Guide To Mass Concrete: ACI 207.1R-05

ACI 207.
1R-05
Guide to Mass Concrete

Reported by ACI Committee 207
Stephen B. Tatro
Chair
Jeffrey C. Allen Robert W. Cannon John R. Hess Tibor J. Pataky

Terrence E. Arnold Teck L. Chua Rodney E. Holderbaum Steven A. Ragan
Randall P. Bass Eric J. Ditchey Allen J. Hulshizer Ernest K. Schrader
J. Floyd Best Timothy P. Dolen David E. Kiefer Gary P. Wilson
Anthony A. Bombich Barry D. Fehl Gary R. Mass
Mass concrete is any volume of concrete with dimensions large enough to Chapter 2—Materials and mixture proportioning,
require that measures be taken to cope with the generation of heat from p. 207.1R-5
hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to minimize cracking. 2.1—General
The design of mass concrete structures is generally based on durability, 2.2—Cements
economy, and thermal action, with strength often being a secondary concern. 2.3—Pozzolans and ground slag
This document contains a history of the development of mass concrete
2.4—Chemical admixtures
practice and discussion of materials and concrete mixture proportioning,
2.5—Aggregates
properties, construction methods, and equipment. It covers traditionally placed
and consolidated mass concrete and does not cover roller-compacted concrete. 2.6—Water
2.7—Selection of proportions
Keywords: admixture; aggregate; air entrainment; batch; cement; compressive 2.8—Temperature control
strength; cracking; creep; curing; durability; fly ash; formwork; grading;
heat of hydration; mass concrete; mixing; mixture proportion; modulus Chapter 3—Properties, p. 207.1R-12
of elasticity; placing; Poisson’s ratio; pozzolan; shrinkage; strain; stress; 3.1—General
temperature rise; thermal expansion; vibration; volume change. 3.2—Strength
3.3—Elastic properties
CONTENTS 3.4—Creep
Chapter 1—Introduction and historical 3.5—Volume change
developments, p. 207.1R-2 3.6—Permeability
1.1—Scope 3.7—Thermal properties
1.2—History 3.8—Shear properties
1.3—Temperature control 3.9—Durability
1.4—Long-term strength design
Chapter 4—Construction, p. 207.1R-19
4.1—Batching
4.2—Mixing
4.3—Placing
ACI Committee Reports, Guides, and Commentaries are 4.4—Curing
intended for guidance in planning, designing, executing, and 4.5—Forms
inspecting construction. This document is intended for the use
of individuals who are competent to evaluate the significance 4.6—Height of lifts and time intervals between lifts
and limitations of its content and recommendations and who 4.7—Cooling and temperature control
will accept responsibility for the application of the material it 4.8—Instrumentation
contains. The American Concrete Institute disclaims any and
all responsibility for the stated principles. The Institute shall 4.9—Grouting contraction joints
not be liable for any loss or damage arising therefrom.
Reference to this document shall not be made in contract ACI 207.1R-05 supersedes ACI 207.1R-96 and became effective December 1, 2005.
documents. If items found in this document are desired by the Copyright © 2006, American Concrete Institute.
Architect/Engineer to be a part of the contract documents, they All rights reserved including rights of reproduction and use in any form or by any
means, including the making of copies by any photo process, or by electronic or
shall be restated in mandatory language for incorporation by mechanical device, printed, written, or oral, or recording for sound or visual reproduction
the Architect/Engineer. or for use in any knowledge or retrieval system or device, unless permission in writing
is obtained from the copyright proprietors.
207.1R-1
207.1R-2 ACI COMMITTEE REPORT
Chapter 5—References, p. 207.1R-27 gravel, and proportioning was by the shovelful (Davis 1963).
5.1—Referenced standards and reports Tremendous progress has been made since the early 1900s,
5.2—Cited references and the art and science of dam building practiced today has
reached a highly advanced state. Presently, the selection and
CHAPTER 1—INTRODUCTION proportioning of concrete materials to produce suitable
AND HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS strength, durability, and impermeability of the finished
1.1—Scope
Mass concrete is defined in ACI 116R as “any volume of product can now be predicted and controlled with accuracy.
concrete with dimensions large enough to require that Covered herein are the principal steps from those very
measures be taken to cope with generation of heat from small beginnings to the present. In large dam construction,
hydration of the cement and attendant volume change to there is now exact and automatic proportioning and mixing
minimize cracking.” The design of mass concrete structures of materials. Concrete in 12 yd3 (9 m3) buckets can be placed
is generally based on durability, economy, and thermal by conventional methods at the rate of 10,000 yd3/day
action, with strength often being a secondary, rather than a (7650 m3/day) at a temperature of less than 50 °F (10 °C) as
primary, concern. The one characteristic that distinguishes placed, even during extremely hot weather. Grand Coulee
mass concrete from other concrete work is thermal behavior. Dam still holds the all-time record monthly placing rate of
Because the cement-water reaction is exothermic by nature, 536,250 yd3 (410,020 m3), followed by the more recent
the temperature rise within a large concrete mass, where the achievement at Itaipu Dam on the Brazil-Paraguay border of
heat is not quickly dissipated, can be quite high. Significant 440,550 yd3 (336,840 m3) (Itaipu Binacional 1981). The
tensile stresses and strains may result from the restrained record monthly placing rate of 328,500 yd3 (250,200 m3) for
volume change associated with a decline in temperature as roller-compacted concrete was achieved at Tarbela Dam in
heat of hydration is dissipated. Measures should be taken Pakistan. Lean mixtures are now made workable by means
where cracking due to thermal behavior may cause a loss of of air entrainment and other chemical admixtures and the use
structural integrity and monolithic action, excessive seepage of finely divided pozzolanic materials. Water-reducing,
and shortening of the service life of the structure, or be strength-enhancing, and set-controlling chemical admixtures
aesthetically objectionable. Many of the principles in mass are effective in reducing the required cement content to a
concrete practice can also be applied to general concrete minimum and in controlling the time of setting. Placing rates
work, whereby economic and other benefits may be realized. for no-slump concrete, by using large earth-moving equipment for
This document contains a history of the development of transportation and large vibrating rollers for consolidation,
mass concrete practice and a discussion of materials and appear to be limited only by the size of the project and its
concrete mixture proportioning, properties, construction plant’s ability to produce concrete.
methods, and equipment. This document covers traditionally 1.2.1 Before 1900—Before to the beginning of the twentieth
placed and consolidated mass concrete, and does not cover century, much of the portland cement used in the United
roller-compacted concrete. Roller-compacted concrete is States was imported from Europe. All cements were very
described in detail in ACI 207.5R. coarse by present standards, and quite commonly they were
Mass concreting practices were developed largely from underburned and had a high free lime content. For dams of
concrete dam construction, where temperature-related that period, bank-run sand and gravel were used without the
cracking was first identified. Temperature-related cracking benefit of washing to remove objectionable dirt and fines.
has also been experienced in other thick-section concrete Concrete mixtures varied widely in cement content and in
structures, including mat foundations, pile caps, bridge piers, sand-coarse aggregate ratio. Mixing was usually done by
thick walls, and tunnel linings. hand and proportioning by shovel, wheelbarrow, box, or cart.
High compressive strengths are usually not required in mass The effect of the water-cement ratio (w/c) was unknown, and
concrete structures; however, thin arch dams are exceptions. generally no attempt was made to control the volume of
Massive structures, such as gravity dams, resist loads primarily mixing water. There was no measure of consistency except by
by their shape and mass, and only secondarily by their strength. visual observation of the newly mixed concrete.
Of more importance are durability and properties connected
Some of the dams were of cyclopean masonry in which
with temperature behavior and the tendency for cracking.
“plums” (large stones) were partially embedded in a very
The effects of heat generation, restraint, and volume
wet concrete. The spaces between plums were then filled
changes on the design and behavior of massive reinforced
elements and structures are discussed in ACI 207.2R. with concrete, also very wet. Some of the early dams were
Cooling and insulating systems for mass concrete are built without contraction joints and without regular lifts.
addressed in ACI 207.4R. Mixture proportioning for mass There were, however, notable exceptions where concrete
concrete is discussed in ACI 211.1. was cast in blocks; the height of lift was regulated, and
concrete of very dry consistency was placed in thin layers
1.2—History and consolidated by rigorous hand tamping.
When concrete was first used in dams, the dams were Generally, mixed concrete was transported to the forms by
relatively small and the concrete was mixed by hand. The wheelbarrow. Where plums were employed in cyclopean
portland cement usually had to be aged to comply with a masonry, stiff-leg derricks operating inside the work area
boiling soundness test, the aggregate was bank-run sand and moved the wet concrete and plums. The rate of placement
GUIDE TO MASS CONCRETE 207.1R-3
was, at most, a few hundred cubic yards (cubic meters) a day. late 1920s. Pumicite (a pozzolan) from Friant, California,
Generally, there was no attempt to moist cure. was used as a 20% replacement by mass for portland cement.
An exception to these general practices was the Lower During this period, cyclopean concrete went out of style.
Crystal Springs Dam, completed in 1890. This dam is For dams of thick section, the maximum size of aggregate for
located near San Mateo, California, about 20 miles (30 km) mass concrete was increased to as large as 10 in. (250 mm).
south of San Francisco. According to available information, The slump test had come into use as a means of measuring
it was the first dam in the United States in which the consistency. The testing of 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) and 8
maximum permissible quantity of mixing water was x 16 in. (200 x 400 mm) job cylinders became common prac-
specified. The concrete for this 154 ft (47 m) high structure tice in the United States. European countries generally
was cast in a system of interlocking blocks of specified shape adopted the 8 x 8 in. (200 x 200 mm) cube for testing the
and dimensions. An old photograph indicates that hand strength at various ages. Mixers of 3 yd3 (2.3 m3) capacity
tampers were employed to consolidate the dry concrete were commonly used near the end of this period, and there
(concrete with a low water content and presumably very low were some of 4 yd3 (3 m3) capacity. Only Type I cement
workability). Fresh concrete was covered with planks as a (normal portland cement) was available during this period.
protection from the sun, and the concrete was kept wet until In areas where freezing-and-thawing conditions were severe,
hardening occurred. it was common practice to use a concrete mixture containing
564 lb/yd3 (335 kg/m3) of cement for the entire concrete
1.2.2 1900 to 1930—After the turn of the century,
mass. The construction practice of using an interior mixture
construction of all types of concrete dams was greatly accel-
containing 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) and an exterior face
erated. More and higher dams for irrigation, power, and
mixture containing 564 lb/yd3 (335 kg/m3) was developed
water supply were built. Concrete placement by means of
during this period to make the dam’s face resistant to the
towers and chutes became common. In the United States, the
severe climate and yet minimize the overall use of cement.
portland cement industry became well established, and
In areas of mild climate, one class of concrete that contained
cement was rarely imported from Europe. ASTM specifications
amounts of cement as low as 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) was
for portland cement underwent little change during the first
used in some dams.
30 years of the century, aside from a modest increase in fineness
An exception was the Theodore Roosevelt Dam built
requirement determined by sieve analysis. Except for the limits
during the years of 1905 to 1911 in Arizona. This dam
on magnesia and loss on ignition, there were no chemical
consists of a rubble masonry structure faced with rough
requirements. Character and grading of aggregates were given
stone blocks laid in portland cement mortar made with a
more attention during this period. Very substantial progress was
cement manufactured in a plant near the dam site. For this
made in the development of methods of proportioning concrete.
structure, the average cement content has been calculated to
The water-cement strength relationship was established by
be approximately 282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3). For the interior of
Abrams and his associates from investigations before 1918,
the mass, rough quarried stones were embedded in a 1:2.5
when Portland Cement Association (PCA) Bulletin 1 appeared
mortar containing approximately 846 lb/yd3 (502 kg/m3) of
(Abrams 1918). Nevertheless, little attention was paid to the
cement. In each layer, the voids between the closely spaced
quantity of mixing water. Placing methods using towers and
stones were filled with a concrete containing 564 lb/yd3
flat-sloped chutes dominated, resulting in the use of excessively
(335 kg/m3) of cement, into which rock fragments were
wet mixtures for at least 12 years after the importance of the w/c
manually placed. These conditions account for the very low
had been established. average cement content. Construction was slow, and
Generally, portland cements were employed without Roosevelt Dam represents perhaps the last of the large dams
admixtures. There were exceptions, such as the sand-cements built in the United States by this method of construction.
used by the U.S. Reclamation Service (now the U.S. Bureau 1.2.3 1930 to 1970—This was an era of rapid development
of Reclamation [USBR]) in the construction of the Elephant in mass concrete construction for dams. The use of the tower
Butte Dam in New Mexico and the Arrowrock Dam in Idaho. and chute method declined during this period and was used
At the time of its completion in 1915, the Arrowrock Dam, a only on small projects. Concrete was typically placed using
gravity-arch dam, was the highest dam in the world at 350 ft large buckets with cranes, cableways, railroad systems, or a
(107 m). The dam was constructed with lean interior concrete combination of these. On the larger and more closely
and a richer exterior face concrete. The mixture for interior controlled construction projects, the aggregates were carefully
concrete contained approximately 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) processed, ingredients were proportioned by weight, and the
of a blended, pulverized granite-cement combination. The mixing water was measured by volume. Improvement in
cement mixture was produced at the site by intergrinding workability was brought about by the introduction of finely
approximately equal parts of portland cement and pulverized divided mineral admixtures (pozzolans), air entrainment, and
granite so that no less than 90% passed the No. 200 (75 µm) chemical admixtures. Slumps as low as 3 in. (76 mm) were
mesh sieve. The interground combination was considerably employed without vibration, although most projects in later
finer than the cement being produced at that time. years of this era used large spud vibrators for consolidation.
Another exception occurred in the concrete for one of the A study of the records and actual inspection of a considerable
abutments of Big Dalton Dam, a multiple-arch dam built by number of dams shows that there were differences in condition
the Los Angeles County Flood Control District during the that could not be explained. Of two structures that appeared to
be of similar quality subjected to the same environment, one rise. This is the earliest known concrete dam in the United
might exhibit excessive cracking while the other, after a similar States in which an interground portland-pozzolan cement
period of service, would be in near-perfect condition. The has been used. The use of pozzolan as a separate cementing
meager records available on a few dams indicated wide internal material to be added at the mixer, at a rate of 30% or more of
temperature variations due to cement hydration. The degree of total cementitious materials, has come to be regular practice by
cracking was associated with the temperature rise. the USBR, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), the United
ACI Committee 207, Mass Concrete, was organized in States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE), and others.
1930 (originally as Committee 108) for the purpose of gath- The chemical admixtures that function to reduce water in
ering information about the significant properties of mass concrete mixtures, control setting, and enhance strength of
concrete in dams and factors that influence these properties. concrete began to be seriously recognized in the 1950s as
Bogue (1949) and his associates, under the PCA fellowship materials that could benefit mass concrete. In 1960, Wallace
at the National Bureau of Standards, had already identified and Ore published their report on the benefit of these materials to
the principal compounds in portland cement. Later, Hubert lean mass concrete. Since this time, chemical admixtures have
Woods and his associates engaged in investigations to deter- been used in most mass concrete.
mine the contributions of each of these compounds to heat of Around 1945, it became standard practice to use intentionally
hydration and to the strength of mortars and concretes. entrained air for concrete in most structures that are exposed
By the beginning of 1930, the Hoover Dam in Nevada was to severe weathering conditions. This practice was applied to
in the early stages of planning. Because of the unprecedented the concrete of exposed surfaces of dams as well as to
size of the Hoover Dam, investigations much more elaborate concrete pavements and reinforced concrete in general. Air-
than any previously undertaken were carried out to determine the entraining admixtures introduced at the mixer have been
effects of factors, such as composition and fineness of cement, used for both interior and exterior concretes of practically all
cement factor, temperature of curing, and maximum size of dams constructed since 1945.
aggregate, on the heat of hydration of cement, compressive Placement of conventional mass concrete has remained
strength, and other properties of mortars and concrete. largely unchanged since that time. The major new develop-
The results of these investigations led to the use of low- ment in the field of mass concrete is the use of roller-
heat cement in the Hoover Dam. The investigations also compacted concrete.
furnished information for the design of the embedded pipe 1.2.4 1970 to present—During this era, roller-compacted
cooling system used for the first time in the Hoover Dam. concrete was developed and became the predominant method
Low-heat cement was first used in the Morris Dam, near for placing mass concrete. Because roller-compacted concrete
Pasadena, Calif., which was started a year before the Hoover is now so commonly used, a separate report, ACI 207.5R, is
Dam. For the Hoover Dam, the construction plant was of the principal reference for this subject. Traditional mass
unprecedented capacity. Batching and mixing were concrete methods continue to be used for many projects, large
completely automatic. The record day’s output for the two and small, particularly where roller-compacted concrete
concrete plants, equipped with 4 yd3 (3 m3) mixers, was over would be impractical or difficult to use. This often includes
10,000 yd3 (7600 m3). Concrete was transported in 8 yd3 (6 m3) arch dams, large walls, and some foundation works, particularly
buckets by cableways, and compacted initially by ramming where reinforcement is required.
and tamping. In the spring of 1933, large internal vibrators The continuing development of chemical admixtures has
were introduced and were used thereafter for compacting the allowed the placement of very large underwater placements
remainder of the concrete. Within approximately 2 years, where the concrete flows laterally up to 100 ft. Float-in
3,200,000 yd3 (2,440,000 m3) of concrete were placed. construction methods where structural elements are precast or
Hoover Dam marked the beginning of an era of improved prefabricated and later filled with underwater concrete have
practices in large concrete dam construction. Completed in been developed. Construction of dam sections and power-
1935 at a rate of construction then unprecedented, the houses has been done in this manner.
practices employed there, with some refinements, have been 1.2.5 Cement content—During the late 1920s and early
in use on most of the large concrete dams that have been 1930s, it was practically an unwritten law that no mass
constructed in the United States and in many other countries concrete for large dams should contain less than 376 lb/yd3
since that time. (223 kg/m3) of cement. Some authorities of that period
The use of a pozzolanic material (pumicite) was given a believed that the cement factor should never be less than
trial in the Big Dalton Dam by the Los Angeles County 564 lb/yd3 (335 kg/m3). The cement factor for the interior
Flood Control District. For the Bonneville Dam, completed concrete of Norris Dam (Tennessee Valley Authority 1939)
by the Corps of Engineers in 1938 in Oregon, a portland constructed by the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) in
cement-pozzolan combination was used. It was produced by 1936, was 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3). The degree of cracking
intergrinding the cement clinker with a pozzolan processed was excessive. The compressive strength of the wet-
by calcining an altered volcanic material at a temperature of screened 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) job cylinders at 1 year
approximately 1500 °F (820 °C). The proportion of clinker of age was 7000 psi (48.3 MPa). Similarly, core speci-
to pozzolan was 3:1 by weight. This type of cement was mens 18 x 36 in. (460 x 910 mm) drilled from the first
selected for use at Bonneville on the basis of test results on stage concrete containing 376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) of cement
concrete that indicated large extensibility and low temperature at Grand Coulee Dam tested in excess of 8000 psi (55 MPa)
at the age of 2 years. Judged by composition, the cement was temperatures are high to ensure that the temperature of concrete,
of the moderate-heat type corresponding to the present Type II. as it is placed, does not exceed approximately 50 °F (10 °C).
Considering the moderately low stresses within the two On some large dams, including Hoover (Boulder) Dam, a
structures, it was evident that such high compressive combination of precooling and postcooling refrigeration by
strengths were quite unnecessary. A reduction in cement embedded pipe has been used (USBR 1949). A good
content on similar future constructions might be expected to example of this practice is Glen Canyon Dam, where the
substantially reduce the tendency toward cracking. ambient temperatures can be greater than 100 °F (38 °C)
For Hiwassee Dam, completed by TVA in 1940, the during the summer months. The temperature of the
376 lb/yd3 (223 kg/m3) cement-content barrier was broken. precooled fresh concrete did not exceed 50 °F (10 °C). Both
