1. define organisational behaviour.

relate it to
management.?
Organizational studies is the study of individual and group dynamics in an organizational setting, as well
as the nature of the organizations themselves. Whenever people interact in organizations, many factors
come into play. Organizational studies attempts to understand and model these factors.

Like all social sciences, organizational behavior seeks to control, predict, and explain. But there is some
controversy over the ethical ramifications of focusing on controlling workers' behavior. As such,
organizational behavior or OB (and its cousin, Industrial psychology) have at times been accused of
being the scientific tool of the powerful. Those accusations notwithstanding, OB can play a major role in
organizational development and success.

The Greek philosopher Plato wrote about the essence of leadership. Aristotle addressed the topic of
persuasive communication. The writings of 16th century Italian philosopher Niccolo Machiavelli laid the
foundation for contemporary work on organisational power and politics. In 1776, Adam Smith
advocated a new form of organisational structure based on the division of labour. One hundred years
later, German sociologist Max Weber wrote about rational organisations and initiated discussion of
charismatic leadership. Soon after, Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the systematic use of goal
setting and rewards to motivate employees. In the 1920's, Australian-born Harvard professor Elton
Mayo and his colleagues conducted productivity studies at Western Electric's Hawthorne plant in the
United States.

Though it traces its roots back to Max Weber and earlier, organizational studies is generally considered
to have begun as an academic discipline with the advent of scientific management in the 1890s, with
Taylorism representing the peak of this movement. Proponents of scientific management held that
rationalizing the organization with precise sets of instructions and time-motion studies would lead to
increased productivity. Studies of different compensation systems were carried out.

After the First World War, the focus of organizational studies shifted to analysis of how human factors
and psychology affected organizations, a transformation propelled by the discovery of the Hawthorne
Effect. This Human Relations Movement focused more on teams, motivation, and the actualization of
the goals of individuals within organizations.

Prominent early scholars included:

Chester Barnard
Henri Fayol
Mary Parker Follett
Frederick Herzberg
Abraham Maslow
David McClelland
Victor Vroom
Herbert Alexander Simon
James G. March

The Second World War further shifted the field, as the invention of large-scale logistics and operations
research led to a renewed interest in systems and rationalistic approaches to the study of organizations:

In the 1960s and 1970s, the field was strongly influenced by social psychology and the emphasis in
academic study was on quantitative research.

Starting in the 1980s, cultural explanations of organizations and change became an important part of
study. Qualitative methods of study became more acceptable, informed by anthropology, psychology
and sociology.

Current state of the field

Organizational behavior is currently a growing field. Organizational studies departments are generally
within business schools, although many universities also have industrial pyschology and industrial
economics programs as well.

The field is highly influential in the business world with practitioners like Peter Drucker and Peter Senge
turning the academic research into business practices. Organization behavior is becoming more
important in the global economy as people with diverse backgrounds and cultural values have to work
together effectively and efficiently. It is also under increasing criticism as a field for its ethnocentric and
pro-capitalist assumptions (see Critical Management Studies).

Q.Behaviour is generally predictable, so there is no need to formally study OB". Why is that statement
wrong.

Such a casual or commonsense approach to reading others can often lead to erroneous
predictions. OB improves managers’ predictive ability by replacing intuitive opinions with a
more systematic approach. Behavior generally is predictable if we know how the person
perceived the situation and what is important to him or her. While people’s behavior may not
appear to be rational to an outsider, there is reason to believe it usually is intended to be rational
and it is seen as rational by them. There are certain fundamental consistencies underlying the
behavior of all individuals that can be identified and then modified to reflect individual
differences. These fundamental consistencies allow predictability. When we use the phrase
systematic study, we mean looking at relationships, attempting to attribute causes and effects,
and basing our conclusions on scientific evidence—that is, on data gathered under controlled
conditions and measured and interpreted in a reasonably rigorous manner.
Although Organization Behavior (OB) can be learnt by experience, it takes long time to
investigate and understand human's behavior within organizations. Studying OB's theories can be
quickly coping with individual physiology and group behavior.
It is a field of study that investigates the impact of individuals, groups, and structure on human
behavior within organizations for the purpose of applying such knowledge towards improving an
organization's effectiveness and efficiency.
It studies three determinants of behavior in organizations: individuals, groups, and structure. In
addition, OB applies the knowledge about individuals, groups and the effect of the organization
structure on human behavior in order to make the organization work more effectively and
systematically.
Integrating past-days and contemporary theories, managers are easy to forecast outcome and
determine variables, and to predict subordinates' behavior whether he/ she is dissatisfy to the job.
It is important to lead employees to accomplish to the "Mission and Vision" in an organization or
company, and to achieve company's goal and success.
To sum up our definition, OB is concerned with the study of what people do in an organization
and how that behavior affects the performance of the organization.
There is increasing agreement as to the components or topics that constitute the subject area of
OB. Although there is still considerable debate as to the relative importance of each, there
appears to be general agreement that OB includes the core topics of motivation, leader behavior
and power, interpersonal communication, group structure and processes, learning & attitude.

What are effectiveness and efficiency, and how are they related to organizational behavior?

An organization is productive if it achieves its goals (effective) and does so by transferring inputs to
outputs at the lowest cost (efficiency). As such, productivity implies a concern for both effectiveness and
efficiency. Hospital example—effective when it successfully meets the needs of its clientele. It is efficient
when it can do so at a low cost. Business firm example — effective when it attains its sales or market
share goals, but its productivity also depends on achieving those goals efficiently. Achieving productivity
through effectiveness and efficiency involves all three levels of an organization, the individual, the
group, and the organizational system. OB provides the tools, insights, and ability to predict outcomes
needed to balance these two elements.

