Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management (SWM) is associated with

the
• control of waste generation
• its storage
• collection
• transfer and transport
• processing and
• disposal
in a manner that is in accordance with the best
principles of public health, economics,
engineering, conservation, aesthetics, public
attitude and other environmental considerations.

However the newer concepts of ‘Waste management’

talk about ‘Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of waste’
over and above waste disposal.
 Solid Waste Management
SWM system refers to a
combination of various functional
elements associated with the
management of solid wastes. The
system, when put in place,
facilitates the collection and
disposal of solid wastes in the
community at minimal costs, while
preserving public health and
ensuring little or minimal adverse
impact on the environment.

The functional elements that

constitute the system are:
(i) Waste generation (ii) Waste
storage (iii) Waste collection (iv)
Transfer and transport (v) Typical SWM System: Functional Elements
Processing (vi) Recovery and
recycling (vii) Waste disposal
 Functional Element Of
MSW Management

• Waste generation
• Waste handling, sorting, storage, and
processing at the source
• Collection
• Separation, processing and transformation
of solid wastes
• Transfer and transport
• Energy Generation
• Disposal
 Waste Stream Assessment
Waste stream assessment (WSA) is a means

• to determine the basic aspects of quantity (i.e., the amount of waste

generated in the community, both in terms of weight and volume),
• composition (i.e., the different components of waste stream) and
• sources of wastes.

The information relating to these basic aspects of wastes is vital for making
decisions about the SWM system, finance and regulations.

It also helps in targeting waste management activities and setting goals

for different elements of a waste management plan.
Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates
Knowledge of the quantities of solid wastes generated,
separated for recycling and collected for further
processing or disposal is of fundamental importance to all
aspects of Solid waste management.

Waste Generation
The characteristics, quantities, volume and
composition of solid waste generated may differ from
one country to another and between urban and rural areas.

It depends mainly upon the customs, climate, living

conditions and economic standard of the area.
 Waste Generation
The quantities of solid waste For example, if wastes generated at a
generated, collected and commercial facility consist of only paper
composition are important products, the appropriate equipment are
• in selecting specific shredders and balers.
equipment
• In designing of waste Similarly, on the basis of quantity
collection routes, Materials generated, we can plan appropriate means
recovery facilities (MRFs) for separation, collection and recycling
and Disposal facilities programmes.
• In determining waste
diversion programmes. That is to say, the success of SWM
depends on the appropriate assessment
The sizing of of quantity of wastes generated.
landfills depends
on the amount of The design of special
The sizing of MRFs depends
residual waste vehicles for the curb side
on the amount of waste to be
that must be collection of source
collected as well as the
dispose after all separated wastes depends
variations in the quantities
the recyclable on the quantities of the
delivered hourly, daily, weekly
materials have individual waste components
and minthly.
been removed to be collected.
A baler is a piece of farm machinery used to compress a cut and raked
crop (such as hay, cotton, straw or silage) into compact bales that are
easy to handle, transport and store.

A small square baler

Baler
Shredder
 Waste Generation
Waste generation encompasses those activities in which waste, be it solid or
semi-solid material, no longer has sufficient economic value for its possessor
to retain it.

The processing of raw

materials is the first
stage when wastes
are generated and
waste generation
continues thereafter at
every step in the
process as raw
materials are
converted into final
products for
consumption.

Material Flow and Waste

 Waste Generation
Generation Rate of Solid Waste

Determination of the generation rate of solid waste is important to obtain

data in order to determine waste volume and for subsequent solid waste
management.

Factors to consider for the purpose of determining the generation rate are:

1. Measures of Quantities
2. Statistical Analysis
3. Expression of Unit Generation
4. Methods Used to Determine Generation Rate
5. Typical Generation Rate
6. Factors Affecting Generation Rates
 Waste Generation
1. Measures of quantities
(1) Volume measurement
(2) Weight measurement The use of volume as
a measure of quantity
Be careful in volume measurement because we can be misleading: For
need to distinguish wastes which are compacted and example: a cubic
loosened. meter (cubic yard) of
loose wastes is
Volumes must be related to either degree of different quantity from
compaction of the waste or the specific weight of the a cubic yard of wastes
waste under the conditions of storage. that has been
compacted in a
collection vehicle
Weight is the most accurate basis for records and each of these is
regardless of whether the waste is loose or different from a cubic
compacted. meter (yard) of wastes
has been compacted
For example, Tonnages can be measured directly further in landfill.
regardless of the degree of compaction
 Waste Generation
Weight record are necessary in the transport of solid wastes.

