Module 3 Other Applications of Differentiation

Other Applications of
Differentiation
(Module 3)
Mat051
AY 2020-2021 (1st semester)
This material is not for sale and is owned by the Department of Mathematics and Statistics, College of
Science and Mathematics of Mindanao State University-Iligan Institute of Technology.
Applications of Differentiation
Linear Approximation and Differentials
Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative
Let 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) be a function. For ℎ > 0, draw a line 𝐿ℎ (called the secant line) through points
𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) and 𝑃(𝑥0 + ℎ, 𝑓( 𝑥0 + ℎ)) on the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) . (See figure below)
Figure3.1 Line 𝐿ℎ through points 𝑃0 and 𝑃
The slope of the line 𝐿ℎ is
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )

𝑚𝐿ℎ = =
𝑥0 + ℎ − 𝑥0 ℎ
As ℎ tends to zero, the point 𝑃 tends to the point 𝑃0 . We find that the line 𝐿ℎ tends to a limiting
position as ℎ approaches to zero. This limiting position is actually the tangent line 𝐿 𝑇 to the curve at
𝑃0 . Observe that if 𝑓 is differentiable at 𝑥0 , then by definition of derivative,
𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim 𝑚𝐿ℎ = lim+ = 𝑓′(𝑥0 )
ℎ→0 ℎ→0 ℎ
This means that the slope 𝑚𝐿ℎ of the line 𝐿ℎ tends to the limiting slope which is the derivative of
𝑓 at 𝑥0 . Since the limiting position of line 𝐿ℎ is the line 𝐿 𝑇 which is the line tangent to the curve at
𝑃0 , it follows that 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) is the slope of the tangent line to the curve at 𝑃0 .
Department of Mathematics and Statistics, CSM, MSU-IIT

Prepared by MAT051 Faculty: LMB, ECC, MBF,BBM, FRS
Definition (Tangent Line)
Let 𝑓 be a function such that 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) exists. The tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )
is the line through 𝑃0 having slope 𝑚 = 𝑓′(𝑥0 ).
Note that we may view a tangent line to a curve at a point 𝑃0 as the line that “best approximates
“the curve near 𝑃0
Definition (Normal Line)
The normal line to curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is the line through 𝑃0 and is perpendicular to
the tangent line to the curve at 𝑃0 .
Remarks
1. The slope of the normal line 𝐿𝑁 curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is
−1
𝑚𝐿𝑛 =
𝑓′(𝑥0 )
provided 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) exists and 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) ≠ 0 .
(In this case, the tangent line to the curve at 𝑃0 is neither a horizontal line nor a vertical line}
2. If the tangent line to the curve at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) is the horizontal line 𝑦 = 𝑦0 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (that is
𝑓′(𝑥0 ) = 0 , then the normal line to the curve at 𝑃0 is the line 𝑥 = 𝑥0 . On the other hand, if
𝑥 = 𝑥0 is the tangent line, then 𝑦 = 𝑦0 is the normal line at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) .
Example Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1
at the point 𝑃0 (1, 0).
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1. The derivative of at 𝑥 is𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 − 2. Let 𝑚𝐿𝑇 and 𝑚𝐿𝑁 be the slopes
of the tangent line and the normal line, respectively. Then,
−1
𝑚𝐿𝑇 = 𝑓 ′ (1) = 6(1) − 2 = 4 and 𝑚𝐿𝑁 = 4
.
Using the Point-Slope Form, we have
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚𝐿𝑇 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
𝑦 − 0 = 4(𝑥 − 1)
𝑦 = 4𝑥 − 4.
Therefore, an equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 at 𝑃0 (1, 0) is

4𝑥 − 𝑦 − 4 = 0.
Again, by using the Point-Slope Form, we have
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑚𝐿𝑁 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
−1
𝑦−0= (𝑥 − 1)
4
4𝑦 = −𝑥 + 1.
Therefore, an equation of the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 at 𝑃0 (1, 0) is
𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 1 = 0.
Example Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥 at the
𝜋
point 𝑃0 ( 4 , 5).
Solution:
Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 5𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑥. The derivative of 𝑓 at 𝑥 is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 5(𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥)(2) = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥. Let 𝑚𝐿𝑇 and 𝑚𝐿𝑁
be the slopes of the tangent line and the normal line, respectively. Then,
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑚𝐿𝑇 = 𝑓 ′ ( 4 ) = 10𝑐𝑜𝑠2 ( 4 ) = 10 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 = 10(0) = 0 .
This implies that the tangent line is a horizontal line. Since the tangent line passes through the point
𝜋
( 4 , 5), it then an equation of the tangent line is 𝑦 = 4. It also follows that the normal line is the
𝜋
vertical line whose equation is 𝑥 = 4 .
Example Find the equations of the lines which are normal to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 that is parallel
to the line 2𝑥 + 18𝑦 − 19 = 0.
Solution:
Set 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥. Then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 − 3. Let 𝐿𝑁 be the normal line to the curve at point
𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and 𝐿 be the line 2𝑥 + 18𝑦 − 19 = 0. Solving for 𝑦 from 2𝑥 + 18𝑦 − 19 = 0, we get
1 1
𝑦=− 𝑥+ .
9 2
1 1
Thus , 𝑚𝐿 = − 9. Since 𝐿𝑁 is parallel to 𝐿 , their slopes are equal, that is 𝑚𝐿𝑁 = 𝑚𝐿 = − 9.

1 1
𝑚𝐿𝑁 = − =− .
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) 2
3𝑥0 − 3
Hence,
1 1
− =− 2
.
9 3𝑥0 − 3
Thus , 3𝑥0 2 − 3 = 9and it follows that 𝑥0 = 2 or 𝑥0 = −2.
Now, if 𝑥0 = 2, then 𝑦0 = 𝑓(2) = 23 − 3(2) = 2.
Therefore, an equation of the normal line to the curve at point 𝑃0 (2,2) is
1
𝑦 − 2 = − (𝑥 − 2)
9
or equivalently, 𝑥 + 9𝑦 − 20 = 0.
On the other hand, if 𝑥0 = −2, then 𝑦0 = 𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 − 3(−2) = −2.
Therefore, an equation of the normal line to the curve at point 𝑃0 (−2, −2) is
1
𝑦 + 2 = − (𝑥 + 2)
9
or equivalently, 𝑥 + 9𝑦 + 20 = 0.
Exercises
1. Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = √4𝑥 − 3 at the
point 𝑃0 (3,3).
1
2. Find the equations of the tangent line and the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑥−2
at the
√
1
point 𝑃0 (6, 2).
3. The normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 at a point in the first quadrant passes
3
through the point 𝑃 (0, 4)). Find an equation of this normal line.
4. The normal line to the curve 𝑦 = −2𝑥 2 at a point in the fourth quadrant passes through
the point 𝑄(0, −9/4 ). Find an equation of this normal line.
5. Find an equation of the line tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 1 and parallel to the line
2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 3 = 0.
6. Find an equation of the line tangent to the curve 𝑦 = √4𝑥 − 3 − 1 and perpendicular to the
line 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 11 = 0.
7. Find an equation of the line tangent to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 1 and perpendicular to the
line 𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 4.
8. At what point(s) of the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 − 3 does the tangent line to the graph also
pass through the point 𝐴(0, 1)?
9. At what point(s) on the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13 is its tangent line parallel to the line
3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 6.
1
10. At what point(s) of the curve 𝑦 = 3
𝑥 3 − 𝑥 is the tangent line parallel to the line
𝑦 = 3𝑥?
11. At what point(s) of the curve 𝑥𝑦 = (1 − 𝑥 − 𝑦)2 is the tangent line parallel to the
𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠? Give also an equation of the normal line to the curve at this point.
12. Find an equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 − 8𝑥 − 20 = 0 at its point of
intersection with the line 2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4 = 0.
13. Find the equation of the line with slope equal to 1 and normal to the curve
𝑥 2 + 3𝑥𝑦 + 𝑦 2 = 5 at 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 )) when 𝑥0 = 1.
14. There are two lines through the point (−1, 3) that are tangent to the curve
𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 3 = 0. Find an equation of each of these lines.
15. Find the equations of the tangent lines to the parabola 𝑦 = −𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 6 at its points of
intersection with the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Linear Approximation
Suppose we wanted to find an approximation for 𝑓(𝑥1 ), where 𝑓(𝑥1 ), is unknown, but
where 𝑓(𝑥0 ), is known for some 𝑥0 “close” to 𝑥1 . In the figure below, notice that if 𝑥1 is “close” to
𝑥0 and we follow the tangent line at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 to the point corresponding to 𝑥 = 𝑥1, then the
𝑦 −coordinate of that point (𝑦1 ) should be “close” to the 𝑦-coordinate of the point on the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), that is, 𝑓(𝑥1 ).
Figure 3.2