Millions of Workers Have Lost Their Jobs Due to Downsizing. at the Same Time, Many
Organizations Are Complaining That They Cannot Find Qualified People to Fill Vacancies. How Do
You Explain This Apparent Contradiction?

Millions of workers have lost their jobs due to downsizing. At the same time, many
organizations are complaining that they cannot find qualified people to fill vacancies. How do
you explain this apparent contradiction? A recent news came out dated June 6, 2013 by Reuters
that Philippines' jobless rate stood at 7.5% in April, the highest in three (3) years according to the
National Statistics Office (NSO). Philippines is said to be the Southeast Asian country with the
highest rate of unemployment even the fastest growing economy - a jobless growth indeed.
Downsizing strategy is common nowadays in business sectors and firms. This is to improve the
financial performance of the firms by reducing the cost they invested in human resources,
increase productivity to whom that is left and increase the speed of decision-making by reducing
the layers of management and becoming closer to the customers. A lot of workers were affected
due to downsizing. Moreover, not to affect the overall performance of the business, workers that
is left must be the best ones. These are the people that are capable in doing the job, not only to
fill the vacancies but have contributed well enough to the business, functioned well or even
exceeded the job expectations from them. Working experience and educational background helps
this people to be more competitive compared to others. This, I termed as the "qualified people".
They are the effective ones. Business sectors are keeping them. These people are their aces. They
are the organizations' apple of the eyes. That is why they are hard to find. Few are considered
"qualified people". Millions of people maybe looking for jobs but are not qualified. It is because
these people, considering the poverty growth in the population, they work practically for money.
Self-improvement may only be a secondary reason which includes behavior towards work,
leadership skills, quality work and the like. On the other hand,...

what is cognitive dissonance and how is it

related to attitudes
What's the connection between cognitive dissonance and attitude change?
In a previous article i said that cognitive dissonance is the situation where two beliefs or
cognitions contradict each other thus result in emotional turbulence and attitude change in some
cases.

If for example you like to smoke but you know that smoking is harmful then cognitive
dissonance happens as a result of these two conflicting beliefs.

Now the connection between cognitive dissonance and attitude change becomes clear when you
know how do people deal with cognitive dissonance.

In this article i will explain how attitude change can be the direct result of cognitive dissonance
as the person does his best to get rid of these unpleasant feelings that result from the conflict of
beliefs.

The connection cognitive dissonance and attitude change

Because cognitive dissonance results in a great deal of emotional turbulence lots of people start
changing their attitude as a result.

For example a person who smokes and who knows that smoking is harmful might change his
opinion about smoking by creating a new belief such as "i am already a healthy person so
smoking would never affect me in a bad way". Some people could even go further and claim that
smoking has some kind of health benefits.

So as you can see a person can change his attitude just to relief the conflict that results from
cognitive dissonance. If a person has negative attitude towards something he might change his
attitude about it and even claim that he enjoys it just to feel good.
An experiment was set up to explain how cognitive dissonance can result in attitude change by
giving some people little money and asking them to lie about something to test subjects. Those
people were asked to say that the experiment the test subject was going to go through was
interesting while in fact it was very boring.

Because those people had no big reason to lie (as they were given little money) conflicting
feelings occurred and cognitive dissonance happened and as a result they changed their attitude
by saying that the experiment wasn't really boring when asked after wards!!

So the people changed their attitude towards the experiment just to ease the conflicting feelings.
Even though it was really boring they actually believed that they enjoyed it!!

How can you use cognitive dissonance to change someone's attitude

cognitive dissonance is a powerful motivational tool you can use to change someone's attitude.

In order to motivate someone to change his attitude you just need to force the creation of
cognitive dissonance in his mind. Lets suppose that a person has a negative attitude towards
another common friend. In such a case you can tell him that this friend said behind his back that
he is a good person.

As soon as you do conflicting feelings will be created and your friend might change his attitude
by saying something like "he was not a bad guy after all, he did many good things to me earlier".
This is how you can use cognitive dissonance to change someone's attitude.

In the Solid Self confidence program i said that cognitive dissonance can result in an attitude
change that lowers self confidence. For example a person could refuse to admit that he lacks
confidence and create new beliefs to hide this fact instead of working on improving his self
confidence.

As a result of this attitude change the person remains trapped and fails to improve himself.

2knowmysef is not a complicated medical website nor a boring online encyclopedia but rather a
place where you will find simple, to the point and effective information that is backed by
psychology and presented in a simple way that you can understand and apply. If you think that
this is some kind of marketing hype then see what other visitors say about 2knowmyself.

The Solid confidence program was launched by 2knowmyself.com; the program will either help
you become more confident or give you your money back.

DESCRIBE THE FACTOR IN BIG 5 MODEL? WHICH FACTOR SHOW THE GREATEST
VALUE IN PREDICTING BEHAVIOUR?

What do the five traits mean? (*put up overhead)

Keep in mind that the traits fall on a continuum and this overhead shows characteristics
associated with each of the traits. Looking at these characteristics we can formulate what each of
the traits mean.