Volume and weight are equally important with respect to the capacity of
landfills.

2. Statistical Analysis

It is necessary to have some statistical base for solid waste management

system development.

This includes placement of containers, programming the collection program

and allocation of vehicle type.

3. Expression of Unit Generation

In addition to knowing the source and composition of solid waste, it is

important to have uniform units of expression.

(1) Residential and Commercial – kilogram per capita per day (Kg/c/d)
(2) Agricultural –Kilogram per hectare per year (kg/ ha/ year)
 Waste Generation

4. Methods Used to Determine Generation Rate

(1) Load count analysis: Basically involves counting of the individual loads
and the corresponding waste characteristics (types of waste, estimated
volume) over a specified time period. If possible, weighing the load will be
very important.

(2) Weight -volume analysis: Measuring the volume of the truck and weight of
each load will give ample data (specific weight of the various forms of
solid waste)

(3) Material balance analysis: The technique is expensive, it is used to: draw a
system boundary round the unit to be studied; identify what occurrences
affect generation rates; identify the rate of generation associated with
different activities using the data available; determine the quantity of
waste generated, stored and collected.
 Waste Generation
5. Typical Generation Rate 6. Factors Affecting Generation Rates
Factors that affect the generation rate of
This is the rate found by solid waste include:
conducting a large survey very
representative for a nation, state (i) geographical location – related primarily
or locality. to the different climate that can
influence both the amount generated
and collection operation.
(ii) season of the year
(iii) frequency of collection
(iv) characteristics of population
(v) extent of salvage and recycling
(vi) legislation
(vii) public attitude
 Waste Composition
The composition of wastes include the following:
• The major constituents are paper and decomposable organic materials.

• Metal, glass, ceramics, textile, dirt and wood form part of the composition
and their relative proportion depends on local factors.

• Average proportions of the constituents reaching the disposal sites are

consistent and urban wastes are fairly constant although subject to long-
term changes such as seasonal variations.

Composition of solid waste depends on the local factors such as

• time of the year or season
• habits of the community
• educational status
• economic status
• geographical location and
• population size.
 Waste Composition

A. Physical Composition B. Chemical Composition

Knowing the physical composition of It is very important to study the nature

solid waste is important for the and value of solid waste to plan different
selection and operation of disposal and recovery options.
equipment facilities, to assess the
possibility or feasibility of energy These studies include the assessment
recovery and to design disposal of moisture content, volatility, ash
facilities. content etc.

Its analysis may contain individual The moisture content of municipal solid
component study, moisture content wastes varies depending on
study and density. composition of the waste, the season of
the year, humidity and weather
condition.
 Waste Composition
Typical Waste Composition: Low/High Income Population
 Quantities and Volume of Solid Waste
Various estimates have been made on the quantity of solid waste generated
and collected per person per day.

The amount of municipal solid waste collected is estimated to be 2.7

kg/capita/day, of which about 0.6 kg is residential.

Averages are subject to adjustment depending on many factors: time of the

year; habits, education and economic status of the people; number and type of
commercial industrial operations; whether urban or rural area; and location.
 Quantities and Volume of Solid Waste
Each community should be studied and actual weighing made to obtain
representative information for design purposes.

Community wastes are not expected to exceed 1000 kg/capita/year.

With the emphasis being placed on source reduction such as less packaging,
waste recovery and recycling such as of paper, metals, cans and glass, the
amount of solid waste requiring disposal is reduced.

The volume occupied by solid waste under certain conditions determines the
number and size or type of refuse containers, collection vehicles and transfer
stations.

Transportation systems and land requirements for disposal are also affected.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste
The handling and separation, storage and processing of solid wastes at the source
before they are collected is the second of the six functional elements in the SWMS.

On-Site Handling

On-site handling methods and principles involve public attitude and individual belief
and ultimately affects the public health.

It is an activity associated with the handling of solid waste until it is placed in the
containers used for its storage before collection.

