Solar Flat Plate Thermal

Collector

1
 OBJECTIVE:

Performance Study of Solar Flat Plate Thermal Collector Operation with Variation in Mass Flow
Rate and Level of Radiation

INTRODUCTION:

Solar water heater is one of the simplest and basic technologies in the solar energy field. Collector
is the heart of any solar water heating system. It absorbs and converts the solar energy into heat
and then transfers that heat to a stream of water. There are different types of solar thermal
collector. This experimental setup is using a flat plate collector.

Performance of Solar Thermal Water Heater has to be compared for the following cases:

CASE 1. Study the effect of mass flow rate on the Solar Thermal Water Heater (STWH)
performance

1. Record the observations maintaining a time gap of 20 minutes among three different flow
rate values and evaluate the parameters.

2. Following parameters to be plotted in graphs w.r.t. mass flow rate

a. Efficiency, b. Outlet Temperature and c. Plate temperature

3. Obtain the optimum flow rate from graphs plotted in 2a and 2b.

CASE 2: Study the effect of varying level of radiation from Minimum to Maximum by

1. Maintaining a time gap of 20 minutes between each set of readings.

2. Ploting the efficiency vs radiation graph for different radiation levels.

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 THEORY:

A typical flat-plate collector consists of an absorber plate in an insulated box together with
transparent cover sheet(s).
 Work and properties of different components of a flat plate collector
• Absorber plate:
It is a flat conducting plate to which the tubes, fins, or passages are attached. It may be a
continuous or discrete plate. The plate is usually coated with a high absorptance and low emittance
layer.
• Cover plate:
One or more sheet of glass or other radiation-transmitting material forms the cover plate. The
cover plate serves two purposes, minimization of convective heat loss and blocking of IR
radiation.
• Heat removal passages:
These are tubes, fins, or passages which conduct or direct the stream of water from the inlet to the
outlet of the collector.
• Headers or manifolds:
These are the pipes to admit and discharge water that is meant to be heated.
• Insulation:
Insulations such as Rockwool or Glass wool are fitted in the back and sides of the collector to
prevent heat loss from the collector.
• Casing:
The casing surrounds the aforementioned components and protects them from dust, moisture and
any other material.

In the following Figure-1, schematic diagram of a typical flat-plate collector is shown with
different parts at their proper locations.

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 Fig-1: Schematic diagram of a typical flat-plate collector

Table-1: Overall Specifications of the system

Components Specification Remarks

2
Water heating system Collector area: 0.716 m Collector: Flat plate
(Collector and water tank) Tank capacity: 50 L collector.
To collect and transfer
energy
Tank: non pressurized
aluminum tank.
To store water
2
Halogen system Halogen fixture’s area: .0.72 m Halogen: To supply the
Number of halogen lamp: 21 required intensity on the
Power :150 W each collector.
Regulator: 5000 W Regulator: To adjust the
intensity at the desire
level
2
Radiation meter Range: 0 to 1999 W/m To measure the radiation
Power supply: DC level on the collector
External water tanks 80 L To supply cold water to
the heating system

4
Water pump Power supply: AC To lift water up to the
Power: 0.5 hp desired level.
To facilitate the forced
mode operation.
Water flow meter Sensor: Mini turbine wheel
(for forced mode) Flow range : 0.5 to 25 LPM based technology.
Working voltage : 4.5 to 24 VDC
Max. Pressure : 17.5 bar To measure the water
Working pressure : 0 to 10 bar flow rate during the
Max rated current : 8 mA forced mode operation.
Withstand current : 15 mA
Working temp : up to 80°C
Storage temp : 25 to 65°C
Accuracy : 1 % fsd
Supply voltage- 230 V AC.
Stop watch With electronic On-Off switch and a To detect the time
Reset button during natural flow rate
measurement
Anemometer Air velocity: The anemometer can
Range : 0.4 to 45.0 m/sec measure the air velocity
Resolution: 0.1 m/sec and the ambient air
Accuracy: (±2% + 0.1 m/sec) temperature.
Air Temperature: The air flow sensor is a
Range: -14 to 60°C conventional angled
Resolution: 0.1°C vane arms with low
Accuracy: 0.5°C friction ball bearing.
Power supply: DC 4*1.5 AAA size The temperature sensor
is a precision thermistor.
Pressure Gauges Sensor: Semiconductor thin-film
Range: 0 to 6 bar based technology.
Accuracy: ±3 kPa Works on the principle
Output: 4 to 20 mA (±3) of generation of
Input: 4-20 mA DC electrical signal due to
Power: 220 VAC exertion of pressure.
To measure the inlet and
outlet pressure