E Extraversion – means a person is, talkative, social and assertive

A Agreeableness – means a person is good natured, co-operative and trusting

C Conscientiousness – means a person is responsible, orderly and dependable

N Neuroticism – means a person is anxious, prone to depression and worries alot

O Openness – means a person is imaginative, independent minded and has divergent

thinking

Extraversion implies an energetic approach to

the social and material world and includes traits
such as sociability, activity, assertiveness, and
positive emotionality.
Agreeableness contrasts a prosocial and
communal orientation toward others with
antagonism and includes traits such as altruism,
tender-mindedness, trust, and modesty.
Conscientiousness describes socially prescribed
impulse control that facilitates task and goal-
directed behaviour, such as thinking before
acting, delaying gratification, following norms
and rules, and planning, organizing, and
prioritizing tas ks.
Neuroticism contrasts emotional stability and
even-temperedness with negative emotionality,
such as feeling anxious, nervous, sad, and tense.
Openness to experience (versus closed-
mindedness) describes the breadth, depth,
originality, and complexity of an individual’s
mental and experiential life.
 

The Big Five are broad dimensions or categories in a hierarchical sense, such that they
encompass a lot without detail. Inevitably you lose information, and while the Big Five factors
provide useful personality descriptors they are somewhat less useful at predicting specific
berhaviours. So a researcher chooses a hierarchical level of analysis suited to the research being
conducted. Some researchers such as Norman, Goldberg and Costa and McCrae, have developed
middle level categories that provide more description or are less abstract but I won’t go into that
here.

What do the Big Five predict about our behaviour?

(Handbook of Personality Psychology by Hogan, Johnson, and Briggs, 1997)

First, having a trait means reacting consistently to the same situation overtime, for example,
being agreeable or cooperative means consistently going along with reasonable requests, but
does not mean always complying with others’ wishes.

Second, to respond consistently in the same situation people must have a capacity to respond to
situational cues, that is to have the trait to be responsive to situations. For example, if someone
purchases a house in the woods, they might want that hou se because of its secluded location.

Third, behaving differently in a given situation does not mean there is inner inconsistency. For
example, someone who likes to attend parties might not often do so because of a stronger desire
to work.

Here are some examples of what the Big Five predict in regards to life outcomes and behaviour.
*While I am giving you these examples, notice how different combinations of traits can lead to
very different outcomes and behaviours, and think about why t his might be the case. Also, think
about whether you see any of these combinations in your own personality.

Generally speaking, low agreeablesness and low conscientiousness can predict juvenile
delinquency.

Neuroticism and low conscientiousness can predict internalizing disorders (such as mental
disorders).

Conscientiousness and openness can predict school performance.

Conscientiousness is also a general predictor of job performance, while other Big Five traits
predict job performance in specific types of jobs. For instance extraversion predicts success in
sales and management positions.

High conscientiousness is related to better health and longevity, whereas low agreeableness and
high neuroticism seem to be health risk factors.

Extraversion is associated with leadership behaviour.

Agreeableness is associated with behaviours such as helping others and donating to charity.
Neuroticism is related to vulnerability and depression.

Openness is related to behaviours associated with creative performance.

Overall, traits are relatively poor predictors of single behavioural acts, but are better predictors of
general trends of a person’s behaviour. Looking at past behaviour of an individual may be the
best predictor of future behaviour.

DO PEOPLE FROM THE SAME

COUNTRY HAVE SAME PERSONALITY
TYPES?
"Deep Down, People Are All Alike"
     Take the task of selecting among job applicants.
This statement is essentially false. Only in the
Managers regularly use information about a candi-
broadest sense can we say that "people are all
date's personality (in addition to experience, knowl-
alike." For instance, it's true that people all have val-
edge, skill level, and intellectual abilities) to help
ues, attitudes, likes and dislikes, feelings, goals, and
make their hiring decisions. Recognizing that jobs
similar general attributes. But individual differences
differ in terms of demands and requirements, man-
are far more illuminating.39 People differ in intelli-
agers interview and test applicants to (1) categorize
gence, personality, abilities, ambition, motivations,
them by specific traits, (2) assess job tasks in terms
emotional display, values, priorities, expectations,
of the type of personality best suited for effectively
and the like. If we want to accurately understand,
completing those tasks, and (3) match applicants and
explain, or predict human behavior, we need to
job tasks to find an appropriate fit. So by using an
focus on individual differences. Your ability to pre-
individual-difference variable-in this case, personal-
dict behavior will be severely limited if you con-
ity-managers improve the likelihood of identifying
stantly assume that all people are alike or that
and hiring high-performing employees.
everyone is like you.

Q.what is attribution theory what are its

implications for explaining organizational
behavior
The process by which persons interpret and pinpoint causes for their own personal and other's
behaviour is the theory of attribution. In this motivational theory, a person always finds a way to
explain things, he make inferences on why things or events occur. After explaining the events a
person then predicts future events through his inferences. He wants to understand the reasons or
causes behind behaviour of people and why events happen. It was first proposed by Fritz Heider
in 1958 and further developed by Harold Kelly and Bernard Weiner.
he attribution theory explains how individuals pinpoint the causes of their own behavior and that
of other people. There are two sources of "power" that human beings believe are responsible for
the outcome of their own actions. One source is internal; we normally relate success and
elements under our control as an internal attribution. The second source is external: we normally
relate failure and elements out of our control as an external attribution. Success in the workplace
can simultaneously alternate between internal and external. You might have been prepared and
researched for a project and believed your success was internal. On the other hand, you may
believe you were lucky to have done such a great job on a project, attributing your success to
external forces.

