Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser: September 2011
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser: September 2011
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser: September 2011
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1. Introduction
With the exploration and development of oil and gas expanded to deepwater area, many new
floating structures are developed to reduce the cost. Steel catenary Riser (SCR) is a flexible steel
pipe that conducts well fluids from the subsea wellhead to the production floating vessel. SCR
has the advantages of low manufacturing cost, resistance of high temperature and high
pressure, good adaptability of upper floating body’s motion, etc, and is widely used in the
development of deepwater oil and gas fields. Because of the complicated marine environment,
SCR theory research involves fluid dynamics, nonlinear mechanics, soil mechanics and other
disciplines. This chapter presents the numerical calculation for soil-riser interaction, vortex-
induced vibration (VIV), fatigue, the coupling of floating vessel and riser, riser installation, etc,
and provides a theoretical basis of SCR design.
Structures can be subjected to drag, buoyancy, and fluid inertia force under steady current
and wave loadings. Wind loading is available for riser above the surface of the water.
ANSYS
ANSYS is a general purpose finite element software. It can solve structure, fluid, electric
field, magnetic field, sound field and multi-physical coupling problems.
ANSYS/ASAS is a structural finite element system containing the features to meet the needs
of offshore and marine engineers. ANSYS/ASAS provides the capabilities to analyze the
global structures of most types of marine structures, including jackets, jack-ups, risers,
offshore wind farms, and floating systems such as FPSOs, SPARs and semi-submersibles.
2. Professional software
Orcaflex
OrcaFlex is 3D non-linear time-domain finite element software developed by Orcina for
static and dynamic analysis of a wide range of offshore systems, including marine risers,
moorings and towed systems. It also provides some modeling elements, such as line, vessel,
buoy, winch and seabed, etc. It also provides extensive graphics to assist understanding.
Shear7
Shear7 is one of the leading modeling tools for the prediction of vortex-induced vibration
(VIV), developed by Professor J. Kim Vandiver in MIT. Shear7 is a mode-superposition
software, which evaluates the modes likely to be excited by vortex shedding and estimates
VIV response in uniform or sheared flows. It is capable of analyzing multi-mode and non-
lock-in response as well as single mode lock-in response.
Other software includes Offpipe, Riflex, VIVA, Flexcom, etc.
2. Pipe-soil interaction
When the SCR is subjected to oscillating movement, there is a complex interaction between
SCR and seabed. The touchdown zone (TDZ) is also the key location where SCR fatigue
damage happens. Pipe-Soil interaction is the important factor that should be considered in
SCR strength and fatigue analysis. Owing to the complex nonlinear behavior of soil, it’s
hard to establish a precise model. How to accurately simulate this interaction is still a
challenge and has been a hot academic research. It affects the calculation of fatigue damage
and the prediction of fatigue life.
The interaction between SCR and the seabed is affected by many factors, such as SCR
properties, water entrainment, soil consolidation time, soil erosion and the development of
trenching. A linear or nonlinear spring is used to model the seabed soil interacting with
SCR. But linear spring does not represent the real behavior of the soil. So, recently
researches on the behavior of soil interacting with SCR have focused on P-y curves of soil
(where P stands for the resistance force of soil and y for the vertical penetration of the SCR).
Many researchers acquired the empirical equations from experiments. It can be classified
into two kinds: non-degradation model and degradation model. This section presents a
typical non-degradation Pipe-Soil interaction models.
QU B( NC SU Z ) (2.1)
Where,
QU Ultimate bearing load per unit length of pipe
B Bearing width of pipe
NC Non-dimensional shape and depth of factor
SU Undrained shear strength of soil
Submerged unit weight of soil
Z The depth of pipe penetration
1. Static stiffness
Static stiffness is used for initial penetration into the virgin seabed. The soil reaction force
can be calculated using equation (2.2).
EI
RC m (2.2)
H
Where,
RC Reaction force
m Submerged weight of SCR per unit length
E Elastic modulus
I Moment of inertia
H Tension at the TDP
2. Large displacement dynamic stiffness
Large displacement dynamic stiffness is a secant stiffness which accounts for the initial
deformation of the soil. It is used to model the pipe-soil interaction where the pipe breaks
out the soil. So the large displacement dynamic stiffness is calculated by equation (2.3).