Since the slope of the tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ), the equation of the
tangent line to 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is found from
𝑦 − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑚𝐿𝑇 = 𝑓′(𝑥0 ) =
𝑥 − 𝑥0
or
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓′(𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
Definition (Linear Approximation)
The linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is the function
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓′(𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
3 3
Example Find the linear approximation for 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥0 = 8 and use it to approximate √8.02.
Solution:
1
3
First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 = 𝑥 3 . The derivative of 𝑓 is
1 −2 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = 3 .
3 3√𝑥 2
3
At 𝑥0 = 8, we have 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓(8) = √8 = 2 and
1 1 1 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (8) = = 3 = 3 = = .
3√82 3√64 3(4) 12
3
Thus, the linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 at 𝑥 0 = 8 is the function
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(8) + 𝑓′(8)(𝑥 − 8), and so
1 1 4
𝐿(𝑥) = 2 + (𝑥 − 8) = 𝑥 + .
12 12 3
3 1 4 1201
Hence, √8.02 = 𝐿(8.02) = 12 (8.02) + 3 = 600
.
Example Find the linear approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, for 𝑥 close to 0.
Solution:
First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥. The derivative of 𝑓 is

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥.
At 𝑥0 = 0, we have 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓(0) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛0 = 0 and
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (0) = cos 0 = 1.
Thus, the linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 at 𝑥0 = 0 is the function
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) + 𝑓′(0)(𝑥 − 0), and so
𝐿(𝑥) = 0 + 1(𝑥 − 0) = 𝑥.
Hence as 𝑥 get closer to 0, 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥 ≈ 𝑥.
𝜋
Example Find the linear approximation to 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥 at 𝑥0 = 3
and use it to approximate
𝑐𝑜𝑠(1).
Solution:
First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥. The derivative of 𝑓 is

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥.
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 1
At 𝑥0 = 3 , we have 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ( 3 ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 = 2 and
𝜋 𝜋 √3
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ ( ) = −sin = − .
3 3 2
𝜋
Thus, the linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 at 𝑥0 = is the
3
function
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓 ( 3 ) + 𝑓′ ( 3 ) (𝑥 − 3 ), and so
1 √3 𝜋
𝐿(𝑥) = 2 − 2
(𝑥 − 3 ).
1 √3 𝜋 1 √3 𝜋√3
Hence, cos(1) = 𝐿(1) = − (1 − )= = − + ≈ 0.5409.
2 2 3 2 2 6
Example Find the linear approximation to 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 at 𝑥0 = 5
Solution:
First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 . The derivative of 𝑓 is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑒 2𝑥−10 + 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 (2) = 3𝑒 2𝑥−10 + 6𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 .
At 𝑥0 = 5, we have 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓(5) = 3(5)𝑒 2(5)−10 = 15𝑒 0 = 15(1) = 15 and
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (5) = 3𝑒 2(5)−10 + 6(5)𝑒 𝑥(5)−10 = 3e0 + 30e0 = 3 + 30 = 33.
Thus, the linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 at 𝑥0 = 5 is the
function
𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(5) + 𝑓′(5)(𝑥 − 5),
and so
𝐿(𝑥) = 15 + 33 (𝑥 − 5)
𝐿(𝑥) = 33𝑥 − 150
Exercises
Find the linear approximation to 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 . Use the linear approximation to estimate the
given number 𝑛.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑥0 = 1, 𝑛 = √1.2

1
3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)3 , 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑛 = √1.2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √2𝑥 + 9, 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑛 = √8.8
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3𝑥), 𝑥0 = 0, 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(0.3)
5. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, 𝑥0 = 𝜋, 𝑛 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛(3.0)
4 4
6. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4√𝑥 , 𝑥0 = 2, 𝑛 = √3, √10
Approximation Using Differentials
Observe that the 𝑦-coordinate 𝑦1 of the point on the tangent line corresponding to 𝑥 = 𝑥1
is simply found by substituting 𝑥 = 𝑥1 in equation
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (1)
so that
𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ) (2)
We define the increments ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 by
∆𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 and ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ).
Using this notation, equation (2) gives us the approximation
𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≈ 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )∆𝑥 (3)
We rewrite (3),
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≈ 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦, (4)
where 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓′(𝑥0 )∆x is called the differential of 𝒚. When using this notation, we also define 𝑑𝑥,
the differential of x, by 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥, so that by (4), 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′(𝑥0 )𝑑𝑥.

Figure 3.3
3
Example Use differentials to approximate/ estimate the value of √8.02.
Solution:
We will use the function

1
3
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 = 𝑥 3 .
The derivative of 𝑓 is
1 −2 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 3 = 3 .
3 3√𝑥 2
1 1
The closest number to 8.02 whose cube root we know exactly is 8. 𝑓 ′ (8) = 3 = 12
3 √82
Let 𝑥0 = 8 and 𝑥1 = 8.02. Then 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = 8.02 − 8 = .02 and
1 0.02 1
∆𝑦 ≈ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )𝑑𝑥 = 3
(0.02) = =
3√82 12 600
3 3 1 1 1201
Thus √8.02 ≈ √8 + 600 = 2 + 600 = 600
.

Exercises
Use a linear approximation or differentials to estimate the given numbers.
1. (2.99)2
2. √99.9
3. 𝑒 −0.01
4
4. √16.04
5. sin(0.1)
𝑑𝑦
From the definitions of differentials, 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥. Dividing both sides by 𝑑𝑥, we have 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥), if 𝑑𝑥 ≠ 0. This equation expresses the derivative of 𝑓 as a ratio of two differentials.
Theorem If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) exists , then 𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 (whether or not x is an independent
variable)
We now give the differentiation formulas using differentials. Correspondingly, we give the formulas
for differentials. Here. 𝑐 is a constant and 𝑢 and 𝑣 are functions of 𝑥. Moreover, it is understood
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣
that the formulas hold provided that 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑑𝑥 both exist.
𝑑(𝑐) 𝑑(𝑐) = 0
=0
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) 𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑐𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐𝑑𝑢

=𝑐
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢 + 𝑣) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑(𝑢 + 𝑣) = 𝑑𝑢 + 𝑑𝑣
= +
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑(𝑢𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢

=𝑢 +𝑣
𝑢 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑢 𝑣𝑑𝑢 − 𝑢𝑑𝑣
𝑑 (𝑣 ) 𝑣 −𝑢 𝑑( ) =
= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑣 𝑣2
𝑑𝑥 𝑣 2
𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑑𝑢

= 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Example Find the approximate volume of a spherical shell whose linear radius is 4 inches and
1
whose thickness is 16 𝑖𝑛.
Solution:
We consider the volume of the spherical shell as an increment of the volume of a sphere. Let r
inches be the radius of a sphere, V cubic inches be the volume of a sphere, ∆𝑉 cubic inches be the
volume of a spherical shell
4 4
Since 𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 , then 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜋(3𝑟 2 )𝑑𝑟 = 4𝜋𝑟 2 𝑑𝑟.
3 3
1 1
Substituting 𝑟 = 4 and 𝑑𝑟 = 16, we get 𝑑𝑉 = 4𝜋(4)2 (16) = 4𝜋
Therefore , ∆𝑉 ≈ 4𝜋 and so the volume of the spherical shell is approximately 4𝜋.
Example
(Involving Exponential and Logarithmic Functions)
A small company estimates that when it spends 𝑥 thousand dollars for advertising in a year, its
annual sales will be described by 𝑠 = 60 − 40𝑒 − 0.05𝑥 thousand dollars. The four most recent
annual advertising totals are given in the following table:
Year 1 2 3 4
Advertising Dollars ,𝑥(𝑡) 14 500 16 000 18 000 20 000
Estimate the current (year 4) value of 𝑥′ (𝑡) and the current rate of change of sales.
Solution :
From the table, we see that the recent trend is for advertising to increase by $2000 per year. A
good estimate is then 𝑥 ′ (4) ≈ 2. Starting with the sales equation
𝑠(𝑡) = 60 − 40𝑒 −0.05𝑥(𝑡) ,
we use the Chain Rule to obtain
𝑠 ′ (𝑡) = −40𝑒 −0.05𝑥(𝑡) [−0.05𝑥 ′ (𝑡)] = 2(𝑥 ′ (𝑡))𝑒 −0.05𝑥(𝑡) .
Using our estimate that 𝑥 ′ (4) ≈ 2 and since 𝑥(4) = 20, we get
𝑠 ′ (4) ≈ 2(2)𝑒 0.05(20) = 4𝑒 −1 ≈ 1.472
Thus, sales are increasing at the rate of approximately $1,472 per year.
Exercises
1. A tumor in a person’s body is spherical in shape such that r centimetres is the radius and V is
cubic centimetres is the volume of the tumor. Use the differential to find the approximate
increase in the volume of the tumor when the radius increases from 1.5 cm to 1.6 cm.
2. An open cylindrical tank is is to have an outside coating of thickness 2cm. If the inner radius is 6
cm and the altitude is 1om, find by differentials the approximate amount of coating material to
be used.

Absolute Extrema, Extreme Value Theorem and Optimization
Definition (Relative Extrema)
A function f is said to have a relative maximum value at 𝑥0 (the value is 𝑓(𝑥0 )) if there exists
an open interval 𝐼 containing 𝑥0 on which 𝑓 is defined and that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in this
interval 𝐼.
It has a relative minimum value at 𝑥0 (the value is 𝑓(𝑥0 )) if there exists an open interval 𝐼
containing containing 𝑥0 on which 𝑓 is defined and that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in this interval 𝐼.
If a function f has either a relative maximum or a relative minimum value at 𝑥0 , then 𝑓 is

said to have a relative extremum at 𝑥0 .
The following theorem says something about the value of the derivative of a function at a point
that corresponds to a relative maximum or a relative minimum point.
Theorem If 𝑓(𝑥) exists for all values of 𝑥 in the open interval (𝑎, 𝑏), and if f has a relative
extremum at 𝑥0 , where 𝑎 < 𝑥0 < 𝑏, and if 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ) exists, then 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ) = 0.
Remark A function may have one or more relative maximum (minimum) values. Of course, a
function may not has a relative maximum or a relative minimum
Definition (Critical Value and Critical point)
If 𝑥0 is a number in the domain of the function 𝑓, and if either 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ) = 0 or 𝑓′ (𝑥0 ) does not
exist, then 𝑥0 is called a critical number or a critical value of 𝑓. A critical point is a point
(𝑥0 , 𝑓(𝑥0 )) on the function 𝑓 corresponding to the critical number 𝑥0 .
Definition (Absolute Extrema)
The function 𝑓 is said to have an absolute maximum value on an interval if there is some number 𝑥0
in the interval such that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in this interval. In such a case, 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is the absolute
maximum value of 𝑓 on the interval.
The function 𝑓 is said to have an absolute minimum value on an interval if there is some number 𝑥0
in the interval such that 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in this interval. The value 𝑓(𝑥0 ) is the absolute
minimum value of 𝑓 on the interval.

An absolute extremum of a function on an interval is either an absolute maximum value or an
absolute minimum value of the function on that interval
Remark
A relative maximum or relative minimum value of 𝑓 is not necessarily the absolute maximum or
absolute minimum value of 𝑓.
The next theorem says that every continuous function on [𝑎, 𝑏] attains its absolute maximum value
and minimum value on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Theorem (Extreme-Value Theorem)
If a function 𝑓 is continuous on the closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then 𝑓 has an absolute maximum value and
an absolute minimum value on [𝑎, 𝑏].
In what follows, we give a procedure for finding the absolute extrema of a continuous function 𝑓 on
[𝑎, 𝑏].
1. Find the function values at the critical numbers of 𝑓 on (𝑎, 𝑏).

2. Find the values 𝑓(𝑎) and 𝑓(𝑏).
3. The largest of the values obtained in (1) and (2) is the absolute maximum value 𝑓. The smallest
of the values obtained is the absolute minimum value of 𝑓.
Example Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1, find the absolute extrema of f on

1
[−2, 2].
Solution:
The derivative of f is 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1. Setting this to zero, we get
3𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 1 = (3𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0.
1 1 1
Hence, 𝑥 = 3 or 𝑥 = −1. It follows that 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑥 = −1 are the critical values of f on[−2, 2].
By direct computation
1 1 3 1 2 1 22
𝑓( ) = ( ) + ( ) − + 1 =
3 3 3 3 27
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + (−1)2 − (−1) + 1 = 2

𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 + (−2)2 − (−2) + 1 = −1
1 1 3 1 2 1 7
𝑓( ) = ( ) + ( ) − + 1 =
2 2 2 2 8
Therefore, 2 and -1 are respectively, the absolute maximum value and absolute minimum value of f
1
on [−2, 2].
Exercises Find the absolute extrema of the function on the indicated interval if there are any.
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , (−3, 2]
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1, (−∞, +∞)
𝑥+2
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = , [−4, 4]
𝑥−2
𝜋 2𝜋
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡𝑥, [6 , ]
3
Theorem
Let the function f be continuous on the interval 𝐼 containing the number 𝑐 . If 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative
extremum of f on 𝐼 and c is the only number in 𝐼 for which f has relative extremum, then 𝑓(𝑐) is
an absolute extremum of on 𝐼. Furthermore,
i. If 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative maximum value of f on 𝐼, then 𝑓(𝑐) is an absolute maximum value of

on 𝐼.
ii. If 𝑓(𝑐) is a relative miniimum value of f on 𝐼, then 𝑓(𝑐) is an absolute minimum value of
on 𝐼
We shall look at problems which seek to find the largest, or the most, or the least, or the
smallest, or the best, etc., of certain quantities. These problems are what we call maxima and
minima problems or optimization.
One may find the following steps helpful in solving maxima and minima problems.
1. Draw a figure whenever possible.
2. Assign a letter to each of the quantities mentioned in the problem.
3. Choose the quantity which is to be maximized or minimized and express it as a function of
the other quantities by making use of the information in the problem.
4. Apply the theory in the preceding section (e.g., find the critical values of the function in
Step 3. One of these values may correspond to the required value in the problem.)
Some Helpful Formulas
The following formulas turn out to be likely candidates for functions in many maxima and
minima problems.
In what follows, A, P, C and V denote the area, perimeter, circumference and volume,
respectively, of the corresponding geometric shape or figure.
Circle with radius 𝑟

