
This economically important and very large group of highly icant changes in induction and recovery at different concentra-
evolved aquatic mollusks includes the clams, mussels, oysters, tions and water temperatures (Heasman et al., 1995). At 24◦ C, a
and scallops. Bivalves lack a well-developed head, are nonvisual concentration of 4 g/L produces anesthesia in about 10–25 min-
(scallops are an exception), utilize a muscular and sometimes utes. Lower temperatures will markedly slow induction. Higher
large foot for locomotion, and are filter feeders utilizing the concentrations will shorten induction time but can result in
gills for food transport. Bivalve research is focused primarily high mortality. At a concentration of 4 g/L, the recovery time is
on fisheries and ecology projects. Bivalves are easily and safely between 20 and 30 minutes but can vary widely depending on
handled and restrained. Most will tightly close their calcareous temperature. Aerated recovery tanks and continuously flowing
valves with strong adductor muscles when handled or disturbed, seawater will facilitate recovery.
requiring sedation or physical manipulation (prying) to access Other drugs have been examined for anesthetizing scallops
the soft parts. with little success. Benzocaine causes an initial hyperactivity,
Propylene phenoxetol (1% solution) is used to anesthetize ethanol does not have any effect, magnesium sulphate leads to
oysters with a 1–3 ml/L dosing range. Higher doses produce high mortality, metomidate results in shell closure, and MS-222
rapid and relatively deep anesthesia (Mills et al., 1997) and causes hyperextension and hyperactivity (Heasman et al., 1995).
may require dilution throughout a procedure to decrease recov- Propylene phenoxetol has been used to anesthetize giant
ery time (Norton et al., 1996). Concentrations of 1–2 ml/L are clams (Tridacna sp.) (Mills et al., 1997).
generally safe and effective. Oysters should be placed hinge
down in the anesthetic solution and leaned against the aerated
container wall to facilitate monitoring. The induction time is B. Annelids
reported between 6 and 15 minutes. Adequate anesthesia is
reached when the oyster shows no response to handling and The annelids are a large and diverse group of segmented
gapes wide enough to part the gill curtain (Mills et al., 1997), worm-like animals that are divided into three main classes:
22. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF INVERTEBRATES 539

Polychaetes, Oligochaetes, and Hirudineans. All are character- are most commonly used for spiders and scorpions (Cooper,
ized by regular segmentation of the coelomic cavity as well as 2001; Melidone and Mayer, 2005; Pizzi, 2006). Halothane
the circulatory, excretory, and nervous systems. This segmen- (limited availability) is undesirable for invertebrate anesthesia
tation probably evolved as a means of burrowing via peristaltic due to the potential for toxicity to personnel during gas deliv-
contractions (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994). A cuticle covers the ery. Several unique induction chambers have been described
animal, and segmented setae occur in nearly all annelids. A (Cooper, 2001; Melidone and Mayer, 2005; Pizzi, 2006) and
more or less straight gut tube lies between the anterior mouth used successfully for delivering inhalant anesthesia to spiders
and the posterior anus (Ruppert and Barnes, 1994). and scorpions. Ideally, these devices are commercially avail-
able, invertebrate-specific induction chambers with appropriate
1. Polychaetes fresh gas inflow and scavenging outflow. Regular small mammal
induction chambers or simple self-made clear plastic containers
Like many marine invertebrates, polychaetes can be sedated may also be employed.
with MgCl2 in water. While it is possible, if not likely, that The animal is placed into the chamber, and the chamber is
some species are more sensitive than others, a concentration of filled with the anesthetic gas (about 3–5% for isoflurane; 4–6%
7.5–8.0% seems to work well for relaxation (Lewbart and Riser, for sevoflurane). To decrease the filling time in larger chambers,
1996; Müller et al., 2003). the oxygen flow rate is high at the beginning (1.0–3.0 L/min), but
can be decreased if there are no significant leaks in the system
2. Oligochaetes (0.3–1.0 L/min). Oxygen flow lower than 0.2 L/min decreases
the accuracy of the vaporizer and may reduce the amount of
Cooper and Roch (1986) anesthetized Lumbricus terrestris anesthetic agent in the chamber due to uptake by the animal.
with a 5% alcohol (presumably ethanol) solution for a period of 1 The amount of CO2 accumulation in the chamber may also
hour prior to tissue grafting experiments. In some earlier exper- increase using low fresh gas flows. An appropriate scavenging
iments, Cooper (1968) used 5% ethanol in Rushton’s Ringers system is required to decrease pollution. With increasing depth
solution until the worms (L. terrestris and Eisenia foetida) were of anesthesia, the vaporizer can be adjusted to decrease anes-
immobilized. Marks and Cooper (1977) utilized 5% ethanol at thetic concentration. The MAC of anesthetic agents in spiders
a temperature of 23◦ C for L. terrestris and E. foetida. and scorpions has not been reported.
The advantages of the chamber technique are convenience,
3. Hirudineans low cost, and safety to the patient. The disadvantage associated
with this type of system is that the animal can only be temporar-
There is little in the literature on leech anesthesia. One ily sedated or anesthetized. For hands-on physical examination
report describes the use of saturated mephenesin (3-o-toloxy- or surgery, the animal is removed from the chamber, limiting the
1,2-propanediol) to anesthetize leeches for grafting research time for any procedure before the animal recovers. This proto-
(Tettamanti et al., 2003). col may require repeated inductions, increasing the exposure of
the clinician and staff to the anesthetic gas. A surgery chamber
has been developed (Melidone and Mayer, 2005) that allows
C. Arachnida
the clinician to perform surgery or other manipulations without
removing the animal from the chamber.
1. Spiders and Scorpions
Another interesting technique is to induce the spider in an
Physical restraint is commonly used to transport spiders, but anesthetic chamber and then place its abdomen (with the asso-
it is advisable to wear latex gloves, since some tarantula species ciated book lungs/tracheae—the arachnid respiratory organs)
are capable of shedding urticating hairs that can be very irri- into a smaller chamber “sealed” with a latex glove. This tech-
tating, especially to people allergic to these structures. Direct nique is advantageous when a procedure must be performed on
handling of scorpions should be kept to a minimum for the safety the cephalothorax or limbs (Dombrowski, 2006). If plastic con-
of both the animal and the handler. Clear plastic containers, and tainers without an inflow and outflow system are used, a cotton
in some cases utensils like long forceps or tongs, can be used wool swab soaked with an inhalant agent is placed into the box.
to move an animal from one place to another (Frye, 2006). The The animal should be placed in a separate smaller container
primary drawbacks of manual restraint for spiders or scorpions with appropriately sized pores. The smaller container holding
are injury to the animal and potential envenomation of the han- the spider or scorpion is placed into the larger box allowing the
dler. Precautions should be in place to minimize risk of these inhalant to diffuse into the box, while ensuring that no direct
animals leaping or falling to the ground or other firm substrate. animal contact with the inhalant-soaked material occurs. This
Inhalant anesthetic agents are most commonly and success- method is not ideal because of the anesthetic exposure risk to
fully used with spiders and scorpions. Many agents (desflurane, personnel and minimal control of the amount of anesthetic deliv-
halothane, isoflurane, and sevoflurane) can be used, depend- ered. Vapor pressures of sevoflurane (157 mmHg) and isoflu-
ing on cost and availability, although isoflurane and sevoflurane rane (238 mmHg) differ significantly. Isoflurane can reach a
540 CORNELIA GUNKEL AND GREGORY A. LEWBART

maximum concentration of 32% in room air (vapor pressure amebocyte lysate (LAL), is a topic of extensive research. Horse-
divided by atmospheric pressure times 100), and sevoflurane, shoe crabs can easily be handled and restrained, although strong
being slightly less volatile, produces a maximum concentration locomotion and righting reflexes can make examinations diffi-
of about 20%. Nevertheless, both inhalants can pollute room cult (Smith and Berkson, 2005). The holder is cautioned not to
air, so this method requires close monitoring. pinch their fingers between the lateral edge of the opisthosoma
Other chemical agents like CO2 N2 , as well as hypothermia, and the genal angle of the prosoma (Smith, 2006).
have been used to immobilize spiders (Madsen and Vollrath, The tubular heart of the horseshoe crab is located dorsally
2000; Pizzi, 2006). No reports about the amount of N2 used or over the entire length of the body (Spotswood and Smith, 2007).
the quality of N2 anesthesia could be located. CO2 is adminis- Electrocardiogram (ECG) patches placed on the cephalothorax
tered as a gas in a chamber, often with 98% saturation. Dilution will detect a heart rate. Normal awake heart rates in horse-
with air or oxygen is hard to achieve, resulting in an increased shoe crabs are 30 beats/min depending on temperature (23◦ C)
risk of mortality (Pizzi, 2006). Side effects of CO2 anesthe- (Redmond et al., 1982). Injections of anesthetic agents can be
sia are well recognized in vertebrates and should be considered given through the arthrodial membrane into the cardiac sinus
when this agent is used for invertebrate species. Hypothermia (Spotswood and Smith, 2007), but no studies evaluating dif-
is not an anesthetic and does not provide analgesia. Hypother- ferent anesthetic agents could be found in the literature. The
mia is considered to be painful and should not be used as an blood/hemolymph collection site has been extensively reported
anesthetic, especially for surgical procedures. (Smith, 2006; Smith and Berkson, 2005) and is easily accessed.
Depth of anesthesia can be monitored by observing the spider
or scorpion for righting reflexes and leg movements. Induction
may take 10–15 minutes with several attempts of the animal D. Crustaceans
to move and reposition itself until full immobilization has
occurred. During the procedure, leg movements in response The crustaceans are a diverse, large and well-established
to stimuli are a clear sign of insufficient anesthetic depth. An group of arthropods that are all aquatic at some stage of their
increase in heart and respiratory rate may be observed, but is life history. The order Decapoda contains many of the most con-
often unrecognized. A deep level of anesthesia is difficult to spicuous and economically important crustaceans, including the
evaluate; slow respiratory rate and low heart rates are often the crabs, crayfish, hermit crabs, lobsters, and shrimp. Research in
only way to assess a patient for excessive depth of anesthesia. this order involves genetics, morphology, reproduction, ecol-
An analgesic administered for painful stimuli may make it easier ogy, behavior, and fisheries science. Most specimens can be
for the clinician to maintain a consistent level of anesthesia. The restrained with gloved hands or, in some cases, with the help
respiratory rate is observed at either cranial lateral side of the of nets or tongs. Since some crustaceans, such as lobsters and
animal. The heart rate can often only be monitored in larger spi- large crabs, can inflict injury to handlers, extra care should be
ders or scorpions. The spider heart lies beneath the dorsal body taken when working with these animals (Noga et al., 2006).
surface. With a Doppler (pin point-crystal head) placed over Crustaceans have been anesthetized with a variety of agents.
the cardiac region, a rate can be obtained. Normal heart rates Depending on the animal’s size and procedure protocol, intra-
are 30–70 beats/min in large spiders and up to 200 beats/min in muscular injections of lidocaine, ketamine, or xylazine, immer-
smaller species. sion MS-222, and isobutyl alcohol have been suggested (Brown
After turning off the inhalant agent and maintaining the ani- et al., 1996; Ferraro and Pressacco, 1996; Gardner, 1997;
mal on fresh oxygen flow or room air, the recovery from anesthe- Oswald, 1977). MS-222 is generally accepted as noneffective
sia is gradual and can take between 3 and 20 minutes depending in producing anesthesia in decapods (Gardner, 1997; Oswald,
on ambient room temperature and the depth of anesthesia during 1977) as only very high doses show some effect (>1 g/L) with
the procedure (Walls et al., 2002). Slow appendage movements very long induction time (Brown et al., 1996; Gardner, 1997).
and righting attempts occur and increase over time. When fully In crayfish, lidocaine (0.4–1 mg/g) injected intramuscularly
awake, the animal should be returned to its enclosure and main- into the tail lasts for about 5–30 minutes, depending on the
tained at its preferred temperature and humidity. Feeding should dose, with an average induction time of 90 seconds (Brown
be withheld for 48 hours after anesthesia (Pizzi, 2006). et al., 1996).
Ketamine (0.025–0.1 mg/kg, IV) has been used in the Aus-
tralian giant crab (Pseudocarcinus gigas) (Gardner, 1997) and
2. Horseshoe Crabs
in crayfish (40–90 mcg/g) (Brown et al., 1996) with variable
The American horseshoe crab (Limulus polyphemus) is the results. Ketamine administered intramuscularly to crayfish will
most common of the four species and frequently used as a labo- provide consistent anesthesia (induction time: 1 minute) for over
ratory animal model to study its eye and nervous system, and to 10 minutes (40 mcg/g) to almost 2 hours (>90 mcg/g) without
represent marine invertebrate embryology (Smith, 2006; Smith excitatory effects during induction or recovery (Brown et al.,
and Berkson, 2005). The blue blood of the horseshoe crab, 1996). When ketamine was given intravascularly to the giant
owing to the presence of the pharmaceutical compound Limulus crab (P. gigas), induction time was fast (15–45 seconds), but
22. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF INVERTEBRATES 541

there was a short period of excitement (Gardner, 1997). The spiracles that open into a system of tracheae. Insects have
duration of dose-dependent anesthesia was between 8 and 40 been used for years in a variety of research. Drosophila may
minutes. be the best known representative for genetic research studies,
When used at doses between 16 and 22 mg/kg, IV, xylazine but other species are important contributors of information on
has shown good anesthetic effects in adult giant crabs (Gardner, pathogen–vector interaction in various diseases, metamorpho-
1997) or at 70 mg/kg, IV in common shore crabs (Carcinus sis and anatomy/physiology (facet eye, senses), ecology and
maenas) (Oswald, 1977). Induction is smooth and fairly fast agriculture, pharmaceutical control, etc.
(3–5 minutes) with immobilization lasting 25–45 minutes (dose Most insects, depending on size and species, can be manually
dependent). With high doses (70 mg/kg), side effects includ- handled and restrained without risk to the animal or handler. For
ing bradycardia, dysrhythmias, and extrasystoles have been some species, protective measures are necessary, and gloves or
reported (Oswald, 1977). utensils are recommended.
Using a small needle (25 gauge), intravascular injections Anesthesia has been used for years in entomological research,
can be given in adult giant crabs through the coxal arthropo- but insects are also a big part of answering questions regarding
dial membrane of a cheliped (Gardner, 1997; Oswald, 1977). the mechanism of action of anesthetic agents. CO2 and inhalant
It is presumed that drugs like ketamine and xylazine can be agents as well as hypothermia are commonly used. CO2 is con-
administered intramuscularly, though this may lead to a slightly sidered the most popular agent, despite the fact that various
longer induction time. No data has been published on combining side effects likely occur, including convulsion and excitation at
these drugs or the use of other anesthetic agents like etomidate, induction, and that and the mortality rate is high (Nicolas and
metomidate, or propofol. Sillans, 1989; Valles and Koehler, 1994). Its use and analgesic
Procaine (25 mg/kg, IV) has been used in crabs, and pro- properties remain controversial. Recently, the use of volatile
vides good anesthesia with a very short induction time (20–30 anesthetic agents such as isoflurane or sevoflurane have been
seconds). This included a 10-second excitatory period that advocated and is considered a more progressive approach. This
led to tonic contraction before paralysis. The duration was technique requires a chamber apparatus for appropriate deliv-
very long (2–3 hours) with slow recoveries (Oswald, 1977). ery and scavenging of the inhalant agent (Walcourt and Ide,
This protocol may be appropriate for long-term experimental 1998). It is still difficult to assess the depth of anesthesia in
anesthesia. insects. Although total immobility and absence of righting reflex
When an IV or IM injection is impractical (e.g., for smaller are the most reliable indicators for assessment (Cooper, 2006),
crabs), clove oil can be used as an immersion anesthetic and, at these might not address if the animal is too deeply anesthetized.
a dose of >0.125 ml/L, has shown a 16-minute onset of anes- Hypothermia is used for temporary immobilization of insects
thesia and a long recovery phase (2.5 hours). Once the animal to be able to perform diagnostic evaluations, but for surgical
is anesthetized, a reduction of anesthetic concentration is nec- or otherwise stressful/painful procedures, its use is discouraged
essary, since clove oil at 0.125 ml/L over a longer duration can (Cooper, 2006).
be used for euthanasia of crustaceans (Gardner, 1997).
Crustacean heart rates can be determined by applying ECG
pads with ample gel on the shell above the heart. The normal F. Nematodes
heart rate for shore crabs is 30–70 beats/min and depends on
pH and temperature (Styrishave et al., 2003), while lobsters Nematodes are one of the largest groups of invertebrates
have rates between 5 and 20 beats/min with a circadian influence with around 500,000 known species (Bodri, 2006). Numerous
(elevated at night) (Aguzzi et al., 2004). Anesthetic depth is species have been extensively used in research for plant-parasite
evaluated by the relaxation of the body and the animal’s ability to effects, diseases, and genetics. Caenorhabditis elegans is prob-
withdraw extremities. The anesthetized crustacean will display ably the most researched nematode as it is commonly used as
a very slow antennae withdrawal response to stimuli. an animal model, due to its size and nervous system. Research
on C. elegans has lead to scientific information about meiosis,
nicotine dependence, volatile anesthetics, and genetics. Due to
E. Insects its popularity, most anesthetic agents reported for nematodes
are based on the use in C. elegans, and their anesthetic effects
This group of invertebrates has nearly a million described on the animal is well described (Bodri, 2006).
species and is famous for its diversity. Insects are arthropods C. elegans has been anesthetized with CO2 (Bodri, 2006),
with three major body segments (head, thorax, and abdomen) 4.5% ethanol (Jones and Candido, 1999), propylene phenoxetol
and three pairs of legs, which leads to the term Hexapoda, (Nelson, 1984), and inhalants (Morgan and Cascorbi, 1985;
as this group is named by some taxonomists. Well-developed Morgan et al., 1990). ED50 values for the different inhalant
mouthparts, sensory antennae, keen eyesight, and wings are agents are established in Morgan’s studies and the anesthetic
present in most species. The open circulation system contains chamber for these species is described (Bodri, 2006; Morgan
hemolymph, and gas exchange function is possible through and Cascorbi, 1985).
542 CORNELIA GUNKEL AND GREGORY A. LEWBART

G. Echinoderms response is decreased or slowed when an analgesic is used

(Kavalier and Hirst, 1983), but it is not clear if this is due to
Familiar members of this entirely marine phylum include the a sedative effect or an analgesic effect of the drug. Until cur-
brittle stars, feather stars, sand dollars, sea biscuits, sea cucum- rent pain research answers these questions, more awareness is
bers, sea lilies, sea stars, and sea urchins. Most species can needed of the animal welfare implications of performing poten-
be handled safely and effectively without anesthesia or seda- tially painful procedures. Invertebrate species should be given
tion. Echinoderms tend to be slow moving and quite hardy (one the benefit of doubt and receive an analgesic when subjected
exception being the brittle stars). Some sea urchin species can to a painful procedure. The amount of stress and pain to an
inflict a painful “sting” with movable, sharp spines. Gloves and animal can be reduced by appropriate choices of anesthetic
nets can aid in the safe handling of many species. agents (agents with analgesic properties) and the humane han-
If echinoderms require anesthesia/immobilization, MgCl2 dling of the animal. Hypothermia and CO2 , for example, do not
or MS-222 is commonly used (Harms, 2006). Sea stars are possess analgesic properties and may even show hyperalgesic
anesthetized with their aquarium/tank water (i.e., water of the characteristics. Although inhalant agents do not possess true
aquarium is placed into the “anesthesia bucket”) to maintain analgesic properties, they do render vertebrate species insen-
consistent temperature and water content (including pH, salin- sible to painful stimuli when administered at sufficient doses.
ity, etc.). To a known amount of clean seawater, MgCl2 is added However, this insensibility lasts only for the duration the animal
to produce a 7.5–8% solution. A 1:1 mixture has been reported is anesthetized; if the procedure is expected to be associated with
(McCurley and Kier, 1995) and may be necessary for induction, significant postoperative pain, the administration of an analgesic
but adjustments over time during anesthesia may be required would be advisable.
(gradually administering more seawater). A concentrated form The use of analgesic agents in invertebrate species is limited,
of MS-222 (1–10 g/L in seawater) can also be used (Hendler because few reports can be found in the literature documenting
at al., 1995; O’Neill, 1994). Other reported anesthetic agents drug administration and dosing, especially in very small species;
are menthol (2.5–5% in sterile seawater) (Costello and Henley, there is also little information evaluating the effects and impact
1971) and propylene phenoxetol (2 ml/L in seawater) (Hendler of different analgesics on the patient, the anesthesia, and the
et al., 1995; Van den Spiegel and Jangoux, 1987). Sea cucum- recovery. Local anesthetics are an efficient way to block the
bers may respond better to propylene phenoxetol than to MgCl2 . nociceptive pathway and, therefore, decrease the pain stimulus,
but dosing might be a challenge. Opioids are another good way
to provide analgesia. Until the literature expands with research
data on drugs, dosages, and species to be treated, the clinician is
III. PAIN AND ANALGESIA IN INVERTEBRATES
advised to judiciously extrapolate dosing information from what
has been published on the “lower” vertebrates (fishes, amphib-
More research needs to and likely will occur to answer ques- ians, and reptiles). We realize this is a broad statement, sure
tions about pain perception by invertebrates. To date the concept to make some veterinarians uncomfortable, but it is a starting
that invertebrates “feel” pain is a topic of debate (Sherwin, point and probably the best option we have at this time. The
2001). One component of this debate is the differentiation assessment of pain or discomfort in invertebrates is another dif-
between nociception and pain. Nociception describes the neu- ficult task, despite the fact that some avoidance behavior has
rophysiologic components leading to the sensation of pain, but been described (Mather, 2001; Tobin and Bargmann, 2004).
excludes the central perception of pain. Nociception can lead to The effect of analgesia is even harder to evaluate.
pathophysiologial changes to various systems in the body (car-
diovascular, respiratory, endocrine, etc). Pain is defined as the
“subjective sensation or emotional experience” resulting from
IV. EUTHANASIA
nociceptive input, an experience created in the cerebral cortex.
Invertebrates do not possess a well-described cortex as part of
their central nervous system, or a similar structure, although Invertebrates are not specifically regulated in the United
a nociceptive response is present (Tobin and Bargmann, 2004). States, and not addressed by the AVMA Panel on Euthana-
Nociceptor cells have been identified in invertebrates (Nicholls sia (2000), which leaves the researcher with little guidance
and Baylor, 1968), and opioid systems have a functional role in for euthanasia of invertebrate laboratory animals. Some sug-
invertebrate nociception (Fiorito, 1986; Kavaliers, 1988; Kava- gestions for improving animal welfare in invertebrates can
liers et al., 1983; Saksida, 1993; Smith, 1991; Thomas et al., be found in the literature coming from Europe and Australia
1997). (Cooper, 2006; Reilly, 2001), but more research and regula-
No definitive answer exists as to whether invertebrates per- tions are necessary to assure ethically acceptable methods for
ceive pain and suffer emotional stress from it. Invertebrates invertebrate euthanasia (Murray, 2006). The UFAW Handbook
respond to mechanical, chemical, and electrical stimuli by on the Care and Management of Laboratory Animals (Poole,
withdrawal and escape behaviors similar to vertebrates. This 1999) provides details of euthanasia methods for “advanced”
22. ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA OF INVERTEBRATES 543

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 Section V

Special Topics in Anesthesia and Analgesia

of Laboratory Animals
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 Chapter 23

Pain Testing in the Laboratory Mouse

Dale J. Langford and Jeffrey S. Mogil

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
II. Experimental Models of Acute/Tonic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
A. Thermal Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
B. Mechanical Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
C. Chemical Assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
III. Experimental Models of Chronic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
A. Inflammatory Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
B. Neuropathic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
IV. Modulating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
A. Strain Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
B. Sex Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
C. Age Differences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
D. Circadian Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
E. Experimenter Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
F. Social Context Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
V. New Directions in Animal Pain Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557

I. INTRODUCTION
current pain therapies feature limited efficacy and/or problem-
atic side effects. In the laboratory, the vast majority of modern
Pain is a complex, multidimensional, and ultimately sub- pain research has been performed in the rodent, especially in the
jective experience, importantly influenced by cognitive and rat and the mouse. Given that Mus musculus is gaining popular-
sociocultural factors, and thus humans are the ideal subjects ity as a pain research subject (Fig. 23-1) (largely due to the abil-
for pain research. However, there are obvious limitations to the ity to produce transgenic knockouts in this but not other species),
study of pain in humans, and thus conducting pain research and that our particular expertise lies with this species, this
in animals is necessary and unavoidable if we are to attempt chapter will concentrate on pain testing in the laboratory mouse.
to improve on the clinical treatment of pain in our species Creating reliable and valid models of a complex human con-
and others. Such improvement is highly sought after, since dition in a 30 g mammal is hardly trivial and has proceeded

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

549
550 DALE J. LANGFORD AND JEFFREY S. MOGIL

50 A few notes on nomenclature. First, it is considered proper

when referring to non-human subjects to refer simply to “noci-
% of Total Papers

40 ception” and “antinociception” instead of “pain” and “analge-

Rat (8645) sia.” However, because the former terms are unwieldy and we
30
Mouse (2923) do not necessarily agree that humans have a qualitatively differ-
20 Cat (1177) ent experience than nonhuman animals, we have opted to use the
Dog (1243) words “pain” and “analgesia” throughout. Second, clinical pain
10 Primate (261) syndromes feature, in addition to spontaneous pain, increased
sensitivity to thermal (hot and cold) and mechanical evok-
0 ing stimuli. These symptoms include hyperalgesia (increased
1976 1986 1996 2006 responses to noxious stimuli) and allodynia (responses to nor-
Year mally non-noxious stimuli), both of which ultimately represent
Fig. 23-1 Nonhuman research subjects in pain experiments in the past 30
shifts to the left of the stimulus intensity–response curve. It is
years. Data are based on a PubMed search conducted on November 16, 2006, difficult to unambiguously separate the two in animal experi-
using the MeSH term “Pain” combined using the AND operator with the MeSH ments involving threshold measurements, and so we will use
terms “Rats”, “Mice”, “Cats”, “Dogs” or (“Primates” NOT “Humans”). The the term “hypersensitivity” throughout.
total number of hits is given in parentheses beside the species name. Symbols
represent percentage of total papers added in the 5-year period ending with the
year shown in the ordinate. As can be seen, whereas the use of cats, dogs, and
nonhuman primates is steady or declining, the use of rats and mice continues II. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF ACUTE/TONIC
to increase. The last 5-year period saw a large spike in mouse usage in pain PAIN
research, with 38% of data-based papers in this species published between
2001 and 2006.
Mammalian nociceptors are activated by a number of
stimuli—which may or may not produce frank tissue damage—
continuously for the entire history of pain research. In this chap- including heat, cold, mechanical pressure, and chemicals.
ter, we will present currently used acute, tonic, and chronic Many animal models of pain simply involve exposing the sub-
models of pain (see Tables 23-1 and 23-2 for a summary). We ject to such stimuli, and quantifying behavioral responses to
will discuss their common parameters, advantages, disadvan- them, ranging from reflex withdrawal to organized, recuperative
tages, and ethical considerations, as well as important and often behaviors. Most of these models have been in use for several
overlooked issues to consider during their use. We do not aim decades, and are commonly used both to establish baseline pain
to produce an exhaustive list, including only the most popular sensitivity of an individual animal, as well as to quantify injury-
models at the present time. induced changes and analgesic ameliorations. As the noxious

TABLE 23-1
Common Acute/Tonic Pain Assays in the Mouse, and their Advantages and Disadvantages

Type Assay Advantages Disadvantages

Thermal Tail-flick Speed and ease of use Low clinical relevance

Tail-withdrawal No effect of repeated testing Requires restraint
Hot-plate Speed and ease of use Low clinical relevance
No restraint required Complex behaviors
Repeated testing effects
Paw-withdrawal No restraint required Low clinical relevance
Can test contralateral hindpaw Long habituation time
No effect of repeated testing

Cold Acetone Speed and ease of use No response in uninjured subjects

Mechanical Tail-clip Speed and ease of use Repeated testing effects

Severely confounded by ataxia
von Frey filament Used in humans Long habituation time
Hard to standardize across labs
Chemical Formalin Higher clinical relevance Complex time course
Spontaneous behaviors
Abdominal constriction Sensitive to weak analgesics Lack of specificity
Nonresponders
23. PAIN TESTING IN THE LABORATORY MOUSE 551

TABLE 23-2
Common Chronic Pain Assays in the Mouse

Type Assay Description

Inflammatory Complete Freund’s adjuvant Produces inflammation and related pain/hypersensitivity in a target tissue
Neuropathic
Surgical Chronic constriction injury (CCI) Three or four loose ligatures are tied around the sciatic nerve; resulting local inflammation strangles
some proportion of afferent fibers; produces mechanical, cold and heat hypersensitivity of the
ipsilateral hindpaw
Partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSL) A tight ligation of one-third to one-half of the sciatic nerve is made; produces mechanical, cold and
heat hypersensitivity of the ipsilateral hindpaw
Spinal nerve ligation (SNL) A tight ligation of the L5 (or L5 + L6) spinal nerve is made, leaving the other spinal nerve(s) intact;
produces mechanical, cold and heat hypersensitivity of the ipsilateral hindpaw
Spared nerve injury (SNI) A tight ligation of two of the three branches of the sciatic nerve (peroneal, tibial, sural) is made,
leaving the third branch intact; produces mechanical and cold hypersensitivity of the ipsilateral
hindpaw
Chemotherapeutic Vincristine, paclitaxel Subjects given multiple drug administrations over a period of days to weeks; produces whole-body
hypersensitivity

stimulus is transient and usually escapable in these tests, their dissociation of results obtained from one vis-à-vis the other.
use presents no serious ethical concerns. Neither test appears to be sensitive to repeated testing as long as
the inter-test interval (i.e., the time between successive latency
determinations) is sufficiently long, say, >1–2 minutes (Mogil
A. Thermal Assays et al., 2001).
Restraint stress has been shown to significantly modify
These tests employ the latency to respond to a noxious thermal behavioral and physiological responses to pain (i.e., stress-
stimulus as the dependent measure, as a proxy of the nociceptive induced analgesia) (Porro and Carli, 1988), potentially affecting
threshold. In all cases, a “cut-off ” latency (e.g., three times the the animal’s baseline pain sensitivity. We have shown that
baseline latency) is employed to prevent the possibility of tissue gentle restraint in a cloth/cardboard holder produces less stress-
damage in nonresponding subjects. These tests have consider- induced analgesia than immobilization in a Plexiglas cylinder
able face validity as models of acute pain, and are effective in (Mogil et al., 2001). Another important factor to consider when
predicting the analgesic efficacy of opioids (Taber, 1974) (but using these tests is the ambient temperature, which strongly
not other analgesic drug classes) (Hammond, 1989). Hyper- affects the tail temperature (Tjolsen and Hole, 1993).
sensitivity to thermal stimuli is a common (if easily avoidable)
symptom of chronic pain conditions.
2. Hot-plate Test
The hot-plate test also utilizes latency measurements to assess
1. Tail-Flick (radiant heat) and Tail-Withdrawal
acute, cutaneous pain sensitivity; however, in this test the scored
(hot water) Tests
behavioral responses are supraspinally organized. Animals are
In the tail-flick test, the animal is briefly restrained, with its placed, one by one, on a surface maintained at 50–56◦ C, with
tail extended on a flat surface. A heat stimulus of fixed intensity their locomotion restricted by a Plexiglas cylinder. The latency
is applied to the cutaneous skin of the tail (usually from below), to hindpaw licking and/or shaking, or jumping, is recorded, and
and the time required for the animal to flick (i.e., withdraw) at this point the animal is immediately removed from the hot
its tail from the stimulus is recorded. In the tail-withdrawal plate.
test, the animal is gently restrained while the distal half of The hot-plate test is also a quick and relatively inexpen-
its tail is immersed in a water bath (46–52◦ C), and the time sive way to assess acute, thermal pain, and an advantage over
elapsed between immersion and purposeful withdrawal of the tail-flick/tail-withdrawal is the opportunity to test thermal sensi-
tail from the bath is recorded. In both cases, the behavior is a tivity unconfounded by stress-induced analgesia associated with
(well-studied) spinal reflex (Irwin et al., 1951), albeit one under restraint (see above). However, the hot-plate test is somewhat
control of supraspinal structures (Basbaum and Fields, 1984). more complicated than other thermal assays, because rodents
The two tests differ with respect to the kinetics of heat trans- (especially rats) exhibit rather complex and subtle behavioral
fer into the tail, and with respect to stimulated surface areas repertoires (Carter, 1991; Espejo and Mir, 1993), and the behav-
(Le Bars et al., 2001), but we are unaware of any published iors can be genotype-dependent (Belknap et al., 1990). Because
552 DALE J. LANGFORD AND JEFFREY S. MOGIL

these behaviors require motor coordination, longer latencies on is a major clinical problem. The mechanical allodynia experi-
the hot-plate test could be due to side effects of the treatment enced by chronic pain sufferers causes them to avoid any contact
rather than to analgesia per se (Hammond, 1989). The hot-plate with their affected limb, and can render even everyday activi-
test is also very sensitive to repeated measurements, likely via ties like dressing exquisitely painful. In addition to the two tests
learning (Espejo and Mir, 1994; Milne et al., 1989; Plone et al., described below, the Randall–Selitto test (1957) of withdrawal
1996), a distinct disadvantage for its use. from pressure applied to the paw is commonly used in the rat, but
the level of restraint necessary for its proper use is not practical
in the mouse (Mogil et al., 2001).
3. Radiant Heat Paw-Withdrawal (Hargreaves’) Test
This assay was developed in 1988 (Hargreaves et al., 1988),
with the aim of quantifying changes in thermal pain indicative 1. Tail-Clip Test
of hypersensitivity on one side of the body. Animals are placed In this test (Haffner, 1929; Takagi et al., 1966), a constant,
in Plexiglas cubicles on a glass floor. After habituation to the suprathreshold pressure stimulus is applied to the tail. The ani-
testing chambers (which in mice, depending on strain, can take mal is briefly restrained and a metal artery or binder clip is
several hours), the experimenter positions a light box equipped applied to the tail near its base. The test animal is then imme-
with a high-intensity bulb below the glass floor. A pilot light diately released and the latency to lick, bite, grab, or bring the
(∼5% maximum intensity) helps accurately position the stim- nose to within 1 cm of the clip is recorded. A cut-off latency is
ulus below the appropriate hindpaw, and once positioned the used for nonresponders.
experimenter applies a light beam of a pre-chosen intensity and The tail-clip test is very quick and easy to administer, and the
initiates an internal timer. When the animal lifts, shakes, and/or force exerted by the clip can be modified according to experi-
licks the stimulated hindpaw, the experimenter terminates the mental requirements. However, in our experience the assay is
stimulus and stops the timer. extremely sensitive to repeated testing, so only one measure-
Unlike other thermal assays, the paw-withdrawal test allows ment per animal may be obtained. Another problem posed by the
the independent testing of both sides of the body, affording an tail-clip test is placement of the clip. Despite efforts to maintain
internal control (i.e., ipsilateral vs. contralateral paw), increas- the same position on each subject, the exact angle and position
ing power, and reducing the number of animals required for at which the clip is applied may vary across test subjects. Finally,
a given experiment. Latencies in this test are unchanged with the test is subject to confounding by motor ataxia, and it may
repeated testing, and it requires less hands-on experimenter be difficult to dissociate whether a target drug has affected an
interaction, an important source of variability (Chesler et al., animal’s pain sensitivity, or simply its physical ability to make
2002a, 2002b; Crabbe et al., 1999). goal-directed movements.

4. Cold Stimuli 2. von Frey Filament Test

It is considerably less common to employ noxious cold von Frey fibers, originally individual mammalian hairs
stimuli in pain research compared to noxious heat stimuli, attached to a rod (von Frey, 1922) and now made of nylon,
although many chronic pain syndromes feature troublesome are used to this day to assess sensory detection thresholds in
cold hypersensitivity. Many of the aforementioned heat pain humans. This test has been used in animal pain research as early
tests have been modified to use cold stimuli, including the cold as 1960 (see Bove, 2006 for review), and is the most commonly
water/ethanol tail-withdrawal test (Pizziketti et al., 1985) and used method of studying mechanical hypersensitivity. The fibers
the cold-plate test (Jasmin et al., 1998). vary in diameter, and are calibrated to exert a maximal vertical
Acetone application has also been commonly used to assess force at the point of bending.
sensitivity to cold (Choi et al., 1994). Upon contact with the skin, Animals are habituated to Plexiglas cubicles (again, requir-
it spreads and evaporates causing a cooling sensation that is nor- ing several hours in most mouse strains), which rest on a wire
mally perceived as innocuous. Nerve-injured rats respond with mesh floor (and the floor material has been shown to matter;
brisk paw withdrawals and extended bouts of postwithdrawal Pitcher et al., 1999). The fiber is applied to the plantar surface
shaking and licking. of the hindpaw, and the presence or absence of a response (paw
withdrawal) is recorded. Several psychophysical protocols of
applying these fibers are in common use, and there is an ongo-
B. Mechanical Assays ing debate as to which technique yields the most accurate results.
The up-down method of Dixon (Chaplan et al., 1994) yields a
Tests of pain using mechanical stimuli are far less reliable measure of an individual’s 50% withdrawal threshold by apply-
than thermal tests, but arguably far more important, since ing up to eight fibers in sequential order, with each presentation
mechanical hypersensitivity (unlike thermal hypersensitivity) dependent on prior responses. Alternative methods involve the
23. PAIN TESTING IN THE LABORATORY MOUSE 553

use of only two or three fibers (small and large diameter), or the for its purposes as a clinically valid model of pain. Normal use of
presentation of fibers in an ascending series. the paw is generally observed within 2 hours of testing (Dubuis-
Physical particularities of the fiber, as well as subtle vari- son and Dennis, 1977); however, animals are often euthanized
ations in the placement of the fiber, can significantly affect immediately post-testing to measure hindpaw edema. We rec-
mechanical thresholds making it difficult to standardize test- ommend this strongly as a way of identifying “bad” injections
ing (Bove, 2006). Rodents display significant variability in this evidenced by lack of inflammation.
assay (even within-strain), and often, repeated measurements
are necessary in order to obtain an accurate threshold. Debate
continues among pain researchers as to whether an animal’s 2. Abdominal Constriction Test
withdrawal response actually represents a withdrawal from pain,
The abdominal constriction test is an experimental model of
or is simply a response to being repeatedly prodded.
visceral pain (Koster et al., 1959; Siegmund et al., 1957; van
der Wende and Margolin, 1956) (although poorly suited as such
because it involves the muscle wall of the abdomen as well), and
C. Chemical Assays
can be conducted using a number of chemical irritants, such as
bradykinin, magnesium sulfate, phenylquinone, hyper- or hypo-
The following models assay spontaneous pain behaviors
tonic saline, and adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Historically,
elicited by injection of chemical irritants. These assays can be
acetic acid has been the most commonly used irritant.
referred to as “tonic” because the pain associated with the stim-
After habituation, the animal is injected intraperitoneally with
ulus is longer in duration (and inescapable), thus differentiating
10 ml/kg of 0.1–0.9% glacial acetic acid. Animals are scored for
them from the acute models discussed above. They thus present
the presence or absence of “writhing”—a stereotypic behavior
more serious ethical concerns, but because of their longer dura-
governed by a brain stem reflex and characterized by length-
tion and spontaneously emitted responses, they may also be
wise stretching of the torso with concomitant concave arching
more clinically relevant.
of the back and extension of the hindlimbs—for 30–40 min-
utes postinjection. As with the formalin test, video recording
1. Formalin Test allows for increased efficiency and productivity, and videos can
be scored continuously (total number of writhes) or sampled,
The formalin test, originally described by Dubuisson and
which we have shown to produce significantly higher inter-rater
Dennis (1977), is a model of tonic inflammatory pain asso-
reliability (Langford et al., 2006).
ciated with tissue damage. This test has been reviewed at length
The writhing test is often criticized for its lack of specificity,
previously (Porro and Cavazzuti, 1993; Tjolsen et al., 1992).
as nonanalgesic drugs have been shown to effectively reduce
After habituation, the animal is injected subcutaneously in the
writhing behavior; however, it remains an important experi-
dorsal or (more commonly) plantar surface of the hindpaw with
mental model of pain because of its unique sensitivity to weak
20–50 μl (mice—rats) of 1 to 5% formalin. The formalin causes
analgesics (Hammond, 1989). Thus, the pain induced by acetic
inflammation and stereotypic licking and biting of the affected
acid is relatively mild and brief enough in duration to be ethically
hindpaw. In the rat, other behaviors are commonly seen, includ-
acceptable. The test has also been criticized for its relatively
ing hindpaw lifting and flinching, but we and others have shown
high proportion of nonresponders (approximately 8%; Ness and
that licking/biting is all that needs to be scored in the mouse
Gebhart, 1990), although this proportion can be reduced by
(Sufka et al., 1998). Video recording allows for increased con-
using higher doses of acetic acid.
venience and accuracy. Additionally, scoring formalin behaviors
using an interval sampling method has been shown to be accu-
rate and significantly more efficient (Abbott et al., 1999; Chesler
3. Other Tonic Pain Models
et al., 2003).
Behaviors are generally scored for 40–90 minutes postinjec- The formalin test especially has been criticized for using a
tion, and occur in a biphasic temporal pattern, with an “early” highly artificial noxious stimulus (formaldehyde), which pro-
or “acute” phase of licking/biting (5–10 minutes), followed by duces unnecessary tissue damage. A few alternatives have been
a quiescent period (10–20 minutes) and then a “late” or “tonic” developed. Capsaicin (2.5 μg) injection into the skin produces
phase of licking/biting behaviors occurring in bouts of a few apparent spontaneous pain behaviors (licking, biting) which last
minutes each. Early phase licking appears to be due to a direct for 5–10 minutes, followed by a hypersensitivity lasting for a few
effect of the formalin injection on nociceptors, and the late phase hours. This test is favored by some because capsaicin is used
due to a central sensitization and subsequent peripheral inflam- commonly for human experimental pain testing, and because
mation (Tjolsen et al., 1992). As such, the late phase is generally capsaicin acts directly at the transient receptor potential, fam-
of greater interest as a clinically relevant model. ily V, member 1 (TRPV1) channel, an important transducer
Although the formalin test imposes inescapable pain and tis- molecule for pain (Caterina et al., 1997). A clever variant
sue damage, the duration of pain is relatively brief and justified of the formalin test uses subcutaneous injection of honeybee
554 DALE J. LANGFORD AND JEFFREY S. MOGIL

venom (Lariviere and Melzack, 1996), which also produces thus been diminishing, replaced by various models of unilateral
licking/biting behaviors followed by hypersensitivity. monoarthritis.
Much clinical pain is of deep muscle tissues and/or visceral Administration (directly into a peripheral joint) of complete
organs, and thus an increasing number of researchers have Freund’s adjuvant (CFA), a commercially available adjuvant
adapted some of these tonic models to specifically study muscle comprised of heat-killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis in min-
pain or visceral pain. A full review is beyond the scope of this eral oil, has been established as a model of rheumatoid and
chapter, but popular current models include repeated hypertonic osteoarthritis in the rodent (Colpaert et al., 1982; de Castro
saline injections into muscle (Sluka et al., 2001), cyclophos- Costa et al., 1981; Donaldson et al., 1993; Stein et al., 1988).
phamide cystitis of the bladder (Bon et al., 2003; Olivar and Both CFA and incomplete Freund’s adjuvant (i.e., no mycobac-
Laird, 1999), and colorectal distention with or without irritant teria) injected directly into the hindpaw induce inflammation,
injection (Martinez et al., 1996; Ness and Gebhart, 1988). but only CFA induces changes in thermal pain sensitivity
(Larson et al., 1986). A correlation between inflammation and
hypersensitivity is lacking in this model, although this is not nec-
essarily unexpected, as there is a very poor correlation between
III. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS OF CHRONIC PAIN joint degeneration/inflammation and pain in human arthritis
sufferers as well (Gaston-Johansson and Gustafsson, 1990).
Clinical pain lasting more than a few hours can usually be
traced to either ongoing inflammation or nerve damage. (In
many cases clinicians can find evidence of neither, but one can 2. Other Inflammatory Mediators
still assume their presence.) Once considered entirely different A perusal of the literature reveals a large number of nox-
states, many pain researchers now maintain that neuropathic ious substances used by pain researchers to study tonic/chronic
pain and inflammatory pain are far more similar than different inflammatory pain, and especially the activity of nonsteroidal
(Bennett, 2006). A plethora of models have been developed in anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). Typically these compounds
an attempt to produce such injury states in animals so that the are injected into the hindpaw rather than intra-articularly, in
concomitant pain and hypersensitivity, which lasts from days order to take advantage of von Frey and paw-withdrawal test-
to months, can be studied. Obviously, the ethical concerns sur- ing as dependent measures. Those in fairly common current
rounding the use of such models are considerably more serious use include carrageenan, endotoxin, mustard oil, zymosan, and
than those described above, but can be justified based on their kaolin (Maier et al., 1993; Meller and Gebhart, 1997; Winter
more obvious clinical relevance. et al., 1962). Like CFA, there is very little evidence that these
compounds produce spontaneous pain, but they all produce
robust hypersensitivity and edema over a time course of several
A. Inflammatory Models hours to days.