For that structure, the cement content of the mass concrete refrigerated aggregate and crushed ice were used to achieve
was only 282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3), an unusually low value for this low temperature. By means of embedded-pipe refrigeration,
that time. Hiwassee Dam was singularly free from thermal the maximum temperature of hardening concrete was kept
cracks, which began a trend toward reducing the cement below 75 °F (24 °C). Postcooling is sometimes required in
content, which is still continuing. Since that time, the Type II gravity and in arch dams that contain transverse joints so that
cement content of the interior mass concrete has been transverse joints can be opened for grouting by cooling the
approximately 235 lb/yd3 (140 kg/m3) and even as low as concrete after it has hardened. Postcooling to control
212 lb/yd3 (126 kg/m3). An example of a large gravity dam cracking is also done for control of peak temperatures.
for which the Type II cement content for mass concrete was
235 lb/yd3 (140 kg/m3) is Pine Flat Dam in California,
1.4—Long-term strength design
completed by the USACE in 1954. In arch-type high dams
A most significant development of the 1950s was the
where stresses are moderately high, the cement content of
abandonment of the 28-day strength as a design requirement
the mass mixture is usually in the range of 300 to 450 lb/yd3
for dams. Maximum stresses under load do not usually
(180 to 270 kg/m3), with the higher cement content being
used in the thinner and more highly stressed dams of this type. develop until the concrete is at least 1 year old. Under mass
curing conditions, with the cement and pozzolans customarily
Examples of cementitious contents, including pozzolan,
employed, the gain in concrete strength between 28 days and
for more recent dams are:
1 year is generally large. ACI 232.2R reports that the gain
• Arch dams—282 lb/yd3 (167 kg/m3) of cement and
can range from 30 to more than 100%, depending on the
pozzolan in Glen Canyon Dam, a relatively thick arch dam
in Arizona, completed in 1963; 373 lb/yd3 (221 kg/m3) of quantities and proportioning of cementitious materials and
cement in Morrow Point Dam in Colorado, completed in properties of the aggregates. It has become the practice of
1968; and 303 to 253 lb/yd3 (180 to 150 kg/m3) of some designers of dams to specify the desired strength of
portland-pozzolan Type IP cement in El Cajon Dam on the mass concrete at later ages, such as at 1 or 2 years. For
Humuya River in Honduras, completed in 1984. routine quality control in the field, 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm)
• Straight gravity dams—226 lb/yd3 (134 kg/m3) of cylinders are normally used with aggregate larger than 1-1/2 in.
Type II cement in Detroit Dam in Oregon, completed in (37.5 mm). The aggregate larger than 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) is
1952; 194 lb/yd3 (115 kg/m3) of Type II cement and fly removed from the concrete by wet-screening. Strength
ash in Libby Dam in Montana, completed in 1972; and requirements of the wet-screened concrete are correlated
184 lb/yd3 (109 kg/m3) of Type II cement and calcined with the specified full-mixture strength by laboratory tests.
clay in Ilha Solteira Dam in Brazil, completed in 1973.
CHAPTER 2—MATERIALS AND
1.3—Temperature control MIXTURE PROPORTIONING
The practice of precooling concrete materials before mixing 2.1—General
to achieve a lower maximum temperature of interior mass As is the case with other concrete, mass concrete is
concrete during the hydration period began in the early 1940s, composed of cement, aggregates, and water, and frequently
and has been extensively used in the construction of large dams. pozzolans and admixtures. The objective of mass concrete
The first practice of precooling appears to have occurred mixture proportioning is the selection of combinations of
during the construction of Norfork Dam from 1941 to 1945 materials that will produce concrete to meet the requirements
by the USACE. The plan was to introduce crushed ice into of the structure with respect to economy; workability;
the mixing water during the warmer months. By so doing, dimensional stability and freedom from cracking; low
the temperature of freshly mixed mass concrete could be temperature rise; adequate strength; durability; and, in the
reduced by approximately 10 °F (5.6 °C). Not only has case of hydraulic structures, low permeability. This chapter
crushed ice been used in the mixing water, but coarse aggre- describes materials that have been successfully used in mass
gates have been precooled either by cold air or cold water concrete construction and the factors influencing their selection
before batching. Recently, both fine and coarse aggregates in and proportioning. The recommendations contained herein
a moist condition have been precooled by various means, may need to be adjusted for special uses, such as for massive
including vacuum saturation and liquid nitrogen injection. It has precast beam segments, tremie placements, and roller-
become almost standard practice in the United States to use compacted concrete. Guidance in proportioning mass
precooling for large dams in regions where the summer concrete can also be found in ACI 211.1, particularly
Appendix 5, which details procedures for mass concrete Type IP portland-pozzolan cement is a uniform blend of
proportioning. portland cement or portland blast-furnace slag cement and
fine pozzolan. Type P is similar, but early strength requirements
2.2—Cements are lower. They are produced either by intergrinding portland
ACI 207.2R and 207.4R contain additional information on cement clinker and pozzolan or by blending portland cement
cement types and effects on heat generation. The following or portland blast-furnace slag cement and finely divided
types of hydraulic cement are suitable for use in mass pozzolan. The pozzolan constituents are between 15 and
concrete construction: 40% by weight of the portland-pozzolan cement, with Type P
• Portland cement—Types I, II, IV, and V, as covered by generally having the higher pozzolan content.
ASTM C 150; Type I(PM) pozzolan-modified portland cement contains
• Blended cement—Types P, IP, S, IS, I(PM), and I(SM), less than 15% pozzolan, and its properties are close to those of
as covered by ASTM C 595; and Type I cement. A heat of hydration limit of 70 cal/g (290 kJ/kg)
at 7 days is an optional requirement for Types IP and I(PM) by
• Hydraulic cement—Types GU, MS, HS, MH, and LH,
adding the suffix (MH). A limit of 60 cal/g (250 kJ/kg) at
as covered by ASTM C 1157.
7 days is optional for Type P by adding the suffix (LH).
When portland cement is used with pozzolan or with other
Type IS portland blast-furnace slag cement is a uniform
cements, the materials are batched separately at the mixing
blend of portland cement and fine blast-furnace slag. It is
plant. Economy and low temperature rise are both achieved
produced either by intergrinding portland cement clinker and
by limiting the total cement content to as small an amount as
granulated blast-furnace slag or by blending portland cement
possible.
and finely ground-granulated blast-furnace slag. The amount
Type I and GU cements are suitable for use in general of slag used may vary between 25 and 70% by weight of the
construction. They are not recommended for use alone in portland blast-furnace slag cement. This cement has sometimes
mass concrete without other measures that help to control been used with a pozzolan. Type S slag cement is a finely
temperature problems because of their substantially higher divided material consisting of a uniform blend of granulated
heat of hydration. blast-furnace slag and hydrated lime in which the slag
Type II (moderate heat) and MH cements are suitable for constituent is at least 70% of the weight of the slag cement.
mass concrete construction because they have a moderate Slag cement is generally used in a blend with portland
heat of hydration, which is important to the control of cement for making concrete.
cracking. Type II must be specified with the moderate heat Type I(SM) slag-modified portland cement contains less
option as most Type II and MS cements are designed for than 25% slag, and its properties are close to those of Type I
moderate sulfate resistance and do not have moderate heat cement. Optional heat-of-hydration requirements can be
properties. Specifications for Type II portland cement applied to Types IS and I(SM), similar to those applied to
require that it contain no more than 8% tricalcium aluminate Types IP, I(PM), and P.
(C3A), the compound that contributes substantially to early Low-alkali cements are defined by ASTM C 150 as portland
heat development in concrete. Optional specifications for cements containing not more than 0.60% alkalies calculated as
Type II cement place a limit of 58% or less on the sum of the percentage of Na2O plus 0.658 times the percentage of
C3A and C3S or a limit on the heat of hydration to 70 cal/g K2O. These cements can be specified when the cement is to
(290 kJ/kg) at 7 days. When one of the optional requirements be used in concrete with aggregate that may be deleteriously
is specified, the 28-day strength requirement for cement reactive. The use of low-alkali cement may not always
paste under ASTM C 150 is reduced due to the slower rate of control highly reactive noncrystalline siliceous aggregate. It
strength gain of this cement. may also be advisable to use a proven pozzolan to ensure
Types IV and LH, low-heat cements, may be used where control of the alkali-aggregate reaction.
it is desired to produce low heat development in massive
structures. They have not been used in recent years because 2.3—Pozzolans and ground slag
they have been difficult to obtain and, more importantly, A pozzolan is generally defined as a siliceous or siliceous-
because experience has shown that in most cases, heat develop- and-aluminous material that possesses little or no cementitious
ment can be controlled satisfactorily by other means. Type IV value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of
specifications limit the C3A to 7%, the C3S to 35%, and place a moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide at ordinary
minimum on the C2S of 40%. At the option of the purchaser, the temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious
heat of hydration may be limited to 60 cal/g (250 kJ/kg) properties. Pozzolans are ordinarily governed and classified
at 7 days and 70 cal/g (290 kJ/kg) at 28 days. Type IV cement by ASTM C 618 as natural (Class N) or fly ash (Class F or
is generally not available in the United States. C). There are some pozzolans, such as the Class C fly ash,
Type V and HS sulfate-resistant cements are available in that contain significant amounts of compounds like those of
areas with high-sulfate soils, and will often have moderate portland cement. The Class C fly ashes likewise have
heat characteristics. They are usually available at a price cementitious properties by themselves that may
higher than Type I. They are usually both low alkali (less than contribute significantly to the strength of concrete.
0.6 equivalent alkalies) and low heat (less than 70 cal/g Pozzolans react chemically with the calcium hydroxide or
at 7 days). hydrated lime liberated during the hydration of portland
cement to form a stable strength-producing cementitious alkali-aggregate reaction, however, the pozzolan should be
compound. For best activity, the siliceous ingredient of a used, while expedited strength increase is achieved by
pozzolan should be in an amorphous state, such as glass or additional cement content.
opal. Crystalline siliceous materials, such as quartz, do not Pozzolans, particularly natural types, have been found
combine readily with lime at a normal temperature unless they effective in reducing the expansion of concrete containing
are ground into a very fine powder. The use of fly ash in reactive aggregates. The amount of this reduction varies with
concrete is discussed in ACI 232.2R, and the use of ground- the chemical makeup, the fineness of the pozzolan, and the
granulated blast-furnace slag is discussed in ACI 233R. amount employed. For some pozzolans, the reduction in
Natural pozzolanic materials occur in large deposits expansion may exceed 90%. Pozzolans reduce expansion by
throughout the western United States in the form of obsidian, consuming alkalies from the cement before they can enter
pumicite, volcanic ashes, tuffs, clays, shales, and diatomaceous into deleterious reactions with the aggregates. Where alkali-
earth. These natural pozzolans usually require grinding. reactive aggregates are used, it is considered good practice to
Some of the volcanic materials are of suitable fineness in use both a low-alkali cement and a pozzolan of proven
their natural state. The clays and shales, in addition to corrective ability. Alkali-aggregate reactions are discussed
grinding, should be activated to form an amorphous state by in ACI 221R.
calcining at temperatures in the range of 1200 to 1800 °F Results of some experiments reported by Mather (1974)
(650 to 980 °C). indicate that for interior mass concrete, where stresses are
Fly ash is the flue dust from burning ground or powdered moderately low, a much higher proportion of pozzolan-to-
coal. Suitable fly ash can be an excellent pozzolan if it has a cement may be used when it is more economical and the
low carbon content, a fineness approximately the same as desired strength is obtained at later ages. For example, the
that of portland cement, and occurs in the form of very fine, results of laboratory tests indicate that an air-entrained mass
glassy spheres. Because of its shape and texture, the water concrete, containing 94 lb/yd3 (53 kg/m3) of cement plus fly
requirement is usually reduced when fly ash is used in ash in an amount equivalent in volume to 188 lb (112 kg) of
concrete. There are indications that, in many cases, the cement, has produced a very workable mixture for which the
pozzolanic activity of the fly ash can be increased by water content was less than 100 lb/yd3 (60 kg/m3). The 1-year
cracking the glass spheres by means of grinding. This may, compressive strength of wet-screened 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm)
however, reduce its lubricating qualities and increase the cylinders of this concrete was approximately 3000 psi (21 MPa).
water requirement of the concrete. High-silica Class F fly For such a mixture, the mass temperature rise would be
ashes are generally excellent pozzolans; however, some exceedingly small. For gravity dams of moderate height,
Class C fly ashes may contain such a high CaO content that, where the material would be precooled so that the concrete,
while possessing good cementitious properties, they may be as it reaches the forms, will be approximately 15 °F (8 °C)
unsuitable for controlling alkali-aggregate reaction or for below the mean annual or rock temperature, there is the
improving sulfate resistance of concrete. Additionally, the possibility that neither longitudinal nor transverse contraction
Class C fly ash is less helpful in lowering heat generation in joints would be required. The maximum temperature of the
the concrete. interior of the mass due to cement hydration might not be
Pozzolans in mass concrete may be used to reduce port- appreciably greater than the mean annual temperature.
land cement factors for better economy, lower internal heat The particle shapes of concrete aggregates and their effect
generation, improve workability, and lessen the potential for on workability have become less important because of the
damage from alkali-aggregate reactivity and sulfate attack. It improved workability that is obtainable through the use of
should be recognized, however, that properties of different pozzolans and air-entraining and other chemical admixtures.
pozzolans may vary widely. Before a pozzolan is used, it The development of new types of pozzolans, such as rice hull
should be tested in combination with the project cement and ash and silica fume, may find a promising place in future
aggregates to establish that the pozzolan will beneficially mass concrete work.
contribute to the quality and economy of the concrete. Finely ground-granulated iron blast-furnace slag,
Compared with portland cement, the strength development commonly referred to as slag cement, may also be used as a
from pozzolanic action is slow at early ages, but continues at separate ingredient with portland cement as a cementitious
a higher level for a longer time. Early strength of a portland- material in mass concrete. Requirements on finely ground
cement-pozzolan concrete would be expected to be lower slag for use in concrete are specified in ASTM C 989. If used
than that of a portland-cement concrete designed for equivalent with Type I portland cement, proportions of at least 70%
strength at later ages. Where some portion of mass concrete finely ground slag of total cementitious material may be
is required to attain strength at an earlier age than is attainable needed with an active slag to produce a cement-slag
with the regular mass concrete mixture, the increased combination that will have a heat of hydration less than
internal heat generated by a substitute earlier-strength 60 cal/g (250 kJ/kg) at 7 days. The addition of slag will
concrete may be accommodated by other means. Where a usually reduce the rate of heat generation due to a slightly
pozzolan is being used, it may be necessary to temporarily slower rate of hydration. Finely ground slag also produces
forego the use of the pozzolan and otherwise accommodate many of the beneficial properties in concrete that are
the increased internal heat generated by the use of straight achieved with suitable pozzolans, such as reduced permeability,
portland cement. If there is a dangerous potential from control of expansion from reactive aggregate, sulfate resistance,
and improved workability. Finely ground slag, however, is hydroxylated carboxylic acid, polymeric carbohydrates, and
usually used in much higher percentages than pozzolan to naphthalene or melamine types of high-range water reducers.
achieve similar properties. Accelerating admixtures are not used in mass concrete
because high early strength is not necessary in such work and
2.4—Chemical admixtures because accelerators contribute to undesirable heat development
Chemical admixtures can provide important benefits to in the concrete mass.
mass concrete in its plastic state by increasing workability, Water-reducing admixtures are used to reduce the mixing
reducing water content, or both. Also, chemical admixtures water to increase strength and reduce shrinkage of the
can be used for retarding initial setting, modifying the rate concrete, increase the workability of the concrete, or produce
or capacity for bleeding, reducing segregation, and the same strength with less cement. Set-controlling admixtures
reducing rate of slump loss. Chemical admixtures can can be used to keep the concrete plastic longer in massive
provide important benefits to mass concrete in its hardened blocks so that successive layers can be placed and vibrated
state by lowering heat evolution during hardening, before the underlayer sets. Admixtures from the aforementioned
increasing strength, lowering cement content, increasing first three families of materials generally will reduce the water
durability, decreasing permeability, and improving abrasion or requirement up to approximately 10%, retard initial set at
erosion resistance. A full coverage of admixtures is least 1 hour (but not reduce slump loss), and appreciably
contained in ACI 212.3R. The chemical admixtures that increase the strength. When a retarder is used, the strength after
are important to mass concrete are classified as air- 12 hours is generally comparable to that of concrete
entraining, water-reducing, or set-controlling. containing no admixture. Depending on the richness of the
Air-entraining admixtures are materials that produce concrete, composition of the cement, temperature, and other
minute air bubbles in concrete during mixing with resultant factors, the use of chemical admixtures will usually result in
improved workability, reduced segregation, lessened significant increases in 1-, 7-, 28-day, and later strengths.
bleeding, lowered permeability, and increased resistance to This gain in strength cannot be explained by the amount of
damage from freezing-and-thawing cycles. The entrainment the water reduction or by the degree of change in w/c; the
of air greatly improves the workability of lean concrete and chemicals have a favorable effect on the hydration of the cement.
Admixtures of the carboxylic acid family augment bleeding.
permits the use of harsher and more poorly graded aggre-
High-range water-reducing admixtures have not been used in
gates and those of undesirable shapes. Air entrainment also
mass concrete construction, although these admixtures were
facilitates the placing and handling of mass concrete. Each
used in some mass concrete in Guri Dam in Venezuela and have
1% of entrained air permits a reduction in mixing water from
been used in reinforced mass concrete foundations. Continued
2 to 4%, with some improvement in workability and no loss
admixture development has resulted in very stable admixtures
in slump. Durability, as measured by the resistance of
that maintain consistent and long-term performance. This has
concrete to deterioration from freezing-and-thawing, is
resulted in a wide range of water-reducing admixtures to be used
greatly improved if the spacing of the air bubble system is
in most mass concrete mixtures today. Requirements for
such that no point in the cement matrix is more than 0.008 in.
chemical admixtures are contained in ASTM C 494.
(0.20 mm) from an air bubble.
Entrained air will generally reduce the strength of most 2.5—Aggregates
concrete. Where the cement content is held constant and Coarse and fine aggregate and terms relating to aggregates
advantage is taken of the reduced water requirement, air are defined in ASTM C 125. Additional information on
entrainment in lean mass concrete has a negligible effect on aggregates is contained in ACI 221R.
strength, and may even slightly increase it. Among the Fine aggregate is that fraction almost entirely passing the
factors that influence the amount of entrained air in concrete No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve. It may be composed of natural grains,
for a given amount of agent are: grading and particle shape manufactured grains obtained by crushing larger-size rock
of the aggregate, richness of the mixture, presence of other particles, or a mixture of the two. Fine aggregate should
admixtures, mixing time, slump, and temperature of the consist of hard, dense, durable, uncoated particles. Fine
concrete. For a given quantity of air-entraining admixture, air aggregate should not contain harmful amounts of clay, silt,
content increases with increases in slump up to 6 in. (150 mm), dust, mica, organic matter, or other impurities to such an
and decreases with increases in amount of fines, temperature extent that, either separately or together, they render it
of concrete, and mixing time. If fly ash is used that contains impossible to attain the required properties of concrete when
carbon, an increased dosage of air-entraining admixture is using normal proportions of the ingredients. Deleterious
required. Most specifications for mass concrete require that substances are usually limited to the percentages by weight
the quantity of entrained air, as determined from concrete given in Table 2.1. For exposed concrete in the zone of fluctu-
samples wet-sieved through the 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) sieve, be ating water lever for bridge piers, dams, and other hydraulic
approximately 5%, although in some cases as high as 8%. structures, the maximum allowable percentage of the dele-
Requirements for air-entraining admixtures are contained in terious substance should be 50% lower than that given in
ASTM C 260. Table 2.1 for face concrete in the zone of fluctuating water
Water-reducing and set-controlling admixtures generally levels. It can be 50% higher for concrete constantly immersed
consist of one or more of the following: lignosulfonic acid, in water and for concrete in the interior of massive dams.
Table 2.1—Maximum allowable percentages

