BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -2.

Discuss biodiversity and the species concept and

explain some environmental problems associated with biological diversity.

In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of biodiversity and environmental
associated problems. You will encounter these terms as we go through the reviews of
ecological science, particularly on biological diversity, threats and challenges, and how
people and intimately connected and the implications of rapid population growth and
towards the environment. It involves a broader understanding of environmental
problems, making judgments evaluating different environmental and their functions.
Please refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of
environmental science concepts.

1. Population. A group of interbreeding individuals of the same species, which is

isolated from other groups.
1.1. In population ecology, a population is a group of individuals of the same
species inhabiting the same area.

2. The aesthetic is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty and
taste, as well as the philosophy of art.
2.1. It examines subjective and sensory-emotional values, or sometimes called
judgments of sentiment and taste.
3. Mutation. An alteration in the nucleotide sequence of the genome of an
organism, virus, or extrachromosomal DNA.
3.1. Viral genomes can be of either DNA or RNA.

4. DNA. A molecule composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each
other to form a double helix carrying genetic instructions for the development,
functioning, growth, and reproduction of all known organisms and many viruses.
4.1. DNA and ribonucleic acid are nucleic acids.

5. Adenine. A nucleobase. It is one of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of

DNA that are represented by the letters G–C–A–T. The three others are guanine,
cytosine, and thymine.

6. Guanine. One of the four main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and
RNA, the others being adenine, cytosine, and thymine.
6.1. In DNA, guanine is pair with cytosine.
6.2. The guanine nucleoside is called guanosine.

7. Cytosine. One of the four main bases found in DNA and RNA, along with adenine,
guanine, and thymine.
7.1. It is a pyrimidine derivative, with a heterocyclic aromatic ring and two
substituents attached.
7.2. The nucleoside of cytosine is cytidine.
7.3. In Watson-Crick base pairing, it forms three hydrogen bonds with guanine.

8. Thymine. One of the four nucleobases in the nucleic acid of DNA that are
represented by the letters G–C–A–T.

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 8.1. The others are adenine, guanine, and cytosine. Thymine is also known as 5-
methyl uracil, a pyrimidine nucleobase.
8.2. In RNA, thymine is replacing by the nucleobase uracil.

9. Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intention
of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location.
9.1. The movement is often over long distances and from one country to
another, but internal migration is also possible; indeed, this is the dominant
form globally.

10. Founder effect. The loss of genetic variation occurs when a new population
establishes a minimal number of individuals from a larger population. It was first
fully outlined by Ernst Mayr in 1942, using existing theoretical work by those such
as Sewall Wright.

11. Ecological extinction. The reduction of a species to such low abundance that,
although it is still present in the community, no longer interacts significantly with
other species".
11.1. Ecological extinction stands out because it is the interaction ecology of a
species that is important for conservation work.
12. Invasive species. A species that is not native to a specific location tends to spread
to a degree believed to damage the environment, human economy, or human
health.

13. Forest. A large area dominated by trees.

13.1. Hundreds of more precise definitions of forest are used throughout the
world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal
standing, and ecological function.

14. Savannas. A mixed woodland-grassland ecosystem characterized by the trees

being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close.
14.1. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an
unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.

15. Open canopy. Describes a kind of forest or woodland in which the tops or crowns
of the trees do not touch each other or overlap, as with a closed canopy.

16. Primary forests are forests of native tree species, where there are no clearly
visible indications of human activities, and the ecological processes are not
significantly disturbed.
16.1. Secondary forests regenerate on native forests, which have been cleared
by natural or human-made causes, such as agriculture or ranching.

17. Pollution. The introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that
causes adverse change.
17.1. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise,
heat, or light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign
substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

18. Geographic isolation. A term refers to a population of animals, plants, or other

organisms separated from exchanging genetic material with other organisms of
the same species.

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 18.1. Typically, geographic isolation is the result of an accident or coincidence.

19. Genes. A sequence of nucleotides in DNA or RNA encodes the synthesis of a gene
product, either RNA or protein. During gene expression, the DNA is first copied
into RNA.
19.1. The RNA can be directly functional or be the standard template for a
protein that performs a function.

20. Genotype. The part of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of any
individual, which determines one of its characteristics.
20.1. The term was coined by the Danish botanist, plant physiologist, and
geneticist Wilhelm Johannsen in 1903.

To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the eighth to nineth
weeks of the course, you need fully understand the following essential knowledge that will
be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to refer to
these resources exclusively. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books, research
articles, and other available resources in the university library. e.g.,e-library,
search.proquest.com, etc.

BIODIVERSITY AND INVASIONS

Biological diversity has become one of the “hot-button” environmental topics—there is a

lot of news about endangered species, loss of biodiversity, and its causes. Biological
diversity refers to the variety of life-forms, commonly expressed as the number of species
or the number of genetic types in an area.

A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area or
interbreeding and sharing genetic information. A species is all individuals that are
capable of interbreeding. A species is made up of populations. There are nine primary
reasons: utilitarian, public service, ecological, moral, theological, aesthetic, recreational,
spiritual, and creative.

Utilitarian means that a species or group of species provides a product that is of

direct value to people.

Public service means that nature and diversity provide some service, such as
taking up carbon dioxide or pollinating flowers that are essential or valuable to
human life and would be expensive or impossible to do ourselves.

Ecological refers to the fact that species have roles in their ecosystems. Some of
these are necessary for the persistence of their ecosystems, perhaps even for the
persistence of all life. Scientific research tells us which species have such
ecosystem roles.

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 The moral reason for valuing biodiversity is that species have a right to exist,
independent of their value to people.

The theological reason is that some religions value nature and diversity, and a
person who subscribes to that religion supports this belief.

Aesthetic refers to the beauty of nature, including a variety of life.

Recreational is self-explanatory— people enjoy getting out into nature, not just
because it is beautiful to look at but because it provides us with healthful activities
that we enjoy.

Spiritual describes the way contact with nature, and its diversity often moves
people, and uplifting often perceived as a religious experience.

Creative refers to the fact that artists, writers, and musicians find stimulation for
their creativity in nature and its diversity.

Basics of Biodiversity

Biological diversity involves the following concepts:

Genetic Diversity. The total number of genetic characteristics of a specific

species, subspecies, or group of species. In terms of genetic engineering and our
new understanding of DNA, this could mean the entire base-pair sequences in
DNA, the total number of genes, active or not, or the total number of active genes.

Habitat Diversity. The different kinds of habitats in a given unit area.

Species Diversity. Which, in turn, has three qualities:

1. species richness—the total number of species

2. species evenness—the relative abundance of species and
3. species dominance—the most abundant species.

Biological Evolution

Biological evolution refers to the change in inherited characteristics of a population from

generation to generation. It can result in new species—populations that can no longer
reproduce with members of the original species but can (and at least occasionally do)
reproduce with each other. Along with self-reproduction, biological evolution is one of
the features that distinguish life from everything else in the universe. The word evolution
in the term biological evolution has a special meaning. Outside biology, evolution is
used broadly to mean the history and development of something.

Four Key Processes in Biological Evolution

Mutation. Mutations are changes in genes. It is contained in the chromosomes

within cells, each gene carries a single piece of inherited information from one

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 generation to the next, producing a genotype. This genetic makeup is
characteristic of an individual or a group. Genes are made up of a complex
chemical compound called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). In turn, DNA is made
up of chemical building blocks that form a code, a kind of alphabet of information.
The DNA alphabet consists of four letters that stand for specific nitrogen-
containing compounds, called bases, which are combined in pairs: (A) adenine,
(C) cytosine, (G) guanine, and (T) thymine. Each gene has a set of the four base
pairs, and how these letters are combined in long strands determines the genetic
“message” interpreted by a cell to produce specific compounds. The number of
base pairs that make up a strand of DNA varies. To make matters more complex,
some base pairs found in DNA are nonfunctional—they are not active and do not
determine any chemicals produced by the cell. Furthermore, some genes affect
the activity of others, turning those other genes on or off. And creatures such as
ourselves have genes that limit the number of times a cell can divide and
determine the individual's maximum longevity.

Natural Selection. When there is variation within a species, some individuals may
be better suited to the environment than others. (Change is not always for the
better. Mutation can result in a new species whether or not that species is better
adapted than its parent species to the environment.) Organisms whose biological
characteristics make them better able to survive and reproduce in their
environment leave more offspring than others. Their descendants form a larger
proportion of the next generation and are more “fit” for the environment. This
process of increasing the proportion of offspring is called natural selection.
Which inherited characteristics lead to more offspring depends on the specific
characteristics of an environment, and as the environment changes over time, the
characteristics’ “fit” will also change. In summary, natural selection involves four
primary factors:

1. The inheritance of traits from one generation to the next and some variation
in these traits—that is, genetic variability.
2. Environmental variability.
3. Differential reproduction (differences in numbers of offspring per
individual) which varies with the environment.
4. Influence of the environment on survival and reproduction.