Does motivation come from within a person

or is it a result of the situation? Explain.
The answer is, unfortunately, "Yes."
Some people are internally motivated - they get their drive from within. If they see
something that needs to be done, they do it without external stimulus.

Some people are externally motivated - they won't do the "right thing" unless they are
"forced" to do it by others. This could be a kid not doing their homework and needing
mom to yell at them, or a person witnessing an emergency that won't rush to help until
they see the other people looking at them as if they EXPECT that person to respond.
Another version of this are those that do things for the accolades they receive
afterward... they want to be seen as the "hero" that saved the day, rather than the
person that did what they were supposed to do.

And, unfortunately, some folks are both, internally AND externally motivated. They'll get
stuff done, but they really want a big, "Thank you" afterward.

Q.describe the three needs isolated by mcclelland. how are they related to worker
behavior?

McClelland's Theory of Needs

In his acquired-needs theory, which draws on Murray's model, David

McClelland proposed that an individual's specific needs are acquired over
time and are shaped by one's life experiences. Most of these needs can be
classed as either achievement, affiliation, or power. A person's motivation
and effectiveness in certain job functions are influenced by these three
needs. McClelland's theory sometimes is referred to as the three need
theory or as the learned needs theory.

Achievement
People with a high need for achievement (N-Ach) seek to excel and thus
tend to avoid both low-risk and high-risk situations. Achievers avoid low-risk
situations because the easily attained success is not a genuine
achievement. In high-risk projects, achievers see the outcome as one of
chance rather than one's own effort. High nAch individuals prefer work that
has a moderate probability of success, ideally a 50% chance. Achievers
need regular feedback in order to monitor the progress of their
achievements. They prefer either to work alone or with other high
achievers.

Affiliation

Those with a high need for affiliation (N-Affil) need harmonious

relationships with other people and need to feel accepted by other people.
They tend to conform to the norms of their work group. High nAff
individuals prefer work that provides significant personal interaction. They
perform well in customer service and client interaction situations.

Power

A person's need for power (N-Pow) can be one of two types - personal and
institutional. Those who need personal power want to direct others, and this
need often is perceived as undesirable. Persons who need institutional
power (also known as social power) want to organize the efforts of others
to further the goals of the organization. Managers with a high need for
institutional power tend to be more effective than those with a high need for
personal power.

Thematic Apperception Test

McClelland used the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) to measure the

individual needs of different people. The TAT is a projective test that
presents the subject with a series of ambiguous pictures, and the subject is
asked to develop a spontaneous story for each picture. The assumption is
that the subject will project his or her own needs into the story and these
will reflect certain underlying themes.

Psychologists have developed fairly reliable scoring techniques for the

Thematic Apperception Test. The test determines the individual's score for
each of the needs of achievement, affiliation, and power. This score can be
used to suggest the types of jobs for which the person might be well suited,
but the TAT is not generally used as a selection or development tool in
modern organisations. There are other psychometric questionnaires that
offer better reliability and validity.

Implications for Management

People with different needs are motivated differently.

* High need for achievement - High achievers should be given challenging

projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback.
While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of
feedback.

* High need for affiliation - Employees with a high affiliation need perform
best in a cooperative environment.

* High need for power - Management should provide power seekers the
opportunity to manage others.

Note that McClelland's theory allows for the shaping of a person's needs;
training programs can be used to modify one's need profile.

This is what wikipedia say.

It's very synthetic...
If i remember well, in the first part , where it's said that needs are shaped
on one's life, is very much developed by Clelland, since we need money to
live, to achieve money we must work, and so our job is where we spend
most of our lives.
That's why he focouses on work beahviour, in order both to improove
productivity, and to make worker's life better.
He also studied work groups... he analyzed the behaviour of the groups,
the hierarchy, the rules...
As you can see from the final " implications for management" he thought
the functionality of an enterprise, a factory, depended on the management.
that's why his studies were to be known by the management (according to
him), because only satisfying workers's needs would increase the output
and the quality of the output.
compare and contrast command task interest and friendship groups

A group is defined as two or more individuals, interacting and Interdependent, who have come
together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal. By formal
groups, we mean those defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work
assignments establishing task. If formal groups, the behaviors that one should engage in are
stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. The six members making up an airline
flight crew are an example of a normal group. In contrast, informal groups are alliances that are
neither formally structured nor organizationally determined. These groups are natural formations
in the work environment that appear in response to the need for social contact three employees
from different departments who regularly eat together are an example of an informal group.

It’s possible to further sub-classify groups as command, task, interest, or friendship groups.
Command and task groups are dictated by the formal organization whereas interest and
friendship groups are formal alliances.

A command group is determined by the organization chart. It is composed of the individuals who
report directly to manager. An elementary school principal and her 18 teachers form a command
group, as do the director of postal audits and his five inspectors.

Task groups, also organizationally determined represents those working together to complete a
job task. However, a task group’s boundaries are limited to its immediate hierarchical superior. It
can cross command relationships. For instance, if a college student is accused of a campus crime,
it may require communication and coordination among the dean of academic affairs, the dean of
students, the registrar, the director of security, and the student’s advisor. Such a formation would
constitute a task group. It should be noted that all command groups are also task groups, but
because task groups can cut across the organization, the reverse need not be true. People who
may or may not be aligned into common command or task groups may affiliate to attain a
specific objective with which each is concerned. This is an interest group. Employees who bond
together to have their vacation schedules altered to support a peer who has been fired or to seek
improved working conditions represent a united body to further their common interest.