of deleterious substances in fine aggregate
(by weight)
Clay lumps and friable particles 3.0
Material finer than No. 200 (75 µm) sieve:
For concrete subject to abrasion 3.0*
For all other concrete 5.0*
Coal and lignite:
Where surface appearance of concrete is 0.5
important
All other concrete 1.0
*
In the case of manufactured sand, if material passing No. 200 (75 µm) sieve consists
of dust of fracture, essentially free of clay or shale, these limits may be increased to
5% for concrete subject to abrasion and 7% for all other concrete.
Fig. 2.1—Coarse aggregate rewashing.
Table 2.2—Fine aggregate for mass concrete*

The grading of fine aggregate strongly influences the
workability of concrete. A good grading of sand for mass Sieve designation Percentage retained, individual by weight
concrete should be within the limits shown in Table 2.2. 3/8 in. (9.50 mm) 0
Laboratory investigation, however, may show other gradings No. 4 (4.75 mm) 0 to 5
to be satisfactory. This permits a rather wide latitude in gradings No. 8 (2.36 mm) 5 to 15
for fine aggregate. No. 16 (1.18 mm) 10 to 25
Although the grading requirements themselves may be No. 30 (600 µm) 10 to 30
rather flexible, it is important that once the proportion is No. 50 (300 µm) 15 to 35
established, the grading of the sand be maintained reasonably No. 100 (150 µm) 12 to 20
constant to avoid variations in the workability of the concrete. Pan fraction 3 to 7
*
Coarse aggregate is defined as gravel, crushed gravel, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation (1981).
crushed rock, or a mixture of these, nominally larger than the

No. 4 (4.75 mm) and smaller than the 6 in. (150 mm) sizes for Table 2.3—Maximum allowable percentages of
large structures. Massive structural concrete structures, such as deleterious substance in coarse aggregate
powerhouses or other heavily reinforced units that are (by weight)
considered to be in the mass concrete category, have success- Material passing No. 200 sieve (75 µm) 0.5
fully used smaller-sized coarse aggregates, usually of 3 in. Lightweight material 2.0
(75 mm) maximum size, but with some as small as 1-1/2 in. Clay lumps 0.5
(37.5 mm). The use of smaller aggregate may be dictated by Other deleterious materials 1.0
the close spacing of reinforcement or embedded items, or by
the unavailability of larger aggregates. This results in higher Figure 2.1 shows a coarse-aggregate rewashing screen at
cement contents with attendant adverse effects on internal the batch plant where dust and coatings accumulating from
heat generation and cracking potential that should be offset stockpiling and handling can be removed to ensure aggregate
by greater effort to reduce the cement requirement and cleanliness.
concrete placing temperatures. The maximum size of coarse Theoretically, the larger the maximum aggregate size, the
aggregate should not exceed 1/4 of the least dimension of the less cement is required in a given volume of concrete to
structure nor 2/3 of the least clear distance between reinforcing achieve the desired quality. This theory is based on the fact
bars in horizontal mats or where there is more than one that with well-graded materials, the void space between the
vertical reinforcing curtain next to a form. Otherwise, the particles (and the specific surface) decreases as the range in
rule for mass concrete should be to use the largest practical sizes increases. It has been demonstrated (Fig. 2.2),
size of coarse aggregate. however, that to achieve the greatest cement efficiency, there
Coarse aggregate should consist of hard, dense, durable, is an optimum maximum size for each compressive strength
uncoated particles. Rock that is friable or tends to degrade level to be obtained with a given aggregate and cement
during processing, transporting, or in storage should be (Higginson et al. 1963). While the maximum size of coarse
avoided. Rock having an absorption greater than 3% or a aggregate is limited by the configuration of the forms and
specific gravity less than 2.5 is not generally considered suitable reinforcing steel, in most unreinforced mass concrete struc-
for exposed mass concrete subjected to freezing and thawing. tures, these requirements permit an almost unlimited
Sulfates and sulfides, determined by chemical analysis and maximum aggregate size. In addition to availability, the
calculated as SO3, should not exceed 0.5% of the weight of economical maximum size is determined by the design
the coarse aggregate. The percentage of other deleterious strength and problems in processing, batching, mixing,
substances such as clay, silt, and fine dust in the coarse transporting, placing, and consolidating the concrete. Large
aggregate as delivered to the mixer should generally not aggregate particles of irregular shape tend to promote
exceed the values outlined in Table 2.3. cracking around the larger particles because of differential
Table 2.4—Grading requirements for coarse

aggregate
Percent by weight passing designated test sieve
Test sieve Cobbles Coarse Medium Fine
size, square 6 to 3 in. 3 to 1-1/2 in. 1-1/2 to 3/4 in. 3/4 in. to No. 4
mesh, in. (150 to (75 to (37.5 to (19 to
(mm) 75 mm) 37.5 mm) 19 mm) 4.75 mm)
7 (175) 100
6 (150) 90 to 100
4 (100) 20 to 45 100
3 (75) 0 to 15 90 to 100
2 (50) 0 to 5 20 to 55 100
1-1/2 (37.5) 0 to 10 90 to 100
1 (25) 0 to 5 20 to 45 100
3/4 (19) 1 to 10 90 to 100
3/8 (9.5) 0 to 5 30 to 55
No. 4 (4.75) 0 to 5
Table 2.5—Ranges in each size fraction of coarse

aggregate that have produced workable concrete*
Percentage of cleanly separated coarse aggregate fractions
Fine
Coarse Medium
Maximum Cobbles 3 to 1-1/2 to 3/8 in. to
size in 6 to 3 in. 1-1/2 in. 3/4 in. 3/4 to 3/8 in. No. 4
concrete, (150 to (75 to (37.5 to (19 to 9.5 (9.5 to 4.75
in. (mm) 75 mm) 37.5 mm) 19 mm) mm) mm)
6 (150) 20 to 30 20 to 32 20 to 30 12 to 20 8 to 15
3 (75) 20 to 40 20 to 40 15 to 25 10 to 15
1-1/2 (37.5) 40 to 55 30 to 35 15 to 25 Fig. 2.2—Effect of aggregate size and cement content on
3/4 (19) 30 to 70 20 to 45 compressive strength at 1 year (adapted from Higginson
*U.S.
et al. [1963]).
Bureau of Reclamation (1981).
from convenient size groups. In United States practice, it is