This may take place at any time before, during or after storage.
Importance of on-site handling of On- site handling methods:
solid waste: - sorting
- reduce volume of waste generated - shredding
- alter physical form - grinding
- recover usable materials - composting

Factors that should be considered in evaluation of

on site processing include capabilities, reliability,
environmental effects, ease of operation etc.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

On- Site Storage

Waste storage is an important component of a waste management system.

Waste storage encompasses proper containers to store wastes and efficient

transport of wastes without any spillage to transfer stations/disposal sites.

The design of an efficient waste collection system requires careful

consideration of the type, size and location of containers at the point of
generation for storage of wastes until they are collected.

The first phase to manage solid waste is at home level. The individual
householder or businessman has responsibility for onsite storage of solid
waste.

It requires temporary storage of refuse on the premises.

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
For individual homes, industries and other commercial centres, proper on-site
storage of solid waste is the beginning of disposal because un kept or simple
dumps are sources of nuisance, flies, smells and other hazards.

Single-family households use small containers

Residential units, commercial units, institutions and industries require
large containers.

Smaller containers are usually handled manually whereas the larger,

heavier ones require mechanical handling.

There are four factors that should be considered in the onsite storage of
solid waste. These are
• The type of container to be used
• The location where the containers are to be kept
• Public health
• The collection method and time
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

The containers may fall under either of the following two categories:

1. Stationary containers: 2. Hauled containers:

These are used for contents to These are used for contents to be
be transferred to collection directly transferred to a processing
vehicles at the site of storage. plant, transfer station or disposal
site for emptying before being
returned to the storage site.

The desirable characteristics of a well-designed container are low cost,

size, weight, shape, resistance to corrosion, water tightness,
strength and durability.

For example, a container for manual handling by one person should

not weigh more than 20 kg, lest it may lead to occupational health
hazards such as muscular strain, etc.

Containers that weigh more than 20 kg, when full, require two or more
crew members to manually load and unload the wastes and which
result in low collection efficiency.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

1. Storage containers

Garbage and refuse generated in kitchens and other work areas should be
collected and stored in properly designed and constructed water-proof
garbage cans (waste bins).

The cans or receptacles can be constructed from galvanized iron sheet or

plastic materials.

They should have tightly fitting covers.

They must be of such size that, when full, they can be lifted easily by one man.

They should be located in a cool place on platforms at least 30 cm above

ground level.

After putting in garbage, they should be kept covered.

The bins must be emptied at least daily and maintained in clean conditions.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
A typical example of garbage can, constructed
from galvanized iron sheet, dimensions:
diameter 45 cm and height 75 cm
An adequate number of suitable
containers should be provided
with proper platforms with
receptacles stand.

The number may depend on the

amount, type and
establishments where the need
arises.

Suitable containers should be

Typical Garbage Can with Tightly Fitting Cover watertight, rust-resistant with
tight-fitting covers, fire-resistant,
adequate in size, light in weight,
with side handles and washable.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
2. Container Size (capacity)

Consideration should be given for the size of the loaded container that must be
hauled to the collection vehicle or to the disposal site.

Therefore, container size for:-

- ash: up to 80 to 128 liters
- mixed refuse: should not exceed 120 to 128 liters
- rubbish up to 200 liters
- kitchen waste is 40 liters
- garbage is 48 to 80 liters

Plastic liners for cans and wrapping for garbage reduce the need for cleaning
of cans and bulk containers and keep down odors, rat and fly breeding.

Galvanized metal is preferable for garbage storage because it is resistant to

corrosion.

Plastic cans are light in weight but are easily gnawed by rats.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Bulk containers are recommended where large volumes of refuse are

generated such as at hotels, restaurants, apartment houses and shopping
centres.

A concrete platform provided with a drain to an approved sewer with a water

faucet at the site facilitates cleaning.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Collection of Solid Waste:

• Waste collection does not mean the gathering of wastes but

• The process includes gathering of wastes as well as the transporting of
wastes to transfer stations and/or disposal sites.

This is the removal of refuse from collection points to final disposal site.

It is the most expensive as compared with other operation and management

procedures because it demands special vehicles, experienced people to
manage, more manpower, hand tools and more funds for fuel, salary,
maintenance, gathering or picking up of solid waste from the various sources,
taking the collected wastes to the location where it is emptied and unloading of
the collection vehicle.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Collection cost has been estimated to represent about 50% of the total cost
of collection when a sanitary landfill is used as means of disposal and 60%
when incineration is used.