Groups often develop because the individual members have one or more common characteristics.
We call these formations friendship groups. Social alliances, which frequently extend outside the
work situation can be based on similar age or ethnic heritage, support for Notre dame, Football,
interest in the same alternative rock and, or the holding of similar political views, to name just a
few such characteristics.

Informal groups a very important service by satisfying member needs. Because of interactions
that result from the close proximity of workstations or task interactions we find workers often do
things together –like play golf, commute to work, take lunch, and chat during coffee breaks. We
must recognize that these types of interactions among individuals even though informal deeply
affect their behavior and performance.
Here is no single reason why individuals join groups. Because most people belong to a number
of groups, it’s obvious that different groups provide different benefits to their member.

Working in groups requires a certain amount of trust. Are you a trusting a person? The Self
Assessment Feature will tell you.

more at http://www.citeman.com/3141-defining-and-classifying-groups.html#ixzz3aaAKjqLS

describe the five stage group development model?

About the Model

Psychologist Bruce Tuckman first came up with the memorable phrase "forming, storming,
norming, and performing" in his 1965 article, "Developmental Sequence in Small Groups." He
used it to describe the path that most teams follow on their way to high performance. Later, he
added a fifth stage, "adjourning" (which is sometimes known as "mourning").

Let's look at each stage in more detail.

Forming

In this stage, most team members are positive and polite. Some are anxious, as they haven't fully
understood what work the team will do. Others are simply excited about the task ahead.

As leader, you play a dominant role at this stage, because team members' roles and
responsibilities aren't clear.

This stage can last for some time, as people start to work together, and as they make an effort to
get to know their new colleagues.

Storming

Next, the team moves into the storming phase, where people start to push against the boundaries
established in the forming stage. This is the stage where many teams fail.

Storming often starts where there is a conflict between team members' natural working styles.
People may work in different ways for all sorts of reasons, but if differing working styles cause
unforeseen problems, they may become frustrated.

Storming can also happen in other situations. For example, team members may challenge your
authority, or jockey for position as their roles are clarified. Or, if you haven't defined clearly how
the team will work, people may feel overwhelmed by their workload, or they could be
uncomfortable with the approach you're using.

Some may question the worth of the team's goal, and they may resist taking on tasks.
Team members who stick with the task at hand may experience stress, particularly as they don't
have the support of established processes, or strong relationships with their colleagues.

Norming

Gradually, the team moves into the norming stage. This is when people start to resolve their
differences, appreciate colleagues' strengths, and respect your authority as a leader.

Now that your team members know one-another better, they may socialize together, and they are
able to ask each other for help and provide constructive feedback. People develop a stronger
commitment to the team goal, and you start to see good progress towards it.

There is often a prolonged overlap between storming and norming, because, as new tasks come
up, the team may lapse back into behavior from the storming stage.

Performing

The team reaches the performing stage when hard work leads, without friction, to the
achievement of the team's goal. The structures and processes that you have set up support this
well.

As leader, you can delegate much of your work, and you can concentrate on developing team
members.

It feels easy to be part of the team at this stage, and people who join or leave won't disrupt
performance.

Adjourning

Many teams will reach this stage eventually. For example, project teams exist for only a fixed
period, and even permanent teams may be disbanded through organizational restructuring.

Team members who like routine, or who have developed close working relationships with other
team members, may find this stage difficult, particularly if their future now looks uncertain.

c. when do groups make better decisions than individuals

Davis's model. Davis attempted to develop a model that could, in effect, represent the impact, or weight, of each
group member's prediscussion opinion. He wanted to show how these individual opinions would affect the group's
postdiscussion decision. As did Lorge and Solomon with Model A, Davis assumed that communication functions
only to reveal each member's opinion. Once the members communicate their opinions, the arithmetic formula could
predict the group's outcome. His model would show how the opinions of members combine to result in the group's
decision. Davis did not doubt that opinions can change during group conversation. He claimed, however, that
accounting for this change in mathematic equations was unnecessary. The model merely needed to weigh the impact
of the successful persuader's opinion more highly than the other group members' opinions.

Figure 2.6 diagrams the decision-making process in quality tasks from the standpoint of social decision scheme
theory.
FIGURE 2.6

The following example shows how Davis's idea would work. Two people must decide together how much they like
a television program, using a scale of 1 to 9 to show their opinion. Kim's prediscussion opinion was a 4. Ramon's
prediscussion opinion rated the show a 6. The two met and talked about the program. Their postdiscussion opinion
was 5.5.

What process led to this outcome? One way to explain it is to assume that Ramon persuaded Kim to change her
opinion, so that Kim's final opinion was more similar to Ramon's. The social decision scheme, however, would
weigh Ramon's opinion as three-fourths responsible for the group decision. Davis used this idea as he created his
mathematical model. In essence, in the social scheme that Ramon and Kim spontaneously created, the rule was that
Ramon's opinion had more impact on the group decision than Kim's opinion. The resulting scheme would be:

3/4 (Ramon) + 1/4 (Kim) = decision

In this circumstance, the numbers would be:

3/4 (6) + 1/4 (4) = 5.5

The Uses of Mathematical Models
In general, mathematical models describe and predict decision making well. They do not, however, explain how
groups make decisions in quality tasks. They are also not particularly concerned with what occurred during the
discussion. What caused Ramon's opinion, for example, to have greater weight than Kim's? The equation does not
show this. Further, we can represent any decision process by some arithmetical model, but we have no way to
evaluate the mathematical approach as a whole.