volume change. They also cause voids to form underneath customary, for large-aggregate mass concrete, to divide
due to bleeding water and air accumulation during placing of coarse aggregate into the fractional sizes listed in Table 2.4
concrete. Although larger sizes have occasionally been used, (Tuthill 1980).
an aggregate size of 6 in. (150 mm) has normally been Sizes are satisfactorily graded when 1/3 to 1/2 of the
adopted as the maximum practical size. aggregate within the limiting screens is retained on the
The particle shape of aggregates has some effect on middle-size screen. Also, it has been found that maintaining
workability and, consequently, on water requirement. the percent passing the 3/8 in. (9.5 mm) sieve at less than
Rounded particles, such as those that occur in deposits of 30% in the 3/4 in. to No. 4 (19 to 4.75 mm) size fraction
stream-worn sand and gravel, provide the best workability; (preferably near zero if crushed) will greatly improve mass
however, modern crushing and grinding equipment is concrete workability and response to vibration.
capable of producing both fine and coarse aggregate of Experience has shown that a rather wide range of material
entirely adequate particle shape from quarried rock. Thus, in percentage in each size group may be used as listed in Table 2.5.
spite of the slightly lower water requirement of natural Workability is frequently improved by reducing the proportion
rounded aggregates, it is seldom economical to import of cobbles called for by the theoretical gradings. When
natural aggregates when a source of high-quality crushed natural gravel is used, it is economically desirable to depart
aggregate is available near the site of the work. It is necessary to from theoretical gradings to approximate, as closely as
determine that the crushing equipment and procedures will workability permits, the average grading of material in the
yield a satisfactory particle shape. One procedure to control deposit. Where there are extreme excesses or deficiencies in
particle shape is to specify that the flat and elongated particles a particular size, it is preferable to waste a portion of the
cannot exceed 20% in each size group. A flat particle is material rather than to produce unworkable concrete. The
defined as having a width-thickness ratio greater than 3, problem of waste usually does not occur when the aggregate
while an elongated particle is defined as having a length- is crushed stone. With modern two- and three-stage
width ratio greater than 3. crushing, it is normally possible to adjust the operation so
The proportioning of aggregates in the concrete mixture that a workable grading is obtained. Unless finish screening
will strongly influence concrete workability, and this is one is used, the amount of the finest size of coarse aggregate can
factor that can readily be adjusted during construction. To be reduced because that is the size of the accumulated undersize
facilitate this, aggregates are processed into and batched of the larger sizes. Finish screening at the batching plant,
however, on horizontal vibrating screens and with no strength, durability, and permeability with the best
intermediate storage, is strongly recommended for mass combination of available materials that will provide
concrete coarse aggregates. With finish screening, there is little adequate workability for placement and least practical rise
difficulty in limiting undersize to 4% of the cobbles, 3% of in temperature after placement. Trial mixture methods are
the intermediate sizes, and 2% of the fine coarse aggregates. generally used following procedures in ACI 211.1,
Undersize is defined as that passing a test screen having Appendix 5.
openings 5/6 of the nominal minimum size of the aggregate Selection of w/c or w/cm will establish the strength, durability,
fraction. Undersize larger than this 5/6 fraction has no and permeability of the concrete. There should also be sufficient
measurable effect on the concrete (Tuthill 1943). fine material to provide proper placeability. Experience has
In some parts of the world, gap-graded aggregate is used shown that with the best-shaped aggregates of 6 in. (150 mm)
in mass concrete. In these gradings, the material in one or maximum size, the quantity of cement-size material required
more sieve sizes is missing. Continuous gradings are for workability is approximately 10% less than for a concrete
normally used in the United States. Gap-graded aggregate containing angular aggregates. Trial mixtures using the
can be used economically where the material is naturally required w/cm and the observed water requirement for the
gap-graded; however, comparisons that can be made between job materials will demonstrate the cementitious material
concrete containing gap-graded aggregate and continuously content that may be safely used to provide the required
graded aggregate indicate there is no advantage in purposely workability (Portland Cement Association 1979; Ginzburg
producing gap gradings. Continuous gradings produce more et al. 1966).
workable mass concrete with somewhat lower slump, less The first step in arriving at the actual batch weights is to
water, and less cement. Continuous gradings can always be select the maximum aggregate size for each part of the work.
produced from crushing operations. Most natural aggregate Criteria for this selection are given in Section 2.5. The next
deposits in the United States contain material from which step is to assume or determine the total water content needed
acceptable continuous gradings can be economically prepared. to provide required slump, which may be as low as 1-1/2 to
2 in. (38 to 50 mm). In tests for slump, aggregate larger than
2.6—Water 1-1/2 in. (38 mm) should be removed by promptly screening
Water used for mixing concrete should be free of materials the wet concrete. For 6 in. (150 mm) maximum-size
that significantly affect the hydration reactions of portland aggregate, water contents for air-entrained, minimum-slump
cement (Steinour 1960). Water that is fit to drink may gener- concrete may vary from approximately 120 to 150 lb/yd3 (71 to
ally be regarded as acceptable for use in mixing concrete. 89 kg/m3) for natural aggregates, and from 140 to 190 lb/yd3
Potability will preclude any objectionable content of chlo- (83 to 113 kg/m3) for crushed aggregates. Corresponding water
rides; however, chloride content tests should be made on any requirements for 3 in. (76 mm) maximum-size aggregate are
questionable water if embedded metals are present. Limits approximately 20% higher. For strengths above 4000 psi
on total chloride amounts for various constructions are (28 MPa) at 1 year, however, the 3 in. (75 mm) maximum-
contained in ACI 201.2R. When it is desirable to determine size aggregate may be more efficient (Fig. 2.2).
whether a water contains materials that significantly affect
The batch weight of the cement is determined by dividing
the strength development of cement, comparative strength
the total weight of the mixing water by the w/c or, when
tests should be made on mortars made with water from the
workability governs, it is the minimum weight of cement
proposed source and with distilled water (Test method CRD
required to satisfactorily place the concrete. With the batch
C 400 from USACE [1963b]). If the average of the results of
weights of cement and water determined and with an
these tests on specimens containing the water being evalu-
assumed air content of 3 to 5%, the remainder of the material
ated is less than 90% of that obtained with specimens
is aggregate. The only remaining decision is to select the
containing distilled water, the water represented by the
relative proportions of fine and coarse aggregate. The
sample should not be used for mixing concrete. If a potential
optimum proportions depend on aggregate grading and
water source lacking a service record contains amounts of
particle shape, and they can be finally determined only in the
impurities of 5000 ppm or more, tests for strength and
field. For 6 in. (150 mm) aggregate concrete containing
volume stability (length change) may also be advisable to
natural sand and gravel, the percentage of fine aggregate to
ensure durable concrete.
total aggregate by absolute volume may be as low as 21%.
Waters containing up to several parts per million of ordinary With crushed aggregates, the percentage may be in the range
mineral acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, can of 25 to 27%.
be tolerated as far as strength development is concerned.
When a pozzolan is included in the concrete as a part of
Waters containing even small amounts of various sugars or
the cementitious material, the mixture proportioning
sugar derivatives should not be used, as setting times may be
procedure does not change. Attention should be given to
unpredictable. The harmfulness of such waters may be
the following matters:
revealed in the comparative strength tests.
• The water requirement may change;
2.7—Selection of proportions • Early-age strength may become critical; and
The primary objective of proportioning studies for mass • For maximum economy, the age at which design
concrete is to establish economical mixtures of proper strength is attained should be greater.
Concrete containing most pozzolans gains strength some- • The insulation of surfaces to minimize thermal differentials
what more slowly than concrete made with only portland between the interior and the exterior of the concrete.
cement; however, the load on mass concrete is generally not It is practical to cool coarse aggregate, somewhat more
applied until the concrete is many months or years old. difficult to cool fine aggregate, and practical to batch a
Therefore, mass concrete containing pozzolan is usually portion or all of the added mixing water in the form of ice.
designed on the basis of 90-day to 1-year strengths. While As a result, placing temperatures of 50 °F (10 °C) and lower
mass concrete does not require strength at early ages to are practicable and sometimes specified. Lower temperatures
perform its design function, most systems of construction are obtainable with more difficulty. Injection of liquid
require that the forms for each lift be anchored to the next nitrogen into mixture water has also been effectively used to
lower lift. Therefore, the early strength should be great lower concrete temperature for mass concrete work. In most
enough to prevent pullout of the form anchors. Specially cases, a placing temperature of less than 65 °F (18 °C) can be
designed form anchors may be required to allow safe, rapid achieved with liquid nitrogen injection. Cooled concrete is
turnaround times for the forms, especially when large advantageous in mixture proportioning because the water
amounts of pozzolan are used or when the concrete is lean requirement decreases as the temperature drops. Specified
and precooled. placing temperatures should be established by temperature
studies to determine what is required to satisfy the design. A
2.8—Temperature control detailed discussion of thermal issues is contained in ACI
The four elements of an effective temperature control 207.2R. Guidance in cooling systems for mass concrete can
program, any or all of which may be used for a particular be found in ACI 207.4R.
mass concrete project, are: The chief means for limiting temperature rise is controlling
• Cementitious material content control, where the the type and amount of cementitious materials. The goal of
choice of type and amount of cementitious materials concrete proportioning studies is to reach a cementitious
can lessen the heat-generating potential of the concrete; material content no greater than is necessary for the design
• Precooling, where cooling of ingredients achieves a strength. The limiting factor in reaching this low cementitious
lower concrete temperature as placed in the structure; material level is usually the need to use some minimum
• Postcooling, where removing heat from the concrete amount of cement-sized particles solely to provide workability
with embedded cooling coils limits the temperature rise in the concrete. Without the use of supplemental workability
in the structure; and agents, such as pozzolans, air-entraining, or other chemical
• Construction management, where efforts are made to admixtures, a mass concrete project can experience a
protect the structure from excessive temperature differ- continuing struggle to maintain workability while holding to
entials by knowledge of concrete handling, construction the low cementitious-material content that best protects
scheduling, and construction procedures. against cracking. The ASTM specification for Type II
The temperature control for a small structure may be no portland cement contains an option that makes it possible to
more than a single measure, such as restricting placing limit the heat of hydration to 70 cal/g (290 kJ/kg) at 7 days.
operations to cool periods at night or during cool weather. The use of a pozzolan as a replacement further delays and
On the other extreme, some projects can be large enough to reduces heat generation. This delay is an advantage—except
justify a wide variety of separate, but complementary, that when cooling coils are used, the period of postcooling
control measures that can include the prudent selection of a may be extended. If the mixture is proportioned so that the
low-heat-generating cement system including: cementitious materials content is limited to not more than
• The use of pozzolans; 235 lb/yd3 (139 kg/m3), the temperature rise for most
• The careful production control of aggregate gradings concrete will not exceed 35 °F (19 °C).
and the use of large-size aggregates in efficient mixtures
with low cement contents; CHAPTER 3—PROPERTIES
• The precooling of aggregates and mixing water (or the 3.1—General
batching of ice in place of mixing water) to make possible The design and construction of massive concrete structures,
a low concrete temperature as placed; especially dams, is influenced by site topography, foundation
• The use of air-entraining and other chemical admixtures to characteristics, and the availability of suitable materials of
improve both the fresh and hardened properties of construction. Economy, second only to safety requirements, is
the concrete; the most important parameter to consider. Economy may dictate
• The use of appropriate block dimensions for placement; the choice of type of structure for a given site. Proportioning of
• The coordination of construction schedules with seasonal the concrete is, in turn, governed by the requirements of the type
changes to establish lift heights and placing frequencies; of structure, such as the strength, durability, and thermal
• The use of special mixing and placing equipment to properties. For large structures, extensive investigations of
quickly place cooled concrete with minimum absorption aggregates, admixtures, and pozzolans are justified.
of ambient heat; Concrete mixture investigations are necessary to determine
• The evaporative cooling of surfaces through water curing; the most economical proportions of selected ingredients to
• The dissipation of heat from the hardened concrete by produce the desired properties of the concrete. Increasing
circulating cold water through embedded piping; and utilization has been made of finite-element computer
Table 3.1—Typical concrete mixture data from various dams

Cement Pozzolan Sand Coarse aggregate Maximum Water, Density,
Year size
Name of dam com- lb*/yd3 lb*/yd3 lb*/yd3 lb*/yd3 *
aggregate, lb /yd
3
Entrained lb/yd3 WRA
No. (country) pleted Type Type (kg/m3) Type (kg/m3) (kg/m3) (kg/m3) Type in. (mm) (kg/m3) w/cm air, % (kg/m3) used
1 Hoover (U.S.) 1936 Arch IV 380 (225) — 0 931 (552) 2679 (1589) Limestone 9.0 (225) 220 (130) 0.58 0 155.9 (2498) No
gravity and granite
Straight
2 Norris (U.S.) 1936 gravity II 338 (200) — 0 1264 (750) 2508 (1487) Dolomite 6.0 (150) 227 (135) 0.67 0 156.0 (2499) No
3 Bonneville 1938 Gravity Portland 329 (195) — 0 1094 (649) 2551 (1513) Basalt 6.0 (150) 251 (149) 0.76 0 156.4 (2505) No
(U.S.) pozzolan
Multi- Quartzite
4 Bartlett (U.S.) 1939 ple arch IV 466 (276) — 0 1202 (713) 2269 (1346) and granite 3.0 (75) 270 (160) 0.58 0 154.8 (2480) No
Grand Straight
5 Coulee (U.S.) 1942 gravity II and IV 377 (224) — 0 982 (582) 2568 (1523) Basalt 6.0 (150) 226 (134) 0.60 0 153.8 (2464) No
6 Kentucky 1944 Straight II 338 (200) — 0 967 (573) 2614 (1550) Limestone 6.0 (150) 213 (126) 0.63 0 153.2 (2454) No
(U.S.) gravity
Curved Andesite
7 Shasta (U.S.) 1945 gravity IV 370 (219) — 0 906 (537) 2721 (1614) and slate 6.0 (150) 206 (122) 0.56 0 155.7 (2494) No
8 Hungry Horse 1952 Arch II 188 (111) Fly ash 90 (53) 842 (499) 2820 (1672) Sandstone 6.0 (150) 130 (77) 0.47 3.0 150.7 (2415) No
(U.S.) gravity
Straight
9 Detroit (U.S.) 1953 gravity II and IV 226 (134) — 0 1000 (593) 2690 (1595) Diorite 6.0 (150) 191 (113) 0.85 5.5 152.1 (2437) No
Calcinated Graywacke
10 Monticello 1957 Arch II LA 212 (126) diatoma- 70 (42) 770 (457) 2960 (1756) sandstone 6.0 (150) 161 (96) 0.57 2.7 154.6 (2477) No
(U.S.) ceous clay quartzite
11 Flaming 1962 Arch II 188 (111) Calc, shale 94 (56) 729 (432) 2900 (1720) Limestone 6.0 (150) 149 (88) 0.53 3.5 150.4 (2409) No
Gorge (U.S.) gravity and sandstone
Arch Limestone,
1963 gravity II 188 (111) Pumicite 94 (56) 777 (461) 2784 (1651) 6.0 (150) 153 (91) 0.54 3.5 148.0 (2371) No
Glen Canyon chaledonic
12 (U.S.) chert, and
1963 Arch II 188 (111) Pumicite 90 (53) 800 (474) 2802 (1662) sandstone 6.0 (150) 140 (83) 0.50 3.5 148.9 (2385) Yes
gravity
Yellowtail Arch Limestone and
13 1965 II 197 (117) Fly ash 85 (50) 890 (526) 2817 (1670) 6.0 (150) 139 (82) 0.49 3.0 152.9 (2449) No
(U.S.) gravity andesite
Morrow Point Thin Andesite, tuff,
14 (U.S.) 1967 arch II 373 (221) — 0 634 (376) 2851 (1691) and basalt 4.5 (114) 156 (93) 0.42 4.3 148.7 (2382) Yes
15 Dworshak 1972 Gravity II 211 (125) Fly ash 71 (42) 740 (439) 2983 (1770) Crushed 6.0 (150) 164 (97) 0.59 3.5 154.4 (2473) No
(U.S.) granite gneiss
Natural
16 Libby (U.S.) 1972 Gravity II 148 (88) Fly ash 49 (29) 903 (536) 2878 (1708) quartzite 6.0 (150) 133 (79) 0.68 3.5 152.3 (2439) No
gravel
Lower Milled Natural
17 Granite (U.S.) 1973 Gravity II 145 (86) volcanic 49 (29) 769 (456) 3096 (1837) basaltic gravel 6.0 (150) 138 (82) 0.71 3.5 155.4 (2490) Yes
cinders
Granite, shist,
18 Pueblo (U.S.) 1974 Buttress II LA 226 (134) — 75 (44) 952 (565) 2589 (1535) limestone, 3.5 (89) 168 (100) 0.56 3.5 148.5 (2379) Yes
dolomite
Thin Shist, altered
19 Crystal (U.S.) 1976 arch II LA 390 (231) — 0 829 (492) 2740 (1625) volcanics 3.0 (75) 183 (109) 0.47 3.5 153.4 (2457) Yes
Richard B. 1982 Gravity II 226 (134) Fly ash 59 (35) 822 (488) 2958 (1755) Crushed 6.0 (150) 173 (103) 0.57 3.4 157.0 (2515) Yes
20
Russell (U.S.) II 173 (103) Fly ash 73 (43) 864 (513) 2935 (1741) granite 6.0 (150) 177 (105) 0.67 3.4 156.0 (2499) Yes
21 Rossens 1948 Arch I 421 (250) — 0 — — Limestone 3.1 (79) 225 (133) 0.53 0 — No
(Switzerland)
Pieve di Arch Ferric-
22 1949 253 (150) Natural 84 (50) 1180 (700) 2089 (1239) Limestone 4.7 (120) 213 (126) 0.63 2.0 159.9 (2560) Yes
Cadore (Italy) gravity pozzolanic
Francisco Round-
23 Madero 1949 head IV 372 (221) — 0 893 (530) 2381 (1412) Rhyolite and 6.0 (150) 223 (132) 0.60 — — —
(Mexico) buttress basalt
24 Chastang 1951 Arch 250/315 379 (225) — 0 759 (450) 2765 (1640) Granite 9.8 (250) 169 (100) 0.45 — 150.8 (2415) —
(France) gravity
Salmonde Thin
25 (Portugal) 1953 arch II 421 (250) — 0 739 (438) 2621 (1554) Granite 7.9 (200) 225 (133) 0.54 0 148.4 (2376) —
26 Warragamba 1960 Straight II 330 (196) — 0 848 (503) 2845 (1687) Porphyry and 6.0 (150) 175 (104) 0.53 0 154.2 (2469) No
(Australia) gravity granite
IV and
27 Krasnoiarsk About Straight portland 388 (230) — 0 — — Granite 3.9 (100) 213 (126) 0.55 — — Yes
(U.S.S.R.) 1970 gravity blast
furnace
Quartzite
28 Ilha Solteira 1974 Gravity II 138 (82) Calcinated 46 (27) 788 (468) 3190 (1893) gravel, crushed 6.0 (150) 138 (82) 0.75 3.5 159.3 (2552) No
(Brazil) clay basalt
Itaipu (Brazil- Hollow 143 (85)
29 Paraguay) 1982 gravity II 182 (108) Fly ash 22 (13) 981 (582) 3096 (1837) Crushed basalt 6.0 (150) 170 (101) 0.70 4.0 158.4 (2537) No
buttress
Quartzite
30 Peace Site 1 1979 Gravity I 158 (94) Fly ash 105 967 (575) 2610 (1549) limestone 3 (75) 144 (85) 0.67 3.6 148.5 (2379) Yes
(Canada) (63)
sandstone
Theodore
Roosevelt Arch
31 modification 1995 gravity II LA 216 (128) Fly ash 54 (32) 954 (566) 2672 (1585) Granite 4.0 (100) 144 (85) 0.53 4.0 149.7 (2397) Yes
(U.S.)
*
Pounds mass.
Table 3.2—Cement and water contents and strengths of concrete in various dams
Cement or Maximum size Cement efficiency at
cement-pozzolan, Water, Predominant aggregate, in. 90-day strength, 90 days, psi/lb/yd3
Dam Country lb/yd3 (kg/m3) lb/yd3 (kg/m3) aggregate type (mm) w/cm psi (MPa) (MPa/kg/m3)
La Palisse France 506 (300) 250 (148) Granite 4.7 (120) 0.49 4790 (33.0) 9.5 (0.111)
Chastang France 379 (225) 169 (100) Granite 9.8 (250) 0.45 3770 (26.0) 9.9 (0.115)
L’Aigle France 379 (225) 211 (125) Granite 9.8 (250) 0.56 3200 (22.1) 8.4 (0.098)
Pieve di Cadore Italy 337 (200) 213 (126) Dolomite 4.0 (100) 0.63 6400 (44.1) 19.0 (0.220)
Forte Baso Italy 404 (240) 238 (141) Pophyry 3.9 (98) 0.59 4920 (33.9) 12.2 (0.141)
Cabrilo Portugal 370 (220) 195 (116) Granite 5.9 (150) 0.53 4150 (28.6) 11.2 (0.130)
Salamonde Portugal 420 (249) 225 (133) Granite 7.9 (200) 0.54 4250 (29.3) 10.1 (0.118)
Castelo Bode Portugal 370 (220) 180 (107) Quartzite 7.9 (200) 0.49 3800 (26.2) 10.3 (0.119)
Rossens Switzerland 420 (249) 225 (133) Glacial mixture 2.5 (64) 0.54 5990 (41.3) 14.3 (0.166)
Mauvoisin Switzerland 319 (189) 162 (96) Gneiss 3.8 (96) 0.51 4960 (34.2) 15.5 (0.181)
Zervreila Switzerland 336 (199) 212 (126) Gneiss 3.8 (96) 0.63 3850 (26.5) 10.5 (0.133)
Hungry Horse U.S. 188-90 (111-53) 130 (77) Sandstone 6.0 (150) 0.47 3100 (21.4) 11.2 (0.130)
Glen Canyon U.S. 118-94 (111-56) 153 (99) Limestone 6.0 (150) 0.54 3810 (26.3) 13.5 (0.160)
Lower Granite U.S. 145-49 (86-29) 138 (82) Basalt 6.0 (150) 0.71 2070 (14.3) 10.7 (0.124)
Libby U.S. 148-49 (88-29) 133 (79) Quartzite 6.0 (150) 0.68 2460 (17.0) 12.5 (0.145)
Dworshak U.S. 211-71 (125-42) 164 (97) Granite 6.0 (150) 0.58 3050 (21.0) 10.8 (0.126)
Dworshak U.S. 198-67 (117-40) 164 (97) Gneiss 6.0 (150) 0.62 2530 (17.4) 9.5 (0.111)
Granite, limestone,
Pueblo U.S. 226-75 (134-44) 168 (100) dolomite 3.5 (89) 0.56 3000* (20.7) 10.0 (0.116)
Shist and altered
Crystal U.S. 390 (231) 183 (109) volcanics 3.0 (75) 0.47 4000† (27.6) 10.3 (0.119)
Flaming Gorge U.S. 188-94 (111-56) 149 (88) Limestone and 6.0 (150) 0.53 3500 (24.1) 12.4 (0.144)
sandstone
Krasnoiarsk U.S.S.R. 388 (230) 213 (126) Granite 3.9 (100) 0.55 3280 (22.6) 8.5 (0.098)
Ilha Solteira Brazil 138-46 (82-27) 132 (82) Quartzite gravel, 6.0 (150) 0.75 3045 (21.0) 16.5 (0.193)
crushed basalt
Itaipu Brazil 182-22 (108-13) 143 (85) Crushed basalt 6.0 (150) 0.70 2610 (18.0) 12.8 (0.149)
Theodore
Roosevelt U.S. 270 (160) 144 (85) Granite 4.0 (100) 0.53 4500 (31.0) 16.7 (0.194)
modification
*Strength at 80 days.
†Strength at 1 year.
programs for thermal analysis (Polivka and Wilson 1976; concrete properties. Specimen size and orientation effects on
USACE 1994a). Determination of tensile strain capacity has mass concrete test properties can also be significant.
also led to a better understanding of the potential for cracking 3.1.1—A compilation of concrete proportion data on
under rapid and slow loading conditions (Houghton 1976). representative dams is given in Table 3.1 (Price and
The specific properties of concrete that should be known are Higginson 1963; Ginzburg et al. 1966; ICOLD 1964; Harboe
compressive strength, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity, 1961; USBR 1958; Houghton and Hall 1972; Houghton
Poisson’s ratio, tensile strain capacity, creep, volume change 1970; Houghton 1969). Reference will be made to concrete
during drying, adiabatic temperature rise, thermal coefficient mixtures described in Table 3.1 and in discussions of
of expansion, specific heat, thermal conductivity and diffu- properties reported in Tables 3.2 through 3.6.
sivity, permeability, and durability. Approximate values of
3.2—Strength
these properties based on computations or past experience The w/cm, to a large extent, governs the quality of the
are often used in preliminary evaluations. Useful as such hardened portland-cement binder. Strength, permeability,
approximations may be, the complex heterogeneous nature and most other desirable properties of concrete are improved
of concrete and the physical and chemical interactions of by lowering the w/cm. A study of compressive strength data
aggregate and paste are still not sufficiently known to permit given in Table 3.2 shows a considerable variation from the
estimation of reliable values. For this reason, it is again direct relationship between the w/cm and strength. Factors,
emphasized that extensive laboratory and field investiga- totally or partially independent of the w/cm, that affect the
tions should be conducted to ensure a safe structure at lowest strength are: composition and fineness of cement, amount and
cost. In addition, the moisture condition of the specimens type of pozzolan, surface texture and shape of the aggregate,
and structure, and the loading rate required, should be the mineralogical makeup and strength of the aggregate,
known, as these factors may dramatically affect some aggregate grading, and the improvement of strength by the
Table 3.3—Compressive strength and elastic properties of mass concrete