Migration and Geographic Isolation. Sometimes two populations of the same

species become geographically isolated from each other for a long time. During
that time, the two populations may change so much that they can no longer
reproduce together even when they are brought back into contact. In this case,
two new species have evolved from the original species. This can happen even if
the genetic changes are not more fit but simply different enough to prevent
reproduction. Migration has been an important evolutionary process over
geologic time (a period long enough for geologic changes). Darwin’s visit to the
Galápagos Islands gave him his most powerful insight into biological evolution.10
He found many species of finches that were related to a single species found
elsewhere. On the Galápagos, each species was adapted to a different niche.
Darwin suggested that finches isolated from other species on the continents
eventually separated into a number of groups, each suited to a more specialized
role. The process is called adaptive radiation. This evolution continues today, as
illustrated by a recently discovered new species of finch on the Galápagos Islands.

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 Genetic Drift refers to changes in the frequency of a gene in a population due not
to mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance. One way this happens is
through the founder effect. The founder effect occurs when a small number of
individuals are isolated from a larger population; they may have much less genetic
variation than the original species (and usually do), and the characteristics that the
isolated population has will be affected by chance. In the founder effect and
genetic Drift, individuals may not be better adapted to the environment; they may
be more poorly adapted or neutrally adapted. Genetic Drift can occur in any small
population and may present conservation problems when it is by chance isolated
from the main population.

Factors That Tend to Increase Diversity

1. A physically diverse habitat

2. Moderate amounts of disturbance (such as fire or storm in a forest or a sudden
flow of water from a storm into a pond).
3. A small variation in environmental conditions (temperature, precipitation, nutrient
supply, etc.).
4. High diversity at one trophic level increases the diversity at another trophic level.
(Many kinds of trees provide habitats for many kinds of birds and insects.)
5. An environment highly modified by life (e.g., a rich organic soil).
6. Middle stages of succession.
7. Evolution.

Factors That Tend to Decrease Diversity

1. Environmental stress.
2. Extreme environments (conditions near the limit of what living things can
withstand).
3. A severe limitation in the supply of an essential resource.
4. Extreme amounts of disturbance.
5. Recent introduction of exotic species (species from other areas).
6. Geographic isolation (being on a real or ecological island).
Threats to Biodiversity

Extinction. The elimination of a species is a normal process of the natural world.

Species die out and are replaced by others, often their own descendants, as part
of evolutionary change. Extinction is a natural process. The rate at which species
are disappearing appears to have increased dramatically over the last 150 years.

Habitats Destruction. The most important extinction threat for most species—
especially terrestrial ones—is habitat loss. Perhaps the most obvious example of
habitat destruction is clear-cutting of forests and conversion of grasslands to crop
fields.

Invasive Species. A major threat to native biodiversity in many places is from

accidentally or deliberately introduced species. Called a variety of names—alien,
exotic, non-native, non-indigenous, unwanted, disruptive, or invaders—invasive
species are organisms that move into new territory. These migrants often flourish
where they are free of predators, diseases, or resource limitations that may have
controlled their population in their native habitat. Although humans have probably
transported organisms into new habitats for thousands of years, the rate of

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 movement has increased sharply in recent years with the vast increase in speed
and volume of travel by air, water, and land.

Pollution. We have known that toxic pollutants can have disastrous effects on local
populations of organisms for a long time. Pesticide-linked declines of top
predators, such as eagles, osprey, falcons, and pelicans, were well documented in
the 1970s. Declining populations of marine mammals, alligators, fish, and other
wildlife alert us to the connection between pollution and health. Lead poisoning is
another major cause of mortality for many species of wildlife.

Population. Human population growth represents a threat to biodiversity in

several ways. If our consumption patterns remain constant, with more people, we
will need to harvest more timber, catch more fish, plow more land for agriculture,
dig up more fossil fuels and minerals, build more houses, and use more water. All
of these demands impact wild species.

Overharvesting. It is responsible for the depletion or extinction of many species.

Fish stocks have been seriously depleted by overharvesting in many parts of the
world. A massive increase in fishing fleet size and efficiency in recent years has led
to a crash of many marine populations.

Commercial Products and Live Specimens. In addition to harvesting wild species

for food, we also obtain a variety of valuable commercial products from nature.
Much of this represents a sustainable harvest, but some forms of commercial
exploitation are highly destructive and represent a serious threat to certain rare
species. Despite international bans on trade in products from endangered species,
smuggling of furs, hides, horns, live specimens, and folk medicines amounts to
millions of dollars each year.

ENDANGERED SPECIES MANAGEMENT

Over the years, we have gradually become aware of the harm we have done—and
continue to do—to wildlife and biological resources. Slowly, we are adopting national
legislation and international treaties to protect these irreplaceable assets. Parks, wildlife
refuges, nature preserves, zoos, and restoration programs have been established to
protect nature and rebuild depleted populations. Where earlier regulations had been
focused almost exclusively on “game” animals, these programs seek to identify all
endangered species and populations and to save as much biodiversity as possible,
regardless of its usefulness to humans.

Endangered species are those considered in imminent danger of extinction,

Threatened species are those that are likely to become endangered—at least
locally—within the foreseeable future.
Vulnerable species are naturally rare or have been locally depleted by human
activities to a level that puts them at risk.

A variety of terms are used for rare or endangered species thought to merit special
attention:

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 Keystone species have significant effects on ecological functions and whose
elimination would affect many other members of the biological community;
examples are prairie dogs (Cynomys ludovicianus) or bison (Bison bison).

Indicator species are those tied to specific biotic communities or successional

stages or set of environmental conditions. They can be reliably found under certain
circumstances but not others; an example is brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis).

Umbrella species require large blocks of relatively undisturbed habitat to

maintain viable populations. Saving this habitat also benefits other species.
Examples of umbrella species are the northern spotted owl (Strix occidentalis
caurina) and elephant (Loxodonta africana).

Flagship species are especially interesting or attractive organisms to which

people react emotionally. These species can motivate the public to preserve
biodiversity and contribute to conservation; an example is a giant panda
(Ailuropoda melanoleuca).

BIODIVERSITY AND LANDSCAPES

Forests

Forests have always been important to people; indeed, forests and civilization have
always been closely linked. Since the earliest civilizations—in fact, since some of the
earliest human cultures—wood has been one of the major building materials and the most
readily available and widely used fuel. Forests are widely distributed, but the most
significant remaining areas are in the humid equatorial regions and the cold boreal forests
of high latitudes.

The UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines forest as any area where trees
cover more than 10 percent of the land. This definition includes a variety of forest types
ranging from open savannas, where trees cover less than 20 percent of the ground, to
closed-canopy forests, in which tree crowns overlap to cover most of the ground.
Globally, about one-third of all forests are categorized as primary forests. Unfortunately,
an estimated 6 million ha (15 million acres) of these irreplaceable forests are cleared or
heavily damaged every year.

Four ways that a forest (or a vegetated area) can affect the atmosphere:

1. Some solar radiation is absorbed by vegetation, and some is reflected, changing

the local energy budget, compared to a non-forest environment.
2. evaporation and transpiration from plants, together called evapotranspiration,
transfers water to the atmosphere
3. photosynthesis by trees releases oxygen into the atmosphere and removes carbon
dioxide, a greenhouse gas, cooling the temperature of the atmosphere
4. near-surface wind is reduced because the vegetation —especially trees—produces
roughness near the ground that slows the wind.

Parks and Preserves

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While most forests and grasslands serve utilitarian purposes, many nations have set aside
some natural areas for ecological, cultural, or recreational purposes. Some of these
preserves have existed for thousands of years. Different levels of protection are found in
nature preserves. A park is an area set aside for use by people. Although people may use
it, a nature preserve has as its primary purpose the conservation of some resource,
typically a biological one. Every park or preserve is an ecological island of one kind of
landscape surrounded by a different kind of landscape, or several different kinds.

Ecological and physical islands have special ecological qualities, and island
biogeography concepts are used in the design and management of parks. One of the
important differences between a park and a truly natural wilderness area is that a park has
definite boundaries. These boundaries are usually arbitrary from an ecological viewpoint
and have been established for political, economic, or historical reasons unrelated to the
natural ecosystem. Many natural parks and preserves are increasingly isolated, remnant
fragments of ecosystems that once extended over large areas.

As park ecosystems are shrinking, they are also becoming more important for maintaining
biological diversity. Principles of landscape design and landscape structure become
important in managing and restoring these shrinking islands of habitat. One of the
reasons large preserves are considered better than small preserves is that they have more
core habitat, areas deep in the interior of a habitat area, and that core habitat has better
conditions for specialized species than do edges. Edge effects is a term generally used to
describe habitat edges. For example, a forest edge is usually more open, bright, and
windy than a forest interior, and temperatures and humidity are more varied. Landscape
ecology is a science that examines the relationship between these spatial patterns and
ecological processes, such as species movement or survival.

Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson.

Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA

Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern. 11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.

Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA

Activity No. 5. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of
biological diversity and invasions. Let us try to check your understanding on these terms
and concepts. In the space provided, identify biodiversity and invasions concepts
described in each of the following statements.