QU QU
K (2.3)
ZU D
Where,
ZU Mobilisation distance, equating D
Non-dimensional parameter coming from the test
3. Small displacement dynamic stiffness
Small displacement dynamic stiffness is a hyperbolic model simulating the in-contact pipe-
soil interaction. So the small displacement dynamic stiffness is calculated by equation (2.4).
ZD
Q QU (2.4)
(1 X )D XZD
Where,
Q Reaction force per unit length
ZD Dynamic displacement, the maximum value is ZU
X Soil parameter
QS , MAX KC KV KT N D SU (2.4)
260 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
nF
V
KV K F (2.5)
D
FC CV t
KT KTF CTF (2.6)
LD2
Where
KC : Cyclic loading factor
KV : An empirical pull-out velocity factor
V: Pull-out velocity
FC : Consolidate force
CV : Coefficient of consolidation
t : consolidation time
K F , nF , KTF , CTF : Empirical constant from test data
Break-out displacement can be got from equations (2.7)-(2.9):
B K DV K DT D (2.7)
K DV K D V nD (2.8)
FC CV t
K DT K DTF C DTF (2.9)
LD2
Where
K DV : An empirical break-out displacement factor
K DT : Consolidation time factor
K D , nD , K DTF , C DTF : Empirical constant from test data
Other researchers (Aubeny and Biscontin, 2008; Nakhaee and Jun Zhang, 2007) have also
done this work and established the non-degradation models. Degradation models are still
ongoing in laboratory and have not yet been applied in engineering. The process of
degradation models are also developed (Fontaine, et al., 2004; Nakhaee and Jun Zhang,
2009; Hodder and Byrne, 2009).
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 261
2.3 Conclusion
Although many pipe-soil interaction models have been established, there is still uncertainty
on the mechanism of pipe-soil interaction in TDZ. This part introduces a vertical non-
degradation model developed by Bridge, which is used in offshore industry. Soil
degradation, trench formation and lateral pipe-soil interaction are the problems that have
never been solved. Pipe-soil interaction is the key issue for assessment of fatigue damage to
which the mechanism of pipe-soil interaction is of importance.
d
Ig I g M g (3.2)
dt
262 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
Inserting equation (3.3) and (3.4) into equation (3.1) and (3.2) respectively, equation (3.1) can
be expressed in the space fixed system and equation (3.2) can be expressed in the body fixed
system:
d 2 d
m mT t ( rg ) mT t ( ( rg )) Fˆ (3.5)
dt 2
dt
d d 2
Io I o mrg (T 2 ) Mo (3.6)
dt dt
Where, superscript t represents transpose of a matrix.
d 2
ao 2 , is the acceleration at point o of the body in oxyz
dt
(1 , 2 , 3 )t , is the displacement at point o of the body in oxyz
l
(1 , 2 , 3 ) , is the angular velocity of the body in oxyz
rg ( x g , y g , zg )l , is the vector of the center of gravity (mass) of the body in oxyz
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 263
where, FR represents radiation forces, FW exciting forces, FWD wave drift damping forces,
FHS hydrostatic restoring forces, FM mooring/riser/tendon system forces, FWind wind
forces, and FCurrent is current forces.
The wave forces acting on a floating vessel are well documented in the literature.
Corresponding computation methods can be referred to related thesis. For the wind and
current forces, the force coefficients are usually needed which come from experiments. If the
wind has mean and slowly varying components, a suitable spectrum is in need. Data from
the OCIMF is useful for the FPSO analysis.
( Br ) ( r ) q
r (3.8)
If the stretch of rod is assumed to be linear and small, the inextensibility condition can be
approximated as:
264 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
1 T T0
(r r 1) (3.9)
2 AE
Where, B is the bending stiffness ( EI )
r : the vector represents the centerline of the rod
T Br r : Lagrange multiplier
q : the applied load(weight, drag, etc)
T : the tension
T0 : the unstretched tension
AE : the axial stiffness
The external forces applied on the riser include gravity, hydrostatic and hydrodynamic
forces.