We can evaluate, however, whether specific equations are better for certain purposes than others by
examining the mathematical predictions of several schemes and comparing them with the results of actual
group decision making.

Q.High Cohesiveness In A Group Leads To Higher Group Productivity." Do You Agree

Or Disagree?

If a highly cohesive group shares the organization's goals, then that highly cohesive
group will be more likely to lead to high productivity. If the group adopts norms that are
in opposition to the firm's norms, then the group will likely be less productive than it
could be.

Yes I do agree with the phrase. Productivity is known as a ratio of output to the
resources used to produce this output and affect of high cohesiveness on better group
productivity can be measured very easily on the following parameters.
1-efficiency within utilizing resources
2-quality
3- volume of work produced

Q.What effect, if any, do you expect that workforce diversity has on a group’s
performance and satisfaction?

A workforce that's more heterogeneous in terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age and
other characteristics that reflect differences. One of the major challenges facing
managers in the twenty-first century will be coordinating work activities of diverse
organizational members in accomplishing organizational goals. Today's organizations
are characterized by workforce diversity- a workforce that's more heterogamous in
terms of gender, race, ethnicity, age and other characteristics that reflect differences. A
report on work and workers in the twenty-first century called workforce 2020 stated that
the United States labour force would continue its ethnic diversification although at a
fairly slow pace. Throughout the early years of the twenty-first century minority will
account certainly more than one half of the net new entrants in the United States.

The fastest growth is of Asian and Hispanic workers. However this report also stated
that a more significant demographic force affecting workforce diversity during the next
decade will be ageing of the population. This trend will significantly affect the United
States work force in three ways first these ageing individual may choose to continue full
time work, part time work or retire completely. Think of an organization, when an
individual who is employee of that organization with vast knowledge and experience
want to leave, it will cause problem for the organizations.
Basically workforce diversity can impact the performance of a group both positively as
well as negatively. Firstly, workforce diversity increases the skills available to a specific
group and the group shows more productive results as compare to the group which has
individuals from the same set of mind. Workforce diversity also increases the capability
of the individuals to work with people of different nature and habits. Moreover, it creates
a motivation among the individuals. On the other hand, it can creates a lot of problems
like linguistic problems, cultural issues and communication problems.

Workforce diversity is fast becoming something more acceptable , desired as well as

inevitable.

Top companies all over the world can be found to have a fine "unity in diversity" in their
workforce.

It undoubtedly gets tough to manage a culturally different workforce.It however, can be

done easily when the group is driven by a common objective and the universal
management principles.

1. Small Business >

2. Business Models & Organizational Structure >
3. Organizations

Advantages & Disadvantages of Conflict in

Organizations
Conflict

Conflicts are disagreements that cause a negative reaction. Not all disagreements are conflicts.
For example, if one employee wants the office temperature at 68 degrees and another wants it at
74, the two might compromise and set it at 72. If one refuses to budge and the other concedes,
one worker might find it too uncomfortable, become ill from a cold office or ask to work from
home. Disagreements that don’t affect your operations can still be problematic if they cause ill
will among employees. This is especially troublesome for small companies where workers must
see each other and work together on a daily basis. Conflicts can also involve nonpersonnel
issues, such as two departments needing access to one computer, vehicle or machine at the same
time.

Disadvantages

The most obvious disadvantage of conflict is the toll on personnel emotions. Employees with
high morale are likely to work harder, stay with the company and be more productive. When
employees feel they are being bullied, taken advantage of or facing favoritism, they may begin
looking for another job or performing poorly. Conflicts between departments can disrupt your
production, sales, receivables and ability to pay loans, and result in lost business or customers.
For example, if your sales department wants to offer 60-day terms to customers to maximize
sales, but your accounting department needs receivables within 30 days to pay for materials or
wages, this creates a conflict that results in an either/or situation that can damage your business.

Related Reading: Positive & Negative Consequences of Conflict in Organizations

Advantages

Conflicts often arise as the result of a weakness within your organization. The weakness could be
a character flaw of an employee, poorly communicated directions, a lack of resources or
erroneous assumptions about the best way to handle a process or procedure. Rather than simply
looking to end conflicts as they arrive, small business owners should determine why a conflict
arises and search for ways to resolve it. For example, if your company can’t offer customers 60-
day terms on payments but wants the sales those terms would provide, consider offering a lower
sales price, prepayment of part of the invoice or reduced interest rates to keep those sales.

Q. explain the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict

FUNCTIONAL :
Conflict that support the goals of the group and improve its performance.
Well-managed conflict helps workers anticipate and solve problems, feel confident,
strengthen their relationships, and be committed to the group.
Conflict promotes change. Persons are more aware of injustices, inefficiencies, and
frustrations, and see the need to correct them.

Dysfunctional :
Conflicts hinder and prevent group goals from being achieved and also hinder group
performance.
What differentiate functional or dysfunctional ?
Task conflict: relates to the content and goals of the work.
Relationship conflict: focuses on interpersonal conflict. (dysfunctional)
Process conflict : relates to how the works get done.
Low to moderate level of Process and Task conflict is functional as it stimulates
discussion of ideas that help to perform better.