Elasticity properties
Compressive strength, psi (MPa) Modulus of elasticity, E × 106, psi (E × 104, MPa) Poisson’s ratio
Age, days Age, days Age, days
No. Dam 28 90 180 365 28 90 180 365 28 90 180 365
1 Hoover 3030 (20.9) 3300 (22.8) — 4290 (29.6) 5.5 (3.8) 6.2 (4.3) — 6.8 (4.7) 0.18 0.20 — 0.21
2 Grand Coulee 4780 (33.0) 5160 (35.6) — 5990 (41.3) 4.7 (3.2) 6.1 (4.2) — 6.0 (4.1) 0.17 0.20 — 0.23
3 Glen Canyon 2550 (17.6) 3810 (26.3) 3950 (27.2) — 5.4 (3.7) — 5.8 (4.0) — 0.11 — 0.14 —
4 Glen Canyon* 3500 (24.1) 4900 (33.8) 6560 (45.2) 6820 (47.0) 5.3 (3.7) 6.3 (4.3) 6.7 (4.6) — 0.15 0.15 0.19 —
5 Flaming Gorge 2950 (20.3) 3500 (24.1) 3870 (26.7) 4680 (32.3) 3.5 (2.4) 4.3 (3.0) 4.6 (3.2) — 0.13 0.25 0.20 —
6 Yellowtail — 4580 (31.6) 5420 (37.4) 5640 (38.9) — 6.1 (4.2) 5.4 (3.7) 6.2 (4.3) — 0.24 0.26 0.27
7 Morrow Point* 4770 (32.9) 5960 (41.1) 6430 (44.3) 6680 (46.1) 4.4 (3.0) 4.9 (3.4) 5.3 (3.7) 4.6 (3.2) 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.20
8 * 1270 (8.8) 2070 (14.3) 2420 (16.7) 2730 (18.8) 2.8 (1.9) 3.9 (2.7) 3.8 (2.6) 3.9 (2.7) 0.19 0.20 — —
Lower Granite
9 Libby 1450 (10.0) 2460 (17.0) — 3190 (22.0) 3.2 (2.2) 4.0 (2.8) — 5.5 (3.8) 0.14 0.18 — —
10 Dworshak* 1200 (8.3) 2030 (14.0) — 3110 (21.4) — 3.7 (2.6) — 3.8 (2.6) — — — —
11 Ilha Solteira 2320 (16.0) 2755 (19.0) 3045 (21.0) 3190 (22.0) 5.1 (3.5) 5.9 (4.1) — — 0.15 0.16 — —
12 Itaipu 1885 (13.0) 2610 (18.0) 2610 (18.0) 2755 (19.0) 5.5 (3.8) 6.2 (4.3) 6.2 (4.3) 6.5 (4.5) 0.18 0.21 0.22 0.20
13 Peace site* 3060 (21.1) 3939 (27.2) 4506 (31.1) 4666 (32.2) — — — — — — — —
Theodore
14 Roosevelt 2400 (16.5) 4500 (31.0) 5430 (37.4) 5800 (40.0) 4.5 (3.1) 5.4 (3.7) — 6.2 (4.3) 0.20 0.21 — 0.21
modification
*
Water-reducing agent used.
aforementioned admixtures that are attributable to a reduction in provide an indication of potential concrete strength. The use
the w/cm. of these procedures, however, should be limited to detecting
High strengths (greater than 5000 psi [34.5 MPa]) are variations in concrete quality and judging the effectiveness
usually not required in mass concrete, except in thin arch of job control measures. The accelerated strength indicator is
dams. Concrete proportioning should determine the helpful where satisfactory correlation has been established
minimum cement content required to meet the average with longer-term values using companion specimens of the
compressive strength, as defined by ACI 116R, to give same concrete. Although the indicator may have a dubious
greatest economy and minimum temperature rise. Cement relationship to the actual future strength in the concrete
requirements for adequate workability and durability, rather structure, it can be helpful during construction.
than strength, frequently govern the portland cement content. There are several complex factors involved in relating
Mass concrete is seldom required to withstand substantial results of strength tests on small samples to the probable
stress at early age. Therefore, to take full advantage of the strength of mass concrete structures that are still essentially
strength properties of the cementing materials, the design unresolved. Because of these complexities, concrete strength
strength is usually based on the strength at ages from 90 days requirements are usually several times the calculated
to 1 year, and sometimes up to 2 years. Job control cylinders maximum design stresses for mass concrete structures. For
should be tested at an earlier age to be useful in exercising example, design criteria for gravity dams commonly used by
control and maintaining consistency during construction. Job the USBR, and the USACE set the maximum allowable
control test specimens are usually 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) compressive stress for usual loading combinations at 1/3 of
cylinders containing concrete that has been wet-screened to the specified concrete strength. The selection of allowable
remove aggregate larger than 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) maximum stresses and factors of safety depend on the structure type,
size. Correlation tests should be made well in advance of loading conditions being analyzed, and the structure location
construction to compare the strength of wet-screened (USBR 1976; USACE 1990).
concrete tested at the control age with appropriate-size test Concrete that is strong in compression is also strong in
specimens containing the full mass concrete tested at the tension, but this strength relationship is not linear. Tensile
design test age. The strength of large test specimens up to 36 strength can be measured by several tests, primarily direct
x 72 in. (900 x 1800 mm) will usually be 80 to 90% of the tensile, splitting tensile, and modulus of rupture (flexural)
strength of 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) cylinders tested at the tests. Each of these tests has a different relationship with
same age (USBR 2001). Accounting for the continued compressive strength. An expression that relates tensile
strength development beyond 28 days, particularly where strength ft to compressive strength fc is provided in ACI 318:
pozzolans are used, the correlation factors at 1 year may
range from 1.15 to 3.0 times the strength of the wet-screened
for ft and fc, in psi
control specimens tested at 28 days.
Accelerated curing procedures set forth in ASTM C 684
yield compression test results in 24 to 48 hours that can ft = 7.5fc1/2 (3-1a)
Table 3.4—Elastic properties of mass concrete