The gravity can be expressed as a distributed load as:
qt (s , t ) t gAt ey (3.10)
Where,
Pf is the pressure of sea water
A f is the outer cross-section area of the riser
f is the mass density of the sea water
Due to the internal fluid, Froude-Krylov force for the riser is:
qiF K (s , t ) i gAi ey ( Pi Ai r ) (3.12)
Where, Pi is the pressure from the internal fluid; i is the mass density of the internal fluid.
Ai is the inner area of riser.
Qi K iL ( Xi pi j C ji ri ) (3.13)
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 265
Where, KiL and K are the stiffness matrix of linear and rotation spring
Xi is the translational motion of the rigid body
i is the rotational motion of the rigid body
pi is position vector of the point on the platform where the springs are attached
ri is the position vector of the node of the mooring/riser which is attached by the spring
C ji and D ji are defined to make it easier to do the numerical calculation with the position
vector pi and the unit vector ei as:
0 p3p2
C p3 0 p1
p2 p1 0
0 e3 e2
e3 0 e1
D
e2 e1 0
The resultant force FiS and moment MiS transferred to the body are defined as follows:
N iD C d X i jC ji ri (3.17)
Where C d is the damping coefficient, X and are the translational and rotational velocity
of the rigid body, r is the velocity of the attached node of the line to the body.
The force acts on the rigid body as reaction force by:
FiD N iD (3.18)
computation. But in the frequency domain analysis, all nonlinearities must be linearized
which may require a perturbation assumption. The time domain analysis can confirm
influence of current and previous course on the mechanical state of riser at every time step.
As a result to deal with all the nonlinearities in the coupled analysis, time domain is
obviously the most effective way in the practical project.
The assembled equation of the coupled system of the rigid body and mooring/risers can be
expressed as (HARP manuals):
K L K C U L FL
------------ --- --- (3.19)
B B
K C K B U F
T
where K L is the stiffness matrix of the mooring/riser and the connector springs which
has nL 8 (nE 1) 1 rows where nL is the total number of lines, K B is the stiffness
matrix of the rigid body, K C and K C are the coupled stiffness matrices and its
T
transpose matrix including the coupling terms of the rigid body and the mooring/riser.
U L and U B are the displacement matrices of the lines and the body, FL and FB
are the force and moment terms acting on the lines and the body. The size of K B is 6 6 .
K C has the size of 8 ( nE 1) 1 rows and 6 columns per line. nE is the number of
elements per line.
To calculate the terms of stiffness matrix, further analysis is required. And the time domain
analysis consists of static analysis and dynamic analysis.
3.3 Conclusion
The coupled effect between hull and risers is usually included in the whole coupled analysis
of floating production system. The whole system mainly has two components: the hull and
mooring/risers. Meanwhile, the connection between platform and mooring/riser and the
interaction between riser and seabed also play a part in the coupled analysis. At present, the
hull is described as a 6 DOF rigid body. Risers are modeled by using a finite element
representation of an elastic rod. The connection can use a combination of springs and
dampers. At last, a static analysis and dynamic analysis are conducted.
4. Fatigue
The assessment of fatigue damage is important in SCR design. Cyclic loading can cause the
fatigue damage of SCR, including wave, vortex induced vibration (VIV), hull motion, etc.
This Section mainly discusses the fatigue induced by wave and VIV, and introduces fatigue
assessment methods.
f H fD fI
1 du du
C D Aux ux V0 x C m V0 x (4.1)
2 dt dt
1 dux
C D Aux ux C M V0
2 dt
Where, ux is the water particle velocity at the axis center of cylinder
dux
is the water particle acceleration at the axis center of cylinder
dt
A is the projected area of unit height of cylinder normal to the direction of wave:
V0 is the tonnage of unit height of cylinder
is seawater density
C m is an added mass coefficient
C M is mass coefficient
C D is drag force coefficient
For a cylinder, equation (4.1) can be written as following:
268 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
1 D2 dux (4.2)
f H C D Dux ux C M
2 4 dt
Equation (4.2) is applied for the fixed cylinder. If the cylinder moves under wave loading,
the equation (4.2) should be written as following.