Home collection of solid waste generally is done by a private collector or a

local government-owned and financed operation.

The factors that influence the waste collection system include the following
• Collection points
• Collection frequency
• Storage containers
• Collection crew
• Collection route
• Transfer station
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

(i) Collection points:

Collection system components such as s crew size and storage: Control

the cost of collection.

Note: The collection points depend on locality and may be residential,

commercial or industrial.

(ii) Collection frequency:

Climatic conditions and requirements of a locality as well as containers and

costs determine the collection frequency.

In hot and humid climates, for example, solid wastes must be

collected at least twice a week, as the decomposing solid wastes
produce bad odour and leachate.

As residential wastes usually contain food wastes and other putrescible

(rotting) material, frequent collection is desirable for health and aesthetic
reasons.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Besides climates, the quality of solid waste containers on site also determines
the collection frequency.

Sealed or closed containers allow collection frequency up to three days,

open and unsealed containers may require daily collection.

Collection efficiency largely depends on the demography of the area (such as

income groups, community, etc.) where collection takes place.

While deciding collection frequency, consider the following things:

• cost e.g., optimal collection frequency reduces the cost as it involves fewer
trucks, employees and reduction in total route distance;

• storage space, e.g., less frequent collection may require more storage
space in the locality;

• sanitation, e.g., frequent collection reduces concerns about health, safety

and nuisance associated with stored refuse.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

(iii) Storage containers:

Proper container selection can save collection energy, increase the speed of
collection and reduce crew size.

Containers should be functional for the amount and type of materials and
collection vehicles used.

Containers should also be durable, easy to handle and economical as well as

resistant to corrosion, weather and animals.

In residential areas, where refuse is collected manually, standardised metal or

plastic containers are typically required for waste storage.

When mechanised collection systems are used, containers are specifically

designed to fit the truck-mounted loading mechanisms.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

While evaluating residential waste containers, consider the following:

efficiency i.e. the containers should help maximise the overall collection
efficiency.

convenience i.e. the containers must be easily manageable both for

residents and collection crew.

compatibility i.e. the containers must be compatible with collection

equipment.

public health and safety i.e., the containers should be securely covered
and stored.

ownership i.e. the municipal ownership must guarantee compatibility with

collection equipment.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

(iv) Collection crew:

The optimum crew size for a community depends on labour and equipment
costs, collection methods and route characteristics.

The size of the collection crew also depends on the size and type of collection
vehicle used, space between the houses, waste generation rate and collection
frequency.

For example, increase in waste generation rate and quantity of wastes

collected per stop due to less frequent collection result in a bigger crew
size.

Note also that the collection vehicle could be a motorised vehicle, a pushcart
or a trailer towed by a suitable prime mover (tractor, etc.).

It is possible to adjust the ratio of collectors to collection vehicles such that the
crew idle time is minimised.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

(v) Collection route:

The collection programme must consider the route that is efficient for
collection.

An efficient routing of collection vehicles helps decrease costs by reducing

the labour expended for collection.

Proper planning of collection route also helps conserve energy and

minimise working hours and vehicle fuel consumption.

It is necessary therefore to develop detailed route configurations and

collection schedules for the selected collection system.

The size of each route, however, depends on the amount of waste

collected per stop, distance between stops, loading time and traffic
conditions.

Barriers, such as railroad, embankments, rivers and roads with heavy

traffic, can be considered to divide route territories.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

(vi) Transfer station:

A transfer station is an intermediate station between final disposal option

and collection point in order to increase the efficiency of the system, as
collection vehicles and crew remain closer to routes.

If the disposal site is far from the collection area, it is justifiable to have a
transfer station, where smaller collection vehicles transfer their loads to
larger vehicles, which then haul the waste long distances.

In some instances, the transfer station serves as a pre-processing point,

where wastes are dewatered, scooped or compressed.

A centralised sorting and recovery of recyclable materials are also carried

out at transfer stations (EPA, 1989).

The unit cost of hauling solid wastes from a collection area to a transfer
station and then to a disposal site decreases, as the size of the collection
vehicle increases.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Private collectors usually charge a fee to each individual homeowner or a

government contract will pay the fees.

The government contract enables solid waste collection in a uniform, sanitary

manner.

Without such a contract, some individuals may be reluctant to pay the collector
for the service and the refuse may go uncollected.

