Fishbone Diagram

Also Called: Cause-and-Effect Diagram, Ishikawa Diagram

Variations: cause enumeration diagram, process fishbone, time-delay fishbone, CEDAC (cause-and-effect
diagram with the addition of cards), desired-result fishbone, reverse fishbone diagram

Description

The fishbone diagram identifies many possible causes for an effect or problem. It can be used to structure a
brainstorming session. It immediately sorts ideas into useful categories.

When to Use a Fishbone Diagram

 When identifying possible causes for a problem.

 Especially when a team’s thinking tends to fall into ruts.

Fishbone Diagram Procedure

Materials needed: flipchart or whiteboard, marking pens.

1. Agree on a problem statement (effect). Write it at the center right of the flipchart or whiteboard.
Draw a box around it and draw a horizontal arrow running to it.
2. Brainstorm the major categories of causes of the problem. If this is difficult use generic headings:
o Methods
o Machines (equipment)
o People (manpower)
o Materials
o Measurement
o Environment
3. Write the categories of causes as branches from the main arrow.
4. Brainstorm all the possible causes of the problem. Ask: “Why does this happen?” As each idea is
given, the facilitator writes it as a branch from the appropriate category. Causes can be written in
several places if they relate to several categories.
5. Again ask “why does this happen?” about each cause. Write sub-causes branching off the causes.
Continue to ask “Why?” and generate deeper levels of causes. Layers of branches indicate causal
relationships.
6. When the group runs out of ideas, focus attention to places on the chart where ideas are few.

Fishbone Diagram Example

This fishbone diagram was drawn by a manufacturing team to try to understand the source of periodic iron
contamination. The team used the six generic headings to prompt ideas. Layers of branches show thorough
thinking about the causes of the problem.
 Fishbone Diagram Example

For example, under the heading “Machines,” the idea “materials of construction” shows four kinds of
equipment and then several specific machine numbers.

Note that some ideas appear in two different places. “Calibration” shows up under “Methods” as a factor in
the analytical procedure, and also under “Measurement” as a cause of lab error. “Iron tools” can be
considered a “Methods” problem when taking samples or a “Manpower” problem with maintenance
personnel

Check Sheet

Also called: defect concentration diagram

Description

A check sheet is a structured, prepared form for collecting and analyzing data. This is a generic tool that can
be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.

When to Use a Check Sheet

 When data can be observed and collected repeatedly by the same person or at the same location.
 When collecting data on the frequency or patterns of events, problems, defects, defect location,
defect causes, etc.
 When collecting data from a production process.

Check Sheet Procedure

1. Decide what event or problem will be observed. Develop operational definitions.

2. Decide when data will be collected and for how long.
3. Design the form. Set it up so that data can be recorded simply by making check marks or Xs or
similar symbols and so that data do not have to be recopied for analysis.
4. Label all spaces on the form.
5. Test the check sheet for a short trial period to be sure it collects the appropriate data and is easy to
use.
 6. Each time the targeted event or problem occurs, record data on the check sheet.

Check Sheet Example

The figure below shows a check sheet used to collect data on telephone interruptions. The tick marks were
added as data was collected over several weeks.

Check Sheet Example

Cause Analysis Tools

Overview
  Pareto Chart
Read More
Also called: Pareto diagram, Pareto analysis

Variations: weighted Pareto chart, comparative Pareto charts

Description

A Pareto chart is a bar graph. The lengths of the bars represent frequency or
cost (time or money), and are arranged with longest bars on the left and the
shortest to the right. In this way the chart visually depicts which situations
are more significant.

When to Use a Pareto Chart

 When analyzing data about the frequency of problems or causes in a

process.
 When there are many problems or causes and you want to focus on
the most significant.
  When analyzing broad causes by looking at their specific
components.
 When communicating with others about your data.