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 r
𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑟
Circular sector of radius r and central angle

α measured in radians r
1 α
𝐴 = 𝛼𝑟 2
2
Triangle of base b and altitude h

a c
1
𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ
2
h
Triangle of sides 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 b
𝑃 =𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
b
Trapezoid of base b and B, altitude h
1 h
𝐴 = (𝐵 + 𝑏)ℎ
2
B
Square of side 𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑠2 s
𝑃 = 4𝑠
Rectangle of length l and width w

𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤
𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝑤
w
Rectangular box of length l, width w and w

altitude h
𝑉 = 𝑙𝑤ℎ h
𝐴 = 2𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
(closed rectangular box)
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 + 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ l
(open top, closed bottom)
𝐴 = 2𝑙ℎ + 2𝑤ℎ
(open top and bottom)
Right Circular Cylinder of base radius 𝑟 and

height ℎ
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ h
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ (open top and bottom)
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 𝜋𝑟 2 (open top, closed bottom)
𝐴 = 2𝜋𝑟ℎ + 2𝜋𝑟 2 (closed top and bottom) r
Right Circular Cone of base radius r

and height h
1 h
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ
3
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟√𝑟 2 + ℎ2 r
Sphere of radius 𝑟
4
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 3 r
3
𝐴 = 4𝜋𝑟 2

Example 1 Find a number that exceeds its square by the greatest possible amount. What is the
greatest possible amount of excess?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the number satisfying the given property. Denote by E the difference 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .
We are asked to maximized E. Our function is
𝐸(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 .
Note that 𝑥 = 0 when 𝑥 = 0 and that 𝑥 2 = 1 when 𝑥 = 1. Since the problem requires that x
2
exceeds its square 𝑥 2 , the difference 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 must be positive. In other words 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 > 0 or 0 <
𝑥 < 1. This implies that the value x that will correspond to the greatest value of 𝐸(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 𝑥 2 is
in the closed interval [0, 1] such a value exists by the Extreme Value Theorem
Now, the first derivative of 𝐸 at 𝑥 is
𝐸′(𝑥) = 1 − 2𝑥.
1
Setting 𝐸′(𝑥) to 0, 1 − 2𝑥 = 0 we get 𝑥 = , the critical value of 𝐸 on [0, 1].
2
1
The second derivative of 𝐸 at 𝑥 is 𝐸′′(𝑥) = −2 and 𝐸 ′′ (2) = −2 < 0. By Second Derivative Test,
1
𝑥 = 2 corresponds to a relative maximum value of 𝐸. Straight forward calculations gives
1 1 1 2 1 1 1
𝐸( ) = −( ) = − =
2 2 2 2 4 4
𝐸(0) = 0 − 02 = 0
𝐸(1) = 1 − 12 = 0.
1 1
Thus the desired value is 𝑥 = and the greatest value of E is .
2 4
Example 2. A rectangular field having an area of 2400 square meter is to be enclosed by a

fence, and then divided into two lots by another fence set parallel to one of the sides( see
Figure) . What must be the dimension s of the field if the total amount of fencing material is to
be smallest as possible? What is the amount of fencing material needed?
Figure
Let x be the number of meters on one side of the lot and y the number of meters on the other
side. Here, we assume without loss of generality that 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 an d that the additional fencing is
to be made parallel to the side with x number of meters. Since 𝑥𝑦 = 2400 𝑚2 , then 𝑦 =
2400
𝑥
𝑚 . If we denote by F the number of meter of fencing materials, then
2400 4800
𝐹 = 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 → 𝐹(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 2 ( ) = 3𝑥 + = 3𝑥 + 4800𝑥 −1 .
𝑥 𝑥
Since 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦, then 𝑥 2 ≤ 2400 (hence, 𝑥 ≤ √2400 = √(400)(6) = 20√6). Because x and y
are nonnegative , the value of x that will correspond to the minimum value of F must be in the
interval (0, 20√6] (𝐹 is not defined at 𝑥 = 0).
Now the derivative of 𝐹(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 4800𝑥 −1 is
4800
𝐹 ′ (𝑥) = 3 − 4800𝑥 −2 = 3 − .
𝑥2
Setting this to 0,
4800
3− = 0 → 3𝑥 2 − 4800 = 0 → 𝑥 2 = 1600 → 𝑥 = ±40.
𝑥2
Since 𝑥 ∈ (0, 20√6], then we take the critical value 𝑥 = 40.

The second derivative of F at 𝑥 is
9600
𝐹 ′′ (𝑥) = −4800(−2𝑥 −3 ) = 9600𝑥 −3 = .
𝑥3
Since
Example 3. Find the coordinates of the point on the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 which is closest to the point
(9,0).
Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑎, 𝑏)be a point on the curve 𝑦 = 2𝑥 2 .

Then 𝑏 = 2𝑎2 , that is, 𝑃(𝑎, 2𝑎2 ).
Let 𝑑 be the distance between 𝑃(𝑎, 2𝑎2 ) and (9,0). Then,
𝑑 = √(𝑎 − 9)2 + (2𝑎2 − 0)2 = √(𝑎 − 9)2 + 4𝑎2 .
We will now look for the point (𝑎0 , 𝑏0 ) on the curve that is closest to (9,0). The point (𝑎0 , 𝑏0 )
is either the point of origin or a point located in the first quadrant. If 𝑎 = 0, then 𝑏 = 0, and if
𝑎 = 9, then 𝑏 = 162. The distance between (0,0) and (9, 0) is 9 units and that of (9,162) and
(9, 0) is 162 units. This means that the minimum value of 𝑑 is at most 9 and the value of 𝑎 that will
make the value of 𝑑 an absolute minimum is in the closed interval [0,9] ( corresponding to the
abscissas of (0,0) and (9, 162), respectively). Since 𝑑 is continuous on [0,9], the absolute
minimum value of 𝑑 on this interval exists (Extreme- Value Theorem)
Now, the derivative of 𝑑 at a is
1 −1
𝑑′ (𝑎) = [4𝑎4 + (𝑎 − 9)2 ] 2 [16𝑎3 + 2(𝑎 − 9)]
2
Setting this to zero,
1 −1
[4𝑎4 + (𝑎 − 9)2 ] 2 [16𝑎3 + 2(𝑎 − 9)] = 0
2
16𝑎3 + 2(𝑎 − 9)
→ 1 =0
4
2[4𝑎 + (𝑎 − 9) ]2 2
→ 16𝑎3 + 2(𝑎 − 9) = 0
→ 16𝑎3 + 2𝑎 − 18 = 0
→ 2(𝑎3 + 𝑎 − 9) = 0
→ 2(𝑎 − 1)(8𝑎2 + 8𝑎 − 9) = 0.
This implies that 𝑎 = 1 or 8𝑎2 + 8𝑎 − 9 = 0. Since 8𝑎2 + 8𝑎 − 9 = 0 does not have any real
roots, it follows that 𝑎 = 1 is the only critical number of 𝑑 on [0,9]. Since d is decreasing on
[0, 1) and increasing on (1, 9]By the first derivative test , it follows that 𝑎 = 1 corresponds to
the relative minimum value of d. Moreover, because
𝑑(9) = 162 > 𝑑(0) = 9 > 𝑑(1) = √68,
𝑑 has an absolute minimum value at 𝑎 = 1. Therefore the point (𝑎0 , 𝑏0 ) closest to (9,0) is the
point (1, 2(1)2 ) = (1,2).
Example 4. A Norman window is in the shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semi-circle. Find

the dimension of the rectangle and the radius of the semi-circle when the perimeter is 12 feet
and the area is as large as possible.
Solution.
Let us draw the figure and denote by 𝐴 and 𝑃 the area and the perimeter of the window,
respectively.