1. Collection process
Involves five different phases.
Phase 1 - House to dustbin
Phase 2 - Dustbin to truck
Phase 3 - Truck from house to house
Phase 4 - Truck to transfer station
Phase 5 - Truck to disposal
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

2. Collection services

People must understand that a good refuse-collection service requires citizen

cooperation in the provision and use of proper receptacles in order to keep the
community clean and essentially free of rats, flies, and other vermin.

There are four types of collection services:

(1) Curb (curb side): (2) Set-out (block collection):

Owner is responsible for returning the
The home owner is container.
responsible for placing and
returning the empty container. The full containers are brought or set at the
collection site by the crew.
Never entirely satisfactory.
Bins are not left out on the street for long
periods.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

There are four types of collection services:

(3) Backyard carrying service (door to (4) Alleys:

door collection):
A narrow street or path
Collection crews that go along with the between buildings in a town.
collection vehicle are responsible for
bringing out stored solid waste from the That is difficult to get the
dwelling units. container and also to the
vehicle that will collect the
It is the only satisfactory system in which waste.
the householder does not get involved.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Containers/Storage bins

Containers should not have rough or sharp edges and preferably have a
handle and a wheel to facilitate mobility.

They should be covered to prevent rainwater from entering (which increases

the weight and rate of decomposition of organic materials) into the solid
wastes.

The container body must be strong enough to resist and discourage stray
animals and scavengers from ripping it as well as withstand rough handling by
the collection crew and mechanical loading equipment.

Containers should be provided with a lifting bar, compatible with the hoisting
mechanism of the vehicle.

The material used should be light, recyclable, easily moulded and the surface
must be smooth and resistant to corrosion.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Containers/Storage bins

On the one hand, steel and ferrous containers are heavy and subject to
corrosion; the rust peels off exposing sharp edges, which could be hazardous
to the collection crew.

On the other, wooden containers (e.g., bamboo, rattan and wooden baskets)
readily absorb and retain moisture and their surfaces are generally rough,
irregular and difficult to clean.

Communal containers

Generally, the containers used for waste storage are communal/public

containers.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Compactor collection
vehicle can lift a
typical communal
container and empty
mechanically

Typical Communal Container

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
The use of communal containers is largely dependent on local culture, tradition
and attitudes towards waste.

Communal containers may be fixed on the ground (stationary) or movable

(hauled).

Movable containers are provided with hoists and tails compatible with lifting
mechanism of collection vehicles and such containers have capacities of 1 – 4
m 3.

The waste management authority must monitor, maintain and upgrade the
communal containers.

Note that in residential and commercial areas in India, the communal

containers are often made of concrete.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
In areas with very high waste generation rates i.e. rates exceeding two
truckloads daily, such as wet markets, large commercial centres and large
business establishments, roll-on-roll or hoisted communal containers with
capacities of 12 – 20 m3 and a strong superstructure with wheels are used.

Normally, the collection vehicle keeps an empty container as a replacement

before it hauls the filled container.

When a truck is used as a collection vehicle, the use of communal containers

may be appropriate.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
It is advisable to place the containers 100 – 200 m apart for economic
reasons. The communal containers are usually staggered such that the
effective distance of 100 m is maintained.

Location of Communal Container

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Location of Communal Container

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
This means that the farthest distance the householder will have to walk is 50
meters.

However, in narrow streets with low traffic, where the house owner can readily
cross the street, a longer distance is advisable.

If the collection vehicle has to stop frequently, say, at every 50 m or so, fuel
consumption increases, and this must be avoided.

Disadvantages of communal containers:

• Potential lack of maintenance and upgrading.

• The residuals and scattered solid wastes emit foul odours, which
discourage residents from using the containers properly.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Disadvantages of communal containers:

In addition, if fixed containers are built below the vehicle level, the collection
crew may be held responsible for sweeping and loading the solid wastes into
transfer containers before being loaded into the collection vehicle.

Sweeping and cleaning the communal containers of residuals obviously

impinge on the time of the crew members and take a longer time than if the
wastes are placed in smaller containers.