The high prevalence of arthritis makes this disorder the major

focus of chronic inflammatory pain models, and concerted
B. Neuropathic Models
efforts have been made to develop animal models in order
to better understand the disease at the cellular and molecu-
Although the clinical prevalence of neuropathic pain is likely
lar level. Clinically, arthritis is characterized by inflammation
dwarfed by that of inflammatory pain, it is studied intensely
of the joint(s), and features spontaneous pain and hypersensi-
by pain researchers. This is likely because of greater scientific
tivity to evoking stimuli. Despite the fact that the presenting
interest (neuropathic pain involves gene expression changes and
complaint of arthritis sufferers is pain, arthritis researchers are
neural plasticity to a far greater extent than inflammatory pain)
often uninterested in this symptom, and in the vast majority of
and the fact that opioid pharmacotherapy has lower efficacy
studies using arthritis models (e.g., collagen-induced arthritis,
for neuropathic pain (Arner and Meyerson, 1988), rendering it
oil-induced arthritis, pristane-induced arthritis, streptococcal
far more difficult to manage clinically. Early attempts to study
cell wall arthritis), pain measurement is not attempted.
neuropathic pain involved peripheral nerve transections (Wall
et al., 1979), a model of anesthesia dolorosa and phantom limb
pain which features autotomy (i.e., self-mutilation) behavior
1. Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis
in rodents. Because of the questionable ethics (although the
The systemic administration of adjuvant (e.g., into the tail) problem may be more aesthetic than ethical, since mice are com-
(Pearson, 1956; Pircio et al., 1975) results in polyarthritis with pletely deafferented) of this paradigm, it is uncommon today.
severe side effects, imposing extreme discomfort on experi- Besides, it is clear that most neuropathic pain syndromes result
mental animals and producing global changes not reflective from partial nerve injury, not complete transections. The first
of arthritis pathology in humans (Butler, 1989). Its use has behavioral partial deafferentation model was developed in 1988
23. PAIN TESTING IN THE LABORATORY MOUSE 555

(Bennett and Xie, 1988), although electrophysiological studies The partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSL) model (Seltzer et al.,
in similar models had been performed previously (Basbaum and 1990) also aims directly at the sciatic nerve. The nerve is
Wall, 1976). Since then, a number of additional experimental exposed at high thigh level and one-third to one-half of the
models of neuropathic pain have been developed in the rat, and diameter of the nerve is isolated and tightly ligated, leaving
later modified for the mouse; the four most commonly used will the remainder of the nerve intact. This manipulation results in
be described below. What they all have in common is that only rapid onset (1 day), sustained (7–10 weeks) mechanical and
some of the afferent information from the hindpaw (although thermal hypersensitivity, and apparent spontaneous pain char-
some of these models have been adapted to study orofacial acterized by guarding, and sudden lifting, licking, and biting
pain) has been disrupted. This has allowed the very interest- of the ipsilateral paw. The PSL was the first of these models to
ing study of the relative roles of the damaged fibers (i.e., loss be specifically adapted to the mouse (Malmberg and Basbaum,
of input) and the undamaged fibers (i.e., plasticity) in produc- 1998), although all are now done routinely in this species. The
ing the gain-of-function that is pain and hypersensitivity. Very PSL model is subject to considerable variability due to the
recently, nonsurgical nerve damage models have been devel- inability to standardize the number of injured fibers; however,
oped based on the clinical findings that painful neuropathy is a the model produces highly reproducible behavioral changes and
dose-limiting side effect of chemotherapy; we will discuss two is less technically difficult than CCI.
such models. Spinal nerve ligation (SNL) (Kim and Chung, 1992) involves
All these models produce at least behavioral evidence of tightly ligating the L5 ± L6 spinal nerves, proximal to the dorsal
mechanical hypersensitivity using punctate stimuli (i.e., von root ganglion, leaving the L4 spinal nerve subserving the hind-
Frey filaments). Some also produce thermal (hot and cold) paw intact. The surgery results in quick onset of both mechanical
hypersensitivity, but some do not. The most frequent and and thermal hypersensitivity (evident 4–7 days postsurgery) and
troubling symptom of neuropathic pain patients, however, is also causes sudden bouts of ipsilateral paw licking and toe
chronic and/or paroxysmal spontaneous pain, usually described pulling, behaviors potentially indicative of spontaneous pain.
as shooting or burning. For reasons of practicality, relatively lit- The standardized surgical technique and the ability to specif-
tle effort has been made to accurately assess spontaneous pain in ically injure separate spinal nerves offer an advantage over
animals, even though most researchers suspect that it should be the previously discussed ligation models; however, the surgical
there in nerve injury models (Attal et al., 1990; Bennett and Xie, procedure is considerably more invasive and more technically
1988). We believe that this omission represents a key weakness difficult.
in the usefulness of the models to establish mechanisms and A recently developed model gaining great popularity is the
predict drug efficacy in humans (Mogil and Crager, 2004). Oth- spared nerve injury (SNI) model (Decosterd and Woolf, 2000),
ers have criticized the reliance on measuring reflex withdrawal which involves ligation of branches of the sciatic nerve, and
thresholds (Jabakhanji et al., 2006; Neubert et al., 2006; Vierck assessing pain sensitivity of the corresponding cutaneous ter-
et al., 2004). ritories. A tight ligature is tied around the common peroneal
and tibial branches of the sciatic nerve, leaving the sural branch
intact. Robust and sustained (up to 6 months) mechanical hyper-
sensitivity and hypersensitivity to cold (but not heat) stimuli
1. Surgical Neuropathic Pain Models
are observed within 1 week of surgery. The authors observed
The original model, called chronic constriction injury (CCI) intermittent “sudden sustained spontaneous withdrawal” in the
(Bennett and Xie, 1988), involves exposing the sciatic nerve absence of any evoking stimulus, which may represent evidence
at mid-thigh level, and tying loose ligatures (silk or chromic of spontaneous pain.
gut) around the sciatic nerve. The ligatures are not tied tight
enough to transect the nerve, but instead produce local inflam-
2. Chemotherapeutic Neuropathic Pain Models
mation that effectively strangles some proportion of the afferent
fibers. In rats, the model reliably induces mechanical and ther- As mentioned above, often painful, neuropathy is a dose-
mal hypersensitivity, with some evidence of spontaneous pain limiting side- effect of a number of commonly used chemother-
determined by sudden lifting and licking of the affected hindpaw apeutics. This fact has been exploited to create novel neuropathic
(Attal et al., 1990; Bennett and Xie, 1988), although the model pain models whose explication could allow the use of higher and
shows less reliable changes in pain behavior in mice (unpub- more efficacious doses of drug. The neuropathic symptoms are
lished observations). It should be noted that although many generally produced using doses lower than those required to
investigators consider lifting of the hindpaw evidence of sponta- cause axonal degeneration in peripheral nerves via their actions
neous pain, this behavior could just as easily be due to the animal on microtubules.
attempting to avoid mechanical hypersensitivity associated with Vincristine (Oncovin® , Vincasar® ) injections have been
placing weight on the paw (e.g., when walking). Licking behav- shown to produce neuropathic pain symptoms in the rat (Nozaki-
ior is probably more likely related to spontaneous pain in the Taguchi et al., 2001; Tanner et al., 1998; Weng et al., 2003)
hindpaw, but is very rarely observed. and mouse (Kamei et al., 2005). In mice, animals are injected
556 DALE J. LANGFORD AND JEFFREY S. MOGIL

(i.p.) with an initial small dose of vincristine, followed by a sig- resistance to: (a) thermal pain, (b) chemical pain, (c) afferent-
nificantly higher dose administered twice weekly for 6 weeks. dependent thermal hypersensitivity, (d) afferent-independent
Four weeks after the initial injection, mice exhibit significantly thermal hypersensitivity, and (e) mechanical hypersensitivity
increased thermal pain sensitivity on the tail-flick test (Kamei (Lariviere et al., 2002; Mogil et al., 1999b). We and others have
et al., 2005). The signal transduction mechanisms underly- identified a few genes producing some of this variability (Mogil
ing vincristine-induced neuropathic pain have been dissociated et al., 1997a, 2005; Seltzer et al., 2001), but this task will take
from those associated with pain in surgical models (Aley and a considerable amount of time to complete.
Levine, 2002).
Also producing neuropathic pain symptoms in rodents is
paclitaxel (Taxol® ) (Authier et al., 2000; Polomano et al., 2001; B. Sex Differences
Smith et al., 2004). In mice (as in rats), four intraperitoneal
injections of paclitaxel are administered on alternating succes- Sex differences in clinical pain prevalence and severity in
sive days, and produce mechanical and cold hypersensitivity humans are robust, with females greatly overrepresented as
(but no heat hypersensitivity), which peaks approximately 11 pain patients (Berkley, 1997; Unruh, 1996). In the laboratory,
days post injections. There is evidence that the symptoms (from humans display consistent sex-related differences in pain sen-
both drugs) may be secondary to loss of epidermal innervation sitivity, with the effect size dependent on the modality of the
of sensory fibers (Siau et al., 2006), mitochondrial dysfunc- noxious stimulus (Fillingim and Maixner, 1995; Riley et al.,
tion (Flatters and Bennett, 2006), and dysregulation of cellular 1998). However, it has been difficult in rodents to consistently
calcium homeostasis (Siau and Bennett, 2006). find these differences (Craft, 2003). One complicating factor is
the well-established interaction between sex and genotype; sex
differences are much larger in some strains than in others (Kest
et al., 1999; Mogil, 2003). It is interesting that despite the diffi-
IV. MODULATING FACTORS
culty in replicating quantitative sex differences in the laboratory,
considerable evidence has amassed suggestive of qualitative
A continuing frustration among pain researchers concerns the sex differences in the genetic and neurochemical mechanisms
poor replicability of pain models from one species to another, underlying pain modulation (Liu and Gintzler, 2000; Mitrovic
from one laboratory to another, and even within-laboratory. We et al., 2003; Mogil et al., 1993, 1997b; Tershner et al., 2000),
have focused over the last 15 years on trying to explain this including in humans (Mogil et al., 2003).
variability, and find many sources. We hope that the increased
attention now being paid to parametric, organismic, and envi-
ronmental factors impacting laboratory studies of pain will C. Age Differences
allow more efficient use of animal subjects and more accu-
rate and “translatable” findings. The influence of parametric Although a strong (and increasingly important) determinant
factors (e.g., stimulus modality, stimulus intensity, stimulus of pain prevalence and severity in humans exist, there is a
location, time–intensity relationships) has been reviewed at paucity of animal data studying the effect of subject age on
length recently (Le Bars et al., 2001), and so we concentrate pain sensitivity (Gagliese and Melzack, 2000), and almost no
below on organismic and environmental modulatory factors. data whatsoever in the laboratory mouse. In general, the ani-
mal and human data both show a curvilinear pattern of changes,
with middle-aged subjects showing higher pain levels compared
A. Strain Differences to young and aged subjects (Gagliese and Melzack, 1999).
Developmental changes in pain sensitivity are also a topic of
Our laboratory has documented surprisingly robust differ- considerable research (Fitzgerald, 2005; Hamm and Knisely,
ences among inbred laboratory mouse strains on every pain 1988). As a practical matter, however, the vast majority of cur-
test studied thus far (Lariviere et al., 2002; Mogil et al., rent pain studies in mice use young-adult subjects, between 6
1999a). These strain differences are highly relevant to current weeks and 4 months of age.
murine pain research because the standard background strain on
which most transgenic knockouts are bred, C57BL/6, displays
very different pain sensitivity than the 129 strains supplying D. Circadian Effects
the embryonic stem cells in the creation of those knockouts
(Lariviere et al., 2001; Mogil and Grisel, 1998). It is not the The chronobiology of pain has been studied in humans since
case that certain strains are simply more or less sensitive to pain 1912 (Grabfield and Martin, 1912). Perissin et al. (2000,
across the board. Instead, we find that sensitivity to pain appears 2003) report decreased sensitivity to thermal pain in rodents’
to be inherited in a symptom-specific manner, with particular dark (active) phase in the clear majority of existing stud-
strains (and thus particular sets of genes) showing sensitivity or ies, although rhythm × genotype interactions have also been
23. PAIN TESTING IN THE LABORATORY MOUSE 557

reported (Castellano et al., 1985; Perissin et al., 2000). These not be explained by stress/anxiety, and seemed consistent with
findings are of limited relevance since the vast majority of the possibility that mice are capable of “emotional contagion”
current pain studies in mice are performed within-phase, and for pain, a form of empathy (Preston and de Waal, 2002). We
usually in the subjects’ light (resting) phase. This may repre- found as well that male (but not female) mice tested for pain in
sent a major confound of animal pain research (akin to testing front of an unaffected stranger would often completely inhibit
humans for pain immediately after waking them up out of their their pain behaviors.
sleep). Alternatively, one could house and test animals on a We believe that social factors can indeed affect pain sensi-
reverse light–dark cycle. This is somewhat impractical for lab tivity in mice and thus represent a major concern for existing
personnel, however, and may be associated with its own con- animal pain studies. Our current findings suggest that test-
founds. Unless the vivarium, laboratory, and any connecting ing mice where they can observe other mice being tested
corridors were all kept completely dark, mice would be exposed simultaneously is a bad idea.
to light pulses that might cause circadian phase-shifting, which
itself could alter results in chronic pain testing paradigms.
V. NEW DIRECTIONS IN ANIMAL PAIN TESTING
E. Experimenter Effects
As we have described in this chapter, advances have been
A widely cited study by Crabbe et al. (1999) tested mice of and are continuing to be made in animal pain testing, both
various strains in three locations, with all husbandry and test- in terms of modeling pain-producing injuries and in terms of
ing parameters controlled, and reported large interlaboratory assessing pain-relevant behaviors. There is ever-more-urgent
variability on a number of behavioral tests. They concluded that debate in the pain research community at the present time over
idiosyncratic factors—for example, related to the experimenters whether the reflex withdrawal measures in such common use
themselves—were responsible for much of the observed vari- ought to be supplemented and even replaced by operant tech-
ance. We performed a reversal of this experiment, using archived niques, and whether it is worth the effort to try to quantify
data (from 1993 to 2001) to search for intralaboratory factors spontaneously emitted behaviors of animals in chronic pain
affecting variability in the 49◦ C tail-withdrawal test (Chesler models. The debate revolves around whether one believes that
et al., 2002a, 2002b). We found specifically that the experi- basic pain researchers have done a good job or a poor job of
menter performing the test was responsible for more variance identifying molecular drug targets for analgesic development.
than any other single factor, for reasons that remain obscure. The only clear success in this endeavor is the recent approval by
More recent data have illustrated that other pain tests too are the U.S. Food and Drug Administration of ziconotide (Prialt™ ;
greatly affected by the experimenter performing the test (Mogil Elan Pharmaceuticals Inc.), a synthetic version of the Conus
et al., 2006). Striking unpublished data from our laboratory magus toxin which blocks N-type voltage-gated calcium chan-
suggest that in tonic assays like the formalin and abdominal nels, and was thus rationally designed based on the results of
constriction test, the mere presence of a human being in the rodent experiments (Lyseng-Williamson and Perry, 2006). As a
testing room is sufficient to greatly inhibit pain-related behav- clinical entity, though, ziconotide has limited utility, given that it
iors, lending support to efforts to automate procedures as much must be administered intrathecally. Besides ziconotide, the only
as possible. new classes of compounds used to treat chronic pain developed
since opioids, NSAIDs, and acetaminophen, are the antidepres-
sants (McQuay et al., 1996) and the antiepileptics (Wiffen et al.,
F. Social Context Effects 2005), but these are the result of pure serendipity. Some argue
that the failure of any other molecule to make it to the clinic is
The data-mining exercise described above revealed the very a result of toxicity and poor clinical trial design, not a lack of
surprising fact that within-cage order of testing significantly efficacy in humans (Kontinen and Meert, 2002). Others point to
affected thermal pain sensitivity, with later-tested mice showing high-profile failures to translate from rodent to human efficacy,
decreased withdrawal latencies (Chesler et al., 2002a, 2002b). for example the neurokinin-1 receptor antagonists (Hill, 2000),
Although we still have no explanation for this observation, it as illustrative of the continuing problems. For the sake of human
inspired a series of studies designed to investigate whether social and animal sufferers of chronic pain, we hope that the situation
communication among mice housed and/or tested together will improve in the near future.
could affect pain behavior. We found that mice tested on the
formalin or abdominal constriction test, visually observing their
conspecifics also in pain, displayed increased pain behaviors
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 Chapter 24

Ethical Issues in Anesthesia and Analgesia in

Laboratory Animals
Larry Carbone and Nelson Garnett

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
A. Descriptive Ethics: The Societal Consensus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
B. Official Ethics: Professional Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
C. Regulatory Ethics: The Ethical Basis of Regulation in the United States 562
D. Normative Ethics: Making Ethical Choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
II. Ethical Issues in Laboratory Animal Anesthesia, Analgesia, and Pain
Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
A. Withholding Pain Management to Prevent Animal Injury . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
B. Withholding Pain Management for Research Needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
C. Reporting Pain and Distress in USDA Categories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
D. Distress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
E. Killing Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
F. Fewer Animals/More Pain per Animal or More Animals/Less Pain per
Animal? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
G. IACUCs, Veterinarians, and the Standard of Care . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
Additional Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567

I. INTRODUCTION
harmed animals, or if animal pain management never conflicted
with science, there might be no need for this chapter.
Ethics is the inquiry of good and bad, right and wrong. The The authors believe that the prime ethical concern in labora-
fundamental ethical question in laboratory animal care is “How tory animal welfare is what animals consciously experience:
should we treat the animals in laboratories?” When is it permis- their pain, distress, fear, boredom, happiness, and psycho-
sible to use animals at all in laboratories, or to use them in ways logical well-being. They further believe that regardless of the
that may hurt or harm them? What research projects can jus- ethical frameworks under which one operates, most of the eth-
tify putting animals in harm’s way? How much must we spend ical work of Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees
in time, labor, money, or limits on scientific inquiry to mini- (IACUCs), scientists and veterinarians require some sort of
mize their pain and distress? If animal experimentation never weighing of costs and benefits, usually the benefits to human

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

561
562 LARRY CARBONE AND NELSON GARNETT

society against the costs in animal welfare. Such cost–benefit Numerous scientific journals now require verification that
analysis requires both clarification of competing values and the authors have met ethical standards in their animal care and use.
best possible scientific knowledge of animal pain, distress, and Veterinarians have a special role in the laboratory animal pain
pain management. management. The American Veterinary Medical Association
In this chapter, we loosely follow Tannenbaum’s classifi- holds that “Veterinarians should first consider the needs of the
cation, and present (a) descriptive ethics, (b) official ethics, patient: to relieve disease, suffering, or disability while mini-
(c) administrative/regulatory ethics, and (d) normative ethics mizing pain or fear” (American Veterinary Medical Association,
(Tannenbaum, 1995). It is important for veterinarians to know 2007a) (p 37).
the societal context in which their work is done, to know the Veterinarians are expected to have a high commitment to ani-
standards of their professional associations, and to know the mal health and welfare, as well as have unique advanced training
codification of these ethical standards in law. Normative ethics, to competently fulfill this commitment. The Veterinary Oath
as Tannenbaum points out, the attempt to discover correct moral calls on veterinarians to chart an ethical course between helping
or ethical standards, is paramount: “Most veterinarians are animals and helping society (as in biomedical research):
interested in ethics because they want to determine how they
Being admitted to the profession of veterinary medicine, I solemnly
really should behave, and not just how their fellow profes- swear to use my scientific knowledge and skills for the benefit of society
sionals, official rules, or governmental bodies say they should” through the protection of animal health, the relief of animal suffering, the
(Tannenbaum, 1995, p 17). conservation of animal resources, the promotion of public health, and
the advancement of medical knowledge. (American Veterinary Medical
Association, 2003)

A. Descriptive Ethics: The Societal Consensus Laboratory animal veterinarians’pledge to relieve animal suf-
fering while promoting public health and advancing medical
The American public differ in their concern for laboratory knowledge entails a moral duty to advocate and provide appro-
animals, from a strongly abolitionist position that would ban priate anesthesia and analgesia to research animals. This oath
animal research to a completely laissez-faire attitude; many are complements the application of the “Three Rs” (replacement,
in “the troubled middle,” uneasily accepting the use of animals reduction, and refinement) and the consideration of alternatives,
in some research (Donnelly, 1990). Public opinion polls find that especially refinement alternatives (Russell and Burch, 1959).
the acceptability of animal-based research requires the effective Clearly, veterinarians have a professional ethical duty to stay
relief of animal pain. While use of animals in research may be current on the best information on animal pain management.
justified, pain and distress must be minimized to the extent possi- The authors believe that the ethical practice of laboratory
ble. Survey respondents, depending on the particular questions animal medicine requires both a commitment to animal welfare
asked, will support the use of animals in laboratories, though that and expert knowledge in the recognition, prevention, and treat-
support wanes when there are species of high concern involved, ment of animal pain. Mandatory involvement of veterinarians
or if there is anticipated pain, distress, or suffering (Foundation in institutional programs of animal care and use is an important
for Biomedical Research, 2005; Humane Society of the United component of most countries’ animal welfare oversight. This
States, 2001; Plous, 1998; The Gallup Organization, 2007). goes beyond the traditional role of veterinarians in clinical care
to include direct roles in animal program management, proto-
col review, and consultation with principal investigators on the
B. Official Ethics: Professional Codes selection and use of anesthetics and analgesics during the design
of potentially painful experiments. This regulatory prescription
The ethical statements of numerous scientific and veterinary appears to presume that the involvement of the veterinarians will
societies reflect this societal consensus: that pain and distress provide a certain level of public confidence—consistent with the
must be minimized if animal-based research is to be ethically generally positive public perception of veterinarians—that ani-
acceptable. The position statement of American College of Lab- mals in research will be well cared for (American Veterinary
oratory Animal Medicine (ACLAM) on pain and distress in Medical Association, 2007b).
laboratory animals starts with its ethical position: “Procedures
expected to cause more than slight or momentary pain (e.g., pain
in excess of a needle prick or injection) require the appropriate C. Regulatory Ethics: The Ethical Basis of Regulation
use of pain-relieving measures unless scientifically justified in in the United States
an approved animal care and use protocol” (ACLAM, 2001).
Readers are referred as well to the position statements of Amer- The regulations of laboratory animal pain management are
ican Association for Laboratory Animal Science (AALAS), The important both as a reflection of ethical thinking and as the way
Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology they shape daily practice. The original 1966 Laboratory Animal
(FASEB), and National Aeronautics and Space Administra- Welfare Act (LAWA) (United States Congress, 1966) focused
tion (NASA) (AALAS, 2003; FASEB, 2007; NASA, 1996). primarily on animal acquisition, transportation, sale, and proper
24. ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 563

care prior to use in research. However, subsequent changes in treatment are important in assuring that research will continue
the law and implementing regulations have gradually shifted to progress” (United States Congress, 1985).
the focus to include major provisions aimed at avoidance or
alleviation of pain and distress (Carbone, 2004).
The U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care D. Normative Ethics: Making Ethical Choices
of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training
(United States Interagency Research Animal Committee, 1985) In 1996, NASA’s “Sundowner Principles” articulated three
reflect the societal values that form the ethical underpinnings societal principles for the ethical evaluation of animal experi-
of the entire U.S. system of animal welfare oversight, including mentation: respect for life, societal benefit, and nonmaleficence.
the Animal Welfare Act (AWA), and are explicitly referenced The principle of nonmaleficence means that minimization of dis-
in the “Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use tress, pain, and suffering is a moral imperative. Respect for life
of Laboratory Animals” (Office of Protection from Research means that causing harm to animals requires justification, while
Risks, 1986). The principles most applicable to the issues of concern for societal benefit means that animal research can
anesthesia and analgesia are as follows: indeed be justified, if it benefits society. A majority of philoso-
phers converge on the idea that there is no good criterion by
IV. Proper use of animals, including the avoidance or minimization of which we would exclude nonhumans from these principles, for
discomfort, distress, and pain when consistent with sound scientific
those animals capable of perceiving noxious stimuli in a way
practices, is imperative. Unless the contrary is established, investigators
should consider that procedures that cause pain or distress in human that truly harms them. By contrast, Beauchamp and Childress’
beings may cause pain or distress in other animals. principle of respect for autonomy has less of a place in animal
research, as most animals (with the possible exception of great
V. Procedures with animals that may cause more than momentary or
slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate sedation, apes, some cetaceans, and possibly some other taxa) appear to
analgesia, or anesthesia. Surgical or other painful procedures should not lack the degree of self-awareness to be capable of true autonomy
be performed on unanesthetized animals paralyzed by chemical agents. (Beauchamp and Childress, 1994).
VI.Animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic pain or distress Animal research is a public and often a publicly funded activ-
that cannot be relieved should be painlessly killed at the end of the ity. Because of this, research scientists and veterinarians have
procedure or, if appropriate, during the procedure. an ethical responsibility directly to society (and indirectly to
the animals) to respect broad concerns about animal welfare.
Public Health Service (PHS) Policy language describing The authors believe that the principle of nonmaleficence further
required information that must be included in PHS grant appli- creates a direct duty to the animals themselves, to take their wel-
cations as well as criteria for protocol review by IACUCs, follow fare seriously and to minimize the harmful impact of research
the language from the U.S. Government Principles closely. procedures on them.
Much of this PHS Policy language was, in turn, adopted verba- The philosopher David DeGrazia has described a “hedonistic
tim into the current the United States Department of Agriculture subjectivist” animal ethic (DeGrazia, 1996). That is to say that
(USDA) regulations during their promulgation. The consistency the moral issues in working with animals revolve largely around
of the various federal regulations and policies is due to the fact how animals feel (i.e., it is hedonistic), and more precisely, how
that they can all be traced back to the single ethical framework they themselves perceive their own condition (i.e., it is sub-
outlined in the U.S. Government Principles. jective, though limited to the extent that we can divine animal
In 1970, the Congress amended the AWA, specifying “ade- subjects’ minds). DeGrazia’s theory is not exclusively focused
quate veterinary care,” including pain management under direc- on the animal’s subjective feelings, recognizing that it may be
tion of the attending veterinarian (unless not allowed by research the most ethical course to restrain and hurt animals in the short
needs) (91st Congress, 1970). The 1985 AWA amendment term, such as in performing veterinary care for their long-term
focused heavily on animal pain, and established the Animal health. The ethical concern is not for activation of nociceptive
Welfare Information Center (AWIC), the purpose of which pathways per se, but for the experiential (conscious, emotional)
is to “provide information on improved methods of animal perception of pain (and therefore, sense of suffering) that can
experimentation, including methods which could . . . minimize accompany nociceptive input. For the purposes of this anesthe-
pain and distress to animals, such as anesthetic and analgesic sia and analgesia text, this means that IACUCs, scientists, and
procedures” (United States Congress, 1985). The 1985 AWA veterinarians must seriously evaluate what the animal may con-
amendment also mandated the role of IACUCs with their role sciously perceive as pain, whether from procedures or illnesses,
in oversight of efforts to minimize pain and distress. as well as the ability to control that pain. In addition, the IACUC
The ethical theory behind the regulatory mandates is not must consider the distress caused by pain, and even the distress
well articulated except in terms of general public concern. The associated with anesthetic induction and recovery.
Congress’ introductory language to the 1985 AWA framed this Putting all of this together, nonmaleficence and respect for
as but an indirect duty to animals, finding that “measures which life impose a direct duty to take animals’ subjective states
help meet the public concern for laboratory animal care and (pleasure, pain, etc.) seriously, while societal benefit allows
564 LARRY CARBONE AND NELSON GARNETT

scientists occasionally to override animal welfare for important justified. Examples include studies of pain mechanisms, stud-
research. The most challenging ethical decisions are those in ies of inflammatory processes, some toxicity testing, and other
which potential goods (such as science and animal welfare, or situations where at the very least an untreated control group may
refinements and reduction of numbers) or potential harms (such be scientifically necessary. The IACUC must review the inves-
as pain and death) must be weighed against each other. Specific tigator’s fact-finding and literature searches to verify that pain
issues and exemplar cases follow. medications truly might invalidate the data (and correlatively,
that pain itself in one cohort of animals is not an experimen-
tal variable that must be minimized). Such studies are reported
in Column E of the USDA annual report, and are frequently
II. ETHICAL ISSUES IN LABORATORY ANIMAL
referred to, even for USDA-excluded species, as “Category E”
ANESTHESIA, ANALGESIA, AND PAIN
studies (Karas and Silverman, 2007).
MANAGEMENT
Because there is no explicit prohibition against doing such
Category E research, the challenge for researchers and IACUCs
A. Withholding Pain Management to Prevent is not just the factual question of whether anesthesia or analgesia
Animal Injury would invalidate the study, but also the ethical judgment whether
the potential benefits of the study outweigh the unrelieved pain
The belief that masking pain might actually be detrimental to or distress.
an animal’s well-being was prevalent in veterinary schools years This cost–benefit assessment is necessary not just for Cat-
ago, and was not uncommonly held among practicing veterinar- egory E studies, but for all animal research, and raises the
ians (American College of Veterinary Anesthesiologists, 1998) question of how much the IACUC reviews scientific merit. U.S.
This belief predates the availability of modern analgesics, and Government Principle II states: “Procedures involving animals
may have been a rationalization for the lack of effective pain should be designed and performed with due consideration of
medications. There is an evolutionary advantage for animals to their relevance to human or animal health, the advancement of
develop self-protective behaviors in response to pain, and so an knowledge, or the good of society.” The authors maintain that
animal would refrain from reinjuring a pinned bone (for exam- it is impossible for IACUCs to satisfy the federally mandated
ple) only if pain prohibited exuberant use of the limb. If current review criteria without weighing the ethical cost/benefit ratio in
data supported this reasoning, this would be one situation where studies of this nature. Meritorious research is both important
the animal’s subjective state of well-being might be overruled in research and research that is designed in a way likely to pro-
the interest of longer-term health, where allowing the harm of duce valid scientific data (Prentice et al., 1992). The IACUC
pain prevents the greater harm of serious injury. This contraindi- may meet this commitment, at least in part, by verifying that a
cation of analgesics would raise the ethical cost of all surgical peer review process has found the work to be meritorious.
procedures in research, even though withholding analgesia was
for the animals’ health.
The effects of analgesia on healing are complex. In laboratory C. Reporting Pain and Distress in USDA Categories
studies, some nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
delay bone healing, while opioids and some other NSAIDs may The AWA regulations require research institutions to report
not, though there may not be a strong enough clinical effect to their animal use in several categories. Many American institu-
shape practice (Brown et al., 2004; Clarke and Lecky, 2005). In tions use these categories in-house even for species not reported
human patients, numbing a limb can lead to overuse and injury to the USDA. The reporting categories were introduced in 1971
(Edwards et al., 2006). In other models, pain management and to address the public concern that scientists performed painful
analgesic treatment speed healing (Hanson et al., 2005). Despite surgeries and other procedures without anesthesia and pain man-
the complexity, it appears there is neither scientific nor ethical agement. Category E studies are those in which some degree of
justification for withholding all analgesia from laboratory ani- pain or distress are anticipated for the animal subjects, but in
mals, and a thorough search for current information is essential. which at least some of that must be left untreated, so as not to
For surgical models, analgesic therapy can be supplemented invalidate the study. In Category D studies, potentially painful
with nursing care, including proper stabilization of fractures, procedures are managed with painkillers. Mixed studies are
surgical wound management, modifications to nutrition, fluid reported in the higher category—for example, using anesthet-
therapy, etc., often without compromising the research protocol. ics and analgesics for surgically placing an intrathecal cannula
would result in a Category D report, unless the cannula were
used to infuse inflammatory substances for a chronic pain study.
B. Withholding Pain Management for Research Needs This study would then be moved into Category E (USDA, 1977).
This pain categorization is not mere semantics or bureau-
In the American regulatory setting, IACUCs may per- cracy, but has real implications for how animals are treated. The
mit withholding pain management when that is scientifically authors have noted that researchers actively avoid having their
24. ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 565

studies placed in Category E, even for those species not publicly Animal Welfare Act regulations (AWR) contain a threshold level
reported to the USDA. There is some sort of internal ethical or of pain (more than slight or momentary, with the exemplar of
social pressure to avoid being identified as someone who causes a simple injection) that requires special pain categorization of
unrelieved pain to animals. This is good when it encourages the animals (APHIS, 1989). Distress has accompanied pain in
scientists to seek out earlier end points, more aggressive pain the animal welfare regulations since the 1970 AWA amend-
management, and less invasive procedures. This is not good ment (Animal and Plant Health Service, 1971). The USDA has
in cases where it merely results in underreporting Category E published comparable threshold exemplars for distress, such as
studies, or worse, when pain management is withheld out of food or water deprivation “beyond that necessary for normal
insistence that the procedure is not as painful as it truly might be. presurgical preparation” (USDA, 1997). Other sources of dis-
One challenge for IACUCs is temporal: If pain is treated only tress include restraint, fear, nausea, depression, and the distress
once it has reached a certain evident level, does the undetected associated with fear (Brown et al., 2006).
pain leading up to that point place a study in Category E? Or, Not only is distress harder than pain to define and recognize,
does the fact that the pain was eventually treated (possibly by but it is also less amenable to medical treatment. Analgesics
euthanasia) keep such a project in Category D? The problem lies do not help with fear or anxiety, though sedatives might. None
in the USDA’s system, acknowledging the two extremes where of these drugs are likely to alleviate hunger or thirst. Thus, to
all potential pain is treated (Category D) or where absolutely the extent that animal husbandry and research practices might
no pain is treated (Category E), but not really recognizing the exceed the distress threshold that moves them out of Category C,
multitude of animals that experience something somewhere in few would get effective drug treatments that would put them in
the middle. Category D. If that is the case, then the authors fear that Category
Consider an inflammation study in which the investigator sets E distress would be significantly underrecognized and underre-
a humane end point, planning to euthanize animals with a sus- ported, with potential deleterious outcomes for animals. It is
tained fever of 48 hours. Does this intervention—euthanasia therefore incumbent on IACUCs to standardize the threshold of
once illness is unequivocally established—keep these animals in distress for various types and sources of distress.
the lower category? Or, does the illness leading up to the estab-
lished end point warrant Category E classification? Overuse
of Category E classification could rob that designation of the E. Killing Animals
power it has to encourage refinement of experiments. Underuse
of Category E classification deprives the affected animals of that Most laboratory animal welfare concerns center around pain
impetus to better refine the project. and distress. Where does killing animals fit into this? Is
The authors fear that the relatively low number of Category euthanasia a harm to a healthy animal if done painlessly and
E animals reported annually lies in part in IACUCs’ decisions without causing fear? Does animal euthanasia require moral
to finesse the thresholds that might make a study Category E. justification?
An IACUC might decide that 48 hours of fever does not reach Animal ethicists have differed on this question. If animals
the Category E threshold, but that never addressing an animal’s have low levels of consciousness and self-consciousness, and
fever, no matter how long it rages, certainly does cross that are not really capable of planning a future or envisioning a self
threshold. Certainly, 48 hours is more than the AWA’s “momen- that continues through time, if they live only in the present, then
tary” threshold of “slight or momentary pain or distress,” but perhaps ending their lives is not truly a harm to them (Cigman,
does it cross the “slight” threshold? If yes, then that animal must 1989). Others argue that killing a healthy animal still deprives
be reported in Category E. If all animals that experienced some that animal of the future good things that life can bring, and
significant pain for some time were to be reported in Category so does constitute a harm, albeit a weaker harm than killing
E, the numbers would surely shift but the categorization would a more highly conscious being (DeGrazia, 1996). That is, the
lose much of its impact. animal does not have to know what you are depriving him/her of
Note too that the USDA annual report is a retrospective report, for that deprivation to be a harm to him/her. Not all vertebrate
not of what the IACUC approved, but of what the animals animals are equal in their degree of self-consciousness. While
experienced, over the prior year. To honestly file an accurate the authors believe it does constitute a harm to kill a relatively
report, the institution must have sufficient ongoing monitor- non-self-aware mouse, dog, or monkey, great apes and some
ing of approved protocols to know whether pain categorization cetaceans may be sufficiently self-aware that their deaths are
needs to be adjusted. an even greater harm to them (DeGrazia, 1998; Kraus, 1998;
NASA, 1996; Regan, 1983).
Animal euthanasia is explicitly mentioned in regulation in
D. Distress two contexts, both dealing with pain, distress, and pain man-
agement. The Guide for the Care and Use of LaboratoryAnimals
Nonmaleficent concern for animal welfare entails not just calls for euthanasia that kills animals by inducing “rapid uncon-
a concern for animal pain, but for animal distress as well. The sciousness and death without pain or distress” (p 65) (Institute
566 LARRY CARBONE AND NELSON GARNETT

of Laboratory Animal Resources, 1996). Thus, the same con- subject the same animal to more than doubled pain or distress.
cerns for minimizing pain apply to the act of euthanasia as apply Bilateral ocular procedures may allow an animal to serve as its
to the acts of surgery or other manipulations. Killing per se is own control but may also cause blindness. There are not just dou-
not the issue; pain and distress are. ble procedures, but a qualitatively impaired state, as blindness
The other regulatory context for killing is that of euthanasia will affect many sight-dependent animals far more than monoc-
as the ultimate analgesic. Principle VI of the U.S. Government ular visual deprivation would. Similarly, bilateral orthopedic
Principles states: “Animals that would otherwise suffer severe procedures do not just double the number of surgeries com-
or chronic pain or distress that cannot be relieved should be pared to unilateral procedures, but force the painful use of an
painlessly killed at the end of the procedure or, if appropri- operated extremity, without a healthy unoperated leg to support
ate, during the procedure” (United States Interagency Research the other. Bilateral procedures may be a necessary component
Animal Committee, 1985). The Guide and the AWA echo this of the research design; however, IACUCs must guard against
statement. rationalizations that are based on cost or convenience.
In public policy, a painless death is not explicitly named as Multiple survival procedures have received special caution
a significant harm to animals. Nonetheless, IACUCs do and in public policy since the 1978 Guide, and are now part of the
should closely consider the second “R”—reduction—even when AWR as well (Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources, 1978).
reviewing animal use protocols that include killing animals with Sometimes, sequential procedures are required to achieve
no pain or distress imposed. If animal death were truly ethically research aims. An example might be the surgical creation of
neutral, there would never be reason to question the number a heart failure model followed weeks later by surgical repair;
of animals euthanized. To illustrate this, consider an IACUC both must be done on the same subject for the study to be mean-
reviewing two protocols. Investigator A wants to observe sev- ingful. Regulatory policy clearly allows for multiple surgeries
eral thousand birds through binoculars as they migrate to their in cases like this.
breeding grounds. Investigator B wants to painlessly kill two Another justification for multiple surgeries might be when
dozen birds to collect tissues. Of the two, who is more likely to a long-term or difficult preparation fails prematurely. At that
be pushed to consider the second “R,” reduction, the one with point, the choice may be between an additional survival surgery
thousands of subjects or the one with dozens? If killing animals to salvage the failed preparation versus euthanasia of the ani-
were a zero-cost procedure, then even thousands of animals mal involved. To kill the animal means wasting all of the prior
killed should raise no ethical concern. Killing may have a lower expense, effort, surgical pain, and the animal’s life. To achieve
ethical cost than severe, untreated pain, but it is not zero. the research aims, an additional animal would likely be used to
IACUCs must weigh pain against killing. If death were always replace the data from the one lost.
preferable to any degree of animal pain, then that would preclude At the other extreme, regulatory policy clearly discourages
some activities we think of as being done for the animals’benefit cycling an animal from an invasive craniotomy project (for
(as opposed to being required for the science). Examples of this example) to an invasive and completely unrelated laparotomy
would be surgically removing a monkey’s implants so that he project. While some may argue that the greater harm is to waste
or she can be placed in a sanctuary, or spaying or neutering a the animal, there is a clear bias in policy and regulation in favor
retired research dog or cat for placement as a household pet. of increasing the number of animals versus performing more
surgeries per animal. The AWA regulations prohibit multiple
survival surgeries with three possible exceptions: (a) necessary
F. Fewer Animals/More Pain per Animal or More components of the same experimental design, (b) directions
Animals/Less Pain per Animal? from the attending veterinarian for clinical veterinary reasons,
or (c) prior approval from the administrator of Animal and Plant
IACUCs face an additional ethical dilemma: how to balance Inspection Service (APHIS). The Guide adds a fourth: conser-
the principle of reduction of animal numbers used against the vation of valuable or scarce resources. However, it is clear that
principle of reducing the amount of pain or distress experienced this is not a rationale that would comply with USDA regulation
by an individual animal. The question arises: how many proce- unless approved in advance by the APHIS Administrator.
dures per animal is it ethical to perform? In this section, we Neither the Guide nor the AWA states precisely why multi-
focus more on the harms of pain and distress, rather than the ple survival surgeries are to be avoided, nor is this prohibition
harms of killing. We assume that even those survival surgeries extended to other sources of pain (not even to Category E stud-
conducted with full anesthesia and analgesia will cause some ies). There are cases where the harm of survival surgeries is
degree of pain and distress to the animals. multiplicative rather than merely additive, for example, when
The pain of multiple procedures may be additive, but often prior abdominal surgeries have sensitized visceral nociceptors
the calculus is less simple. In some cases, multiple procedures and caused adhesions that make subsequent surgeries more
may lead to qualitatively more severe animal pain or distress. painful; in this case, the ethical presumption against multiple
For example, bilateral procedures on the same animal may have surgeries is self-evident. More typically, surgeries are essen-
a sparing effect on animal numbers, but these procedures may tially separate, additive events: Consider the case of cycling
24. ETHICAL ISSUES IN ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 567

a guinea pig from a craniotomy project onto one that requires may be well in most situations, but it must acknowledge that
abdominal surgery. In this case, the prior surgery has a neutral analgesic use itself can have negative effects on animals, and
effect on the pain and distress of the subsequent surgery, though carries costs of time, effort, money, documentation, and more
the regulatory presumption would still be in favor of killing the for staff. Consider a protocol in which mice will receive post-
first animal and replacing with another. Finally, there might surgical buprenorphine at 10 p.m. and will next be assessed at 8
be cases where there is less cumulative pain and distress when a.m. If there is a slight risk that at least some animals may be in
performing multiple surgeries on fewer animals. Consider an pain by 4 a.m., must the scientist come in then for an assessment?
animal already carrying multiple implants for single-cell brain Can he/she rely instead on the presumption that buprenorphine
recording, possibly a recording cylinder, a head restrainer, and should give adequate analgesia for most such animals? Who
some electromyogram leads on the arm muscles. Creating a gets the benefit of doubt—the sleep-deprived investigator or the
second craniotomy to study a different part of the brain (say, (potential) outlier mouse?
for hearing research instead of the initial study’s psychomo- Advances in pain recognition in laboratory animals (Roughan
tor investigations) means less total surgery than putting a head and Flecknell, 2000) will increasingly take the guesswork out
restrainer and a recording cylinder on a new animal. of protocol review. Careful prospective planning and retro-
What criteria can guide an IACUC’s review of whether to spective/ongoing assessment allow the scientist and IACUC
approve multiple major survival surgeries on an animal? Per- to negotiate a frequency of assessment and treatment that
haps there is some unarticulated notion of fairness that limits efficiently optimizes pain management.
surgery per animal (notice the inherent assumption that death The importance of training and competence in the minimiza-
is generally preferable to undergoing major survival surgery), tion of pain and distress cannot be overemphasized. While this
though this still begs the regulatory question why surgery is may seem self-evident, it is not unusual to see institutional train-
singled out among painful procedures for special caution. The ing programs based on a process that puts more emphasis on
authors believe that IACUCs certainly should consider the sum documenting attendance of training than on evaluating compe-
of the animal’s experiences and the impact multiple procedures tence. While both are important, the performance goal is really
are likely to have. However, the regulations give no reason for dependent on how well the individual actually performs a given
the proscription against multiple survival surgeries, and Ameri- task. In the case of hands-on animal procedures, this involves a
can IACUCs have limited flexibility to seriously evaluate animal combination of manual skills, experience, and also a large dose
welfare as the basis for their determination (Carbone, 1997). of the human element. We know that the same procedure in dif-
ferent hands may have very different outcomes. Accordingly, it
is important to factor in such things as a caring attitude, atten-
G. IACUCs, Veterinarians, and the Standard of Care tion to detail, and work ethic into the total picture of evaluating
how effectively pain and distress are minimized in a given sit-
IACUCs balance the potential harms to animals against uation. Training must include assessment of the animal, and in
experimental needs, but also against financial costs, conve- particular, methods for detecting pain and distress.
nience, availability of highly skilled experimenters, the harmful All medical practice entails setting a standard of care, charting
side effects of painkillers, and even tradition. They must decide a course between “best practice” (in a mythical realm of unlim-
how activist they want to be in pushing for change. A prin- ited skill and resources) and “good enough.” We encourage
cipal investigator may have good experience with what many laboratory animal veterinarians to aim always for best practice
would consider an outmoded anesthetic regimen. Forced by the that truly minimizes animal pain and distress, and for IACUCs
IACUC to shift to a different anesthetic, there may be an increase and scientists to closely follow their lead.
in animal suffering and death, either because of inexperience
with the newer method or because of previously unknown strain
effects. The IACUC must be cautious about forcing change that ADDITIONAL READING
could harm the animals. Similarly, the authors caution against
Kraus, A.L., and Renquist, D. (eds.) (2000). “Bioethics and the Use of Labora-
excessive IACUC-mandated pilot studies. Investigators should tory Animals: Ethics in Theory and Practice.” George C. Benoit Publishing,
certainly be asked to report on early or pilot animals when Dubuque, IA.
embarking on work with a new or unfamiliar model. In some Nuffield Council on Bioethics. (2005). “The Ethics of Research Involving
situations—one example might be looking for subtle effects Animals.” Latimer Trend & Co., London.
of analgesics on certain biochemical parameters—a pilot study ILAR Journal 1999 issue on ethics: http://dels.nas.edu/ilar_n/ilarjournal/40_1/
Web sites: http://bioethics.net/resources/index.php?t=sub_pages&cat=64
will fail to find a real effect simply because the effect is too http://bioethics.od.nih.gov/animals.html
small for the sample size to detect.
Scientists, IACUCs, and veterinarians often work with
incomplete or probabilistic knowledge of the pain entailed in REFERENCES
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Welfare; final rules. Fed. Regist. 54(168), 36112–36163. vice Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory Animals.”
Animal and Plant Health Service, USDA. (1971). Title 9: Animals and animal National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD. Available on-line at http://
products. Fed. Regist. 36, 24917. grants.nih.gov/grants/olaw/references/phspol.htm
Beauchamp, T.L., and Childress, J.F. (1994). “Principles of Biomedical Ethics.” Plous, S. (1998). Opinion Research on Animal Experimentation: Areas of
Oxford University Press, New York. Support and Concern. Proceedings for Pain Management and Humane
Brown, K.M., Saunders, M.M., Kirsch, T., Donahue, H.J., and Reid, J.S. Endpoints, Washington D.C.; published on-line by Johns Hopkins Cen-
(2004). Effect of COX-2-specific inhibition on fracture-healing in the rat ter for Alternatives to Animal Testing. Available on-line at http://
femur. J. Bone Joint Surg. Am. 86-A(1), 116–123. altweb.jhsph.edu/meetings/pain/plous.htm
Brown, M., Carbone, L., Conlee, K.M., Dawkins, M.S., Duncan, I.J., Fraser, Prentice, E.D., Crouse, D.A., and Mann, M.D. (1992). Scientific merit review:
D., Griffin, G., Hampshire, V.A., Lambert, L.A., Mench, J.A., Morton, D., The role of the IACUC. ILAR News 34(1–2), 15–19.
Richmond, J., Rollin, B.E., Rowan, A.N., Stephens, M.L., and Wurbel, H. Regan, T. (1983). “The Case for Animal Rights.” University of California Press,
(2006). Report of the Working Group on Animal Distress in the Laboratory. Berkeley, CA.
Lab. Anim. (NY) 35(8), 26–30. Roughan, J.V., and Flecknell, P.A. (2000). Effects of surgery and analgesic
Carbone, L. (1997). SVME issues forum. Soc. Vet. Med. Ethics Newsl. 3(1), administration on spontaneous behaviour in singly housed rats. Res. Vet. Sci.
2–3. 69(3), 283–288.
Carbone, L. (2004). “What Animals Want: Expertise and Advocacy in Russell, W.M.S., and Burch, R.L. (1959). “The Principles of Humane
Laboratory Animal Welfare Policy.” Oxford University Press, New York. Experimental Technique.” Methuen & Co. Ltd, London.
Cigman, R. (1989). Why death does not harm animals. In “Animal Rights and Tannenbaum, J. (1995). “Veterinary Ethics: Animal Welfare, Client Relations,
Human Obligations.” (T. Regan, and P. Singer, eds.), pp 150–152. Prentice Competition and Collegiality.” Mosby, St. Louis, MI.
Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. The Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (FASEB).
Clarke, S., and Lecky, F. (2005). Best evidence topic report. Do non-steroidal (2007). Statement of principles for the use of animals in research and edu-
anti-inflammatory drugs cause a delay in fracture healing? Emerg. Med. J. cation. Available on-line at http://opa.faseb.org/pages/PolicyIssues/animal
22(9), 652–653. research_restatement.htm
DeGrazia, D. (1996). “Taking Animals Seriously.” Cambridge University Press, The Gallup Organization. (2007). Moral issues. Available on-line at
Cambridge. http://www.galluppoll.com/content/?ci=1681&pg=1
DeGrazia, D. (1998). Moral pluralism in animal ethics: An approach neither United States Congress. (1966). Laboratory Animal Welfare Act of 1966, Pub-
utilitarian nor rights-based. In “Bioethics and the Use of Laboratory Animals: lic Law 89-544. Available on-line at http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislat/
Ethics in Theory and Practice.” (A.L. Kraus, and D. Renquist, eds.). George pl89544.htm
C. Benoit Publishing, Dubuque, IA. United States Congress. (1985). Food Security Act of 1985, Public Law
Donnelly, S. (1990). Introduction: The troubled middle in media res. Hastings 99-198. Title XVII, Subtitle F: Animal welfare. Available on-line at
Cent. Rep. Special Supplement (May/June), 2–4. http://www.nal.usda.gov/awic/legislat/pl99198.htm
Edwards, J.L., Pandit, H., and Poppet, M.T. (2006). Perioperative analgesia: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (1977). Animal welfare:
A factor in the development of heel pressure ulcers? Br. J. Nurs. 15(6), Definition of terms. Fed. Regist. 42(117), 31022–31029.
S20–S25. United States Department of Agriculture, Animal and Plant Health Inspec-
Foundation for Biomedical Research. (2005). Poll shows majority of Americans tion Service, Animal Care (USDA). (1997). “Animal Care Resource
support animal research (unpublished press release). Available on-line at Guide, Policy No. 11: Painful/Distressful Procedures.” Available on-line at
http://www.fbresearch.org/Journalists/Polls/HartPoll_4_15_05.htm http://www.aphis.usda.gov/ac/publications/policy/policy11.pdf
Hanson, C.A., Weinhold, P.S., Afshari, H.M., and Dahners, L.E. (2005). The United States Interagency Research Animal Committee. (1985). Principles for
effect of analgesic agents on the healing rat medial collateral ligament. Am. the utilization and care of vertebrate animals used in testing, research, and
J. Sports Med. 33(5), 674–679. training. Fed. Regist. 50, 20864–20865.
 Chapter 25

Regulatory Issues
Laura A. Conour, Sonja T. Chou, and Lynn C. Anderson

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
II. US Animal Welfare Regulations, Policies, and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
A. Animal Welfare Act and USDA Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
B. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of Laboratory
Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
C. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
D. Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal
Care—International . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
E. Institutional Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
III. Drug Enforcement Regulations and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
A. Controlled Substances Act, Title 21 CFR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
B. Drug Schedules (Title 21 CFR Appendix) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
C. State Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
D. Professional Organization Position Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
E. Institutional Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
IV. Occupational Health and Safety Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
A. Anesthetic Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
B. Drug Abuse Regulations and Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
C. Needle and Syringe Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
V. International Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
A. Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
B. Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
C. Elsewhere Around the World . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Laws, Regulations, and Policies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580

I. INTRODUCTION
to prevent or minimize pain and distress in animals used
in research, teaching, and testing. The Animal Welfare Act
The purpose of this chapter is to provide a review of the (AWA)/US Department of Agriculture (USDA) regulations, the
regulations, policies, and standards governing the proper use Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and Use of
of anesthesia, analgesia, tranquilizers, and other agents used Laboratory Animals, and the Guide for the Care and Use of

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

569
570 LAURA A. CONOUR ET AL.