Under what conditions might conflict be

beneficial to a group?
I'm not sure what kind of group you're
asking about but I would say that conflict
helps to breed competition. I can't think of a
situation where conflict has a direct positive
result. However if it creates competition to
where parts of the group try to out do the
other I see that as a benefit. If two sides are
competing then each side will try to come up
with a better idea, solution, product, etc. For
example if you have two players on a sports
team going for the same spot, each player has
to get better to get that spot and keep it. But,
I can see that same conflict turning into
resentment instead of competition.

So to answer your question, the 'conditions'

have to be that the conflict is more like a
friendly rivalry. All sides that are divided by
the conflict have to be aiming to achieve a
common goal while focusing on their own
constructive efforts.
what defines the settlement range in distributive bargaining?

Distributive bargaining refers to situations

where the parties view their interests as
irreconcilable and see little opportunity for a
settlement that will yield joint gain.
Distributive bargaining is often contrasted
with integrative bargaining , but elements of
both may be present in any negotiation.
Distributive bargaining emphasizes
bargaining positions, is adversarial, and
creates winners and losers. Central to
distributive bargaining is the notion of a
contract zone. The size of the contract zone is
defined by the parties' resistance points. A
resistance point is the least desirable position
a party is willing to accept to achieve an
agreement. Where the parties' resistance
points overlap, settlement is possible since
each party can make an offer that exceeds the
other's minimum acceptable position. The
greater the overlap in the parties' resistance
points, the greater the range of potential
settlements. Agreement is achieved through a
series of offers and counter‐offers that lead to
convergence in the parties' positions. The
winner is the party that achieves a settlement
that is closer to the opponent's resistance
point than its own. Negotiators attempt to
discover their opponent's resistance point
while concealing their own. Each negotiator
applies a combination of persuasive and
coercive tactics to induce movement in the
opponent's position.
Q.WHY ISN'T INTEGRATIVE
BARGAINING MORE WIDELY
PRACTICED IN ORGANIZATION?
What is Integrative or Interest-Based Bargaining?

Integrative bargaining (also called "interest-based bargaining," "win-win bargaining") is a

negotiation strategy in which parties collaborate to find a "win-win" solution to their dispute.
This strategy focuses on developing mutually beneficial agreements based on the interests of the
disputants. Interests include the needs, desires, concerns, and fears important to each side. They
are the underlying reasons why people become involved in a conflict.

"Integrative refers to the potential for the parties' interests to be [combined] in ways that create
joint value or enlarge the pie."[1] Potential for integration only exists when there are multiple
issues involved in the negotiation. This is because the parties must be able to make trade-offs
across issues in order for both sides to be satisfied with the outcome.

Why is Integrative Bargaining Important?

Integrative bargaining is important because it usually produces more satisfactory outcomes for
the parties involved than does positional bargaining. Positional bargaining is based on fixed,
opposing viewpoints (positions) and tends to result in compromise or no agreement at all.
Oftentimes, compromises do not efficiently satisfy the true interests of the disputants. Instead,
compromises simply split the difference between the two positions, giving each side half of what
they want. Creative, integrative solutions, on the other hand, can potentially give everyone all of
what they want.
There are often many interests behind any one position. If parties
focus on identifying those interests, they will increase their
ability to develop win-win solutions. The classic example of
interest-based bargaining and creating joint value is that of a
dispute between two little girls over an orange. Both girls take William Ury tells how he
the position that they want the whole orange. Their mother managed to build trust with the
serves as the moderator of the dispute and based on their leaders in Venezuela and
positions, cuts the orange in half and gives each girl one half. through shuttle diplomacy and
This outcome represents a compromise. However, if the mother focusing on their interests got
had asked each of the girls why she wanted the orange -- what them working together to
her interests were -- there could have been a different, win-win prevent violence.
outcome. This is because one girl wanted to eat the meat of the
orange, but the other just wanted the peel to use in baking some
cookies. If their mother had known their interests, they could have both gotten all of what they
wanted, rather than just half.

Integrative solutions are generally more gratifying for all involved in negotiation, as the true
needs and concerns of both sides will be met to some degree. It is a collaborative process and
therefore the parties actually end up helping each other. This prevents ongoing ill will after the
negotiation concludes. Instead, interest-based bargaining facilitates constructive, positive
relationships between previous adversaries.

Q.do you think competition and conflict are different explain

Competition:

1. Competition is continuous. It can never end. So it is called a never ending social process.

2. Competition is an impersonal process. The competing individuals do not have personal contact
what-so-ever.

3. Competition is an unconscious Process because the individuals or the groups are not aware of
it. Their attention is mainly fixed on the object of competition. i.e. a reward or a prize.

4. Competition is a peaceful and non-violent process. There is absence of coercion or violence.

5. In competition all the competitors derive benefit from it.

6. Competition, when becomes rigorous, results in conflict.

7. Competition and co-operation can go together simultaneously Competition does not stand in
the way of co-operation and vice-versa.

8. Competition encourages hard work.

9. Competition observes social laws.

10. Competition is productive.

Conflict:

1. Conflict lacks continuity. It is an intermittent social process.lt takes place suddenly and comes
to an end quickly. It is an ever-ending social process.

2. Conflict is a personal process. The conflicting parties know each other personally and try to
defeat the opponent.

3. Conflict is a conscious process. Because the parties involves in conflict are aware of it and
make deliberate efforts to reach the goal which takes place on a conscious level.