______________________1. It refers to the variety of life forms, commonly expressed as the

number of species or the number of genetic types in an area.

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______________________2. It refers to the beauty of nature, including the variety of life.
______________________3. The total number of genetic characteristics of a species.
______________________4. The change in inherited characteristics of a populations from
generation to generation.
______________________5. Refers to the changes in the frequency of a gene in a
population due not to mutation, selection, or migration, but simply to chance.
______________________6. Refers to species considered in imminent danger of extinction.
______________________7. A species with major ecological functions and whose
elimination would affect the other members of the biological community.
______________________8. The science that examines the relationship between these
spatial patterns and ecological processes.
______________________9. A species that can motivate the public to preserve biodiversity
and contribute to conservation.
______________________10. Refers to species tied to specific biotic communities or
successional stages or set of environmental conditions.

Activity No. 5. Getting acquainted with the essential terms in studying biodiversity and
invasions, green revolution, genetic engineering as well biological interactions will not be
sufficient, what also matters is you should be able to identify and discuss how biological
diversity is affected by population movement, patterns, and community structure. Now, I
will require you to explain thoroughly your answers.

1. Discuss comprehensively what is species richness, species evenness, and species

dominance.
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2. What is migration? Can migration influence biological diversity?

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3. Identify and discuss the key processes of biological evolution.

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4. Enumerate at least three (3) threats to biodiversity and discuss comprehensively.

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Activity No. 5. Based on the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of
biological diversity and the learning exercises that you have done, please feel free to write
your arguments or lessons below.

1. ___________________________________________________________________________
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2. ___________________________________________________________________________
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3. ___________________________________________________________________________
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4. ___________________________________________________________________________
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Q and A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?

Questions/ Issues Answers

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 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

KEYWORDS INDEX
Genetic Diversity Endangered species Adaptive radiation
Biological Evolution Threaten Founder effect
Keystone species DNA Migration
Vulnerable Indicator Geographic isolation

BIG PICTURE IN FOCUS: ULO -3. Explain how rocks and minerals are formed, weather
and climate patterns, and discuss air pollution sources, water pollution, use, and
management.

In this section, the essential terms relevant to the study of geology and Earth's resources,
air pollution, water pollution, and the introduction of environmental are presented. Please
refer to the definition in case you will encounter difficulty in the understanding of
environmental science concepts.

1. Geology. An earth science concerned with the solid Earth, the rocks of which it is
composed, and the processes by which they change over time.
1.1. Geology can also include studying the solid features of any terrestrial
planet or natural satellite, such as Mars or the Moon.

2. Tectonics. The process that controls the structure and properties of the Earth's
crust and its evolution through time.

3. Ridges. A geographical feature consists of a chain of mountains or hills that form

a continuous elevated crest for some distance.
3.1. The sides of the ridge slope away from the narrow top on either side.

4. Minerals. A solid chemical compound that occurs naturally in pure form.

4.1. Minerals are most commonly associated with rocks due to the presence of
minerals within.

5. Rocks. Any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid

matter.

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 5.1. The minerals categorize it included its chemical composition and how it is
formed.
5.2. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks, and sedimentary rocks.

6. Weathering. The breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as well as wood and
artificial materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, water, and
biological organisms.

7. Hazards refer to any agent that can harm humans, property, or the environment.
7.1. Risk is defined as the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to a
negative consequence, or more simply, a hazard poses no risk if there is no
exposure to that hazard.

8. Earthquake. The shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of
energy in the Earth's lithosphere creates seismic waves.

9. Volcanoes. A rupture in the crust of a planetary-mass object, such as Earth, allows

hot lava, volcanic ash, and gases to escape from a magma chamber below the
surface.
9.1. Earth's volcanoes occur because its crust is broken into 17 major, rigid
tectonic plates that float on a hotter, softer layer in its mantle.
10. Fossil fuels. A fuel formed by natural processes, such as anaerobic decomposition
of buried dead organisms, containing organic molecules originating in ancient
photosynthesis that release energy in combustion.

11. Atmosphere. A layer or a set of layers of gases surrounding a planet or other

material body that is held in place by the gravity of that body.
11.1. An atmosphere is more likely to be retained if the gravity it is subject to is
high, and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.

12. Temperature. A physical property of matter that quantitatively expresses hot and
cold.
12.1. It is the manifestation of thermal energy present in all matter, which is the
source of heat, a flow of energy when a body is in contact with another that
is colder.
12.2. Temperature is measured with a thermometer.

13. Pressure. The force applied perpendicular to the surface of an object per unit area
over which that force is distributed.
13.1. Gauge pressure is the pressure relative to the ambient pressure.
13.2. Various units are used to express pressure.

14. Greenhouse effect. The process by which radiation from a planet's atmosphere
warms the planet's surface to a temperature above what it would be without this
atmosphere.
14.1. Radiatively active gases in a planet's atmosphere radiate energy in all
directions.

15. Greenhouse gases. A gas that absorbs and emits radiant energy within the
thermal infrared range.
15.1. Greenhouse gases cause the greenhouse effect on planets.

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 15.2. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor,
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone.

16. Weather. The state of the atmosphere describes the degree to which it is hot or
cold, wet or dry, calm or stormy, clear or cloudy.
16.1. Most weather phenomena occur in the lowest level of the atmosphere, the
troposphere, just below the stratosphere.

17. Climate. The long-term average of weather typically averaged over 30 years.
17.1 Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are
temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation.

18. Wastewater. Any water that has been contaminated by human use. Wastewater is
"used water from any combination of domestic, industrial, commercial or
agricultural activities, surface runoff or stormwater, and any sewer inflow or sewer
infiltration.
19. Scarcity. The limited availability of a commodity may be in demand in the market
or by the commons. Poverty also includes an individual's lack of resources to buy
products.

20. Eutrophication. When a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals
and nutrients, which induce excessive growth of algae.
21.1. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body.

21. Urban runoff. The surface runoff of precipitation created by urbanization.

21.1. This runoff is a significant source of flooding and water pollution in urban
communities worldwide.
21.2. Impervious surfaces, such as roads, parking lots, rooftops, and sidewalks,
are constructed during land development.

22. Sewage. A type of wastewater that is produced by a community of people.

22.1. It is characterized by volume or rate of flow, physical condition, chemical
and toxic constituents, and bacteriologic status.

23. Environmental Law. A collective term encompassing aspects of the law that
protect the environment.
1.1. A related but distinct set of regulatory regimes, now strongly influenced by
environmental legal principles, focuses on the management of specific
natural resources, such as forests, minerals, or fisheries.

GEOLOGY AND EARTH RESOURCES

Earth is a dynamic planet. Although we think of the ground under our feet as solid and
stable, the Earth is a dynamic and constantly changing structure. Titanic forces inside the
earth cause continents to split, move apart, and crash into each other in slow but
inexorable collisions. The Earth is a layered sphere. The core, or interior, is composed of a
dense, intensely hot mass of metal—mostly iron— thousands of kilometers in diameter.
Solid in the center but more fluid in the outer core, this immense mass generates the

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magnetic field that envelops the Earth. Surrounding the molten outer core is a hot, pliable
layer of rock called the mantle. The mantle is much less dense than the center because it
contains a high concentration of lighter elements, such as oxygen, silicon, and
magnesium. The outermost layer of the Earth is the cold, lightweight, brittle rock crust.
The crust below oceans is relatively thin (8–15 km), dense, and young (less than 200
million years old) because of constant recycling. The crust under continents is relatively
thick (25–75 km), light, and as early as 3.8 billion years, with new material being added
continually.

Tectonics

The huge convection currents in the mantle are thought to break the overlying crust into a
mosaic of huge blocks called tectonic plates. Tectonic processes reshape continents ad
cause earthquakes. These plates slide slowly across the Earth's surface like wind-driven
ice sheets on water, breaking up into smaller pieces, in other places crashing ponderously
into each other to create new, more significant landmasses. Ocean basins form where
continents crack and pull apart. Magma (molten rock) forced up through the cracks forms
a new oceanic crust that piles up underwater in mid-ocean ridges.

Creating the largest mountain range in the world, these ridges wind around the Earth for
74,000 km (46,000 mi). Slowly spreading from these fracture zones, ocean plates push
against continental plates. Earthquakes are caused by grinding and jerking as plates slide
past each other. When an oceanic plate collides with a continental landmass, the
continental plate usually rides over the seafloor, while the marine plate is subducted,
or pushed down into the mantle, where it melts and rises back to the surface as magma.

Rocks and Minerals

A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, substantial element or compounds with

definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure. Naturally occurring
means not created by humans (or synthetic). Organic materials, such as coal, produced by
living organisms or biological processes, are generally not minerals. The two fundamental
characteristics of a mineral that distinguish it from all other minerals are its chemical
composition and its crystal structure.