As fixed communal containers have higher rates of failure, their use is not
advisable.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Method of loading the solid waste on the vehicle:

a. directly lifting and carrying of container.
b. rolling of loaded containers on their rims.
c. use of small lifts for rolling the containers to the collection vehicle.
d. use of large containers into which wastes from small containers are emptied

Planning of Solid Waste Collection Program

Routing system of collection

1. Micro-routing is: 2. Macro-routing is:

- the routing of a vehicle within its assigned - large scale routing to the
collection zone. disposal site and the
- concerned with how to route a truck through establishment of the
a series of one or two way streets so that individual route boundaries.
the total distance travelled is minimized.
- very difficult to design and execute.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Modes of operation in solid waste collection

1. Hauled container system 2. Stationary container system

The containers used for The containers used for the

the storage of wastes are storage of waste remain at the
hauled to the disposal site, point of generation except for
emptied and returned. occasional short trips to the
collection vehicles.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Collection vehicles

Almost all collections are based on collector and collection crew, which move
through the collection service area with a vehicle for collecting the waste
material.

The collection vehicle selected must be appropriate to the terrain, type and
density of waste generation points, the way it travels and type and kind of
material.

It also depends upon strength, stature and capability of the crew that will work
with it.

The collection vehicle may be small and simple (e.g., two-wheeled cart pulled
by an individual) or large, complex and energy intensive (e.g., rear loading
compactor truck).

The most commonly used collection vehicle is the dump truck fitted with a
hydraulic lifting mechanism.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Some vehicle types follows:

(i) Small-scale collection and muscle-powered vehicles:

These are common vehicles used for waste collection in many countries
and are generally used in rural hilly areas.

Small rickshaws, carts or wagons pulled by people or animals and are less
expensive, easier to build and maintain compared to other vehicles:

They are suitable for densely populated areas with narrow lanes and
squatter settlements where there is relatively low volume of waste
generated.

Some drawbacks of these collection vehicles include limited travel range of

the vehicles and weather exposure that affect humans and animals.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Small scale collection vehicles

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
(ii) Non-compactor trucks:

Non-compactor trucks are efficient and cost effective in small cities and in
areas where wastes tend to be very dense and have little potential for
compaction.

When these trucks are used for waste collection, they need a dumping system
to easily discharge the waste.

It is generally required to cover the trucks in order to prevent residue flying off
or rain soaking the wastes.

Trucks with capacities of 10 – 12 m3 are effective if the distance between the

disposal site and the collection area is less than 15 km.

If the distance is longer, a potential transfer station closer than 10 km from the
collection area is required.

Non-compactor trucks are generally used, when labour cost is high.

Controlling and operating cost is a deciding factor, when collection routes are
long and relatively sparsely populated.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Non compactor Trucks

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
(iii) Compactor truck:

Compaction vehicles are more common these days, generally having

capacities of 12 – 15 m3 due to limitations imposed by narrow roads.

The capacity of a compaction vehicle is similar to that of a dump truck, the

weight of solid wastes collected per trip is 2 to 2.5 times larger since the
wastes are hydraulically compacted.

A compactor truck allows waste containers to be emptied into the vehicle

from the rear, front or sides and inhibits vectors (of disease) from reaching
the waste during collection and transport.

It works poorly when waste stream is very dense, wet, collected materials
are gritty or abrasive, or when the roads are dusty.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
The advantages of the compactor collection vehicle include the following:
• containers are uniform, large, covered and relatively visually
inoffensive;
• waste is set out in containers so that the crew can pick them up
quickly;
• health risk to the collectors and odour on the streets are minimised;
• waste is relatively inaccessible to the waste pickers.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Compactor Trucks
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
The success of waste management depends on the level of
segregation at source.

Compactor Trucks
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Unit operations

Pick-up - refers to the Haul - represents the time

time spent driving to the required to reach the disposal
next container after an site starting after a container whose
empty container has been contents are to be emptied has
deposited. been loaded on the truck plus the
time spent after leaving the
disposal site until the truck arrives
at the location where the empty
At-site- refers to the time container is to be deposited.
spent at the disposal site
and includes the time Off-site - includes the
spent waiting to unload as time spent on
well as the time spent in activities that are non-
loading. productive from the
point of view of the
overall collection
system.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Frequency of solid waste collection

The frequency of collection depends on the quantity of solid waste, time of

year, socioeconomic status of the area served, and municipal or contractor
responsibility.

In business districts, refuse, including garbage from hotels and

restaurants, should be collected daily except on Sundays.

In residential areas, twice-a-week for refuse collection during warm months

of the year and once a week at other times should be the maximum
permissible interval. Slum areas usually require at least twice-a-week
collection.