Laboratory Animals (Guide), which include requirements and distress. The USDA “Animal Care Policy Manual,” which does
guidance regarding the responsibilities of veterinarians, Insti- not have the force of regulation, further clarifies the intent of
tutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUCs), and the regulations and standards and provides additional guidance
research scientists for eliminating or controlling animal pain for research institutions.
and distress, are summarized. A brief overview of the US federal The AV for each research institution has the authority to
and state regulations for the management and use of controlled ensure the provision of adequate veterinary care and to oversee
substances, as well as occupational health and safety con- the adequacy of other aspects of animal care and use. Adequate
cerns associated with anesthetic and analgesic drug use, is also veterinary care must include appropriate facilities, personnel,
included. In addition, a brief description of related international equipment, and services within the research institution to com-
regulations and policies is provided. For a more comprehensive ply with the USDA regulations. Appropriate methods to prevent,
overview on the laws, regulations, and policies affecting the control, diagnose, and treat diseases and injuries, and the avail-
general use of laboratory animals, please consult Laboratory ability of emergency, weekend, and holiday care must also be
Animal Medicine, 2nd edition (Fox et al., 2002). made available for all the animals regulated by the AWA. Daily
observations must be performed to assess animal health and
well-being. The veterinarian must also provide guidance to prin-
cipal investigators and other personnel involved in the care and
II. US ANIMAL WELFARE REGULATIONS,
use of animals regarding handling, immobilization, anesthe-
POLICIES, AND STANDARDS
sia, analgesia, tranquilization, and euthanasia of animals. For
surgical procedures, all pre- and post-procedural care must be
A. Animal Welfare Act and USDA Regulations performed in accordance with currently established veterinary
medical and nursing procedures, including the relief of pain
The United States Public Law (PL) 89-544, commonly and distress (9 CFR, Chapter 1, Subchapter A, Part 2, Sec-
referred to as the AWA, was signed into law in August 1966 (PL tion 2.33, 1989). Drugs administered to relieve pain or distress
89-544, 1966). The original intent of the AWA was to protect and emergency drugs must not be used beyond their expiration
pet animals from being used in biomedical research. How- date. Expired medical materials, such as sutures, may be used
ever, amendments to the AWA in PL 91-579 (1970), PL 94-279 for acute terminal procedures, provided that this practice does
(1976), PL 99-198 (1985), and PL 101-624 (1990) significantly not adversely affect the animal’s well-being or compromise the
expanded the scope of the regulations. The amendments led to validity of the scientific study; however, proper anesthesia, anal-
the establishment of minimal standards for the care and use of gesia, and euthanasia with non-expired agents are required for
animals used in research, teaching, and testing, and added insti- all terminal and nonterminal procedures. Pharmaceutical-grade
tutional responsibilities for oversight of animal care and use. agents should be used, unless the use of non-pharmaceutical
The amendments also led to regulations for the sale, exhibition, grade has been specifically reviewed and approved by the
and commercial transport of animals. IACUC on the basis of scientific necessity (USDA/APHIS/AC
Regulations and standards based on the AWA are devel- Policy No. 3, 2007).
oped and administered through the USDA, Animal and Plant To help assure humane use of experimental animals, the 1985
Health Inspection Service (APHIS), Animal Care (AC). These amendment to the AWA required every animal research facility
regulations and standards, published in the Code of Federal to establish an Institutional Animal Care Committee, designated
Regulations (CFR), Title 9, Animals and Animal Products, Sub- by the USDA as an IACUC, to assess the research facility’s pro-
chapter A, Animal Welfare, Parts 1–4 (2006), require each gram of animal care, procedures, and facilities. At a minimum,
research facility to identify an Institutional Official (IO) who this committee must be comprised of three members, includ-
is authorized to legally commit on behalf of the facility that the ing a community member and a veterinarian. One of the many
USDA requirements will be met. functions of the IACUC is to review and approve or require
The USDA regulations provide minimal requirements for the modifications prior to approval of all proposed research activi-
humane handling, care, and treatment of dogs, cats, guinea pigs, ties or significant changes in those activities. Prior to approving
hamsters, rabbits, nonhuman primates, and other warm-blooded the proposed research activity, the IACUC shall ensure that all
species used in research, teaching, and testing. However, the aspects of the research will be conducted in accordance with
regulations specifically exclude from USDA oversight some USDA regulations, performed by appropriately qualified and
other commonly used species of laboratory animals, includ- trained personnel, and that animal discomfort, distress, and
ing purpose-bred birds, mice of the genus Mus and rats of the pain will be avoided or minimized. If the procedures may cause
genus Rattus, and farm animals used for production agriculture more than momentary or slight pain or distress, the investigator
research. These regulations also emphasize the need to provide must consult a veterinarian to ensure that appropriate sedatives,
adequate veterinary care for laboratory animals and prescribe analgesics, and/or anesthetics will be provided. The IACUC
the responsibilities of the attending veterinarian (AV), investi- must also be assured that the procedures will be performed
gators and the research institution to minimize animal pain and with appropriate use of pain-relieving agents. In addition, the
25. REGULATORY ISSUES 571

IACUC shall determine if the principal investigator has consid- institution to submit an Animal Welfare Assurance Statement
ered alternatives and provided a written narrative of the methods to the Office for Protection of Research Risks (OPRR) (now
and sources used to determine that no alternatives to minimize Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare, OLAW) that it would
or eliminate pain and distress are available. Paralytics must not comply with the PHS policy requirements and provisions of the
be used without anesthesia. If it is necessary to withhold such Guide. Like the 1973 PHS policy, the 1979 revision accepted
agents to meet research objectives, then scientific justification accreditation by the American Association for Accreditation of
must be provided in the research proposal and approved by the Laboratory Animals Care (AAALAC) (now Association for the
IACUC. Any unrelieved pain or distress may continue only for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care—
the necessary period of time. Animals that would otherwise International) as a means of assuring conformance with the
experience severe or chronic pain or distress that cannot be Guide.
relieved must be euthanized during or at the end of the pro- The PHS policy was revised again in 1986 and incorporated
cedure, using methods consistent with the current Report of provisions of the Health Research Extension Act of 1985, Ani-
the American Veterinary Medical Association (AVMA) Panel mals in Research, Section 495, which mandated the Secretary
on Euthanasia (9 CFR, Chapter 1, Subchapter A, Part 2, Sec- of Health and Human Services to establish guidelines for the
tion 2.31). Authors note: Subsequent to the publication of the proper care and treatment of animals used in biomedical and
revised USDA regulations on January 1, 2005, the AVMA reis- behavioral research funded by the PHS (PL 99-158, 1985).
sued the Report of the AVMA Panel on Euthanasia as the AVMA The Act specifically required the appropriate use of tranquiliz-
Guidelines on Euthanasia (AVMA, 2007). ers, analgesics, anesthetics, paralytics, and euthanasia. The Act
If the proposed animal activities involve surgery, the veteri- also mandated animal care committees, appointed by the chief
narian must be consulted to assure that appropriate provisions, executive officer of each institution, that included at least three
including the use of appropriate anesthesia and analgesia, will members. One member must be an individual not affiliated with
be provided. Pre- and post-operative care must also be discussed the institution and another member must be a doctor of veteri-
with the veterinarian during the activity-planning phase (9 CFR, nary medicine. The PHS policy requires each committee to have
Chapter 1, Subchapter A, Part 2, Sections 2.31 and 2.32). a minimum of five members (unlike the Act, itself), including a
The provision of medical or nursing care must be described in veterinarian, a practicing scientist with experience in research
the animal activity proposal, although the veterinarian has the involving animals, a member whose primary concerns are in a
authority to change postoperative care as necessary to ensure nonscientific area, and a nonaffiliated member. It also allows an
the comfort of the animals (USDA/APHIS/AC Policy No. 3, individual who meets the requirements of more than one of these
2007). categories to fulfill more than one requirement. The Act and the
The research facility is responsible for ensuring that all sci- 1986 edition of the PHS policy also required research institu-
entists, research technicians, animal technicians, and other tions to provide training for scientists, animal technicians, and
personnel involved in animal care, treatment, and use are qual- others involved in animal care, treatment, or use. This training
ified to perform their duties. Instruction must be provided on or instruction must include information on humane animal care
(1) the humane methods of animal maintenance and experi- and use, and research or training methods that would minimize
mentation; (2) the concept, availability, and use of research or the number of animals required to obtain valid results and min-
testing methods that limit the use of animals or minimize ani- imize animal distress. In 2002, the PHS policy was amended
mal distress; (3) the proper use of anesthetics, analgesics, and to permit institutions with PHS Animal Welfare Assurances to
tranquilizers for animal species used by the facility, and (4) submit verification of IACUC approval of competing applica-
informational resources available to train employees on appro- tions or research proposals subsequent to peer review but prior
priate animal care and use (9 CFR, Chapter 1, Subchapter A, to award. However, the principles regarding pain and distress
Part 2, Section 2.31 and 2.32). remained unchanged.
The 1986 PHS Policy on Humane Care and Use of Labora-
tory Animals (PHS policy) also endorsed and incorporated the
B. Public Health Service Policy on Humane Care and nine “U.S. Government Principles for the Utilization and Care
Use of Laboratory Animals of Vertebrate Animals Used in Testing, Research, and Training,”
(U.S. Government Principles) which were promulgated in 1985
The first Public Health Service (PHS) policy regarding by the Interagency Research Animal Committee (IRAC). The
research animal care and use was issued in 1973 and evolved IRAC included representatives of all federal agencies that use
from the 1971 National Institutes of Health (NIH) Policy, “Care or require the use of experimental animals. To this day, all the
and Treatment of Laboratory Animals.” When the PHS policy US government agencies that develop requirements for stud-
was revised in 1979, it required each institution receiving PHS ies involving the use of vertebrate animals must consider these
grants to have a committee (IACUC) to maintain oversight of its principles. Furthermore, agencies that perform or sponsor such
animal care program. It also expanded the definition of animal studies must, through their IO, assure that those individuals
to include all vertebrates. The revised policy also required each who perform the studies adhere to the principles. Three of these
572 LAURA A. CONOUR ET AL.

principles specifically address pain and distress. Principle IV consist of a doctor of veterinary medicine, at least one practic-
states, “avoidance or minimization of discomfort, distress ing scientist experienced in research involving animals, and at
and pain when consistent with sound scientific practices, is least one public member to represent the community’s interests.
imperative.” This principle also states, “unless the contrary The Guide also reinforces that veterinary medical care is an
is established, investigators should consider that procedures essential part of an animal care and use program and specifies
that cause pain or distress in human beings may cause pain the responsibility of the AV. An effective veterinary medical pro-
or distress in other animals.” Principle V requires that “pro- gram should incorporate aspects of recognizing and managing
cedures with animals that may cause more than momentary or animal pain and distress. This should include proper manage-
slight pain or distress should be performed with appropriate ment of protocol-associated disease or disability, anesthesia
sedation, analgesia, or anesthesia. Surgical or other painful and analgesia use, surgery, pre- and post-surgical care, and
procedures should not be performed on unanesthetized ani- euthanasia.
mals paralyzed by chemical agents.” Principle VI requires The Guide acknowledges, “pain is a stressor and, if not
that “animals that would otherwise suffer severe or chronic relieved, can lead to unacceptable levels of stress and distress
pain or distress that cannot be relieved should be painlessly in animals.” Minimization of pain, stress, and distress may be
killed at the end of the procedure or, if appropriate, during the accomplished, in part, through the provision of proper guidance
procedure.” on appropriate animal handling, immobilization, and euthana-
The implementation, interpretation, and evaluation of facil- sia to all research and husbandry personnel involved in animal
ity compliance with the PHS policy are performed by the NIH care and use. The Guide also asserts that the “proper use of
OLAW. Any institutions receiving support through the PHS for anesthetics and analgesics in research animals is an ethical and
animal research, teaching, testing, or animal-related activities scientific imperative.” Veterinary medical guidance or oversight
must provide written assurance of their compliance with the of surgery programs and pre- and post-surgical care is essen-
PHS policy. In their PHS Animal Welfare Assurance State- tial to prevent or minimize pain. Other classes of drugs such as
ment, each institution must include a synopsis of the training sedatives, anxiolytics, and neuromuscular blocking agents are
or instruction that is offered to all animal users, including the not analgesic or anesthetic and thus do not relieve pain, but they
humane practice of animal care and use, and research or testing may be used in conjunction with analgesics and anesthetics to
methods that minimize animal pain and distress. The PHS policy alleviate animal pain and distress.
also requires institutions to use the Guide (NRC, 1996; or sub- Investigators preparing animal use protocols, and IACUC
sequent editions) as the basis for developing and implementing members reviewing such protocols, must consider alternative,
their institution’s animal care and use program. less-invasive procedures to avoid pain or distress. The IACUC
must also, on behalf of the institution, ensure the adequacy
of training and experience of personnel performing the proce-
C. Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals dure. In addition, the IACUC must ensure that the protocol: (1)
includes the use of appropriate sedation, analgesia, and anesthe-
The Guide provides guidance based on the U.S. Government sia during major operative procedures; (2) provides for proper
Principles and is used as the basis for institutional animal care pre- and post-procedural care; (3) articulates the criteria and
and use program development. Written and published by the process for timely intervention, if necessary; and (4) describes
Institute for Laboratory Animal Research (ILAR), Commission the endpoints for removal of animals from a study. Euthanasia
on Life Sciences, National Research Council, this document should be conducted if unrelieved painful or stressful outcomes
establishes performance standards for the care and use of all are anticipated.
vertebrate animals. It is recognized by both the PHS and the
AAALAC as the primary reference on laboratory animal care
and use programs. D. Association for Assessment and Accreditation of
Similar to the USDA regulations and the PHS policy, the Laboratory Animal Care—International
Guide holds the research institution responsible for ensuring
that investigators, technical personnel, trainees, and visiting AAALAC International is a private, nonprofit organization
investigators who perform animal anesthesia, surgery, or other that promotes the humane treatment of animals in science. The
experimental manipulations are qualified through training or AAALAC accreditation program started in 1965 as an activity
experience to accomplish these tasks in a humane and scien- of the American Association for the Accreditation of Labora-
tifically acceptable manner. Each institution should provide for tory Animal Care, which accredited hundreds of institutional
formal or on-the-job training to facilitate effective implementa- animal care and use programs throughout the United States. In
tion of the program and humane care and use of animals. 1996, the name was changed to underscore that AAALAC Inter-
In contrast to the USDA regulations and the 1985 Health national accredits institutional animal care and use programs
Research Extension Act, the Guide does not specify a mini- around the world. This voluntary accreditation and assessment
mum number of members, but recommends that the IACUC program is based primarily on the Guide. Other references listed
25. REGULATORY ISSUES 573

on the AAALAC International website (http://www.aaalac.org) III. DRUG ENFORCEMENT REGULATIONS AND
may also be used as the basis for assessing animal care and POLICIES
use programs. AAALAC International publishes position state-
ments that can be used as supplemental guidelines in dealing
Many of the agents used to prevent or minimize pain in lab-
with issues such as the use of farm animals, occupational health
oratory animals are subject to laws and regulations that govern
and safety, and adequate veterinary care.
their manufacture, importation, possession, and distribution. In
AAALAC International recognizes that veterinary care is an
general, these are referred to as “controlled substances.” There
essential part of an animal care program and supports the reg-
are three tiers of law that provide the structure governing the
ulations and policies that require the veterinarian to either be
medical use and diversion of controlled substances: Interna-
board certified by the American College of Laboratory Animal
tional Treaties (2), Federal Laws and Regulations, and State
Medicine or have training or experience in laboratory animal
Laws and Regulations. These laws are supplemented by policy
science and medicine in the species being housed and used.
statements on the responsible use of controlled substances by
The veterinarian should also contribute to the establishment
a number of veterinary and medical practitioner organizations
of appropriate policies and procedures for ancillary aspects of
and state and federal governmental departments (Joranson and
veterinary care. The veterinarian must provide guidance to all
Gilson, 1994).
personnel involved in the care and use of animals to ensure
The 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (INCB, 1961)
appropriate animal handling, immobilization, sedation, analge-
and the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances (also
sia, anesthesia, and euthanasia, as well as provide oversight of
known as the Vienna Convention; INCB, 1971) are the two
animal surgery, and pre- and post-surgical care.
conventions that govern international manufacture, use, and
By attaining AAALAC accreditation, a research institution
distribution of controlled substances. These two treaties are
demonstrates that it has established practices that meet or
governed by the World Health Organization (WHO). The UN
exceed existing regulations and standards to achieve excellence
Commission on Narcotic Drugs is the office responsible for
in animal care and use. Institutions that apply for AAALAC
maintaining and updating the controlled drug schedules in these
accreditation must provide a written program description cov-
two conventions.
ering: (1) institutional policies and responsibilities; (2) animal
The first US federal legislation to regulate the prescription
environment, housing, and management; (3) veterinary medi-
of drugs was enacted in 1914 as The Harrison Narcotic Act.
cal care; and (4) physical plant. Under the section on veterinary
In 1970, the Office for Drug Abuse Law Enforcement and the
medical care, surgical activities, assessment of animal pain and
Office of National Narcotics Intelligence were merged to form
distress, use of analgesia and anesthesia, euthanasia methods,
the Drug Enforcement Administration within the Department of
and drug storage and control are described in detail.
Justice. As a result, a single federal statute regulates the manu-
facture, importation, possession, and distribution of controlled
substances in the United States [The Controlled Substances Act
E. Institutional Policies
(CSA), 21 CFR]. The Practitioners Manual (2006) published
by the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) is a comprehensive
Each research institution should develop, communicate, and
document to guide practitioner’s in the prescription, adminis-
implement policies that support the humane care and use of
tration, and dispensing of controlled substances. Individuals
animals within their institution. These policies should help
establishing controlled substances record-keeping and acquisi-
to assure compliance with applicable laws, regulations, and
tion systems for a laboratory animal facility should consult this
policies, and address the specific requirements of the institu-
document.
tion. The scope and complexity of institutional policies will
depend on the nature of the research and species of animals
used and may exceed the minimal regulatory requirements. For
example, an institution may appoint more than the minimal A. Controlled Substances Act, Title 21 CFR
number of members required to serve on the IACUC. Insti-
tutional policies may also address the specific provisions for The CSA is administered by the Secretary of Health and
preventing pain or distress and the use of pain-relieving agents. Human Services and enforced by the DEA. An underlying pur-
Another example would be a policy outlining the institution- pose of the CSA is to enable the United States to meet all of its
specific process for IACUC review of concerns involving the obligations under international treaties. It was amended in 1978
care and use of animals. As described in the USDA regulations, by the Psychotropic Substances Act to add provisions imple-
these concerns may result from public complaints received and mented by the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. It was
from reports of noncompliance received by research facility amended again in 1984 by the Controlled Substances Penal-
personnel or employees. This may include investigating inap- ties Amendments Act and, in 1988, The Chemical Diversion
propriate use of anesthetics or analgesics or withholding the use and Trafficking Act added provisions implementing the United
of pain-relieving agents when it is warranted. Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
574 LAURA A. CONOUR ET AL.
TABLE 25-1
Summary of Controlled Substances Schedules

Schedule I
• The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse
• The drug or other substance has no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
• There is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substances under medical supervision
Examples include heroin, Ecstasy, and LSD
Schedule II
• The drug or other substance has a high potential for abuse
• The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States or a currently accepted medical use with
severe restrictions
• Abuse of the drug or other substances may lead to severe psychological or physical dependence
Examples include cocaine (used as a topical anesthetic), morphine, oxycodone, pentobarbital
Schedule III
• The drug or other substance has a potential for abuse less than the drugs or other substances in Schedules I and II
• The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
• Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to moderate or low physical dependence or high psychological dependence
Examples include buprenorphine and ketamine
Schedule IV
• The drug or other substance has low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in Schedule III
• The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
• Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to drugs or substances in Schedule III
Examples include phenobarbital, Talwin, Valium, chloral hydrate
Schedule V
• The drug or other substance has low potential for abuse relative to the drugs or other substances in Schedule IV
• The drug or other substance has a currently accepted medical use in treatment in the United States
• Abuse of the drug or other substance may lead to limited physical dependence or psychological dependence relative to drugs or substances in Schedule IV
Examples include cough suppressants containing small amounts of codeine

Source: Adapted from CSA Section 812. Also available at http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/21cfr/21usc/812.htm

Psychotropic Substances. Federal controlled substances laws The requirement for registration is waived for any practitioner
also work in tandem with state controlled substances legislation prescribing, administering, or dispensing controlled substances
and the requirements set forth by professional licensing boards. within the Armed Forces, the PHS, or the Bureau of Prisons.
The CSA sets forth the federal laws regarding both legit- Applicants must register with the DEA using DEA Form 224.
imate and illicit use of controlled substances. This law also The practitioner must also be registered in each state where
strives to provide a balanced policy of promoting pain relief they prescribe, administer, or dispense controlled substances.
while preventing abuse of pain-relieving medications. The A separate registration is required for each “principal place of
DEA’s statutory responsibility is “to prevent diversion and abuse business” where controlled substances are stored, dispensed,
of these drugs while ensuring an adequate and uninterrupted or maintained. Upon approval, applicants are assigned a DEA
supply is available to meet the country’s legitimate medical, registration number and given a certificate of registration. A
scientific, and research needs.” modification of registration must be submitted with a change in
The international treaties and the CSA established a system physical location of the practitioner’s activities.
for classifying controlled substances according to Schedules Storage of Schedules II–V controlled substances in a
I–V, with Schedule I drugs being the most strictly controlled “securely locked, substantially constructed cabinet” is required.
(Table 25-1). Any new or revised scheduling on controlled sub- Schedule I controlled substances must be stored in a US Gov-
stances is published in the Federal Register with final ruling ernment Class V security container (Practitioner’s Manual,
issued by the Deputy Administrator of the DEA. Any number of 2006).
agencies or organizations can recommend scheduling of certain A number of forms are required for registration with the DEA
substances with advisement frequently made by the FDA and and prescription of controlled substances. All receiving records
the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). must be retained and DEA Form 222 (triplicate form) must
The aim of this law is to establish a “closed system” of be used for receipt of Schedule II drugs. For Schedules III–
legitimate handling of controlled substances to include manu- V drugs, supplier invoices must be retained. Physical records
facturers, distributors, physicians, pharmacies, and researchers. must be maintained of the inventory of controlled substances
Institutions or individuals who are registered with the DEA must received, dispensed, or administered, with all records retained
strictly account for any distribution of controlled substances. for at least a 2-year period.
25. REGULATORY ISSUES 575

A “complete and accurate record of the controlled substances The CSA also regulates retail sales of over-the-counter
on hand” must be maintained. Inventories must be conducted pseudoephedrine, phenyopropanolamine, and combination
every 2 years. The inventory must contain the date on which the ephedrine products to a specific amount for a single transac-
inventory is conducted, the names of the controlled substances, tion limit. These restrictions were placed in effect to regulate
the dosage unit and types, the number of dosage units, the num- the purchases of these substances for use in the manufacture of
ber of commercial containers, and the record of disposition. Any methamphetamine or amphetamine.
samples received from pharmaceutical companies must also be The Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990 (ASCA, Title
inventoried (Practitioner’s Manual, 2006). XIX of PL 101-647) classified anabolic steroids into Sched-
Theft or “significant loss” of controlled substances requires ule III of the CSA. The DEA excluded three veterinary anabolic
immediate reporting (within one business day) to the DEA upon steroid implants for use in cattle or nonhuman species. Anabolic
discovery of the loss or theft. DEA Form 106 must be com- steroids include hormonal substances related to testosterone.
pleted and filed. Breakage or spillage of controlled substances This definition does not include hormonal substances related to
does not constitute a “loss” of controlled substances. If the con- estrogen, progestins, and corticosteroids.
trolled substances are not recoverable as a result of breakage or
spillage, the circumstances surrounding the breakage must be
documented within the inventory records. Two witnesses who B. Drug Schedules (Title 21 CFR Appendix)
observed the breakage must sign the inventory records indicat-
ing the circumstances that they witnessed. When disposal of The five schedules of controlled substances are published
controlled substances occurs, it must, however, be reported to annually in Sections 1308.11–1308.15 of 21 CFR (CSA). Con-
the DEA using DEA Form 41. trolled substances are scheduled based on “current accepted
Diversion is the illicit use of prescribed drugs for recre- medical use in treatment in the US, the relative abuse poten-
ational purposes. Illegal distribution of controlled substances tial, and the likelihood of causing dependence when abused”
or significant record-keeping violations will result in judicial (Practitioner’s Manual, 2006). A drug is placed into a schedule
action pursued by the DEA. The Office of Diversion Control as the result of an international treaty, convention, or protocol,
within the Drug Enforcement Administration monitors and has or as the result of the findings or criteria for each schedule.
authority over the diversion of controlled pharmaceuticals and These findings are summarized in Table 25-1. Different formu-
controlled chemicals. Details regarding Office of Diversion lations of the same drug or substance may be contained within
Control Program Description may be found at DEA website different schedules (Sapienza, 2006). Drugs can be added to
(http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/prog_dscrpt/index.html). a schedule, reclassified into a new schedule, or omitted from
Controlled substances can also be surrendered to an area DEA a schedule at any time throughout the course of the year. The
Field Office in person or via mail, with the exception of Sched- examples provided in Table 25-1 are not the definitive list of
ule I controlled substances. Dispensing expired medications is scheduled controlled substances; the complete list of Con-
in direct violation of the federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act trolled Substances Schedules may be found under Section 812
and/or the CSA. Most short-dated or expired medications (not of 21 CFR.
Controlled Substances) can be returned to the manufacturer via Substances listed in Schedule I are only permitted for research
the Customer Service department or their local sales represen- use. The FDA must qualify researchers and approve research
tative (Crimmins, 2001). For disposal of expired, damaged, or protocols using Schedule I substances and a separate registra-
unwanted controlled substances, a reverse distributor should be tion to conduct research with a Schedule I controlled substance
utilized. Most reverse distributors will accept Schedules II–V (Practitioner’s Manual, 2006).
controlled substances as well as unused sharps and other non-
controlled drugs. Check with your distributors about inventory
pickup or mail-in service offerings. DEA Form 222 should be C. State Regulations
used to transfer Schedules I and II controlled substances to a
reverse distributor, while invoices will suffice for transfer for The Pain and Policy Studies Group maintains the Database of
Schedules III–V controlled substances. All documentation of State Laws, Regulations, and Other Official Governmental Poli-
transfers should be maintained for 2 years. The reverse distribu- cies, which provides a current resource for all laws, guidelines,
tor is authorized to destroy controlled substances. A list of area and schedules of controlled substances by state applicability
reverse distributors is maintained at each DEA field office. (Pain and Policy Studies Group, 2007). While it is based on
With cessation of activities involving controlled substances, responsibilities and obligations of human medical doctors, it
a written notification of termination of registration must be sub- provides a valuable resource of state statutes relating to con-
mitted to the nearest DEA field office. The DEA certificate of trolled substances. Additionally, the National Association of
registration and any unused order forms (DEA Form 222) must State Controlled Substances Authorities (NASCSA) is an orga-
be surrendered along with the written notification (Practitioner’s nization which provides a forum for state and federal agencies
Manual, 2006). to work together to provide uniformity in controlled substances
576 LAURA A. CONOUR ET AL.

medical use and diversion abuse. Full membership is restricted IV. OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
to those state agencies which are responsible for controlled sub- CONSIDERATIONS
stances regulations, while associate membership is available to
those state and federal organizations that have a stated interest
A. Anesthetic Safety Issues
in the uniform regulation of controlled substances but no direct
regulatory responsibility.
The United States Occupational Safety and Health Admin-
Registration with the DEA grants practitioners federal author-
istration (OSHA) obligates employers to provide a hazard-
ity to handle controlled substances, while the state law for the
free workplace environment. OSHA establishes many hazard-
jurisdiction where the practice is located governs the activities
specific safety and health standards, including guidelines for
conducted by the DEA-registered practitioner. The practitioner
workplace exposure to anesthetic gases. While these guidelines
must “abide by the more stringent aspects of both the federal
do not represent legally binding requirements, they fulfill a spe-
and state requirements;” the state is often more strict than the
cific need for additional details in this area. These guidelines
federal government (Practitioner’s Manual, 2006). For exam-
were originally published in 1999 by the OSHA Directorate
ple, several states regulate the disposal of controlled substances
for Technical Support in the Office of Science and Technical
and these processes take precedence over any DEA procedures.
Assessment and were revised in 2000 (OSHA, 2000).
Most investigations of controlled substances violations are car-
Waste anesthetic gases (WAGs) are those anesthetic gases that
ried out by state authorities. If a license to practice is revoked by
may expose personnel to health hazards during research proce-
a state, DEA requests voluntary surrender of the practitioner’s
dures. WAGs include nitrous oxide, halothane, methoxyflurane,
DEA registration.
enflurane, isoflurane, desflurane, and sevoflurane. For WAGs,
Prescription monitoring programs (PMPs) have been imple-
OSHA sets permissible exposure limits (PELs) to protect users
mented on the state level to monitor the prescription of many
against overexposure to hazardous substances. PELs pertain to
controlled substances in an effort to detect those trends indicat-
concentrations of a substance in the air or on the skin, and are
ing illegal prescription or distribution of these drugs. Seventeen
based on an 8-hour time-weighted average (TWA) exposure.
states, as of 2002, have implemented PMPs to monitor the
Many substances have established PELs but in this context,
prescription of several controlled substances (Joranson et al.,
reference to PELs is for gas anesthesia usage available from
2002).
OSHA website (OSHA, 2006). An effective waste anesthetic
gas management program should be designed and implemented
where gas anesthesia is utilized in a research facility. This pro-
D. Professional Organization Position Statements
gram should not only provide for environmental mechanisms for
adequate WAG scavenging to minimize employee exposure but
Position statements published by many associations affiliated
also include a written hazard communication program. Addi-
with various health care professions are intended to support fed-
tionally, monitoring of the environment should be performed
eral and state laws and also substantiate a code of professional
either continuously or periodically.
ethics. For example, AVMA published a position statement on
OSHA also maintains standards for storage and use of com-
controlled substances that was approved by the AVMA House
pressed gases in any number of work scenarios. These industry
of Delegates in 1993 (AVMA, April 2007). This statement rec-
standards from 29 CFR 1910 should be utilized in determining
ommends the use of controlled substances in accordance with
the proper storage conditions of compressed gas cylinders as
the CSA and for the purpose of humane euthanasia of animals
well as the procedures to secure cylinders in use. Many states
and to reduce the risk of drug abuse. The administration of
have additional standards and policies regarding storage and
controlled substances under the direct supervision of a licensed
use of compressed gas cylinders, some of which are OSHA
veterinarian is also recommended.
approved and similar to those standards set forth by federal
OSHA guidelines. Refer to each individual state’s statutes for
applicable guideline for your state, available at http://www.osha.
E. Institutional Policies
gov/SLTC/compressedgasequipment/standards.html (OSHA,
February 2007).
As noted in Section II, institutions may need to develop spe-
cific policies to enforce the relevant laws regarding controlled
substances. For example, the institution may establish poli-
cies that identify specific requirements for employees who are B. Drug Abuse Regulations and Issues
responsible for receipt, storage, and record-keeping of con-
trolled substances, according to the regulations. They may There are a number of case reports in the literature that
also determine specifically which employees are permitted to describe abuse, injury, and death with misuse of veterinary
administer controlled substances under the institution’s DEA drugs, many of which are controlled substances (Arditti et al.,
license. 2001; Elejalde et al., 2003; Fritz and Neimczyk, 2002; Quail
25. REGULATORY ISSUES 577

et al., 2001 and Spoerke et al., 1986). Ketamine® (Fort Dodge) the province. It specifically addresses the use of anesthetics and
is the most commonly abused veterinary drug used in laboratory analgesics to prevent animal suffering and unnecessary pain,
animals today with the first documentation of recreational use Animal Care Committees (ACCs) that include a veterinarian,
in North America reported as early as 1971 (Kelly, 1999). and minimum standards of care, housing, and procedures.
For drug abuse treatment options by employers, OSHA, Alberta passed the Universities Act in 1966, which forbids
US Department of Labor’s Working Partners for an Alcohol- research institutions from purchasing random source dogs for
and Drug-free Workplace Program, and the Substance Abuse use in research, but required pounds to make all unclaimed dogs
and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) Divi- available to medical facilities upon request. In 1972, Alberta
sion of Workplace Programs all provide a framework for Regulation 33-72 was expanded to include the treatment of
employers to provide employees with drug treatment and reha- animals, and specifically required the use of anesthesia, analge-
bilitation options as well as foster a drug-free workplace, sia, and standards of postsurgical treatment of animals. It also
and more information may be found at http://www.osha.gov/ addresses the transportation, maintenance, use, and disposal of
SLTC/substanceabuse/index.html (OSHA, July 2007). animals.
The Canadian Council on Animal Care (CCAC) is a national
organization that sets and maintains standards for the care and
C. Needle and Syringe Safety Issues
use of animals used in research, teaching, and testing throughout
Canada. Federal Canadian agencies, including the Natural Sci-
In 1991, OSHA issued the Bloodborne Pathogens Stan-
ences and Engineering Research Council of Canada, the Cana-
dard (29 CFR 1910.1030) (CFR, 1991). In response to the
dian Institution of Health Research, and the Social Sciences and
Needlestick Safety and Prevention Act (PL 106-430, 2000), the
Humanities Research Council of Canada, actively support the
Bloodborne Pathogens Standard was revised in 2001 to provide
CCAC’s mission to assure ethical and proper treatment of ani-
standards for the use of safer needle devices as well as require-
mals used in research, including consideration of the 3Rs. Any
ment for logs of sharps-related injuries (OSHA, May 2007).
institutions that receive funding from these agencies must mon-
itor ongoing research involving vertebrates and cephalopods
(squid and octopi) and assure compliance with federal and
V. INTERNATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS
provincial laws, regulations, and guidelines. Furthermore, these
institutions must participate in the CCAC’s assessment program
A. Canada and hold a valid Certificate of Good Animal Practice confirming
compliance with CCAC guidelines and policies. The basis for
Federal Canadian legislation governing the welfare of all the CCAC guidelines can be found in the two volumes of Guide
animals, regardless of their purpose, is contained in the Crim- to the Care and Use of Experimental Animals, with Chapter XI
inal Code of Canada, Section 446, Cruelty to Animals (R.S., of Volume 1 focusing on anesthesia, available at CCAC website-
1985, c. C-46). Two Canadian provinces have enacted legisla- http://www.ccac.ca/en/CCAC_Programs/Guidelines_Policies/
tion that specifically addresses animals used in experimentation: GDLINES/Guidelis.htm (CCAC, 2005).
Ontario’s Animals for Research Act and Alberta’s Universities The Canadian Controlled Drugs and Substances Act (1996,
Act. The Health of Animals Act, enacted in 1990 and revised in c. 19) is the primary governing piece of legislation related to the
1992, primarily addresses prevention and control of livestock use of controlled drugs and substances in Canada. Additional
diseases. However, it also states, “the Governor in Council may regulations are promulgated by the various provinces within
make regulations for the purposes of protecting human and ani- Canada, similar to the state regulations with the United States.
mal health. . . including regulations for the humane treatment
of animals and generally governing the care, handling and dis-
position of (farm) animals.” Agriculture Canada has published
B. Europe
Codes of Practice for farm animals and ranched fox and mink,
which represent the industry standards for humane treatment of
1. United Kingdom
these animals.
Animals used for testing new drugs and vaccines or toxins in The Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act of 1986 governs the
foods are protected under the 1982 Canadian Food and Drug Act use of laboratory animals in the United Kingdom. The Act
and Regulations. Canada’s Bureau of Biologics has the respon- assigns responsibility for evaluating the scientific merit of all
sibility for monitoring the virulence and efficacy of biologics, animal-based research to the Home Secretary. Project licenses
most of which are tested in live animals. are granted by the Secretary of State after considering the poten-
The use of experimental animals in Ontario is governed by its tial benefits and likely adverse effects of the proposed research.
Animals for Research Act, enacted in 1980. This act, which The Act also requires a 21-member Animal Procedures Commit-
is administered by the Ontario Ministry of Agriculture and tee to advise the Home Secretary on animal use, including the
Food, requires annual registration of all research facilities in methods used to prevent pain and distress in laboratory animals.
578 LAURA A. CONOUR ET AL.

The Misuse of Drugs Act was passed in 1971 by the House animals by in vitro methods where possible; reduce the number
of Parliament. This law categorizes controlled substances by of animals used; and refine techniques to prevent or mini-
classes (http://drugs.homeoffice.gov.uk/drugs-laws/misuse-of- mize pain or distress. While a comprehensive review of the
drugs-act/): regulations governing laboratory animal care and use in every
country is not feasible in this chapter, examples of animal wel-
• Class A for the most harmful substances such as
fare laws, regulations, and policies beyond those described for
Ectasy, LSD, heroin, cocaine, magic mushrooms, and
North America and Europe are summarized. Individuals who
amphetamines
have responsibility for laboratory animals should understand
• Class B for amphetamines, Ritalin, and pholcodeine
and help to assure compliance with the prevailing regulations
• Class C for cannabis, tranquilizers, GHB, and “some
in the country where the animals are being used for research,
painkillers”
teaching, or testing.
The Inspectorate and Licensing Section of the Home Office In Australia, each state and territory is responsible for estab-
Drug Branch is the authority for this Act. A Home Office lishing its respective animal welfare legislation. However, the
domestic license is required for the production, supply, or pos- Australian National Health and Medical Research Council pro-
session of controlled drugs. Security and SOPs compliance must vides guidance for such legislation and helps to ensure the
be documented. An annual statement of compliance with the ethical and humane care and use of laboratory animals through
requirements of the Misuse of Drugs legislation is necessary. the Australian Code of Practice for the Care and Use of Animals
Ketamine is not currently classified as a controlled drug in for Scientific Purposes (2004). The code stresses the responsi-
the UK, while it has been classified as a Schedule III controlled bilities of research scientists and investigators and institutions
substance in the US since 1999 (Wolff and Winstock, 2006). to refine methods and procedures to avoid pain or distress in
animals used in scientific and teaching activities.
Animal use in research, testing, and teaching in New Zealand
2. European Economic Communities
is strictly controlled under the 1999 AWA. Institutions using
In 1986, the Council of Ministries of the European Economic animals must appoint an Animal Ethics Committee (AEC) to
Communities (EEC) adopted Directive 86/609/EEC for the Pro- review and monitor research projects according to their code
tection ofVertebrates used for Experimental and Other Scientific of welfare and must use measures to minimize animal pain or
Purposes. This Directive was intended to assure the approxi- suffering.
mation of laws, regulations, and administrative provisions of Japan’s laboratory animal research is governed by the Law
the EEC Member States regarding the protection of experi- for the Humane Treatment and Management of Animals and
mental animals, and to help avoid differences that might affect the Standards Relating to the Care and Management of Labo-
the common market. The EEC Directive required all Mem- ratory Animals and Relief of Pain, although no inspections or
ber States to establish national legislation that would meet the reports are required. The Fundamental Guidelines for Proper
minimal requirements of the Directive. Specifically, the individ- Conduct of Animal Experiment and Related Activities com-
ual country regulations must address methods used to prevent piled by related government agencies, the Guidelines for Proper
unnecessary pain or distress to animals. Article 8 states, “All Conduct of Animal Experiments developed by the Japan Sci-
experiments must be carried out under general or local anesthe- ence Council, and the Guidelines for Animal Experimentation
sia” unless anesthesia would be more traumatic than the proce- published by the Japanese Association for Laboratory Animal
dure itself or is incompatible with the experimental purpose. If Science also help to promote proper management of lab-
anesthesia is not possible, or after the animal has recovered from oratory animals and to minimize pain during experimental
anesthesia, analgesics or other appropriate methods should be procedures.
used, in a timely manner, to limit pain and distress. Korean Animal Protection Law also requires the minimiza-
tion of pain with additional guidance provided by the Korean
Association of Laboratory Animal Science’s Guidelines for
C. Elsewhere Around the World Animal Experimentation.
In Singapore, the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority (AVA)
Although many countries have had animal welfare laws in issues licenses for research animal facilities according to the
place for decades, countries that have recently experienced Animal and Birds (Care and Use of Animals for Scientific Pur-
social and economic development have also promulgated new poses) rules. To secure a license, research facilities must comply
laws or guidelines to support animal welfare. Prevention and with guidelines for the proper treatment and utilization of labo-
minimization of pain and distress in animals used for research ratory animals established by the National Advisory Committee
and testing is a recurrent theme in these regulations and guide- for Laboratory Animal Research (NACLAR) published in 2004.
lines worldwide. Many of them are based, at least in part, on Institutions are required to appoint IACUCs to monitor compli-
the internationally recognized “3R” principles first proposed by ance with the guidelines, and the AVA conducts inspections of
Russell and Burch (1959) that encourage the replacement of the research facilities.
25. REGULATORY ISSUES 579

In 1988, the State Science and Technology Commission veterinarians or medical doctors. Most research institutions vol-
of the People’s Republic of China issued Regulations for the untarily follow the 1992 Guidelines for Care and Use of Animals
Administration of Laboratory Animals, and the Ministry of in Scientific Research developed by the Indian National Sci-
Health subsequently provided guidance for those regulations, ence Academy. These guidelines describe standards for genetics
“Implementing Detailed Rules of Medical Laboratory Animal and breeding, housing and environment, nutrition and feed-
Administration.” In 2001, Regulation GB14925-2001, “Lab- ing, hygiene and disease control, use of anesthetics, euthanasia,
oratory Animal—Requirement of Environment and Housing personnel training, and animal transportation. The government
Facilities,” was issued by China’s General Administration of subsequently appointed the Committee for the Purpose of Con-
Quality Supervision. These regulations mandate requirements trol and Supervision of Experiments on Animals (CPCSEA)
for facility construction; separation of animals according to to develop guidelines to promote the humane care of ani-
species and strain disease status and experimental use; food, mals used in biomedical and behavioral research and testing.
water, and bedding quality; quarantine; preventative medicine; These guidelines also require scientists to ensure that potentially
and animal transportation. The People’s Republic of China, painful procedures to be conducted under appropriate anesthe-
Ministry of Science and Technology, issued guidelines for the sia. Unless it is contrary to the research objectives, sedatives
humane treatment of laboratory animals in 2006 that requires and analgesics should also be used to control pain or distress.
administrators and technicians to assure animal welfare.
The President of Taiwan promulgated the Animal Protection
Law in 1998. Chapter III of this Act, “Scientific Applica-
tion of Animals,” mandates that the scientific use of animals
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 Chapter 26

Management of Chronic Pain

George J. DeMarco

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
A. Definition and Characterization of Chronic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581
B. Prevalence of Chronic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
C. Impact on Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
II. Diagnosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
A. Diagnosing Neuropathic Pain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
III. Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
A. Ion Channel Modulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585
B. Tricyclic Antidepressants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
C. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 586
D. Corticosteroids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
E. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
F. NMDA Receptor Antagonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588

I. INTRODUCTION respect to chronic pain in veterinary college and post-graduate

programs.
The goals of this chapter are to present a comprehensive
Chronic pain encompasses a constellation of clinical dis-
review of chronic pain pathophysiology and provide diagnos-
orders arising from diverse and dynamic mechanisms. Some
tic and treatment options for this multifarious clinical problem.
chronic pain conditions have no discernable organic cause and
The author hopes this work will serve to guide veterinarians,
many are refractory to therapy. Thus, chronic pain is arguably
investigators, and Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee
the most complex and challenging facet of pain medicine.
(IACUC) members in devising rational strategies for managing
The clinical management of chronic pain is a daunting task
chronic pain in laboratory animals.
for laboratory animal veterinarians. The difficulties involved in
the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pain are compounded
by the variety of species encountered, numbers of animals A. Definition and Characterization of Chronic Pain
cared for, and the requirements of myriad animal use protocols
in research, teaching, and testing. The situation is exacer- Several concepts are critical to understanding chronic pain.
bated by the scant (if any) training veterinarians receive with One is that chronic pain constitutes enduring syndromes,

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

581
582 GEORGE J. DEMARCO

characterized by unpleasant sensations or distress. Most impor- origin, anatomic location, organ system, duration, and sever-
tant is comprehending that chronic pain is pathologic function ity (Mathews, 2000; Muir et al., 2004; Wiese et al., 2005).
of the nervous system not simply persistent acute pain (Breen, While such systems have utility, the drawback inherent in the
2002; Grachev et al., 2000). clinical application of descriptive pain taxonomy is a failure to
In human medicine, chronic pain has been defined as “pain identify mechanisms responsible for chronic pain. To best guide
which persists past the normal time of healing” (Bonica, 1953). the diagnosis and treatment of chronic pain, a clinically valid
This definition has significant shortcomings since healing may mechanism-based classification system needs to be developed
never occur in chronic pain associated diseases like arthritis, (Muir and Woolf, 2001; Woolf, 2004).
healing may never be recognized as in forms of neuropathic
pain, or pain may remit and relapse over time. In light of this,
the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) has
B. Prevalence of Chronic Pain
adopted temporal endpoints based on common medical expe-
rience to classify chronic pain. The IASP regards 3 months of
The prevalence of chronic pain in laboratory animals is for
pain as the most expedient point at which to define the tran-
the most part unknown. A dearth of appropriate methods and the
sition from acute to chronic nonmalignant pain (Merskey and
logistics of determining the prevalence of chronic pain across
Bogduk, 1994). Both operational and temporal definitions have
numerous species and facilities make it unlikely that such infor-
merit and neither has been adopted as the clinical standard. It
mation will be forthcoming. However, by utilizing existing data,
is noteworthy that these definitions encompass many patterns
inferences may be drawn that could help institutions judge the
of occurrence and pain does not need to be continuous in order
potential for chronic pain within a given vivarium. For example,
to be classified as chronic. Since the pain literature is rife with
a study of outpatients at a veterinary teaching hospital demon-
misquotations of this report, the reader is strongly encouraged
strated that the prevalence of chronic pain is higher in older
to read the original second edition of the IASP Classification of
populations (Muir et al., 2004). Naturally occurring hyperalge-
Chronic Pain (Merskey and Bogduk, 1994).
sia, allodynia (Kitagawa et al., 2005; Lovell et al., 2000; Novak
The treatment and diagnosis of chronic pain in veterinary
et al., 1999), and chronic pain-related neuroplasticity (Iwata
medicine is hampered by two glaring deficiencies. One is that
et al., 2002; Ramer and Bisby, 1998) occur in aged rats. The
no reliable and widely accepted definition for chronic pain exists
prevalence of osteoarthritis, a known etiology for chronic pain,
for animals. The other is that a consistent system for classifi-
is significantly greater in older macaques (Carlson et al., 1996;
cation and scoring chronic pain in veterinary medicine has not
Lim et al., 1996; Rothschild et al., 1999), baboons (reviewed
been developed. Although well beyond the scope of this work
in Black and Lane, 2002), cats, rats, mice, and guinea pigs
to define and classify chronic pain in animals, guidelines to
(Bendele, 2001; Clarke and Bennett, 2006). Thus, the preva-
facilitate the diagnosis of chronic pain will be suggested.
lence of chronic pain is likely high in populations of aged
Although the exact mechanisms responsible for the develop-
animals. Conversely, data with respect to gender and chronic
ment of chronic pain have yet to be elucidated, neuroplasticity
pain paints a different picture. In humans, the prevalence of
is likely critical to the conversion from acute to chronic pain
chronic pain is considerably influenced by gender and found
(Jabbur and Saade, 1999; Ji and Woolf, 2001). In neuropathic,
to be greater in female populations (Marcus, 2003; Meana
inflammatory, and cancer models, neuroplastic changes pro-
et al., 2004; Orfila et al., 2006; Rustoen et al., 2004). Sexual
posed to be involved with chronic pain developed 2–3 weeks
dimorphism relevant to chronic pain has also been demon-
after pain induction or lesioning (Cain et al., 2001; Calza
strated in rodent models. When compared to male rats, female
et al., 1998; Hains et al., 2003; Schwei et al., 1999; Sharif
rats have more persistent induced thermal hyperalgesia (Tall
Naeini et al., 2005; Shimoyama et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2002;
et al., 2001), greater induced mechanical allodynia (DeLeo and
Yen et al., 2006), some of which peak 4–6 weeks (Brenowitz,
Rutkowski, 2000; LaCroix-Fralish et al., 2005), and reduced
1983; Yen et al., 2006) or sometime between 3 and 11 weeks
antinociception (Gaumond et al., 2005). The experimental data
(Calza et al., 2000) post pain initiation. Until unequivocal end-
in this case points to gender as a factor in the development of
points are established, these data and clinical experience (Muir
induced chronic pain. Contrary to age, a link between female
et al., 2004) support considering pain persisting for 1 month
sex and increased prevalence of chronic pain in animals is not
or more as a practical point at which to define the transition
compelling or supported by clinical evidence (Muir et al., 2004).
from acute to chronic pain in animals. Despite evidence that
malignancy-induced pain and bone-cancer pain in particular
may be “unique” (Schwei et al., 1999; Urch et al., 2003), there
is insufficient data to espouse a separate endpoint for defining C. Impact on Research
cancer-related chronic pain in animals.
Human classification schemes have been adapted for use in Numerous studies demonstrate that chronic pain exerts both
dogs and cats to assess pain. Extant methods utilize descrip- physiologic and behavioral effects, which may influence or
tive categorization of pain based on etiology, embryonic bias experimental data. The following section will discuss the
26. MANAGEMENT OF CHRONIC PAIN 583

immune, endocrine, and behavioral effects noted in models of HPA alterations noted in the AA model include increased
chronic pain. basal plasmaACTH and corticosterone, increased hypothalamic
vasopressin, induction of arginine vasopressin mRNA in the par-
aventricular nucleus (PVN) and proopiomelanocortin mRNA
1. Immunologic
expression in the anterior pituitary, decreased portal (brain)
Peripheral immunomodulation has been shown in rat models corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) concentrations, and
of chronic neuropathic pain. Sciatic nerve chronic constric- decreased expression of PVN CRH, and hippocampal miner-
tive injury (CCI) in rat causes a neuron-dependent increase alocorticoid and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) mRNA (reviewed
in delayed-type hypersensitivity (DTH) and decreased antigen- in Blackburn-Munro, 2004; Blackburn-Munro and Blackburn-
specific IgG (Herzberg et al., 1994, 1996b). The neuropathic Munro, 2001; Bomholt et al., 2004). Most importantly, AA
enhancement of DTH was ascribed to an increase in substance blunts acute physical and psychological stress-induced increases
P release in CCI rats and activation of NK-1 receptors (Herzberg in plasma ACTH and cortisone (Aguilera et al., 1997; Harbuz
et al., 1996a). Upregulation of mRNA for the potent immune- et al., 1997; Windle et al., 2001) and their normal circadian
modulating bradykinin receptor in lumbar dorsal horn ganglia fluctuations (Persellin et al., 1972; Sarlis et al., 1992).
(Levy and Zochodne, 2000) and increased levels of IL-1β,
IL-2, IL-6, and IL-10 in sciatic nerve (Romero-Sandoval and 3. Behavioral
Eisenach, 2006) have also been demonstrated in neuropathic rat
models. Chronic pain reportedly causes depression, anxiety, and
Neuroimmune activation (NA) is defined as production of impaired emotional decision-making in people (Apkarian et al.,
substances and the expression of surface antigens from endothe- 2004; Dworkin and Gitlin, 1991; Wilson et al., 2001). Anxio-
lial and glial cells that enhance CNS immune cascades (DeLeo genic effects of induced chronic pain have been demonstrated
and Yezierski, 2001). Activated astrocytes are the glial cells in mouse and rat. Chronic inflammatory and neuropathic pain
likely responsible for NA-mediated effects in chronic pain in mouse causes anxiety-like behaviors in the light–dark and
(DeLeo et al., 2004; Gordh et al., 2006). Astrocyte activation elevated plus-maze tests (Narita et al., 2006a, 2006b). Chronic
has been demonstrated in neuropathic and inflammatory mod- pain has also been shown to alter gene expression (NK-1 recep-
els of chronic pain (Garrison et al., 1994; Herzberg and Sagen, tor, BDNF, CRH, GR mRNA) and neurogenesis in limbic
2001; Raghavendra et al., 2004; Tanga et al., 2004) and shown brain areas of rat, changes associated with anxiety and depres-
to persist for 150 days in a neuropathic model (Zhang and sion (Dranovsky and Hen, 2006; Duric and McCarson, 2006;
De Koninck, 2006). Once activated, astrocytes release proin- Ulrich-Lai et al., 2006).
flammatory and neuroexcitatory chemicals such as cytokines, In summary, chronic pain can significantly influence
reactive nitrogen species, prostaglandins, and glutamate (Liu immunologic and endocrine function and behavior. Since inves-
et al., 2004; reviewed in Wieseler-Frank et al., 2004, 2005). tigation of the effects of chronic pain on these systems is nascent,
Astrocytes also regulate numerous aspects of neuronal physi- the list and variety of consequences will surely expand over time.
ology including modulation of synaptic activity (Araque et al., Considering the substrates for behavior, immune, and endocrine
1999b). As such the potential exists for chronic pain-activated functions are interrelated with numerous physiologic processes,
astrocytes to influence a wide range of neuronal functions there is great potential for chronic pain to bias research in many
(Araque, 2006; Araque et al., 1999a; Eddleston and Mucke, fields.
1993; Mucke and Eddleston, 1993).
II. DIAGNOSIS
2. Endocrine
The hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis plays a cen- Accurate diagnosis of chronic pain requires appropriate
tral role in neuroendocrine responses to chronic pain. In humans, characterization of clinical signs, in particular their temporal
chronic pain can result in altered HPA function and stress- characteristics. Signs of pain that persist for a month or more
related syndromes associated with functional disturbances in should be classified as chronic. Pain that persists beyond the time
the HPA (Gaab et al., 2005; McBeth et al., 2005). Although not wound or lesion healing is expected to be complete certainly
thoroughly investigated, chronic pain-altered HPA function has constitutes pathologic pain. Mechanistically, it may or may not
been demonstrated in rats and appears to be very model depen- be chronic if the duration is less than 1 month. The laboratory
dent. Changes in HPA function have been well documented in animal veterinarian, IACUC members, and investigator should
a rat model of induced inflammatory chronic pain but not in take advantage of extant knowledge regarding disease models
neuropathic models (Bomholt et al., 2005; Ulrich-Lai et al., and experimental procedures involving animals. Animals under-
2006). Most if not all of the extant data on the relationship going procedures or administered chemicals known to be risk
between HPA function and chronic pain has been elucidated in factors for inducing chronic pain (e.g., those that cause chronic
the rat adjuvant-induced inflammatory arthritis (AA) model. inflammation or nervous system injury or disease) should be
584 GEORGE J. DEMARCO

monitored for the development of chronic pain. Likewise, if static allodynia by slow application of perpendicular pressure
a human or animal disease is associated with chronic pain, with a pencil eraser or cotton swab (Herr, 2004). Thermal allo-
it should heighten awareness for the development of chronic dynia may be determined by application of a dry glass or metal
pain in animal models. It should also be kept in mind that fre- object cooled in a refrigerator or warmed to 45◦ C. Hyperalge-
quently in people no proximate physical cause for chronic pain sia is diagnosed if the animal exhibits exaggerated responses to
can be determined and a similar phenomenon may occur in single or multiple pinpricks. Summation, which is increasing
animals. pain with repeated stimuli of the same intensity, and after-
Although hyperalgesia, allodynia, and spontaneous pain are sensation, which is a prolonged response to stimuli, are also
hallmarks, no single clinical sign is pathognomonic for chronic characteristic of neuropathic pain (Wallace, 2005). Somatosen-
pain (Wallace, 2005), nor have chronic pain ethograms been sory examination of the area from which pain is noted and
established in veterinary medicine. However, methods rele- surrounding (uninjured) areas is important to assess peripheral
vant to diagnosing and measuring chronic osteoarthritic pain and central sensitization.
and its effects on quality of life in dog have been described Determining the location and distribution of signs is impor-
(Hielm-Bjorkman et al., 2003; Wiseman-Orr et al., 2004). Sim- tant and should be performed. This information often correlates
ilar techniques may be useful in other species and chronic with the extent of the lesions and with few exceptions, the distri-
pain syndromes. As with any condition, accurately diagnosing bution of pain-related signs matching the anatomic level of the
chronic pain requires a good and thorough history, observa- lesion (Chong and Bajwa, 2003; Hansson, 2002). Constructing
tion, and physical and neurologic examinations. Observation is a dermatome chart can be very useful in recognizing nerve-
particularly important for species requiring sedation for com- related patterns and the topographic distribution of signs noted
plete physical examination, which often confounds or makes on physical examination can help guide refinement by the neuro-
a neurologic examination difficult. For descriptions of clini- logic examination. The diagnosis of neuropathic pain is derived
cal signs and diagnostic paradigms relevant to inflammatory almost exclusively from the history and physical/neurologic
and neoplastic pain, the reader is referred to standard veteri- examination. Clinical pathology, imaging, or neurophysiologic
nary texts and the following studies: Duncan et al. (1991) tests cannot measure pain, do not assess function of nociceptive
and Hielm-Bjorkman et al. (2003). Here, specific considera- pathways, and may be normal in an individual with significant
tion will be given to neuropathic pain, which is generally not pain (Jensen and Baron, 2003). At best, diagnostic testing pro-
described. vides correlates to clinical information or can confirm or exclude
the presence of a nerve lesion or dysfunction (Cruccu and Truini,
2006; Herr, 2004; Wallace, 2005). With that in mind, if the
A. Diagnosing Neuropathic Pain following criteria are met, a diagnosis of neuropathic pain can
be made with a high degree of certainty:
Clinical signs of neuropathic pain can be spontaneous,
evoked, or combinations of both. Signs may be continuous, 1. Pain in a neuroanatomically defined area, i.e., correspond-
intermittent or paroxysmal, and varied in intensity. In human ing to a peripheral or central innervation territory
medicine, positive (“electric-shock,” “burning,” “tingling,” 2. A history of relevant disease or lesion in the nervous
“cold,” “pricking,” and “itching”) and negative (sensory deficits, system, which is temporally related to development of pain
numbness) sensations are characteristic of neuropathic pain. 3. Partial or complete sensory loss in all or part of the painful
Since animals cannot communicate the nature of what they area
sense to this degree, veterinarians are dependent on signalment 4. Confirmation of a lesion or disease by a specific test, e.g.,
(genotype, expected phenotype), anamnesis (experimental his- surgical evidence, imaging, clinical neurophysiology, and
tory, duration of signs), and physical/neurologic examination. biopsy
On physical examination, the presence of sensory, motor, and/or
proprioceptive deficits along with signs of pain suggests a neu- It should be noted that criterion 3 may be very difficult to
ropathic etiology. Behaviors associated with spontaneous pain assess in animals because sensory loss may be masked by hyper-
include licking/directed grooming (Grelik et al., 2005), biting, sensitivity within and around innervation territories of damaged
autotomy, scratching, lameness, paw lifting or shaking (Santos nerves (Kehlet et al., 2006, reprinted with permission from
Tde et al., 1999), and guarding the affected area (Kingery and Elsevier).
Vallin, 1989; Xu et al., 1997). Evoked pain (allodynia and Ideally, diagnosis and treatment of chronic pain would be
hyperalgesia) may manifest as nocifensive behaviors elicited mechanism based (Jensen and Baron, 2003; Woolf and Max,
by routine procedures or handling and are evaluated by the 2001). Until such methods are available every attempt should
somatosensory component of the neurologic examination. Allo- be made to determine if chronic pain is inflammatory, neu-
dynia can be static or dynamic and may be evoked by thermal ropathic, or neoplastic in origin as this may influence initial
and/or mechanical stimuli. Dynamic allodynia can be assessed treatment choices. Table 26-1 outlines clinical findings that may
by light strokes with a fingertip, cotton swab, or paintbrush, and help distinguish neuropathic from inflammatory chronic pain.
26. MANAGEMENT OF CHRONIC PAIN 585

