Chapter 1 Chemistry and Measurement
Chapter 1 Chemistry and Measurement
Chapter 1 Chemistry and Measurement
MEASUREMENT
Results
COURSE OBJECTIVE
The use of chemistry applies to everything around us on a daily basis like the food we
eat, lightbulbs, cellular phones and laptops, television sets, medicines, transportation,
Theory
only to name a few.
SCIENTIFIC METHOD
MATTER
All sciences employ a systematic approach to research called scientific method. The
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass, and chemistry is the study
data obtained may be both qualitative, consisting of general observations about the
of matter and the changes it undergoes. Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid, and
system, and quantitative, consisting numbers obtained by various measurements of
gas.
the system. The following are the steps in the figure beside.
Solids are rigid objects with definite shapes. Liquids are less rigid and are fluid – they
When experiments were completed, scientists attempt to explain the observed
are able to flow and assume the shape of their containers. Gases are also fluid and can
phenomenon. Based on the data gathered, the researcher formulates a hypothesis or
expand indefinitely.
tentative explanation for a set of observations.
Matter can be interconverted from one form or another with the influence of heat flow.
Hypotheses surviving many experimental tests to confirm their validity can now be
called a theory. A theory is a unifying principle that explains a body of facts and/or
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER
those laws that are based on them.
SUBSTANCES AND MIXTURES
A law, in science, is a concise verbal or mathematical statement of a relationship
between phenomena that is always the same under the same conditions. A substance is matter that has a definite or constant composition and distinct
properties. Examples include water, ethanol, and table salt. Substances differ from one
another and can be classified by their appearance, smell, taste, and other properties.
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A mixture is a combination of two or more substances in which the substances retain All measurable properties of matter could be classified as extensive property and
their distinct identities. Unlike pure substances, mixtures do not have constant intensive property. Extensive property depends on how much matter is being
composition. considered. Mass, length, and volume are extensive properties. In addition, extensive
properties of the same substance are additive. Intensive property does not depend on
A mixture can either be homogeneous and heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture the amount of matter being considered. Intensive properties can also be obtained by
exists when the composition of the mixture is the same throughout the solution. On the the ration of two extensive property. For example, density is the ratio of mass to
other hand, a heterogeneous mixture exists when the composition is not uniform. volume.
Any mixture can be created and then separated by physical means back into pure
MEASUREMENTS
components without changing the identities of the components, for example distillation
process. Chemistry heavily depends on measurements. Measurements that can be carried out
can provide an idea of macroscopic properties, which can be determined directly,
ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS and microscopic properties, on the atomic or molecular scale that can be determined
by an indirect method. In order to unify the way of measurement, the International
A substance can either be an element or a compound. An element is a substance that
System of Units (System International d’Unites) is used.
cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means. Whenever these
elements interact with one another and combine, they form compounds. Compounds
are substances composed of two or more elements chemically united in fixed BASE QUANTITY NAME OF UNIT SYMBOL
proportions. Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Matter Time Second s
Electrical Current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Mixtures Substances Amount of Substance Mole mol
Luminous Intensity Candela cd
The prefixes used with the SI units are tabulated below.
Homogeneous Heterogeneous Compounds Elements
PREFIX SYMBOL MEANING PREFIX SYMBOL MEANING
12
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER Tera- T 10 Centi- c 10-2
Giga- G 109 Milli- m 10-3
Substances are identified by their properties and composition. A physical property
can be measured and observed without changing the composition or identity of a Mega- M 106 Micro- µ 10-6
substance. For example, melting point, boiling point, color, and density. Kilo- k 103 Nano- n 10-9
On the other hand, chemical property is a property observed by carrying out a Deci- d 10-1 Pico- p 10-12
chemical change, thus the original substances will have to be consumed to turn into
chemically different substance. For example, hydrogen and oxygen when burned will
form water. SI-DERIVED UNITS
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Volume is length cubed, so its SI-derived unit is cubic meter (m 3). Another common
non-SI unit of volume is the liter (L). A liter is the volume occupied by one cubic
decimeter (dm3). One liter is equal to 1000 milliliters (mL) or 1000 cubic centimeters
(cm3).
m
ρ=
v
(1)
The SI-derived unit for density is kilogram per cubic meter (kg/m 3). This unit is very
large for chemical applications, therefore grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm 3) or grams 3. What is the thickness of a piece of gold foil that has a mass of 1.000 g and
per milliliter (g/mL) are more often used. measures 5.00 cm by 10.00 cm, if the density of gold is 18.9 g/cm3?