Pareto Chart Procedure

1. Decide what categories you will use to group items.

2. Decide what measurement is appropriate. Common measurements
are frequency, quantity, cost and time.
3. Decide what period of time the Pareto chart will cover: One work
cycle? One full day? A week?
4. Collect the data, recording the category each time. (Or assemble
data that already exist.)
5. Subtotal the measurements for each category.
6. Determine the appropriate scale for the measurements you have
collected. The maximum value will be the largest subtotal from step
5. (If you will do optional steps 8 and 9 below, the maximum value
will be the sum of all subtotals from step 5.) Mark the scale on the
left side of the chart.
7. Construct and label bars for each category. Place the tallest at the
far left, then the next tallest to its right and so on. If there are many
categories with small measurements, they can be grouped as
“other.”

Steps 8 and 9 are optional but are useful for analysis and
communication.

8. Calculate the percentage for each category: the subtotal for that
category divided by the total for all categories. Draw a right vertical
axis and label it with percentages. Be sure the two scales match: For
example, the left measurement that corresponds to one-half should
be exactly opposite 50% on the right scale.
9. Calculate and draw cumulative sums: Add the subtotals for the first
and second categories, and place a dot above the second bar
indicating that sum. To that sum add the subtotal for the third
category, and place a dot above the third bar for that new sum.
Continue the process for all the bars. Connect the dots, starting at
the top of the first bar. The last dot should reach 100 percent on the
right scale.

Pareto Chart Examples

Example #1 shows how many customer complaints were received in each of

five categories.

Example #2 takes the largest category, “documents,” from Example #1,

breaks it down into six categories of document-related complaints, and
shows cumulative values.

If all complaints cause equal distress to the customer, working on eliminating

document-related complaints would have the most impact, and of those,
working on quality certificates should be most fruitful.
 Example #1

Example #2

Overview
  Scatter Diagram
Read More
Also called: scatter plot, X–Y graph

Description

The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable on
each axis, to look for a relationship between them. If the variables are
correlated, the points will fall along a line or curve. The better the
 correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line.

When to Use a Scatter Diagram

 When you have paired numerical data.

 When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each
value of your independent variable.
 When trying to determine whether the two variables are related,
Outlier Options
such as…
Consider simple
o When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.
parametric tests to find
o After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone
an outlier’s significance.
Julia E. Seaman and I. diagram, to determine objectively whether a particular
Elaine Allen cause and effect are related.
(Members Only) o When determining whether two effects that appear to be
related both occur with the same cause.
o When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a
control chart.

Scatter Diagram Procedure

1. Collect pairs of data where a relationship is suspected.

2. Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis
and the dependent variable on the vertical axis. For each pair of
data, put a dot or a symbol where the x-axis value intersects the y-
axis value. (If two dots fall together, put them side by side,
touching, so that you can see both.)
3. Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the
data clearly form a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are
correlated. You may wish to use regression or correlation analysis
now. Otherwise, complete steps 4 through 7.
4. Divide points on the graph into four quadrants. If there are X points
on the graph,
o Count X/2 points from top to bottom and draw a horizontal
line.
o Count X/2 points from left to right and draw a vertical line.
o If number of points is odd, draw the line through the middle
point.
5. Count the points in each quadrant. Do not count points on a line.
6. Add the diagonally opposite quadrants. Find the smaller sum and the
total of points in all quadrants.
A = points in upper left + points in lower right
B = points in upper right + points in lower left
Q = the smaller of A and B
N=A+B
7. Look up the limit for N on the trend test table.
o If Q is less than the limit, the two variables are related.
o If Q is greater than or equal to the limit, the pattern could
have occurred from random chance.
Scatter Diagram Example

The ZZ-400 manufacturing team suspects a relationship between product

purity (percent purity) and the amount of iron (measured in parts per million
or ppm). Purity and iron are plotted against each other as a scatter diagram,
as shown in the figure below.

There are 24 data points. Median lines are drawn so that 12 points fall on
each side for both percent purity and ppm iron.