TABLE 26-1 recommendations would not be productive. Therefore, the fol-

Characteristic Features of Neuropathic and Inflammatory Pain lowing section and references Amir et al. (2006), Backonja et al.
(2006), Chevlen et al. (2005), Leo (2006), and Schnitzer (2006)
Neuropathic Inflammatory
pain pain
are intended to serve as guidelines for treatment. Veterinary-
specific options for treating chronic pain (osteoarthritis, cancer,
Positive signs oral) may be found in Beckman (2006), Flecknell (2001), Lester
Spontaneous pain Yes Yes and Gaynor (2000), and McLaughlin (2000). Doses and addi-
Heat hyperalgesia Rarely Often
Cold allodynia Often Rarely
tional information for many of the drugs described may be found
Aftersensations Often Rarely in Gaynor and Muir (2002) and Plumb (1999).
Paroxysms Often Rarely
Hyperpathia (increased threshold Often Never
and hyperalgesia A. Ion Channel Modulators
Negative signs
Sensory loss in damaged nerve territory Yes No 1. Sodium (Na) Channel Blockers
Motor deficit in damaged nerve territory Often No
a. Lidocaine, mexiletine
Modified from Kehlet et al. (2006), with permission from Elsevier. Na channel blockers suppress spontaneous ectopic discharges
at drug concentrations that do not inhibit normal impulse gen-
eration and propagation. As a result, these drugs can relieve
III. TREATMENT chronic neuropathic pain with a high therapeutic index. Intra-
venous lidocaine and 5% lidocaine patches (first drug FDA-
The title of this chapter is most apt, because once chronic pain approved for postherpetic neuralgia) have both been shown
develops, treatment involves a management endeavor, likely for efficacious for the treatment of neuropathic pain in people. Intra-
the life of the afflicted. From the previous discussion two con- venous lidocaine has been shown to relieve neuropathic pain in
cepts should be evident: (1) the development of chronic pain rat (infusion) and people (bolus, infusion, and bolus plus infu-
should be prevented if possible and (2) the ideal goal of treatment sion) for 3–21 days (Chaplan et al., 1995; Mao and Chen, 2000).
should be to return pathologic systems neurologic-endocrine- Using published doses and infusion rates, lidocaine may prove
immune responsible for chronic pain to normal function. Unfor- effective in other species as well. Although the pharmacokinet-
tunately, it is painfully evident from human medicine that ics of 5% lidocaine patch has been reported in dog (Weiland
neither has had tremendous success. In people, the prevalence et al., 2006) and appears to be well tolerated, no clinical studies
of persistent pain associated with surgical procedures is about have been performed. Mexiletine is an oral congener of lido-
10–50%. Postsurgical chronic pain can arise from inflamma- caine demonstrating variable success in human clinical trials
tion or more likely from iatrogenic nerve damage (Kehlet et al., (Duby et al., 2004; Kingery, 1997). Some evidence suggests that
2006). Although risk factors for the development of postsurgi- a positive test with IV lidocaine predicts pain relief with mexile-
cal chronic pain in animals have not been identified, good tissue tine (Galer et al., 1996). Although used as an antiarrhythmic in
handling, avoiding damage to major nerves, and using min- veterinary medicine, mexiletine’s efficacy for neuropathic pain
imally invasive techniques (e.g., laparoscopic, thoracoscopic) in animals is unknown.
during surgical procedures may help reduce the potential for
developing chronic pain (Kehlet et al., 2006). It is also notewor- b. Phenytoin
thy that intense, acute, postoperative pain is a risk factor for the The anticonvulsant phenytoin is a classic neuroactive drug
development of chronic pain (Perkins and Kehlet, 2000). reportedly effective in treating neuropathic pain in humans
Although probably efficacious for preventing chronic inflam- (reviewed in Markman and Dworkin, 2006) but with variable
matory pain, preemptive and aggressive multimodal analgesia efficacy in experimental rat models (Hunter et al., 1997; Ko
have not proven to be prophylactic “magic-bullets” for the devel- et al., 2006). Phenytoin’s mechanism of action appears to be
opment of postsurgical neuropathic pain (reviewed in Brennan Na-channel blockade and inhibition of presynaptic glutamate
and Kehlet, 2005). Experimental and clinical evidences suggest release (Yaari et al., 1986). Although used as an anticonvulsant,
that extended duration of complete nerve blockade combined its utility for managing chronic pain in animals is unexplored.
with drugs to prevent glial activation will be needed to prevent Excessive sedation, ataxia, hepatocellular toxicity, and potential
postsurgical neuropathic pain. Clearly, novel strategies target- drug interactions may be limiting factors for its use.
ing neuronal and nonneuronal mechanisms need to be explored
to better manage postsurgical pain.
2. Calcium Channel Blockers
Considering the complexity of the laboratory animal environ-
ment and the fact that there are few clinically tested regimes for Gabapentin and pregabalin are GABA analogs that bind
managing chronic pain in animals, making specific treatment to the α2β subunit of N-type calcium channels, a subunit
586 GEORGE J. DEMARCO

upregulated by tissue inflammation and nerve injury. Although C. Opioids

their definitive mechanism of action is unknown, gabapentin
and pregabalins are postulated to inhibit pronociceptive neuro- As a class, opioids are some of the most potent and con-
transmitter release from sensory nerve terminals (reviewed in troversial drugs available for the treatment of chronic pain
McGivern, 2006). Gabapentin (and likely pregabalin) does not regardless of etiology. Opioids have both central and periph-
have any intrinsic analgesic activity and can be pronociceptive eral effects mediated by complex interactions with mu, kappa,
in the absence of clinical or pathologic pain (Gaynor and Muir, and delta receptors. Requisite dosing intervals (q 2–6 hours)
2002). Both drugs are labeled for the treatment of a variety of make most current opioid formulations impractical for the man-
neuropathic pain syndromes in people with pregabalin having agement of chronic pain in laboratory animals. Patch, implant,
improved potency and superior bioavailability. Experimental or depo formulations (fentanyl and buprenorphine) (Kleppner
studies in rat and mouse demonstrate that gabapentin and pre- et al., 2006) may be useful, and the development of liposome-
gabalin may be viable drugs for treating neuropathic pain in encapsulated oxymorphone holds great promise as well (Smith
animals (Field et al., 1999; Laughlin et al., 2002; Peters et al., et al., 2003). Oral sustained-release preparations (morphine
2005; Walczak and Beaulieu, 2006; Walczak et al., 2006) and oxycodone, buprenorphine, dihydrocodeine) are available but
may be able to prevent the development of neuropathic pain if may be poorly and erratically absorbed (KuKanich et al.,
administered before nerve injury (Yasuda et al., 2005). Both 2005).
drugs may be used for monotherapy or combined with other Opioids are most effective in treating inflammatory and
medications (Gilron et al., 2006), and some evidence suggests malignancy-related chronic pain but questions persist about
that gabapentin may be more effective when combined with their use in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Although effec-
morphine (Baillie and Power, 2005). tive in many neuropathic conditions, their usefulness in central
pain is still equivocal (reviewed in Katz and Benoit, 2005).
Rodent studies indicate that buprenorphine (Christoph et al.,
B. Tricyclic Antidepressants 2005; Kouya et al., 2002), morphine (Decosterd et al., 2004;
Walczak et al., 2005; Yasuda et al., 2005), and fentanyl (Stewart
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCA) are considered first-line and Martin, 2003; Womer and Shannon, 2000; Zurek et al.,
drugs for the treatment of neuropathic pain and are used to treat 2001) are effective in the treatment of neuropathic pain. As
a wide variety of chronic pain syndromes. Both experimental with TCAs, opioid efficacy varies in experimental studies by
and clinical evidences indicate that these drugs have analgesic drug, model, route of administration, and dependent measure
activity independent of their mood-altering properties (Fishbain (reviewed in Martin and Eisenach, 2001).
et al., 2000; Max et al., 1987). In human medicine, transdermal fentanyl is recommended for
Amitriptyline is the gold standard for analgesic antidepres- and shown to be efficacious in the management of osteoarthri-
sants. Together with its metabolite nortriptyline, this drug tis and other conditions that do not respond well to nonopioid
has the best-documented efficacy in the treatment of neuro- analgesics (Babic-Naglic et al., 2002; Langford et al., 2006; Le
pathic and many nonneuropathic pain syndromes (Bryson and Loet et al., 2005). Transdermal fentanyl has demonstrated use
Wilde, 1996; Saarto and Wiffen, 2005). Amitriptyline’s anal- for acute pain in cat, dog, and pig (Harvey-Clark et al., 2000;
gesic mechanism of action has been ascribed to enhancing the Hofmeister and Egger, 2004; Lafuente et al., 2005; Malavasi
activity of antinociceptive bulbospinal pathways by decreasing et al., 2006; Romans et al., 2005), and the author’s institution
reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine at either spinal termi- uses fentanyl patches for small ruminants and rabbits as well.
nals or the brain stem (reviewed in Esser and Sawynok, 1999). Although cost, application, and disposal concerns may be lim-
Additional central and peripheral mechanisms for amitriptyline iting factors, there is no clinical or experimental evidence to
analgesia have been proposed. These include modulating cen- contraindicate the use of transdermal fentanyl for chronic pain
tral cytokine release and function (Obuchowicz et al., 2006; in animals. To the author’s knowledge, the clinical use of trans-
Reynolds et al., 2004) and, peripheral analgesia through block- dermal buprenorphine has yet to be evaluated in species other
ade of tetrodotoxin-resistant Na channels (Brau et al., 2001) and than humans.
reduced adenosine reuptake (Lynch et al., 2005; Sawynok et al., Excepting experimental rodent and cat models, no studies
1999, 2005). have evaluated the effects of chronic opioid treatment in ani-
Amitriptyline is used to treat idiopathic feline lower uri- mals. Tolerance, withdrawal, sleep disturbances, and altered
nary tract disease (Chew et al., 1998) and may be effective function of primary visual cortical neurons have been demon-
for other chronic pain syndromes in animals. Experimentally, strated with chronic morphine administration in cats (Borrell,
amitriptyline has been shown to be pro- and antinociceptive or 1975 #1; De Andres and Caballero, 1989; Guaza, 1979 #2; He,
nonefficacious depending on the model used, route of adminis- 2005a #501; He, 2005b #500; Jhamandas, 1984 #3). However,
tration, and behavioral endpoint (Beyreuther et al., 2006; Esser extrapolating these results to clinical use may not be appropri-
et al., 2001; LaBuda and Little, 2005; Walczak et al., 2005, ate since all the cited studies employed supra-analgesic doses of
2006). morphine.
26. MANAGEMENT OF CHRONIC PAIN 587

D. Corticosteroids For chronic use (weeks to years), a COX-2 selective NSAID

may afford a greater margin of safety over a nonselective drug
Corticosteroids as a group may be used as primary or adjunc- with respect to gastrointestinal and renal toxicity. However, all
tive treatment for chronic pain. In people, corticosteroids are NSAIDs have ulcergenic and nephrotoxic potential, and COX-2
used as adjuncts in the management of cancer-related chronic selectives have been postulated to be prothrombotic, athero-
pain (Lussier, 2004 #508) and may be a primary treatment for genic, and hypertensive (Bolten, 2006; Krotz et al., 2005; Wang
some neuropathic pain syndromes (Dabby et al., 2006; Kingery, et al., 2005; Weir et al., 2003).
1997). Experimental models show dichotomous data with In the author’s experience, meloxicam, ibuprofen, and
respect to glucocorticoids and neuropathic pain. Several studies etodolac have been safe and effective for long-term use (weeks
suggest that glucocorticoids can inhibit and reverse neuropathic to years) in rhesus and stump-tail macaques and may be appro-
pain, possibly by inhibiting glial activation (Takeda et al., 2004) priate for other nonhuman primates. Dogs are afforded a wide
or central cytokine production (Xie et al., 2006). Others show selection of NSAIDs and benefit from a fair body of experi-
upregulation of glucocorticoid receptors in response to induced mental and clinical studies regarding their safety and efficacy.
neuropathic pain and a role for glucocorticoid receptor antag- Although other NSAIDs are labeled for use in dog, carpro-
onists as treatment (Takasaki et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2004). fen, meloxicam, deracoxib, etodolac, and firocoxib are labeled
When used judiciously, experimental study in Macaca nemest- for long-term use. NSAID use in proper form for reference to
rina (Leverenz et al., 1999) and clinical use in cat and dog the species is singular cat is problematic due to the substantial
demonstrate that corticosteroids can be used for months with potential for toxicity and lack of (as in none) NSAIDs labeled
mild adverse effects (Cizinauskas et al., 2000; Preziosi et al., for chronic administration in this species. However, two sources
2003). have described regimes for long-term meloxicam treatment in
cats (Gaynor and Muir, 2002; Robertson, 2005).
E. Nonsteroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs At the author’s institution, meloxicam, carprofen, and ibupro-
fen are used for acute pain in rat and mouse. The effect of
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are the most long-term PO use at recommended doses in these species has
commonly used analgesic drugs in veterinary medicine. They not been evaluated (see http://info.med.yale.edu/iacuc/policies/
also have the distinction of being the only medications with postopanalgesia.html). High doses of meloxicam (≥3.75
documented clinical efficacy and safety in the treatment of mg/kg) and ibuprofen (≥25mg/kg) are predictably ulcerogenic
chronic pain (osteoarthritis). The pharmacology and toxicology in several rodent models (Bonabello et al., 2003; Khan and
of NSAIDs are discussed in Chapter 4. NSAIDs are primarily Akhter, 2005). Some experimental evidence suggests that COX-
indicated for the treatment of pain arising from inflammatory 2 selective agents have reduced ulcerogenic potential in rodents
musculoskeletal disease and osteoarthritis. Although not front- and may be safe for long-term use at recommended doses
line drugs or universally effective, NSAIDs can have a place in (Brown et al., 2000; Rainsford, 1987). A wide variety of
the management of chronic neuropathic or cancer pain (Robert- NSAIDs are used acutely in ruminants, swine, lagomorphs,
son, 2005; Suyama et al., 2004) and can be synergistic with birds, and rodents. To the author’s knowledge, the long-term
opioids. Other advantages of NSAIDs include the commercial (weeks to years) administration of NSAIDs in these species has
availability of a wide variety of drugs in enteral and parenteral not been evaluated.
forms, which are useful in numerous species. Initial drug selec-
tion is usually based on clinical experience, and is not always F. NMDA Receptor Antagonists
effective. For reasons unknown, animals (including people) may
respond to one NSAID but not another, necessitating empirical Ketamine, dextromethorphan, and amantadine are NMDA
trials to find an effective drug. For example, an arthritic 30- receptor (NMDAR) antagonists used in veterinary medicine
year-old stump-tail macaque (Macacca arctoides), previously that appear to have a role in the management of chronic pain
well managed with celecoxib, has been successfully treated by (Fisher et al., 2000). NMDAR antagonists can inhibit the
the author using etodolac (5 mg/kg PO, SID) after an unsuc- development and maintenance of central sensitization and are
cessful trial with meloxicam. To avoid toxicity or potentially synergistic with opioids and NSAIDs (Petrenko et al., 2003;
fatal effects with long-term NSAID use, it is critical to use Visser and Schug, 2006). Thus, the primary indication for the
the lowest possible effective dose, never exceed approved or use of NMDAR antagonists appears to be adjunctive or part of
published dosage, and never initiate use of another NSAID or multimodal therapy with the goal of controlling central sensi-
corticosteroid without an appropriate washout time (5–10 days) tization. Regrettably, their use is often limited by difficulty in
between drugs (Boston et al., 2003; KuKanich et al., 2005; Las- administration and or unacceptable adverse effects. Ketamine is
celles et al., 2005a, 2005b; Nakagawa et al., 2005; Reed, 2002). one of the most potent NMDAR antagonists available and one
Periodic monitoring for fecal occult blood and evaluation of case report describes its use in the management of postampu-
complete blood count (CBC) and serum chemistry are prudent tation clinical signs in a cat (O’Hagan, 2006). Unfortunately,
during chronic NSAID treatment as well. ketamine is rather difficult to use in the management of chronic
588 GEORGE J. DEMARCO

pain since this application generally requires infusion protocols. (HPA) stress axis in animal models of chronic pain and inflammation. Stress
Dextromethorphan has been used for years as an antitussive and 7(1), 1–14.
Bomholt, S.F., Mikkelsen, J.D., and Blackburn-Munro, G. (2005). Normal
doses of 2 mg/kg BID PO appear to be well tolerated in dog over
hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis function in a rat model of peripheral
2 weeks (Dodman et al., 2004). However, the pharmacokinetic neuropathic pain. Brain Res. 1044(2), 216–226.
profile and adverse effects of dextromethorphan may limit its Bonabello, A., Galmozzi, M.R., Canaparo, R., Isaia, G.C., Serpe, L., Muntoni,
utility in the management of chronic pain (Kukanich and Papich, E., and Zara, G.P. (2003). Dexibuprofen (S(+)-isomer ibuprofen) reduces gas-
2004). Amantadine is another oral form of NMDAR antagonist tric damage and improves analgesic and antiinflammatory effects in rodents.
Anesth. Analg. 97(2), 402–408, Table of Contents.
suggested for treating chronic pain in dog and cat (Gaynor and
Bonica, J. (1953). “The Management of Pain.” Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia,
Muir, 2002). None of the NMDAR antagonists have been eval- PA.
uated in veterinary clinical trials for the management of chronic Boston, S.E., Moens, N.M., Kruth, S.A., and Southorn, E.P. (2003). Endoscopic
pain. For an excellent review of NMDAR antagonists including evaluation of the gastroduodenal mucosa to determine the safety of short-term
referenced doses see Pozzi et al. (2006). concurrent administration of meloxicam and dexamethasone in healthy dogs.
Am. J. Vet. Res. 64(11), 1369–1375.
Brau, M.E., Dreimann, M., Olschewski, A., Vogel, W., and Hempelmann, G.
(2001). Effect of drugs used for neuropathic pain management on
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Weiland, L., Croubels, S., Baert, K., Polis, I., De Backer, P., and Gasthuys, Yasuda, T., Miki, S., Yoshinaga, N., and Senba, E. (2005). Effects of amitripty-
F. (2006). Pharmacokinetics of a lidocaine patch 5% in dogs. J. Vet. Med. A line and gabapentin on bilateral hyperalgesia observed in an animal model
Physiol. Pathol. Clin. Med. 53(1), 34–39. of unilateral axotomy. Pain 115(1–2), 161–170.
Weir, M.R., Sperling, R.S., Reicin, A., and Gertz, B.J. (2003). Selective COX-2 Yen, L.D., Bennett, G.J., and Ribeiro-da-Silva, A. (2006). Sympathetic sprout-
inhibition and cardiovascular effects: A review of the rofecoxib development ing and changes in nociceptive sensory innervation in the glabrous skin of
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Wiese, A.J., Muir, W.W., III, and Wittum, T.E. (2005). Characteristics of pain 495(6), 679–690.
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Wieseler-Frank, J., Maier, S.F., and Watkins, L.R. (2004). Glial activation and Zurek, J.R., Nadeson, R., and Goodchild, C.S. (2001). Spinal and supraspinal
pathological pain. Neurochem. Int. 45(2–3), 389–395. components of opioid antinociception in streptozotocin induced diabetic
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 Chapter 27

Anaesthesia and Analgesia in the

Foetus and Neonate
J.C. Murrell, D.J. Mellor, and C.B. Johnson

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
II. Is the Foetus Conscious? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
A. Development of Neuroanatomical Pathways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
B. Is the Neurologically Mature Foetus Maintained in a ‘Sleep-Like’ State? 595
C. Are Neurologically Immature Foetuses Ever Conscious? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
D. Key Point 1: Prerequisites for Pain Experience . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
III. Does Foetal Unconsciousness Persist During Noxious Interventions? . . . . . . . 596
A. Key Point 2: Foetus is Almost Certainly Unconscious Throughout
Gestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
IV. Does Noxious Stimulation Activate the Foetal Stress Response? . . . . . . . . . . . 597
A. Key Point 3: Stress Responses and Analgesics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
V. Might Noxious Stimulation of the Foetus Cause Long-Term Changes in Pain
Processing? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
A. Key Point 4: Foetal Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics . . . . . . . . 598
B. Key Point 5: Foetus is not an Unborn Neonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
VI. Anaesthesia of the Dam for Foetal Surgery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
A. Inhalational Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
B. Propofol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
C. Thiopental . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
D. Ketamine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
E. Alpha2 Adrenoreceptor Agonists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
F. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
G. Key Point 6: Foetal Responses to Opioids Can Vary Between Drugs and
Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
H. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
VII. Epidural Analgesia/Anaesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
VIII. Prevention of Post-Operative Pre-Term Labour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
A. Key Point 7: Prevention of Pre-Term Parturition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
IX. Functional Maturity of Key Organ Systems in Newborn Animals . . . . . . . . . . 601
A. Cardiovascular Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
B. Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
C. Urinary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
D. Hepatobiliary System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

593
594 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

X. Anaesthesia of Neonatal Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602

A. Key Point 8: Balanced Anaesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
B. Drug Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
C. Key Point 9: Monitoring During Anaesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
XI. Supportive Measures During Neonatal Anaesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
A. Body Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
B. Blood Glucose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
XII. Post-Operative Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
XIII. Neonatal Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
A. Key-point 10: Multi-Modal Analgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
B. Key Point 11: Pain Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
C. Opioids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
D. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
XIV. Concluding Comments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606

I. INTRODUCTION whether the stimuli so generated are perceived as painful or not,

are unknown. Such stimuli can cause activation of the stress
response, and may potentially have a long-term influence on
Increasing attention is currently being given to foetal and
the processing of noxious stimuli (Mellor et al., 2005). These
neonatal anaesthesia and analgesia by members of the medi-
sequelae may justify the use of anaesthesia and/or analgesia,
cal and veterinary professions and animal research community.
even if the foetus is unconscious and unable to experience pain
In contrast to human medicine, in veterinary clinical practice
at the time of the intervention.
interventions are rarely carried out on the foetuses of any species
In the veterinary context, however, an additional factor needs
prior to labour. However, surgical or other invasive procedures
to be considered. It is the neurological maturity of the foetus at
in animals have been an integral part of foetal and neonatal
birth, because the implications for foetal and neonatal anaes-
research for many decades. For instance, animal models have
thesia and analgesia differ depending on whether the young are
been and are commonly used to advance the clinical manage-
mature (precocial), as in cattle, deer, goats, sheep, horses, pigs
ment of human infants before, during and after birth (Mellor and
and guinea pigs (Ellingson and Rose, 1970; Mellor and Diesch,
Gregory, 2003) and to refine surgical techniques for in utero pro-
2006; Mellor and Gregory, 2003; Mellor and Stafford, 2004),
cedures in human foetuses, such as intrauterine treatments for
or relatively immature (altricial), as in cats, dogs, mice, rats and
spina bifida (Eggink et al., 2005; Michejda, 1984). Favoured
rabbits (Ellingson and Rose, 1970). Although most considera-
models for this work have usually employed foetal sheep, in
tion to date has been given to the former category, we shall also
part because they are neurologically mature at birth as is the
provide comment on the latter.
human foetus. Clearly, the findings of such work and its experi-
In this chapter ‘foetus’ refers to the antenatal individual dur-
mental approach have direct relevance in the veterinary context.
ing at least the last two-thirds of pregnancy including birth, and
Thus, foetal and neonatal instrumentation techniques employ-
‘neonate’ or ‘newborn’ to mammalian young within the first few
ing surgery have also been directed at, for example, the causes
days after birth.
and prevention of perinatal mortality and morbidity in farm
In order to provide a balanced discussion on the need for
livestock (Mellor, 1988; Mellor and Gregory, 2003; Mellor and
anaesthesia and analgesia in foetal animals, we will first provide
Stafford, 2004), the clinical management of dystocia (Mellor
an overview of the literature pertaining to foetal consciousness
and Gregory, 2003) and humane slaughter techniques for preg-
in species that are neurologically mature at birth and we will
nant ruminants (Mellor and Gregory, 2003; van der Valk et al.,
then consider those that are less mature at birth.
2004). Such research has employed anaesthesia of the pregnant
dam and/or newborn but, until relatively recently, the use of
intra- or post-operative analgesia has rarely been considered.
II. IS THE FOETUS CONSCIOUS?
The need for foetal anaesthesia or analgesia is an area of
current debate in human medicine. It is uncertain at what age
a human foetus may be capable of experiencing or perceiving As pain is a sensory and emotional experience that requires
pain, or indeed whether a foetus can ever experience pain in the presence of consciousness to permit recognition of a stim-
utero (Lee et al., 2005; Mellor et al., 2005). The answer to ulus as unpleasant (IASP, 2004), by definition, in order to
this question will have a huge impact on attitudes towards the experience pain the foetus must be conscious. Neurologi-
need for anaesthesia or analgesia in foetuses undergoing surgery cal maturity at birth has direct relevance to this because of
or invasive procedures. Further, the longer-term consequences two preconditions for animals to be able to experience any
arising from invasive procedures on the foetus, regardless of sensations, including pain (Mellor and Diesch, 2006). The
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 595

nervous system must first develop the capacity for sentience, occur until between 3 and 14 days after birth depending on the
that is, the neurological apparatus must allow perception by species (Ellingson and Rose, 1970).
the senses; and second, the brain must also be in a state of
consciousness. The evidence suggests that in precocial young
the foetal brain is too immature initially to support sentience B. Is the Neurologically Mature Foetus Maintained
or any state resembling consciousness, and subsequently, that in a ‘Sleep-Like’ State?
when the capacity for sentience does appear, sleep-like states
of unconsciousness are maintained continuously by neuroin- Clinical and experimental literature suggests the foetus is
hibitory factors that operate in the in utero environment (Mellor maintained in ‘sleep-like’ states, and is therefore unconscious
and Diesch, 2006, 2007; Mellor et al., 2005). In altricial young, (Mellor et al., 2005). This is supported by electroencephalo-
however, neurological immaturity apparently persists through- graphic studies demonstrating that from mid-gestation the foetal
out pregnancy and the capacity for sentience does not seem electroencephalogram (EEG) begins to evolve from a discon-
to develop until after birth (Ellingson and Rose, 1970). These tinuous pattern into coherent discrete states that are suggestive
observations are consistent with the view that mammalian foe- of sleep and referred to as sleep states (Okai et al., 1992; Prechtl
tuses cannot experience any sensations, including pain, at any and Nijhuis, 1983). In late gestation two distinct sleep patterns
stage before birth. are recognised. They are REM or active sleep, characterised
by high-frequency, low-amplitude EEG activity, and non-REM
or quiet sleep, characterised by low-frequency, high-amplitude
A. Development of Neuroanatomical Pathways EEG activity (Mellor et al., 2005; Rigatto, 2004). These two pat-
terns form the dominant foetal state for at least 95% of the time.
The processing of nociceptive stimuli requires peripheral It is noteworthy that the remaining 5% represent the sum total of
sensory receptors, afferent and efferent sensory and motor path- numerous epochs of a few seconds duration each during frequent
ways and subcortical and cortical neural integration of the transitions between REM and non-REM sleep-like states (Mel-
related impulse traffic (Almeida et al., 2004). The thalamus lor et al., 2005). Although until now there has been no consensus
plays a crucial role in integrating the transmission of noxious on whether movement behaviours and EEG patterns recorded
information between the periphery and the cortex and it is recog- during these short epochs represent unconscious or conscious
nised that thalamocortical connections must be intact to allow wakefulness or continuing unconsciousness (Crossley et al.,
noxious stimuli to be perceived as pain by the foetus (Smith 1997; de Vries et al., 1988; Jansen and Chernick, 1991), a
et al., 2000). The exact stage at which these thalamocortical recent re-evaluation (Mellor et al., 2005) led to the conclusion
connections become functional in human foetuses is unknown. that these periods of so-called wakefulness actually represent
Between 22 and 26 weeks of gestation the subplate zone of sleep transitions similar to those described as ‘indeterminate
the cortex contains an abundant mixture of cholinergic, tha- sleep’ in the newborn (Ferri et al., 2003). Thus, the increasing
lamocortical and corticocortical waiting neurones (Glover and occurrence of this state with increasing foetal age reflects an
Fisk, 1999; Kostovic and Goldman-Rakic, 1984). There are also increased rate of switching between sleep states with advancing
transient foetal synaptic circuits between the subplate and cor- gestational age, rather than indicating that the foetus is increas-
tical plate neurones during this period (Glover and Fisk, 1999), ingly likely to become conscious (Mellor et al., 2005; Szeto and
suggesting that maturation occurs gradually within this 22–26- Hinman, 1985; van den Pas et al., 1994). Indeed, during labour
week time window. Once these connections are complete the foetal unconsciousness becomes deeper because of an increase
neuroanatomical pathways required for cortical processing of in the proportion of time spent in the non-REM sleep-like state
noxious information are intact. These observations are rein- (Shinozuka and Nathanielsz, 1998).
forced by the knowledge that otherwise healthy babies born The uterus evidently plays a key role in providing chemi-
prematurely during the last 10 weeks of the usual 40-week cal and physical factors that together help to keep the foetus
human pregnancy are clearly capable of consciousness and in continuous sleep-like states during late pregnancy (Mellor
respond to auditory, visual, taste, thermal, touch, painful and et al., 2005). All factors identified have demonstrable inhibitory
other stimuli (Lee et al., 2005; Mellor et al., 2005). A similar effects on the foetal EEG. Thus it has been proposed that a
pattern of development is considered to occur in foetal sheep range of in utero neuroinhibitory factors secreted by the placenta
(Mellor and Diesch, 2006; Mellor et al., 2005), which at birth and foetus, as well as warmth, buoyancy and cushioned tactile
are neurologically somewhat more mature than human infants. stimulation within the uterine environment, together act to main-
Differentiation of electroencephalographic activity into rapid- tain foetal states of unconsciousness before and throughout the
eye-movement (REM) and non-REM patterns occurs (Mellor period after the capacity for sentience has developed in precocial
et al., 2005) after about 80% of pregnancy has elapsed in such young (Mellor and Gregory, 2003; Mellor et al., 2005).
foetuses (Ellingson and Rose, 1970; Mellor et al., 2005). Adenosine, a potent neural inhibitor which promotes sleep
However, in the altricial newborns of dogs, cats, mice, rats and/or unconsciousness (Dunwiddie and Masino, 2001), is pro-
and rabbits REM–non-REM differentiation does not apparently duced by placental and foetal tissues in quantities that maintain
596 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

its circulating concentrations two- to fourfold higher in the foe- conscious perception of pain is incomplete in species that give
tus than in the mother, and is a proven suppressor of foetal birth to neurologically immature (altricial) young, whereas in
EEG activity (Mellor et al., 2005). Allopregnanolone and preg- young that are neurologically mature at birth (precocial) suffi-
nanolone are neuroactive steroids with anaesthetic, hypnotic and cient development occurs by about 80% of pregnancy. Therefore
analgesic effects (Majewska, 1992; Miller and Martin, 1998). anaesthesia and analgesia solely to prevent foetal pain percep-
They are produced from cholesterol or progesterone by the tion during foetal interventions is not apparently required in
placenta and the foetal brain, exhibit high circulating concentra- altricial young, nor during at least the first half of pregnancy in
tions in the foetus and have suppressive effects on foetal EEG, precocial young. Although the latter group develops the capacity
eye movements, breathing movements and postural changes for sentience prenatally, a large body of evidence suggests that
(Crossley et al., 1997; Hirst et al., 2000). Prostaglandin D2 is a in normal circumstances such foetuses are maintained in sleep-
potent sleep- inducing agent in adult animals. It is an active sup- like, unconscious states until after birth (Mellor and Diesch,
pressor of eye, breathing and postural muscle movements and 2006; Mellor and Gregory, 2003; Mellor et al., 2005). This
associated EEG activity in the late gestation foetus (Lee et al., would also remove the need to provide anaesthesia and analgesia
2002). Likewise, a possible placental peptide inhibitor, warmth, to prevent pain perception during the second half of gestation,
cushioned tactile stimulation and buoyancy are also considered provided that such foetuses are not aroused to consciousness by
to contribute to the maintenance of sleep-like EEG activity in noxious stimulation.
the foetus until birth (Mellor and Gregory, 2003; Mellor et al.,
2005).
III. DOES FOETAL UNCONSCIOUSNESS PERSIST
C. Are Neurologically Immature Foetuses DURING NOXIOUS INTERVENTIONS?
Ever Conscious?
This question is clearly not relevant to any foetuses of altricial
The electrical activity in the cerebral cortex is of particu-
species because their brains are apparently too neurologically
lar note here because, as already stated, it is an index of the
immature to support states of consciousness until after birth.
degree of functional maturation of the cortex that is required
Nor is it relevant during at least the first half of pregnancy in
for consciousness to occur (Ellingson and Rose, 1970; Mellor
species that give birth to precocial young. In the latter group,
and Diesch, 2007; Mellor et al., 2005). Pre-cortical and cortical
however, it is worthwhile to consider whether or not, during
structures are electrically silent early in foetal life—there is no
the last half of pregnancy and in spite of the neuroinhibitors
recordable EEG activity. The EEG then exhibits sporadic spikes,
that usually keep precocial foetuses in unconscious states, such
which evolve into short periods of sustained activity against a
mature foetuses can be aroused to consciousness by noxious
background of electrical silence. Continuous mixed sleep-like
stimuli that are known to potently arouse newborns from sleep.
EEG activity then appears and this subsequently matures into
Some observations in foetal sheep suggest that the foetus is
differentiated and alternating REM and non-REM sleep-like
not arousable. Vibroacoustic stimulation of sufficient intensity
patterns. As just noted, this whole progression occurs before
to induce auditory pain in conscious humans and movements
birth in species that produce precocial newborns, including
in foetal sheep does not cause the foetal EEG to change from
those of cattle, deer, goats, sheep, horses, pigs and guinea pigs.
sleep-like to aroused or conscious patterns (Leader et al., 1988;
However, in the altricial newborns of species such as the cat,
Schwab et al., 2000). In addition, hypoxaemia and hyper-
dog, mouse, rat and rabbit only the early developmental stages
capnoea, which potently arouse newborns, lead instead to
occur prenatally. Thus, their EEGs variously exhibit the follow-
deeper states of unconsciousness in mature foetuses (Hunter
ing characteristics at birth (Ellingson and Rose, 1970): electrical
et al., 2003; Mallard et al., 1992; Mellor et al., 2005; Watson
silence or very low-voltage activity, intermittent activity, or con-
et al., 2002) because of an adenosine-induced shutdown of EEG
tinuous and undifferentiated activity. Only after 3–14 days does
activity during foetal hypoxaemia (Kubonoya and Power, 1997).
REM–non-REM differentiation occur, and EEG evidence of
There remains the question of the impact, if any, of surgi-
conscious wakefulness is not apparent before this. The conclu-
cal stimulation on foetal unconsciousness. Foetal movements
sion that may be drawn from these observations is that the young
begin early in pregnancy, occurring spontaneously and also in
of these species are unconscious before birth and therefore they
response to noxious stimulation (Mellor and Gregory, 2003).
cannot experience pain or any other sensations until the capacity
However until the cortex has developed to the stage of being a
for consciousness develops after birth.
functional unit, these movements are reflexes (i.e. an involuntary
response to a stimulus) rather than a conscious response to pain
D. Key Point 1: Prerequisites for Pain Experience perception. Even after the maturation of neuroanatomical path-
ways required for consciousness, the existence of reflex actions
In order to experience pain the foetus must be conscious. simply demonstrates that nerve connections to the spinal cord
The development of the neurological apparatus required for the and return motor circuits are functional. Reflex and pain circuits
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 597

are separate, such that reflexes can occur without pain percep- foetuses exposed to nociceptive stimuli (Houfflin-Debarge et al.,
tion, and pain perception can occur without concurrent reflex 2005) blunt the foetal stress responses that occur if analgesia is
activation. Thus, the movements elicited in unanaesthetised foe- not provided, the implicit assumption that such stress responses
tuses by invasive procedures and their absence when the dam is are bad needs to be questioned. It is important to recall that the
given general anaesthesia and sufficient time is allowed for it to functional purpose of stress responses is to maintain or restore
act (Mellor and Gregory, 2003) do not unequivocally indicate homeostasis (Taylor et al., 1997b; Watt and Ledingham, 1984),
that the foetus has been aroused to consciousness. Indeed, EEG not, as may be presumed clinically, to help us to assess pre-
patterns at post-operative stages after foetal instrumentation sumed pain. Accordingly, in situations where pain experience is
when general anaesthesia would have waned suggest that any not apparently of concern, as in the foetus, minimising physio-
noxious sensory input during that period is not arousing in the logical stress responses may deprive the foetus of the associated
foetus (Mellor et al., 2005). However, a definitive experiment benefits. Moreover, we are profoundly ignorant of the actions,
evaluating EEG responses to surgery conducted on foetuses well dosage, clearance and side effects within the foetus of numer-
after recovery from the original anaesthesia and instrumentation ous analgesics that are efficacious in the newborn, and some
has not apparently been done. deleterious effects of some analgesics on the foetus have been
demonstrated (Bennet et al., 1986; Doyle et al., 2005; Taylor
et al., 1997a). On this basis, therefore, we strongly recom-
A. Key Point 2: Foetus is Almost Certainly Unconscious mend caution when contemplating applying analgesia to the
Throughout Gestation foetus, at the very least until we understand better what we are
doing. Evidence from animal studies that activation of foetal
In summary, in addition to the strong evidence indicating that stress responses may have some long-term negative effects on
‘non-stimulated’ mature foetuses remain in continuous states hippocampal development and stress behaviour (Clarke et al.,
of sleep-like unconsciousness throughout the last half of preg- 1994; Meaney and Aitken, 1985; Schneider et al., 1992; Uno
nancy, and that these states are actively maintained by a range of et al., 1990) should stimulate us to actively seek that improved
in utero neuroinhibitors, there are also clear indications that nox- understanding.
ious auditory stimulation and hypoxaemia/hypercapnoea, which
would awaken newborns from sleep, do not elicit arousal in
mature foetuses. Moreover, although the definitive experiment A. Key Point 3: Stress Responses and Analgesics
remains to be done and despite physical movements in response
to invasive procedures in unanaesthetised foetuses, there is some Although it is recognised in adult animals that activation of
evidence that surgical stimulation does not arouse foetuses to appropriate stress responses to factors such as noxious stimula-
consciousness either. tion and trauma is important for survival (Watt and Ledingham,
1984), and that short-term stress responses to noxious stimula-
tion of the foetus may be beneficial (Taylor et al., 1997b), the
implications of long-term foetal stress responses, which may
IV. DOES NOXIOUS STIMULATION ACTIVATE
be deleterious, are not fully understood. Nor are the actions of
THE FOETAL STRESS RESPONSE?
most analgesics that are known to be efficacious in newborn
and young animals. This is an area that clearly merits further
Noxious stimulation causes physiological changes in the investigation.
foetus, particularly activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–
adrenal (HPA) and hypothalamic–adrenomedullary stress
responses (Giannakoulopoulos et al., 1999; Smith et al., 2000),
V. MIGHT NOXIOUS STIMULATION OF THE
which are characterised by increases in circulating plasma
FOETUS CAUSE LONG-TERM CHANGES IN
concentrations of cortisol, β endorphin and noradrenaline
PAIN PROCESSING?
(Giannakoulopoulos et al., 1994, 1999; Houfflin-Debarge et al.,
2005). Moreover, nociceptive stimuli have also been shown to
increase plasma cortisol concentration and increase pulmonary In adult animals it is accepted that pain pathways are not
vascular resistance in foetal sheep (Houfflin-Debarge et al., hard wired and are able to change in response to nocicep-
2005). However, hormonal and cardiovascular responses to nox- tive input. Repeated noxious stimulation causes an increased
ious stimulation do not constitute definitive evidence of the sensitivity to pain due to changes in both the peripheral and
conscious perception of pain as such stress responses do not central nervous system (Woolf and Salter, 2000), such that pain
require cortical activation (Lee et al., 2005; Mellor et al., 2005). can be more difficult to manage in a clinical arena once these
Although administration of fentanyl prior to intrauterine changes have occurred (Ma and Woolf, 1995). Whether simi-
needling in human foetuses between 20 and 35 weeks of ges- lar changes in the pain pathway occur in response to noxious
tation (Fisk et al., 2001) and giving sufentanil to mature sheep stimuli in utero is not known. In human infants, behavioural or
598 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

physiological responses attributed to the pain associated with VI. ANAESTHESIA OF THE DAM FOR
vaccination several months after birth are reportedly greater in FOETAL SURGERY
infants that required instrumentally assisted birth compared to
those who did not (Taylor et al., 2000), and in infants who
Pregnancy causes many physiological changes in the dam
were circumcised as newborns compared to those who were not
that will influence the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynam-
(Taddio et al., 1997). It is important to appreciate, however, that
ics of administered anaesthetic and analgesic drugs. Changes
there are apparently no studies that have robustly tested such
in maternal physiology during pregnancy that may affect drug
phenomena in the foetus. Thus, there are no empirical foetal
pharmacology include:
data to demonstrate a causal relationship between noxious sen-
sory inputs and the presumed potential for subsequent greater • Reduction in gastrointestinal motility
sensitivity to pain (Mellor et al., 2005), whether that might occur • Increase in cutaneous blood flow
before or after birth. Indeed, robust postnatal clinical studies of • Increase in volume of distribution (due to the water asso-
young human infants are increasingly suggesting that this is not ciated with the placenta, foetus and increase in circulating
an important effect at least in the newborn (Moiniche et al., blood volume)
2002). • Increase in total body fat which may influence the distri-
bution of lipophilic drugs
• Changes in hepatic enzyme function
A. Key Point 4: Foetal Pharmacokinetics and • Increase in renal excretion which may increase the clear-
Pharmacodynamics ance of some drugs
For more details see Martin (1996).
The relevance of these findings to the foetus is uncertain. It
The clinical impact of these changes on anaesthetic drug
is possible that application of noxious stimuli without analge-
selection and dose in different animal species has not been
sia causes similar changes in developing foetal pain pathways,
investigated. Most of the recommendations regarding drug
which may result in altered pain perception in the newborn or
administration to pregnant animals are derived from the human
even adult animal. This possibility might support the use of anal-
literature. Given the paucity of data describing the pharmacoki-
gesia in the foetus. However caution must always be exercised
netics and pharmacodynamics of anaesthetic drugs in pregnant
before the administration of analgesic drugs directly to the foe-
animals, anaesthetic drugs should be given ‘to effect’ to avoid
tus. Responses to analgesic agents in prematurely born neonates
inadvertent drug over or under dosing. This may be difficult to
cannot be directly extrapolated to foetuses of similar gestational
do with rodents, as many of the most popular anaesthetics are
age (see Key Point 5). Data pertaining to the pharmacokinetics
given by routes other than inhalation or intravenous (IV) injec-
and dynamics of analgesic and anaesthetic drugs in foetuses are
tion. Under these circumstances, extra care should be taken to
lacking, and until these data are available the potential for neg-
utilise appropriate doses.
ative consequences of foetal drug administration must always
There are several sources of variability in determining the
be considered.
effect of maternally given drugs on the foetal central nervous
system. The placental barrier is a lipoprotein, so that drugs with
lipid solubility will cross the placenta to exert an anaesthetic
B. Key Point 5: Foetus is not an Unborn Neonate
action on the foetus. The thickness of the placenta decreases
throughout gestation, which facilitates diffusion of drugs across
The foetus is not simply a newborn that happens to still occupy
the placenta in older foetuses. However the stage of gestation
the uterus. The foetal brain and other vital organs operate in an
may also affect foetal drug metabolism. The liver is able to
entirely different physiological environment from that of the
metabolise drugs in the maturing human foetus, which influ-
newborn (Mellor et al., 2005), and the foetus and newborn
ences foetal drug metabolism (Wunsch et al., 2003). The foetal
have demonstrably different responses to putatively arousing,
liver in dogs has little capability to metabolise drugs, whereas
painful and/or distressing stimuli (see above), and to at least one
the situation in other animal species is unknown.
analgesic (morphine) (Mellor et al., 2005). Regarding foetal
Goals of maternal anaesthesia/analgesia:
analgesia, we are largely ignorant of the pharmacokinetics,
pharmacodynamics, efficacy and short- or long-term deleterious • Prevent or minimise pain resulting from surgery to the dam
effects of analgesic drugs in the foetus. There is some evidence and foetus
to suggest that managing the foetal stress responses and min- • Maintain the dam in a quiet and non-stressed state
imising the activation of foetal pain pathways with analgesic • Prevent or reduce the likelihood of foetal abortion after the
and anaesthetic drugs may be beneficial. In veterinary practice end of the procedure
this can be provided by anaesthetising the dam and allowing
Goals of maternal anaesthesia/analgesia for the foetus
sufficient time for the agents to cross the placenta to the foetus
before the start of surgery. • Manage foetal stress responses (but see Key Point 3)
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 599

• Prevent or minimise changes in the pain pathway that may (Setoyama et al., 2003), although sevoflurane is widely used
lead to changes in pain perception in postnatal life (but see to provide anaesthesia for caesarean section in women without
Key Point 4) reported adverse foetal effects (Olthoff and Rohrbach, 1998). In
• Obtund the potential for awareness and possible pain summary, these data suggest that although halothane has been
perception (but see Key Point 1) used for many years for maternal anaesthesia for foetal surgery,
• Prevent foetal movements that may make the surgical the newer volatile agents provide better maternal and foetal car-
procedure difficult to carry out diovascular stability. There are insufficient data to support the
recommendation of isoflurane over sevoflurane or vice versa.
The choice of anaesthetic protocol for the individual patient
will be determined by the species, the invasiveness of the pro-
cedure to be carried out on the foetus and the stage of gestation. B. Propofol
The foetal lamb is widely used for biomedical and veterinary
studies of foetal and neonatal physiology, such that most exper- Propofol is routinely used for induction of anaesthesia for cae-
imental data describing the effects of anaesthetics on foetal sarean section in women (Moore et al., 1989) and is recognised
circulation have been obtained from experiments carried out to be a safe and efficacious agent. Propofol has also been widely
in a sheep model. Therefore general recommendations per- investigated for induction or maintenance of anaesthesia in preg-
taining to maternal anaesthesia for foetal surgery are usually nant sheep, and effects of the drug on the foetal circulation have
derived from studies in sheep and extrapolated across species. been studied. Alon et al. (1993) compared foetal circulatory
A full description of different suggested anaesthesia protocols parameters during maternal anaesthesia with either IV propofol
across species is beyond the scope of this chapter. In general or isoflurane and found that propofol compared to isoflurane
the same principles of anaesthesia apply to pregnant animals as was not associated with circulatory compromise. Studies in
to any individual, particularly with regard to monitoring and other species have found similar results (Abboud et al., 1995;
maintenance of cardiovascular and respiratory function with Andaluz et al., 2005; Setoyama et al., 2003), supporting the
supportive measures such as fluid therapy. We will highlight safety of propofol for maternal induction or maintenance of
experimental data that support selection of particular anaes- anaesthesia (by continuous rate infusion) during foetal surgery.
thetic agents or techniques for foetal surgery—for the most part
these recommendations are derived from ovine studies.
C. Thiopental