A rock is a solid, cohesive aggregate of one or more minerals. Within the rock, individual
mineral crystals (or grains) are mixed and held firmly in a solid mass. The grains may be
large or small, depending on how the rock was formed, but each grain retains its unique
mineral qualities. Each rock type has a characteristic mixture of minerals (and therefore of
different chemical elements), grain sizes, and ways in which the grains are mixed and held
together. There are three major rock classifications: igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic. In this section, we will look at how they are made and some of their
properties. Geomorphology is the study of the processes that shape the Earth's surface
and the structures they create.

Igneous. The most common rock-type in the Earth's crust is solidified from
magma, welling up from the Earth's interior. These rocks are classed as igneous
rocks (from igni, the Latin word for fire). Magma extruded to the surface from
volcanic vents cools quickly to make basalt, rhyolite, andesite, and other fine-
grained rocks. Magma that cools slowly in subsurface chambers or is intruded

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 between overlying layers makes granite, gabbro, or other coarse-grained
crystalline rocks, depending on its specific chemical composition.

Sedimentary. Types of rock formed by the accumulation or deposition of small

particles and subsequent cementation of mineral or organic particles on the floor
of oceans or other bodies of water at the Earth's surface. Sedimentation is the
collective name for processes that cause these particles to settle in place. The
particles that form a sedimentary rock is called sediment and may be composed
of geological detritus (minerals) or biological detritus (organic matter). Before
being deposited, the geological debris was formed by weathering and erosion
from the source area and then transported to deposition by water, wind, ice,
mass movements, or glaciers called agents of denudation.

Metamorphic. Preexisting rocks can be modified by heat, pressure, and chemical

agents to create new forms called metamorphic rock. Deeply buried strata of
igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks are subjected to great heat and
pressure by deposition of overlying sediments or while they are being squeezed
and folded by tectonic processes. Chemical reactions can alter both the
composition and structure of the rocks as they are metamorphosed. Some
common metamorphic rocks are marble (from limestone), quartzite (from
sandstone), and slate (from mudstone and shale). Metamorphic rocks are often the
host rock for economically essential minerals such as talc, graphite, and
gemstones.

Weathering

Most of these crystalline rocks are extremely hard and durable, but exposure to air, water,
changing temperatures, and reactive chemical agents slowly breaks them down in a
process called weathering.

Mechanical weathering. It is the physical breakup of rocks into smaller particles

without a change in the chemical composition of the constituent minerals. You
have probably seen mountain valleys scraped by glaciers or river and shoreline
pebbles that are rounded from being rubbed against one another as waves and
currents tumble them.

Chemical weathering. Is the selective removal or alteration of specific

components that leads to weakening and disintegration of rock. Among the more
important chemical weathering processes are oxidation (a combination of oxygen
with an element to form an oxide or hydroxide mineral) and hydrolysis (hydrogen
atoms from water molecules combine with other chemicals to form acids).

Geological Hazards

Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, and landslides are among the geological forces
that have shaped the world. Among direct natural disasters, floods take the largest
number of human lives, while windstorms (hurricanes, cyclones, tornadoes) cause the
greatest property damage. Geologic events such as meteor or asteroid impacts (a),
massive volcanic eruptions (b), or climate change (c) are thought to trigger mass
extinctions that mark major eras in the Earth's history.

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 Earthquakes. are sudden movements in the Earth's crust that occur along the fault
(planes of weakness) where one rock mass slides past another one. When
movement along faults occurs gradually and relatively smoothly, it is called creep
or seismic slip and may be undetectable to the casual observer. When friction
prevents rocks from slipping quickly, stress builds up until it is finally released with
a sudden jerk, as was the case in the 2004 Sumatran earthquake. The point on a
fault at which the first movement occurs during an earthquake is called the
epicenter. Earthquakes have always seemed mysterious, sudden, and violent,
coming without warning and leaving in their wake ruined cities and dislocated
landscapes. Earthquakes are almost always followed by a series of aftershocks that
can continue long after the initial shock. The ring of seismic activity and active
volcanoes (often called the “ring of fire”) around the edge of the Pacific Ocean
makes it the most likely place in the world for tsunami formation.

Volcanoes. Volcanoes and undersea magma vents produce much of the Earth's
crust. Over hundreds of millions of years, gaseous emissions from these sources
formed the Earth's earliest oceans and atmosphere. One of the most famous
historic volcanic eruptions was that of Mount Vesuvius in southern Italy, which
buried the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii in a.d. 79. The mountain had been
giving signs of activity before it erupted, but many citizens chose to stay and take a
chance on survival. On August 24, the mountain buried the two towns in ash.
Thousands were killed by the dense, hot, toxic gases that accompanied the ash
flowing down from the volcano.

Landslides. Gravity continually pulls downward on every material everywhere on

Earth, causing a variety of phenomena collectively termed mass wasting or mass
movement, in which geologic materials are moved downslope from one place to
another. The resulting motion is often slow and subtle, but some slope processes
such as rockslides, avalanches, and land slumping can be swift, dangerous, and
obvious. Landslide is a general term for the rapid downslope movement of soil or
rock.

FOSSILS FUELS

Fossil fuels are forms of stored solar energy. Plants are solar energy collectors because
they can convert solar energy to chemical energy through photosynthesis. The primary
fossil fuels used today were created from incomplete biological decomposition of dead
organic matter (mostly land and marine plants). Buried organic matter that was not
completely oxidized was converted by chemical reactions over hundreds of millions of
years to oil, natural gas, and coal. Biological and geologic processes in various parts of
the geologic cycle produce the sedimentary rocks where we find these fossil fuels. The
primary fossil fuels—crude oil, natural gas, and coal—are our primary energy sources;
they provide approximately 90% of the energy consumed worldwide.

AIR, WEATHER, AND CLIMATE

Atmosphere

We live at the bottom of a layered ocean of air that extends upward about 500 km. All the
weather we see is in the lowest 10–12 km, a continually moving layer known as the

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troposphere. Ceaseless flowing and swirling in the troposphere redistribute heat and
moisture from one part of the globe to another. Short-lived and local patterns of
temperature and moisture we call weather. In contrast, the climate is long-term patterns
of temperature and precipitation. The Earth's earliest atmosphere probably consisted
mainly of lightweight hydrogen and helium. Over billions of years, most of that hydrogen
and helium diffused into space. Volcanic emissions added carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,
sulfur, and other elements to the atmosphere.

Clean, dry air is mostly nitrogen and oxygen. Water vapor concentrations vary from near
zero to 4 percent, depending on air temperature and available moisture. Minute particles
and liquid droplets—collectively called aerosols—also are suspended in the air.
Atmospheric aerosols play important roles in the Earth's energy budget and in producing
rain. The atmosphere has four distinct zones of contrasting temperatures due to
differences in the absorption of solar energy.

Troposphere. The layer of air immediately adjacent to the Earth's surface is called
the troposphere (tropein means to turn or change, in Greek). Within the
troposphere, air circulates in great vertical and horizontal convection currents,
constantly redistributing heat and moisture around the globe. The troposphere's
depth ranges from about 18 km (11 mi) over the equator to about 8 km (5 mi) over
the poles, where the air is cold and dense. Because gravity holds most air
molecules close to the Earth's surface, the troposphere is much denser than the
other layers: It contains about 75 percent of the total mass of the atmosphere. Air
temperature drops rapidly with increasing altitude in this layer, reaching about
_60°C (_76°F) at the top of the troposphere.

Stratosphere. The stratosphere extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km

(31 mi). It is vastly more dilute than the troposphere, but it has a similar
composition—except that it has almost no water vapor and nearly 1,000 times more
ozone (O3). Near the Earth's surface, ozone is a pollutant, but it serves an essential
function in the stratosphere. Stratospheric ozone absorbs specific wavelengths of
ultraviolet solar radiation, known as UV-B (290–330 nm, see fig. 3.10). This
absorbed energy makes the atmosphere warmer toward the top of the
stratosphere.

Mesosphere. The third layer of the atmosphere directly above the stratosphere
and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere temperature decreases
as altitude increases. These characteristics are used to define its limits; it begins at
the top of the stratosphere (sometimes called stratopause) and ends at the
mesopause, which is the coldest part of the Earth's atmosphere with temperatures
below -143 degrees Celsius.

Thermosphere. The thermosphere (heated layer) begins at about 80 km. It is a

region of highly ionized (electrically charged) gases, heated by a steady flow of
high-energy solar and cosmic radiation. In the lower part of the thermosphere,
intense pulses of high-energy radiation cause electrically charged particles (ions)
to glow. We know this phenomenon as the aurora borealis and aurora australis,
or northern and southern lights.

Atmospheric Processes

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Two essential qualities of the atmosphere are pressure and temperature. The pressure
is force per unit area. Atmospheric pressure is caused by the weight of overlying
atmospheric gases on those below and therefore decreases with altitude. We are familiar
with this as barometric pressure, which the weatherman gives to us in units that are the
height to which that pressure raises a column of mercury. When air pressure is high, it
moves downward, which warms the air, changing the condensed water drops in clouds to
vapor; therefore, high-pressure systems are clear and sunny.

Temperature, familiar to us as the relative warmth or coldness of materials, is a

measure of thermal energy, which is the kinetic energy—the motion of atoms and
molecules in a substance.