Instantaneous and sustained modulus of elasticity,* psi × 106 (MPa × 104)
Age of
Grand Coulee Shasta Hungry Horse Dworshak Libby
time of
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
loading E E E E E E E E E E E E E E1 E2
1.7 0.83 0.76 1.4 0.54 0.49 2.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 0.75 0.70 1.6 1.0 0.9
2 days
(1.2) (0.57) (0.52) (0.97) (0.37) (0.34) (1.9) (1.0) (0.97) (0.97) (0.52) (0.48) (1.1) (0.69) (0.62)
2.3 1.1 1.0 2.1 1.0 0.96 4.2 1.9 1.8 2.0 1.0 0.90 3.2 1.6 1.3
7 days
(1.6) (0.76) (0.69) (1.4) (0.69) (0.66) (2.9) (1.3) (1.2) (1.4) (0.69) (0.62) (2.2) (1.1) (0.90)
3.5 1.8 1.6 3.5 1.8 1.6 4.5 2.6 2.4 2.8 1.4 1.3 4.1 2.2 2.0
20 days
(2.4) (1.2) (1.1) (2.4) (1.2) (1.1) (3.1) (1.8) (1.7) (1.9) (0.97) (0.90) (2.8) (1.5) (1.4)
4.1 2.5 2.3 4.4 2.7 2.5 5.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 2.2 2.0 5.2 2.9 2.7
90 days
(2.0) (1.7) (1.6) (3.0) (1.9) (1.7) (3.6) (2.2) (2.1) (2.6) (1.5) (1.4) (3.6) (2.0) (1.9)
5.0 2.5 2.3 4.4 2.7 2.5 5.2 3.2 3.0 3.8 2.2 2.0 5.2 2.9 2.7
1 year
(3.4) (1.7) (1.6) (3.0) (1.9) (1.7) (3.6) (2.2) (2.1) (2.6) (1.5) (1.4) (3.6) (2.0) (1.9)
5.3 3.6 3.4 5.9 4.0 3.8 4.9 3.0 2.9 6.4 4.3 4.1
5 years
(3.7) (2.5) (2.3) (4.1) (2.8) (2.6) (3.4) (2.1) (2.0) (4.4) (3.0) (2.8)
7-1/4 5.6 4.3 4.1
years (3.9) (3.0) (2.8)
*All concrete mass mixed, wet screened to 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) maximum-size aggregate.
Notes: E = instantaneous modulus of elasticity at time of loading; E1 = sustained modulus after 365 days under load; and E2 = sustained modulus after 1000 days under load. The
instantaneous modulus of elasticity refers to the “static” or normal load rate (1 to 5 minute duration) modulus, not a truly instantaneous modulus measured from “dynamic” or rapid
load rate testing.
for ft and fc in MPa from concrete modulus of elasticity tests showed relatively
high coefficients of variation resulting from attempts to
ft = 0.6fc1/2 (3-1b) measure small strains on a heterogeneous mixture containing
large-size aggregate. Modern electronic devices such as the
Raphael (1984) discusses tensile-compressive strength linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) can measure
relationships and their use in design. Relationships of these small length changes with great accuracy. The tensile
types for specific materials can vary significantly from the modulus of elasticity is generally assumed to be identical to
aforementioned formulas, based on aggregate quality and the compressive modulus of elasticity.
other factors. Where feasible and necessary, testing should The Poisson’s ratio data given in Table 3.3 tend to range
be conducted to confirm these relationships. between the values of 0.16 and 0.20, with small increases
The strength of concrete is also influenced by the speed of with increasing time of cure. Extreme values may vary from
loading. Values usually reported are for static loads that take 0.11 to 0.27. Poisson’s ratio, like modulus of elasticity, is
appreciable time to develop, such as dead load or water load. influenced by the aggregate, cement paste, and relative
During earthquakes, however, stresses may be fully developed proportions of the two.
in a small fraction of a second. When loaded at this speed, The growth of internal microcracks in concrete under load
compressive strength of a concrete for moist specimens may be starts at compressive stresses equal to approximately 35 to
increased up to 30%, and tensile strength may be increased 50% of the nominal compressive strength under short-term
up to 50%, when compared with values obtained at standard loading. Above this stress, the overall volumetric strain
rates of loading (Saucier 1977; Graham 1978; Raphael 1984; reflects the volume taken up by these internal fissures, and
Harris et al. 2000). the Poisson’s ratio and elastic moduli are no longer constant.
The results of several investigations indicate that the
3.3—Elastic properties
Concrete is not a truly elastic material, and the graphic stress- modulus of elasticity appears to be relatively unchanged
strain relationship for continuously increasing load is generally whether tested at normal or dynamic rates of loading (Hess
in the form of a curved line. The modulus of elasticity, however, 1992). Poisson’s ratio can be considered the same for normal
is, for practical purposes, considered a constant within the range or dynamic rates of loading (Hess 1992).
of stresses to which mass concrete is usually subjected.
The moduli of elasticity of concrete representative of 3.4—Creep
various dams are given in Table 3.3. These values range Creep of concrete is time-dependent deformation due to a
from 2.8 to 5.5 × 106 psi (1.9 to 3.8 × 104 MPa) at 28 days sustained load. Creep appears to be mainly related to the
and from 3.8 to 6.8 × 106 psi (2.6 to 4.7 × 104 MPa) at 1 year. modulus of elasticity of the concrete. Concrete with high
Usually, concrete with higher strengths has higher values of values of modulus of elasticity generally have low values of
elastic modulus and shows a general correlation of increase creep deformation. The cement paste is primarily responsible
in modulus with strength. Modulus of elasticity is not for concrete creep. With concrete containing the same type
directly proportional to strength; however, it is influenced by of aggregate, the magnitude of creep is closely related to the
the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate. In the past, data paste content (Polivka et al. 1963) and the w/cm of the
concrete. ACI 209R discusses the prediction of creep, Table 3.5—Volume change and permeability of
shrinkage, and temperature effects in concrete structures. mass concrete
One method of expressing the effect of creep is as the Autogenous volume Drying Permeability,
change shrinkage K ft/s/ft*
sustained modulus of elasticity of the concrete in which the
90 days, 1 year, 1 year, Hydraulic
stress is divided by the total deformation for the time under Structure millionths millionths millionths head m/s/m*
the load. The instantaneous and sustained modulus of elasticity Hoover — — –270 1.97 × 10–12 1.83 × 10–13
values obtained on 6 in. (150 mm) diameter cylinders made
Grand Coulee — — –420 — —
with mass concrete that is wet screened to remove 1-1/2 in.
Hungry Horse –44 –52 –520 5.87 × 10–12 5.45 × 10–13
(37.5 mm) maximum size are recorded in Table 3.4. The
instantaneous modulus is measured immediately after the Canyon Ferry +6 –37 –397 6.12 × 10–12 5.69 × 10–13
concrete is subjected to loading. The sustained modulus Monticello –15 –38 –998 2.60 × 10–11 2.42 × 10–12
represents values after 365 and 1000 days under loading. Glen Canyon –32 –61 –459 5.74 × 10–12 5.33 × 10–13
Table 3.4 shows that the sustained values for the modulus of Flaming
Gorge — — –496 3.52 × 10–11 3.27 × 10–12
elasticity are approximately 1/2 that of the instantaneous
modulus when load is applied at early ages, and is a slightly Yellowtail –12 –38 –345 6.25 × 10–12 5.81 × 10–13
higher percentage of the instantaneous modulus of elasticity Dworshak +10 –8 –510 6.02 × 10–12 5.59 × 10–13
when the loading age is 90 days or greater. Creep of concrete Libby +3 +12 –480 1.49 × 10–11 1.38 × 10–12
appears to be approximately directly proportional to the Lower
applied stress-strength ratio, up to approximately 40% of the Granite +4 +4 — — —
*ft/s/ft = ft3/ft2 – s/ft of hydraulic head; m/s/m = m3/m2 – s/m of hydraulic head;
ultimate strength of the concrete.
millionths = in. × 10–6/in. (mm × 10–6/mm), measured in linear length change.
Notes: Volume change specimens for Hoover and Grand Coulee Dams were 4 x 4 x
40 in. (100 x 100 x 1000 mm) prisms; for Dworshak, Libby, and Lower Granite Dams,
3.5—Volume change volume change was determined on 9 x 18 in. (230 x 460 mm) sealed cylinders.
Volume change is caused by changes in the moisture Specimens for other dams were 4 x 4 x 30 in. (100 x 100 x 760 mm) prisms.
Specimens for permeability for Dworshak, Libby, and Lower Granite dams were
content of the concrete, changes in temperature, chemical 6 x 6 in. (150 x 150 mm) cylinders. Specimens for permeability for the other dams
tabulated were 18 x 18 in. (460 x 460 mm).
reactions, and stresses from applied loads. Excessive volume
change is detrimental to concrete. Cracks are formed in
restrained concrete as a result of shrinkage or contraction the amount of water in the mixture. The net autogenous volume
and insufficient tensile strength or strain capacity. Cracking change of most concrete is a shrinkage of 0 to 150 millionths.
is a weakening factor that may affect the ability of the When autogenous expansion occurs, it usually takes place
concrete to withstand its design loads and may also detract within the first 30 days after placing. Concrete containing
from durability and appearance. Volume change data for pozzolans may sometimes have greater autogenous
some mass concrete are given in Table 3.5. Various factors shrinkage than portland-cement concrete without
influencing cracking of mass concrete are discussed in pozzolans (Houk et al. 1969).
ACI 207.2R and USACE (1997). The thermal coefficient of expansion of a concrete depends
Drying shrinkage ranges from less than 0.02% (or 200 mainly on the type and amount of coarse aggregate in the
millionths) for low-slump lean concrete with good-quality concrete. Various mineral aggregates may range in thermal
aggregates to over 0.10% (or 1000 millionths) for rich coefficients from less than 2 to more than 8 millionths per °F (3
mortars, or concrete containing poor-quality aggregates and to 14 millionths per °C). Neat cement pastes will vary from about
an excessive amount of water (Neville 1996). Drying 6 to 12 millionths per °F (10 millionths to 21 millionths per °C),
shrinkage is caused by the loss of moisture from the cement depending on the chemical composition and the degree of
paste constituent, which can shrink as much as 1%. Fortu- hydration. The thermal coefficient of the concrete usually
nately, aggregate provides internal restraint that reduces the reflects the weighted average of the various constituents.
magnitude of this volume change to about 0.06% (ACI Sometimes, coefficient of expansion tests are conducted on
224.1R). The amount of drying shrinkage is influenced concrete that has been wet-screened to 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm)
mainly by the volume and type of aggregate and the water maximum size to work with smaller-size specimens. The
content of the mixture. Other factors influence drying disproportionately larger amount of cement paste, which has
shrinkage principally as they influence the total amount of a higher coefficient, results in values higher than that of the
water in mixtures. The addition of pozzolans generally mass concrete. Concrete coefficients of thermal expansion
increases drying shrinkage except where the water require- are best determined on specimens containing the full concrete
ment is significantly reduced, such as with fly ash. Some mixture. Refer to ACI 207.2R for thermal properties of
aggregates, notably graywacke and sandstone, have been concrete. The portland cement in concrete liberates heat
known to contribute to extremely high drying shrinkage. when it hydrates, and the internal temperature of the concrete
ACI 224R and Houghton (1972) discuss the factors involved rises during this period (Dusinberre 1945; Wilson 1968).
in drying characteristics of concrete. The concrete is relatively elastic during this early stage, and
Autogenous volume change is a change in volume it can be assumed to be at or near zero stress when the
produced by continued hydration of cement, exclusive of maximum temperature is attained. When cooling begins, the
effects of applied load and change in either thermal condition or concrete is gaining strength and stiffness rapidly. If there is
moisture content. Unlike drying shrinkage, it is unrelated to any restraint against free contraction during cooling, tensile
Table 3.6—Shear properties of concrete design stages of the project. Thermal tensile strain developed
(triaxal tests) in mass concrete increases with the magnitude of the thermal
Compressive coefficient of expansion, thermal differential and rate of
strength Cohesion temperature change, and degree of restraint (ACI 207.2R).
Age,
Dam days w/cm psi MPa psi MPa tanφ ss /sc*
Volume changes can also result from chemical reactions,
28 0.52 5250 36.2 1170 8.1 0.90 0.223
which can be potentially disruptive.
28 0.58 4530 31.2 1020 7.0 0.89 0.225
Grand 28 0.64 3810 26.3 830 5.7 0.92 0.218
Coulee
3.6—Permeability
90 0.58 4750 32.8 1010 7.0 0.97 0.213
Concrete has an inherently low permeability to water.
112 0.58 4920 33.9 930 6.4 1.05 0.189
With properly proportioned mixtures that are compacted by
365 0.58 8500 58.6 1880 13.0 0.91 0.221
vibration, permeability is not a serious problem. Perme-
104 0.55 2250 15.5 500 3.4 0.90 0.222
Hungry ability of concrete increases with increasing w/cm. There-
144 0.55 3040 21.0 680 4.7 0.89 0.224
Horse fore, low w/cm and good consolidation and curing are the
622 0.60 1750 12.1 400 2.8 0.86 0.229
most important factors in producing concrete with low
28 0.62 2800 19.3 610 4.2 0.93 0.218
Monticello permeability. Air-entraining and other chemical admixtures
40 0.92 4120 28.4 950 6.6 0.85 0.231
permit the same workability with reduced water content and,
28 0.50 5740 39.6 1140 7.9 1.05 0.199
therefore, contribute to reduced permeability. Pozzolans
28 0.60 4920 33.9 1060 7.3 0.95 0.215
usually reduce the permeability of the concrete. Perme-
90 0.50 5450 37.6 1090 7.5 1.05 0.200
Shasta ability coefficients for some mass concretes are given in
90 0.50 6590 45.4 1360 9.4 1.01 0.206
Table 3.5.
90 0.60 5000 34.5 1040 7.2 1.00 0.208
245 0.50 6120 42.2 1230 8.5 1.04 0.201
3.7—Thermal properties
† 0.59 4150 28.6 1490 10.3 0.44 0.359
180 A most important characteristic of mass concrete that
180† 0.63 3220 22.2 1080 7.4 0.46 0.335 differentiates its behavior from that of structural concrete is
Dworshak
180 † 0.70 2420 16.7 950 6.6 0.43 0.393 its thermal behavior. The generally large size of mass
200 ‡ 0.59 2920 20.1 720 5.0 0.84 0.247 concrete structures creates the potential for significant
* temperature differentials between the interior and the outside
Cohesion divided by compressive strength.
Notes: All test specimens 6 x 12 in. (150 x 300 mm) with dry, 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) surface of the structure. The accompanying volume change
maximum-size aggregate, except “†” designates 18 x 36 in. (450 x 900 mm) test spec-
imens sealed to prevent drying, and “‡” designates 18 x 36 in. (450 x 900 mm) test differentials, along with restraint, result in tensile strains and
specimens sealed to prevent drying, with 6 in. (150 mm) maximum-size aggregate. stresses that may cause cracking that is detrimental to the
§
Triaxial tests.
structure. Thermal properties that influence this behavior in
mass concrete are specific heat, conductivity, and diffusivity.
The primary factor affecting the thermal properties of a
strain and stress develop. The tensile stresses developed concrete, however, is the mineralogical composition of the
during the cooling stage are determined by five quantities: aggregate (Rhodes 1978). Requirements for cement,
1. Thermal differential and rate of temperature change; pozzolan, percent sand, and water content are modifying
2. Coefficient of thermal expansion; factors, but offer a negligible effect on thermal properties.
3. Modulus of elasticity; Entrained air is an insulator and reduces thermal conductivity,
4. Creep or relaxation; and but other considerations that govern the use of entrained air
5. The degree of restraint. outweigh the significance of its effect on thermal properties.
If the tensile stress developed exceeds the tensile strength Thermal property values for some mass concrete, an extensive
of the concrete, or the tensile strain developed exceeds the discussion on thermal properties and behavior, and example
tensile strain capacity of the concrete, cracking will occur computations are provided in ACI 207.2R.
(Houghton 1972; Houghton 1976; Dusinberre 1945).
Principal methods used to reduce the potential for thermally 3.8—Shear properties
induced cracking in concrete are outlined in ACI 224R and Although the triaxial shear strength may be determined as
Carlson et al. (1979). Such methods include reducing the one of the basic design parameters, the designer usually is
maximum internal temperature that the concrete attains, required to use an empirical relationship between the shear
reducing the rate at which the concrete cools, and increasing and compressive strength of concrete. Shear properties for
the tensile strength of the concrete. Concrete’s resistance to some concrete containing 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) maximum size
cracking can be equated to tensile strain capacity rather than aggregates are listed in Table 3.6. These include compressive
to strength. When this is done, the average modulus of strength, cohesion, and coefficient of internal friction, which
elasticity (sustained E) can be omitted from the testing and are related linear functions determined from results of
computation requirements (ACI 207.2R; Houghton 1976). triaxial tests. Linear analysis of triaxial results gives a shear
Tensile strain capacity may be predicted using compressive strength slightly above the value obtained from biaxial shear
strength and the modulus of elasticity (Liu and McDonald strength (USBR 1992). Past criteria have stated that the coef-
1978). Thermal tensile strain capacity of the concrete is ficient of internal friction can be taken as 1.0 and cohesion as
measured directly in tests on concrete made during the 10% of the compressive strength (USBR 1976). More recent
investigation has concluded that assuming this level of cohe- containing cement low in tricalcium aluminate (ASTM
sion may be unconservative (McLean and Pierce 1988). Types II, IV, and V) is more resistant to attack by sulfates.
The shear strength relationships reported can be linearly Hydrated lime is one of the products formed when cement
analyzed using the Mohr envelope equation Y = C + X tanφ, and water combine in concrete. This lime is readily dissolved
in which C (unit cohesive strength or cohesion) is defined as in pure or slightly acidic water that may occur in high mountain
the shear strength at zero normal stress; tanφ, which is the streams. Pozzolans that react with lime liberated by cement
slope of the line, represents the coefficient of internal friction. X hydration can prevent the tendency of lime to leach from
and Y are normal and shear stresses, respectively. In many concrete. Surfaces of tunnel linings, retaining walls, piers,
cases, the shear strengths in Table 3.6 were higher for older and other structures are often disfigured by lime deposits
specimens; however, no definite trend is evident (Harboe from water seeping through cracks, joints, and interconnected
1961). The ratio of triaxial shear strength to compressive voids. With dense, low-permeability concrete, leaching
strength varies from 0.19 to 0.39 for the various concretes is seldom severe enough to impair the serviceability of
shown. When shear strength is used for design, the test the structure.
confining pressures used should reflect anticipated Alkali-aggregate reaction is the chemical reaction
conditions in the structure. Whenever possible, direct shear between alkalies (sodium and potassium) from portland
tests on both parent concrete and on jointed concrete should cement or other sources and certain constituents of some
be conducted to determine valid cohesion and coefficient of aggregates that, under certain conditions, produces deleterious
internal friction values for design. expansion of the concrete. These reactions include alkali-
Bonded horizontal construction joints may have shear silica reaction and alkali-carbonate rock reaction (ACI
strength comparable to that of the parent concrete. Unbonded 221.1R) (USACE 1994b; Farny and Kosmatka 1997).
joints typically have lower cohesion, but the same coefficient Where it is necessary to use an aggregate containing reactive
of internal friction, when compared with the parent concrete. constituents, low-alkali cement should be specified. Also, as
If no tests are conducted, the coefficient of internal friction further insurance against alkali-aggregate reaction, a suitable
can be taken at 1.0 and the cohesion as 0 for unbonded joints. pozzolan should be specified in sufficient quantity to control
For bonded joints, the coefficient of internal friction can be deleterious reaction. Fly ash is generally considered less
taken as 1.0, while the cohesion may approach that of the effective in controlling alkali-silica reaction and expansion
parent concrete (McLean and Pierce 1988). than are Class N pozzolans.
The principal causes of erosion of concrete surfaces are
3.9—Durability
A durable concrete is one that has the ability to resist cavitation and the movement of abrasive material by flowing
weathering action, chemical attack, abrasion, and other water. Use of increased-strength and wear-resistant concrete
conditions of service (ACI 116R). Laboratory tests can indicate offers some relief, but the best solution lies in the prevention,
relative durabilities of concrete, but it is usually not possible elimination, or reduction of the causes by proper design,
to directly predict durability in field service from laboratory construction, and operation of the concrete structure (ACI
durability studies. 210R). The use of aeration in high-velocity flows is an effective
Disintegration of concrete by weathering is mainly caused way to prevent cavitation.
by the disruptive action of freezing and thawing and by
expansion and contraction under restraint, resulting from CHAPTER 4—CONSTRUCTION
temperature variations and alternate wetting and drying. 4.1—Batching
Entrained air improves the resistance of concrete to damage Proper batching of mass concrete requires little that is
from frost action and should be specified for all concrete different from the accurate, consistent, reliable batching that
subject to cycles of freezing-and-thawing while critically is essential for other classes of concrete. ACI 221R presents
saturated. Selection of high-quality materials, use of information on selection and use of aggregates in concrete.
entrained air, low w/cm, proper mixture proportioning, ACI 304R presents information on the handling, measuring,
proper placement techniques to provide a watertight structure, and batching of all the materials used in making concrete.
and good water curing usually provide a concrete that has The desirability of restricting the temperature rise of mass
excellent resistance to weathering action. concrete by limiting the cement content of the mixture creates
Chemical attack occurs from exposure to acid waters, a continuing construction problem to maintain workability in
exposure to sulfate-bearing waters, and leaching by mineral- the plastic concrete. Efficient mixtures for mass concrete
free waters as explained in ACI 201.2R. contain unusually low portions of cementitious materials, sand,
No type of portland cement concrete is very resistant to and water. Thus, the workability of these mixtures for
attack by acids. Should this type of exposure occur, the conventional placement is more than normally sensitive to
concrete is best protected by surface coatings. variations in batching. This problem can be lessened by the
Sulfate attack can be rapid and severe. The sulfates react use of efficient construction methods and modern equipment.
chemically with the hydrated lime and hydrated tricalcium Usually, the production of large quantities of mass concrete is
aluminate in cement paste to form calcium sulfate and calcium like an assembly-line operation, particularly in dam
sulfoaluminates. These reactions are accompanied by consid- construction, where the performance of repetitive functions
erable expansion and disruption of the concrete. Concrete makes it economically prudent to use specialty equipment and
Table 4.1—Typical batching tolerances