1 D2 ux D2 (4.3)
f H C D D(ux x ) ux x C M Cm
x
2 4 t 4
Where, x is the horizontal displacement at z
x is the horizontal velocity at z
x is the horizontal acceleration at z
Equation (4.2) and equation (4.3) are used for calculating the wave force of straight cylinder.
But SCR is slant cylinder, and equation (4.2) must be modified. Assuming two-dimensional
wave spreads along the direction x. At any point of cylinder, U n is orthogonal component
of water particle velocity and Ut is the tangent component of water particle velocity. U n
and U are corresponding acceleration. As a two-dimensional problem, the direction of
t
velocity and acceleration are general not in the same line. So the Morison’s equation must be
written as vector. Equation (4.4) is Morison’s equation for slant cylinder.
1 D2 (4.4)
f C D DUn U n C M Un
2 4
Where, f is the vector of wave force at z .
The projection of U n to three coordinate is U x ,U y ,U z . Assuming e is the unit vector along
the axial of cylinder.
e ex i e y j e z k (4.5)
U x ux ex ( ex ux ezuz )
U y ey ( ex ux ezuz ) (4.6)
U z uz ez ( ex ux ezuz )
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 269
2 ux uz
U x (1 ex ) t ez ex t
ux u
U y ex ey ez ey z (4.7)
t t
ux 2 uz
U z ex ez t (1 ez ) t
4.2 VIV
If a cylindrical structure is subjected to the current, alternately vortex shedding will be
taking place at each side of the cylinder. Vortex shedding will produce periodic force which
makes cylinder vibration. When the frequency of vortex shedding is close to the nature
frequency of cylinder, cylinder generates resonate. Despite decades of intensive numerical
simulation and experiment research, there is not a model that can accurately simulate VIV
(Williamson and Govardhan, 2008). The problem of VIV is how to determine the
hydrodynamic force. Hydrodynamic force is from experiment or computational fluid
dynamics (CFD), and VIV response prediction model can be classified into two categories:
empirical model and CFD model.
UD
Re (4.9)
v
Where,
U Fluid velocity
v Coefficient of kinematic viscosity
D The outer diameter of cylinder
2. Strouhal number
Strouhal number depends on the Reynolds number, which comes from experiments.
Equation (4.10) is used to calculate the vortex shedding frequency.
f vD
St (4.10)
U
270 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
Re 5 No separation phenomenon
U
Ur (4.11)
f nD
y ( 2 )y 2 y s
(4.12)
q (q 1)q q f
2
s D D
Where, , sS 2 2 2 , f F 2 2 2 ,
2 St(U / D) 4 St U m 4 St U
The parameters of wake oscillator equations are explained as follows:
y : y Y / D : Y is cross-flow displacement, D is outer diameter.
q : Dimensionless wake variable.
St : Strouhal number.
U : Fluid velocity.
m : Mass accounting the mass of structure and fluid-added mass.
: Structure reduced damping.
S : Structural angular frequency.
: Stall parameter.
Frequency domain model
A famous VIV analysis software Shear7 is frequency domain tool, which is based on mode-
superposition method (Vandiver and Li, 2005). Its theoretical background is briefly
described in the section. The governing equation is given by:
Where, mt is mass per unit length, y is the acceleration of the structure, R is the damping
per unit length. y is the velocity of the structure, T is the tension, y is the second derivative
of the displacement of the structure with respect to the spatial variable. P( x , t ) is the
excitation force per unit length.