A. Inhalational Agents The pharmacokinetic characteristics of thiopental render it

unsuitable for maintenance of anaesthesia; however, thiopen-
Inhalational agents cause uterine relaxation that can facili- tal is widely used as an induction agent in pregnant animals.
tate conditions for foetal surgery (Yoo et al., 2006). Work in A number of studies have compared thiopental and propofol
sheep suggests that the foetus requires a lower concentration for caesarean section in women and found the two drugs to be
of inhalant agent to achieve the same level of anaesthesia as equally safe in terms of neonatal outcome (Siafaka et al., 1992).
the adult (Gregory et al., 1983), so that anaesthetic concentra- However, thiopental for induction of anaesthesia for caesarean
tions sufficient to anaesthetise the dam will also anaesthetise section in pregnant bitches was found to be associated with
the foetus. A number of studies have investigated the effects of increased puppy mortality compared to propofol (Funkquist
maternally administered inhalant agents on the foetal circula- et al., 1997). Thiopental has also been evaluated as an induction
tion. These studies were not designed to investigate the compar- agent in pregnant sheep and found to have minimal effects on
ative effects of the commonly used inhalant agents, halothane, the foetal circulation (Alon et al., 1993; McClaine et al., 2005).
sevoflurane and isoflurane, so that comparison between agents
is difficult. Sabik et al. (1993) found that halothane signifi-
D. Ketamine
cantly decreased foetal cardiac output and placental blood flow,
while significantly increased total vascular resistance, such that
Ketamine is widely used for the anaesthesia of pregnant
placental gas exchange was impaired. It has been suggested
sheep, and maternal ketamine administration is not associated
that the immature lamb heart is very sensitive to the calcium
with adverse effects on the foetus in this species (Strumper et al.,
channel blocking properties of halothane, which may result in
2004; Swartz et al., 1987). The effects of ketamine on the foetal
adverse effects of halothane on cardiac function in the foetus
rodent have not been reported.
(Davis et al., 1995). Halothane also has a lesser effect on uterine
relaxation compared to other volatile agents (Yoo et al., 2006).
Evidence suggests that isoflurane compared to halothane has a E. Alpha2 Adrenoreceptor Agonists
less marked effect on the foetal cardiovascular system (Bachman
et al., 1986; Palmisano et al., 1994). In a goat model, sevoflu- Drugs stimulating alpha2 adrenoreceptors increase the con-
rane was associated with significant hypotension in the foetus tractility of the pregnant and non-pregnant uterus (Jedruch et al.,
600 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

1989b; Rexroad and Barb, 1978), resulting in an increase in foetal responses to individual opioid agents. A complete review
intrauterine pressure. Xylazine has been associated with abor- of opioid effects in the foetus across different laboratory ani-
tion when administered in the last third of pregnancy to cattle, mal species is beyond the scope of this chapter, and for many
presumably due to uterine contraction following drug admin- species and opioid drugs data are lacking. Caution is advised
istration (Hodgson et al., 2002). However, administration of before administration of opioid drugs to the foetus, and knowl-
medetomidine and detomidine to pregnant dogs and horses does edge of the current literature pertaining to the individual species
not appear to increase the risk of abortion in these species and drug is recommended. Administration of opioids to the dam
(Jedruch et al., 1989a, 1989b). will contribute to provision of a balanced anaesthetic technique
Alpha2 agonists are recognised to have profound effects on and will reduce the dose requirement for volatile agents. Further
uterine blood flow, although whether this is a direct effect or studies investigating the optimal opioid drug and dose for foetal
results from increased uterine activity is unknown (Jansen et al., and maternal analgesia across species are required.
1984; Sakamoto et al., 1996, 1997). However, the reduction in
uterine blood flow associated with this class of drugs suggests
that they should be avoided for maternal anaesthesia for foetal H. Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs (NSAIDs)
surgery in all species.
NSAIDs inhibit cyclo-oxygenase production with a sub-
sequent reduction in prostaglandin synthesis. NSAIDs are
F. Opioids associated with a number of adverse effects in the human foetus,
which result from inhibition of foetal prostaglandin synthesis.
Short-term administration of opioids to foetuses, either These effects include premature closure of the ductus arteriosus
directly or via the maternal circulation, is not considered to and foramen ovale, and pulmonary hypertension, nephrotoxic-
be associated with adverse foetal effects in humans; however, ity, and abnormalities of foetal haemostasis. The potential for
this cannot be extrapolated across species. Morphine adminis- these adverse effects in animal species is unknown. Preven-
tration directly to foetal lambs caused hyperventilation which tion of prostaglandin synthesis in newborn male rats by short
could potentially result in foetal hypoxia due to increased oxy- exposure to an NSAID (indomethacin) impaired male sexual
gen consumption associated with increased respiratory effort behaviour, while developmental (in utero) exposure to aspirin
(Bennet et al., 1986). Longer-term opioid administration (few diminished sexual behaviour in the adult male rat (Amateau and
weeks) in humans may cause low birth weights and behavioural McCarthy, 2004). The clinical relevance of these experimen-
deficits in the newborn, and similar effects have been reported tal findings is currently unknown. Prostaglandins also play an
in laboratory animals (McLaughlin et al., 1978). important role in maintenance of uterine and umbilical blood
In animal models involving foetal surgery, opioid analgesia flow. The clinical significance of NSAIDs in maintenance of
is more commonly provided to the dam. There are differences in adequate placental blood flow, particularly during maternal sys-
placental transfer between opioids. A single dose of buprenor- temic hypotension, is unknown. Administration of a single dose
phine is associated with low placental transfer, resulting in of an NSAID to a cardiovascularly stable dam after surgery is
limited availability to the foetal circulation (Nanovskaya et al., a common practice throughout pregnancy and is unlikely to be
2002), although with repeated doses the availability to the foe- associated with adverse foetal effects, but prolonged NSAID
tus increases (Fischer et al., 2000). Fentanyl and sufentanil are administration during pregnancy is currently not recommended
both rapidly transferred across the placenta to the foetal cir- (Boubred et al., 2006).
culation, although rapid maternal reuptake of sufentanil limits
foetal exposure compared to fentanyl (Loftus et al., 1995). Mor-
phine can cross the placental barrier, and a continuous rate of
VII. EPIDURAL ANALGESIA/ANAESTHESIA
infusion has been reported to increase maternal and foetal anaes-
thesia/analgesia after open foetal surgery in a primate model
(Santolaya-Forgas et al., 2006). Surgery on unanaesthetised foetuses of ewes given epidural
anaesthesia alone elicits strong leg, trunk and/or neck move-
ments in the foetus, especially after 120 days gestation (Mellor
G. Key Point 6: Foetal Responses to Opioids Can and Gregory, 2003). These movements can make it difficult
Vary Between Drugs and Species to carry out surgery on the foetus; therefore, epidural anaes-
thesia alone is rarely used to provide maternal anaesthesia and
While current evidence suggests that administration of judi- analgesia in experimental models. However epidural or intrathe-
cious doses of some opioids to foetuses for short periods may cal drug administration can be a useful adjunct to volatile
have few long-term detrimental effects in man and primates agent anaesthesia in the dam, and may contribute to a balanced
and may reduce the foetal stress response to noxious stimuli anaesthetic technique. Studies in human demonstrate that low
(Fisk et al., 2001), there appear to be species differences in doses of intrathecal or epidural opioids and local anaesthetics
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 601

are not associated with adverse neonatal effects (Capogna and Profound changes in physiology occur in every animal at
Camorcia, 2004). birth. In particular, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems
must rapidly adapt to the environment outside the uterus and to
gas exchange occurring in the lungs rather than the placenta.
Although physiological changes continue after birth over the
VIII. PREVENTION OF POST-OPERATIVE
following days and weeks, the magnitude and speed of these
PRE-TERM LABOUR
changes slows with increasing age. Anaesthesia of neonatal ani-
mals in the first 24 hours after birth is uncommon in clinical or
Pre-term labour is the most common complication of foetal research practice. However, it is important to be aware of differ-
surgery. No single anaesthetic agent has been implicated as a ences between neonatal and adult physiology in order to make
causative factor and it is more likely that stress response of the informed decisions about anaesthetic management of neonatal
dam to surgery results in physiological changes that can trigger patients. Species differences in neonatal physiology are evident
pre-term labour. Continued progesterone secretion is essential and to a certain extent are influenced by the maturity or preco-
for the maintenance of pregnancy in mammals, but there are dif- ciousness of the neonate at birth. We provide a broad overview of
ferences in the principal site of progesterone secretion between the physiology of organ systems that are significantly influenced
species. In sheep, similar to human, after approximately the by anaesthesia, but avoid an account of physiological changes
first 55 days of pregnancy, the placenta produces sufficient pro- in individual species as that is beyond the scope of the chapter.
gesterone to maintain pregnancy, whereas the corpus luteum is
essential for progesterone secretion and maintenance of preg-
A. Cardiovascular Physiology
nancy in, for example, swine, cattle, goat and horses. The source
of progesterone will determine the efficacy of some drugs (e.g.
The neonate has a low-pressure, low-volume and low–
NSAIDs) to reduce the potential for pre-term labour in different
peripheral resistance circulatory system compared to the adult
species.
animal (Adelman and Wright, 1985). Consequently, in order to
maintain adequate peripheral perfusion in the face of these phys-
iological changes, the neonate has a higher heart rate, cardiac
A. Key Point 7: Prevention of Pre-Term Parturition
output, plasma volume and central venous pressure compared
to the adult. Neonates are more dependent on heart rate to main-
Strategies should be adopted to reduce the risk of pre-term
tain adequate cardiac output than adults and may therefore be
labour after foetal surgery. Optimising the anaesthesia regi-
more at risk of negative cardiovascular consequences from a
men by moderating the stress response in the dam and foetus,
relative bradycardia. Sympathetic innervation of the heart is
combined with reducing post-operative pain in the dam, can
incomplete in some neonates (Mace and Levy, 1983). Although
contribute to a reduced likelihood of abortion (Goodman, 2002).
there is evidence for structural maturity of the parasympathetic
The applicability of specific pharmacological therapies such as
nervous system, the reduced responsiveness of neonatal heart
NSAIDs and tocolytics is species dependent, and prior review
rate to atropine suggests that vagal tone is reduced compared to
of the current literature pertaining to the individual species is
adults (Fox, 1966; Mace and Levy, 1983). Hypoxia also causes a
advised.
bradycardia in neonates (Stowe et al., 1985; Swann et al., 1954),
which is in direct contrast to the effect of hypoxia in adults. It
is likely that the incomplete maturity of the autonomic nervous
IX. FUNCTIONAL MATURITY OF KEY ORGAN system reduces the ability of the neonatal cardiovascular system
SYSTEMS IN NEWBORN ANIMALS to respond to physiological stresses such as the cardiovascular
effects of most anaesthetic drugs.
Across species there are huge differences in the stage of mat-
uration of the animal at birth. In marsupial species the young B. Respiratory System
are born very immature and complete their embryonic develop-
ment in the maternal pouch (marsupium). Relative to marsupial The mechanisms that control physiological function in the
species, rats are more mature at birth, but are still neurologically newborn develop before birth but require maturation in the
immature, hairless, blind, and therefore completely dependent postnatal period (Haddad and Mellins, 1984). Neonates show
on their mother to feed and protect them. In contrast, lambs and a biphasic response to hypoxia: initially hypoxia causes an
other domesticated herbivores are neurologically precocious at increase in minute ventilation, which is followed by a return
birth. They are born with wool or hair covering their body, open to baseline levels if hypoxia persists (Haddad and Mellins,
eyes, and are able to stand and run very shortly after birth. These 1984; Nock et al., 2004). The early excitatory phase of the
differences have impact on the approaches to anaesthesia of the hypoxic ventilatory response is caused by peripheral chemore-
newborn animal. ceptor stimulation (Miller and Martin, 1998). The decline in
602 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

ventilation is thought to be secondary to hypoxaemia-induced (Baggot and Short, 1984). Clinically this results in decreased
central depression of respiration overriding the initial peripheral hepatic metabolism of many anaesthetic and analgesic drugs,
chemoreceptor stimulation (Hanson and Kumar, 1994). This and drug doses should be adjusted accordingly. The propor-
may make neonates more vulnerable to apnoea, due to hypoxic tionally larger blood volume of neonatal animals compared to
respiratory depression impairing the ventilatory response to adults will also increase the volume of distribution and therefore
apnoeic periods. pharmacokinetics of some drugs.
The compliance of the chest wall is higher in neonates
compared to adults and decreases during development
(Papastamelos et al., 1995). Neonatal differences between chest X. ANAESTHESIA OF NEONATAL ANIMALS
wall and lung compliance predispose the neonate to alveo-
lar collapse because of difficulties in passively maintaining Clearly the approach to anaesthesia of the neonate will be
residual lung volume (Papastamelos et al., 1995). In order to determined by the age, species and size of the animal coupled
maintain functional residual capacity, neonates adopt an aug- with a consideration of the procedure to be carried out. Smaller
mented breathing pattern with a high frequency of respiration animals, such as neonatal mice and rats, pose challenges to
combined with a relatively long expiratory time (Frappell and anaesthesia based on size alone, resulting in practical difficul-
MacFarlane, 2005). Anaesthesia may negatively influence gas ties such as establishing IV access and airway management.
exchange in neonates due to the respiratory depressant effects A comprehensive guide to neonatal anaesthesia of all species
of most anaesthetic agents. The expiratory resistance imposed is beyond the scope of this chapter; therefore, we will focus
by some anaesthesia circuits may also further impair ventilation on general principles that can be applied across species to all
in spontaneously breathing animals. neonates.

C. Urinary System A. Key Point 8: Balanced Anaesthesia

There is significant variation in the degree of renal matura- General anaesthesia can be defined as a reversible, drug-
tion at birth across species. Renal function reaches maturity induced loss of consciousness associated with a lack of respon-
in the first 2 weeks after birth in ruminants and pigs (Baggot siveness to noxious stimulation. The three essential components
and Short, 1984), whereas in other domestic species such as of anaesthesia, termed the triad of anaesthesia, are hypno-
horses and dogs renal function matures over the first 4 weeks sis, muscle relaxation and analgesia. Together these elements
(Baggot and Short, 1984). Individual species differences will ensure that the patient is unconscious, that adequate muscle
influence the rate of changes in renal function with age. How- relaxation is present to allow the surgical procedure to be car-
ever generally in neonates renal blood flow is directly correlated ried out and that analgesia is provided to reduce pain resulting
with arterial blood pressure, and adult control of renal blood from the surgical intervention after the end of anaesthesia. No
flow by angiotensin secretion is not fully developed at birth single anaesthetic agent is able to provide all elements of the
(Kleinman and Reuter, 1973). Neonates compared to adults are anaesthesia triad. Therefore, the modern approach adopted by
also less able to concentrate or dilute urine and are more at anaesthetists is the principle of balanced anaesthesia, that is,
risk of fluid derangements caused by anaesthesia and surgery. using different classes of drugs in combination, so that the
Functional immaturity of the kidneys decreases the renal excre- dose of each individual agent can be reduced. Since the side
tion of polar drugs and drug metabolites, which may alter the effects associated with most anaesthetic agents are also dose
pharmacokinetics of anaesthetic and analgesic drugs. related, balanced anaesthesia can result in a more cardiovascu-
larly stable anaesthesia protocol. A clinical example of balanced
D. Hepatobiliary System anaesthesia for orthopaedic surgery in dogs is pre-medication
with a sedative and analgesic drug combination (e.g. acepro-
During pregnancy the placenta carries out many of the func- mazine and morphine), induction with an IV hypnotic agent
tions performed by the liver in the adult animal. During the first (e.g. propofol) and maintenance of anaesthesia with a volatile
week after birth dramatic changes in hepatic physiology occur, agent combined with a continuous rate IV infusion of a potent
coupled with the loss of umbilical blood flow, increasing hepatic opioid. This multi-modal approach allows the dose of volatile
portal vein flow and closure of the ductus venosus (Gow et al., agent to be reduced and provides better cardiovascular stability
2001). The hepatic expression of P450 cytochromes matures and and analgesia compared to using a volatile agent alone.
changes during the early neonatal period (Gow et al., 2001)
and the glucoronide metabolic pathway is not fully developed B. Drug Selection
for at least 6 weeks. The liver is therefore functionally imma-
ture at birth and functionality increases over the subsequent The majority of anaesthetic drugs are metabolised in the liver;
weeks, although the rate of maturation varies between species therefore, the half-life of most anaesthetic drugs will be longer
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 603

in neonates compared to adults due to the immaturity of this after prolonged halothane anaesthesia. In order to minimise the
organ (see Section IX.D). In order to avoid the detrimental duration of recovery from anaesthesia in neonates, it is advanta-
effects of a prolonged recovery from anaesthesia it is advisable geous to choose isoflurane or sevoflurane rather than halothane
to choose short acting drugs for induction and maintenance of for volatile agent anaesthesia.
anaesthesia. Drug doses must also be adjusted to account for Ketamine is widely used in human neonates for anaesthe-
a more prolonged duration of action, particularly when giv- sia and sedation and few adverse effects have been reported
ing repeated doses or a continuous rate infusion of injectable (Green et al., 2001; Pees et al., 2003). In adults, ketamine
agents. Differences between the neonatal and adult blood–brain has a favourable cardiovascular profile because of its sympa-
barrier may also contribute to altered dose requirements. Propo- thomimetic effects. The autonomic nervous system is not fully
fol is a potent lipophilic anaesthetic agent, formulated in 10% mature at birth; however, studies in pre-term infants suggested
soya bean emulsion (Baker and Naguib, 2005), which is more that ketamine provided better cardiovascular stability compared
rapidly metabolised than thiopental in adult animals (Short and to the volatile anaesthetic agents (Friesen and Henry, 1986).
Bufalari, 1999). Propofol rather than thiopental should be used Ketamine can be given intravenously or intramuscularly (which
for induction of anaesthesia in species where IV induction of is advantageous if IV access is problematic) and can be used to
anaesthesia is possible (Chaffin et al., 1997). Propofol infusion provide a short duration (30–40 minutes) of general anaesthesia.
syndrome is a recognised complication of prolonged propofol Most species are very sensitive to the central nervous system
infusion in paediatric patients, and is characterised by metabolic excitatory effects of ketamine, so that it should be combined
acidosis, rhabdomyolysis and cardiac failure (Bray, 2002; with a sedative to prevent overt excitation. Midazolam is a suit-
Coetzee and Coetzer, 2003). The precise aetiology of this syn- able sedative to combine with ketamine, and only has minimal
drome is unknown, although it has been proposed that prolonged effects on cardiovascular function.
propofol administration may induce a deficiency in mitochon-
drial oxidative processes in this patient population (Coetzee and
Coetzer, 2003). Although this syndrome has not been reported C. Key Point 9: Monitoring During Anaesthesia
in animals, it is possible that prolonged infusions of propofol in
neonatal animals may cause similar adverse effects. Monitoring during anaesthesia of neonates of all species
Induction and maintenance of anaesthesia with inhalational is vital to warn of impending complications and allow early
agents can be a useful technique in neonatal animals because of intervention. Manual monitoring of pulse rate and quality and
the minimal requirement for hepatic metabolism of the agents observation of respiration is easy and simple in animals heavier
for recovery from anaesthesia. Induction can be achieved by than 1–2 kg. Use of monitoring tools such as electrocardiogra-
placing the animal in an anaesthetic chamber and increasing phy, blood pressure measurement, pulse oximetry, capnometry
the concentration of delivered inhalant agent until the animal and body temperature provides more detailed and precise infor-
is anaesthetised. Placement of an endotracheal tube for deliv- mation about the physiological status of the patient during
ery of gases and airway maintenance can be difficult in some anaesthesia and are useful techniques for smaller animals where
species. Traumatic intubation of small body weight animals the manual monitoring of parameters is more challenging. The
(<1 kg) can cause permanent damage to the trachea or lar- risk of physiological derangements is greater during longer and
ynx, so that the advantages of orotracheal intubation must be more invasive procedures in sicker animals, so that the impor-
balanced against the risk of airway damage. Narrow diameter tance of using monitoring equipment is greater in this patient
endotracheal tubes also pose a high resistance to respiration group. Monitoring equipment must be suitable for the size of
and are at risk of obstruction from bronchial secretions. A the individual animal. Apparatus used in adult cats and dogs is
tracheotomy may be a suitable alternative to endotracheal intu- usually suitable for use in neonates of these species, as well as
bation in some circumstances. Inhalant agents can also be some foals, calves and pigs (depending on size). Specialised
delivered via an anaesthesia breathing system and face mask. equipment tailored to the small size and physiological variables
It is important that the face mask is tightly fitting to minimise (such as heart rate) is required for neonatal rats and mice.
exposure of staff to anaesthetic gases, and systems to scavenge
waste anaesthesia gases must be used. Halothane, isoflurane
and sevoflurane are the three most commonly used volatile
XI. SUPPORTIVE MEASURES DURING NEONATAL
agents in veterinary anaesthesia. The three agents have dif-
ANAESTHESIA
ferent physicochemical properties, particularly with regard to
blood–gas solubility. Sevoflurane has the lowest and halothane
the highest solubility in blood, such that the time required for A. Body Temperature
induction and recovery from anaesthesia is in the following
order: sevoflurane > isoflurane > halothane. Halothane is also Neonatal animals are usually at a higher risk of hypother-
more fat soluble than the other two agents and undergoes sig- mia than adults, and smaller animals, due to their relatively
nificant liver metabolism, factors which may also slow recovery larger surface area to volume ratio, are more susceptible to
604 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

hypothermia than are larger animals. In the first few days Leroux-Roels, 1993). Only tiny (1 drop) amounts of blood are
after birth the physiological adaptations to cold, such as vaso- required for each test, which can be collected easily and repeat-
constriction and shivering, are poorly developed (Lyon et al., edly during anaesthesia of larger neonates. The frequency of
1997). Anaesthesia further predisposes the neonate to hypother- testing can be adjusted depending on the stability of the mea-
mia because of the depressant effects of anaesthetic agents sured blood glucose concentration. Glucose can be given by
on the thermoregulatory centre and the lack of muscle activ- parenteral injection or, preferably, IV infusion to raise blood
ity. Significant hypothermia (body temperature ≤35◦ C) during glucose concentration when hypoglycaemia is detected; for-
anaesthesia has a wide range of deleterious effects on the body. mulae are available to calculate the required infusion rate of
The dose requirement of anaesthetic agents is reduced, mak- glucose (mmol/(kg h)) depending on blood glucose concentra-
ing inadvertent anaesthetic overdose more likely unless this tion. As the risk of hypoglycaemia remains until the animal
is taken into account during drug administration. The rate of is able to resume normal feeding from the dam, monitoring
drug metabolism will also be reduced, contributing to a more of blood glucose should continue through the immediate post-
prolonged recovery from anaesthesia. Negative cardiovascular operative period. Additional nutritional support can be provided
effects include bradycardia, a predisposition for cardiac arrhyth- to larger neonates by tube feeding maternal milk or colostrum
mias, and impaired blood clotting, which may result in increased via the mouth into the distal oesophagus. This should not be
blood loss during surgery. Monitoring body temperature is vital undertaken until the neonate is able to swallow in order to reduce
in order to prevent and manage hypothermia during anaesthe- the risk of aspiration associated with this intervention.
sia in neonates. Reducing heat loss by increasing the ambient
environmental temperature and ensuring the animal does not
lie on cold surfaces are vital to prevent heat loss. Care should
XII. POST-OPERATIVE PERIOD
also be taken during preparation of the skin for surgery to pre-
vent excessive wetting of the body with cold fluids. Measures
to maintain normothermia during anaesthesia include use of The recovery period is recognised to be a relatively high-
forced air-warming devices (for example a Bair Hugger® ), heat- risk period in veterinary anaesthesia. The cardiovascular and
ing blankets and wrapping the animal in an insulating material. respiratory side effects of anaesthetic drugs remain until the
Most of these devices can be easily modified for use in small animal is fully conscious, yet during the recovery period animals
animals such as rodents. Hyperthermia and skin burns can occur are often not monitored or observed and supportive measures to
due to overzealous heating and lack of attention to body temper- prevent hypothermia, hypovolaemia and hypoxia are commonly
ature monitoring, particularly because the animal is immobile not implemented. Derangements in fluid and energy balance
and unable to move away from direct heat sources. Measures to may persist until the animal is able to maintain normal fluid
prevent skin burns (particularly when using heating devices in and electrolyte balance and food intake. Continuous observation
hairless animals) must be adopted. and monitoring during the recovery period is vital to prevent or
manage complications. Oxygen should be supplemented using
a face mask or oxygen tent until the animal is fully awake.
B. Blood Glucose An incubator can be a good environment in which to recover
small neonatal animals. The environmental temperature can be
Blood glucose concentration is under tight metabolic control controlled to prevent hypothermia and the air in the incubator
and is maintained within normal limits by glycogenolysis, glu- can easily be enriched with oxygen to make an oxygen tent. Pain
coneogenesis, glycolysis and insulin/glucagon secretion. In the should also be frequently assessed during the post-operative
first few hours after birth, neonates are at high risk of hypogly- period using behavioural indicators appropriate for that species.
caemia because of limited glycogen stores at birth combined
with the cessation of placental glucose supply at birth (Mellor
and Cockburn, 1986). This is especially so when colostrum
XIII. NEONATAL ANALGESIA
or milk intake is inadequate. Anaesthesia further increases
the risk of hypoglycaemia in all neonates because feeding is
suspended during the period of anaesthesia. Clinical signs of Traditionally, there has been a reluctance to use analgesics
hypoglycaemia, such as changes in consciousness, can also not in neonates because of concern about altered drug pharmacoki-
be considered during anaesthesia to act as a warning sign of netics that leads to drug overdose. However, the importance
impending hypoglycaemia. of adequate pain management in neonates is now recognised,
Monitoring of blood glucose concentration during anaesthe- particularly in human medicine (Anand and Scalzo, 2000). The
sia is important. Portable hand-held glucometers developed for potential for early pain experiences to alter the developing ner-
use in human diabetic patients are recognised to be reasonably vous system and change pain perception to future painful stimuli
accurate in man (compared to conventional laboratory testing) is accepted, although precisely how long these alterations
and are a useful bedside monitor to use in theatre (Devreese and in pain processing persist is unknown (Taddio et al., 1997).
27. ANAESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN THE FOETUS AND NEONATE 605

Moreover, such effects have yet to be convincingly demonstrated C. Opioids

(Moiniche et al., 2002).
Behavioural assessment of pain is difficult in neonatal ani- Dosing regimens of opioids for neonates of different species
mals. Recognising pain behaviour in adult animals is prob- have not been investigated experimentally and there is a paucity
lematic (Moloney and Kent, 1997), and neonates of any of information in the clinical literature. An increased sensitiv-
given species may be insufficiently mature to show the same ity of puppies to the sedative and respiratory depressant effects
behavioural response to pain as the adult. However, assessing of opioids is reported (Luks et al., 1998), and this may apply
pain using dynamic interaction with the patient and applica- to other species. It is advisable to initially give low doses of
tion of gentle pressure at the site of tissue injury is important. opioids (e.g. half adult dose), and increase the dose depend-
Response to pain assessment combined with inferred knowl- ing on the level of analgesia achieved. This is a safer way
edge about the painfulness of the procedure that was carried to achieve effective analgesia without excessive side effects.
out can improve decision-making about provision of post- Side effects are less likely to occur following partial opioid
operative analgesia. This can result in better post-operative pain agonists such as buprenorphine, although the analgesic effi-
management in neonatal animals. cacy of partial agonists is also less than that of full agonists
Neonates present a number of challenges in the provision of such as morphine. Reversal of excessive opioid side effects
effective analgesia in the peri-operative period. In order to opti- can be achieved with naloxone (an OP3 receptor antagonist),
mise pain management in neonates, it is useful to apply the same although administration of naloxone may potentially reverse
principles utilised in adults, namely multi-modal analgesia, endogenous opioid analgesia and potentially expose the neonate
pre-emptive analgesia and regular assessment of pain-related to pain.
behaviour. Neonatal rodents present particular challenges for
pain assessment due to their small size and lack of active
behaviours (Henare et al., 2008). These animals are moderately
D. Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs
immature at birth and recent evidence suggests that these ani-
mals are not able to experience pain as neonates (Diesch et al.,
NSAIDs form a valuable component to peri-operative pain
2007).
control in adult animals; however, recommendations for NSAID
administration to neonates vary between species. NSAIDs are
A. Key-Point 10: Multi-Modal Analgesia not advised in puppies and kittens less than 6 weeks of age
because the immaturity of the hepatorenal system increases the
The pain pathway is complex, with multiple neurotransmitters risk of adverse side effects in these species (Mathews, 2005).
and receptors involved in the transmission of noxious informa- Compared to cats and dogs, cattle and horses appear to be at
tion from the periphery to the central nervous system and cortex. a reduced risk of renal and gastrointestinal side effects from
It is therefore extremely difficult to achieve effective analgesia NSAIDs, and this class of drugs is commonly administered to
by using a single class of analgesic drug alone. Multi-modal horses and calves less than 1-month-old (Crisman et al., 1996;
analgesia uses different classes of analgesic drugs, which act Semrad, 1993). The pharmacokinetics of flunixin meglumine
at different sites in the pain pathway, in combination. The side and ketoprofen in foals younger than 24 hours old have been
effects of different drug classes are usually different, so that, studied and are altered compared to adults (Crisman et al., 1996;
with the exception of NSAIDs and steroids, combining drug Wilke et al., 1998). This is likely to be the case in other neonatal
classes will also not lead to exacerbation of drug side effects. species and requires dose adjustment to prevent overdose and
Synergism between drug classes (e.g. between alpha2 adrenore- obtain therapeutic plasma concentrations.
ceptor agonists and opioids) also allows the dose of individual
agents to be reduced when used in combination, which may be
advantageous.
XIV. CONCLUDING COMMENTS
B. Key Point 11: Pain Assessment
As outlined in the above sections, we have attempted to intro-
Despite the difficulties of pain assessment in neonates across duce and discuss important concepts relevant to anaesthesia
species, assessment of pain is integral to effective pain man- and analgesia in the foetus and neonate. We did not intend to
agement. Abnormal behaviour in the post-operative period is be exhaustive in our coverage of individual drug protocols or
commonly related to pain and should be assumed to be so unless species. We hope that this chapter will form a secure founda-
proven otherwise. Changes in behaviour in response to analgesic tion of the principles peculiar to anaesthesia and analgesia of
drug administration can be used to confirm whether behaviours the foetus and neonate, which will guide researchers in their
are pain related and used as a basis for further analgesic drug selection and administration of anaesthetic protocols in a wide
administration. variety of situations.
606 J.C. MURRELL ET AL.

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58, 211–217. ulates adrenocorticotropin and cortisol release in the late-term ovine fetus.
Santolaya-Forgas, J., Romero, R., and Mehendale, R. (2006). The effect of con- Pediatr. Res. 41, 411–415.
tinuous morphine administration on maternal plasma oxytocin concentration Taylor, C., Wu, D., Soong, Y., Yee, J., and Szeto, H. (1997b). Dynorphin A 1-13
and uterine contractions after open fetal surgery. J. Matern. Fetal Neonatal. stimulates ovine fetal pituitary-adrenal function through a novel nonopioid
Med. 19, 231–234. mechanism. Pharm. Exp. Ther. 280, 416–421.
Schneider, M., Coe, C., and Lubach, G. (1992). Endocrine activation mimics Uno, H., Lohmiller, L., Thieme, C., Kemnitz, J., Engle, M., Roecker, E.,
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 Chapter 28

Novel Delivery Systems for Analgesic Drugs in

Laboratory Animals
Lisa Krugner-Higby, Lesley J. Smith, and Timothy D. Heath

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
A. Difficulties of Administering Effective Analgesics in Laboratory
Animals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
B. Why Buprenorphine Is Not Enough? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
II. Other Approaches to Analgesic Drug Delivery in Laboratory Animals . . . . 611
A. Polymers Embedded with Opioid Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
B. Long-Acting Oral or Transdermal Formulations of Opioid Drugs . . . . 611
C. Analgesic Drugs Loaded into Pellets or Osmotic Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
D. Liposomal Formulations of Analgesic Drugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
E. Topical Delivery of NSAIDs and Other Anti-Inflammatory Medications 614
F. Anesthetic Catheters Delivering Continuous Infusions of Local
Anesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
III. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

I. INTRODUCTION
small rodents such as mice and rats, these drugs have extremely
short dosing intervals. For example, the dosing interval for mor-
A. Difficulties of Administering Effective Analgesics phine sulfate in mice is q1–2h for conventional subcutaneous
in Laboratory Animals (SC) administration (Hawk, 1999). The dosing interval for the
same drug in rats is q2–4h. Oxymorphone, an opioid drug with
The effective treatment of pain is an integral part of the approximately 10 times the potency of morphine sulfate, and
practice of laboratory animal medicine. However, there are sig- hydromorphone, with potency approximately 5 times that of
nificant barriers to the delivery of the most effective analgesics morphine, are empirically recommended to be given q4h (Hawk,
in laboratory animal species. Opioid drugs that act principally 1999; Jaffe and Martin, 1985; Plumb, 1995).
on the mu receptor, such as morphine sulfate, hydromorphone, Short dosing intervals for common laboratory species mean
and oxymorphone, are the most effective drugs for the treat- that small rodents, which comprise 95–98% of all animals used
ment of somatic or visceral pain (Jaffe and Martin, 1985). In in biomedical research, must be repeatedly handled and stressed

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

609
610 LISA KRUGNER-HIGBY ET AL.

to receive analgesic medications. Repeated handling also means B. Why Buprenorphine Is Not Enough?
there are increased opportunities for both animal and human
injuries. Repeated dosing increases personnel time necessary In addition to a ceiling on undesirable side effects, buprenor-
for an experiment and places personnel in the animal facility phine has a ceiling effect with respect to the analgesia it
after hours, making facility security more difficult. Short dos- provides. Whereas pure μ agonist drugs, such as morphine sul-
ing intervals also mean that drug security is more complicated fate, oxymorphone, and hydromorphone, have a linear increase
and there are more opportunities for illicit diversion of opioid in the amount of analgesia for a given dose of drug, there is a
analgesic drugs. Because of these concerns, these effective anal- point at which the analgesia provided by buprenorphine does not
gesics are greatly underutilized in laboratory animal medicine. increase with an increase in the dosage of the drug (Gillingham
The response of the research community has been to select anal- et al., 2001; Jaffe and Martin, 1985). Therefore, buprenorphine
gesic agents that produce acceptable, if not optimal, analgesia can be problematic in treating more severe forms of pain, such
and that last longer than the pure μ (mu opioid receptor) agonist as that from visceral or orthopedic surgeries. The use of higher
drugs. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such dosages of buprenorphine to try to treat more severe pain can
as carprofen, ketoprofen, and meloxicam, are often used in lab- also be associated with several adverse side effects, including
oratory animals for mild to moderate pain, but NSAIDs may pica, especially in Sprague-Dawley rats (Clark et al., 1997;
be associated with gastrointestinal ulceration and hemorrhage, Thompson et al., 2004), intestinal and urinary bladder ileus,
especially with oral dosing (Dial et al., 2005; Papich, 1997). and agitation or profound sedation. High dosages of buprenor-
The most commonly used drug for laboratory animals for mod- phine can also be associated with behavioral changes such as
erate pain is the partial μ agonist buprenorphine. A PubMed chewing on the feet or tail (autotomy), possibly as a result of
database literature search using the search terms “buprenor- opioid-induced histamine release (Gillingham et al., 2001).
phine,” “oxymorphone,” and “hydromorphone,” in the journal The pharmacokinetics of buprenorphine allow for a longer
Laboratory Animal Science/Comparative Medicine, returned dosing interval than pure μ opioids (q6–12h for mice and q12–
12 citations for buprenorphine and only the same 3 citations 24h for rats based on a dosing interval of approximately 2–4
each for the other two drugs. Buprenorphine has a slower half-lives of the drug in serum) (Table 28-1). The experimen-
onset compared to the pure μ agonist analgesics, and a ceil- tally derived half-life of buprenorphine in the rabbit falls within
ing effect on sedation, hypotension, and respiratory depression the 6–12 hours dosing regimen, and it is 8–24 hours in humans.
(Jaffe and Martin, 1985; Yu et al., 2006). The ceiling effects Dogs have been reported to have a serum half-life of buprenor-
of buprenorphine mean that it is associated with less severe phine of 19.5 hours. This result would indicate a dosing interval
dose-dependent side effects than pure μ agonist analgesics, but of 40–80 hours (Yu et al., 2006). However, dosage of 1.42 mg/kg
it does not mean that the use of the drug is devoid of such used in that study was higher than current recommendations of
side effects. The very neurochemical characteristics that make 0.01–0.005 mg/kg for intramuscular, SC, or intravenous (IV)
buprenorphine an attractive drug for treating pain in labora- administration in this species (Hawk et al., 2005). The practical
tory animals also make it less than optimal for some types concerns of personnel, labor costs, and animal handling are still
of pain. relevant even at these dosing intervals.

TABLE 28-1
A Summary of Pharmacokinetic Studies of Intravenously Administered Buprenorphine Reported in the Literature

Yu et al., 2006 Gopol, 2000 Ohtani, 1994 Ho, 1991 Ho, 1991 Garnett, 1985

Species Mouse Rat Rat Rabbit Human Dog

Dose (mg/kg) 2.4 3 0.6 0.3 0.006 1.42
No. of compartments 3 3 2 3 3 3
λ1 (per hour) 12.7 8.76 3.76 45.5 31.4 40.8
λ2 (per hour) 2.13 1.24 0.26 4.74 1.68 1.66
λz (per hour) 0.239 0.09 n/a 0.24 0.18 0.036
t1/2z (hour) 2.9 7.7 2.7 2.9 3.9 19.5
Cl (l/h/kg) 4.3 2.8 4.1 1.8 0.269 1.1
Vss (l/kg) 6.5 8.4 1.5 n/a n/a n/a

Note: λ1 , exponent for the first phase; λ2 , exponent for the second phase; λz , exponent for the terminal phase; t1/2z , half-life of the terminal phase; Cl, clearance;
Vss, volume of distribution at steady state; n/a, not applicable.
Source: Reproduced by permission of J. Am. Assoc. Lab. Anim. Sci. and the corresponding author (Yu et al., 2006).
28. NOVEL DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR ANALGESIC DRUGS IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 611

II. OTHER APPROACHES TO ANALGESIC DRUG seen (Gourlay, 1998). There is essentially no data on the clini-
DELIVERY IN LABORATORY ANIMALS cal administration of any of these agents for pain management
in laboratory animal species. Some long-acting forms of mor-
phine sulfate have been available in the United States for many
A. Polymers Embedded with Opioid Drugs
years. The forms marketed as MS-Contin® (Perdue Frederick,
Stamford, CT) (Fig. 28-1) and Oramorph (Roxane Pharma-
Formulations of morphine sulfate and hydromorphone
ceuticals, Columbus, OH) must be swallowed whole without
hydrochloride have been made using impregnation of these
chewing or breaking (Gourlay, 1998). These formulations would
analgesic drugs into water-soluble polymer gels that may be
be more practical for larger laboratory animal species such as
administered by the oral route, IV infusion, or SC implantation
dogs and, perhaps, pigs, where the pill could be either man-
(Lesser et al., 1996). This approach is also applied to delivery of
ually placed in the back of the throat or delivered there with
antibiotics such as rifampicin for the treatment of tuberculosis,
a mechanical device. If the pills are damaged before reaching
because this infectious disease requires long courses of therapy,
the stomach, there is a potential for overdose requiring treatment
and medication compliance is absolutely necessary to prevent
with reversal agents such as naloxone. Reduced therapeutic effi-
the development of multidrug-resistant strains of the organism
cacy induced by a significant first-pass effect is a problem in dogs
(Quenelle et al., 2004; Zahoor et al., 2005). Morphine sul-
that have been administered oral opioids, including extended
fate embedded in chitosan gel, when injected subcutaneously
release preparations. MS-Contin does not achieve therapeutic
in dogs, has a pharmacokinetic profile consistent with clinical
blood levels in dogs when it is administered every 12 hours.
administration of the drug every 12–24 hours. Some stiffness
Blood concentrations can be improved by dosing every 8 hours,
is associated with the injection of the preparation between the
but more frequent dosing obviates one of the benefits of using
shoulder blades; however, this is resolved spontaneously by 48
extended-release medications (Dohoo, 1997; Dohoo andTasker,
hours postinjection (Tasker et al., 1997). Some drug formu-
1997). It may also be possible to compensate for the first-pass
lations in polymerized gels have much longer kinetics (up to 4
effect by increasing the dose of extended-release morphine for-
weeks for rabbits in vivo for a hydromorphone preparation) than
mulations in dogs. It is unknown whether a first-pass effect
either oral or parenteral formulations of the same drugs (Lesser
could affect oral administration of extended-release morphine
et al., 1996). Extremely long release kinetics is achieved at the
sulfate formulations in other laboratory animal species. An
cost of lower peak drug concentrations in peripheral blood than
oral extended-release formulation of oxycodone, marketed as
with other methods of administration. Such formulations may
be optimal for treating chronic pain, such as that from arthritis or
cancer, instead of acute postoperative pain management where
release of the drug optimally occurs over a period of hours to
days, and where peak blood drug levels decline 48–72 hours
postoperatively. Polymer gels would also require minor surgery
to periodically replace the gel for animals undergoing treatment
of pain associated with long-term chronic conditions such as
osteoarthritis.

B. Long-Acting Oral or Transdermal Formulations

of Opioid Drugs

Oral opioid formulations, both short-acting and long-acting

forms, are the mainstay of pain medication for humans.
Codeine, which is used either alone or in combination with
acetaminophen or other NSAIDs, is used to treat mild to mod-
erate pain, generally associated with acute procedures such as
dental extractions. Short-acting opioids with greater analgesic
efficacy, such as morphine sulfate, hydromorphone, or oxymor-
phone, are used to treat acute and chronic, moderate-to-severe
pain, or to treat “breakthrough” pain in humans; and chronic
pain is managed with extended-release opioids. The dose of
Fig. 28-1 MS-Contin tablets, morphine sulfate controlled-release. These
extended-release opioids should be carefully titrated to match tablets are meant to be swallowed whole, but can be dosed once to twice a day.
the severity of the pain, and clinicians should be aware that Chewing or splitting the tablets can result in unintentional overdose. Used with
it might take some time for the effects of dose changes to be permission of Perdue Frederick, Stamford, CT.
612 LISA KRUGNER-HIGBY ET AL.

OxyContin® (Perdue Frederick, Stamford, CT), could also be Fentanyl is a synthetic, short-acting, and highly lipophilic
used for treating mild-to-moderate pain in laboratory animals. opioid that has the potency approximately 80 times that of mor-
OxyContin also needs to be swallowed whole to avoid overdose. phine sulfate (Jaffe and Martin, 1985). Because the drug is
OxyContin has recently emerged as a significant diversion risk, highly lipophilic, fentanyl may be administered transdermally
and this may limit the use of this formulation. (Jeal and Benfield, 1997) (Duragesic® , Janssen L.P., Titusville,
Kapanol® (GlaxoSmithKline, Australia) is a long-acting NJ). A transdermal patch formulation that lasts up to 72 hours
granular formulation of morphine sulfate developed for oral is available for use in humans, and fentanyl patches have been
administration every 12–24 hours in humans. The Kapanol used successfully to treat postoperative pain in larger species
granules can be swallowed in a single dose as a gelatin cap- of laboratory animals such as dogs and pigs. Broader use of
sule, or the granules may be dispersed in liquid or semisolid the patch is hampered by several problems. Differences in skin
food material such as fruit juice or yogurt (Egger et al., 1998; thickness between humans and laboratory animals make onset
Gourlay, 1998). A dispersible granular formulation of a long- of drug absorption variable and species dependent. In laboratory
acting opioid medication could potentially be administered to animals (e.g., dogs), the fentanyl patch must be placed 24 hours
rodents by gavage or in small amounts of highly palatable soft prior to the procedure for effective blood levels to be present
foods such as peanut butter or Transgenic Dough Diet (Bioserv at the time that analgesia is required. Dog studies have shown
Inc., Frenchtown, NJ). Kapanol has also been shown to be that there is a wide individual variation in the amount of drug
effective for treating pain when administered intrarectally in absorbed (Kyles, 1996; Kyles et al., 1996), so analgesic needs
patients who are unable to swallow (Gourlay, 1998). Unfortu- are not always met when a fentanyl patch has been placed, or
nately, Kapanol is not marketed commercially in the United higher blood levels than are desired may occur with the atten-
States. Two other granular formulations of extended-release dant side effects of sedation and respiratory depression (Egger
morphine sulfate have recently been approved for use in the et al., 1998; Kyles, 1996; Kyles et al., 1996; Mills et al., 2004).
United States (Broomhead et al., 1997; Caldwell, 2004; Cald-
well et al., 2002). Avinza® (Ligand Pharmaceuticals, San Diego,
CA) (Fig. 28-2) is a novel morphine formulation that contains C. Analgesic Drugs Loaded into Pellets or
both immediate-release granules and extended-release granules. Osmotic Pumps
When extended-release granules in Avinza come into contact
with gastrointestinal fluid, they swell and release morphine into Osmotic pumps (Alzet Corporation, Cupertino, CA)
the gastrointestinal tract (Caldwell, 2004; Caldwell et al., 2002). (Fig. 28-3A–C) and commercially prepared time-release pel-
Kadian® (Alpharma Inc., Fort Lee, NJ) is an extended-release lets (Innovative Research Products Inc., Sarasota, FL; NIDA,
morphine sulfate preparation that is similar to Kapanol in for- Bethesda, MD) are commonly used to deliver test compounds
mulation and has a similar pharmacokinetic profile in humans in rodents. This strategy is not often used in clinical practice
(Broomhead et al., 1997). for pain control in laboratory animals and, therefore, very lit-
tle is known about their use in the clinical setting. There is
extensive literature on the use of Alzet pumps to deliver opi-
oid compounds to rats and mice to achieve research objectives,
and this literature could be extrapolated for clinical use (Behm,
1985; Behm et al., 1985; Martucci et al., 2004; Schmidt et al.,
1985). Oxymorphone delivered via an intraperitoneal osmotic
pump has been shown to be effective in managing postopera-
tive pain in rats after intestinal resection surgery (Gillingham,
2001; Gillingham et al., 2001). Placement of the pumps was
facilitated by the open abdomen required for the surgical proce-
dure. If the animal was not euthanized at the end of the pump’s
delivery period, that pump would have to be removed and a new
one implanted.
Time-release pellets are available from commercial sources
for use with compounds that are not controlled substances
(Innovative Research Products Inc., Sarasota, FL), or contain-
ing morphine from NIDA (El-Hage et al., 2006; Feng et al.,
2006; Freier and Fuchs, 1993; Fuchs and Pruett, 1993; Latham
Fig. 28-2 Avinza capsule, morphine sulfate controlled-release. Avinza cap-
et al., 2003). Use of controlled-release pellets has not been
sules can be swallowed whole or the capsule can be pulled apart and the granules
disbursed in a small volume of highly palatable food or juice. The granules could described for treating postoperative or chronic pain in labo-
potentially be administered by gavage or placed in soft glycerin and administered ratory animals, but the experimental literature could be used
intrarectally to rodents. as a guide for clinical trials. Osmotic pumps, prefabricated
 28. NOVEL DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR ANALGESIC DRUGS IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 613

time-release pellets, and other extended-release preparations

are expensive compared to conventional parenteral solutions of
opioid analgesic drugs (Table 28-2). However, if the personnel
time required for appropriate administration of an opioid drug
such as oxymorphone is factored into the cost of experiment,
the use of these delivery devices would become more acceptable
to investigators.

D. Liposomal Formulations of Analgesic Drugs

Many of the delivery methods or devices previously men-

tioned suffer from a paucity of data with respect to their use
in laboratory animals. They also suffer from a lack of com-
mercially available dosage forms or formulations suitable for
rodents. There is one commercially available liposomal formu-
lation of morphine sulfate (DepoDur® , SkyePharma Inc., San
Diego, CA) (Fig. 28-4A–C) for which there is at least some data
(a) in rodent species (Kim et al., 1993, 1996; Yaksh et al., 1999,
2000). Administration of a single SC dose of liposomal formu-
Release Rates and Durations lation of morphine sulfate equivalent to DepoDur (2.8 mg/kg)
1 3
Day Days
1
Week
2
Weeks
3
Weeks
4
Weeks
will prevent the development of neuropathic pain in rats caused
1003D
1.0 ␮l/hr
by sciatic nerve ligation. Pharmacokinetic studies on this liposo-
1007D
0.5 ␮l/hr
mal morphine sulfate formulation indicate that the preparation
1002
0.25 ␮l/hr lasts at least 48–72 hours in vivo (Smith et al., 2003). A slightly
2001D
8.0 ␮l/hr
different liposomal formulation of morphine sulfate will pro-
2001
1.0 ␮l/hr
duce therapeutic serum concentrations of drug for 5–6 days in
2002
0.5 ␮l/hr
mice after SC administration (Kim et al., 1993). The princi-
2004
0.25 ␮l/hr pal disadvantage of the DepoDur product is the high cost. It
2ML1 is currently marketed at approximately $1,000 for five 10 mg
10.0 ␮l/hr
ampoules; it would cost $450 to inject ten 300 g rats at a dose of
2ML2
5.0 ␮l/hr 3 mg/kg. If the ampoules are purchased individually, the price
2ML4
2.5 ␮l/hr
drops to approximately $180 for all the rats in the experiment
(b) (Table 28-2). Work in our laboratory has shown that liposo-
mal formulations of oxymorphone and hydromorphone have
Typical pumping rate of the Model 2002 Alzet pharmacokinetic profiles in rats, which suggests the drug will
Osmotic Pump over time (n-20) remain in serum for 48–72 hours after administration when egg
Nominal Duration
phosphatidylcholine (PC) is used as a lipid shell (Smith et al.,
0.5 Nominal 2003). Additional studies using liposomes made with dipalmi-
Rate toyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC) and cholesterol in the lipid
Pumping Rate (␮l/hr)

shell suggest that drug release may be extended to 96 hours

(Krugner-Higby, unpublished data). Pharmacokinetic studies
using liposomal oxymorphone made with egg PC in dogs indi-
cate that therapeutic concentrations are present in serum for up
0.1 to 48 hours after SC administration (Smith et al., 2004). Lipo-
somal formulations of ketamine hydrochloride and lidocaine
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
hydrochloride have been evaluated for preliminary pharmacoki-
(c) Time (Days) netics in rats after SC administration. The best formulation of
ketamine hydrochloride using egg PC and cholesterol is present
Fig. 28-3 (A) Internal diagram of an Alzet® osmotic pump. The device is in serum for up to 48–72 hours; the DPPC formulation of lido-
loaded under aseptic conditions. A large body of experimental literature exists
caine is present in serum for up to 96 hours. Studies are planned
on the use of Alzet pumps loaded with opioid analgesic drugs. Used with per-
mission of Alzet Corporation, Cupertino, CA. (B) Alzet osmotic pumps come in to test these drugs in models of neuropathic and somatic pain
a variety of sizes and release rates. (C) Alzet osmotic pumps deliver essentially (Krugner-Higby, unpublished data). Additionally, changes in
zero-order kinetics for the release life of the pump. the formulation of the liposomes containing these drugs, such
614 LISA KRUGNER-HIGBY ET AL.