Batch weights
Greater than 30% of scale capacity Less than 30% of scale capacity
Batching
Ingredient Individual Cumulative Individual Cumulative
Cement and other ±1% of specified weight or ±1% of scale capacity, Not less than required weight nor more than 4%
cementitious materials whichever is greater over required weight
Water (by volume or weight), % ±1 Not recommended ±1 Not recommended
±3% of scale capacity or
Aggregates, % ±2 ±1 ±2 ±3% of required cumulative
weight, whichever is less
Admixtures (by volume or weight), % ±3* Not recommended ±3* Not recommended
*
Or ±1 fl oz (30 mL), whichever is greater.
efficient construction methods. Consistency in the batching should not be used. Also, it is important to provide winter
can be improved by the following measures: protection for storage tanks and related delivery lines where
• Finish screening of coarse aggregate at the batching necessary. Table 4.1 shows batching tolerances frequently used.
plant, preferably on horizontal vibrating screens without
intermediate storage; 4.2—Mixing
• Calibration of the scale range that is appropriate for the Mixers for mass concrete should be capable of discharging
range of batch weights to be used; low-slump concrete quickly and with consistent distribution
• Automatic weighing and material flow cutoff features; of large aggregate throughout the batch. This is best
• Interlocks to prevent recharging when some material accomplished with large, tilting mixers in stationary central
remains in a scale hopper; plants. The most common capacity of the mixer drum is 4 yd3
• A device for instant reading of approximate moisture (3 m3), but good results have been achieved with mixers as
content of sand; and small as 2 yd3 (1.5 m3) and as large as 12 yd3 (9 m3). Truck
• Equipment capable of instant automatic selection and mixers are not suited to the mixing and discharging of
setting of numerous batch ingredients in many different low-slump, large-aggregate concrete. Turbine-type
mixture proportions. In large central plant mixers, the mixers may be used for mass concrete containing 3 in.
large batches commonly used for mass concrete also (75 mm) aggregate.
tend to minimize the effect of variations. Specifications for mixing time range from a minimum of
Because greater use is made in mass concrete of such 1 min for the first cubic yard plus 15 s for each additional
special-purpose ingredients as ice; air-entraining, water- cubic yard (80 s for first cubic meter plus 20 s for each additional
reducing, and set-controlling admixtures; and fly ash or cubic meter) of mixer capacity (ACI 304R; ASTM C 94) to
other pozzolans, the dependable, accurate batching of these 1-1/2 min for the first 2 yd3 plus 30 s for each additional
materials has become a very important aspect of the concrete cubic yard (1-1/2 min for the first 1-1/2 m3 plus 40 s for each
plant. For the most efficient use of ice, it should be less than additional cubic meter) of capacity (USBR 1981). Blending
32 °F (0 °C), and be brittle-hard, dry, and finely broken. For the materials by ribbon feeding during batching makes it
maximum efficiency, ice should be batched by weighing possible to reduce the mixing period. Some of the mixing
from a well-insulated storage bin, with quick discharge into the water and coarser aggregate should lead other materials into the
mixer along with the other ingredients. Pozzolan and ground- mixer to prevent sticking and clogging. Mixing times should
iron blast-furnace slag are batched the same as cement. be lengthened or shortened depending on the results of mixer
Liquid admixtures are generally batched by volume, performance tests. Criteria for these tests are found in ASTM
although weighing equipment has also been used C 94. Mixing time is best controlled by a timing device that
successfully. Reliable admixture batching equipment is prevents release of the discharge mechanism until the mixing
available from admixture or batch plant manufacturers. time has elapsed.
Means should be provided for making a visual accuracy During mixing, the batch should be closely observed to
check. Provisions should be made for preventing batching of ensure the desired slump. Amperage meters can also be used
admixture while the discharge valve is open. Interlocks to assist visual observations. The operator and inspector
should also be provided that will prevent inadvertent over- should be alert and attentive. ACI 311.5R provides
batching of the admixture. Particularly with air-entraining recommendations for plant inspection and process quality
and water-reducing admixtures, any irregularities in control testing. Tuthill (1950) discussed effective inspection
batching can cause troublesome variations in slump, air procedures and facilities. Preferably, the operator should be
content, or both. When several liquid admixtures are to be stationed in the plant where he or she can see the batch in the
used, they should be batched separately into the mixer. The mixer and be able to judge whether its slump is correct. If the
use of comparatively dilute solutions reduces gumming in slump is low, perhaps due to suddenly drier aggregate, the
the equipment. For continuing good operation, equipment operator can immediately compensate with a little more
should be maintained and kept clean. Timed-flow systems water and maintain the desired slump. Lacking this arrangement
to see into the mixer, the operator should be able to see the
batch as it is discharged, note any change from former
batches, and make subsequent water adjustments accordingly.
A sand moisture meter provides a quick method to compare
the moisture content of sand entering the mixer with the sand
tested in stockpile. A significant difference in moisture
content will alert the operator that variations in sand moisture
may be occurring and initiate additional testing or a change
in batching procedure.
Continuous batching and mixing (pugmill) has been used
successfully in roller-compacted concrete for years, and has
also been used for traditional mass concrete with satisfactory
performance. Generally, the maximum aggregate size for
this method is limited to 3 in. (75 mm) or possibly 4 in.
(100 mm). ACI 207.5R and ACI 304R discuss continuous (a) Sandblast treatment
batching and mixing in more detail.
4.3—Placing
Placing includes preparation of horizontal construction
joints, transportation, handling, placement, and consolidation of
the concrete (ACI 304R; USBR 2001).
Efficient and best preparation of horizontal joint surfaces
begins with the activities of topping out the lift. The surface
should be left free from protruding rock, deep footprints,
vibrator holes, and other surface irregularities. In general,
the surface should be relatively even, with a gentle slope for
drainage. This slope makes the cleanup easier. As late as is
feasible, but before placement of the next lift, surface film
and contamination should be removed to expose a fresh,
clean mortar and aggregate surface. Overcutting to deeply
expose aggregate is unnecessary and wasteful of good material.
Strength of bond is accomplished by cement grains, not by
protruding coarse aggregate. Joint shear strength is determined
both by this bond and by interface friction. The friction (b) High-pressure water-blast treatment
contribution is affected by confining pressure and coarse
aggregate interlock. Usually removal of approximately Fig. 4.1—Before and after horizontal construction joint
0.1 in. (a few millimeters) of inferior material will reveal cleanup.
a satisfactory surface.
The best methods of obtaining such a clean surface are by
means of sandblasting (preferably wet sandblasting to avoid may become dull with lime coatings or can become
dust hazard) or high-pressure water jet of at least 6000 psi contaminated to such an extent that it may be necessary to
(41.4 MPa). Operators should be on guard to avoid harm to use sandblasting or high-pressure water jets to reclean it.
other personnel and to wooden surfaces from water-blasted The clean concrete surface should be approaching dryness
pieces of surface material that may be hurled forward with and be free from surface moisture at the time new concrete is
great force and velocity. Sandblasting has the advantage of placed on it (USACE 1959, 1963a; Tynes and McClease
being able to clean concrete of any age, but it requires 1973; Neeley and Poole 1996; Neeley et al. 1998). Testing has
handling of sandblast sand and equipment and its removal shown superior strength and watertightness of joints that are
after use. The water-jet method leaves relatively little debris dry and clean when the overlying concrete is placed. In this
for cleanup and removal, but it may not work as efficiently condition, no water is present to dilute and weaken the cement
after the concrete is more than 1 week old. Before and after paste of the plastic concrete at the construction joint. Tests
horizontal construction joint cleanup with sandblasting and have also shown that the practice of placing mortar on the joint
high-pressure water blasting are illustrated in Fig. 4.1(a) and ahead of the concrete is not necessary for either strength or
(b), respectively. Clean joints are essential to good bond and permeability of the joint (Houghton and Hall 1972). The
watertightness. Green cutting, which is the early removal of mortar coat, although widely used in the past, is no longer
the surface mortar with an air-water jet at about the time the commonly used in mass concrete work. Equivalent results can
concrete approaches final set, is also used. It may not, be obtained without the mortar if the first layer of the plastic
however, be possible to preserve the initially clean surface concrete is thoroughly vibrated over the joint area and all rock
until concrete is placed on it. The initially acceptable surface clusters at batch-dump perimeters are carefully scattered.
Fig. 4.2—Placement of mass concrete by conveyor belt.
Selection of equipment for transporting and placing mass from conveyors should be managed so that concrete is
concrete is strongly influenced by the maximum size of the discharged onto fresh concrete and immediately vibrated to
aggregate. Concrete for mass placements, such as in dams, prevent stacking. Placement of mass concrete by conveyor is
often contains cobbles, which are defined as coarse-aggregate shown in Fig. 4.2. Additional information on placing
particles larger than 3 in. (75 mm) and smaller than 12 in. concrete with conveyors is contained in ACI 304.4R.
(300 mm). The tendency of cobbles to segregate from the Large building foundations and other very large monolithic
mixture as a result of their greater inertia when in motion concrete structures are considered mass concrete. Availability
may dictate the use of large, 2 to 12 yd3 (1.5 to 9 m3) capacity and job conditions may preclude the use of preferable aggregates
buckets. Railcars, trucks, cableways, cranes, or some combi- larger than 1-1/2 in. (37.5 mm) or specialized placement
nation of these, may be used to deliver the buckets to the equipment. Concrete in such structures may be placed with
point of placement. For concrete containing coarse aggregate more conventional equipment, such as smaller crane
3 in. (75 mm) and larger, a bucket size of 4 to 8 yd3 (3 to 6 m3) buckets, concrete pumps, or conveyors. The selection of
is preferable because smaller buckets do not discharge as placing equipment should be predicated on its ability to
readily, and each delivery is too small to work well with a successfully place concrete that has been proportioned for
high-production placement scheme. On the other hand, the mass concrete considerations as defined in Section 2.7,
12 yd3 (9 m3) bucket puts such a large pile in one place that which emphasizes the reduction of heat evolution. Placing
much of the crew’s time is devoted to vibrating for spreading capacity should be great enough to avoid cold joints and
instead of for consolidation. To preclude these piles being undesirable exposure to extremes of heat and cold at lift
larger than 4 yd3 (3 m3), one agency requires controllable surfaces. This is usually accomplished by using many pieces
discharge gates in buckets carrying more than 4 yd3 (3 m3). of placing equipment. Additional information on pumping of
Extra care should be taken to ensure ample vibration deep in concrete is contained in ACI 304.2R.
the center of these piles and at points of contact with concrete Mass concrete is best placed in successive layers. The
previously placed. Mass concrete of proper mixture proportions maximum thickness of the layer depends on the ability of the
and low slump does not separate by settlement during such vibrators to properly consolidate the concrete. Six in.
transportation over the short distances usually involved. (150 mm) diameter vibrators produce satisfactory results
Care should be taken, however, to prevent segregation at with 4 to 6 in. (100 to 150 mm) nominal maximum-size
each transfer point. aggregate and less than 1-1/2 in. (40 mm) slump in layers 18
Mass concrete may also be transported in dumping rail to 20 in. (460 to 510 mm) thick placed with 4 to 8 yd3 (3 to
cars and trucks and placed by use of conveyors. Cranes 6 m3) buckets. Smaller-diameter vibrators will produce
equipped with telescoping conveyors, termed “creter satisfactory results with 3 to 4 in. (75 to 100 mm) nominal
cranes,” are widely used for the placement of modern mass maximum-size aggregate and less than 2 in. (50 mm) slump
concrete (Fig. 4.2). Placing mass concrete with conveyors placed in 12 to 15 in. (300 to 380 mm) layers with smaller
has been most successful and economical when the aggre- buckets. Shallower layers, rather than deeper layers, give
gate size is 4 in. (100 mm) or less. The point of discharge better assurance of satisfactory consolidation and freedom
from rock pockets at joint lines, corners, and other form

faces, as well as within the block itself.
The layer thickness should be an even fraction of the lift
height or of the depth of the block. The layers are carried
forward in a stair-step fashion in the block by means of
successive discharges, so there will be a setback of approx-
imately 5 ft (1.5 m) between the forward edges of successive
layers. Placement of the steps is organized to expose a
minimum of surface to lessen warming of the concrete in
warm weather and reduce the area affected by rain in wet
weather. A setback greater than 5 ft (1.5 m) unnecessarily
exposes cold concrete to heat gain in warm weather and, in
rainy weather, increases the danger of water damage. A
narrower setback will cause concrete above it to sag when
the step is vibrated to make it monolithic with the concrete
placed later against that step. This stepped front progresses
forward from one end of the block to the other until the form
is filled and the lift placement is completed. Fig. 4.3—Consolidation of low-slump mass concrete placed
Vibration is the key to the successful placement of mass by bucket.
concrete, particularly when the concrete is low slump and
contains large aggregate (Tuthill 1953). Ineffective equipment is relatively high cementitious materials content and a
more costly to the builder because of a slower placing rate reduced aggregate size to promote the required lateral flow of
and the hazard of poor consolidation. Vibration should be the mixture after the mixture is introduced into the placement
systematic and should thoroughly cover and deeply penetrate area by tremie pipe or pumpline. It is more common to
each layer. Particular attention should be paid to ensure full incorporate an antiwashout admixture and water-reducing
vibration where the perimeters of two discharges join admixtures into the mixture to increase the flow of the mixture,
because the outer edge of the first batch is not vibrated until decrease disassociation of the paste, and increase consolidation
the next batch is placed against it. The two discharges can of the mixture. Typical applications include bridge pier tremie
then be vibrated monolithically together without causing seals, repair of stilling basins and other in-water structures, and
either edge to flow downward. Proper vibration of large placement of float-in structures.
aggregate mass concrete is shown in Fig. 4.3. To ensure
proper consolidation, the vibrators should penetrate the 4.4—Curing
lower layer for 2 to 4 in. (50 to 100 mm) and be maintained Mass concrete is best cured with water, which provides
in a vertical position at each penetration during vibration. To additional cooling benefit in warm weather. In cold weather,
prevent imperfections along lift lines and layer lines at form little curing is needed beyond the moisture provided to
faces, these areas should be systematically deeply revibrated prevent the concrete from drying during its initial protection
as each layer advances from the starting form, along each of from freezing; however, the concrete should not be saturated
the side forms, to the other end form. Any visible clusters of when it is exposed to freezing. In above-freezing weather,
separated coarse aggregate should be scattered on the new when moisture is likely to be lost from the concrete surfaces,
concrete before covering with additional concrete. Vibration is mass concrete should be water-cured for at least 14 days, or
unlikely to fill and solidify unseparated aggregate clusters up to twice this time if pozzolan is used as one of the
with mortar. During consolidation, the vibrators should cementitious materials. Except when insulation is required
remain at each penetration point until large air bubbles have in cold weather, surfaces of horizontal construction joints
ceased to rise and escape from the concrete. The average should be kept moist until the wetting will no longer provide
time for one vibrator to fully consolidate a 1 yd3 (3/4 m3) of beneficial cooling. Curing should be stopped long enough to
concrete may be as much as 1 min (80 s for 1 m3). Over- ensure that the joint surface is free of water but still damp
vibration of low-slump mass concrete is unlikely. To and clean before new concrete is placed. The use of a
simplify cleanup operations, the top of the uppermost layer liquid-membrane curing compound is not the best method of
should be leveled and made reasonably even by means of curing mass concrete, but is applicable where moist curing is
vibration. Holes from previous vibrator insertions should be not practical, such as in below-freezing conditions or where
closed. Large aggregate should be almost completely the application of water may damage prepared foundations
embedded, and boards should be laid on the surface in sufficient or impede work. If used on construction joints, it should be
number to prevent deep footprints. Ample and effective completely removed by sandblasting or water-blasting to
vibration equipment should be available and in use during prevent reduction or loss of bond.
the placement of mass concrete. Specific recommendations
for mass concrete vibration are contained in ACI 309R. 4.5—Forms
Mass concrete for underwater placements is done without Forms for mass concrete have the same basic requirements
vibration. Generally, the mixture is proportioned with a for strength, mortar-tightness, accuracy of position, and
generally good surface condition as those described in Hurd than using screed guides and strikeoff. With no strikeoff
(1995). Formwork for mass concrete may differ somewhat involved, the regular mass concrete face mixture is as readily
from other formwork because of the comparatively low used as one with small aggregate, unless a different concrete
height normally required for each lift. There may be some mixture is required on the spillway face for durability
increase of form pressures due to the use of low-temperature reasons. The desired shape is achieved with strong, solidly
concrete and the impact of dumping large buckets of anchored ribs between which rows of form panels are placed
concrete near the forms, despite the relieving effect of the row-on-row upward as the lift space is filled. The rows of
generally low slump of mass concrete. Form pressures depend form panels are removed starting row-on-row at the bottom
on the methods used and the care exercised in placing concrete when the concrete will no longer bulge out of shape but is
adjacent to the form. For this reason, it is recommended that still responsive to finishing operations (Tuthill 1967).
100% of equivalent hydrostatic pressure plus 25% for impact Considerable time and labor are saved by this method, and it
be used for design of mass concrete forms. enables the concrete to be well consolidated by vibration and
Form ties connected to standard anchors in the previous very accurately shaped and finished.
lift and braces have long been used. Many large jobs are now
equipped with forms supported by cantilevered strongbacks 4.6—Height of lifts and time intervals between lifts
anchored firmly into the lift below. Additional support of From the standpoint of construction, the higher the lift, the
cantilevered forms may be provided by form ties, particularly fewer the construction joints; with 7.5 ft (2.3 m) lifts, there
when the concrete is low in early strength. Cantilevered are only two-thirds as many joints as when 5 ft (1.5 m) lifts
forms are raised by hydraulic, air, or electric jacking are used. With regard to past experience of hardened
systems. Care should be taken to avoid spalling concrete concrete temperature in cold weather, the shallower the lift,
around the anchor bolts in the low-early-strength concrete of the higher the percentage of the total heat of hydration that
the lift being stripped of forms because these bolts will be will escape before the next lift is placed. In hot weather with
used to provide horizontal restraint in the next form setup. lean mixtures and precooling, the opposite may be true.
High-lift, mass concrete formwork is comparable to that When lift thickness is increased above 10 ft (3 m), heat losses
used for standard structural concrete work except that ties from the upper surface become a decreasing percentage of the
may be 20 to 40 ft (6 to 12 m) long across the lift rather than total heat generated within the full depth of the lift. Hence,
20 to 40 in. (0.5 to 1.0 m). To facilitate placement by bucket, with very deep lifts, the internal temperature reached by the
widely spaced large-diameter, high-tensile-strength ties concrete is not significantly influenced by the length of the
should be used to permit passage of the concrete buckets. time interval between lifts. In such extreme cases, contin-
Beveled grade strips and 1 in. (25 mm) or larger triangular uous placing in high lifts may be preferable, especially as a
toe fillets can be used to mask offsets that sometimes occur means of minimizing joint cleanup, preventing cracking, or
at horizontal joint lines. This will generally improve the permitting the use of slipforms, such as for massive piers. In
appearance of formed surfaces. When used at the top and large blocks, such as in dam construction, the loss of heat
bottom of the forms, this can create an effective and from a lift surface in cold weather does not justify extended
aesthetically pleasing groove. A 1 in. (25 mm) or larger exposure. A long exposure of lift surfaces to changes in
chamfer should also be used in the corners of the forms at the ambient temperature may initiate cracking. This can defeat
upstream and downstream ends of construction joints for the an otherwise successful crack-prevention program. Where
sake of appearance and to prevent chipping of the edges; thermal-control crack-prevention procedures are being used,
otherwise, sharp corners of the block are often damaged the best construction schedule consists of regular placement
and cannot be effectively repaired. Such chamfers also on each block, at the shortest time interval, with the least
prevent pinching and spalling of joint edges caused by practical height differential between adjacent blocks.
high surface temperatures. Control of temperature rise is a design function; therefore, lift
Sloping forms, when used, often extend over the construction heights and placing frequency should be shown on drawings
joint to the extent that it is difficult to position buckets close and in specifications. Influencing factors are size and type of
enough to place and adequately consolidate the concrete. massive structure, concrete properties and cement content,
Such forms may be hinged so the top half can be held in a prevailing climate during construction and in service,
vertical position until concrete is placed up to the hinged construction schedule, and other specified temperature
elevation. The top half is then lowered into position, and controls. Lift heights range from 2-1/2 ft (0.75 m) for multiple
concrete placement is continued. Sloping forms are subject lifts just above foundations to 5 and 7-1/2 ft (1.5 and 2.3 m) in
to less outward pressure, but uplift should be considered in many gravity dams, and to 10 ft (3 m) or more in thin arch
their anchorage. dams, piers, and abutments.
A common forming problem for spillway sections of High-lift mass concrete construction was adopted by some
gravity dams is encountered in the sloping and curved authorities, particularly in Canada during the 1950s and
portions of the crest and bucket. These slopes range from 1960s, in an attempt to reduce potential leak paths and minimize
horizontal to approximately 1.5 to 1.0 vertical at the transition cracking in dams built in cold, and even subzero, weather.
where regular fixed forms can be used. The curved or sloped The procedure is no longer in common usage. In its extreme
surfaces are effectively shaped and the concrete is thoroughly form, the method provides for continuous placing of lifts up
consolidated by means of temporary holding forms rather to 50 ft (15 m) high using wood or insulated forms with
housings and steam heat. Under these placing conditions, the