Let r be the radius of the semi-circle , and l and w be the length and width of the rectangle ,
respectively. Then 𝑙 = 2𝑟 and 𝑃 = 12 = 2𝑤 + 2𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟. Hence
12 − 2𝑤 12
0<𝑟= < .
2+𝜋 2+𝜋
It also follows that
12 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟
𝑤= .
2
The area of the window is
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 − 𝑐𝑖𝑟𝑐𝑙𝑒.
Thus ,
𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 +
2
𝜋𝑟 2
→ 𝐴 = 2𝑟𝑤 +
2
12 − 2𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 𝜋𝑟 2
→ 𝐴(𝑟) = 2𝑟 ( )+
2 2
2
𝜋𝑟
→ 𝐴(𝑟) = 12𝑟 − 2𝑟 2 − 𝜋𝑟 2 +
2
Then,
𝜋𝑟 2
𝐴(𝑟) = 12𝑟 − 2𝑟 2 − .
2
12
We shall now look for the value of 𝑟 in the interval [0, 2+𝜋] ( A is defined in the endpoints) that
will correspond to the absolute maximum value of A . The derivative of 𝐴 at 𝑟 is
2𝜋𝑟
𝐴 ′(𝑟) = 12 − 4𝑟 − = 12 − 4𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟.
2
Setting this zero, we get

12 − 4𝑟 − 𝜋𝑟 = 0
4𝑟 + 𝜋𝑟 = 12

𝑟(4 + 𝜋) = 12
12
𝑟=
4+𝜋
(the critical value of 𝐴). The second derivative of A at r is
𝐴′′ (𝑟) = −4 − 𝜋 = −(4 + 𝜋)
and so,
12
𝐴′′ ( ) = −4 − 𝜋 = −(4 + 𝜋) < 0.
4+𝜋
12
By the Second Derivative Test, 𝑟 = 4+𝜋 corresponds to the relative maximum value of 𝐴 .
Since
12 12
𝐴(0) < 𝐴 ( ) < 𝐴( ),
2+𝜋 4+𝜋
12
it follows that , 𝑟 = 4+𝜋 corresponds to the absolute maximum value of 𝐴 on the interval
12 12 24 12
[0, 2+𝜋]. Thus the desired values are 𝑟 = 4+𝜋 𝑓𝑡, 𝑙 = 4+𝜋 𝑓𝑡 and 𝑤 = 4+𝜋 𝑓𝑡.
Example 5. A box will be built with a square base and an open top . Material for the base cost
𝑃8.00 per square foot, while the material for the sides cost 𝑃2.00 per square foot. Find the
dimensions of the box of maximum volume that can be built of the material for 𝑃2400.
Solution
Let s and h be the length and height of the box, respectively.
If C denotes the total cost of the material, then 𝐶 = 2400 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑠. The cost of the base of the
box is 8𝑠 2 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑠 and the total cost of the sides of the box is 2(4ℎ𝑠) = 8ℎ𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑠. It follows
that 𝐶 = 2400 = 8𝑠 2 + 8ℎ𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑠 ( and hence 8𝑠 2 < 2400, 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠, 0 < 𝑠 < 10√3).
Solving this equation for h in terms of s yields
2400 − 8𝑠 2
ℎ=
8𝑠
or

300 − 𝑠 2
ℎ= .
𝑠
Therefore, if 𝑉 is the measure of the volume of the box , then
2
300 − 𝑠 2
2
𝑉=𝑠 ℎ=𝑠 ( )
𝑠
that is,
𝑉(𝑠) = 300𝑠 − 𝑠 3 .
We shall now find the value of s that will make the value of V an absolute maximum. Since s is
nonnegative, the value of that will make the V an absolute value is in the closed interval
[0,10√3]. The first derivative of V at s is
𝑉′(𝑠) = 300 − 3𝑠 2 .
Setting 𝑉′(𝑠) to zero, we obtain 100 − 𝑠 2 = 0. We find that s=10 is the only critical value of V
on the interval [0,10√3].
The second derivative of V at s is
𝑉 ′′ (𝑠) = −6𝑠.
Since
𝑉 ′′ (10) = −6(10) = −60 < 0,
𝑠 = 10 corresponds to the relative maximum value of V on the interval [0,10√3].
Straightforward computations show that 𝑉(10√3) = 𝑉(0) = 0 < 𝑉(10) = 2000. Therefore,
𝑠 = 10 corresponds to the absolute maximum value of V on [0,10√3]. Consequently, the box
300−(10)2
will have the largest possible volume if 𝑠 = 10𝑓𝑡 and ℎ = 10
= 20 𝑓𝑡. Thus , the largest
possible volume is 𝑉 = (10)2 (20) = 2000 𝑐𝑢𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑡.
Example 6 A picture 7 feet high is placed on a wall with its base 9 ft above the eye level of an
observer. How far from the wall should the observer stand to get the best view of the picture ,
that is , so that the angle subtended at the observer’s eye by the picture is maximum?
Solution:
Let 𝑥 be the distance of the observer from the wall, 𝜃 be the radian measure of the angle
subtended at the observer’s eye by the picture, 𝛼 be the radian measure of the angle
subtended at the observer’s eye by the portion of the wall and below the picture, and 𝛽 = 𝛼 +
𝜃. See the figure below.

Our objective is to find the value of 𝑥 such that 𝜃 is of absolute maximize value. Because 𝑥
is in the interval (0, +∞), the absolute maximum value of 𝜃will be a relative maximum value .
From the figure, we have

𝑥 𝜋
cot 𝛽 = , 0<𝛽<
16 2
and
𝑥 𝜋
cot 𝛼 = , 0<𝛼< .
9 2
Thus,
𝑥 𝑥
𝛽 = cot −1 , 𝛼 = cot −1
16 9
and
𝜃 = 𝛽−𝛼
𝑥 𝑥
𝜃(𝑥) = cot −1 − cot −1 .
16 9
Differentiating with respect to 𝑥, we get
1 1 1 1
𝜃 ′ (𝑥) = [− 2] ( ) − [− 2] ( )
𝑥 16 𝑥 9
1+( ) 1+( )
16 9
16 9
𝜃 ′ (𝑥) = − +
(16)2 + 𝑥 2 (9)2 + 𝑥 2
16 9
𝜃 ′ (𝑥) = − 2
+
256 + 𝑥 81 + 𝑥 2
Setting 𝜃 ′ (𝑥) = 0, we get
9(256 + 𝑥 2 ) − 16(81 + 𝑥 2 ) = 0
→ 9𝑥 2 − 16𝑥 2 + 2304 − 1296 = 0
→ −7𝑥 2 + 1008 = 0
→ 𝑥 2 − 144 = 0
→ 𝑥 = ±12
We disregard 𝑥 = −12 , since it is not in the interval (0, +∞). We only consider 𝑥 = 12.
Now we get the second derivative of 𝜃(𝑥), by differentiating
𝜃 ′ (𝑥) = −16(256 + 𝑥 2 )−1 + 9(81 + 𝑥 2 )−1