TABLE 28-2
Comparison of Different Delivery Systems Used to Provide Morphine Sulfate Postoperative Analgesia to 10 Laboratory Rats for 3 Days

Approximate duration Approximate cost per ten

Product of effective analgesia Route of administration Approximate dosage 300 g adult rats

Granular extended-release morphine 12–24 hours Oral gavage, intrarectal 30 mg/day, divided into Thirty 30 mg capsules, of
(Kadian) 15 mg q12h approximately $100
Modified granular extended-release 12–24 hours Oral gavage, intrarectal 30 mg/day, divided into Thirty 30 mg capsules, of
morphine (Avinza) 15 mg q12h approximately $100
Osmotic pump (Alzet) 3–7 days Subcutaneous implant 1 mg/kg/day Three-day pump: $170; 7-day pump:
$200; Sigma morphine: $27.20
Parenteral liposomal morphine 48–72 hours Subcutaneous injection 2.5–3 mg/kg Individual ampoules: $180
(DepoDur)

as the use of pH gradients for drug loading or the use of sph- plagued by poor efficacy in the case of Aspercreme and by unac-
ingomyelin in place of PC, may alter the pharmacokinetics of ceptable side effects ranging from rash at the site of application
the liposomal preparation such that the preparations persist for to a garlic-like flavor in mouth of human patients in the case
weeks to months in vivo and could be used for chronic, low- of DMSO (Preston, 2006; Santos et al., 2003). More effec-
intensity pain such as that produced by osteoarthritis (Allen and tive NSAIDs, such as ketorolac, ketoprofen, and diclofenac,
Cullis, 2004; Waterhouse et al., 2005; Zhigaltsev et al., 2005). and better topical delivery methodologies have made this route
In addition to preliminary pharmacokinetic work, liposomal of administration more practical and effective (Niethard et al.,
preparations of oxymorphone and hydromorphone have been 2005; Toker et al., 2006), although meta-analysis of the avail-
shown clinically to provide analgesia in laboratory animals. able published studies has not always upheld the use of even the
Liposomal oxymorphone and hydromorphone administered newer topical NSAIDs (Lin et al., 2004; Mason et al., 2004a,
subcutaneously at equipotent dosages to the standard drug (1.2 2004b). Some topical NSAIDs have been found to have unde-
and 4.0 mg/kg, respectively) prevent the development of neuro- sirable side effects. Topical ketoprofen has a propensity for
pathic pain in rats in the sciatic ligation model (Smith et al., producing allergic and photosensitizing reactions (Diaz et al.,
2003, 2006). A single dose of liposomal oxymorphone has 2006). Most topical NSAID preparations are used in human
been shown to treat postoperative visceral pain associated with medicine for arthritis and other rheumatic conditions (Niethard
intestinal resection in rats as effectively as q4h or q8h SC injec- et al., 2005), or for the treatment of pain associated with athletic
tions of oxymorphone (Krugner-Higby et al., 2003). Liposomal injuries (White, 2006).
oxymorphone has been shown to provide superior analgesia Recently, two different calcineurin inhibitors have been
compared to buprenorphine in mice after splenectomy (Clark approved for use in the topical treatment of atopic dermati-
et al., 2004). These formulations are not yet commercially tis (AD) as an alternative to topical steroids: pimecrolimus
available, but they are actively under development. (Elidel® , Novartis Pharma AG, Basel, Switzerland) and
Liposomal formulations of fentanyl have been developed for tacrolimus (Protopic® , Astellas Pharma, Deerfield, IL) (Sun-
inhalant administration. They merit only a brief mention because derkotter et al., 2006). These drugs inhibit IL-2-dependent T-cell
this route of administration would not be practical for most activation (Krummen et al., 2006). They have minimal systemic
laboratory animal species (Hung et al., 1995). absorption, excellent efficacy against the pruritis associated
with AD, and few side effects. Most of the literature pertaining
to these preparations is focused on the use of these preparations
for pain and/or pruritis associated with AD (Kaufmann et al.,
E. Topical Delivery of NSAIDs and Other 2006; Lakhanpaul et al., 2006; Lubbe et al., 2006; Paul et al.,
Anti-Inflammatory Medications 2006; Sunderkotter et al., 2006). Other uses for this novel class
of compounds include treatment of seborrheic dermatitis or
Effective delivery of NSAIDs and other anti-inflammatory granulomatous rosacea (Cunha, 2006; Cunha and Rossi, 2006).
compounds without the undesirable side effects seen with sys- Laboratory animal professionals are usually called upon to treat
temic administration (Dial et al., 2005; Papich, 1997) has long acute postoperative pain rather than chronic inflammatory con-
been a goal in human and veterinary medicine. Aspercreme® ditions. However, some of the discomfort, pain, and/or pruritis
(topical aspirin) has been marketed over the counter for human associated with surgical skin wounds may be amenable to treat-
use, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) has been marketed for vet- ment with these compounds (Clark et al., 2006; Malmberg et al.,
erinary use for many years. This method of delivery has been 1997; Santos et al., 2003).
28. NOVEL DELIVERY SYSTEMS FOR ANALGESIC DRUGS IN LABORATORY ANIMALS 615

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 28-4 (A) DepoDur is a suspension of liposomal morphine sulfate. The suspension must be gently mixed before it is administered. Liposomal products,
including liposomal opioids, should be withdrawn from the bottle with a large-bore needle (18 gauge or larger) and then administered slowly using a small-bore
needle (23–25 gauge). Used with permission of SkyePharma Inc., San Diego, CA. (B) A sketch of a multilamellar liposome. This type of liposome makes up the
suspension of DepoDur. The drug trapped within the membrane-bound vesicles is released as the membranes break down. (C) A scanning electron photomicrograph
of a multilamellar liposome. Morphine sulfate is released as the small vesicles break down.
616 LISA KRUGNER-HIGBY ET AL.

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 Chapter 29

Nonpharmacologic Pain Control

Sara Savage

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
II. Preventative Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
A. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
B. Refinement of Experimental Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
III. Nonpharmacologic Interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
A. Thermal Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
B. Movement-Based and Manual Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
C. Electroanalgesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
D. Acupuncture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
IV. Summary and Future Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627

I. INTRODUCTION
trauma. In situations where drugs could not be used because
of study constraints, or are known to be ineffective, comfort
Minimization of pain is an ethical and scientific imperative measures should still be considered. Novel and sometimes sim-
of laboratory animal care (National Research Council, 1996). ple nondrug strategies should be explored for their potential
This philosophy most often leads to a plan to administer one or to reduce the noxiousness of experimental conditions. To the
more doses or types of analgesic drugs (e.g., opioid or nons- extent that they can be standardized, such strategies can serve
teroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) to animals that are expected as primary and/or adjunctive analgesia “methods.”
to experience pain in surgical and disease models. Attempts at In fact, a variety of nondrug methods to manage pain are
managing pain by analgesic treatment are greatly limited. There being investigated in human pediatric and adult medicine to the
is still a lack of evidence to support dosing information for many point where they are incorporated as “mainstream” modalities.
laboratory animal species, and there are significant concerns Evidence for reduction of pain by use of some of these thera-
that certain drugs will confound the model under investigation. pies exists in placebo-controlled studies in the human medical
Also, despite use of “proven effective” analgesics, animals and literature and also in some animal models. It remains to be seen
humans may still experience significant unrelieved pain. This whether this is generally true for clinical relief of pain in ani-
limitation of analgesic therapy has led to the increasing recog- mals. At the very least, a thoughtful approach to minimizing
nition of the role of nondrug methods of reducing painfulness of the difficulties that animals might experience from their envi-
procedures and injury states in clinical human medicine. A ready ronment and handling may lead to a reduction in overall stress
example of this is the use of ice to reduce pain and swelling after and pain.

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

619
620 SARA SAVAGE

The author’s initial approach to nonpharmacologic pain con- need for additional measures, staff should receive training in
trol is to comprehensively assess the degree to which manipula- basic principles of stress and pain reduction and species-specific
tions or conditions might cause pain (see Chapter 8 also). There recognition of pain and distress. If a new strategy is perceived
is a notable tendency to consider only pain of limited duration to be difficult or time-consuming, and a need for improved care
and acute intensity, but it should be emphasized that animals in is not recognized, it will be difficult to implement it as staff
sick and chronic disease models and also those in which only may resent the extra effort. When investigators and staff can
sample collection or even euthanasia is performed also stand be given an appreciation for the beneficial impact of result or
to benefit from prevention of painful or distressing stimuli. It change, then they may be more willing to take the extra steps
is also useful to reflect that human medicine defines pain as needed.
“an unpleasant sensory and emotional experience, which is pri- In the author’s experience, scientists prefer to have scientific
marily associated with tissue damage or described in terms of evidence to support any positive effects of nonpharmacologic
such damage, or both” (International Association for the Study interventions in their animal models and to subject them to a
of Pain, IASP). While interpretation of the emotional state of “cost–benefit” analysis prior to their use. A technique that makes
the animal is still controversial, the IASP definition highlights animal handlers feel better (but not the animal) is not worthwhile
the fact that pain and the perception of pain is affected by nox- to perform, especially if there is a concern that the intervention
ious sensory stimuli as well as by factors that lead to stress, may alter research results. Because there may not be data to
fear, and anxiety. It would be easy to dismiss such a sensitive support the benefit of a technique, its implementation can be
approach to management of husbandry and animal manipula- an experiment in itself, and so the assessment and documen-
tion as tender-hearted anthropomorphism. But since evidence tation of results is required. This may necessitate development
from both human and animal models suggests that pain and of more sophisticated scoring systems, and in some cases, pilot
stress suppress immune function, reduce reproductive perfor- studies or increased numbers of control groups within studies,
mance, alter normal behavior, and prolong surgical healing, and more specific definition of research endpoints. Structured
among other effects, alteration of the intended model by those observations are more likely to reveal a beneficial effect than
“side effects” of pain and stress should be something to take casual appraisal.
seriously and prevent if possible (Beilin et al., 2003; Charman-
dari et al., 2005; Kehlet, 2004; Marsland et al., 2002; McEwen,
2004; McGuire et al., 2006; Watkins and Maier, 2005). B. Refinement of Experimental Conditions
This chapter outlines a potential approach to reducing nox-
ious stimuli and reviews a variety of nonpharmacologic methods The initial step in successful management of animal pain is
of potential benefit for the relief of pain. Samples of evidence a detailed evaluation of the experimental and husbandry condi-
for effectiveness of an intervention are given, although extrap- tions in order to predict where interventions might ameliorate
olation from one species to another (including human trials and painful or distressing stimuli. What might seem like minor
animal models) is still needed. As of now, there is a heavy details (e.g., restraint) may have a significant difference to the
reliance on observation and experience in clinical veterinary animal experiencing pain. All aspects of the study, including
pain medicine, rather than on randomized controlled trials. acclimation, social, and environmental conditions, and methods
Thus, scientific evidence for analgesic efficacy of veterinary used in research procedures, are worthy of consideration.
nonpharmacological techniques is scarce. A number of nondrug
techniques for pain relief require specialized training of equip-
1. Acclimation
ment as well as procedural time, making these less practical. The
practical relevance of a technique in terms of benefit and diffi- Acclimation of animals is understood to optimize homeostatic
culty of implementation is noted for each technique. However, balance, and may decrease stress-related increases in physi-
as nonpharmacological pain relief becomes more widely studied ologic parameters linked to the development of hyperalgesic
in both human and veterinary medicine, the laboratory animal and hypo-immune states. The duration of time for animals to
practitioner may find new and useful techniques for maximizing acclimate may not be established for the parameter under investi-
the well-being of animals. gation in the study of question. Average acclimation to decrease
alterations in hematologic parameters sufficient for most studies
is 5 days (National Research Council, 1996).
II. PREVENTATIVE STRATEGIES
2. Social Housing Conditions
A. Education Social factors may greatly augment or detract from well-
being. A change from singly to group housed, or vice versa,
Critical to the implementation of any strategy is a partnership or altering social hierarchies by mixing animals mid-study may
with the research and husbandry staff. In order to recognize the impose both a stress on animals and an unwanted experimental
29. NONPHARMACOLOGIC PAIN CONTROL 621

variable. There is a robust literature on the impact of social con- normal activity and feeding behavior. A logical extension of this
ditions on animal biology dating back several decades. Social is that animals kept in dim-light situations for any reason may
isolation can lead to immune suppression, and this is observed find removal from their facility housing to highly lit laboratories
in numerous animal models, including pigs (Tuchscherer et al., distressing. Ambient temperature preferences for animals may
2004), sheep (Degabrielle and Fell, 2001), rats (Popovic et al., vary with disease state or genotype, and increasing thermal sup-
2000), and macaques (Capitanio, 1999). As a stressor, social iso- port, or offering a gradient may provide comfort to sick animals.
lation may favor a hyperalgesic state, or decrease the animal’s Measures to buffer temperature changes should be considered
response to analgesic drugs. Based on their work on morphine for vulnerable animals when they must be transported outdoors
dependence and social stress, Broseta et al. (2005) suggest that or when the laboratory temperature is very different from that
isolated mice might show less responsiveness to morphine anal- of the housing facility. For sick or debilitated animals, ambient
gesia. Panksepp (1980) found that socially isolated young rats conditions may not only cause distress, but impact the success
were more responsive to tail-shock-induced vocalizations, and and repeatability of the model as well.
that the analgesic response to morphine was greater in socially
housed animals than in rats isolated for 3–4 days.
5. Substrate
Altering footing or deepening of bedding substrate may
3. Olfactory Stimuli
improve comfort; this is suggested, for example, when animals
Olfactory cues represent a form of animal communication have fragile or injured skin, conditions that reduce pain toler-
that may not be familiar to nonveterinarians, and so their impor- ance thresholds (such as footpad injections) or for those that
tance to animals can easily be overlooked. As males and females will be recumbent for any reason. The author’s facility changes
of many species scent-mark cage elements, keeping olfactory rodent bedding from a cob-type to softer loose alpha cellulose 2
cues consistent with the pre-manipulation period might theo- days prior to the predicted development of rheumatoid arthritis
retically decrease stress. An example of such a measure is the in order to assist in the prevention of pressure sores. We also find
moving of an already shredded nestlet or bedding from the pre- it useful to provide footing with increased traction for models
operative cage to the post-operative cage, making the cage smell in which lameness develops after orthopedic surgery. For exam-
familiar as well as helping an animal thermoregulate with less ple, after cranial cruciate ligament transection, pigs benefit from
expenditure of energy. Exposure of prey species to scents of removable nonslip decking placed under standard bedding.
predators enhances fear and stress behavior (Takahashi et al.,
2005). A logical assumption is that personnel and equipment
6. Environmental Enrichment
(such as containers used to weigh animals, lab coats, gloves,
etc) should be segregated by species to avoid stressing animals. Intended to improve well-being in animals by providing
Odors that humans may associate with cleanliness or find pleas- opportunity for chewing, hiding, or playing, the effects of
ant may represent a stress to animals. Thus, the use of scented enrichment measures should be monitored and at times reeval-
deodorizers, detergents, and personal grooming items may be uated for their impact on animals. Some modifications might
stressful to animals. unexpectedly enhance stress. An example is that of mice habit-
uated to shelters, and then outfitted with cranial implants that
prohibit use of the shelter. In addition, some nesting materials
4. Ambient Humidity, Light, or Temperature Levels
may tangle in implants or adhere to wounds. Painful animals
The Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals may have decreased ability to use manipulanda or exercise
(National Research Council, 1996) gives a wide range of accept- equipment commonly provided for enrichment. For species that
able humidity levels (from 30% to 70%) for housing laboratory display gnawing behavior, oral pain may preclude use of wood
animals; however, neuropathic pain behavior in rodents is dif- objects and softer objects such as paper or cardboard can be sub-
ferentially affected by humidity level (Vissers et al., 2003). stituted. Food texture and location can be altered to help animals
Chesler et al. (2002) reported that ambient humidity affected with difficulty in reaching feeders or chewing. The opportunity
latency response in a mouse thermal nociception model. Light- to exercise, dig, hide, or nest may be specifically precluded
ing conditions may be manipulated to help animals with vision by study conditions and alternative enclosures or occupations
disorders. For example, in the author’s experience, neonatal may be devised that allow some heterogeneity of behavioral
C57BL/6 mice underwent laser ablation of retinal vessels at expression, arguably improving well-being.
birth to induce disease in which the normally sealed eyelids are
opened, with management of acute procedural pain by topical
7. Handling and Perioperative Considerations
analgesics. As these animals grew, normal facility light levels
appeared to be an aversive stimulus. Reduction of light intensity Restraint and transportation may cause iatrogenic injury.
levels to below 2 lux by simply shrouding cages or by using cages Water sippers, feeders, or other potentially hazardous items may
of darkly colored plastics appears to permit the mice to exhibit need to be removed or padded prior to anesthetic administration
622 SARA SAVAGE

or transport. Reducing forcible restraint by training animals to touch therapies, and homeopathy, as less scientific evidence is
enter a chute or to present themselves for exam or injections, available to support their use. Nonpharmacologic or nondrug
and other novel methods may be beneficial. In the author’s expe- methods for treatment of pain predominantly (but not solely)
rience, rats recovering from thoracotomy can be given drug address musculoskeletal (which might be nociceptive or neu-
injections subcutaneously through a butterfly catheter while ropathic) pain conditions. Both acute and chronic pain may
inside the cage, without the need for lifting them and poten- respond to nondrug techniques. The scope of potential non-
tially exacerbating acute surgical pain. Slings, restraint devices, drug methods in animals could be envisioned to parallel those
and surgical positioning that impose “nonphysiologic” posi- methods utilized in humans, with exceptions.
tions on conscious or unconscious animals pose a significant Nondrug methods to treat pain may be used in conjunction
risk for muscle, skin, or nerve injury. For anesthetized animals, with traditional analgesic drugs, may reduce the need for drugs,
the weight of a limb hanging off a table edge, positioning by and in a few cases may be able to provide sufficient relief on
means of ligatures around limbs, endotracheal tube cuffs, and their own, replacing drugs altogether. Some may produce anal-
ties can damage nerves or compromise blood flow to muscles gesia specifically, and others may improve function or mood,
and skin. “Noose” type restraints used to restrain limbs should thus improving comfort. It is commonly perceived that nondrug
be replaced with broad strapping/slings or tape to disperse pres- techniques are “safer” than drugs, but certainly there is some
sure over a greater surface area. Forced limb abduction or open potential for harm caused by certain modalities. Time and cost
jaw positions held for hours at a time, even in anesthetized ani- factors also must be factored in when considering nondrug ther-
mals, can result in procedure-induced muscle strain and pain. apies for, for example, chronic pain, because some investment
Conscious animals restrained in positions that are not comfort- of time and effort may be needed. In addition, it may not possible
able, or that must wear bandages or garments for any reason, to offer some therapies without taking specialized training.
may struggle and resist; and when physiologic monitoring is
attempted, values may be altered, reflecting this discomfort. A
halter left in place and pulled tightly may result in facial nerve
A. Thermal Techniques
injuries. There are countless reports in the human and veteri-
nary literature of such types of iatrogenic injury, and although
1. Cryotherapy
easily avoidable, conscientious effort is involved. If prolonged
restraint is required, moving the animal or unaffected body parts An inexpensive, technically simple, and well-established
frequently to redistribute blood supply and pressure points may approach to analgesia is the application of cold. The goal
assist in reducing injury. As observed in human patients, reposi- of cryotherapy is to reduce inflammatory response to injury,
tioning, peripheral limb massage, and passive range of motion decrease bleeding, and provide analgesia. Cryotherapy is usu-
exercises would be expected to improve comfort in any ani- ally applied during the acute phase of injury, although it is
mal expected to be immobile for days or longer. Prevention of also used for chronic muscle spasticity, and is used in reha-
intraoperative hypothermia, or rewarming prior to anesthetic bilitation medicine to remediate exercise-induced inflammatory
recovery, will decrease shivering to restore body temperature, responses in healing tissues (Heinrichs, 2004; Wright and Sluka,
and shivering is an acute noxious event. 2001).
Less invasive surgical or procedural techniques could be con- There are a variety of physiologic mechanisms by which
sidered, such as percutaneous ultrasound-guided cannulation cryotherapy results in pain relief. Decreases in local tissue
rather than surgical access to a portal vein. The availability of temperature have been cited to reduce cell metabolism and mem-
size-appropriate surgical devices, such as retraction systems, brane permeability, slow nerve conduction velocity, decrease
may reduce tissue trauma and facilitate exposure at the surgery muscle spindle activity, cause sympathetic vasoconstriction,
site. Inexperienced personnel, whether performing surgery or reduce edema, decrease blood flow, and decrease histamine
simply restraining, may cause more tissue trauma and pain, and release (Heinrichs, 2004; Linchitz and Sorell, 2000).
thus supervised practice and/or practice on cadavers should be Cryotherapy is most often applied superficially, and works
the prerequisites. via heat transfer from the tissues to the cold modality applied to
the body. Humans report that over a typical application period of
20 minutes, sensations produced range from mildly aversive to
painful to numb. Limitations include the fact that some animals
III. NONPHARMACOLOGIC INTERVENTIONS
may not willingly accept cold therapy, or may be too small or
not handleable. Habituating research animals with positive rein-
Nondrug treatments for pain primarily involve thermal thera- forcement to the sensations produced by cryotherapy prior to the
pies, movement-based and manual therapies, electrotherapy or production of painful stimuli is highly recommended. For exam-
electrostimulation, and acupuncture. Not covered in this chap- ple, the author found that pigs undergoing stifle surgery could
ter are the so-called energy medicine techniques, which can be preconditioned to the sensation of ice applied over the stifle
range from the use of light, magnetism, or sound therapy to by two short training sessions during mealtimes. Application
29. NONPHARMACOLOGIC PAIN CONTROL 623

of ice in the acute postoperative period was then easily accom- than in acute injury, the therapeutic goal of heat application is to
plished with the use of food rewards. The author has also used increase skin and joint temperatures and local blood flow, and to
cryotherapy for durations varying from 2 to 5 minutes in rodents reduce joint stiffness and muscle spasm. Common uses are for
and lagomorphs to good effect. muscle contracture, chronic inflammation, tendonitis, bursitis,
Various cryotherapy methods exist, ranging from topical sprain, scars, and trigger points (Wright and Sluka, 2001).
application of ice packs, chemical gel cold packs, or “ice mas- Heat is postulated to reduce pain by its effects on vasodilation
sage,” to use of cold water baths and cold compression units. with reduction of ischemic pain and removal of inflamma-
The choice of modality is governed by the degree of cooling tory mediators, enhanced metabolic activity, and decreases in
required, the size of the area to be cooled, and the depth of pen- Type II muscle spindle and gamma efferent fiber firing rates,
etration needed, as well as by species and facility constraints. which induces muscle relaxation (Heinrichs, 2004; Wright and
Therapy is applied directly over or around the area of injury. Use Sluka, 2001). Increased perfusion of muscle may be an indirect
of chemical gel packs or crushed ice permits molding around result when muscle spasm is reduced (Heinrichs, 2004; Steiss
limbs and joints. A homemade slush pack can be made by mixing and McCauley, 2004). Increases in body heat also slow peri-
three parts water to one part rubbing alcohol, double bagging, stalsis, decrease uterine contractions, and increase connective
and freezing until the proper consistency is achieved. An alco- tissue extensibility and elasticity (Heinrichs, 2004; Linchitz and
hol slush pack may be more efficacious than solid ice, because Sorell, 2000).
it transfers energy more efficiently to reduce heat at the targeted Superficial modalities usually heat tissues to a depth of
site (Heinrichs, 2004). 1–2 cm, and transfer energy by conduction or convection. Hot
In larger species, cryotherapy is recommended for periods of packs, hydrocollator (mud filled) packs, hydrotherapy baths,
at least 20–30 minutes to produce analgesia, which may be long circulating warm water blankets, and warm air blankets can
lasting. The rate of temperature transfer and onset of analgesia be used for superficial heat therapy. Inexpensive and reusable
can be increased by altering the modality used. Ice massage packs can be purchased commercially or made from materials
(basically rubbing the area with ice cubes or blocks) stimu- such as gloves filled with water or socks filled with rice and
lates mechanoreceptors as well as cold receptors to augment heated briefly in a microwave (Heinrichs, 2004).
the analgesic effect, and can result in numbing in as little as To alter blood flow significantly, tissue temperature needs to
5–10 minutes (Heinrichs, 2004). Cryotherapy as an adjunctive increase by a minimum of 5◦ C, depending upon site of applica-
therapy can alter absorption or metabolism of locally injected tion (Guyton, 1986). This is not always comfortable or practical
agents, which may or may not be desired. in animals and will vary by species. When improperly adminis-
Cryotherapy can be appropriate for any amenable species, tered, injury is likely. Necrosis of the epidermis in humans and
but care must be taken with the application of cold, particu- pigs occurred after 35 minutes of increased skin temperatures at
larly to smaller animals such as rodents. It is possible to induce 47◦ C (Gregory, 2004). Thus, an aversive response to heat ther-
hypothermia or tissue damage with the application of ice over apy may indicate impending tissue damage in an animal. If the
body surfaces, and wetting of fur and skin enhances this effect. person applying the heat source finds it too hot to hold, it should
In neonatal or thin, debilitated animals this effect is further be considered too hot to apply to the animal. Especially when
enhanced due to decreased concentrations of subcutaneous fat. heated in a microwave, measurement and recording of tempera-
Skin-surface blanching indicates that tissue damage (frostbite) ture of sources such as heat packs or rice socks is prudent. Some
is imminent; therefore, it is recommended that skin appearance guidelines for commercial products are available; for example,
be checked every few minutes. It is appropriate to decrease dura- it is recommended that the temperature of hydrocollator packs
tion of exposure to ameliorate these risks with the decreasing be no more than 12◦ C above the animal’s body temperature
size of patient or area of injury (Heinrichs, 2004). to prevent burns (Hourdebaigt, 2004). Typical protocols call
Cryotherapy is specifically contraindicated for application for application of heat under 48◦ C for periods of 20 minutes
over open wounds, in conditions of ischemia or vascular com- or longer, several times every 24 hours. The author’s experi-
promise, hypothermia, and in any animal that is sedated or ence is that in small laboratory animals, periods of as short as
otherwise unable to signal discomfort indicating impending tis- 5–10 minutes three times daily for musculoskeletal pain provide
sue injury. Cryotherapy offers a technically easy and effective relief.
method of nondrug pain relief for acute injury or surgery in a Heat is contraindicated in cases of active inflammation
laboratory animal setting, and might be adapted for very small or infection, skin disease, local malignancy, overly sedated
mammals. or insensitive patients (as excessive temperature needs to be
detected by the patient), shock, hypotension, actively bleeding
sites, and over the eyes. Heat lamps must be used only with
2. Therapeutic Heat
extreme caution and monitoring. Proper distance from skin to
Both superficial and deep (via therapeutic ultrasound) heat heat source are critical to avoid burns, governed by the inverse
modalities have been used to treat pain in humans and animals. square law, which states “for every twofold change in distance
Indicated in cases where acute inflammation has resolved, rather of application, there is a fourfold change in heating intensity”
624 SARA SAVAGE

(Linchitz and Sorell, 2000). Superficial heat therapy is a real- therapy, muscle strengthening, gait training, balance training,
istically achieved method of treating chronic pain in laboratory coordination training, and motor control exercises, as well as
animals, depending on the situation. aerobic conditioning. Exercise is intended to strengthen mus-
cles, improve flexibility, reinstate normal motor patterns, and
increase endurance (Linchitz and Sorell, 2000).
3. Deep Heating Therapy Laboratory animal models have been used in the development
Therapeutic ultrasound involves application of acoustic of specific exercises, recommended frequencies, and durations
vibration to transfer energy to tissues (lower-frequency sound for rehabilitation programs for clinical management of dysfunc-
penetrates deeper), generating heat in tissues up to a depth of tion and pain. For example, in a study of immobilized rat soleus
5 cm for short periods of time (generally less than 10 minutes). muscle, stretch therapy induced muscular healing as evidenced
Heating muscles at a deeper level is preferable to superficial by muscle fiber hypertrophy and collagen bundle reorganization
heating methods. The beam does not travel through air (a cou- (Coutinho et al., 2006). Similarly, positive responses to tread-
pling agent, gel, or water is used), and is absorbed differentially mill training in spinal cord contusion injury were found in rats
by target tissues. Bone absorbs more sound than muscle, which (Stevens et al., 2006).
in turn absorbs more sound than fat (Steiss and McCauley, A subset of rehabilitation, hydrotherapy, is an ancient med-
2004). The heating occurs (if done correctly) preferentially in ical discipline that involves the use of water to treat disease,
deeper tissues and at tissue interfaces. In addition to increasing including pain. In humans, hydrotherapy is used in the manage-
blood flow, therapeutic ultrasound is thought to produce analge- ment of painful conditions varying from ostearthritis (Balint and
sia through enhanced wound healing and increase in collagenase Szebenyi, 1997) to post-operative analgesia and wound care
activity and collagen deposition, although other cellular mech- (Juve Meeker, 1998). Few well-controlled trials of analgesic
anisms have been postulated (Abed et al., 2007). Commercial efficacy in animals exist. As a component of an aquatic exercise
therapeutic ultrasound units, originally marketed for humans, program in humans, good documentation exists of improved
are popular with canine and equine rehabilitation specialists. strength, muscular endurance, cardiac fitness, agility, range of
These units are relatively costly and require technical expertise motion, and psychological well-being (Levine et al., 2004). As
for use and, as they typically employ 1 or 3.3 MHz transduc- with many modalities that involve exercise, release of endoge-
ers of 2–5 cm in diameter, their usefulness in smaller species nous endorphins is a putative mechanism, as is strengthening
would be limited. Frequency, intensity, cycles, duration, etc., of core muscles to support painful joints. Hydrotherapy per-
are varied by patient and condition. There are few clinical stud- mits unloading of joints during physical therapy and exercise,
ies of therapeutic ultrasound in animals, but animal model data is decreases edema and swelling due to hydrostatic pressure, and
available. It appears that the ability of therapeutic ultrasound to provides resistance exercise (Levine et al., 2004).
produce analgesia is variable, and conflicting results have been Hydrotherapy recommendations for use in small animal
reported (Abed et al., 2007). Specific guidelines for frequency, medicine were published in the 1970s, but appear to have been
intensity, and duration of application can be extrapolated from largely set aside until the emergence of canine rehabilitation
human guidelines. Other limitations of therapeutic ultrasound medicine in the late 1990s (Downer, 1977, 1979). One set of
in animals include that light sedation may be necessary, because case reports documented significant improvement in healing of
heating of deep tissues and the light pressure of the transducer tendon and ligamentous injury in horses treated with 10 min-
over sensitive skin can cause discomfort. Fur absorbs sound utes of hypertonic cold water spa bath hydrotherapy three times
and it is recommended that clipping precede therapy (Steiss and a week (Hunt, 2001). Swimming, walking on treadmills under
Adamas, 1999). Contraindications include those for superficial water, and range of motion exercises performed in a whirlpool
heat, as well as the presence of implants, pacemakers, over a are all emerging modalities in canine rehabilitation medicine.
gravid uterus, testes, over bony prominences, where circulation As the analgesic benefits to hydrotherapy are largely “unproven”
is impaired, over the spinal cord after laminectomy, and over in animals, and as it requires some expertise and equipment, it
fracture sites (Steiss and McCauley, 2004). would be difficult to recommend it as a therapeutic modality
for laboratory animals, unless it fulfilled a rehabilitative role
as well.
A review of veterinary textbooks and of the human literature
B. Movement-Based and Manual Therapies
can provide additional guidelines for development of rehabili-
tation protocols for laboratory animals, and sample programs
1. Physical Therapy
for rehabilitation of specific injuries. Veterinarians may obtain
Physical therapy is a rehabilitative modality, and arguably certification and training in rehabilitation medicine through con-
produces most if its analgesic effects through decreases in tinuing education programs, though options are limited in scope,
healing time and promotion of mobility. Movement, whether and formalized inclusion of physical therapy principles in pri-
passive or active, is the cornerstone of physical therapy. Ther- mary veterinary education is lacking. Web-based resources for
apies include passive and assisted range of motion, aquatic training are also available.
29. NONPHARMACOLOGIC PAIN CONTROL 625

2. Massage American Veterinary Chiropractic Association offers training

and certification. Research into chiropractic efficacy is ongoing.
Massage has been advocated for relief of acute or chronic
Due to the lack of information about efficacy and the need for
pain and also serves a diagnostic role in that manual contact with
specialized training, chiropractic manipulation is not a recom-
the animal’s body allows abnormalities to be detected. Poten-
mended treatment modality for nonpharmacologic pain control
tial (not necessarily proven) benefits include enhanced tissue
in laboratory animals.
repair, analgesia (by descending pain inhibitory mechanisms),
improvement of mood, and reduction of edema. Postulated
mechanisms include local relief of ischemia (in muscle spasm
C. Electroanalgesia
or trigger points) via enhanced blood flow and tissue warm-
ing, mechanical stretching of muscles and fascia, and pain
Electroanalgesia is widely applied for chronic pain man-
relief by endogenous endorphin production (Wright and Sluka,
agement in humans, and increasingly in veterinary medicine.
2001). Massage in a distal-to-proximal direction is purported
Stimulation can be provided by various methods. Electroanal-
to move fluid in peripheral tissue into the core of the body
gesia modulates the central nervous system in different ways
to facilitate drainage; improved comfort would result from
depending upon the frequency and intensity of the electrical sig-
reduction of edema. Additional mechanisms of relief include
nal used, as well as the position of electrodes. High-frequency,
alterations in muscle spindle length and increased range of
low-intensity stimulation (the basis for transcutaneous electri-
motion, increased levels of serum serotonin, dopamine, and
cal nerve stimulation or TENS) is most commonly used for the
endorphins, and decreased excitability of alpha motoneurons
stimulation of sensory fibers, while low-frequency and high-
(Linchitz and Sorell, 2000; Sullivan et al., 1991; Sutton, 2004).
intensity stimulation stimulates muscular contractions (the basis
A number of standardized massage techniques are used;
for electrical muscle stimulation or EMS) (Johnson and Levine,
examples include stroking (application of the hands with light
2004; Wright and Sluka, 2001). Current can also be applied to
pressure from proximal to distal), effleurage (performed in a
acupuncture points to produce analgesia.
distal-to-proximal direction with medium pressure to relax mus-
One of the most commonly used methods for pain relief,
cular spasm and stretch tissues mildly), compression (performed
TENS, produces predominantly a superficial stimulus and is
from proximal to distal, with a firm skin contact that depresses
believed to have two mechanistic bases. One is based on the
underlying tissues in a circular motion), and wringing (applying
“gate theory” of pain; by stimulation of peripheral sensory
alternating directions of pressure with both hands on the same
(nonpain) nerve fibers, impulses are sent to the substantia
region of tissue) (Sutton, 2004). Various other techniques are
gelatinosa of the spinal cord, which “closes the gate” to pain
described, but scientific evidence for the analgesic benefit of
impulses from ascending (pain) C fibers. Production of endoge-
massage in animals is not available.
nous opioid is also a postulated mechanism (Garrison and
Members of some larger animal species will actively seek out
Foreman, 1994; Melzack and Wall, 1965; Wright and Sluka,
human contact and could be accustomed to massage, but it is
2001). The physiologic effects also include vasodilation, change
doubtful whether this would be true for animals such as rabbits
in skin temperature, and production of a local inflammatory
or rodents. Thus, massage may have a place in the laboratory ani-
reaction (Johnson and Levine, 2004; McCauley and Glinski,
mal facility, although it can be time intensive. Contraindications
2004; Sluka, 2001). TENS is used for an extensive variety of
to massage include shock, hypotension, fever, acute inflamma-
painful conditions in humans, including obstetric, dental proce-
tion, infection, open wounds or unstable fractures, skin disease,
dures, surgical procedures, arthritis, neuropathy, and back pain,
and acute viral disease (Sutton, 2004).
although effectiveness compared to placebo is challenging to
prove. Evidence exists for efficacy of TENS as a primary anal-
gesic treatment in multiple rodent disease models, including
3. Chiropractic Manipulation
peripheral neuropathy (Inoue et al., 2003) and inflammatory
Joint manipulation/mobilization is the basis of chiropractic myopathy (Ainsworth et al., 2006). One study demonstrated
medicine. Chiropractic intervention involves manual manipu- control of visceral pain in mice as well (Lopez et al., 2004).
lation of joints (usually spine but other joints such as those of TENS devices range in price and capabilities, and can only
the skull are targeted) which are moved to or just beyond their be bought with a prescription. TENS requires only a minimum
normal range of motion, “freeing up” spinal nerves to treat dis- of technical expertise to operate, and can be used for proce-
ease or pain. Although randomized controlled trials (human) of dural, post-operative, acute and chronic, musculoskeletal, and
manipulation for certain conditions (acute low back pain, cervi- neuropathic pain. Effects of treatment sessions may be cumu-
cal pain) have shown improvements over placebo, the duration lative and may also not last once terminated. Contraindications
of effect is noted to be short (Wright and Sluka, 2001). include administration of TENS in desensitized regions of the
Chiropractic adjustment of animals is currently performed body, malignancy, vascular disease, over a pacemaker and where
either by veterinarians trained in chiropractic manipulation or an implant is present (Johnson and Levine, 2004). Animals may
by chiropractors under the supervision of veterinarians. The require gradual acclimatization to the mild tingling sensation
626 SARA SAVAGE

that it produces with use, but may receive positive reinforcement of serotonin, growth hormone, oxytocin, LH, leukocytes, inter-
from the analgesic effects. feron, etc., can also be altered, thus refuting the opioid-only
Other forms of electrical stimulation may be used, such as mechanism theory (McCauley and Glinski, 2004; Wright and
electroacupuncture for pain, and neuromuscular electrical stim- Sluka, 2001).
ulation (NMES), or EMS, for producing muscle contractions. There is a substantial amount of ongoing research to validate
The latter two modalities, while not primarily analgesic thera- transposition of acupoints from humans to other species, as well
pies, may reduce pain by improving strength. The complexity as to elucidate the mechanisms and efficacy of treatment. Doc-
of the literature supporting TENS or other electrical stimulation umentation of acupuncture analgesia and disease treatment can
techniques as a form of nonpharmacologic pain relief suggests be found for both human and veterinary applications. In 1997,
that it may be difficult to adapt or justify its use in laboratory the National Institutes of Health released a consensus paper
animals; however, in cases where analgesic drugs cannot be that stated that acupuncture was useful for musculoskeletal pain,
used, TENS therapy may offer partial relief of pain in laboratory osteoarthritis, immunomodulation, gastrointestinal, pulmonary,
animals. and reproductive pathologies, as well as addiction and stroke
rehabilitation (National Institutes of Health, 1997). As much of
the data generated in experimental studies supporting this report
D. Acupuncture was produced in laboratory animals, specifically the mouse
and rat, there is good primary information source available
Acupuncture is a discipline of stimulation of “acupoints” on on the location of various acupoints and therapeutic applica-
the body surface by means of a solid needle, with or without tions for laboratory animal medicine. In 1998, the American
electrical stimulation, or by means of injection of solutions. Veterinary Medical Association released a position statement,
Such stimulation is thought to alter biochemical and physical classifying acupuncture as a medical or surgical procedure, and
properties of the body. Acupoints exist along specific pathways recommending specific training for veterinarians. Interestingly,
or “meridians” and show evidence of increased electrical resis- a recent study reviewing the literature on domestic animals, not
tance. The histologic identity of the acupoint per se is not estab- laboratory animals, concluded that in 31 studies, the literature
lished, but an increased density of capillaries, arterioles, fine did not demonstrate conclusive evidence of efficacy of acupunc-
lymphatics, and a higher concentration of mast cells have been ture (Habacher et al., 2006). Notwithstanding, the evidence in
found (Lindley and Cummings, 2006). Both Traditional Chi- laboratory animal models, particularly rodents, supports the use
nese Medicine (TCM, a 4,000-year-old practice) and Western of acupuncture for analgesia in specific applications.
medicine approaches to acupuncture are used in the United Acupoints can be stimulated by a variety of methods, includ-
States in humans as well as in animals. TCM practitioners refer ing finger pressure (known as acupressure), needles, and
to the “bioelectricity flow” along and between meridians as injection of saline or other solutions. Acupuncture needles
“Qi” (pronounced as “chee”). Acupuncture points in animals come in a variety of sizes and shapes. Most commonly used
(horses) have been described both from original TCM teaching are fine metal needles, with a tapered tip and metal handle,
and by transposition from human charts. Published charts for the in a gauge range of 28–40 and length of 7–100 mm. Choice
majority of laboratory animal species are not available. A web- of needle is determined by therapeutic indication, and vet-
published bibliography from the University of Montreal (http:// erinary texts reference multiple options for insertion depth,
users.med.auth.gr/∼karanik/english/articles/vetbibl.html) gives angle, and techniques for manipulation upon placement in tis-
a number of useful papers upon which to establish acupoint sue. The intensity of the effect may be enhanced by application
identity in birds, cattle, horses, dogs, cats, and pigs. The Interna- of current (electroacupuncture) or heat (moxibustion, heating of
tional Veterinary Acupuncture Society, the American Academy inserted needles with burning sticks of Artemesia vulgaris), or
of Veterinary Acupuncture, and a growing number of textbooks by “needling” (twisting of or probing with inserted needles).
also provide acupuncture charts in companion and large animal Most of the scientific literature supports either “dry” needling
species. Identification of points of low transcutaneous electri- or electroacupuncture (Ferguson, 2007). The addition of various
cal resistance, using a handheld device, can further help to treatments to needling has been shown to be useful in a variety
definitively establish the location of acupoints (Trentini et al., of applications. Electroacupuncture effectively reduced hyper-
2005). algesia induced by surgical incision on the plantar paw in rats
Locally, insertion of the needle at an acupoint stimulates (Oliveira and Prado, 2000). Manipulation of the needle during
A delta fibers and activates interneurons in the dorsal horn, electroacupuncture was found to be more effective than simple
producing enkephalins that inhibit C fibers (segmental anal- electroacupuncture during tail flick latency in the rat (Kim et al.,
gesia) (Lindley and Cummings, 2006). At the site vasodilation 2000). However, electroacupuncture in dogs with elbow joint
and mast cell degranulation also occurs. Descending inhibi- osteoarthritis did not improve pain scores or alter ground reac-
tion of pain is enhanced, as is humoral (general) modulation tion forces (Kapatkin et al., 2006). Continuous, high-frequency
of pain (Clemmons, 2007). Effects of acupuncture can largely stimulation (80–120 Hz) is recommended for pain and muscle
be blocked by administration of naloxone, but systemic levels spasm, and lower frequency (5–20 Hz), intermittent stimulation
29. NONPHARMACOLOGIC PAIN CONTROL 627

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 Chapter 30

Anesthetic Considerations for In Vivo

Imaging Studies
Anthony Nicholson and Brenda Klaunberg

I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
II. Imaging Modalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
A. X-Ray-Based Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
B. Ultrasound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
C. Optical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy (MRI/S) . . . . . . . . . . . 632
E. Micropositron Emission Tomography (μPET or MicroPET) . . . . . . . . . 632
F. Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) . . . . . . . . . . 632
G. Gating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
III. Anesthetic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
A. Body Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
B. Ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633
C. Blood Pressure and Cardiac Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
D. Hydration and Metabolic Status . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
E. Effects of Repeated Anesthesia and Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
F. Effects of Strain, Sex, and Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
IV. Imaging-Specific Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
V. Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 636
A. Injectable Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
B. Inhalational Anesthesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637

I. INTRODUCTION
technologies, which parallel and expand on those used clinically,
as well as advances in the production of genetically engineered
The use of imaging modalities for examination of labora- animals, particularly mice. The numbers of such mice used in
tory animals has increased significantly in the past 5–10 years. preclinical and basic research have increased enormously in
This increase has been in part due to the development of new recent years, to the extent that mice are the most commonly used

ANESTHESIA AND ANALGESIA IN LABORATORY ANIMALS, 2ND EDITION Copyright © 2008, 1997 by Elsevier Inc.
All rights reserved.