272 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
y( x , t ) Yr ( x )qr (t ) (4.14)
r
Where, Yr ( x ) is the rth mode shape of the structure. Substituting equation (4.14) into
equation (4.13) and performing modal analysis:
qr Rr q r (t ) K r qr (t ) Pr (t )
Mr (4.15)
L 1 T (s ) 1 T (s ) 2 m (s )n2
0 (
2 EI ( s ) 2 EI (s )
) 4 t
EI (s )
ds n (4.16)
Where, T (s ) is tension, EI (s ) is the bending stiffness, mt (s ) is the mass per unit lengh, n2 is
the nth natural frequency of the structure.
nth mode shape is written as:
ui
x 0
i
(4.18)
( ui ) ( ui u j ) p ( Sij ui uj )
t x j xi x j
Where,
u , p : Time-average velocity and pressure
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 273
: Molecular viscosity
Sij : Mean stress tensor
: Fluid density
The time-average equation (4.18) has addition item: ui uj , which is called Reynolds
stresses, namely:
ij ui uj
(4.19)
Reynolds stresses is a new unknown item. According to different assumptions, RANS can
be mainly divided into 2 types: Reynolds stresses model and eddy viscosity model, as
shown in figure 4.4. Recently two-equation model is extensively used in engineering. The
basic two-equation model is standard k model, which brings in k (turbulence kinetic
energy) and (turbulent dissipation rate) (Dixon and charlesworth, 2006).
Eddy viscosity model indirectly solve Reynolds stress. It is expressed as a function of
turbulent viscosity. The key issue of this method is the calculation of turbulent viscosity.
Turbulent viscosity is represented via the Boussinesq assumption. This assumption
establishes the relationship between Reynolds stress and mean gradients of the velocity:
u u j 2 u
ui uj t i k t i ij (4.20)
x j xi 3 xi
Where, t : turbulent viscosity, ui : mean velocity, ij : “Kronecker delta” symbol (i=j, ij =1;
i j , ij =0), k : turbulent kinetic energy.
274 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
( k ) ( ku ) k
i
t Gk
t xi xi k x j
(4.23)
( ) ( ui ) C1 2
t G k C 2
t xi xi x j k k
Where, Gk : generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to the mean velocity
gradients. C1 and C 2 are constant. k and are turbulence Prandtl numbers.
2. LES model
LES directly solves the instantaneous Navier-Strokes equation. Unlike DNS, LES resolves
only large eddies directly, while small eddies are modeled. The effect of small eddies is
represented by adding an item to LES equations. So, LES can use much coarser grid than
DNS. Commercial software Fluent has a LES module for user (Fluent User’s Guide).
LES governing equations are obtained by using filtered function that effectively filters out
the small eddies. A filter function is defined by:
G( x , x)dx (4.24)
D
Where D is fluid domain, G( x , x) is the filter function that determines the scale of eddies.
G( x , x) has variable expressions. For finite volume method, the filter function can be
defined by:
1 / V , x v
G( x , x) (4.25)
0 , x v
Where V is the volume of computational cell. So equation (4.24) can be written as followed:
1
V D
dx (4.26)
LES equations for incompressible fluid are obtained by using equation (4.26) to filter the
Navier-Strokes equations:
ui
0
xi
(4.27)
u u u ij p ij
i
i j
x j x j x j x j
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 275
ij ui u j ui u j (4.28)
1
ij kk ij 2t Sij (4.29)
3
Where t is subgrid-scale turbulent viscosity. Sij is the rate-of-strain tensor. In
Smagorinsky-Lilly model, t and Sij are defined by:
t L2s S (4.30)
1 u u
Sij i i (4.31)
2 xi x j
1
Where, S 2Sij Sij , Ls min d , C sV 3
is von karman constant, d is the distance to the closest wall, C s is Smagorinsky constant.
Where N is predicted number of cycles to failure for stress range . m is negative inverse
slope of S-N curve. log a is intercept of long N-axis by S-N curve.
The fatigue strength of welded joints is partly dependent on plate thickness. The S-N curve
accounting for the effect of thickness is defined by:
t
k
log N log a m log (4.33)
tref
Where tref is reference thickness. t is thickness through which a crack will mostly grow. k
is thickness exponent on fatigue strength.
According to Palmrgen-Miner rule, the fatigue damage is calculated by (ABS, 2003):
k
ni
D (4.34)
i 1 N i
Where D is accumulated fatigue damage. ni is the number of stress cycles stress block i.
is allowable damage ratio.
276 Numerical Analysis – Theory and Application
The value of parameters in Equation (4.26) can refer to the standards published by each
Classification Society, such as DNV, ABS and CCS.