Thus
𝜃 ′′ (𝑥) = −16(−1)(256 + 𝑥 2 )−2 (2𝑥) + 9(−1)(81 + 𝑥 2 )−2 (2𝑥)
32𝑥 18𝑥
→ 𝜃 ′′ (𝑥) = −
(256 + 𝑥 2 )2 (81 + 𝑥 2 )2
Now, we have
32(12) 18(12) 7
𝜃 ′′ (12) = 2 2
− 2 2
=−
(256 + (12) ) (81 + (12) ) 3750
By Second Derivative Test, 𝑥 = 12 yields a relative maximum value of 𝜃.
Because the relative maximum value of 𝜃 is an absolute value of 𝜃, we conclude that the observer
should stand 12 feet from the wall.
Exercises
1. The product of two positive numbers is 4 √3 . Find the numbers so that the sum S of the
square of one and the cube of the other is as small as possible.
2. The sum of the squares of two nonnegative numbers is to be 4. How should they be
chosen so that the product of their cubes is a maximum?
1
3. Find the number in the interval [3 , 2] such that the sum of the number and its reciprocal
is a maximum.
4. The sum of two nonnegative numbers is 5. Find the pair that maximizes the product of the
square of the first and the cube of the second number
5. The sum of three positive numbers is 30. The first plus twice the second plus three times
the third add up to 60. Select the numbers so that the product of all three is as large as
possible.
6. An open rectangular box with square base is to be made from 4 square feet of material.
What dimension will result in a box with the largest possible volume?
7. A box with a square base is to have an open top. The area of the material in the box is to
be 100 𝑖𝑛2 . What should the dimensions be in order to make the volume as large as
possible?

8. A sheet of cardboard 3 ft by 4 ft will be made into a box by cutting equal-sized squares
from each corner and folding up the four edges. What will be the dimensions of the box
with largest volume?
9. If a closed tin can of volume 16π cubic inches is to be in the form of a right-circular cylinder,
find the height and radius if the least amount of material is to be used in its manufacture.
10. A container in the shape of a right cylinder with no top has surface area 3π square feet.
What height and base radius will maximize the volume of the cylinder?
11. Find the dimensions of the right circular cylinder of greatest volume that can be inscribed
in a sphere of volume 288𝜋 cubic feet?
12. A cylindrical can is to have a volume of 20𝜋 cubic meters. The material for the top and
bottom cost 10 pesos per square meter and material for the side cost 8 pesos per square
meter. Find the radius r and height h of the most economical can.
13. Find the dimensions of the rectangle of largest area that can be inscribed in an equilateral
triangle of side 4 units if one side of the rectangle lies on the base of the triangle.
14. Find the area of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in an isosceles triangle of base
10 feet and area 30 square feet if one side of the rectangle is on the base of the triangle.
15. A right circular cone is inscribed in such a way that its vertex is at the center of the circular
top of the hemisphere of diameter 6 inches. Find the dimensions of the maximum volume
of the inscribed cone.
16. A right circular cone is inscribed in such a way that its vertex is at the center of the base of
a bigger circular cone with radius 4 inches and a height of 20 inches. Find the dimensions of
the maximum volume of the inscribed cone.
17. The area of a cylinder sector with radius 𝑟 and central angle of radian measure 𝜃 is 𝐴 =
12𝑟 2 𝜃, and its arc has length 𝑆 = 𝑟𝜃. Find 𝑟 and 𝜃 so that 0 < 𝜃 < 2𝜋, the sector has
area 1 square unit, and the perimeter is a minimum.
8
18. Consider all triangles formed by lines passing through the point (9 , 3) and both the 𝑥 −
𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Find the dimensions of the triangle with the shortest hypotenuse.
19. A piece of wire of length 1 meter is cut into two parts, one of which is bent into the shape
of a circle and the other into the shape of a square. How should the wire be cut so that the
sum of the enclosed areas is a minimum?
20. Find the point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 nearest the point (4, 0).

Related Rates
Related rates are simply problems involving rates of change of related variables. Before we
look at some examples of related rates, let us first learn some few tips in solving problems
in related rates.
The following are some useful guidelines in solving word problems involving related rates.
1. Draw a figure or a sketch of the problem whenever possible.

2. Define the variables to be used.
3. Label the sketch. Use variables for changing quantities and constant for not changing
quantities.
4. Write down any numerical facts known about the variables and their derivative with
respect to time t.
5. Write an equation to relate the variables that depend on t.
6. Differentiate with respect to t both sides of the equation obtained in (5) to relate the
rates of change of the variables.
7. Substitute values of known quantities in the equation in (5) and solve for the desired
quantity.
Convention Used:
Let s be a function of time t.

𝑑𝑠
If s increases with time t, then the rate 𝑑𝑡 carries a positive (+) sign.
𝑑𝑠
If s decreases as t increases, then the rate 𝑑𝑡 carries a negative (−) sign.
Example 3.4.1 A cylindrical tank of radius of 5 feet is being filled with water at the rate of
314 cubic feet per minute. How fast the depth of the water is increasing?
Solution:
Let us draw first the cylindrical tank

Let t minutes be the time that has elapsed since the water started to flow into the tank.
Let 𝑉 be the value of water at time 𝑡 , ℎ depth of the water in the tank at time 𝑡, and 𝑟 𝑖s
tha radius of the tank . Then
𝑑𝑉
is the rate at which the volume of the water is changing and
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ
is the rate at which the depth of water is changing.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
Since the volume increase s as time t increase, = 314 𝑓𝑡 3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛 (carries the " + " sign)
𝑑𝑡
The volume of the tank is
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ.
It is given that 𝑟 = 10𝑓𝑡, hence
𝑉 = 𝜋(10)2 ℎ
→ 𝑉 = 100𝜋ℎ.
Differentiating both sides with of 𝑉 = 100𝜋ℎ respect to t, we obtain
𝑑𝑉 𝑑ℎ
= 100𝜋
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
𝑑ℎ
→ = 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 100𝜋
𝑑𝑉
Thus, with = 314 𝑓𝑡 3 ⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛, we have
𝑑𝑡
𝑑ℎ 314 157
= = 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛.
𝑑𝑡 100𝜋 50𝜋
157
Therefore, the water at the tank is rising at the rate of 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑚𝑖𝑛.
50𝜋
Example 2. A small funnel in the shape of a cone is being emptied of fluid at the rate 12 cubic
centimetres per second. The height of the funnel is 20 centimeters and the radius of the top is 4
centimeters . How fast is the fluid level dropping when the level stands 5 centimeters above the
vertex of the cone?
Solution:
The figure is shown below.

Let V be the volume of the fluid inside the cone at anytime t , r the radius of the cone formed at
any time t , and h the fluid level at any time t. The volume of the fluid of the fluid given at any time
t is given by
1
𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟 2 ℎ,
3
By ratio and proportion, we find that
𝑟 4 1
= → 𝑟= ℎ
ℎ 20 5
Thus,
1 1 2 1
𝑉 = 𝜋 ( ℎ) ℎ = 𝜋ℎ3
3 5 75
1
Differentiating both sides of 𝑉 = ℎ3 with respect to t, we get
75
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑ℎ
= 𝜋(3ℎ2 )
𝑑𝑡 75 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉 1 𝑑ℎ
→ = 𝜋ℎ2
𝑑𝑡 25 𝑑𝑡
It follows that
𝑑ℎ 25 𝑑𝑉
→ = .
𝑑𝑡 𝜋ℎ2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉
Since the volume of the fluid is decreasing , 𝑑𝑡 = −12 𝑐𝑚3 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 (carries the " − " sign).
Therefore, at that instant ℎ = 5𝑐𝑚, we have
𝑑ℎ 25 −12 3
= (−12) = 𝑐𝑚 ⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 .
𝑑𝑡 𝜋(5)2 5
12
Therefore, the fluid is dropping ( ℎ is decreasing) at the rate of 5 𝑐𝑚⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 .