Water vapor content is another important characteristic of the lower atmosphere.

It varies from less than 1% to about 4% by volume, depending on air temperature,
air pressure, and availability of water vapor from the surface.

Generalized Circulation of the Atmosphere

Greenhouse Effect

The change in energy quality is significant because the atmosphere selectively absorbs
longer wavelengths. Most solar energy comes in the form of intense, high-energy light or
near-infrared wavelengths. This short-wavelength energy passes relatively quickly through
the atmosphere to reach the Earth's surface. Energy re-released from the Earth's warmed
surface ("terrestrial energy") is lower-intensity, longer-wavelength energy in the far-
infrared part of the spectrum. Atmospheric gases, especially carbon dioxide and water
vapor, absorb much of this long-wavelength energy, re-releasing it in the lower
atmosphere and leak out to space only slowly. This terrestrial energy provides most of the
heat in the lower atmosphere.

This phenomenon is called the greenhouse effect because the atmosphere, loosely
comparable to the glass of a greenhouse, transmits sunlight while trapping heat inside.

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The greenhouse effect is a natural atmospheric process that is necessary for life as we
know it.
However, too strong a greenhouse effect caused by the burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation may create adverse environmental change. Greenhouse gases are a
general term for gases that are especially effective at capturing the long-wavelength
energy from the Earth's surface. Water vapor (H2O) is the most abundant greenhouse
gas, and it is always present in the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most
abundant human-caused greenhouse gas, followed by methane (CH4), nitrous oxide
(N2O), and dozens of other gases.

Weather and Climate Patterns

Weather is a description of the physical conditions in the atmosphere (humidity,

temperature, air pressure, wind, and precipitation) over short time scales. Weather is
what's happening now or over some short time—this hour, today, this week—in the
atmosphere near the ground: its temperature, pressure, cloudiness, precipitation, and
winds. Climate is the average weather and usually refers to average weather conditions
over long periods, at least seasons, but more often years or decades. Since climates are
characteristic of certain latitudes (and other factors that we will discuss later), they are
classified mainly by latitude—tropical, subtropical, mid-latitudinal (continental), sub-
Arctic (continental), and Arctic—but also by wetness/dryness, such as humid
continental, Mediterranean, monsoon, desert, and tropical wet-dry.

Climate changes have continued in more recent —“recent” geologically speaking, that is.
The mean annual temperature of Earth has swung up and down by several degrees
Celsius over the past million years. Over the last 18,000 years, climate change has greatly
affected people during the previous major time of continental glaciations—changes in
Earth's temperature over varying periods during the past million years. Significant
changes correspond to glacial (cool) and interglacial (warm) periods over the past
800,000 years.

Data to document and understand climate change come from three main periods: the
Instrumental Record, the Historical Record, and the Paleo-Proxy Record. The use of
instruments to make climate measurements began around 1860. Since then,
temperatures have been measured at various places on land and in the oceans. The
average of these observations produces the graph. Several groups have tried to
reconstruct the average surface temperature of the Earth using available comments.
Temperature measurement has improved dramatically in recent years thanks to such
devices as ocean platforms with automatic weather-monitoring equipment, coordinated
by the World Meteorological Organization. Thus, we have more accurate records since
about 1960.

Historical Records

Paleo-proxy. Proxy data refers to scientific data that are not strictly climatic but can
be correlated with climate data, such as the temperature of the land or sea. Proxy
data provides important insights into climate change. Information gathered as
proxy data includes natural records of climate variability, as indicated by tree rings,
sediments, ice cores, fossil pollen, corals, and carbon-14.

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 Proxy Climate Records. Ice Cores- Polar ice caps and mountain glaciers have an
accumulation record of snow that has been transformed into glacial ice over
hundreds to thousands of years. Ice cores often contain small bubbles of air
deposited at the time of the storm, and we can measure the atmospheric gases in
these. Two important gases being measured in ice cores are carbon-dioxide (CO2)
and methane (CH4). Of the two, it appears methane most closely follows climate
change determined from the geologic record over the past 1,000,000 years. As a
result, CO2 and CH4 are the most relevant proxy for climate change. The ice cores
also contain a variety of chemicals and materials, such as volcanic ash and dust,
which may provide additional insights into possible causes of climate change. Ice
cores are obtained by drilling into the ice.

Tree Rings. The growth of trees is influenced by climate, both temperature, and
precipitation. Many trees put on one growth ring per year, and patterns in the tree
rings—their width, density, and isotopic composition—tell us something about the
climate variability. When conditions are good for growth, a ring is wide; when
conditions are poor, the ring is narrow. Tree-ring chronology, known as
dendrochronology, has produced a proxy record of climate that extends back
over 10,000 years

Sediments. Biological material, including pollen from plants, is deposited on the

land and stored for very long periods in the lake, bog, and pond sediments and,
once transported downstream to the coast, in the oceans. Samples may be taken
of tiny fossils and chemicals in the deposits, and these may be interpreted to study
past climates and extend our knowledge back hundreds of thousand years. Pollen
is useful because:

1. the quantity of pollen is an indicator of the relative abundance of each plant

species
2. the pollen can be dated, and since the grains are preserved in sedimentary
layers that might be dated, we can develop a chronology
3. based on the types of plants found at different times, we can construct a
climatic history.

Corals. Corals have hard skeletons composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a

mineral extracted by seawater corals. The carbonate contains isotopes of oxygen,
as well as a variety of trace metals, which have been used to determine the
temperature of the water in which the coral grew. The growth of corals has been
dated directly with a variety of dating techniques over short periods of coral
growth, thereby revealing the chronology of climate change over variable periods.

Carbon-14. Radioactive carbon-14 (14C) is produced in the upper atmosphere by

the collision of cosmic rays and nitrogen-14 (14N). Cosmic rays come from outer
space; those the Earth receives are predominantly from the sun. The abundance of
cosmic rays varies with the number of sunspots, so-called because they appear as
dark areas on the sun. The frequency of sunspots has been accurately measured
for decades and observed by people for nearly 1,000 years. As sunspot activity
increases, more energy from the sun reaches Earth. There is an associated solar
wind, which produces ionized particles consisting mostly of protons and electrons,
emanating from the sun.
Adjustments

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People can adjust to the threat of global warming in two ways:

Adapt: Learn to live with future global climate change over the next 20 years
because there is warming in the pipeline from greenhouse gases already emitted.

Mitigate: Work to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases and take action to
reduce the undesirable effects of global warming.

Key Elements to Combat Climate Change

1. emissions trading to promote cost-effective emissions reductions

2. technology sharing that would double research investment in clean energy
technology and accelerate the spread of that technology to developing countries
3. reduce deforestation, which is a quick and highly cost-effective way to reduce
emissions
4. help poorer countries by honoring pledges for development assistance to adapt to
climate change.

AIR POLLUTION

The atmosphere has always been a sink—a deposition and storage place—for gaseous and
particulate wastes. When the amount of waste entering an area of the atmosphere
exceeds the atmosphere's ability to disperse or break down the pollutants, problems
result. Air pollution is generally the most widespread and obvious kind of environmental
damage. While developed countries have been making progress, air quality in the
developing world has been getting much worse.

Sources

There are, however, many natural sources of air quality degradation. Volcanoes spew out
ash, acid mists, hydrogen sulfide, and other toxic gases. In many cases, the chemical
compositions of pollutants from natural and human-related sources are identical, and
their effects are inseparable can occur. While the natural sources of suspended particulate
material in the air outweigh human sources at least tenfold worldwide, in many cities,
more than 90 percent of the airborne particulate matter is anthropogenic (human-
caused). Two major categories of pollution sources are stationary and mobile sources.
Stationary sources have relatively fixed locations and include point sources, fugitive
sources, and area sources. Mobile sources include trucks and buses.

Point Sources. Emit pollutants from one or more controllable sites such as power
plant smokestacks.

Fugitive Sources. Generate air pollutants from an open area exposed to wind. It
includes burning for agricultural purposes and dirt roads, construction sites,
farmlands, storage piles, surface mines, and other exposed areas.

Area Source. A well-defined area within which several sources of air pollutants. It
includes small urban communities, areas of intense industrialization within urban
complexes, and agricultural areas sprayed with herbicides and pesticides.

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Categories of Pollutants

Primary. Are those released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form?
These pollutants are emitted directly into the air. They include particulates, sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and hydrocarbons.

Secondary. They are modified to a hazardous form after they enter the air or are
formed by chemical reactions as components of the air mix and interact. Solar
radiation often provides the energy for these reactions. Photochemical oxidants
and atmospheric acids created by these mechanisms are probably the most
important secondary pollutants in human health and ecosystem damage.
Secondary pollutants are produced reactions between primary pollutants and
standard atmospheric compounds.

Criteria Pollutants

The six most common pollutants are called criteria pollutants because the Environmental
Protection Agency (EPA) has set specific limits on the levels of these six, and they are
responsible for most of our air pollution problems. The six criteria pollutants are; sulfur
dioxide, nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, ozone, particulates, and lead.