adiabatic temperature rise of the concrete and the maximum
temperature drop to low stable temperatures are approximately
equal. For control of cracking, most design criteria restrict
this maximum drop to 25 to 35 °F (14 to 19 °C). Design
requirements can be met under these conditions by controlling,
through mixture proportioning, the adiabatic rise to these
levels (Klein et al. 1963). With precooled 50 °F (10 °C) mass
concrete of low cement content in a warm climate, ambient
heat removes the advantage of shallower lifts and is the
reason 7-1/2 ft (2.3 m) or even 10 ft (3 m) lifts have been
permitted by specifications on several dam projects in
recent years.
4.7—Cooling and temperature control Fig. 4.4—Metal cover over drained fine aggregate stockpile
Currently, it is common practice to precool mass concrete to reduce heat absorption.
before placement. Efficient equipment is now available to
produce such concrete at temperatures less than 45 °F (7 °C)
in practically any summer weather. The simple expedient of
using finely chipped ice instead of mixing water and shading
damp (but not wet) aggregate will reduce the concrete
placing temperature to a value approaching 50 °F (10 °C) in
moderately warm weather. To permit maximum use of ice in
place of mixing water, fine aggregate should be drained to a
water content of not more than 5%. Steel aggregate storage
bins and aggregate piles should be shaded as illustrated in
Fig. 4.4. Aggregates can be cooled by evaporation through
vacuum, inundation in cold water, cold air circulation (ACI
207.4R; ACI 305R), or liquid nitrogen. Figure 4.5 shows the
cooling of coarse aggregate by spraying and inundation with
chilled water immediately before placing in the batch plant
bins. To obtain full advantage of the low placing temperature,
the concrete should be protected from higher ambient Fig. 4.5—Cooling coarse aggregate by chilled water spray
temperature conditions during the first few weeks after and inundation.
placement to reduce temperature rise in the concrete and to
reduce the thermal differential tending to crack the surface safety of a structure. For credibility, enough instruments
later when much colder ambient conditions may occur. should be installed to provide confirmation of all important
During placement in warm weather, absorption of heat by data. It is often desirable to use more than one type of instrument
cold concrete can be minimized by placing at night, to facilitate the analysis. Instrumentation is also required in
managing placement so that minimum areas are exposed, cases where it is necessary to correlate with or confirm an
and, if placement will be in the sun, by fog-spraying the work unusual design concept related to either the structure or the
area. Much can be done during the curing period to prevent service condition, or where the instrumentation results may
heating and to remove heat from the hardening concrete, lead to greater refinements for future design.
including use of steel forms, shading, and water curing. Instrumentation should be part of the design and construction
Embedded pipe cooling can be used to control the rise in of any mass concrete structure wherever a future question may
concrete temperature in restrained zones near foundations when arise concerning the safety of the structure. Also, preparations
maximum temperatures cannot be limited by other, less-expen- essential for an accurate evaluation of the instrumentation
sive cooling measures. Embedded pipe cooling is also normally results should be made through long-term, laboratory-sample
required to ensure at least the minimum opening of contraction studies to determine progressive age relationships for
joints needed when grouting joints in dams is necessary. Aggre- properties of the actual project concrete (refer to Chapter 3).
gate and concrete precooling, insulation, protection from high Factors or quantities that are often monitored in mass
ambient temperature, and postcooling considerations and concrete dams and other massive structures include structural
recommendations are provided in ACI 207.4R. displacements, deformations, settlement, seepage, piezometric
levels in the foundation, and uplift pressures within the structure.
4.8—Instrumentation A wide variety of instruments can be used in a comprehensive
The specific goals of data collection, transmittal, processing, monitoring program. Instruments installed in mass concrete
review, and action procedures are to provide accurate and timely in the United States have been primarily of the unbonded
evaluation of data for potential remedial action relating to the resistance-wire or Carlson-type meter and vibrating wire,
although a wide variety of instruments is being incorpo- rotational movements of the dam are of interest. Surface
rated in current projects. Some of the instruments available movements are usually observed using conventional level
for use are: hydrostatic pressure measuring devices, pressure and position surveys. The position surveys may be
or stress measuring devices, seepage measurement devices, conducted using triangulation, trilateration, or collimation
internal movement measuring devices, surface movement techniques. Individual measurement devices include levels,
measuring devices, and vibration measuring devices. Instru- theodolites, calibrated survey tapes, electronic distance
mentation systems should include provisions for automated measuring (EDM) devices, and associated rods or targets.
collection of instrumentation data, remote access to data, Vibration measuring devices—Various commercially
and, where applicable, real-time monitoring of structural available instruments include the strong motion accel-
performance. Several manuals on instrumentation of erograph and the peak-recording accelerograph.
concrete dams are available (USACE 1980, 1985; USSD Unbonded resistance-wire or Carlson-type meters include
2002; U.S. Bureau of Reclamation 1987). strain meters, stress meters, joint meters, deformation
Hydrostatic pressure measuring devices—These are meters, pore pressure cells, and reinforcement meters. In
generally piezometers, operating either as closed or open each of these devices, two sets of unbonded steel wires are
systems, or closed-system Bourdon-type pressure monitoring arranged so that when subjected to the action to be measured,
systems. Closed-system piezometers consist of vibrating- one set increases in tension, while the other decreases. A test
wire units or Carlson-type devices, whereas open-system set, based on the Wheatstone Bridge, measures resistance
devices used are commonly called observation wells. A and resistance ratios from which the temperature and the
variation of the closed system unit is the well or pipe system, strain and stress can be determined. These instruments
which is capped so that a Bourdon-type gauge may be used embedded in fresh concrete are relatively durable in service,
for directly reading water pressure. Some similar systems provide a stable zero reading, maintain their calibration, and
use pressure transducers rather than Bourdon gauges to are constructed so as to be dependable for a long time.
measure the pressure. Other types of piezometers are To properly monitor the performance of a mass concrete
available, but have not been used in concrete dams. These structure, it is often necessary to collect instrumentation data
other types include hydrostatic pressure indicators, hydraulic over extended periods. The monitoring equipment should be
twin-tube piezometers, pneumatic piezometers, porous-tube as simple, rugged, and durable as possible and be maintained
piezometers, and slotted-pipe piezometers. in satisfactory operating condition. The instruments should
Pressure or stress measuring devices—Four types have be rugged enough to be embedded in fresh concrete. When
been used: Gloetzl cell, Carlson load cell, vibrating-wire measuring strain, the instruments should be at least three
gauges, and flat jacks. The Gloetzl cell operates hydrauli- times the length of the largest particle in the fresh concrete.
cally to balance (null) a given pressure, while the Carlson Because they contain electrical-sensing elements, they
load cell uses changing electrical resistance due to wire should not only be waterproof, but all material should be
length changes caused by applied pressure. The vibrating-wire resistant to the alkalies in concrete. The necessity of maintaining
gauge, a variation of the Carlson cell, measures the change in proper operational characteristics creates many problems. Even
vibration frequency caused by strain in a vibrating wire. The a simple surface-leveling point may be subject to damage by
flat jacks use a Bourdon-tube gauge to measure pressures. frost action, traffic, maintenance operations on the crest, or
Seepage measurement devices—Commonly used seepage vandalism. Observation wells and most piezometers can be
monitoring devices include quantitative devices that include damaged by frost action, caving, corrosion of material used
weirs, flow meters, Parshall flumes, and calibrated catch for casing, loss of measuring equipment in the hole, and by
containers. Flowmeters and pressure transducer devices are vandals dropping rocks into the holes. Unless special
also sometimes used to determine quantity of flow in a pipe precautions are taken, the average life of installations of
or open channel. these types may be significantly reduced. To minimize
Internal movement measuring devices—These are used to damage, the tops of measuring points and wells should be
obtain measurements of relative movements between the capped and locked and should be as inconspicuous and close
structure and the abutments, foundations, or both. The devices to the surrounding surface as possible. Locations of installations
consist of essentially horizontal and vertical measurements should not be immediately adjacent to roads, trails, or water
using calibrated tapes, single-point and multipoint borehole channels, and noncorrosive material should be used
extensometers, joint meters, plumb lines, dial gauge devices, wherever possible.
Whittemore gauges, resistance gauges, tilt meters, and incli- Concrete surfaces may be subjected to excessive stresses
nometer/deflectometers. Strain meters and no-stress strain and cracking that will make stress or strain measurements
devices may also be used for measuring internal movements. obtained from surface-mounted instrumentation meaningless.
Surface movement measuring devices—External vertical Reliable measurements of strain and stress should come
and horizontal movements are measured on the surfaces of from electrical measuring instruments embedded far enough
structures to determine total movements with respect to a from the surface to avoid the effects of daily temperature
fixed datum located off the structure. Reference points may cycles. Embedded instruments are generally accessed by
be monuments or designated points on a dam crest, on the means of conducting cables leading to convenient reading
upstream and downstream faces, on the toe of a dam, or on stations located in dam galleries or at the surface of other
appurtenant structures. Both lateral, or translational, and mass concrete structures.
If certain types of piezometer tubing are used, there are joint is the only way to accurately determine the magnitude
certain microbes that can live and proliferate within the tubes of the joint opening (Carlson 1979; Silveira et al. 1982).
unless the water in the system is treated with a biological
inhibitor. Some antifreeze solutions previously placed in CHAPTER 5—REFERENCES
systems develop a floc that results in plugging of the tubes. 5.1—Referenced standards and reports
Also, in certain environments, material in some gauges may The documents of the various standards-producing organi-
corrode and render them useless. zations referred to in this document are listed below with
their serial designation. The documents listed were the latest
Many devices are removable and may be calibrated on a
effort at the time this document was revised. Since some of
regular basis; however, most instrumentation is fixed in
these documents are revised frequently, the user of this
place and is not repairable when damage or malfunctioning
document should check directly with the sponsoring group if
is discovered. Fixed devices can generally only be replaced
it is desired to refer to the latest revision.
from the surface by devices installed in drilled holes and are,
therefore, usually not replaceable. Other devices, such as
American Concrete Institute
surface monuments, are replaceable to some extent.
116R Cement and Concrete Terminology
201.2R Guide to Durable Concrete
4.9—Grouting contraction joints
207.2R Effect of Restraint, Volume Change, and Rein-
With increasingly effective use of cold concrete as placed,
forcement on Cracking of Mass Concrete
and especially when narrow shrinkage slots are left and later
207.4R Cooling and Insulating Systems for Mass Concrete
filled with cold concrete, some may question whether
contraction-joint grouting serves much purpose for high 207.5R Roller-Compacted Mass Concrete
thin-arch dams because a little downstream cantilever 209R Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Tempera-
movement will bring the joints into tight contact. Nevertheless, ture Effects in Concrete Structures
grouting relieves later arch and cantilever stresses by distributing 210R Erosion of Concrete in Hydraulic Structures
them more evenly, and it remains general practice to grout 211.1 Standard Practice for Selecting Proportions for
contraction joints in such dams. Normal, Heavyweight, and Mass Concrete
212.3R Chemical Admixtures for Concrete
In recent decades, the transverse contraction joints in most
gravity dams have not been grouted. It was considered that an 221R Guide for Use of Normal Weight and Heavy-
weight Aggregates in Concrete
upstream waterstop backed up by a vertical drain would
prevent visible leakage, that grout filling was unnecessary 221.1R State-of-the-Art Report on Alkali-Aggregate
because there was no transverse stress, and that money would Reactivity
be saved. In recent years, however, the appearance of some 224R Control of Cracking in Concrete Structures
transverse cracks, generally parallel to the contraction joints, 224.1R Causes, Evaluation and Repair of Cracks in
has prompted reconsideration of the grouting of contraction Concrete Structures
joints in gravity dams. Intermediate cracks can start on the 232.2R Use of Fly Ash in Concrete
upstream face and be propagated farther into the dam, and 233R Slag Cement in Concrete and Mortar
sometimes through it, due to the cold temperature and high 304R Guide for Measuring, Mixing, Transporting, and
pressure of deep reservoir water. Its coldness cools the interior Placing Concrete
concrete at the crack and further opens it. Transverse cracks 304.2R Placing Concrete by Pumping Methods
should be repaired before reservoir filling if at all possible. If 304.4R Placing Concrete with Belt Conveyors
the transverse joints are filled with grout, a surface crack 305R Hot Weather Concreting
opening somewhere on the upstream face may have effective 309R Guide for Consolidation of Concrete
resistance against propagation and further opening. 311.5 Guide for Concrete Plant Inspection and Testing
Where there is reason to grout contraction joints, a of Ready-Mixed Concrete
program of precooling and postcooling should be arranged to 318/318R Building Code Requirements for Structural
provide a joint opening of at least 0.04 in. (1 mm) to ensure Concrete and Commentary
complete filling with grout even though, under special test
conditions, grout may penetrate much narrower openings. ASTM International
The grouting system can be designed in such a way as to C 94 Standard Specification for Ready-Mixed Concrete
allow either just one or two grouting operations (when the C 125 Standard Terminology Relating to Concrete and
width of the opening is near its maximum) or several Concrete Aggregates
operations when the first joint filling has to be performed C 150 Standard Specification for Portland Cement
before the maximum opening is reached and there is no C 260 Standard Specification for Air-Entraining
provision for postcooling. Warner (2004) describes the Admixtures for Concrete
grouting systems and grouting operations for grouting C 494 Standard Specification for Chemical Admix-
contraction joints. Silveira et al. (1982) describe a grouting tures for Concrete
system that employs packers to permit reuse of the piping C 595 Standard Specification for Blended Hydraulic
system. The use of embedded instrumentation across the Cements
C 618 Standard Specification for Coal Fly Ash and Raw Harboe, E. M., 1961, “Properties of Mass Concrete in
or Calcined Natural Pozzolan for Use in Concrete Bureau of Reclamation Dams,” Report No. C-1009,
C 684 Standard Method for Making, Accelerated Concrete Laboratory, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,
Curing, and Testing for Concrete Compression Colo., Dec., 6 pp.
Test Specimens Harboe, E. M., 1961, “Properties of Mass Concrete in
C 989 Standard Specification for Ground Granulated Bureau of Reclamation Dams,” Report No. C-1009, U.S.
Blast-Furnace Slag for Use in Concrete and Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, Division
Mortars of Engineering Laboratories, Concrete Laboratory Branch,
C 1157 Standard Performance Specification for Denver, Colo., Dec. 6.
Hydraulic Cement Harris, D. W.; Mohorovic, C. E.; and Dolen, T. P., 2000,
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Houghton, D. L., 1972, “Concrete Strain Capacity Tests—
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Houghton, D. L., 1976, “Determining Tensile Strain
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“Causes and Control of Cracking in Unreinforced Mass Grout on Horizontal Construction Joints at Dworshak Dam,”
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Dusinberre, D. M., 1945, “Numerical Methods for Tran- Hurd, M. K., 1995, Formwork for Concrete, SP-4, 6th
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JOURNAL, Proceedings, V. 71, No. 12, Dec., pp. 589-599. Tuthill, L. H., 1953, “Vibration of Mass Concrete,” ACI
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ACI 207.

Guide to Mass Concrete

Jeffrey C. Allen Robert W. Cannon John R. Hess Tibor J. Pataky

Table 2.1—Maximum allowable percentages

Table 2.2—Fine aggregate for mass concrete*

crushed rock, or a mixture of these, nominally larger than the

Table 2.4—Grading requirements for coarse

Table 2.5—Ranges in each size fraction of coarse

from convenient size groups. In United States practice, it is

Table 3.1—Typical concrete mixture data from various dams

Table 3.3—Compressive strength and elastic properties of mass concrete

Table 3.4—Elastic properties of mass concrete

Table 4.1—Typical batching tolerances

Fig. 4.2—Placement of mass concrete by conveyor belt.

from rock pockets at joint lines, corners, and other form

housings and steam heat. Under these placing conditions, the

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