The receptacle should be either emptied directly into the garbage truck or
carted away and replaced with a clean container.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Refuse transferred from can to can will cause spilling, which results in pollution
of the ground and attraction of flies.

If other than curb pickup is provided, the cost of collection will be high.

Some property owners are willing to pay for this extra service.

Bulky wastes should be collected every 3 months.

Garbage - should be Mixed refuse -

collected at least two should be collected
times weekly in twice daily from
residential sections in most commercial
summer and winter. concerns.
However, most
Rubbish - is generally
commercial
collected weekly in
establishments should
residential areas and daily
be accorded daily
in business sections.
collection service
throughout the year.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

The provision of frequent collection services is important in the prevention of

fly breeding in garbage, because irregular collections can contribute to the
nuisances and hazards which result under poor storage conditions and in
chances the amount greater than the expected requirement from households.

Collection equipment

Mechanical collection systems have been developed to reduce collection cost.

The system requires use of a special container, truck container pick-up
equipment, and replacement of the container.

From an economic point of view, such equipment are most unlikely to be

applied in Ethiopian situation.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Collection equipment that simplifies the collection of refuse and practically

eliminates cause for legitimate complaint is available.

The tight-body open truck with a canvas or metal cover has been replaced in
most instances by the automatic loading truck with packer to compact refuse
dumped in the truck during collection, except for the collection of bulky items.

Compaction-type bodies have twice the capacity of open trucks and a

convenient loading height.

Low-level closed-body trailers to eliminate the strain of lifting cans are also
available.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

The number and size of the collection vehicles and the number of pickups in
residential and business areas for communities of different population will vary
with location, affluence, and other factors.

The average refuse truck holds 6,000 to 8,000 kilograms.

The solid waste collection vehicle should be covered and able to compact the
refuse collected.

It may load from the rear, side, or top.

The storage areas in these vehicles should be kept relatively clean and water-
tight.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Organization of solid waste collection program

Many cities and towns require homeowners to use certain types of

receptacles.

Collectors usually pick up at the curb in front of the dwelling.

In some neighbour hoods the collectors pick up the receptacles in the

backyard, as the people who live there consider receptacles too bulky to
handle and unsightly in front of their dwellings.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Haul distance to the disposal facility must be taken into consideration in

making a cost analysis.

In some highly urbanized areas it is economical to reduce haul distance by

providing large, specially designed trailers at transfer stations.

In suburban and rural areas, container stations can be established at central

locations.

These stations may include a stationary compactor for ordinary refuse and a
bin for tires and bulky items. Separate bins for paper, glass and aluminium
may also be provided.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Labor requirements for the collection of solid waste depend on both the type of
service provided and the collection system used:

1. For hauled container system: one person, two for safety, and a driver to
drive the vehicle load and unload containers and empty the container at the
disposal site.

2. For stationary container system the labor requirement for mechanically

loaded ones are essentially the same with hauled container system.
Occasionally, a driver and two helpers are used.

For manually loaded systems, the number of collectors may vary

from one to three, depending on the type of service and the type
of collection equipment, Curb collection needs less persons than
backyard collection, which may require a multi person crew.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Transfer and Transport

Transfer stations are used to collect the refuse at a central location and to
reload the wastes into a vehicle where the cost per kilogram-kilometer ton-mile
will be less for the movement of the ultimate waste to the disposal site.

Transfer stations are employed when the disposal site is situated at significant
distance from the point of collection.

A transfer station can reduce the cost of transporting refuse by reducing

manpower requirement and total kilometers.

When a collection vehicle goes directly to the disposal site, the entire crew,
driver plus laborers, are idle.

For a transfer vehicle, only one driver is needed. As the distance from the
centers of solid waste generation increases, the cost of direct haul to a site
increases.

Ideally, the transfer station should be located at the center of the collection
service area.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
A transfer station may include stationary compactors, recycling bins, material
recovery facility, transfer containers and trailers, transfer packer trailers, or
mobile equipment.

A transfer station should be located and designed with drainage of paved

areas and adequate water hydrants for maintenance of cleanliness and fire
control and other concerns like land scaling, weight scales, traffic, odor, dust,
litter, and noise control.

Transporting vehicles could be a modern packer truck (trailer), motor-tricycles,

animal carts (appropriate for developing countries), hand carts and tractors.