Example 3. The length of a rectangle is being lengthened at the rate of 2 inches per second while
the width is shortened in such away that the figure remains rectangle with a constant area of 50
inches. What is the rate of change of the perimeter when the length is 5 inches?
Solution:
First , we draw a sketch of the problem
Let 𝑙, 𝑤 and 𝑃 be, respectively, the length, width and perimeter of the rectangle at any time 𝑡.
Denote by 𝐴 the constant area of the rectangle. Since 𝐴 = 𝑙𝑤 = 50𝑖𝑛2, it follows that
50
𝑤= .
𝑙
𝑑𝑃
Note that in this problem we are asked to find given that 𝑙 = 5 𝑖𝑛 and the rate of change of the
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
length of the rectangle is = 2 𝑖𝑛⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡
50
Since the perimeter of the rectangle is 𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2𝑤 and 𝑤 = , we have is
𝑙
50
𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 2 ( ) = 2𝑙 + 100𝑙 −1 .
𝑙
Differentiating both sides of the equation 𝑃 = 2𝑙 + 100𝑙 −1 with respect to t, we obtain
𝑑𝑃 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
= 2 + 100(−𝑙 −2 ) = 2 − 100𝑙 −2 .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
Thus, when 𝑙 = 5 𝑖𝑛 and = 2 (carries the " + " sign), we have
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃
= 2(2) − 100(5)−2 (2) = −4 𝑖𝑛⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡
Therefore, the perimeter of the rectangle is decreasing at the rate of 4 𝑖𝑛⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.

Example 4. A bus moving at 60 miles per hour along a straight road passes under a weather
balloon rising vertically at 20 miles per hour. If the balloon is 1 mile up when the bus is directly
below it, how fast is the distance between the bus and the balloon increasing 1 minute later?
Solution
Let 𝑥 be the distance of the bus from the point on the ground below the balloon at any time 𝑡, 𝑦
the distance of the balloon from the ground at any time 𝑡, and 𝑧 the distance between the bus and
the balloon at any time 𝑡.
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
We want to find one minute after the bus passed the balloon, where = 60 𝑚𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑟 and =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
20 𝑚𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑟.
1
Let 𝑡 = 0, when 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 1 𝑚𝑖. After one minute, that is when 𝑡 = 1𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 60 ℎr , we have
𝑑𝑥 1
𝑥 = ( ) 𝑡 = (60 𝑚𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑟) ( ℎ𝑟) = 1𝑚𝑖
𝑑𝑡 60
1 1 4
𝑦 = (20 𝑚𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑟) ( ℎ𝑟) + 1 = ( + 1) 𝑚𝑖 = 𝑚𝑖.
60 3 3
From Pythagorean Theorem, we have 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑧 2 . Differentiating both sides of the equation

with respect to t, we obtain
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 2𝑧
or equivalently,
𝑧 =𝑥 + 𝑦 .

5 4
Note that 𝑧 = 3 𝑚𝑖 when 𝑦 = 3 𝑚𝑖 and 𝑥 = 1 𝑚𝑖 . Therefore, at the given instant, the rate of
change of the distance between the bus and the balloon is
4
𝑑𝑧 (1)(60) + (3) (20)
= = 52 𝑚𝑖 ⁄ℎ𝑟.
𝑑𝑡 5
3
Example 5. A 25-foot ladder that is leaning against a vertical wall has its upper end slipping down
the wall at the rate of 1 foot per second. How fast is the measure of the acute angle made by the
ladder with the ground is changing when the upper end is 7 ft above the ground?
Solution:
First, we draw a sketch of the problem.
Let 𝑦 be the distance of the top of the ladder from the ground at time 𝑡,
𝑥 be the distance of the bottom of the ladder from the base of the wall at time 𝑡, and
𝑧 be the length of the ladder. Then 𝑧 = 25 feet,
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑡
is the rate at which the top of the ladder is slipping down the wall and
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑡
is the rate at which the bottom of the ladder is sliding along the ground.
𝑑𝑦
Since 𝑦 decreases as 𝑡 increases, 𝑑𝑡
= −1 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑥
Next we will find the value of 𝑑𝑡
at that instant when 𝑥 = 7𝑓𝑡. To do this, first note that by
Pythagorean Theorem, we have
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑧2,

that is ,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (25)2 .
Differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑡, we get
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or equivalently,
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 −𝑦 𝑑𝑡
= .
𝑑𝑡 𝑥
From 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (25)2 , we find that 𝑦 = 24 when 𝑥 = 7. Thus , when 𝑥 = 7𝑓𝑡, we have
𝑑𝑥 −(24)(−1)
= .
𝑑𝑡 7
Therefore,
𝑑𝑥 24
= 𝑓𝑡⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝑑𝑡 7
Exercises
1. A rocket is being launched vertically over a point A on the ground with a velocity of 550 mi/hr.
Twenty five miles away from point A on the ground, there is a photographer video-taping the
launch. At what rate is the angle of elevation of the camera changing when the rocket achieves
an altitude of 25 miles?
2. At 12 noon, ship A travels due west at 100 knots. After 4 hours, ship B leaves the same port on
the direction N30◦W at 80 knots. How fast is the distance between the two ships changing at 8
P.M. in the same day?
3. A ladder 10 m long is leaning against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder is pushed
horizontally towards the wall at 8 5 m/sec, how fast is the top of the ladder sliding up the wall
when the bottom of the ladder is 6 m from the wall?
4. Two automobiles start from a point A at the same time. One travels west at 80 mi/hr and the
other travels north at 45 mi/hr. How fast is the distance between them increasing 3 hours
later?
5. A girl starting at 11 A.M., travels east at 4 km/hr while a boy, starting at noon from the same
point, travels north at 6 km/hr. How fast are they separating at 3 P.M.
6. At noon ship A leaves port O steaming due south at 10 mi/hr. At 2 P.M. ship B leaves O going
60◦ east of south at 20 mi/hr. Find the rate at which the ships are separating at 5 P.M.
7. A light is 25 ft above a sidewalk and a man 6 ft tall is walking away from the point under the
light. If his shadow is lengthening at the rate of 4 ft/sec, how fast is he walking?
8. A flood lamp is installed on the ground 200 feet from a vertical wall. A six foot tall man is
walking towards the wall at the rate of 30 feet per second. How fast is the tip of his shadow
moving down the wall when he is 50 feet from the wall?
9. A man 6 ft tall walks along a level sidewalk away from a lamppost. On the post is a street light
18 ft. above the ground. If he walks at a speed of 4 ft/sec, how fast is his shadows lengthening?
10. A boy 4.5 ft. tall walks toward a light 10 ft. above the ground at the rate of 6 ft per second.
How fast is his shadow changing in length?
11. The area of an expanding rectangle is increasing at the rate of 48 square centimeters per
second. The length of the rectangle is always equal to the square of its width (in centimeters).
At what rate is the length increasing at the instant when the width is 2 centimeters.
12. The length of a rectangle of constant area 800 square millimeters is increasing at the rate of 4
millimeters per second.
a. Find the width of the rectangle at the moment the width is decreasing at the rate of 0.5
millimeter per second.
b. Find the rate at which the diagonal of the rectangle is changing when the width is 20
millimeters.
13. What is the radius of an expanding circle at the moment when the rate of change of its area is
numerically twice as large as the rate of change of its radius?
14. Two runners are running on circular tracks each of which has a circumference of 1320 feet. The
tracks are 100 feet apart and the runners start opposite each other and move at the same
constant rate of 880 ft/min. How fast are the runners separating when each has run 165 feet?
15. Gas is being pumped into a spherical balloon at the rate of 10 cubic inches per second. When
the diameter is 30 inches, find the rate at which the radius is changing and the rate at which
the surface area is changing?
16. The surface area of the sphere is increasing at the rate of 6π square inches per second. How
fast is the radius changing when the volume of the sphere is 9π 2 cubic inches?
17. If the radius of a sphere is increasing at the constant rate of 3 inches per second, how fast is
the volume changing when the surface area is 10 square inches?
18. Water inside a conical tank is leaking at a rate of 10 m3/min. If the water level is always twice
the radius of the water, at what rate is the water level decreasing when the water is 8 m deep?
19. A baseball diamond is 90 ft in a side (it’s a square). Matthew runs from the first base to the
second base at the rate of 3 √ 13 ft/sec.