Sulfur Dioxide. A colorless and odorless gas usually present at Earth's surface in
low concentrations. A significant feature of sulfur dioxide is that once it is emitted
into the atmosphere, it can be converted into fine particulate sulfate and removed
from the atmosphere by wet or dry deposition. The primary anthropogenic source
of sulfur dioxide is the burning of fossil fuels.

Nitrogen Oxides. Highly reactive gases formed when nitrogen in fuel or

combustion air is heated to temperatures above 650°C (1,200°F) in the presence
of oxygen, or when bacteria in soil or water oxidize nitrogen-containing
compounds. The initial product, nitric oxide (NO), oxidizes further in the
atmosphere to nitrogen dioxide (NO2), a reddish-brown gas that gives
photochemical smog its distinctive color. Because of their interconvertibility, the
general term NOx is used to describe these gases. Nitrogen oxides combine with
water to make nitric acid (HNO3).

Carbon Monoxide. Is a colorless, odorless gas that even at very low

concentrations is extremely toxic to humans and other animals. The high toxicity
results from a physiological effect. CO inhibits respiration in animals by binding
irreversibly to hemoglobin. Carbon monoxide and hemoglobin have a strong
natural attraction for one another; if there is carbon monoxide in any vicinity, the
hemoglobin in our blood will take up nearly 250 times faster than oxygen and
carry mostly carbon monoxide rather than oxygen, from the atmosphere to the
internal organs. Effects range from dizziness and headaches to death.

Ozone and Other Photochemical Oxidants. A form of oxygen in which three

atoms of oxygen occur together rather than the usual two. Photochemical oxidants
are secondary pollution arising from atmospheric interactions of nitrogen dioxide
and sunlight. This atomic oxygen then reacts with other molecules of O2 to make

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 ozone (O3). Ozone formed in the stratosphere provides a valuable shield for the
biosphere by absorbing incoming ultraviolet radiation.

Particulate Matter. It is made of tiny particles. The term particulate matter is used
for varying mixtures of suspended in the air we breathe, but in regulations, these
are divided into three categories.
1. PM 10- particles up to 10 micrometers in diameter.
2. PM 2.5- particles between 2.5 and 0.18 microns
3. Ultra-fine particles- smaller than 0.18 micrometers in diameter

Lead. Is an important constituent of automobile batteries and many industrial

products. Leaded gasoline helps protect engines and promotes more effective
fuel consumption. However, the lead emitted into the air with exhaust and has
thereby been spread widely around the world, reaching high levels in soils and
waters along the roadways. Once released, lead can be transported through the
air as particulates to be taken up by plants through the soil or deposited directly
on their leaves.

Air Toxics

Toxic air pollutants or air toxics are among those pollutants known or suspected to cause
cancer and other serious health problems, either long-term or short-term exposure.
Although most air contaminants are regulated because of their potential adverse effects
on human health or environmental quality, a particular category of toxins is monitored by
the U.S. EPA because they are particularly dangerous. Called hazardous air pollutants
(HAPs), these chemicals include carcinogens, neurotoxins, mutagens, teratogens,
endocrine system disrupters, and other highly toxic compounds. Air toxics includes
gases, metals, and organic chemicals that are emitted in relatively small volumes.

WATER USE, POLLUTION, AND TREATMENT

Water Resource

Water is a marvelous substance—flowing, rippling, swirling around obstacles in its path,

seeping, dripping, trickling, continually moving from sea to land and back again—the
water we use cycles endlessly through the environment. The total amount of water on our
planet is immense—more than 1,404 million km3 (370 billion gals). The hydrologic cycle
constantly redistributes water. Solar energy drives the hydrologic cycle by evaporating
surface water, which becomes rain and snow. Because water and sunlight are unevenly
distributed around the globe, water resources are very uneven.

Water Supply

Rain falls unevenly over the planet. Some places get almost no precipitation, while others
receive heavy rain almost daily. Three principal factors control these global water deficits
and surpluses.

1. First, global atmospheric circulation creates regions of persistent high air pressure
and low rainfall about 20° to 40° north and south of the equator. These same

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 circulation patterns produce frequent rainfall near the equator and between about
40° and 60° north and south latitude.
2. Second, proximity to water sources influences precipitation. Where prevailing
winds come over oceans, they bring moisture to land. Areas far from oceans—in a
windward direction—are usually relatively dry.
3. The third factor in water distribution is topography. Mountains act as both cloud
formers and rain catchers. As air sweeps up the windward side of a mountain, air
pressure decreases, and the air cools. As the air cools, it reaches the saturation
point, and moisture condenses as either rain or snow.

Water Compartments

The distribution of water often is described in terms of interacting compartments in which

water resides, sometimes briefly and sometimes for eons. The length of time water
typically stays in a compartment is its residence time. A water molecule stays in the ocean
for about 3,000 years, for example, before it evaporates and starts through the hydrologic
cycle again.

Oceans. Oceans hold 97 percent of all water on Earth. Together, the oceans
contain more than 97 percent of all the liquid water in the world. (The water of
crystallization in rocks is far larger than the amount of liquid water.) Oceans are too
salty for most human uses, but they contain 90 percent of the world’s living
biomass. While the ocean basins really form a continuous reservoir, shallows and
narrows between them reduce water exchange, so they have different
compositions, climatic effects, and even different surface elevations. Oceans play a
crucial role in moderating the Earth's temperature. In tropical seas, surface waters
are warmed by the sun, diluted by rainwater and runoff from the land, and aerated
by wave action. In higher latitudes, surface waters are cold and much denser.

Glaciers, Ice, and Snow. Of the 2.4 percent of all freshwater, nearly 90 percent is
tied up in glaciers, ice caps, and snowfields. Glaciers are rivers of ice flowing
downhill very slowly. Now occur only at high altitudes or high latitudes, but as
recently as 18,000 years ago, about one-third of the continental landmass was
covered by glacial ice sheets.

Groundwater. After glaciers, the next largest reservoir of freshwater is held in the
ground as groundwater. Precipitation that does not evaporate back into the air or
runoff over the surface percolates through the soil and into fractures and spaces of
permeable rocks in a process called infiltration. Upper soil layers that hold both
air and water make up the zone of aeration. Moisture for plant growth comes
from these layers. Depending on the rainfall amount, soil type, and surface
topography, the zone of aeration may be very shallow or quite deep. Lower soil
layers where all spaces are filled with water make up the zone of saturation. The
top of this zone is the water table. Water tables also rise and fall seasonally,
depending on precipitation and infiltration rates. Porous layers of sand, gravel, or
rock lying below the water table are called aquifers. Aquifers are always underlain
by relatively impermeable layers of stone or clay that keep water from seeping out
at the bottom. Areas in which infiltration of water into an aquifer occurs are called
recharge zones. The rate at which most aquifers are refilled is very slow, however,
and groundwater presently is being removed faster than it can be replenished in
many areas. Urbanization, road building, and other development often block

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 recharge zones and prevent replenishment of essential aquifers. Groundwater
stores large resources.

Rivers, Lakes, and Wetlands. Precipitation that does not evaporate or infiltrate
into the ground runs off over the surface, drawn by the force of gravity back toward
the sea. Rivulets accumulate to form streams, and streams join to form rivers.
Although the total amount of water contained at any one time in rivers and streams
is small compared to the other water reservoirs of the world, these surface waters
are vitally important to humans and most other organisms. Most rivers, if not
constantly replenished by precipitation, meltwater from snow and ice, or seepage
from groundwater, would begin to diminish in a few weeks. We measure the size
of a river in terms of its discharge, the amount of water that passes a fixed point in
a given amount of time.

Atmosphere. The atmosphere is among the smallest of the major water reservoirs
of the Earth in terms of water volume, containing less than 0.001 percent of the
total water supply. It also has the most rapid turnover rate. An individual water
molecule resides in the atmosphere for about ten days, on average. While water
vapor makes up only a small amount (4 percent maximum at normal temperatures)
of the air's total volume, movement of water through the atmosphere provides the
mechanism for distributing freshwater over the landmasses and replenishing
terrestrial reservoirs.

Availability and Use

Clean, freshwater is essential for nearly every human endeavor. Perhaps more than any
other environmental factor, water availability determines the location and activities of
humans on Earth. Renewable water supplies are made up, in general, of surface runoff
plus the infiltration into accessible freshwater aquifers. About two-thirds of the water
carried in rivers and streams every year occurs in seasonal floods that are too large or
violent to be stored or trapped effectively for human uses. Stable runoff is the
dependable, renewable, year-round supply of surface water.

Scarcity

Water scarcity occurs when the demand for water exceeds the available amount, or poor
quality restricts its use. Water stress occurs when renewable water supplies are
inadequate to satisfy essential human or ecosystem needs, bringing about increased
competition among potential demands. Water stress is most likely to occur in developing
countries where the per capita renewable water supply is low. Periodic droughts create
severe regional water shortages. Droughts are most common and often most severe in
semiarid zones, where moisture availability is the critical factor in determining plant and
animal distribution. Undisturbed ecosystems often survive extended droughts with little
damage, but the introduction of domestic animals and agriculture disrupt native
vegetation and undermines natural adaptations to low moisture levels.