4.4 Conclusion
This section introduces the factors inducing SCR fatigue and mainly introduces the calculation
methods of wave force and VIV that are commonly used in offshore industry. Wave force on
SCR is obtained by Morsion’s equation, which is widely used in calculation of wave loading
on slender structure. VIV prediction model can be classified into empirical model and CFD
model. Empirical models have been developed for past decades. Commercial software is
developed, such as Shear7, VIVA and VIVNA. With the development of computer technology
and increased storage, CFD application is growing faster recently. Although the decades of
research on VIV and wave induced fatigue, there are uncertainties about the prediction of SCR
fatigue life. It is usually to select larger safety coefficient in SCR design.
5. SCR installation
SCR installation needs to consider the effects of vessel’s motion, wave, current and the
interface with other structures. Some factors are discussed above. So this section only
introduces the SCR installation methods and equipments. Giving a mechanical model of
SCR can be used in installation.
(a) tensioner (b) A&R winch (c) Integrated riser lifting system
Fig. 5.2 SCR installation equipments
d 3θ dθ
EI 3 T w cos θ+f (s )=0
ds ds (5.1)
dT w sin θ
ds
5.3 Conclusion
This section introduces SCR installation methods and equipments. Giving a mechanical
model of SCR can be used in SCR installation. The factors affecting SCR installation are
discussed in the above sections.
6. Conclusion
SCR plays an important role in connecting the floating structure and submarine production
facilities. SCR has advantages of low manufacturing cost, resistance of high temperature and
high pressure, good adaptability of upper floating body’s motion, etc. SCR numerical
simulation has made great advances through the decades of research. Some commercial
software was developed for SCR design. Despite decades of researches, there are
uncertainties on mechanical characteristic of SCR. These are challenges for SCR design and
future endeavor is suggested as follows:
1. Pipe-soil interaction mechanism. Pipe-soil interaction models are obtained from
experiments. Empirical models have been established. Non-degradation models have
been applied in SCR strength analysis and the prediction of fatigue damage. From the
field observation, it will develop a trench beneath the SCR under cyclic loading. The
development of trench is a difficulty. The formation of trench is affected by complex
factors, such as soil plastic deformation, water mixed, soil reconsolidation and soil
erosion. Only infering the trench shape will not reach to precise calculation results.
2. Turbulence is recognized as a difficult problem in the world. Turbulent flows exist in our
lives: Smoke comes from a chimney, water flows in a river and a strong wind strikes the
structure. Turbulent flow is unsteady, irregular, random and chaotic. So, despite decades
of intensive research, there are no models that can accurately simulate the turbulent flow.
The challenge of VIV of SCR is the calculation of hydrodynamic force under turbulent
flow. Empirical models have been used for SCR design. Some commercial software has
been developed, such as Shear7, VIVA. Another approach is CFD technology. In theory,
hydrodynamic force can be accurately calculated by directly solving Navier-Strokes
equations. This method is also called Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). But DNS
requires very refinement grid and micro time step, and the requirement of storage and
computation speed is very high. So RANS and LES are widely applied in engineering. The
future works should be done to establish more exact model.
3. With the increase of water depth, the coupled effects between hull and riser cannot be
neglected. Any uncoupled or simple coupled analysis can’t reflect the coupling effect.
Now there exists systematic method to conduct the couple analysis. But how to deal
with the nonlinear wave load and geometric nonlinearity of the slender structure is still
a problem. Although frequency domain analysis can demonstrate the wave response of
Mechanics of Deepwater Steel Catenary Riser 279
platform to a certain degree and its calculation efficiency is relative high, time domain
analysis is the better way to reflect all the nonlinearities. As a result, some software
whose main task is the coupled analysis such as the HARP and Cable3D are based on
time domain analysis.
7. Acknowledgement
This chapter is financially supported by the National 863 Program of China (granted
number 2006AA09A105), and funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(granted number 50979113). Sincerely thanks go to the colleagues in the COOEC Ltd. and in
the Offshore Oil/Gas Research Centre of China University of Petroleum, who are involved
in this wide range of researches.
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