To test for a relationship, they calculate:

A = points in upper left + points in lower right = 9 + 9 = 18
B = points in upper right + points in lower left = 3 + 3 = 6
Q = the smaller of A and B = the smaller of 18 and 6 = 6
N = A + B = 18 + 6 = 24

Then they look up the limit for N on the trend test table. For N = 24, the
limit is 6.
Q is equal to the limit. Therefore, the pattern could have occurred from
random chance, and no relationship is demonstrated.
 Scatter Diagram Example

Scatter Diagram Considerations

 Here are some examples of situations in which might you use a

scatter diagram:
o Variable A is the temperature of a reaction after 15 minutes.
Variable B measures the color of the product. You suspect
higher temperature makes the product darker. Plot
temperature and color on a scatter diagram.
o Variable A is the number of employees trained on new
software, and variable B is the number of calls to the
computer help line. You suspect that more training reduces
the number of calls. Plot number of people trained versus
number of calls.
o To test for autocorrelation of a measurement being
monitored on a control chart, plot this pair of variables:
Variable A is the measurement at a given time. Variable B is
the same measurement, but at the previous time. If the
scatter diagram shows correlation, do another diagram
where variable B is the measurement two times previously.
Keep increasing the separation between the two times until
the scatter diagram shows no correlation.
 Even if the scatter diagram shows a relationship, do not assume that
one variable caused the other. Both may be influenced by a third
variable.
 When the data are plotted, the more the diagram resembles a
straight line, the stronger the relationship.
 If a line is not clear, statistics (N and Q) determine whether there is
reasonable certainty that a relationship exists. If the statistics say
that no relationship exists, the pattern could have occurred by
random chance.
 If the scatter diagram shows no relationship between the variables,
consider whether the data might be stratified.
 If the diagram shows no relationship, consider whether the
independent (x-axis) variable has been varied widely. Sometimes a
relationship is not apparent because the data don’t cover a wide
enough range.
  Think creatively about how to use scatter diagrams to discover a
root cause.
 Drawing a scatter diagram is the first step in looking for a
relationship between variables

Stratification

Description

Stratification is a technique used in combination with other data analysis tools. When data from a variety of
sources or categories have been lumped together, the meaning of the data can be impossible to see. This
technique separates the data so that patterns can be seen.

When to Use Stratification

 Before collecting data.

 When data come from several sources or conditions, such as shifts, days of the week, suppliers or
population groups.
 When data analysis may require separating different sources or conditions.

Stratification Procedure

1. Before collecting data, consider which information about the sources of the data might have an
effect on the results. Set up the data collection so that you collect that information as well.
2. When plotting or graphing the collected data on a scatter diagram, control chart, histogram or other
analysis tool, use different marks or colors to distinguish data from various sources. Data that are
distinguished in this way are said to be “stratified.”
3. Analyze the subsets of stratified data separately. For example, on a scatter diagram where data are
stratified into data from source 1 and data from source 2, draw quadrants, count points and
determine the critical value only for the data from source 1, then only for the data from source 2.

Stratification Example

The ZZ-400 manufacturing team drew a scatter diagram to test whether product purity and iron
contamination were related, but the plot did not demonstrate a relationship. Then a team member realized
that the data came from three different reactors. The team member redrew the diagram, using a different
symbol for each reactor’s data:
Now patterns can be seen. The data from reactor 2 and reactor 3 are circled. Even without doing any
calculations, it is clear that for those two reactors, purity decreases as iron increases. However, the data
from reactor 1, the solid dots that are not circled, do not show that relationship. Something is different
about reactor 1.

Stratification Considerations

 Here are examples of different sources that might require data to be stratified:
o Equipment
o Shifts
o Departments
o Materials
o Suppliers
o Day of the week
o Time of day
o Products

Survey data usually benefit from stratification.