Thermometers Sensor: Sensor is RTD based

Class A sensor platinum probe.
0
Range: -200 to 650 C Works on the principle
Accuracy : ± 0.15 +0.002*(t) of variation of resistance
Where t is absolute value of with temperature.
temperature in °C To measure the inlet,
0
Range -100 to 200 C outlet, plate and tank
Supply Voltage: 230AC water temperature

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 Fan Range : 0 to 5 m/sec To supply the wind at
Power supply: AC with regulators the desire speed

Table-2: Detail Specification of the collector

Overall data
Overall collector dimension Mm 915X810 X95
Weight of the collector Kg 13
Aperture Area m2 0.63
Glazing
Glazing type and number Type of glass Toughened Glass
Glazing thickness mm 3
Glazing transmission % 85
Glazing Emissivity % 88
Absorption plate
Absorber material Copper
Absorber plate thickness mm 0.12
Absorber plate dimension mm 115
Emissivity of surface % 12
Absorption of surface % 96
Risers & headers
Number of risers 6
Riser dimension mm 800
Headers dimension mm 882
Test pressure kpa 400
Maximum working pressure kpa 250
Insulation
Insulation material Rockwool
3
Insulation density Kg/m 48
Insulation thickness-base mm 50
Insulation thickness-side mm 25
Conductivity W/mK 0.04
Casing
Frame type Aluminum Box
Frame colour Black
Casing thickness mm 1.4
Insulated tank
Tank type Non pressurized, Horizontal
Tank materials SS – 304
Tank insulation PUF
Tested pressure kPa 294.11
Tank size 815 X400
Overall Efficiency
Ƞ % 80 %

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Important parameters of a flat plate collector based solar water heating
system:

The performance of a solar water heating system depends upon different design and atmospheric
parameters.
The meaning and importance of some of the most dominating parameters are described below.

Overall Heat loss coefficient (UL):

All the heat that is generated by the collector does not resulted into useful energy. Some of the
heat gets losses to the surroundings. The amount of heat losses depends upon the convective,
conductive and radiation heat loss coefficients.
Estimation of heat loss coefficient of the flat plate collector is important for its performance
evaluation. A higher value of heat loss coefficient indicates the lower heat resistance and hence
the lower efficiency.
Among all heat loss parameters the top loss contributes the most. The top heat loss coefficient is a
function of various parameters which includes the temperature of the absorbing plate, ambient
temperature, wind speed, emissivity of the absorbing and the cover glass plate, tilt angle etc.
Heat Removal Factor (FR):

Heat removal factor represents the ratio of the actual useful energy gain to the useful energy gain
if the entire collector were at the fluid inlet temperature. It depends upon the factors like inlet and
outlet water temperature, the ambient temperature, area of the collector etc. The importance of
heat removal factors remains with the efficiency of the system. For a highly efficient system a
higher value of heat removal factor is must.

Efficiency (η):

Efficiency is the most important factor for a system. This factor determines the system’s output.
For a flat plate collector based solar water heater system the efficiency is defined as the ratio of
the useful energy delivered to the energy incident on the collector aperture . The value of
efficiency is dominated by parameters like product of glazing’s transmittance and absorbing
plate’s absorptance, intensity of global radiation falling on the collector, water inlet temperature
and ambient air temperature.

Collector Time constant:

Collector time constant is required to evaluate the transient behavior of a collector. It is define as
the time required rising the outlet temperature by 0.632 of the total temperature increase from
at time zero to at time infinity i.e. time at which the outlet temperature attains
a stagnant value. It can be calculated from the curve between R and time as shown below. The
time interval for which R value is 0.632, is the time constant of the give collector.

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In terms of temperatures R is define as,

Where,

𝑇𝑓𝑜 (𝑡):Outlet water temperature at any time t

𝑇𝑓𝑜 (0): Outlet water temperature at time zero
𝑇𝑓𝑜 (𝛼):: Outlet water temperature at infinite time (maximum temperature)

Shape of the graph between R and time is as shown below.

Basic Equations to calculate different parameters:

A. Heat Loss coefficient (UL)

UL is the overall heat transfer coefficient from the absorber plate to the ambient air. It is a
complicated function of the collector construction and its operating conditions.
In simple term it can be expressed as,
UL= Ut + Ub + Ue (1)
According to Klein (1975), the top loss coefficient can be calculated by using the flowing formula

(2)

Where,
C=365.9× (1- 0.00883â+0.0001298× β2)
f= (1+0.04 ha-0.0005ha2) x (1+0.091N)
ha =5.7+3.8v