4. Conflict is generally a violent process as people engaged in conflict use violent methods.

5. In conflict people suffer heavy losses.

6. Competition when becomes personalized, leads to conflict.

7. It is conflict, which puts brakes on co-operation for a short period.

8. Conflict discourages efforts.

9. Conflict disregards social laws.

10. Conflict is non-productive.

Participation Is An Excellent Method For

Identifying Differences And Resolving
Conflicts, Do You Agree Or Disagree?
Discuss!
Participation is a method clearly favored and spoken of by businesses and governing bodies as the
optimum tactic to be used in bringing about resolution and dealing with issues of conflict in the
workplace for example. Relationships are strengthened when two groups can discuss and work through
a problem in order to come to an agreement about an issue which is even better than a compromise.

Participation forces the two parties to work through the issues that separate their own ideas and often
results in the best of both becoming part of the finished product, if in a business scenario. It is this very
tension within a team that is essential for creative thinking and provokes individuals to see alternative
solutions.
  It isn't a guaranteed solution, however

Like noted above however, participation is only the best strategy and is not always necessarily the
strategy that brings about resolve in a situation. The ideal of collaborating to produce the best result and
also improve moral within the team can sometimes take up time and resources that are just not a
luxury.

Compromise, rather than collaboration, is sometimes the only way to resolve and issue in order to meet
a deadline. In that sense the strategy of participation can be too time consuming and even then the two
parties may result in having to compromise; a strategy always used as a backup because it still produces
some kind of result.

 Understanding on how to navigate a conflict is necessary

Implementing the strategy of 'Participation' does not stand alone as a skill in conflict
management however. It must come from a basis of understanding of how to handle
conflict's creative stimulation, the ability to put aside personal agendas and insecurities,
to handle others emotions, to listen and to identify when and if a resolution via this
strategy is attainable. Only then is it an excellent method in dealing with differences and
conflicts.

Q.How Are Opportunities, Constraints, And

Demands Related To Stress? Give An
Opportunities, constraints and demands are all directly related to stress. The emotion of stress is
our body's way of dealing with the pressures of our daily lives. In psychology, when we feel
stress we have two ways of dealing with it: Fight or flight. We will either tackle the problems
causing our stress head on and solve them, or we will flee from and ignore them.

 Opportunities occur daily, and can be anything from the opportunity to go large on a meal
at a fast food joint, or the opportunity to get ahead at work. They usually come with
consequences, have a limited time frame and stir up negative feelings when they are
missed.
 Constraints are limitations in life. These are often related to time and money - do we have
all the time we need to complete essential tasks and still enjoy leisure? Can we afford to
engage in our favored leisure activities?
 Demands are the things required of us in day-to-day life. We must pick the kids up from
school, we must get everything done at work, we must do the washing and ironing, etc.
 They cause stress because they are often limited by time and money, and carry
consequences when they aren't met.

Q.what can organization do to reduce employee stress?

The best way to avoid stress through opportunities, constraints and demands is to take a step
back and see what you are realistically capable of. Do not take on more than you can handle, or
you may find yourself worrying too much about the consequences of failure to succeed in
anything.

There is no doubt that stress can cause adverse affects to workplace productivity: poor work
performance, increased absenteeism, and diverted administrative and time management. Instead
of taking a passive approach, we need be pro-active and take responsibility for our actions and
limit the amount of anxiety a person can acquire in a given situation. If no action is taken, it will
likely cause inefficiencies, health problems, and ultimate burnout of the employee in the
workplace. Every employee has a different breaking point. Ken Seis, Senior Partner of
Consulting Resource Group International states, "These things (stress) accumulate over time and
erode productivity."

Since the causes of workplace stress can vary greatly, so too do the strategies to reduce it. Here
are some strategies on how to minimize job stress so that you can be more efficient and
productive in the workplace:

1. Provide a Fun Working Environment - Sense of humor and laughter is the key.
2. Give Employees Variety - Assign jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and
opportunities for workers to use their skills and talents.
3. Don't Procrastinate - Procrastination only breeds stress! It increases the amount of work
you need to do to at a given situation. Do the most important tasks first and eliminate the
things that take less priority.
4. Encourage - Encourage employees that they are doing a good job, encourage them to get
enough sleep, and encourage them eat a balanced diet and exercise regularly. Studies
have shown that companies who encourage employees to take a "body break" will work
more effectively than those who do little or no exercise.
5. Don't Demand Too Much - The workload has to be in line with workers' capabilities.
Pace tasks so that they are reasonably demanding but not based on pure endurance. The
human body can only take on so much in a day!
6. Promote Participation - Give employees opportunities to participate in decisions and
actions affecting their jobs. Delegate responsibility if you have to and allow others to call
their own shots. When they feel they are part of the decision, they are more likely to take
responsibility, rather than grumble against their boss and their company.
7. Define Employee Responsibility - More often than not we wear "too many hats". Our
work roles need to be clear, understandable, and shouldn't be conflicting or uncertain. We
need to encourage employees to take responsibility for their own job and for their
 contribution to the success of the company so that they won't be bogged down with too
many responsibilities.
8. Manage Your Time Effectively - A good time management tool will help you stay
organized, plan and prepare, schedule in advance, and keeping good records helps get
things accomplished on time, and thus reduces stress.

Reducing stress will allow for a better work environment and will promote mutual effort
amongst your team, resulting in higher quality of work. As things get more efficient in your
company you will soon notice an improved bottom line. Stress is inevitable, but there are ways in
which we can lessen the load and make the workplace more manageable. Having a supportive
management team, organizing your time effectively, and having fun around the workplace are
effective ways to minimize stress. If you follow some or all of these examples above, you're on
your way to being more efficient and productive!