Withdrawal

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Most water we use eventually returns to rivers and streams. Therefore, it is important to
distinguish between withdrawal and consumption. Withdrawal is the total amount of
water taken from a lake, river, or aquifer. Much of this water is in India for Agricultural. in
Kuwait, where water is especially precious, only 4 percent is used for crops. In the United
States, which has a large industrial sector and a highly urbanized population, about half of
all water withdrawal, and about 80 percent of consumption,
is agricultural.

A tragic case of water overconsumption is the Aral Sea, which lies in Kazakhstan and
Uzbekistan. Once the fourth-largest inland water body in the world, this giant saline lake
lost 75 percent of its surface area and 80 percent of its volume between 1975 and 2004
when, under the former Soviet Union, 90 percent of the natural flow of the Amu Dar'ya
and Syr Dar'ya Rivers was diverted to irrigate rice and cotton. Towns that once were
prosperous fish processing and shipping ports now lie 100 km from the lakeshore.
Vozrojdenie Island, used for biological weapons productions in the Soviet era, has
become connected to the mainland, causing concern about the security of materials
stored there. The salt concentration in the remaining water doubled, and fishing, which
once produced 20,000 tons per year, ceased altogether. Today, more than 200,000 tons
of salt, sand, and toxic chemicals are blown from the dried lake bottom every day. This
polluted cloud destroys pastures, poisoning farm fields, and damages the health of
residents who remain in the area. As water levels dropped, the lake split into two lobes.
The "Small Aral" in Kazakhstan is now being reclaimed.

Water Pollution

Water pollution refers to the degradation of water quality. From public health or
ecological view, a pollutant is any biological, physical, or chemical substance that, in an
identifiable
excess, is harmful to desirable living organisms. Water pollutants include heavy metals,
sediment, certain radioactive isotopes, heat, fecal coliform bacteria, phosphorus,
nitrogen, sodium, and other useful (even necessary) elements, as well as certain
pathogenic
bacteria and viruses. The increasing population often results in the introduction of more
pollutants into the environment as well as greater demands on finite water resources.

Biochemical Oxygen Demand

Dead organic matter in streams decays. Bacteria are carrying out this decay use oxygen. A
stream with low oxygen content is a poor environment for fish and most other organisms.
A stream with an inadequate oxygen level is considered polluted for organisms that
require dissolved oxygen above the existing level. The amount of oxygen required for
biochemical decomposition processes is called the biological or biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD). BOD is commonly used in water-quality management. It measures the
amount of oxygen consumed by microorganisms as they break down organic matter
within small water samples, which are analyzed in a laboratory. BOD is routinely measured
at discharge points into surface water, such as at wastewater treatment plants.

At treatment plants, the BOD of the incoming sewage water from sewer lines is measured,
as is water from locations both upstream and downstream of the plant. It allows
comparison of upstream, background, BOD, and the BOD of the water being discharged

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by the plant. When BOD is high, as suggested earlier, the water's dissolved oxygen
content may become too low to support life in the water. Three zones are identified:

1. A pollution zone, where a high BOD exists. As waste decomposes,

microorganisms use the oxygen, decreasing the dissolved oxygen content of the
water.
2. An active decomposition zone, where the dissolved oxygen reaches a minimum
owing to rapid biochemical decomposition by microorganisms as the organic
waste is transported downstream.
3. A recovery zone, where dissolved oxygen increases, and BOD is reduced
because most of the oxygen demanding organic waste from the input of sewage
has decomposed, and natural stream processes are replenishing the water’s
dissolved oxygen. For example, in quickly moving water, the water at the surface
mixes with air, and oxygen enters the water.

Waterborne Diseases

The primary water-pollution problem in the world today is the lack of clean drinking water.
Each year, particularly in less-developed countries, several billion people are exposed to
waterborne diseases whose effects vary in severity from an upset stomach to death.

Fecal Coliform. Because it is challenging to monitor disease-carrying organisms

directly, we use the count of fecal coliform bacteria as a standard measure and
indicator of disease potential. The presence of fecal coliform bacteria in water
indicates that fecal material from mammals or birds is present, so organisms that
cause waterborne diseases may be present. Fecal coliform bacteria are usually (but
not always) harmless bacteria that normally inhabit the intestines of all animals,
including humans, and are present in all their wastes. Water with any fecal coliform
bacteria is unsuitable for drinking. One type of fecal coliform bacteria, Escherichia
coli, or E. coli 0157, has caused human illness and death.

Nutrients

Two important nutrients that cause water-pollution problems are phosphorus and
nitrogen, and both are released from sources related to land use. Stream waters on
forested land have the lowest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen because forest
vegetation efficiently removes phosphorus and nitrogen. In urban streams, concentrations
of these nutrients are greater because of fertilizers, detergents, and products of sewage
treatment plants. The highest concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen are often found
in agricultural areas, where the sources are fertilized farm fields and feedlots. Over 90% of
all nitrogen added to the environment by human activity comes from agriculture.

Eutrophication. is the process by which a body of water develops a high

concentration of nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus (in the forms of
nitrates and phosphates). The nutrients increase the growth of aquatic plants in
general, as well as the production of photosynthetic blue-green bacteria and
algae. Algae may form surface mats that shade the water and block light to algae
below the surface, greatly reducing photosynthesis. The bacteria and algae die,

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 and as they decompose, BOD increases, reducing the water’s oxygen content,
sometimes to the point where other organisms, such as fish, will die.

Surface Water Pollution

Pollution of surface water occurs when too much of an undesirable or harmful substance
flows into a body of water, exceeding that body of water's natural ability to remove it,
dilute it to a harmless concentration, or convert it to a harmless form. Water pollutants,
like other pollutants, are categorized as being emitted from the point or nonpoint
sources.

Point sources are distinct and confined, such as pipes from industrial and
municipal sites that empty into streams or rivers. In general, point source pollutants
from industries are controlled through on-site treatment or disposal and are
regulated by permit.

Nonpoint sources, such as runoff, are diffused and intermittent and are influenced
by factors such as land use, climate, hydrology, topography, native vegetation, and
geology. Common urban nonpoint sources include runoff from streets or fields;
such runoff contains all sorts of pollutants, from heavy metals to chemicals and
sediment. Rural sources of nonpoint pollution are generally associated with
agriculture, mining, or forestry. Nonpoint sources are difficult to monitor and
control.

Surface Water Pollution Reduction

From an environmental view, two approaches to dealing with surface-water pollution are:

1. to reduce the sources

2. to treat the water to remove pollutants or convert them to forms that can be
disposed of safely.

Two of the newer techniques are:

1. nanotechnology
2. urban-runoff naturalization.

Nanotechnology uses extremely small material particles (10−9m size,

about 100,000 times thinner than a human hair) designed for a
number of purposes. Some nanoparticles can capture heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, and arsenic from water. The nanoparticles
have a tremendous surface area to volume. One cubic centimeter of
particles has a surface area exceeding a football field and can take up
over 50% of its weight in heavy metals.

Urban-runoff naturalization is an emerging bioengineering technology to treat

urban runoff before it reaches streams, lakes, or the ocean. One method is to
create a "closed-loop" local landscape that does not allow runoff to leave a
property. Plants may be located as "rain gardens" below downspouts, and
parking-lot drainage is directed to plants instead of the street.

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Wastewater Treatment

Water used for industrial and municipal purposes is often degraded during use by the
addition of suspended solids, salts, nutrients, bacteria, and oxygen-demanding material.
Wastewater treatment—sewage treatment—costs about $20 billion per year in the United
States, and the cost keeps rising, but it will continue to be big business. Conventional
wastewater treatment includes septic-tank disposal systems in rural areas and centralized
wastewater treatment plants in cities.

Septic Tank Disposal Systems. In many rural areas, no central sewage systems or
wastewater treatment facilities are available. As a result, individual septic-tank
disposal systems, not connected to sewer systems, continue to be an important
method of sewage disposal in rural areas as well as outlying areas of cities. The
tank is designed to separate solids from liquid, digest (biochemically change),
store organic matter through a period of detention, and allow the clarified liquid to
discharge into the drain field (absorption field) from a piping system the treated
sewage seeps into the surrounding soil. As the wastewater moves through the soil,
it is further treated by the natural processes of oxidation and filtering. By the time
the water reaches any freshwater supply, it should be safe for other uses.

Wastewater Treatment Plants. In urban areas, wastewater is treated at specially

designed plants that accept municipal sewage from homes, businesses, and
industrial sites. The raw sewage is delivered to the plant through a network of
sewer pipes. Following treatment, the wastewater is discharged into the surface-
water environment (river, lake, or ocean) or, in some limited cases, used for
another purpose, such as crop irrigation. The main purpose of standard treatment
plants is to break down and reduce the BOD and kill bacteria with chlorine.
Wastewater treatment methods are usually divided into three categories: primary
treatment, secondary treatment, and advanced wastewater treatment. Primary
and secondary treatments are required.