 Always consider before collecting data whether stratification might be needed during analysis. Plan
to collect stratification information. After the data are collected it might be too late.
 On your graph or chart, include a legend that identifies the marks or colors used.
Quality management techniques.

Kaizen

6 sigma

Kai in Japanese means “change” and Zen means good .the literally meaning is “change is good”.

Kaizen is the Japanese philosophy of continuous improvement by all employees in an organization so

that they can perform their tasks a little better each day. it is a new ending journey centered on the
concept of starting new each day with the principle that the methods can always be improved.

10 principles of kaizen are..

• Get rid of all old assumptions.

• Don’t look for excuses, look for ways to make things happen.
• Say no to status quo.
• Don’t worry about being perfect even if you only get it half right start now
• It does not cost money to do kaizen
• If something is wrong, fix it now
• Good ideas flow when going get tough
• Ask why 5 times –get to the root cause.
• Look for wisdom from people ten rather than one.
• Never stop doing kaizen

This is also known as the Shewhart cycle, Deming cycle, or PDCA.

The five main elements of kaizen

 Teamwork
 Personal discipline
 Improved morale
 Quality circles
 Suggestions for improvement
Varieties of Kaizen Methods

The collection of Kaizen methods can be organized into the following categories:

Individual versus teamed,  

Day-to-day versus special

 
event, and

Process level versus subprocess

 
level.

Individual Versus Teamed

While almost all Kaizen approaches use a teamed approach, there is the method
described as Teian Kaizen or personal Kaizen (Japan Human Relations Association,
1990). Teian Kaizen refers to individual employees uncovering improvement
opportunities in the course of their day-to-day activities and making suggestions. It does
not include making the change itself, but simply the suggestion for the change.
However, when used at Toyota within its suggestion system, the employee suggesting
the change is the one who almost always makes the change (see The Suggestion
System Is no Suggestion). We also use the same term and mean a personal Kaizen
wherein a worker uses our Kaizen method (documented in the Kaizen Desk Reference
Standard) to improve his or her own job. This effort also unfolds on a day-to-day basis.
To my knowledge, all other uses of Kaizen are teamed efforts.

Day-to-Day Versus Special Event

Another example of a day-to-day Kaizen approach is Quality Circles. Here, a natural
work team (people working together in the same area, operating the same work
process) uses its observations about the work process to identify opportunities for
improvement. During any day or perhaps at the end of the week, the team meets and
selects a problem from an earlier shift to correct. They analyze its sources, generate
ideas for how to eliminate it, and make the improvement. This continuous improvement
of the work process is made in the context of regular worker meetings.

Special event Kaizens are currently most common. These methods plan ahead and
then execute a process improvement over a period of days. When they focus at the
subprocess level, take place at the work site eliminate waste in a component of a value
stream. These special events are performed in the Gemba—meaning, "where the real
work is being done"—e.g., on the shop floor or at the point where are service is being
delivered.

Process Level Versus Subprocess Level

Most times, Kaizen refers to improvements made at the subprocess level—
meaning, at the level of a component work process. For example, imagine the
end-to-end production process associated with manufacturing shoes. This is also
termed the value stream. It includes the activities of acquiring materials (inputs)
from suppliers, transforming them into shoes (output) and delivering them to
customers. One subprocess would be the set of operations that apply the sole to
the shoe. Gemba Kaizen, also referred to as Point Kaizen, is an example of this
level of Kaizen. On the other hand, there is Flow Kaizen or Kaikaku Kaizen. This
improvement activity seeks radical improvements at the value stream or business
level.

The Common Elements

All Kaizen methods that include making change (as opposed to just suggesting a
change) have these common features. They:

Focus on making improvements by detecting and eliminating waste,  

Use a problem solving approach that observes how the work process operates, uncovers waste,
 
generates ideas for how to eliminate waste, and makes improvements, and

Use measurements to describe the size of the problem and the effects of the improvement