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The heat loss from the bottom of the collector is first conducted through the insulation and then by
a combined convection and infrared radiation transfer to the surrounding ambient air. However the
radiation term can be neglected as the temperature of the bottom part of the casing is very low.
Moreover the conduction resistance of the insulation behind the collector plate governs the heat
loss from the collector plate through the back of the collector casing. The heat loss from the back
of the plate rarely exceeds 10% of the upward loss. So if we neglect the convective term there will
not be much effect in the final result. Thus to calculate the bottom loss coefficients we can use the
following formula
𝑘𝑏
𝑈𝑏 = (3)
𝑥𝑏
2
Typical value of the back surface heat loss coefficient ranges between 0.3 to 0.6 W/m K.
In a similar way, the heat transfer coefficient for the heat loss from the collector edges can be
obtained by using the following formula
𝐴𝑒
𝑈𝑒 = 𝑈𝑏 (4)
𝐴𝐶
B. F factors of a flat plate collector (F, 𝑭‫׳‬, FR, F‫)״‬
1. Fin efficiency (F)

For a straight fin with rectangular profile the fin efficiency is given as

(5)
Where,
𝑈𝑙
𝑚=�
𝑘𝜕
/
2. Collector efficiency factor (F )
𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝐹′ =
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Mathematically

(6)

3. Heat Removal factor (FR)

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝐹𝑅 =
𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑟𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒

Mathematically,

(7)

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Another formula for FR,

(8)

4. Flow Factor (F‫)״‬

/
It is the ratio of the heat removal factor (FR) and the collector efficiency factor (F )

Mathematically,

(9)

𝑚̇𝐶𝑝
The parameter is called the collector capacitance rate. It is a dimensionless is called the
𝐴𝑐 𝑈𝐿 𝐹 ′
collector capacitance rate. It is a dimensionless

C. Collector Plate Temperature (TP)

At any point of time the collector plate temperature is given as

(10)
Where, the useful heat gain Qu is given as:

(11)
D. Thermal Efficiency of the collector (ç)

It is the ratio of the Useful heat gain to the Total input energy

Mathematically,

(12)
0
E. Thermal Efficiency of the collector when angle of incident is not 90 (ηθ)
The equation number (12) for the thermal efficiency is applicable for a normal incident angle
0
situation. In a situation where angle of incident is not 90 we will have to add a new parameter in
the equation number (12). The new parameter is known as incident angle modifier (kθ). The
necessity of (kθ) is arises due to change in (τα) product.

For a flat plate collector (kθ) is given as

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 (13)
For a single glaze collector we can use a single order equation with,

(14)
0
Thus for a collector where angle of incident is not 90 , the efficiency can be calculated by using
the following equation,

(15)
Experimental set‐up:
The system has been designed to perform experiments in both Thermosyphonic and Forced
modes of flow.

Schematic diagram of the experimental setup:

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Description of different components:

1. Radiation meter: To measure the radiation level that is received by the collector a radiation
meter is supplied with the system. It is a sensing based device. It can measure the radiation
level in the range of 0 to 1999 w/m2.
2. Thermometer

Five thermometers are connected to the system. The Sensors are RTD based platinum probe and
work on the principle of variation of resistance with temperature. The probes are class A RTD and
0 0
can measure the temperature in the range of -200 C to 650 C.
3. Pressure Gauge

Two pressure gauges are there in the setup. They work on the principle of generation of electrical
signal by semiconductor device due to exertion of pressure. The pressure gauges can measure the
pressure in the range of 101.3 to 650 kpa.
4. Water flow meter

To measure the water flow rate a panel mount flow meter with a mini turbine flow sensor is
connected near the collector inlet. It is a programmable meter. It can measure the flow rate in the
0
range of 0.5 to 25LPM. The temperature limit of the meter is up to 80 C.
5. Pump:

We are using an AC pump to fill up the collector tank as well as to circulate the water through the
collector at some regulated speed. A continuous regulator is there to maintain the flow rate.
6. Anemometer

An anemometer is supplied with the system. This can be used to measure the air velocity and the
ambient air temperature.
The air flow sensor is a conventional angled vane arms with low friction ball bearing while the
temperature sensor is a precision thermistor. The anemometer can measure the wind velocity in
0
the range of 0.4 to 45.0 m/s while the temperature range is -10 to 60 C
7. Fan:

One AC fan is integrated with the system to generate the artificial wind speed. To set the wind
speed as per requirement a regulator is there in the main control unit.
8. Valve: Different valves are there to direct the water flow as per requirement.

Assumptions:

To perform different experiments with this set-up a number of assumptions need to be made.
These assumptions are not against the basic physical principles but simplify the problems up to a
great extent.
1. The collector is in a steady state.
2. The headers cover only a small area of the collector and can be neglected.

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 3. Heaters provide uniform flow to the riser tubes.
4. Flow through the back insulation is one dimensional.
5. Temperature gradients around tubes are neglected.
6. Properties of materials are independent of temperature.
7. No energy is absorbed by the cover.
8. Heat flow through the cover is one dimensional.
9. Temperature drop through the cover is negligible.
10. Covers are opaque to infrared radiation.
11. Same ambient temperature exists at the front and back of the collector.
12. Dust effects on the cover are negligible (if otherwise mention).
13. There is no shading of the absorber plate (if otherwise mention).