Primary Treatment. Incoming raw sewage enters the plant from the
municipal sewer line and passes through a series of screens to remove
large floating organic material. The sewage next enters the "grit chamber,"
where sand, small stones, and grit are removed and disposed of. It goes to
the primary sedimentation tank, where particulate matter settles out to form
sludge. Sometimes, chemicals are used to help the settling process. The
sludge is removed and transported to the "digester" for further processing.
Primary treatment removes approximately 30 to 40% of BOD by volume
from the wastewater, mainly in the form of suspended solids and organic
matter.

Secondary Treatment. There are several methods of secondary treatment.

The most common treatment is known as activated sludge because it uses
living organisms—mostly bacteria. In this procedure, the wastewater from
the primary sedimentation tank enters the aeration tank where it is mixed
with air (pumped in) and with some of the sludge from the final
sedimentation tank. The sludge contains aerobic bacteria that consume
organic material (BOD) in the waste. The wastewater then enters the final
sedimentation tank, where sludge settles out. Some of this “activated

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 sludge,” rich in bacteria, is recycled and mixed again in the aeration tank
with air and new, incoming wastewater acting as a starter. The bacteria are
used again and again. Most of the sludge from the final sedimentation tank,
however, is transported to the sludge digester.

Advanced Wastewater Treatment. Advanced wastewater treatment is used when

it is particularly important to maintain good water quality. For example, if a
treatment plant discharges treated wastewater into a river and there is concern
that nutrients remaining after secondary treatment may damage the river
ecosystem (eutrophication), advanced treatment may be used to reduce the
nutrients.

Chlorine Treatment. Chlorine is very effective in killing the pathogens responsible

for outbreaks of serious waterborne diseases that have killed many thousands of
people. However, a recently discovered potential is that chlorine treatment also
produces minute quantities of chemical by-products, some of which are potentially
hazardous to people and other animals.

Land Application of Wastewater

Applying wastewater to the land arose from the fundamental belief that waste is simply a
resource out of place. Land application of untreated human waste was practiced for
hundreds if not thousands of years before the development of wastewater treatment
plants, which have sanitized the process by reducing BOD and using chlorination.

Wastewater and Wetland. Wastewater is being applied successfully to natural

and constructed wetlands at a variety of locations.33–35 Natural or human-made
wetlands can be effective in treating the following water-quality problems:

1. municipal wastewater from primary or secondary treatment plants (BOD,

pathogens, phosphorus, nitrate, suspended solids, metals)
2. stormwater runoff (metals, nitrate, BOD, pesticides, oils)
3. industrial wastewater (metals, acids, oils, solvents)
4. agricultural wastewater and runoff (BOD, nitrate, pesticides, suspended
solids)
5. mining waters (metals, acidic water, sulfates)
6. groundwater seeping from landfills (BOD, metals, oils, pesticides)

Water Reuse

Water reuse can be inadvertent, indirect, or direct. Inadvertent water reuse results when
water is withdrawn, treated, used, treated, and returned to the environment, followed by
further withdrawals and use. Inadvertent water reuse is common and a fact of life for
millions of people living along large rivers. Many sewage treatment plants are located
along rivers and discharge treated water into the rivers. Downstream, other communities
withdraw, treat, and consume the water. Several risks are associated with inadvertent
reuse:

1. Inadequate treatment facilities may deliver contaminated or poor-quality water to

downstream users.

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 2. Because the fate of all disease-causing viruses during and after treatment is not
completely known, the health hazards of treated water remain uncertain.
3. Every year, new and potentially hazardous chemicals are introduced into the
environment. Harmful chemicals are often difficult to detect in the water, and if
they are ingested in low concentrations over many years, their effects on people
may be difficult to evaluate.

Indirect water reuse is a planned endeavor. For example, in the United States,
several thousand cubic meters of treated wastewater per day have been applied to
numerous sites to recharge groundwater and reuse them for agricultural and
municipal purposes.

Direct water reuse refers to the use of treated wastewater piped directly from a
treatment plant to the next user. In most cases, the water is used in industry, in
agri-cultural activity, or for watering golf courses, institutional grounds (such as
university campuses), and parks. Direct water reuse is growing rapidly and is the
norm for industrial processes in factories.

Environmental Laws and Policy

Environmental law, the branch of law dealing with conservation and use of natural
resources and control of pollution, is very important as we debate environmental issues
and
make decisions about how best to protect our environment. At its core, then, a policy is a
plan or statement of intentions— either written or stated—about a course of action or
inaction intended to accomplish some end.

Power in Politics. According to some observers, politics is really the struggle for
power among competing interest groups that strive to shape public policy to suit
their own agendas. The political system, in this view, manages group conflict by:

1. establishing rules to ensure civil competition

2. encouraging compromises and balancing interests to the extent possible,
3. codifying compromises as public policy
4. enforcing laws and rules based on that policy.

Creation of Policies

Laws are rules set by authority, society, or custom. Church laws, social morés,
administrative regulations, and various other codes of behavior can be considered laws if
some enforcement power backs them. Government laws are established by federal, state,
or local legislative bodies or administrative agencies. Environmental law constitutes a
unique body of official rules, decisions, and actions concerning environmental quality,
natural resources, and ecological sustainability. Each branch of government plays a role in
establishing the rules of law. Statute law consists of formal documents or decrees
enacted by the government's legislative branch declaring, commanding, or prohibiting
something. It represents the formal will of the legislature. Case law is derived from court
decisions in both civil and criminal cases. Administrative law rises from executive orders,
administrative rules and regulations, and enforcement decisions in which statutes passed
by the legislature are interpreted in specific applications and individual cases because
every country has different legislative and legal processes.

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International Treaties

▪ CBD: Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 (1993)

▪ CITES: Convention on International Trade on Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora 1973 (1987)
▪ CMS: Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979
(1983)
▪ Basel: Basel Convention on the Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes
and their Disposal 1989 (1992)
▪ Ozone: Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1985 (1988)
▪ UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 1992 (1994)
▪ CCD: United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries
Experiencing Serious Drought and Desertification, Particularly
▪ in Africa 1994 (1996)
▪ Ramsar: Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat 1971 (1975)
▪ Heritage: Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage 1972 (1975)
▪ UNCLOS: United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 (1994)

Self-Help: You can refer to the sources below to help you further understand the
lesson.

Marten. G.G. 2008. Human Ecology: Basic Concepts for Sustainable Development.
Earthscan, USA

Cunningham, W. P. and Cunningham, M. 2010. Environmental Science: A Global

Concern. 11th Edition. McGraw Hill, New York.

Botkin, D. and Keller, E. 2011. Environmental Science: Earth as a Living Planet. 8 th Edition.
John Wiley and Sons, USA

Activity No. 6. Now that you have the most essential terms and concepts in the study of
geology and earth resource, water pollution and treatment, and environmental policy. Let
us try to check your understanding of these terms and concepts. In space provided, write
your answers to each of the following questions.

______________________1. The collective term encompassing aspects of the law that

provide protection to the environment.
______________________2. Refers to the process that controls the structure and properties
of the Earth’s crust and its evolution through time.
______________________3. An agent that cause harm or damage to humans, property, or
the environment.

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______________________4. It refers to the probability that exposure to a hazard will lead to
a negative consequence.
______________________5. The process of breaking down of rocks, soil, and minerals as
well wood and artificial materials through contact with the Earth’s atmosphere, water, and
biological organisms.
______________________6. A naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound
with a definite chemical composition and a regular internal crystal structure.
______________________7. Refers to a solid, cohesive, aggregate of one or more minerals.
______________________8. The long-term patterns of temperature and precipitation.
______________________9. Refers to a minute particles and liquid droplets.
______________________10. The general term for gases that are especially effective at
capturing the long-wavelength energy from the earths surface.

Activity No. 6. Getting acquainted with the essential terms essential terms and concepts
of geology and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy. Now, I will
require you to explain thoroughly your answers.

1. Identify and differentiate the different layers of the atmosphere and its unique
features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. How climate and weather differs?

___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. What is an air pollution? Discuss comprehensively the sources of pollution and its
corresponding categories.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. What is water compartment? Identify and discuss different types of water

compartments and its unique features.
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. What is water pollution? How does water resource become polluted? Cite
examples of water pollution sources and discuss how it affects our water resources
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

6. What is wastewater treatment? It is important to ensure clean and safe water

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 resource? If yes, how, if no, why?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Activity No. 6. Based from the definition of the most essential terms and concepts of
geology and earth resources, water pollution and environmental policy and the learning
exercises that you have done, please feel free to write your arguments or lessons learned
below.

1. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

2. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

3. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

4. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

5. ___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________

Q and A LIST
Do you have any questions for clarification?

Questions/ Issues Answers

1.

2.

3.

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 4.

5.

KEYWORDS INDEX
Geology Point Sources Estuary
Environmental Law Non-Point Sources Weather
Wastewater Treatment Residence Time Climate
Sewage Criteria Pollutant Atmosphere

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