Transfer and transport station should provide welfare facilities for workers
(lockers, toilets, showers); small stores for brooms, shovels, cleaning aterials,
lubricants, parking facilities for hand trucks, sweepers, refuse collectors, and
office and telephone for the district inspector.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Checklist of Variables Affecting Collection System
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Resource Recovery and Processing
Resource recovery is a partial solid waste disposal and reclamation process. It
can be expected to achieve about 60% reductions in future landfill volume
requirements.

Resource recovery must recognize what is worth recovering and the

environmental benefits.

Resource recovery and processing is a complex, economical and technical

system with social and political implications, all of which require critical
analysis and evaluation before a commitment is made.

They demand capital cost, operating cost, market value of reclaimed materials
and material quality, potential minimum reliable energy sales, assured quantity
of solid wastes, continued need for a sanitary landfill for the disposal of excess
and remaining unwanted materials and incinerator residue, a site location
close to the center of the generators of solid wastes.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Products That Can Be Recycled

1. Plastic

Plastic is not a natural material. It is synthesized from petrochemicals to create

a long, complicated chain of atoms called polymers.

Bacteria and fungi that would usually live on the decaying waste of natural
food, fauna, and flora cannot digest these recovery polymers.

Instead, toxic cadmium and lead compounds used as binders can leach out of
plastics and ooze into groundwater and surface water in unlined or failed
landfills.

Unfortunately, plastic is one of the most common non-biodegradable wastes

deposited in landfills.

There are a number of plastic items that create great decomposition problems.

Among them are diapers, grocery bags and balloons.

Today only 3% of all plastic containers are recycled.

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Products That Can Be Recycled

Plastic threatens the lives of millions of marine animals who get entangled in
plastic netting.

Autopsied marine animals have revealed that their intestines were full of
nonbiodegradable plastic.

Marine mammals and birds have suffocated, strangled, and been poisoned by
the plastic waste such as can rings or balloons that have been expelled into
the oceans and into the air.

Fishermen currently dump around 175,000 tons of plastic into the oceans each
year.

It is thought that as many as a million sea birds and 100,000 marine mammals
in the Northern Pacific Ocean die each year from eating or becoming
entangled in plastic waste.

Many more marine lives are poisoned in the Atlantic Ocean by raw sewage,
chemical waste, and pesticide waste flowing from rivers into these water
bodies.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
2. Tires

Discarded tires pose two particular vector health threats to a community: rats
and mosquitoes.

Tires create an excellent breeding place for rats and mosquitoes, which in turn
carry diseases to humans.

An automobile tire contains about 10 liters of oil, which has the potential to
produce enough electricity to serve a small town.

Unfortunately, when tires burn in an uncontrolled environment, they are

extremely difficult to contain or extinguish.

There are actually some tire graveyards that have been burning for years.

Although 15 million old tires are recycled each year, the number of recycled
tires is actually going down each year as new blends of rubber and steel-
belted tires cannot use recycled tires.
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
3. Paper
Paper is the single most frequently seen item in most landfills, taking up more
land space. It accounts for more than 40% of a landfill's contents. Newspapers
alone may take up as much as 13 to 30% of the space in landfills.

It is not enough to just change from paper grocery bags to recyclable cloth
bags.
Garbage archeologists from the University of Arizona have discovered that
most materials buried deep in a landfill change very little.

Newspapers from the 1950s could still be read in 1992. Paper in landfills does
not biodegrade; it mummifies.

Paper may be one of the most recyclable waste products.

To establish a newsprint recycling mill, it takes three to five years and costs
from $300 to $500 million to build.

Can the capital investment be recouped if there is no community plan to

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
market the recycled paper? If economic incentives were given to creative
entrepreneurs, more products could easily be developed.

The sources and uses of recycled paper

On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)
Obstacles to resource recovery

• heterogeneity of the waste

• putrescibility of the waste
• location of the waste
• low value of product
• uncertainty of supply
• unproven technology
• administrative and industrial constraints
• legal restriction
• uncertain market
On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste (Cont.)

Techniques involved in resource recovery

1. compaction, which mechanically reduces the volume of solid waste
2. chemical volume reduction by incineration
3. mechanical size reduction by shredding, grinding and milling
4. component separation by hand-sorting, air separation, magnetic separation
and screening