629
630 ANTHONY NICHOLSON AND BRENDA KLAUNBERG

models for investigating human disease. Advances in imaging resonance imaging (MRI). We will make recommendations for
technology have accompanied this growth such that most imag- monitoring of animals during imaging procedures, for exam-
ing modalities currently available clinically are now available ple, which monitoring devices are most suitable and convenient,
for use with mice, together with some that are strictly research as well as address the need for patient maintenance with flu-
tools. A major impetus for researchers to use in vivo imaging ids and heat. We will also discuss the impact of anesthesia
in their investigations is that it can provide information regard- on experimental outcome, particularly its influence on normal
ing longitudinal changes in the same animals (Abbey et al., physiology.
2004), and thus its use greatly reduces the number of animals
required for any given study (Lewis et al., 2002). Research
imaging devices are increasingly being described as molecular
II. IMAGING MODALITIES
imaging tools as these new modalities provide unique meth-
ods to assess in vivo tissue function. Many of these methods
are capable of taking advantage of genetic probes and markers A. X-Ray-Based Technologies
that are most frequently developed for use in mice (Cherry and
Gambhir, 2001; Hildebrandt and Gambhir, 2004; Ntziachristos These include systems for imaging animals with standard
et al., 2003; Weissleder and Mahmood, 2001; Weissleder and X-rays, dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) for body
Ntziachristos, 2003). Due to the need for increased resolution of composition analysis, and microcomputed tomography (μCT
these instruments, often two to three orders of magnitude greater or microCT). Standard radiographic examinations and DEXA
than that achievable with human, or even veterinary, clinical analysis generally require animals to be still for a matter of
equivalent systems, preclinical imaging devices are generally several minutes; for example, DEXA analysis with the Lunar
referred to as “micro” for microscopy (Budinger et al., 1999; PIXImus™ takes 6–7 minutes per animal. Data acquisition
Holdsworth and Thornton, 2002; Massoud and Gambhir, 2003; with μCT can take as few as 5 minutes to upward of an hour
Weissleder, 2002). In conjunction with these developments has depending on the system being used and acquisition settings,
been the need to improve methods to anesthetize mice and other particularly the resolution, number of projections required, and
laboratory animals and monitor their physiological well-being whether gating is used (see below for discussion of gating)
throughout the peri-imaging period. (Paulus et al., 2000).
The aim of this chapter is to briefly introduce the mod-
ern researcher to the wealth of imaging modalities available
1. Radiography
and discuss available and appropriate methods of anesthesia.
Recommendations will be made for general approaches to the There are several systems designed for two-dimensional
anesthesia of animals for each of these techniques including spe- radiography of small laboratory animals. The most widely
cific and unique considerations associated with each modality available are the Faxitron® systems. These are now available
where appropriate. Limited mention will be made of the specific in digital formats, removing the need for film and its devel-
pharmacology of anesthetics used for imaging other than where opment, although earlier analog systems are still commonly
they may adversely affect the results of the imaging process. used. These systems provide a 5×-magnified image resulting
Similarly, specific drug protocols and dose rates will not be out- in high-resolution radiographs.
lined unless deemed directly relevant. Since details about drugs
or specific delivery techniques for various laboratory animals
2. Dual-energy X-ray Absorptiometry
are listed in other chapters of this book, we recommend readers
refer to the appropriate chapters for specific anesthetic protocol This technology uses X-rays of two different energy levels that
details, and to Chapters 2 and 3 for discussions on pharmacology are absorbed differentially by various body tissue types. This
of injectable and inhalant anesthetics, respectively. Discussions enables differentiation of the body mass into three classes: min-
in this chapter will be limited to species used most frequently eralized tissue (bone), fat tissue, and lean tissue, which includes
for imaging studies: mice, rats, and nonhuman primates (NHP). muscle, visceral organs, and skin. Although this technique is
Other species for which imaging may be part of a research pro- used primarily to provide information about body composi-
tocol include swine, dogs, and guinea pigs. However, due to tion, it is included here as the data are presented in graphical
the increasing interest in and approaching clinical application format (mineralized tissue outlined over a low-resolution radio-
of many of these techniques (Weissleder, 2006), and the fact graph), as well as numerical data similar to other in vivo imaging
that most of the development of these techniques is occurring techniques (Akhter et al., 2000; Brommage, 2003).
with rodents, the major emphasis of this chapter will be on these
species.
3. Microcomputed Tomography
We will make special mention of the features unique to a par-
ticular modality that may impact anesthesia, such as the need MicroCT involves the acquisition of a number of axial
for nonferrous anesthesia and monitoring systems for magnetic radiographic projections (slices) of the subject, which are
30. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR IN VIVO IMAGING STUDIES 631

subsequently reconstructed to enable three-dimensional visu- C. Optical

alization of the region(s) of interest. Being X-ray based, μCT
is best used for examination of bone; however, it can provide An increasing variety of optical imaging technologies is avail-
good soft tissue definition depending on the acquisition proto- able, many of which are designed exclusively for preclinical
col used. Soft tissue assessment can be further enhanced with imaging. Many of these require genetic manipulation of either
the use of contrast agents, delivered orally, intraperitoneally, cells in vitro, which are subsequently implanted into the test ani-
or intravascularly. The duration of data acquisition with μCT mals, or the animal’s genome, which is engineered to express the
depends on a number of factors, but the number of projections necessary proteins or enzymes (Wang et al., 2006). For example,
and the final image resolution have the most impact on imaging xenografts or allografts are frequently used in cancer research
time. Depending on the particular system used, in vivo μCT to follow the progression of tumor implants, or more usually to
imaging is capable of a resolution of 15–25 μm. The price for follow the response to therapy following drug administration.
this high resolution is a significant increase in data file size
and a greatly prolonged acquisition time. Increasing the num-
1. Fluorescence
ber of projections acquired increases the signal-to-noise ratio
(SNR) and improves soft tissue definition, but this also can An increasing number of genetic constructs are available for
significantly increase acquisition time and anesthetic duration fluorophores that are commonly incorporated into the genome
(Cherry, 2004; Paulus et al., 2000, 2001). A high-resolution of mice. These genes code for particles that require subsequent
μCT scan may take as long as 30–40 minutes. Addition- excitation with light of the appropriate wavelength in order to
ally, longer acquisition times result in the animal receiving an be visible. This technique was first developed for examination
increased dose of ionizing radiation. The long-term effects of of explanted tissues, but more and more techniques are being
radiation received during μCT imaging are currently unknown, developed to enable in vivo examination (Cherry, 2004; Hassan
but must be considered if experimental results differ from and Klaunberg, 2004). These biomarkers can be used not only
expected outcomes, particularly in studies of tumor biology and for identifying the location of particular cells, but can be engi-
therapeutics. neered to signal a specific cell function such as gene activation
(Ballou et al., 2005). They can also be tailored to fluoresce
in a defined condition, such as the change in pH that occurs
B. Ultrasound in endocytosis (Hama et al., 2006). Newer devices now allow
visualization of in vivo fluorescence at the cellular level with
There are two major classes of ultrasound systems available fiberoptic technology and two-photon microscopy.
for imaging small laboratory animals: clinical systems that use
relatively low-frequency probes (up to 15 MHz) and dedicated
2. Bioluminescence
high-frequency systems that have probes ranging from 20 MHz
to 55 MHz (Foster et al., 2002; Phoon and Turnbull, 2003; Bioluminescence results from the production of light by a
Wirtzfeld et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2002, 2004). Each of these biochemical reaction. This technique requires the presence of
systems provides different advantages, and in some respects can an active enzyme called luciferase and its substrate luciferin
be considered complimentary. Clinical systems provide spe- to allow visualization of the bioluminescence. The most com-
cialized techniques such as color flow Doppler that is useful for monly used luciferase is from fireflies and it produces light in
cardiac examinations, whereas the high-frequency systems pro- green wavelengths. This reporter gene can be engineered to
vide significantly higher resolution images at the cost of depth express ubiquitously as in a transgenic animal, or constructed
penetration. Most ultrasound examinations on small animals, to signal a specific cellular function (Contag and Bachmann,
especially mice, are done with the animals under general anes- 2002; Zhou et al., 2004). Because there are no endogenous
thesia; however, it is possible to perform short examinations in mammalian luciferase genes, it is a highly specific cell marker
conscious animals. The need for anesthesia will depend on the commonly used for cell tracking (Cherry, 2004; Sato et al.,
inherent needs of the animal and their response to being han- 2004).
dled and restrained, the tissue or organ being examined, and Data acquisition for bioluminescence or fluorescence is sim-
the impact of the stress response of the animal on the resultant ilar. Image acquisition requires placing the anesthetized animal
data. It may be possible to train some animals to accept manual into a light-tight chamber to enable signal detection by a sen-
restraint sufficiently to allow echocardiography while conscious sitive camera, i.e., a charge-coupled device (CCD). Typically,
(Semeniuk et al., 2002; Syed et al., 2005; Takuma et al., 2001; the optical image is superimposed on another image such as
Wang et al., 2006; Yang et al., 1999). As with larger species, a low-resolution radiograph or photograph for anatomical ref-
the duration of any ultrasound examination depends on the indi- erence. Fluorescence imaging is virtually instantaneous and
vidual investigation, the ease of tissue access, and the type of an image can be generated within seconds. Bioluminescence
information required (Balaban and Hampshire, 2001; Coatney, requires a slight time delay for the biochemical reaction, but
2001). image acquisition usually takes less than 10 minutes.
632 ANTHONY NICHOLSON AND BRENDA KLAUNBERG

3. Laser Doppler however, to have some access to larger animals for injections or
monitoring.
Laser Doppler imaging (LDI) takes advantage of the Doppler
effect to measure blood flow. A laser light is directed over the
tissue in a scanning pattern. The laser energy is absorbed, scat- E. Micropositron Emission Tomography (μ PET or
tered, and reflected by moving objects such as red blood cells, MicroPET)
and the change in frequency is proportional to the cells’ veloc-
ity. The system uses an algorithm to generate a measurement MicroPET imaging uses a series of highly sensitive detectors
of laser Doppler flux related to the amount of blood flow. The to capture the photons generated when a radionuclide injected
wavelength of the laser determines the depth of penetration, but into the body of the test animal disintegrates. This highly
typically it measures capillary blood flow within the top 1 mm specialized technology provides functional and metabolic infor-
of tissue. Imaging can take anywhere from 10 minutes to 30 mation according to the type of isotope and radiochemistry used.
minutes depending on the area of interest (Baudelet and Gallez, Although it is extremely sensitive, μPET provides poor spatial
2004; Shireman and Quinones, 2005). resolution and consequently is often used in conjunction with
other modalities such as μCT or MRI that provide anatomical
landmarks. To maximize the combination of these two modal-
D. Magnetic Resonance Imaging and Spectroscopy ities, the images from each need to be coregistered to provide
(MRI/S) the most concise information. This necessitates data acquisition
from each consecutively, and ideally simultaneously, which can
MRI uses the nuclear property of intrinsic spin to form images significantly extend the anesthesia time. PET imaging time also
of certain nuclear isotopes (nuclides) by manipulating magnetic depends on whether it is a static imaging experiment acquired
fields to create radiograph-like images without using ionizing at a single tracer timepoint, or a dynamic study where time
radiation. The most common nuclide in the body is hydrogen distribution of a tracer is needed (Cherry, 2004; Cherry and
(1 H). The hydrogen found in water and fat is commonly used Gambhir, 2001; Martiniova et al., 2006; Paulus et al., 2001).
to generate high-resolution images (pixel size 200 μm isotropic Additionally, image acquisition time is inversely proportional
or less) of small laboratory animals with adequate image inten- to the tracer concentration. Shorter scans are often adequate;
sity or SNR. A more intense magnetic field provides a higher however, acquisition times can take as long as 2–4 hours, not
image SNR, which can be used for increased imaging resolu- including the time for μCT or MRI imaging for coregistration.
tion (Chatham and Blackband, 2001; Pautler, 2004). Most of the
MRI systems used for laboratory animal imaging have signifi- F. Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography
cantly higher magnetic field strength than clinical MRI systems. (SPECT)
However, clinical MRI systems can be used for animal research
by using specifically designed coils to generate adequate images This technique is similar to μPET in that it utilizes radionu-
of small animals. clides. The isotopes for SPECT are usually different from
MRI is useful to study a variety of organs, but is exceptional those used in PET and generally have longer half-lives. These
when examining the central nervous system. Special imaging instruments can be single-function-dedicated machines, or more
techniques utilizing contrast agents or endogenous tissue prop- commonly these days they are made in combination with μCT.
erties can provide functional information such as changes in Dual-function machines simplify the problem of registration for
blood flow or oxygenation. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy combining the two images. SPECT, as with PET, provides poor
confines the image acquisition to the spectral information of a tissue localization, hence the tendency to combine it with CT
particular nuclide. This is useful for imaging tissue distribution (Cherry, 2004; Paulus et al., 2001).
of a particular drug or metabolite; however, the nuclide of inter-
est is often present in low concentrations and may result in an
image of low SNR with poor spatial and temporal resolution G. Gating
(Balaban and Hampshire, 2001; McConville et al., 2005; Paut-
ler, 2004). MR images can be acquired as quickly as within a few Some imaging techniques are improved by the timing of
minutes, but generally experiments require longer scan times. image acquisition with specific stages of the respiratory or
As with other imaging modalities, the size of the region of inter- cardiac cycles; this technique is referred to as gating, either
est, final image resolution, and need for three-dimensional data respiratory or cardiac. Respiratory gating is a useful and robust
determine the entire scan time. Depending on the scan param- technique routinely employed in CT and MRI imaging (Ford
eters, in vivo imaging can take as long as several hours. It is et al., 2007). Cardiac gating is commonly used in MRI for all
important to remember that the animals are imaged at a dis- species and in clinical CT scanners for large animals, but is cur-
tance from the anesthetist; therefore, most small animals are rently in development for use with small animals and preclinical
typically inaccessible during imaging. It is sometimes possible, CT scanners.
30. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR IN VIVO IMAGING STUDIES 633

Respiratory gating is simplest to achieve by methods that when choosing an anesthetic approach for imaging studies. This
detect the changes in thoracic or airway pressure associated impact can be most profound in those studies that are designed
with respiration. A pressure sensitive balloon, placed under to assess some aspect of physiological function. Modalities most
the thoracolumbar junction attached to a pressure transducer, affected by these perturbations are PET, functional MRI (fMRI),
is an effective noninvasive method to achieve respiratory gat- and ultrasound. Despite this caveat, many of the standard
ing. Detection of changes in airway pressure is possible when small animal anesthesia techniques are appropriate for most of
anesthesia is maintained by the use of a cone or face mask for these imaging modalities. In many instances either injectable or
delivery; however, this method is far more reliable if the animals inhalational anesthesia can be used, although inhalational tech-
are intubated. Noncuffed endotracheal tubes suitable for rodents niques provide the greatest flexibility and are generally best
are now commercially available, but intravenous catheters have for longer procedures (Balaban and Hampshire, 2001; Colby
been used successfully. These tools are nonferrous and there- and Morenko, 2004). Regardless of the type of anesthetic used,
fore MRI compatible. If animals are intubated, another method physiological monitoring of the animal during the procedure
to achieve respiratory gating is to mechanically ventilate the and appropriate recovery are critical to the well-being of the
animals and use a signal from the ventilator to trigger the MRI. animal and success of the study.
Cardiac gating requires monitoring of cardiac electrical activ-
ity, i.e., an electrocardiogram. Using this signal, the MRI can
be triggered to acquire data repeatedly at the various discrete A. Body Temperature
stages of the cardiac cycle. The ability to gate depends on both
the amount of time required for image or data acquisition, usu- Maintenance of normal body temperature is an important
ally in the order of milliseconds, and the frequency of either the consideration when imaging small animals, both because of
heart rate, usually in excess of 400 beats per minute (bpm), or the potential affect of hypothermia on response to anesthesia
respiration rate, generally greater than 50 breaths per minute for and recovery, and also for its potential impact on other physi-
smaller rodents. With the exception of MRI, none of the other ological processes. Blood flow and distribution are sensitive to
imaging modalities commercially available at this time acquire alterations in body temperature, especially decreases. Due to
data rapidly enough to benefit from cardiac gating when imaging their small size and large body surface to body weight ratio,
rodents. In addition, many cannot take advantage of respiratory small laboratory animals tend to lose body heat rapidly when
gating either, but the technologies are rapidly advancing for anesthetized. This is due to loss of homeothermic control as
both cardiac and respiratory gating. Gating is used to further a result of anesthesia, compounded by an average laboratory
limit subject movement during image acquisition; for μCT res- ambient temperature well below the animals’ core body tem-
piratory gating results in improved image quality of thoracic perature. Therefore, provision of an external form of heat is
contents as well as organs of the proximal abdomen that can mandatory for any procedure that lasts more than about 10
move significantly due to diaphragmatic movement (Ritman, minutes. Methods of applying heat include circulating water
2005; Ruff et al., 2000). blankets, heat pads, and circulating warm air through the imag-
ing device. Some devices are equipped with warming platforms
on which the animals are imaged. If these methods are not possi-
ble, then wrapping animals in bubble wrap, if appropriate for the
III. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS
imaging technique (e.g., μCT), will lower the rate of heat loss by
the animals, although this is less effective than supplying heat.
The fundamental purpose for anesthetizing animals for imag-
ing is to keep them as still as possible in order to minimize
movement artifact and so maximize image quality (Balaban and B. Ventilation
Hampshire, 2001). For the most part, animals used in imaging
studies tend to be overtly healthy, although this is dependent Due to the extended acquisition times associated with
on the genetic modifications and the nature of the experiment. many imaging modalities, adequacy of ventilation, and airway
Genetically altered animals may express an unusual or unex- patency are major considerations. Animals may hypoventilate,
pected phenotype that can impact their response to anesthesia which can result in concomitant hypoxemia, hypercapnia, and
or specific anesthetic agents. Such variations may or may not associated respiratory acidosis. These conditions may cause
be obvious or even significant; however, one should be aware serious metabolic imbalances that can affect study results. An
of the possibility that these may exist. At other times, animals’ endotracheal tube ensures airway access and will afford the
health will be severely compromised and consideration must be anesthetist control of the animal’s ventilation. Despite its appar-
given to best minimize any disturbances in normal function due ent difficulty, intubation of mice, rats, and other species can
to anesthesia. become routine with time, patience, and practice. Several dif-
The impact of general anesthesia, or of particular anesthet- ferent techniques have been described in the literature (Brown
ics, on subject physiology should be a major consideration et al., 1999; Cavanaugh et al., 2004; Rivera et al., 2005; Winning
634 ANTHONY NICHOLSON AND BRENDA KLAUNBERG

et al., 2004). The value of mastering this skill is considerable, C. Blood Pressure and Cardiac Function
particularly for long procedures and those to be repeated for
longitudinal studies. Maintenance of cardiovascular function is important for some
Animals that are intubated can be readily ventilated to main- functional imaging modalities, due to their dependence on nor-
tain normoxia and normocapnia. However, care should be taken mal blood flow and distribution for reliable measurements.
when ventilating rodents to avoid hyperinflation that can cause This is particularly important for studies dependent on normal
barotrauma to the lungs. Both the thoracic wall and lungs of cerebral blood flow distribution. Significant perturbations of
mice are compliant, so do not require high inflation pressures for cardiovascular function may occur during anesthesia, depending
adequate ventilation (Cavanaugh et al., 2004; Schwarte et al., on the anesthetic used, level of anesthesia attained, and dura-
2000; Soutiere and Mitzner, 2004). Hyperinflation can occur tion of anesthesia. In mice, isoflurane is the most commonly
from too high a pressure or too large a tidal volume being deliv- used anesthetic considered to cause the least cardiovascular
ered. In general, one should not exceed ventilatory pressures disturbance, with tribromoethanol (TBE) reasonable for short
of 20 cmH2 O, or deliver tidal volumes above 15 ml/kg. Thal procedures and ketamine/xylazine combinations generally con-
and Plesnila (2007) were able to maintain mice with PaCO2 sidered to be most deleterious (Hart et al., 2001; Janssen et al.,
and ETCO2 at levels around 38 ± 6 mmHg for several hours by 2004; Zuurbier et al., 2002). Unfortunately, there are no reli-
delivering approximately 10 μl/g (10 ml/kg) of a 70% nitrogen– able noninvasive methods for monitoring cardiac function in
30% oxygen gas mixture at 100–120 breaths per minute using anesthetized mice, although this is somewhat easier in rats and
a delivered pressure of only 11 cmH2 O. Similarly, inspiratory NHP. For mice, the most frequent measure of cardiac func-
pressures as low as 5 cmH2 O have been used in the rat to tion during imaging is assessment of heart rhythm and rate via
achieve comparable CO2 levels (Mirsattari et al., 2005). Apart electrocardiography (ECG). As with other species, light-weight,
from barotrauma, hyperventilation or hypoventilation can also nonferrous leads are necessary, particularly with MRI.
have metabolic sequelae. Respiratory alkalosis due to excess When assessing murine cardiac function by ultrasound, i.e.,
removal of CO2 is the most common result of overly enthusi- echocardiography, it is recommended that the heart rate be
astic artificial ventilation. Hyperinflation can also cause direct maintained at greater than 400–450 bpm (Dawson et al., 2004;
cardiovascular problems due to impeding passive venous return Takuma et al., 2001). This provides meaningful measurements
of blood to the heart resulting in hypotension due to inadequate that approximate those of conscious animals, in which heart rate
ventricular filling (Zuurbier et al., 2002). ranges from around 550 bpm to 700 bpm depending on the strain
Normal ventilatory settings are generally based on a tidal and the level of activity at the time of measurement (Chu et al.,
volume of 10 ml/kg. Respiratory rate tends to be body mass 2006; Kawahara et al., 2005; Kiatchoosakun et al., 2001; Roth
dependent, being as high as 150–200 breaths per minute for et al., 2002; Yang et al., 1999). MRI is also used to assess car-
mice to as low as 20–40 breaths per minute for some NHP. The diac function, and concerns are compounded by limited subject
best way to ensure adequate and appropriate ventilation is to access during image acquisition (Balaban and Hampshire, 2001;
measure arterial blood gases. There are unfortunately a num- Chacko et al., 2000; Kober et al., 2004; Ruff et al., 2000). More
ber of logistical problems to this approach for most laboratory recently, microPET has also been used to assess cardiac function
animals. Blood gas machines are expensive, often beyond the (Kreissl et al., 2006). Gaseous anesthetics, such as isoflurane,
budgets of research groups, although smaller units, including enable much greater ability to control heart rate under these cir-
handheld ones are available. Most of these systems require rel- cumstances through control of depth of anesthesia and are often
atively large volumes of arterial blood. Access and quantity are preferred for this reason.
limiting factors for performing these measurements in rodents, Other than invasive techniques, it is difficult to measure blood
especially mice that have a circulating blood volume of around pressure reliably in mice during imaging. However, the Doppler
2 ml (Diehl et al., 2001). Another method to assess adequacy of piezoelectric crystal method has been used on the tail of mice
ventilation is to measure the end-tidal CO2 (ETCO2 ) concen- and rats with some success (Thal and Plesnila, 2007). Doppler
tration. In rodents, small body size, small tidal volumes, and and oscillometric methods , e.g., Dinamap™, are suitable for
high respiratory rates make ETCO2 a difficult methodology to NHP in some imaging systems.
employ reliably. These two techniques are more easily adapted
to NHP and other larger species.
Pulse oximetry provides an indirect measure of ventilatory D. Hydration and Metabolic Status
adequacy as well as perfusion, both centrally and peripherally.
There are many small animal pulse oximeters available; how- Fluid and electrolyte balance, as well as blood glucose lev-
ever, the majority of these have difficulty with the high pulse els, need to be considered when imaging small animals for long
rates of rodents, so may not function effectively. A new rodent- periods. In general, there is no need to fast rodents prior to anes-
specific pulse oximeter is reported to monitor hemoglobin thesia, because neither mice nor rats are able to vomit and there
saturation in animals at pulse rates up to 900 per minute (Strohl is little risk of gastric reflux and aspiration. This reduces the
et al., 2005). likelihood of animals becoming hypoglycemic during standard
30. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR IN VIVO IMAGING STUDIES 635

imaging sessions. On the other hand, the stress of anesthesia is easy to administer, and is inexpensive. Repeated administra-
itself raises blood glucose levels, in a drug-dependent manner, tion of this drug to the same animal has been reported to cause
with the most marked increases occurring when administering a number of problems in both mice and rats (Papaioannou and
alpha-2 agonists, such as xylazine (Church et al., 1994; Pomplun Fox, 1993; Reid et al., 1999; Thompson et al., 2002; Weiss and
et al., 2004; Vera et al., 2002). This effect may be attenuated with Zimmermann, 1999; Zeller et al., 1998). The evidence regard-
overnight fasting (Lee et al., 2005). If a prolonged procedure ing these problems is limited and somewhat inconsistent and
is anticipated, or ensues due to complications, blood glucose empirical, but a general consensus is that when administered IP,
should be measured, if possible, or dextrose preemptively added as it usually is, TBE may cause paralytic ileus, mild-to-moderate
to the supplemental fluids to avoid hypoglycemia (Zuurbier peritonitis, hepatic inflammatory infiltration, and fibrosis or
et al., 2002). However, use of additional glucose should be done necrosis of abdominal wall musculature (Lieggi et al., 2005;
judiciously to avoid problems of hyperglycemia. If in doubt, Papaioannou and Fox, 1993; Reid et al., 1999; Zeller et al.,
measure plasma glucose before supplementing any IV fluids. 1998). These adverse events most often manifest themselves
Consideration should also be given to the imaging modal- upon repeated exposure to the drug rather than on initial use.
ity in use, duration of the procedure, the size of the animals, Some of these problems may be due to the instability of working
time of last feed, and the type of anesthetic administered. In solutions of the drug, which are light-sensitive. It is generally
μPET studies, the most commonly used marker is 2-deoxy- recommended that for its safe use, the working solution of TBE
2-[18 F]fluoro-d-glucose (18 F-FDG), a glucose analog that is be made up fresh every 2 weeks and that it be protected from
taken up by cells in place of glucose. The uptake of 18 F-FDG is exposure to light (Lieggi et al., 2005; Papaioannou and Fox,
significantly affected by some anesthetics, as well as prior fast- 1993).
ing and body temperature (Fueger et al., 2006; Itoh et al., 2005; Frequent repeated use of some injectable agents and mix-
Lee et al., 2005; Toyama et al., 2004). The anesthesia-associated tures, such as ketamine and xylazine or medetomidine, can
hyperglycemia, particularly that associated with xylazine, may cause problems with prolonged recovery. Ketamine is metabo-
result in competition for uptake of 18 F-FDG by cells, with vary- lized in the liver and excreted via the kidneys. Some metabolites,
ing results among different anesthetic protocols (Fueger et al., such as norketamine, have anesthetic activities that contribute to
2006; Itoh et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2005; Toyama et al., 2004). prolongation of anesthetic action (Pawson and Forsyth, 2002).
Therefore, it is critical to use a consistent anesthetic protocol Excretion may be prolonged after repeated administration due to
for functional and molecular imaging studies, and to take into metabolite accumulation, which can contribute toward delayed
consideration the physiologic effects of different anesthetics. recovery. This may be exacerbated by any impairment in renal
Normal saline or other balanced electrolyte solutions can be function, decreased cardiac output or hypotension secondary
given continuously throughout image acquisition if the animal to anesthesia, or decreased metabolic rate due to hypothermia.
is catheterized, and if not, then intraperitoneal (IP) fluids can be Although development of acute tolerance to barbiturates has
administered to rodents either pre- and/or postprocedure. Fluids been reported to occur in some species, including humans, this
administered IP are absorbed into the vascular system rapidly has not been demonstrated to be the case for rats regardless
and are therefore an effective way to provide fluid replacement of dose rate or repetition of administration (Fragen and Avram,
therapy without vascular access. Preheating of administered 2004; Harashima et al., 1997). Rats have been shown to develop
fluid will help reduce the heat loss during anesthesia. acute tolerance to propofol when administered by infusion,
especially in older animals (Larsson and Wahlstrom, 1996).

E. Effects of Repeated Anesthesia and Imaging

F. Effects of Strain, Sex, and Age
One of the major reasons for in vivo imaging is that it enables
the investigator to re-image the same animal over time. This As different rodent strains and either sex may have variations
means that individual animals can act as their own controls, in basic physiology, e.g., cardiovascular traits (Hoit et al., 2002),
reducing the number of animals used in a given experiment they may respond uniquely to various anesthetics, particularly
(Abbey et al., 2004; Lewis et al., 2002). An important consider- injectable agents (Homanics et al., 1999; Koizumi et al., 2002;
ation for repeated scanning of animals is the frequency and time Sonner et al., 1999; Zambricki and Dalecy, 2004). This may be
interval between imaging sessions. For chronic studies with a of particular importance when dealing with transgenic or tar-
limited number of episodes of imaging over a period of months, geted mutant strains that may have altered phenotypic responses
the choice of anesthetic is less likely to negatively impact the ani- that are undocumented. Similarly, caution should be used in
mals. However, for shorter studies, or those with a short interval chronic studies with repeated imaging of animals that may
between imaging sessions, the choice of anesthetic may have a have aged considerably between sessions. Aged animals display
significant effect on the animal. altered physiology and altered responses to anesthetics (Chaves
Less so now than in the past, TBE is used for some short et al., 2003). Older animals often require drugs to be adminis-
imaging sessions in rodents because it is relatively short-acting, tered at reduced dose rates due to increased sensitivity; this is
636 ANTHONY NICHOLSON AND BRENDA KLAUNBERG

another reason why, wherever possible, inhalational anesthesia removal can result in hypothermia even in conscious animals.
is recommended. When presented with geriatric subjects that It is vital to provide heat during imaging procedures to mini-
require in vivo imaging, one must be aware of their physiolog- mize hypothermia. For ultrasound imaging, warmed coupling
ical limitations and reduced ability to deal appropriately with gel and use of a radiant heat lamp can help keep the animal warm
the stress of anesthesia, especially for long sessions. during imaging. Some optical imaging devices include warmed
imaging platforms, but often are not equipped to accommodate
monitoring devices. Fortunately, optical imaging is rapid and
animals need only be anesthetized for short periods of time.
IV. IMAGING-SPECIFIC CONSIDERATIONS
The need for heating of animals during the anesthesia recov-
ery period cannot be stressed enough, particularly for those
The unique environment of each imaging modality creates a animals recovering from prolonged imaging sessions. Rembert
variety of conditions that must be considered when planning an et al. (2004) suggested that forced-air warming devices pro-
anesthetic protocol for in vivo imaging. As previously stated, the vide the most effective microenvironment for thermal support
authors consider inhalational anesthesia to be the safest method of anesthetized rodents and these devices can be manipulated
of general anesthesia for small laboratory animals during any or modified to be compatible with the imaging equipment.
imaging procedure regardless of the acquisition time. In addi- MRI and CT scanners are expensive devices regardless of
tion to the rapid induction and recovery, these agents can be whether they are clinical or preclinical instruments. Other types
rapidly and remotely adjusted, are not significantly metabolized, of in vivo scanners such as ultrasound, PET, or optical imagers
are safe for repeated use, and generally have the least adverse may also be difficult to procure with a small facility’s budget.
effects on physiological homeostasis when used appropriately. Therefore, it is common for investigators to use clinical scanners
Precision equipment is needed to properly administer inhala- during the non-patient hours for their imaging studies. Fur-
tional anesthetics, and a certain amount of ingenuity is often thermore, even dedicated preclinical scanners may be located
needed to tailor the equipment to each imaging situation. remotely within a core facility, distant from the vivarium. Thus,
The magnetic forces of MRI require that any equipment used in order to perform the study, remote scanner locations may
in or around the magnet should be nonferrous and MRI compati- require discretionary animal transportation over some distance
ble. One must ensure that any physiological monitoring devices through non-animal research areas. Depending on the resources
used during an MRI procedure function in the MRI environ- available at the imaging site, it may be necessary to sedate
ment. Additionally, some monitoring accessories (e.g., ECG or anesthetize the animal prior to transportation. This could
leads), although nonferrous and MRI-compatible, may create greatly prolong the animal’s entire anesthesia time, so careful
artifact in the final image. Despite this, it is important to utilize thought and planning must occur to avoid anesthetic complica-
as many monitoring devices as possible to ensure the well-being tions during transportation or imaging. As with any procedure,
of the animal, but monitoring must be balanced with the imaging maintaining the animal’s body temperature is critical and must
protocol as well. It is particularly important to monitor animals be considered. Following is an example of one type of imag-
while in the MR imager because the animal is often imaged ing anesthesia protocol that includes transportation: a NHP is
at a distance from the anesthetist, and may not be visible or sedated in its home facility with an intramuscular injection
accessible during the procedure. of a ketamine and medetomidine. Once appropriately relaxed,
MicroCT and μPET are similar in that the procedures may be the animal is intubated and IV access achieved if needed. The
relatively short (less than 1 hour) and, depending on the equip- animal remains sedated with additional ketamine if necessary
ment, the animal may be visible for inspection during imaging. during transportation in an appropriate institutionally approved
Although visible, animals will not be accessible without inter- container with supplemental heat. Upon arrival at the imaging
rupting the image acquisition. As with MRI, it is important center, anesthesia can be maintained with an inhalational agent
to maintain the animals’ homeostasis as much as possible, but such as isoflurane to enable preparation and imaging. Upon
again, some monitoring devices are problematic within the completion of the imaging study, the inhalational agent would
imaging device. Circulating water blankets and disposable hand be discontinued and before recovery the NHP would receive
warmers severely impair μCT images, but warming the inspired another injection of the ketamine and medetomidine cocktail
air close to the animal helps maintain its body temperature for the return transportation.
along with proper insulation during imaging (e.g., bubble or
plastic wrap). ECG leads may cause image artifacts, while
the respiratory balloon may cause tissue and organ distortion
V. ANESTHESIA
if inappropriately placed under the animal.
To facilitate optimal results during ultrasound or optical imag-
ing, it is usually necessary to remove the animal’s fur from the Selection of the anesthetic technique needs to balance the
area of interest with depilatory creams. Fur is an important fac- necessary requirements such as lack of motion, respiratory or
tor in maintaining an animal’s core body temperature, and its cardiac gating, and minimal perturbation of normal physiology
30. ANESTHETIC CONSIDERATIONS FOR IN VIVO IMAGING STUDIES 637

against the ease of application, cost of associated equipment, time they are considerably more expensive than either isoflu-
and convenience. rane or halothane, and neither provide considerably more utility
in rodents than the older agents.
Gaseous anesthesia is generally administered via a nonre-
A. Injectable Anesthesia
breathing system, most often a variant on a Bain circuit with an
outer expiratory “limb” and an inner fresh gas delivery mecha-
A variety of drugs are available for use as injectable anes-
nism. These are most appropriate for rodents due to their very
thetic agents in small laboratory animals. For details of drug
small tidal volumes, which are no match for the one-way valves
pharmacology and small animal anesthesia, the reader should
of standard rebreathing systems. Implicit in the successful use
refer to the appropriate chapters of this book. Choice of an
of such systems is the inclusion of a precision vaporizer for
injectable technique will depend in part on the imaging tech-
controlled anesthetic delivery.
nique to be used and the likely duration of anesthesia necessary
In conclusion, although there are many possible approaches
to acquire the appropriate images. One major goal for acquir-
to anesthetize small laboratory rodents for in vivo imaging stud-
ing diagnostic images is to keep animals still for the duration
ies, the authors consider inhalational anesthesia, especially with
of image/data acquisition, with minimal perturbation of their
isoflurane, to be the safest and most reliable method. Isoflurane
physiology. With genetically altered animals, or those being
minimizes physiologic and metabolic disturbances compared
imaged postoperatively, consideration must be given to the pos-
with injectable anesthetic drugs and combinations. The effect
sible increased response of these animals to the known side
of isoflurane is titratable, an important consideration for lengthy
effects of anesthetics.
procedures during which access to the animal may be extremely
Drugs most commonly used by injection for imaging studies
limited. As stated in the beginning of the chapter, genetically
include TBE, ketamine and xylazine mixtures with or with-
manipulated rodents are increasingly being used in research.
out acepromazine, ketamine and medetomidine mixtures, and
In many instances, these animals are studied through appli-
pentobarbital. Many other injectable agents are available (e.g.,
cation of new imaging techniques. Given the difficulties of
propofol, alpha-chloralose), but the anesthetist should have
vascular access and the increased physiological impacts of many
experience and familiarity with the method chosen for an imag-
injectable drugs, inhalational anesthesia is most frequently the
ing protocol. One should consider the time needed for image
preferred method to anesthetize these small species. For larger
acquisition and recovery. Additionally, the access restrictions
species, such as NHP, swine, and dogs, injectable techniques are
often associated with common imaging modalities may prohibit
generally more feasible, however the same caveats apply; access
the use of injectable anesthetics if the procedure is expected to
to the anesthetized animal is limited and the metabolic effects
take longer than 15–20 minutes. Due to the difficulties of vascu-
of some drugs may affect the imaging outcome. Despite this,
lar access in mice and rats, these drugs are most often delivered
use of injectable anesthetics may be unavoidable when dealing
via IP or subcutaneous injection. It is usually impractical to
with some species, e.g., NHP and swine. In these situations,
administer a repeat IP injection during an imaging procedure.
the reader is advised to consider the reason for imaging the
Vascular access is most commonly achieved by catheterization
animals by consultation with the researcher to ensure minimal
of a tail vein, generally in anesthetized animals, although access
influence on the study. Inhalant anesthesia overall provides the
for a single injection is possible in both conscious rats and mice.
simplest and safest method and allows for ready and swift con-
In either case, this requires a skilled operator for success.
trol of anesthetic depth. Multiple physiological systems should
be monitored (as many as the experiment will allow) to enable
B. Inhalational Anesthesia the anesthetist to maintain the animal in a stable anesthetic depth
with minimal perturbation of normal physiology. A major com-
Animals undergoing longer studies using μCT, ultrasound, ponent of maintaining stable physiology is limiting the degree of
PET, MRI, or SPECT are best anesthetized by inhalational hypothermia that can develop very rapidly in anesthetized small
techniques, in order to reduce the accumulation of princi- animals. Most of the considerations discussed above pertain to
pal drug or metabolites that occur with redosing of injectable many of the newer imaging modalities available for the labo-
agents. Inhalational anesthetics allow for rapid and remote ratory animal; and many studies require prolonged anesthesia
adjustments to maintain the animal in an adequate plane of while restricting subject access during image acquisition.
anesthesia. Similarly, for very short procedures lasting only a
few minutes, inhalational anesthesia is often the most suitable
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Index

A mechanism of action, 116 rabbits, 315

pharmacokinetics and metabolism, 117 rodents, 266
Abalones, 536
rodents, 274–275 Althesin, 43
Abdominal constriction test, 553
side effects, 116–117 Alveolar dead space, 142
Aβ fibers, 6
therapeutic activities, 116–117 ALZET® osmotic pumps, 232
Absorber systems, 134–135 Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 197 American Veterinary Medical Association
Acclimation, 620 Adynamic ileus, 36 (AVMA), 562
Acepromazine, 54, 55, 393–394 Age differences, 556 euthanasia, 571
cats, 370–371, 380 Agonist–antagonist, 114 Aminoamides, 61
dogs, 380 Air sacs, in birds, 484 Aminoesters, 61
for ferrets, 445 Air sampling 4-aminopyridine, rodents, 264
rabbits, 301, 305 continuous. See Infrared Amitriptyline, for chronic pain, 586
rodents, 263 spectrophotometry. AMPA receptors, 9
Acetaminophen, 105 instantaneous, 189 Amphibians
primates, 358 Airway anatomical considerations of, 512
rabbits, 326 access and control equipment for, 159–167 anesthetic induction in, 516
rodents, 272 assessment at perioperative period, 228 anesthetic techniques, 513–514
Acetic acid derivatives, 105–106 obstruction, 380 field anesthesia, 517
Acid-sensing ion channels (ASIC), 6 Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), plasma, immersion anesthesia, 514–515
Acoustic signals detection, 220 418, 419 injectable anesthesia, 516
ACTH. See Adrenocorticotropic hormone Alkanones, 108 larval anesthesia, 517
(ACTH) Allometric scaling, 29 volatile anesthesia, 515
Activated clotting time (ACT), 428 Allopregnanolone, 596 body temperature of, 511
Active scavenging, 140 Alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonists, 50–54 morphine in, 517
Activity-dependent glial model, 12–13 for foetuses, 599 mucous glands in, 512
Activity-dependent neuronal model, 12, 13 Alpha-agonists, 228 pain management in, 517
Acupuncture, 626–627 Alpha-2 agonists physical restraint and handling of, 514
Acute pain, 4, 200 in fish, 529 preanesthesia in, 516
Adaptors, endotracheal tube, 164 for ruminants, 390–393, 407–408 preanesthetic evaluation and preparation
Adenosine, 46, 595 Alpha chloralose, 36–37 of, 513
Aδ fibers, 6 with ketamine, 66 recovery from anesthesia, 516–517
Adjustable pressure-limiting valve, 135 rabbits, 311 routes of drug administration, 514
Adrenal steroidogenesis, inhibition by rodents, 265 skin of, 512
imidazoles, 38 in swines, 422 tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) in,
α2-adrenergic agonists, 115–117, 305, 326. Alphadolone, 43–44. See also 514
See also Alphaxalone-alphadolone Anabolic Steroids Control Act of 1990, 575
Medetomidine; Xylazine Alphaxalone, 43–44. See also Anaesthetics, 598
administration routes and preparations, Alphaxalone-alphadolone Analgesia. See also Analgesics
117 Alphaxalone-alphadolone cats, 377–380
antagonists, 118 in fish, 529–530 definition, 28
history of, 115 primates, 345 dogs, 377–380
642 INDEX

Analgesia. See also Analgesics (Contd.) hydration and metabolic status, Anticoagulation, 428
primates, 358–359 634–635 Anti-inflammatory drugs, 99–109
rabbits, 324–327 ventilation, 633–634 classes of, 99
rodents, 264–265 for CPB in swines, 430–431 history of, 100
for ruminants doses used for birds, 482 mechanism of action, 100–102
alpha2 agonists, 407–408 injectable, 158–159 side effects of, 102–103
ketamine, 408 machines, 145–151, 187 therapeutic activities of, 102–103
lidocaine, 408 components, 130–141 Antinociception
NSAID, 408 monitoring in ferrets, 452–453 descending, 8
opioids, 408 protocol for imaging, 636 role of alpha2-autoreceptors, 51
Analgesic–antipyretic drugs, 99–109 of reptiles, 507 serotonin and norepinephrine role in, 9
classes of, 99 for ruminants, 398 APFR. See Arterial pump flow rates (APFR)
history of, 100 alpha2 agonists, 390–393 Arachnids, 539–540
mechanism of action, 100–102 benzodiazepines, 394 Arbitrary words, meanings of, 211
side effects of, 102–103 opioids, 394–395 Armadillos, 471–472
therapeutic activities of, 102–103 pentobarbital, 395 Arrhythmias
Analgesics, 598, 619 phenothiazine, 393–394 in birds, 494
in amphibians, 517 safety issues, 576 cats, 374
anorexia, 231 selection, 444 dogs, 374
buprenorphine, 610 used for fish, 523–531 in ferrets, 449
delivery of, 611 Anesthetized ruminant monitoring primates, 340, 350
dosages for ferrets, 453 anesthetic agent concentration, 407 in swines, 424
body temperature, 407 Arterial blood pressure
in fish, 531
cardiovascular function, 406 in cardiovascular system monitoring, 176
for hedgehogs (insectivores), 462
depth of anesthesia, 405–406 of ferrets, 452
in invertebrates, 542
fluid administration, 407 Arterial pump flow rates (APFR), 428
liposomal formulations of, 613–614
respiratory function, 406 Arthritis
loaded into pellets, 612–613
ventilation support, 407 adjuvant-induced, 554
NSAID, 610
Animal and Plant Inspection Service effect on ketoprofen metabolism, 107
opioid, 197, 199, 609
(APHIS) Ascending bellows. See Standing bellows
post-operative, 198
Administrator, 566 Aspercreme, 614
for prairie dogs, 469
Animal care programs Asphyxia, 533
in reptiles, 508
experimental animal model, 224 Aspirin
for small marsupials, 461 postprocedural planning, 224–225 rabbits, 326
used in swines, 423 scheduling, 226 rodents, 272
Analgesiometric assays, 98 training requirements, 225 routes of administration, 104
Analgesiometry, 212 Animal killing, 565–566 Atipamezole, 53, 54
rabbits, 324 Animal Welfare Act, 224, 570–571 cats, 371
Anatomic dead space, 142 Animal Welfare Information Center dogs, 371
Anesthesia (AWIC), 563 primates, 343
for husbandry procedures, 404–405 Animal welfare regulations ATP-gated ion channels, 6
machines, 145–151 in Canada, 577 Atracurium, 267
human, 148–150 in Europe, 577–578 in birds, 495
maintenance and testing, 150–151 European Economic Communities, 578 AtrE. See Atropinesterase (AtrE)
rodent, 146–147 United Kingdom, 577–578 Atropine
used, 150 in other parts of the world, 578–579 cats, 371
monitoring of, 171–181 in US, 570–577 dogs, 372
on saliva secretion, 386 Annelids, 538–539 primates, 339
workstations, 148–150 Anorexia, by analgesics, 231 rodents, 257, 266
Anesthetics, 171, 172–174, 387 Antiarrhythmogenic drugs, 228 Atropinesterase (AtrE), 301
administration in ferrets, 444 Antibiotics, 231 Auricular vein, of ruminants, 390
of amphibians, 516 rabbits, 306 Australian giant crab, 540–541
in arachnida, 540 rodents, 249 Autoclaves, 220
assessment for swines, 424 Anticholinergic agents Avertin, 42, 260–261
combinations, 64–67 cats, 371–372 Avinza, 612
considerations for animals during dogs, 371–372 Azaperone, 55–56
imaging in swines, 420 in fish, 530
cardiovascular function, 634 used in ferrets, 447 used in swines, 419
INDEX 643

B atracurium in, 495 in primates, 351

breathing circuits in, 493 in respiratory system monitoring, 178
Bain adaptor, 144–145
cardiac arrhythmias, 494 glucose
Balanced anesthesia
cardiovascular system of, 488–489 during anaesthesia, 604
cats, 369
control of respiratory system in, 488 ketamine effects on, 49
dogs, 369
euthanasia of, 496 urethane effects on, 58
primates, 350, 356
fasting of, 489–490 renal, 602
Baralyme, 92
fresh gas flows in, 493 transfusion, 229
Barbiturates, 28
gas exchange in, 486–488 Blood/gas partition coefficient, 88
in amphibians, 516
halothane in, 494 Blood pH, monitoring, 228
antagonists, 35
inhalational anesthetics in, 493 Blood pressure, 602
cats, 372
MAC for, 494 monitoring, 229
dogs, 372
injectable anesthetics in, 490–493 Blood work, 444
in fish, 530
diazepam, 491 Body Temperature, during anaesthesia,
as GABA agonists, 29, 30–35
equithesin, 492 603–604
pharmacologic effects of, 34–35
injection sites for, 490 Body weight, pain and, 208
primates, 346
kappa opioids, 493 Boiling point, 88
rabbits, 310–312
ketamine, 491 Bone tumor pain, treatment, 210
rodents, 259
local anesthetics, 492 Brain
used in swines, 421
medetomidine, 491 foetal, 595, 596
Bedding, 221
midazolam, 491 sensitivity to propofol, 39
Behavioral assessment approaches, 207
NSAID, 493 Brainstem, projection from spinal cord to,
Bellows ventilators, 152–153
pharmacologic considerations for, 490 6–7
Benzocaine
phenobarbital, 492 Breathing circuits, 141–145
in amphibians, 515
propofol, 491–492 in birds, 493
in fish, 526–527
xylazine, 491 Breathing system manometer, 136
immersion in fish, 63
isoflurane in, 394–395 Breathing valves, 135
Benzodiazepines, 44–47
methods for inducing anesthesia in, Bretyllium, 424
antagonists, 47
493–494 Bronchus, in birds, 484
biodisposition, 45
monitoring during anesthesia, 495–496 tertiary, 486
cats, 371
muscle paralytics in, 495 Bupivacaine
diazepam, 394
nitrous oxide in, 494–495 cats, 379, 381
dogs, 371
pain in, 492–493 dogs, 379, 381
GABA agonists, 29
physical examination before anesthesia, in reptiles, 506
immune system effects, 46–47
489 Buprenorphine, 114–115
midazolam, 394
physical restraint and handling of, 489 cats, 378
pharmacologic effects, 45–46
recovery of, 496 dogs, 378
primates, 343
sevoflurane, 494 in ferrets, 447
used in swines, 419
ventilation components of, 483–486 primates, 359
zolazepam, 394
air sacs, 484 for reducing tumor metastasis, 198
Bettongia gaimardi, 459
and anesthetic considerations, 485–486 rodents, 264
Biodisposition
bronchus, 484 used in swines, 423
benzodiazepine derivatives, 45
larynx, 483 Burrowing, 221
chloral hydrate, 35–36
syrinx, 484 Butorphanol, 114. See also Opioids
chloralose, 36
trachea, 483–484 in amphibians, 517
detomidine, 53
cats, 378
eugenol, 59 Bivalves, 538
dogs, 378
local anesthetics, 61–62 Black box warning, 55
doses for ferrets, 447
medetomidine, 52–53 Blades, laryngoscope, 159–160
for fish, 531
metomidate and etomidate, 37–38 Blind intubation, 160
primates, 359
propofol, 39–40 Blood
sedative combination used in ferrets,
steroids, 44 collection
447–448
tribromoethanol (TBE), 42 of armadillos, 472
Butyrophenones, 54, 55–56
urethane, 56–57 of bats, 473
used in swines, 419–420
xylazine, 52 of insectivores, 462
BioLITE system, 161–162 gases
C
Bioluminescence, 631 ketamine effects on, 49
BioTex machine, 157, 158 monitoring, 228 Caenorhabditis elegans, 541
Birds pentobarbital effects on, 33 Cage card tags, 227, 231
644 INDEX

Cage enrichments, for rodents, 221 in primates, female, 352 of spotted hyena, 474–475
Calcium channel blockers, for chronic pain, vascular to woodchuck, 468
585–586 primates, 338 Chemotherapeutic neuropathic pain models,
Caloric requirements, 231 Catheters, 616 555–556
Canada, 577 butterfly, 231, 232 Chinchillas, 469–470
Cancer, and occupational exposure to WAG, indwelling, 230 Chiroptera. See Bats
186–187 placement in ferrets, 444 Chloral hydrate, 35–36
Cancer-associated chronic pain, 16 Cats recommendation for fish, 528
Capillary refill time (CRT) alphaxalone/alphadolone for, 44 rodents, 266
in cardiovascular system monitoring, 175 analgesia, 377–380 in scallops, 538
of ferrets, 452 anesthetic agents Chloralose, 36–37
Capnography, in respiratory system acepromazine, 370–371, 380 with lipopolysaccharide (LPS)
monitoring, 178 antagonists of, 371 administration, 66
Carbon dioxide barbiturates, 372 Chloramphenicol, 30
rodents, 256 inhalants, 374 Chlorbutanol
used in fish, 528, 532 ketamine, 380 to anesthetize amphibians, 515
Cardiac anesthetic index, 91 propofol, 372 recommendation for fish, 515
Cardiac output, in cardiovascular system Telazol, 373 Chlorpromazine, in rabbits, 305
monitoring, 176–177 anesthetic management Choi double-angle blade, 159
Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB), 426–431 cesarean section, 382 Chronic inflammatory pain, 16
anesthesia for, 430–431 injection methods, 368 Chronic pain, 4, 200
for malignant hyperthermia (MH) free monitoring, 375–376 characterization of, 581–582
swines, 430 premedication, 371, 377 definition of, 581–582
for malignant hyperthermia (MH) “Ceiling effect,” 29, 98 diagnosis of, 583–585
positive swines, Celecoxib, 109 impact on research, 582–583
430–431 Central nervous system (CNS), 179–180 pathophysiology of, 14–16
and anticoagulation, 428 toxicity with local anesthetics, 62 prevalence of, 582
APFR in swines, 428 Central sensitization, 12–14 treatment of, 585–588
and CVP in normothermic-anesthetized Central supply connections, 131, 132 Circadian effects, 556–557
swine, 429 Central venous pressure (CVP), 429 Circle systems, 142–143
description of, 427 in cardiovascular system monitoring, Climazolam, 46
Left atrial pressure measurement, 429 176 Clinical pain, 4
myocardial protection of swines during, in primates, 351 Clips, for skin closure, 231
428 Cephalic vein, 415 Clonidine, 117
PCWP measurement, 429 Cephalopods, 537 Closed interface scavenging systems, 140,
physiological parameters in, 428–429 Cesarean section 141
priming solutions for procine, 427 cats, 382 Clove oil
termination of, 429–430 dogs, 382 in abalones, 536
Cardiovascular effects C fibers, 6 in amphibians, 515
from pain, 11 C-fos gene expressions, 213 CMS. See Composite measurement scale
from urethane, 57–58 Chamber anesthesia (CMS)
Cardiovascular system carbon dioxide, rodents, 256 CNS. See Central nervous system (CNS)
in birds, 488–489 cats, 373 Codeine, 112–113, 611
monitoring, 174–177 dogs, 373 Cold stimuli, 552
toxicity with local anesthetics, 62 Charcoal filters, 189 Cole endotracheal tubes, 163
Carnivora, 473–475 Chemical assays, 553–554 Collagen synthesis, inhibition by local
grizzly/brown bear, 473–474 Chemical restraint anesthetics, 63
spotted hyena, 474–475 of armadillos, 472 Collars, Elizabethan, 222, 323
Carprofen, 106–107 of bats, 473 Colloidal solutions, 230
in rabbits, 326 to chinchillas, 470 Common gas outlet, 134
Casting harness, 389 of gray mouse lemur, 475 Compac5, 147, 148
Castration, of ruminants, 405 grizzly bear, 474 Composite measurement scale (CMS), 211
Catecholamines, 228 to ground squirrels, 467 Compressed gases, delivery of, 128–130
Catheterization of insectivores, 462 Conduction block, 61
cats, 367 of lagamorpha, 471 ς-conotoxins, synthetic, 15
dogs, 367 of marsupials, 459 Controlled Substances Act, Title 21 CFR,
rabbits, 306–307 prairie dogs, 468 573–575
urinary of rodents, 466 Conventional endotracheal tubes, 162–164
INDEX 645

Conventional laryngoscopes, 159–160 Deracoxib, 109 Dopamine, interoperative, in primates, 353

Cortex, projection from thalamus to, 7–8 Descending bellows. See Hanging bellows Dopaminergic receptor antagonists, 54–56
Corticosteroids Descriptive ethics, 562 Doppler ultrasound probe
in rabbits, 326 Desflurane, 92 of birds, 496
for treatment of chronic pain, 587 boiling point, 88 of ferrets, 452
Corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF), 197 and plasma fluoride concentration, 419 of reptiles, 508
COX enzyme, 100 rabbits, 309 Dorsal horn projection neurons (DHPN),
inhibitors, 109 rodents, 255 6–7
relative selectivity of inhibitors of, 101, in swines, 418–419 Dosimeters, 189
102 vaporizer, 139 Dräger Vapor 19.1 Vaporizer, 138
role in pain perception in CNS, 100, 103 Detomidine, 53, 116, 117 Drawers, 223
CPB. See Cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) rabbits, 305 Droperidol, 55
Craniotomy pain, 202 Dexmedetomidine, subcutaneous dose of, Drug abuse regulations and issues, 576–577
Crayfish, 540 116 Drug administration
Cremophor, 39 Diabetic models, 230 intramuscularly, 390
Cremophor EL, 316 Diazepam, 45, 46, 394 intravenously, 390
CRF. See Corticotropin-releasing factor in birds, 491 Drug deliverry, intraperitoneal, 233
(CRF) cats, 371 Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA),
Crocuta crocuta, 474–475 dogs, 371 573–575
Crustaceans, 540–541 in ferrets, 445 Drug enforcement regulations and policies,
Cryptotis parva, 461 in fish, 530 573–576
Cuffed endotracheal tubes, 162, 163 with ketamine, 66 Drug Schedules (Title 21 CFR Appendix),
Curved laryngoscope blades, 159, 160 primates, 343 575
CVP. See Central venous pressure (CVP) rabbits, 305 Drug selection, 602–603
CWE SAR-830/P ventilator, 154, 155 rodents, 263 Dual circuit, 152
Cyanosis, 177 in swines, 419 Dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, 630
Cyclohexamines, 47–50 Diclofenac, 106 Dysesthesias, 200
biodisposition, 48 Didelphis virginiana, 458
pharmacologic effects, 48–50 Diethyl ether, recommendation for fish, 528 E
Cylinders, 128–130 Diflunisal, 104 ECG (electrocardiogram) monitors and
identification and markings, 129 Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), for defibrillators, 223
safety precautions, 130 veterinary use, 614 Echinoderms, 542
Cynomus ludovicianus, 467–468 Dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine (DPPC), Echocardiography, 631
613 Education
D Dipodomys, 463 as strategy to control pain, 620
Dam, 598 Disbudding, of ruminants, 404–405 for WAG-exposed personnels, 191
Dantrolene Discharge tubing, 189 EEG. See Electroencephalogram (EEG)
for prevention of malignant hyperthermia Dispomed Optimax Elite, 148, 149 Electrical silence, 596
(MH), 426 “Dissociative,” 47 Electroanalgesia, 625–626
Darts, for injection Dissociative agents, in swines, 420–421 Electroanesthesia, of fish, 531–532
primates, 338 Distress, 565 Electrocardiography (ECG)
Datex Capnomac PB254B infrared reporting in USDA Categories, 564–565 of birds, 489, 496
analyzer, 93 Dogs in cardiovascular system monitoring,
DEA. See Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) analgesia, 377–380 175–176
Dead space, 142 anesthetic agents of ferrets, 452
DEA Form 41, 575 acepromazine, 370–371, 380 of fish, 523
DEA Form 106, 575 antagonists of, 371 of reptiles, 508
DEA Form 222, 575 barbiturates, 372 of swines, 424
DEA Form 224, 574 inhalants, 374 Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Decapitation, of fish, 532–533 ketamine, 380 activity, 595, 596
Dehorning, of ruminants, 404–405 propofol, 372 foetal, 595, 596
Department of Health and Human Services Telazol, 373 Electroencephalographic activity, 595
(DHHS), 574 anesthetic management Electronic flow control, 133–134
Depth of anesthesia, 171, 172–174 cesarean section, 382 EMLA. See Eutectic mixture of local
cats, 375 injection methods, 368 anesthetics
dogs, 375 monitoring, 375–376 (EMLA)
primates, 352 premedication, 371, 377 EMTU. See Ethyl-malonyl-thiourea
rodents, 252 pentobarbital effects, 33 (EMTU)
646 INDEX