SEATWORK
4. The density of copper is 8.94 g/cm 3 at 20°C and 8.91 g/cm 3 at 60°C. The
decrease in density is the result of which of the following? Why?
2. A piece of platinum metal with a density of 21.5 g/cm 3 has a volume of a. The metal expands increasing the volume.
4.49 cm3. What is its mass? b. The metal contracts decreasing the volume.
c. The mass of the metal increases.
d. The mass of the metal decreases.
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this temperature to degrees Celsius.
To convert degrees Fahrenheit to degrees Celsius, the formula used is 3. Mercury, the only metal that exists as a liquid at room temperature, melts
at 238.9°C. Convert its melting point to kelvins.
5
° C= (° F−32 ) ×
9
( 2)
1. Solder is an alloy made of tin and lead that is used in electronic circuits. A
certain solder has a melting point of 224°C. What is its melting point in
degrees Fahrenheit?
4. At what value is degrees Fahrenheit equal to degrees Celsius?
2. Helium has the lowest boiling point of all the elements at 2452°F. Convert
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wherein N is a number between 1 to 10 and n is a positive or negative integer. If the
decimal point has to be moved to the left, then n is a positive integer; if it has to be
5. Convert
a. 327.5°C (the melting point of lead) to degrees Fahrenheit; moved to the right, n is a negative integer.
SEATWORK
HANDLING NUMBERS
There are techniques in dealing with numbers in chemistry: scientific notation and
significant figures.
N ×10n
4. 4.9 × 105−5.8 ×10 4
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To multiply numbers expressed in scientific notation, we perform the usual process 5. ( 4.5× 104 ) ×(1.75 ×106 )
with N 1 and N 2, and add the exponents together. For the division process, the same is
done except that the exponents are subtracted to one another.
SEATWORK
Obtaining the exact value of the quantity under investigation is often impossible,
except those involving integers. For this reason, the margin of error in a measurement
should indicate the number of significant figures, which are the meaningful digits in a
measured or calculated quantity.
The following are the guidelines in determining the number of significant figures a
number has:
2. ( 4.31×10 4 )÷(3.9 × 103)
1. All nonzero digits are significant.
2. Zeros between nonzero digits are significant.
3. Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant. Their purpose is
to indicate the placement of the decimal point.
4. For numbers that do not contain decimal points, the trailing zeros may or may
not be significant. To avoid this ambiguity, scientific notation is used.
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SEATWORK
a. 394 cm
SEATWORK
b. 5.03 g 1. Carry out the following arithmetic operations to the correct number of
significant figures:
a. 12,343.2 g+ 0.1893 g
c. 0.714 m
d. 0.052 kg
e. 2.720×1022 atoms
f. 3000 mL
b. 55.67 L−2.386 L
g. 35 mL
h. 2008 g
j. 7.2×104 molecules
k. 830 kg
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f. 26.5862 L+ 0.17 L
An exact number is a number that arises when you count items or sometimes when you
define a unit. The conventions of significant figures do not apply to exact numbers.
i. 6.54 g ÷ 86.5542 mL
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS IN SOLVING PROBLEMS
The procedure we use to convert between units in solving chemistry problems is called
dimensional analysis (also called the factor-label method). Dimensional analysis is
based on the relationship between different units that express the same physical
quantity. For example, 1 in = 2.54 cm exactly. This equivalence can be written into a
conversion factor as follows:
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1∈ ¿ ∨ 2.54 cm ¿
2.54 cm 1∈¿ ¿
We choose the conversion factor that cancels the units to the desired ones. In general, 3. A liquid helium storage tank has a volume of 275 L. What is the volume in
to apply dimensional analysis we use the relationship m3?
desired unit
givenunit × =desired unit
given unit
SEATWORK
2. A roll of aluminum foil has a mass of 1.07 kg. What is its mass in pounds?
5. Liquid nitrogen is obtained from liquefied air and is used to prepare frozen
goods and in low-temperature research. The density of the liquid at its
boiling point (-196°C or 77 K) is 0.808 g/cm 3. Convert the density to units
of kg/m3.
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6. The density of the lightest metal, lithium (Li), is 5.34×10 2 kg/m3. Convert
the density to g/cm3.
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