CASE 1

Objective: Evaluation of UL, FR, ç and drawing of different curves in forced mode of flow with
different flow rate.

Note: The minimum flow rate that can be measured by the flow meter is 0.5 LPM. So user should
set the flow rate above 0.5 LPM.
Sl Valve Connection Function
No no
1 1 Cold water tank 1 to To fill cold water
pump tank 2
2 2 Pump to cold water To fill cold water
tank 2 tank 2
3 3 Cold water tank to Hot To fill hot water
water tank tank
4 4 Hot water tank to Natural mode of
collector (Natural operation
mode)
5 5 Cold water tank to hot To drain hot water
water tank tank
6 6 Hot water tank to Forced mode of
pump( forced mode) operation (to
supply water to
pump)
7 7 Pump to collector To regulate flow in
(forced mode) forced mode
8 8 Pump to hot water tank To regulate flow in
forced mode

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 Methodology:

1. Fill the cold water tank 2.

2. Close all valves except valve no. 3 and 4.
3. Once water overflows the hot water tank close all valves except valve no.6 and 7.
4. Switch ON the pump and set the regulator at the middle position.
5. See the flow rate on the flow meter screen (forced mode).
6. To get the required flow rate first open the valve No. 8 completely and then
adjust the valve No. 7.
7. Wait for some time to get a stable flow rate reading.
8. Once flow rate is set note all the readings.
9. Switch ON the wind generating fan and set the speed at the desire level.
10. To know the wind speed and ambient air temperature use same methodology
as in experiment No 1.
11. Switch ON the halogen system and set the radiation at the desire level.
12. To know the radiation level use same methodology as in experiment No 1.
13. Note all the readings after every 5 minutes.
14. Keep the pump ON throughout the experiment.

Observations:

• Tilt angle of collector (β)___________deg

• Wind speed (v):_____________ m/sec
m/ • Radiation level (I):______________W/m2

Table -1: Values of different parameters in forced mode of flow with flow rate
Sl Time Ambient Inlet Water Plate Outlet Water Water Inlet Outlet
No temperatu temperatur temperatur water temperatur mass water water
. (tmin) re e e temperatur e in the flow pressur pressure
(Tα0C) (Tft0C) (Tp0C) e storage rate e (pt, (pout,kPa
(Tf00C) tank (𝑚̇, kPa) )
(Ts0C) kg/sec
)

Similar observations must be tabulated for other values of flow rate.

Calculations:

Calculate UL, FR and η for each cases

//
Calculate flow factor (F ) for each cases.
Results:

Draw the following graphs:

a. Efficiency v/s Mass flow rate

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 b. Outlet temperature v/s Mass flow rate

c. Optimum flow rate

d. Flow factor v/s Collector capacitance rate

e. Plate temperature v/s Mass flow rate

f. Heat loss v/s Flow factor

15
 CASE 2
Objective: Evaluation of UL, FR, ç in forced mode of flow at different radiation level

2.1 Maximum Radiation Level

Methodology:

1. Fill up the cold water tank 2 with water at the desire temperature
2. Close all valves excepts valve No. 3 and 4
1. Once water overflows the hot water tank close all valves except valve No.6 and 7
2. Switch ON the pump and set the regulator at the middle position
5. See the flow rate on the flow meter screen (forced mode)
6. To get the required flow rate adjust the valve No. 7 and 8
7. Wait for some time to get a stable flow rate reading
8. Once flow rate is set note all the readings
9. Switch ON the halogen system and set the Regulator for Radiation at the desire level
10. Note all the readings after every 5 minutes
11. Keep the pump ON throughout the experiment
12. To know the radiation level, wind speed and ambient air temperature use same
methodology as in experiment No 1.
Observation:

• Tilt angle of collector (β)___________deg

• Wind speed (v):_____________ m/sec
• Water mass flow rate : _____________________(ṁ , kg/sec)

Table -2: Values of different parameters in forced mode of flow with different irradiation
levels
Sl Time Ambient Inlet Water Plate Outlet water Water Radiation Inlet Outlet
No (tmin) temperature temperature temperature temperature temperature level water water
. (Tα0C) (Tft0C) (Tp0C) (Tf00C) in the storage (W/m2) pressure pressure
tank (pt, kPa) (pout,kPa)
(Ts0C)

Similar observations must be tabulated for other radiation levels.

Calculation:

1. Calculate UL, FR and η for each cases as in Case.1

2. Result: Draw the efficiency graph for different radiation level

DISCUSSION:

1. With increase in flow rate, how the temperature of the hot water tank should change and
why?
2. What are the other parameters which will affect the performance of the Solar Thermal
Water Heater (STWH) and how?

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