Endotracheal intubation European Economic Communities (EEC), dissociative injectable combinations,

in ferrets, 444–445 578 448–449
in reptiles, 505 Eutectic mixture of local anesthetics medetomidine, 446–447
in ruminants, 398 (EMLA), 63 midazolam, 445–446
in swines, 416–417 cream, 265 neuroleptic sedative combinations,
Endotracheal tubes, 162–166 Euthanasia, 372 447–448
cats, 368–369 of birds, 496 neuromuscular blocking agents, 449
dogs, 368–369 of fish, 532–533 opioids, 447
rodent, 166 of invertebrates, 542–543 xylazine, 446–447
rodents, 250 Exchangers, endotracheal tube, 166–167 preanesthetic considerations for, 444
End-tidal anesthetic concentration, in Excitatory neurotransmitters, 9 prolonged anesthesia in, 454
respiratory system Experimental animal model, 224 propofol in, 450
monitoring, 178–179 Expiratory phase time, 151 telazol combinations in, 449–450
End-tidal CO2 (ETCO2 ) External jugular veins, 415 ventilation efficiency of anesthetized, 452
and malignant hyperthermia (MH), 425 Fetus, in primates, 356
measurement in ferrets, 452 FHCs. See Fluorinated hydrocarbons (FHCs)
Enflurane, 92 F Field block, 61
rodents, 255 Firocoxib, 109
Face masks, 156–158, 187 Fish
Environmental enrichment, 621
Facilitation, 8 analgesic agents for, 531
Epidural anaesthesia, 600
Fasting anesthetic agents for, 523–531
Epidural analgesia, 600
birds, 489–490 immersion agents, 523–529
cats, 378, 379
primates, 337 injectable agents, 529–531
dogs, 378, 379
rabbits, 301 electroanesthesia of, 531–532
Epidural anesthesia, in ruminants, 401–402 rodents, 249 euthanasia of, 532–533
Epidural injections, in ruminants, 402 Feeding behavior, pain and, 208 evaluation of pain in, 520
Epiglottis, 416 Female gender, pain thresholds in, 5 handling of, 521
Epinephrine, with local anesthetics, 61–62 Fenamates, 106 hypothermia in, 531
Equithesin Fentanyl, 113, 612 injection sites in, 522
in birds, 492 cats, 375 local anesthetic immersion in, 63
in rabbits, 305, 311 dogs, 375 metomidate effects in, 37
ESOX implantable pump, 232 in ferrets, 447 monitoring fish during anesthesia,
E Tanks, 128–129 for opioid infusion in swine, 421–422 522–523
Ether, 86 primates, 346–347, 356 NSAID in, 531
as inhaled anesthetic, 90–91 rodents, 261 opioids in, 531
rodents, 266 Fentanyl citrate, for rodents, 263–264 physical restraint of, 520–521
Ethical issues, 561–567 Fentanyl-droperidol, in swines, 422 principles of anesthesia in, 521–522
and distress, 565 Fentanyl-fluanisone, 64 regional anesthesia in, 531
reporting in USDA Categories, 564–565 Fermentation, in rumen, 387 routes of drug administration, 521–522
and IACUC veterinarians role, 567 Ferrets stages of anesthesia in, 522
and killing animals, 565–566 administration of anesthetic agents in, 444 Flexible fiberoptic laryngoscopes, 160
and ratio of pain with number of animals, cardiac arrhythmias in, 449 “Floppy infant syndrome,” 46
566–567 catheter placement in, 444 Flotec oxygen flowmeter, 133
and reporting pain in USDA Categories, endotracheal intubation in, 444–445 Flowmeters, 132–134
564–565 fasting before anesthesia, 489–490 Flow Restrictors, 133
standard of care, 567 inhalational anesthetics in, 450–452 rodent anesthesia machines, 147
Tannenbaum’s classification of, 562–564 injectable anesthetics in, 449–450 Fluanisone, 56
and withholding pain management, 564 ketamine combinations in, 448–449 Fluid therapy
Ethyl-malonyl-thiourea (EMTU), 311–312 LRS in dehydrated, 444 cats, 378–379
Etodolac, 106 monitoring methods used for anesthesia dogs, 378–379
Etomidate, 37–38 in, 452–453 in marsupials, 459
cats, 372–373 neonatal anesthesia, 454 Flumazenil, 47
dogs, 372–373 NSAID used for, 454 Flunixin, 107–108
primates, 347 pain management in, 453–454 meglumine, 108
used as sedative in swines, 422 physical restraint to, 444 rodents, 274
Eugenol, 59–60 preanesthesia in, 445–449 Fluorescence, 631
in fish, 526 acepromazine, 445 Fluorescent lights, and ICUs, 220
Europe, 577–578 diazepam, 445 Fluorinated hydrocarbons (FHCs), 189
INDEX 647

Fluovac Gas Scavenger, 157, 158 primates, 340 Histopathology effects, of local anesthetics,
Flush valve, oxygen, 134 rabbits, 301 63–64
Foetal anaesthesia, 594, 600 Gray mouse lemur, 475 Horseshoe crab, 540
Foetal analgesia, 594, 600 Grizzly/brown bear, 473–474 Hot-plate test, 551–552
Foetal brain, 595, 596 Guinea pigs Housing, single and group, 221
Foetal consciousness, 594, 596 analgesic therapy, 280 HPA. See Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
Foetal hypoxia, 600 anatomical features, 279 (HPA)
Foetal prostaglandin synthesis, 600 anesthetic agents, 280 HPA axis hormones, 213
Foetal stress responses, 597, 600 depth of anesthesia, 280 HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis,
Foetal synaptic circuits, 595 species, 279 activation of, 212
Foetus Human anesthesia equipment, 130, 148–150
alpha2 adrenoreceptor agonists for, 599 Humidity levels, for animals, 621
human, 594, 595 Humphrey valve, 144
inhalational agents for, 599 H Husbandry staff, role of, 204
ketamine for, 599 Hallowell EMCAnesthesiaWorkstation, 153 HVAC (heating, ventilation, and
mammalian, 595 Hallowell MicroVent1, 155 air-conditioning) system, 188
NSAID for, 600 Hallowell RodentWorkStand, 161 Hydration, 229
opioids for, 600 Halogenated agents, hepatocellular injury Hydromorphone, 609, 611, 612, 614
propofol for, 599 caused by, 186 in ferrets, 447
thiopental for, 599 Halothane, 91, 599 Hydromorphone hydrochloride, 611
unconsciousness in, 596 in birds, 494 5-hydroxy-tryptamine (5-HT), 9
Formalin immersion, of live fish, 533 cats, 374 Hypercapnoea, 596
Formalin test, 553 dogs, 374 Hypertension, 353
Fresh gas flows, in birds, 493 versus isoflurane, 418 Hypnodil, 37
primates, 349 Hypnorm. See also Fentanyl-fluanisone
G rabbits, 318 rabbits, 314
recommendation for fish, 528–529 rodent, 261
Gallamine, 267
in reptiles, 506 Hypnosis, in rabbits, 320
Gallamine triethiodide, in fish, 530–531
rodents, 253 Hypoglycemia, 367
Gamma-amino-butyric acid (GABA), 9
Hamsters, 280–281 primates, 357
agonists, 29–47
Handling Hypotension, 229, 350
mechanism of action, 29–30
of amphibians, 514 intraoperative, with isoflurane, 354
Gas chromatography, 94
of birds, 489 Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis,
Gaseous anesthetic
of fish, 521 10, 583, 597
from vaporization of liquid anesthetic,
of reptiles, 503 Hypothermia, 227
85–86
Hanging bellows, 152, 153 cats, 376
Gas exchange, in birds, 486–488
Harvard Apparatus 683 Small Animal in cephalopods, 537
Gas supply pressure gauges, 132
Ventilator, 154 dogs, 377
Gastropods, 536–537
Hay nets, 222 in fish, 531
Gating
Health Research Extension Act of 1985, 571 neonatal rodents, 278
cardiac, 633
Heart rate primates, 352, 357
respiratory, 633
in cardiovascular system monitoring, 175 Hypovolemia, 382
General anesthesia, defined, 86
pentobarbital, 33 Hypoxemia, 368, 596
Genetically engineered rodents, 225
Geomys, 463 variability, 212
I
Gerbils, 281 Heating, of animals
Glial activation, chronic pain, 14 cats, 376 IASP. See International Association for the
Glial model, activity-dependent, 12–13 dogs, 376 Study
Glottis rabbits, 322 of Pain (IASP)
of amphibians, 512 rodents, 279 Iatrogenic burns, 231
of reptiles, 502 Heat lamps, 228 Iatrogenic injury, 621
“Glucose effect,” 31 Hematocrit, effect of urethane, 58 Ibuprofen, 106–107
Glucose transporter, barbiturate inhibition Hemorrhage, postoperative, 376, 377, 380 rodents, 272–273
of, 30–31 Hemostasis, 229 ICUs. See Intensive care units
Glutamate, 9 Hepatitis, halothane, 186 Idazoxan, 53
Glycine, 9 Hepatobiliary System, 602 Imaging modalities
Glycopyrrolate High-frequency ventilation, 155 gating, 632–633
cats, 371 High-molecular-weight solutions, 230 MRI/S, 632
dogs, 371 Hirudineans, 539 optical imaging
648 INDEX

Imaging modalities (Contd.) molecularweight and vapor pressure, chemical restraint of, 462
bioluminescence, 631 85–86 injectable analgesics for, 462
fluorescence, 631 partition coefficients, 88–89 injectable anesthetics for, 462
LDI, 632 vapor pressure, 84–85 manual restraint of, 461–462
SPECT, 632 in ferrets, 450–452 Insects, 541
ultrasound, 631 in insectivores, 462 Inspiratory flow rate and phase, 151
x-ray-based technologies measurement and qualification for Institutional Animal Care and Use
dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, 630 research, 92–94 Committee (IACUC), 199, 449
microcomputed tomography, 630–631 mode of action, 89 and Animal Welfare Act, 570–571
radiography, 630 in rabbits, 348–351 monitoring plans and assessment of
Imidazole, in fish, 525–526 in reptiles, 505–506 animal care program,
Immersion anesthesia for ruminants, 400 225–226
in amphibians, 514–515 in swines, 417–419 role in ethical issues, 567
in fish, 523–529 delivery, 415–417 Institutional policies
best practices agents, 524–526 uptake—distribution—elimination, 89–90 for animal welfare, 573
inappropriate agents, 528 Inhibitory interneuron apoptosis, 15 for drug enforcement, 576
infrequently used agents, 526–528 Inhibitory neurotransmitters, 9 Intensive care units (ICU), and fluorescent
not recommended agents, 528–529 Injectable anesthesia, during imaging, 637 lights, 220
Immune system effects Injectable anesthetics, 28 Interagency Research Animal Committee
of cyclohexamines, 50 in amphibians, 516 (IRAC), 571
of local anesthetics, 64 for armadillos, 472 Intermittent positive pressure ventilation
in birds, 490–49 (IPPV), 152
urethane, 58
cats, 373 International Association for the Study of
Inapsine, 55
delivery systems, 158–159 Pain
Indomethacin, 105–106
dogs, 373 (IASP), 520
Induction boxes, 187
dose, 28–29 definition of pain, 620
Induction chambers, 155–156
duration, 28 Intramuscular injections, 232
Induction of anesthesia
in ferrets, 449–450 cats, 368
in adult ruminants, 397–398
in fish, 529–531 dogs, 368
in small ruminants, 395–397
GABA agonists, 29–47 rodents, 258
Infection, 230–231
for grizzly bears, 474 Intraoperative
Infiltration block, 61 hypotension, in ruminants, 407
in insectivores, 462
Inflamatory mediators, role in peripheral monitoring of reptiles, 508
in marsupials, 460
sensitization, 11 monitoring of swines, 423–424
for nontraditional rodents, 466
Inflammation, 206, 230–231 support to swines, 424–425
chinchillas, 470
Inflammatory models, 554 ground squirrels, 467 Intraperitoneal anesthestics, 307
Infrared spectrophotometry, 190 prairie dogs, 468 Intrapulmonary chemoreceptors (IPC), 488
Infrared spectroscopy, 93 woodchucks, 469 Intravenous anesthesia, in reptiles, 506
Infusion syndrome, propofol, 41 for prosimians, 475 Intravenous fluid therapy, 230
Inhalant anesthesia, 389 in reptiles, 506 Intravenous injection, 598
Inhalants rodents, 256–261 Intubation
cats, 374 for spotted hyena, 474 of adult ruminants, 399–400
dogs, 374 in swines, 419–422 endotracheal, 191, 308–309, 398
rabbits, 317 delivery, 415–417 cats, 368–369
Inhalation, 598 Injection, intramuscular dogs, 368–369
Inhalational agents rabbits, 306 primates, 348–349
for foetuses, 599 Injections rabbits, 305
Inhalational anesthesia, during imaging, 637 intramuscular (IM), 390 equipment for rodents, 160–162
Inhalational anesthetics, 83–84 intravenous (IV), 390 intravenous
agents, 90–92 sites rodents, 250, 251
in arachnids, 539 in Birds, 490 of small ruminants, 398–399
in bats, 473 in fish, 522 Invertebrates
in birds, 493 Innovar Vet analgesia in, 542
characteristics of, 84 rabbits, 314 anesthesia in, 536–542
chemical and physical properties, 84–89 Innovative Research, 232 pain in, 542
boiling point, 88 Inotropes, 353 Ion channel modulators, for chronic pain,
level of biodegradation, 89 Insectivores, 459–461 585–586
molecular stability, 89 blood collection in, 462 Isoflurane, 91–92, 599
INDEX 649

in amphibians, 515, 516 L Local anesthetics, 60–64

in birds, 394–395 biodistribution, 61–62
Laboratory animals, unique challenges of,
cats, 374 mechanism of action, 60–61
180
dogs, 374 pharmacologic effects, 62–63
Laboratory Animal Welfare Act (LAWA),
in ferrets, 451 tissue and histopathology effects, 63–64
562–563
versus halothane, 418 Long-term potentiation, 14
Lactated Ringer’s solution (LRS), 444
primates, 350 Low Dead Space adaptors, 164
Lagamorpha, 470–471
rabbits, 317 Low-flow anesthesia, 192
Large animals
in reptiles, 505–506 LRS. See Lactated Ringer’s solution (LRS)
effect of thermoregulation, 228
rodents, 252–253 Lumbricus terrestris, 539
impact of vocalization on, 222
in snails, 536 Lung myeloperoxidase activity, 34
record keeping, 233
in swines, 417–418 Large tanks, 129
MAC, 417 M
Laryngeal mask airway (LMA), 164–166,
vapour pressure, 84–85 191, 309–310 MAC. See Minimum alveolar concentration
Iso-PADs, 221 Laryngoscopes, 159–162 (MAC)
Larynx, in birds, 483 Macintosh blade, 159
J Laser Doppler imaging (LDI), 632 Magnesium chloride (MgCl2)
LDI. See Laser Doppler imaging (LDI) in cephalopods, 537
Jackson-Rees circuit, 145
Left atrial pressure, 429 in echinoderms, 542
Jaw tone, 173 Lepus americanus, 470 Magnesium sulfate, in abalones, 536
Jet ventilation, 155 Lidocaine Magnetic resonance imaging, 355–356
Jugular vein, of ruminants, 390 in amphibians, 516 Magnetic resonance imaging and
in birds, 492 spectroscopy (MRI/S), 632
K cats, 380 Malignant hyperthermia (MH), in swines,
for chronic pain, 585 425
Kadian, 612
in crayfish, 540–541 CPB anesthesia for, 430–431
Kainate receptors, 9
dogs, 380 dantrolene for, 426
Kapanol, 612
effect on immune system, 64 of isoflurane in snails, 536
Ketamine, 47–50, 118, 389
in fish, 527 recognition of, 425–426
to amphibians, 516
infusions used for cardiac arrhythmias in treatment and management of, 426
antagonists, 50
swines, 424 triggering agents for, 426
Australian giant crab, 540–541 in reptiles, 506 Manometer
biodisposition, 48 for ruminants, 408 breathing system, 136
in birds, 491 Light-emitting diodes, 220 cuff, 162–163
cats, 380 Light levels Manual restraint
combinations with other agents, 65–66 for animals, 621 of armadillos, 472
dissociative injectable combinations in Limulus amebocyte lysate (LAL), 540 of bats, 473
ferrets, 448–449 Limulus polyphemus, 540 of gray mouse lemur, 475
dogs, 380 Linearity, 137 of grizzly bears, 473
in fish, 529 Lipocortins, response to stress, 197 of insectivores, 461–462
for foetuses, 599 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration of lagamorpha, 471
pharmacologic effects of, 48–50 with chloralose, 66 of marsupials, 459
primates, 340 effects of, 34 of nontraditional rodents, 466
rabbits, 312–313 Liposomal formulations chinchillas, 469–470
in reptiles, 506 of analgesic drugs, 613–614 ground squirrels, 467
rodents, 257 of hydromorphone, 613 prairie dogs, 468
for ruminants, 408 of oxymorphone, 613 woodchuck, 468
used in swines, 420–421 Liposomes, 613 of spotted hyena, 474
Ketamine-alpha-chloralose mixtures, 66 Liquid anesthetic, vaporization to gaseous Mapleson circuits, 143–145
Ketamine-diazepam mixtures, 66 anesthetic, 85–86 Marmota monax, 468
Ketamine-xylazine mixtures, 65–66 Liver transplantation, 230 Marsupials, 458–459
Ketoprofen, 106–107 LMA. See Laryngeal mask airway analgesics for, 461
Ketorolac, 106 (LMA) chemical restraint of, 459
Keyed filling adaptor, 137, 138 Local anesthetics, 326. See also fluid therapy in, 459
Keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH), Bupivacaine; Lidocaine injectable anesthetics for, 460
198–199 in birds, 492 manual restraint of, 459
KLH. See Keyhole limpet hemocyanin in reptiles, 506 sedatives/tranquilizers in, 460
(KLH) in ruminants, 401 vascular access in, 459
650 INDEX

Mask anesthesia cats, 382 chiropractic manipulation, 625

cats, 368, 373–374 dogs, 382 hydrotherapy, 624
dogs, 368, 373–374 in ferrets, 445–446 massage, 625
rodents, 250 primates, 344 physical therapy, 624
Mass spectrometry, 93–94 rabbits, 305 MRI. See Magnetic resonance imaging
Mastication, 386 rodents, 256 MRI/S. See Magnetic resonance imaging
Mastomys natalensis, 465 Minimally invasive surgery, 204 and spectroscopy (MRI/S)
Maternal anaesthesia, 599, 600 Minimum alveolar concentration (MAC), MS-Contin, 611
Matrx VMS, 148 86–88, 418–419 Mucous glands
Maximum inspiratory pressure, 151 in birds, 494 in amphibians, 512
Measured flow vaporizers, 139–140 for desflurane in swine, 418–419 Mucous membrane color, in respiratory
Mechanical assays, 552–553 determination of, 86–87 system monitoring, 177
Mechanical dead space, 142 ED50, 87 Multimodal analgesia, 205
Meclofenamate, 106 factors affecting variability of, 87–88 for neonates, 605
Medetomidine, 51, 52–53, 116, 117 for inhalational anesthetics in birds, 494 Multistation Rodent Anesthesia Delivery and
in birds, 491 of isoflurane Scavenging System, 157, 158
cats, 371 in ferrets, 451 Muscle relaxants, primates, 347–348
dogs, 371 in swines, 417 Mus musculus, 549
primates, 343 for nitrous oxide in swine, 417 Mycobacterium tuberculosis, 554
rabbits, 305, 306 Minute ventilation, in respiratory system Myocardial protection, 428
rodents, 262 monitoring, 177–178 Mystromys albicaudatus, 465
used as sedative in ferrets, 446–447 Minute volume, 151
Medetomidine-ketamine, 449 MK-1-IS veterinary anesthesia machine, 140 N
Medical gas piping systems, 130 Mobile anesthesia unit, 220 Nabumetone, 108
Medical record, maintaining, 190 Molecular stability, 89 Nalbuphine, 114
Medical surveillance, 190–191 Molecular weight, vapor pressure and, 85–86 Naloxone, 114, 115
Mefenamic acid, 106 Mollusks, 536–538 primates, 347, 359
Meglumine, flunixin, 108 Monitoring anesthesia, 171–181 used to reverse opioids, 422
Meloxicam, in rabbits, 326 cats, 375–376 “Narcotic,” 110
Meperidine, 113–114 core components, 172–174 Narcotics, 231
in rodents, 263 dogs, 375–376 National Association of State Controlled
Meta-analysis, and WAG pollution, 186 neuromuscular blockade, 180–181 Substances Authorities (NASCSA),
Methadone, 114 in primates, 351–352 575–576
rats, 272 techniques, 174–180 National Institute for Occupational Safety
Methemoglobinemia, 62 Monodelphis domestica, 458 and Health (NIOSH), 184
Methohexital, 31–32 Morphine, 110–113. See also Analgesics National Toxicology Program (NTP), 59
Methohexitone, rabbits, 312 in amphibians, 517 Natural killer (NK) cells, cytotoxicity of,
Methoxyflurane (MOF), 86, 91 cats, 371 197, 198
and renal toxicity, 187 dogs, 371 NaV . See Voltage-gated sodium channels
for rodents, 255 in ferrets, 447 (NaV )
Metomidate, 37–38 in fish, 531 Needle and syringe safety issues, 577
in fish, 526 primates, 347, 359 Nematodes, 541
used as continuous IV infusion in swines, in rabbits, 326 Neonatal analgesia, 594, 604–605
422 rodents, 263 Neonatal anesthesia, 594
Mexiletine, for chronic pain, 585 Morphine sulfate, 611 in ferrets, 454
Mice. See Rodents Mouse Neonatal development, pain and, 9–10
Microcebus murinus, 475 acute/tonic pain experimental models of, Neonates
Microcomputed tomography (MicroCT), 550–554 anesthesia
630–631 chemical assays, 553–554 cats, 382
MicroCT. See Microcomputed tomography mechanical assays, 552–553 dogs, 382
MicroPET. See Micropositron Emission thermal assays, 551–552 rodents, 277–278
Tomography (MicroPET) chronic pain experimental models of, multi-modal analgesia for, 605
Micropositron Emission Tomography 554–556 NSAID for, 605
(MicroPET), 632 inflammatory, 554 opioids for, 605
Microtus, 464 neuropathic, 554–556 pain assessment in, 605
Midazolam, 44, 45, 46, 394 Mouse GasAnesthesia Mask Stoelting, 158 pain in, 10
in anesthetized swines, 419 Movement-based and manual therapies for Neostigmine, 267
in birds, 491 pain Neotoma, 464
INDEX 651

Nervous system transmission, 6 Octodon degus, 470

cyclohexamines effects on, 49–50 neuropharmacology of, 8–9 Octopuses, 537
urethane effects on, 57 Nociceptive pain, 4 Octopus vulgaris, 538
Neuraxial analgesia, local anesthetics, 61 Nociceptive-specific (NS) neurons, 7 Ocular reflexes, for anesthetic depth, 174
Neuraxial anesthesia, local anesthetics, 61 Nociceptive stimuli, 595, 597 Office of Laboratory Animal Welfare
Neuroendocrine response to pain, 10–11 Nociceptive threshold, 196 (OLAW), 571
Neuroimmune activation (NA), 583 Nondrug methods, 619 Ohmeda Excel 210, 149, 150
Neuroleptanalgesia, 64–65 Nondrug treatments for pain Olfactory stimuli, 621
rodents, 261 acupuncture, 626–627 Oligochaetes, 539
Neuroleptanalgesics, 314–315 electroanalgesia, 625–626 Onychomys, 465
Neuroleptic sedative combinations, 447–448 movement-based and manual therapies Open interface scavenging systems,
Neurological immaturity, 595 chiropractic manipulation, 625 140, 141
Neurological procedures, in primates, hydrotherapy, 624 Ophthalmic procedures
356–357 massage, 625 in rabbits, 320
Neuromuscular blockade in anesthesia physical therapy, 624 Opioids, 109–110. See also Analgesics
monitoring of, 180–181 thermal techniques agonists, 197, 199
Neuromuscular blocking agents cryotherapy, 622–623 antagonists, 115
in ferrets, 449 deep heating therapy, 624 in birds, 493
used in reptiles, 506 therapeutic heat, 623–624 cats, 371, 378
Neuronal model, activity-dependent, 12, 13 Non-nociceptive (N-NOC) neurons, 7 for chronic pain, 586
Neurones, 595 Nonrebreathing circuits, 451 continuous IV infusions used in swines,
Neuropathic models, 554–556 Nonrebreathing systems, 143–145 421–422
Neuropathic pain, 16, 200, 584. See also Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs dogs, 371, 378
Chronic pain (NSAID) effect on behavioral changes, 210
Neuroplasticity in birds, 493 extended-release, 611
pain and, 11–14 cats, 378–379 in ferrets, 447
role in chronic pain, 14–16 dogs, 378–379 in fish, 531
Neurotransmitters, excitatory and in fish, 531 for foetuses, 600
inhibitory, 9 for foetuses, 600 with mixed actions, 114–115
Newborns to neonates, 605 for neonates, 605
altricial, 596 potency, 99 polymers embedded with, 611
precocial, 596 preemptive analgesia with, 205 primates, 346–347
Nicotinic acid derivatives, 107–108 primates, 358 rabbits, 305–306
NIOSH. See National Institute for rabbits, 326 receptors, 111
Occupational Safety and Health rodents, 272–274 rodents, 263–264
(NIOSH) serum half life and activity duration of for ruminants, 394–395, 408
NIOSH Criteria Document, 184, 188 propionic acid derivative, 108 Optical imaging
Nitrous oxide, 318–319 in swines, 423 bioluminescence, 631
in birds, 494–495 for treatment of chronic pain, 587 fluorescence, 631
cats, 374 Norepinephrine, 9 LDI, 632
as a cause of hematologic disease, 187 Normative ethics, 563–564 Oral drug administration, rodents, 272
dogs, 374 North American Drager 2A, 149 Oral opioid formulations, 611
as inhaled anesthetics, 90 Noxious stimulation, 597–598 Oramorph, 611
primates, 349 NSAID. See Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory Orbital bleeding, anesthesia for, 258
rodents, 256 drugs (NSAID)
Oryzomys palustris, 463
in swines, 417 Numeric rating scales (NRS), 211
OSHA. See Occupational Safety and Health
Nutrition
and vitamin B12 , 187 Administration (OSHA)
postoperative
N -methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) Osmotic pumps, 612
rabbits, 323
antagonists, 47–50, 117–118 Oxicams, 107
rodents, 249
channel antagonists, 205 Oximetry, pulse
receptors, 9 in respiratory system monitoring, 178
O
for treatment of chronic pain, 587–588 OxyContin, 612
Nociception, 5 Observer training, 207 Oxygenation monitoring in birds, 495–496
anatomy and physiology of, 5–8 Obstetric anesthesia, 353–354 Oxygen flush valve, 134
facilitation, 8 Occupational Safety and Health Oxygen supply failure, 134
modulation, 8 Administration (OSHA), 184 Oxymorphone, 111, 112, 609, 611, 612, 614
projection, 6–8 Ochotona princeps, 470 cats, 371
transduction, 5–6 Ochotona rufescens, 470 dogs, 371
652 INDEX

Oxymorphone (Contd.) Pain tolerance threshold, 196 PH gradients, 614

primates, 358 Papaver somniferum, 110 Physical restraint
rodents, 264 Parabronchus. See Tertiary bronchus of amphibians, 514
route of administration, 113 Parasympatholytics, 301 of birds, 489
Paravertebral anesthesia, in ruminants, to ferrets, 444
P 402–403 of fish, 520–521
Partial sciatic nerve ligation (PSL) model, of reptiles, 503
PACU. See Postanesthesia care unit (PACU)
555 of spiders, 539
Pain, 98, 596, 598
Partition coefficients, 88–89 Physiologic dead space, 142
acute, 4
Parturition, 601 Physiologic pain, 4
assessment in neonates, 605
Passive scavenging, 140 Physiology
auditory, 596
PCWP. See Pulmonary capillary wedge cardiovascular, 601
behavioral effects, 198
pressure (PCWP) neonatal, 599
chronic. See Chronic pain.
Pediatric anesthesia Physostigmine, 267
cognitive and emotional components of,
primates, 354–355 rodents, 264
196
Pediatric circle systems, 143 Piezoelectric crystal technique, 93
cycle, 98
Penlon Sigma Delta vaporizer, 139 PIM. See Pulmonary intravascular
defined, 3–4
definition, 28 Pentazocine, 114 macrophages (PIM)
diagnosis of neuropathic, 584 Pentobarbital, 32, 395 Pin Index Safety System, 128
effective control of surgical, 197 administration route, 32 Piston ventilators, 154
experimental models, 11 cardiovascular effects, 32–33 Plasma fluoride concentration, 419
in fish, 520 cats, 372 Plexiglas pediatric unit, 228
IASP definition of, 520 dogs, 372 Pneumatic ventilators, 154–155
in invertebrates, 542 effect on ventilation and blood gases, 33 Polychaetes, 539
in lower animals, 196 immune system effects, 34 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) endotracheal
management. See Pain management. primates, 346 tubes, 162
monitoring, 206 rabbits, 310 Positioning of ruminants, during anesthesia,
neonatal development and, 9–10 rodents, 259–260 389
neuropathic, 16 in snails, 536 Positive end expiratory pressure (PEEP),
neuroplasticity and, 11–14 strain differences in dose-response, 33–34 151–152
physiological effects of, 197–198 in swines, 421 Positive pressure anesthesia ventilators, 151,
physiologic effects of, 10–11 tolerance, 33–34 152
postoperative, 198 Periaqueductal gray (PAG), 8 Postanesthesia care unit, 187
prevention, 203–205 Perinatal morbidity, 594 Postoperative care, for rodents, 268, 279
ratio with number of animals, 566–567 Perinatal mortality, 594 Postoperative injections, 226
reporting in USDA Categories, 564–565 Peripheral benzodiazepine receptors (PBR), Post-operative period, 604
severity of, 200–203 46 Postprocedural care, 220
and stress, 197 Peripheral sensitization, 11–12 equipments, 223
testing in mouse, 550–557 Peripheral sensory receptors, 595 programmatic planning, 224
experimental models of acute/tonic Permissible exposure limits (PEL), 576 Postprocedural housing, large-animal,
pain, 550–554 Peromyscus, 464 221–222
experimental models of chronic pain, Petaurus breviceps, 459 Potorous tridactylus, 459
554–556 Pharmacodynamics, 598 Pouring adaptor, 137
factors affecting, 556–557 Pharmacokinetics, 598, 599 Preanesthesia
threshold, 4–5 of buprenorphine, 610 in amphibians, 516
tolerance, 5 Phenobarbital, in birds, 492 in ferrets, 445–449
types, 199–200 Phenothiazine, acepromazine, 393–394 in reptiles, 506–507
Pain control, nonpharmacologic methods, Phenothiazines, 54, 55 Precision vaporizers, 85, 136
620 Phenotypic switching, 15 Preemptive analgesia, 204–205
Pain detection threshold, 196 Phenoxyethanol Pregnancy, 595, 596
Pain management in abalones, 536 Pregnanolone, 596
in amphibians, 517 in fish, 528 Prescription monitoring programs (PMP),
chronic. See Chronic pain. Phenylbutazone, 104–105 576
and ethical issues, 564–565 half-lives in several species, 105 Pressure gauges, gas supply, 132
in ferrets, 453–454 Phenylephrine, for hypertension, with Pressure regulation, 131–132
in reptiles, 508 isoflurane, 353 Pre-term labour, 601
Pain perception, 597 Phenylperadine, rodents, 263 Preventative strategies for pain control
Pain scoring systems, 210–211 Phenytoin, for chronic pain, 585 education, 620
INDEX 653

environmental enrichment, 621 in reptiles, 506 fetal surgery, 320–321

humidity level, 621 rodents, 260 inhalation methods, 317–319
light level, 621 used in swines, 422 injection sites, 306–307
olfactory stimuli, 621 Propofol infusion syndrome, 41 intubation, endotracheal, 308–309
social housing conditions, 620–621 Propofol phosphate, 40 long-term experiments, 321
substrate, 621 Proportioning systems, oxygen supply, 134 monitoring, 321–323
temperature level, 621 Propriopromazine, 55 ophthalmic procedures, 320
Primates, nonhuman Propylene phenoxetol, in oysters, 538 postoperative, 323
analgesic therapy, 358–359 Prosimians, 475 regional methods, 319–320
anesthetic agents Prostaglandin D2 , 596 thermal support, 3223
alphaxolone-alphadolone, 238 Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2 ), 100, 103 breeds, 301
barbiturates, 346 Prostaglandins (PG), 100 choice of experimental subject, 300
ketamine, 340 enzymatic pathways of conversion, 100, fluid administration, 306, 323
opioids, 346–347 101 hypnosis, 320
propofol, 345 Protamine sulphate, 428 thiobutabarbital effects, 32
Telazol, 344–345 Psammomys obesus, 465 unique features, 300
anesthetic management Pseudocarcinus gigas, 540–541 Radiant heat paw-withdrawal (Hargreaves’)
cardiac surgery, 340 Psychosocial factors, role in chronic pain, 16 test, 552
fluid administration, 353 Public Health Service (PHS) policy, 563, Radiography, 630
injection methods, 338 571–572 P-Aminophenol derivatives, 105
intubation, endotracheal, 348–349 Pulmonary artery occlusion pressure Rapid-eye-movement (REM), 595, 596
monitoring, 351–352 (PAOP), 177 Rats. See Rodents
muscle relaxants, 347, 348 Pulmonary artery pressures, in Rats
in pregnancy, 353, 354 cardiovascular system monitoring, thiobutabarbital effects, 32
premedication, 340 176–177 Rebreathing systems, 142–143
diseases, zoonotic, 337 Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure Record keeping, 233
species used in research, 336 (PCWP), 429 Reflex tests, in rabbits, 322
Priming, 64 Pulmonary compromise, from pain, 11 Regional analgesia, in swines, 422–423
Pulmonary damage, 388 Regional anesthesia, 264, 319-320
Procaine, in crabs, 541
Pulmonary function, 199
Professional codes of ethics, 562 in amphibians, 516
Pulmonary intravascular macrophages
Professional organization position cats, 381
(PIM), 389
statements, 576 dogs, 381
Pulmonary system, in birds, 483
Progesterone, 601 in fish, 531
Pulse measures, in cardiovascular system
Projection, 6–8 in reptiles, 506
monitoring, 175
Prolonged anesthesia Regulatory ethics, 562–563
Pulse oximetry, in respiratory system
in ferrets, 454 Regurgitation, 387
monitoring, 178
in reptiles, 508–509 REM. See Rapid-eye-movement (REM)
Purkinje fiber, 488–489
Promethazine, 55 Remifentanil, 113
Pycazolon derivatives, 104–105
Propanidid, in fish, 528 Remote capture, of ruminants, 398
Propionic acid derivatives, 106–107 Remote video monitoring, 213
serum half-life and duration of activity of, Q Renal effects, of salicylates, 104
108 Quinaldine sulfate, in fish, 525 Renal function
Propiopromazine, rabbits, 305 cats, 382
Propofol, 38–42, 389 dogs, 382
to amphibians, 516 R Renal toxicity, caused by use of
antagonists, 42 Rabbits methoxyflurane, 187
biodisposition, 39–40 analgesic therapy, 324–327 Repeated anesthesia, 635
in birds, 491–492 anesthetic agents Reperfusion, 228
cats, 372 alphaxalone–alphadolone, 315 Reproductive abnormalities, 186
dogs, 372 barbiturates, 310–312 Reptiles
in ferrets, 450 inhalants, 317 analgesics in, 508
in fish, 529 ketamine, 312–313 anatomical considerations, 502–503
for foetuses, 599 neuroleptanalgesics, 314–315 anesthesia of venomous species of,
GABA agonists, 29 propofol, 315 503–505
immune system effects, 41 Telazol, 313 anesthetic induction in
pharmacologic effects, 40–41 urethane, 316 monitoring during, 508
primates, 345 anesthetic management anesthetic maintenance, 516
rabbits, 315 cardiovascular support, 322–323 anesthetic maintenance of, 507
654 INDEX

Reptiles (Contd.) postoperative care, 268, 279 peripheral, 11–12

anesthetic techniques for, 503 pregnant animals, 248 role in chronic pain, 14–16
inhalational anesthetics, 505–506 regional methods, 264 Sentience, 595
injectable anesthetics, 506 ultra-short procedures, 280 Serotonin, 9
regional/local anesthetics, 506 effect of thermoregulation, 227 Sevoflurane, 92, 134
body temperature of, 501–502 intubation equipment for, 160–162 in birds, 494
glottis of, 502 methods of dose administration cats, 374
hematology and serum biochemistry of, in, 231 dogs, 374
504 intramuscular, 232–233 in ferrets, 451
intravenous anesthesia in, 506 intraperitoneal, 233 primates, 350–351
monitoring, 516 intravenous, 232 rabbits, 318
neuromuscular blocking agents in, 506 oral, 232 in reptiles, 506
pain management in, 508 subcutaneous, 232 rodents, 254–255
physical restraint and handling of, 503 transcutaneous, 232 in swine, 418
preanesthesia in, 506–507 nontraditional species, 462–470 Sex differences, 556
preanesthetic evaluation and prepara, 503 chemical restraint of, 466, 467, 468, Sex hormones, effect on ketoprofen
prolonged anesthesia in, 508–509 470 metabolism, 107
recovery from anesthesia, 508 intraoperative management of, 466 Sigmodon hispidus, 465
routes of drug administration in, 505 manual restraint of, 466, 467, 468, Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), 631
Reservoir bag, 135–136 469–470 Simple descriptive scales (SDS), 211
Respiratory acidosis, 103 pain assessment, 268 Single-Photon Emission Computed
Respiratory effects unique features, 266–267 Tomography
of ketamine, 49 Romifidine, 53 (SPECT), 632
of pentobarbital, 33 Rostroventral medulla (RVM), 8 Sleep time
of urethane, 58 Ruminants ketamine, 49
Respiratory pattern, monitoring, 228 cardiovascular system, 389 pentobarbital, 33
Respiratory rate digestive system, 386 Small tank wrench, 129
monitoring, 177–179 musculoskeletal system, 389 Small tank yoke, 129, 131
monitoring in cephalopods, 538 nitrous oxide in, 90 Snails, 536
monitoring in fish, 523 positioning of, during anesthesia, 389 Snorkel apparatus, 188
in respiratory system monitoring, 177 respiratory system, 387–389 Social context effects, 557
Respiratory system, 601. See also Restraint of, 389 Social Housing Conditions, 620–621
Respiratory rate size, 386 Sodium pentobarbital, in snails, 536
Right-angle endotracheal tube adaptors, 164 Ruminoreticulum, 387 Sodium salicylate, routes of administration,
Ringer’s solution, lactated, 230 104
Rodent anesthesia machines, 146–147 S Somatic pain, 200
Rodent endotracheal tubes, 166 Saffan, 43. See also SOPs. See Standard operating procedures
Rodent face masks, 157 Alphaxalone–alphadolone (SOPs)
Rodentia. See Rodents Salicylates, 103–104 Sorex araneus, 461
Rodents Saliva, 386 Spared nerve injury (SNI) model, 555
analgesic agents, 377–380 Saphenous veins, 415 SPECT. See Single-Photon Emission
anesthetic agents Scallop, 538 Computed Tomography (SPECT)
alpha chloralose, 265 Scandentia. See Insectivores Speculum, intubation, 161
alphaxolone–alphadolone, 266 Scavenging systems, 140–141 Spermophilus, 467
barbiturate, 259 Scoring assessment chart, 225 Spiders, 539–540
carbon dioxide, 256 Scorpions, 539–540 Spinal anesthesia, in ruminants, 401–402
inhalants, 250–256 Sea snails, 536 Spinal cord, to brain projection, 6–7
ketamine, 257–259 Second gas effect, 90 Spinal nerve ligation (SNL), 555
neuroleptanalgesics, 261 Sedation, 54 Spinohypothalamic tract (SHT), 7
non-steroidal, 272–274 on ruminants, 390 Spinomesencephalic tract (SMT), 7
propofol, 260 Sedative hypnotics, rodents, 265 Spinothalamic tract (STT), 7
Telazol, 261 Sedatives Spotted hyena, 474–475
urethane, 265–266 for marsupials, 460 Sprague-Dawley rats, pentobarbital
anesthetic management for nontraditional rodents, 466 effects, 33
inhalation methods, 251–252 prairie dogs, 469 Standard of care, 567
intubation, endotracheal, 250, 251 for swines, 419–420 Standard operating procedures (SOPs), 223
monitoring, 278–279 Sensitization development procedures, 228
neonates, 277–278 central, 12–14 Standing bellows, 152
INDEX 655

State regulations, 575–576 prevention and management of, Thiobarbital

Steroids, 43–44 426 rodents, 260
Straight laryngoscope blades, 159 recognition of, 425–426 Thiobarbiturates, 31–32
Strain differences, 556 treatment and management, 426 Thiobutabarbital, 32
Strains, effects of using anesthesia, 635–636 triggering agents for, 426 Thiopental, 31–32
Stresnil, 55–56 metomidate used as continuous IV cats, 372, 380
Stress infusion in, 422 dogs, 372, 380
pain and, 197 nitrous oxide in, 417 for foetuses, 599
physiology of NSAID used in, 423 immune system effects, 34
in primates, 338 postsurgical care of, 425 primates, 346
Stressors, 197 propofol used in, 422 rodents, 260
Stylets, 166–167 regional analgesia in, 422–423 Thiopentone
Subcutaneous anesthetics, 306 sedatives in, 419–420 rabbits, 311
Substrate, 621 Sylvilagus floridanus, 470 Thomomys, 463
Sufentanil Synthetic opioid agonists, 114 Tidal volume, 151
for opioid infusion in swine, 421 Synthetic -conotoxins, 15 in respiratory system monitoring, 177
rodents, 258, 271 Syrinx, in birds, 484 Tiletamine, 47, 48, 49–50
Sulindac, 105–106 Tiletamine–zolazepam
Summit portable anesthesia machine, 146, T in reptiles, 506
147 Tachykinins, 60 in swines, 420–421
Suncus etruscus, 460 Tachyphylaxis, 60–61 Tiletamine–zolazepam mixtures. See Telazol
Suncus murinus, 460 Tail-clip test, 552 Time-release pellets, 612
Supraspinal contributions, to chronic pain, Tail-Flick (radiant heat) test, 551 Time-weighted average (TWA) sampling,
15–16 Tail vein, of ruminants, 390 189–190
Surgery Tail-withdrawal (hot water) test, 551 Tissue injury, reduction of, 204
foetal, 598, 599, 600, 601 Tannenbaum’s classification, of ethical Tissues
for reduction of tissue injury, 204 issues, foetal, 595
Surgical neuropathic pain models, 555 562–564 placental, 595
SurgiVet Multi-Station anesthesia machine, Tec 3 style vaporizer, 138 TIVA. See Total intravenous anesthetic drugs
147 Telazol, 66 (TIVA)
Surveillance plan, monitoring cats, 373 Tolazoline, 53
direction of, 190 combinations in ferrets, 449–450 Tolerance
frequency of, 190 dogs, 373 pain, 5
maintaining medical record, 190 primates, 344–345 Tolmetin, 106
sites, 190 rabbits, 313 Topical anesthesia
Swines rodents, 261 in amphibians, 516
alpha-chloralose in, 422 Telemetry, 229 Topical local anesthetics, 63–64
anesthetics delivery in, 415–417 Telemetry systems, 213 Total intravenous anesthetic drugs (TIVA),
anticholinergics in, 420 Temperature preferences 389,
barbiturates used in, 421 for animals, 621 400–401
benzodiazepines used for, 419 Tepoxalin, 109 Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), 226
breed consideration of, 414 Tertiary bronchus, in birds, 486 Trachea
buprenorphine used in, 423 Thalamocortical connections, 595 in birds, 483–484
butyrophenone used in, 419–420 Thalamus, 595 of reptiles, 502
cardiac arrhythmias in, 424 projection, 6–8 Tramadol, 114
continuous IV infusions opioids used in, to cortex, 7–8 Tranquilizers
421–422 from spinal cord, 6–7 for marsupilas, 460
CPB in. See Cardiopulmonary bypass Thermal assays, 551–552 for nontraditional rodents, 466
(CPB). Thermal techniques for pain control for swines, 419–420
desflurane in, 418–419 cryotherapy, 622–623 Transcription-and translation-dependent
dissociative agents in, 420–421 deep heating therapy, 624 processes
etomidate used as sedative in, 422 therapeutic heat, 623–624 central sensitization, 13–14
gas exchange components of, 486–488 Thermoregulation, 227 Transducer phosphorylation, 11
intraoperative CNS monitoring, 179 Transduction, 5–6
monitoring, 423–424 large animals, 228 Transgenic rodents, 248
support, 424–425 rodents, 227 Transient receptor potential ion channels
isoflurane in, 417–418 Thiamylal, 31–32 (TRP), 6
malignant hyperthermia (MH) in, 425 rabbits, 311 Transmission, 6
656 INDEX

Transplanation US Department of Agriculture (USDA) Voltage-gated calcium channels, 6

cardiac, in primates, 340 regulations, 570–571 chronic pain, 14–15, 15
neural, in primates, 356 reporting pain and distress in, 564–565 role of local anesthetics, 60
Transtracheal ventilation, 155 Utero procedures, 594 Von Frey filament test, 552–553
Tribromoethanol. See Avertin Uterus, 595
Tribromoethanol (TBE), 42–43 W
toxicity, 42 V WAG. See Waste anesthetic gas (WAG)
Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222)
Vaisman, A.I., 185 Waste anesthetic gases (WAG), 185, 576
in amphibians, 514–515
Valves adverse health effects of, 186–187
in fish, 524–525
adjustable pressure-limiting, 135 and cancer, 186–187
Trichloroacetic acid, 35
Humphrey, 144 emissions, 191–192
Trichloroethanol, 35
unidirectional, 135 evacuation
Trichosurus vulpecula, 458
Vaporizers, 85, 136–140 environmental effects of, 189
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCA)
Vapor pressure, 84–85 equipment and techniques, 188–189
for chronic pain, 586
molecular weight and, 85–86 historical perspectives of, 185–186
Tube exchangers, 166–167
Vapor Wand, 156 meta-analysis, 186
Tumor growth, role of pain, 11
Variable-area flowmeters, 132–133 sources of, 187–188
Tumor metastasis, buprenorphine treatment
Variable bypass vaporizers, 137–139 Web-based training resources and tutorials,
for the
Vascular access 227
treatment of, 198
in gray mouse lemur, 475 “Wedge” pressure, 177
Tupaia glis, 460
in grizzly bear, 474 Wide dynamic range (WDR) neurons, 7
T-Wall Cole tube, 163
in marsupials, 459 Wind-up, 12
U in spotted hyena, 475
Vasodilation, peripheral X
Ultraviolet photoreception, 220
Unconsciousness, 595 rabbits, 301 Xenarthra. See Armadillos
in foetuses, 596 Vasopressors, intraoperative Xenon
Unidirectional valves, 135 primates, 353 rodents, 256
Unitary Theory, 88 Vecuronium, 267 X-ray-based imaging technologies
United Kingdom, 577–578 primates, 347 dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, 630
United States Department of Agriculture Ventilation microcomputed tomography, 630–631
(USDA) pain/distress category, 199 components of birds, 483–486 radiography, 630
United States Occupational Safety and control in birds, 488 Xylazine, 51, 52, 117, 387
Health Administration (OSHA), 576 efficiency of anesthetized ferrets, 452 in birds, 491
Universal F circuit, 143 monitoring in birds, 495 in combination with ketamine, 312
Universal Nosecone nonrebreathing system, nonrecirculating, 189 combined with ketamine, 420–421
157 Ventilators, 151–155. See also Ventilation ketamine, 65–66, 448
Urethane, 56–59 and tidal volumes of ferrets, 451–452 primates, 340
with alpha-chloralose, 66 Ventricular premature contractions (VPC), rabbits, 300, 305
biodisposition, 56–57 448 rodents, 262
cats, 373 Ventrolateral funiculus (VLF), 7 used as sedative in ferrets, 446–447
in cephalopods, 537 VetEquip 2 l Vented Chamber, 156 used in swines, 420
dogs, 373 Veterinarians, 562, 567
mechanism of action, 56 Veterinary anesthesia machine, MK-1-IS, T
pharmacologic effects, 57–59 140
Veterinary machines, 147–148 Yohimbine, 53, 305
rabbits, 316
Vincristine, 555–556 primates, 340
recommendation for fish, 528
Visceral pain, 200 rodents, 262
rodents, 265–266
Yoke, small tank, 129, 131
Urinary catheterization, 352 Visual analog scales (VAS), 211
Urinary System, 602 Vitamin B12 , and nitrous oxide (N2 O), 187
Z
Ursus arctos, 473–474 Vitamin C, premedication of rabbits with,
U.S. government safety guidelines, 184 306 Zolazepam, 45–46, 394
USDA. See US Department of Agriculture Volatile anesthesia, for amphibians, 515 with tiletamine, 66
(USDA) regulations Volatile anesthetics, in fish, 527 Zygodontomys brevicauda, 465