a. How fast is his distance from the third base decreasing when he is 30 ft. from the first
base?
b. At this instant, how fast is his distance from the home plate changing?
20. If a tree trunk adds 1 4 of an inch to its diameter and 1 foot to its height each year, how rapidly
is its volume changing when its diameter is 3 feet and its height is 50 feet? (Assume that the
tree trunk is in a shape of a right circular cylinder.)
(Involving Inverse Trigonometric Functions)
21. In baseball, a batter stands 2 feet from home plate as a pitch is thrown with a velocity of 130
ft/s (about 90 mph). Assuming that the ball only moves horizontally, at what rate does the
batter’s angle of gaze need to change to follow the ball as it crosses home plate?
22. The base and base angles of an isosceles right triangle are increasing at the respective rates of
2ft/sec and 5◦ per second. When the base is 10 ft long and the base angles are 45◦ , find the
rate at which the altitude (or height) is increasing.
23. An airplane is flying at a constant altitude of 4,000 ft. and passes through a point directly
above an observer. At the instant when the angle of elevation is 45◦ , the angle is decreasing at
the rate of 2 ◦520/sec. How fast is the airplane flying at this instant?
24. A kite is 60 m high with 100 m of cord out. If the kite is moving horizontally 88 15 m/sec
directly away from the boy flying it, find the rate of change of the angle of elevation of the
chord.
25. A rope is attached to a weight and passes over a hook that is 6 ft. above the ground. The rope
is pulled over the hook at the rate of 1 2 ft/sec and drags the weight along level ground. How
fast is the measure of the angle between the rope and the floor changing when the is 4 ft from
the point on the ground directly below the hook.
26. An airplane is flying at a constant altitude of 4,400 ft. and passes through as point directly
above an observer. At the instant when the angle of elevation is 45◦ , the angle is decreasing at
the rate of 0.05 radian per second. How fast is the airplane flying at this instant?
27. A ship. moving 8 mi/hr, sails north for 30 min., then turns east. If a searchlight at the point of
departure follows the ship, how fast is the light rotating 2 hours after the start?
28. A hunter is approaching a tree at the rate of 2 ft/sec. A one ft-tall eagle is resting on a branch
of the tree that is 12 ft. above the eye level of the hunter. How fast is the measure of the angle
subtended at the hunter’s eye by the eagle changing when he is 20 ft. from the tree?
29. A hunter is moving away from a tree at the rate of 2 ft/sec. A 3 ft-tall eagle is resting on a
branch of the tree that is 12 ft. above the eye level of the hunter. How fast is the measure of
the angle subtended at the hunter’s eye by the eagle changing when he is 40 ft. from the tree?

30. A hunter walking at the rate of 2 ft/sec down a hill inclined at π 6 radian with the horizontal
saw a bird on a tree situated down the hill. If the hunter’s eye is 6 ft above the ground and the
bird is 5 ft above the ground, how fast is the angle of depression of the bird from the hunter’s
eye changing at an instant when the hunter is 10 ft from a point on the ground directly below
the bird?
31. A ladder 15 feet long is leaning against a vertical wall. If the bottom of the ladder is pulled
horizontally away from the wall so that the top is sliding down 4 ft/sec, how fast is the measure
of the angle between the ladder and the ground changing when the bottom of the ladder is 12
ft from the wall?
32. A helicopter, flying at a speed of 150 miles/hour at a constant altitude of 2 miles, passes
directly above an observer standing on the ground. Find the rate of change of the measure of
the observer’s angle of elevation of the helicopter when the helicopter is directly over a point
on the ground 1 mile from the observer.


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Other Applications of

Linear Approximation and Differentials

Geometric Interpretation of a Derivative

Figure3.1 Line 𝐿ℎ through points 𝑃0 and 𝑃

The slope of the line 𝐿ℎ is

𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )

Department of Mathematics and Statistics, CSM, MSU-IIT

Definition (Normal Line)

Using the Point-Slope Form, we have

Therefore, an equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 at 𝑃0 (1, 0) is

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Again, by using the Point-Slope Form, we have

Therefore, an equation of the normal line to the curve 𝑦 = 3𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 1 at 𝑃0 (1, 0) is

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Thus , 3𝑥0 2 − 3 = 9and it follows that 𝑥0 = 2 or 𝑥0 = −2.

Now, if 𝑥0 = 2, then 𝑦0 = 𝑓(2) = 23 − 3(2) = 2.

Therefore, an equation of the normal line to the curve at point 𝑃0 (2,2) is

On the other hand, if 𝑥0 = −2, then 𝑦0 = 𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 − 3(−2) = −2.

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𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓′(𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

Definition (Linear Approximation)

The linear (or tangent line) approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 𝑥0 is the function

𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓′(𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )

𝐿(𝑥) = 𝑓(8) + 𝑓′(8)(𝑥 − 8), and so

Example Find the linear approximation of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥, for 𝑥 close to 0.

First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥. The derivative of 𝑓 is

First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥. The derivative of 𝑓 is

Example Find the linear approximation to 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 at 𝑥0 = 5

First, find the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 . The derivative of 𝑓 is

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3𝑒 2𝑥−10 + 3𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 (2) = 3𝑒 2𝑥−10 + 6𝑥𝑒 2𝑥−10 .

At 𝑥0 = 5, we have 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑓(5) = 3(5)𝑒 2(5)−10 = 15𝑒 0 = 15(1) = 15 and

𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 𝑓 ′ (5) = 3𝑒 2(5)−10 + 6(5)𝑒 𝑥(5)−10 = 3e0 + 30e0 = 3 + 30 = 33.

1. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑥0 = 1, 𝑛 = √1.2

Approximation Using Differentials

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (1)

𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )(𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ) (2)

We define the increments ∆𝑥 and ∆𝑦 by

∆𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 and ∆𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ).

Using this notation, equation (2) gives us the approximation

𝑓(𝑥1 ) ≈ 𝑦1 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )∆𝑥 (3)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≈ 𝑓′ (𝑥0 )∆𝑥 = 𝑑𝑦, (4)

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We will use the function

Let 𝑥0 = 8 and 𝑥1 = 8.02. Then 𝑑𝑥 = ∆𝑥 = 𝑥1 − 𝑥0 = 8.02 − 8 = .02 and

Department of Mathematics and Statistics, CSM, MSU-IIT

Use a linear approximation or differentials to estimate the given numbers.

𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) 𝑑(𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑥

𝑑(𝑐𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑐𝑢) = 𝑐𝑑𝑢

𝑑(𝑢𝑣) 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑢𝑣) = 𝑢𝑑𝑣 + 𝑣𝑑𝑢

𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) 𝑑𝑢 𝑑(𝑢𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑢𝑛−1 𝑑𝑢

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Therefore , ∆𝑉 ≈ 4𝜋 and so the volume of the spherical shell is approximately 4𝜋.

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Definition (Relative Extrema)

If a function f has either a relative maximum or a relative minimum value at 𝑥0 , then 𝑓 is

Definition (Critical Value and Critical point)

Definition (Absolute Extrema)

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Theorem (Extreme-Value Theorem)