Picture Source: https://www.uwinnipeg.

ca/philosophy/

PROGRAM AND YEAR LEVEL SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL GRADE 11 & 12

COURSE TITLE INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN
PERSON
COURSE CODE PHILO 001
PERFORMANCE STANDARD 1 The learner reflects on a concrete experience in a
philosophical way.

OLIVAREZ COLLEGE TAGAYTAY

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 1 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Date Developed: Document No.
2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 2 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
INTRODUCTION

This unit deals with the skills and knowledge required for the course INTRODUCTION
TO PHILOSOPHY OF HUMAN PERSON.

This module consists of eight (8) Performance Standards. Each standard contains learning
activities for knowledge and skills, supported with information sheets, quizzes, activities,
and performance checklists/ rubrics gathered from different sources. Before performing
the manual exercises, read the information/activity sheets and answer the self-activities
provided to confirm to yourself and your instructor that you are equipped with the
knowledge necessary to perform the skills portion of the particular learning outcomes.

PERFORMANCE STANDARDS

At the end of this module, you will be able to:

1. The learner reflects on a concrete experience in a philosophical way

2. The learner evaluates opinions.
3. The learner distinguishes their limitations and the possibilities for their
transcendence.
4. The learner can demonstrate the virtues of prudence and frugality towards
their environment.
5. The learner shows situations that demonstrate freedom of choice and the
consequences of choices.
6. The learner performs activities that demonstrate an appreciation for the talents
of persons with disabilities and those from the underprivileged sectors of
society.
7. The learner evaluates the formation of human relationships and how their
social contexts shape individuals.
8. The learner writes a philosophical reflection on the meaning of their own life.

Date Developed: Document No.

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PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 3 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
PERFORMANCE STANDARD NO. 1 The learner reflects on a concrete
experience in a philosophical way.
PERFORMANCE STANDARD NO. 2 The learner evaluates opinion.

CONTENTS:
● Doing Philosophy
● Methods of Philosophizing

ASSESSMENT CRITERIA:
At the end of this week, the learner will be able to:
1. Distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view.
2. Recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection.
3. Realize the value of doing philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective on life
4. Create a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective
5. Distinguish opinion from truth.
6. Analyze situations that show the difference between truth and opinion.
7. Realize that the methods of Philosophy lead to wisdom and truth.
8. Evaluate opinions.

CONDITIONS:
The students must be provided with the following:
1.1 CBLM
1.2 Pen and paper

METHODOLOGY: PLATFORM:
Self-paced instruction CBLM

ASSESSMENT METHOD PLATFORM

● Short Quiz Pen and paper
● Essay writing Pen and paper

Date Developed: Document No.

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PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 4 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 LEARNING EXPERIENCES
PERFORMANCE STANDARD 1:
The learner reflects on a concrete experience in a philosophical way.

PERFORMANCE STANDARD 2:
The learner evaluates opinion

Learning Activities Special Instructions Time Allotment

Date of Submission
1. Read Information Please read and comprehend Information Sheet
sheet 1.1-1 1.1-1. “Philosophy & its Branches.”
“Philosophy & its August 16-20, 2021
Branches.”

2. Quiz 1.1-2 Multiple Choice. Answer the following questions

by choosing the correct answer in each number.
Submit it on August 20, 2021, before 5:00 in the August 16-20, 2021
afternoon.
3. Read Information Please read and comprehend Information Sheet
Sheet 1.2-1 “Doing 1.2-1. “Doing Philosophy”
August 23-27, 2021
Philosophy”
4. Philosophical Based on the topic “Doing Philosophy,” write
Reflection 1.2-2 your philosophical reflection about why? Or why
not philosophy is essential in the age of
globalization. Submit it on or before August 27, August 23-27, 2021
2021, before 5:00 in the afternoon. 

5. Information Sheet Read and comprehend Information Sheet 2.3-1

August 30- September
2.3-1” Methods of entitled ”Methods of Philosophizing.”
3, 2021
Philosophizing”
6. Written Work 2.3-2 Read and answer from Written Work 2.3-2 the
August 30- September
following statement about Truth or Opinion.
3, 2021
Submit it on September 03, 2021, before 5:00 pm
7. Learning Feedback Answer the learning feedback diary 2.3-3 and August 30- September
Diary 2.3-3 submit it on September 03, 2021, before 5:00 pm 3, 2021

Date Developed: Document No.

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PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 5 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 INFORMATION SHEET # 1.1-1
TOPIC: Philosophy and its Branches

Picture Source: https://leverageedu.com/blog/branches-of-philosophy/

Summary of Learning Content:

At the end of this module, the learner will be able to:

1. Distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view.

2. Recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection.

Date Developed: Document No.

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INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 6 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
MOTIVATION
4 PICS 1 WORD
Directions: Identify the word based on the following pictures.

P H E L S S H
P A I R O Y O
Processing Questions:
1. What are your thoughts about the following pictures?

2. What comes into your mind when you hear the word philosophy?

Date Developed: Document No.

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TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 7 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
What is Philosophy?
⮚ Etymologically, the word “philosophy” comes from two Greek words, philo
meaning “to love” and sophia, meaning “wisdom.” Philosophy originally meant
“love of wisdom,” and in a broad sense, wisdom is still the goal of philosophy.
⮚ Philosophy is also defined as the science that studies the first causes or highest
principles of all things by the natural light of reason.
⮚ Under this definition, four things are to be considered:
a. Science. It is called science because
the investigation is systematic. It
follows certain steps or employs
certain procedures. In other words, it is
an organized body of knowledge just
like any other science.
Picture Source:
https://www.shutterstock.com/category/science

b. Natural light of Reason. Philosophy

investigates things, not by using any
other laboratory instrument or
investigative tools, neither on the basis
of supernatural revelation, otherwise, it
becomes theology; instead, the
philosophers use his natural capacity to
Picture Source:
https://jack35.fr/2016/02/23/pourquoi-le-ciel-est-il-bleu-vid think or simply, human reason alone or
eo/ the so-called unaided reason.

c. Study of All Things. This sets the

distinction between philosophies from
other sciences. All other sciences
concern themselves with a particular
object of investigation. For example,
anthropologists study human beings in
relation to society; sociologists study
Picture Source:
https://spartzrep.com/portfolio_page/wisdom-and-insight/ society, its form, structures, and
language; theologians investigate God;
whereas, a philosopher studies human
beings, society, religion, language,
God, and plants, among other
concerns.

Date Developed: Document No.

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TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 8 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 The reason is that philosophy is not dimensional or partial. In short, a
philosopher does not limit himself to a particular object of inquiry. He questions
almost anything, if not everything. It is multidimensional or holistic.

d. First Cause or Highest Principle. A principle is that from which something

proceeds in any manner whatsoever. The First Principles:
● Principle of Identity- whatever is; and whatever is not is not; everything
is what it is. Everything is its own being, and not being is not being.
● Principle of Non-Contradiction- it is impossible for a thing to be and
not to be at the same time and at the same respect.
● Principle of Excluded Middle- a thing is either is or not; not everything
must be either be or not be; between being and not-being, there is no
middle ground possible.
● Principle of Sufficient Reason-nothing exists without a sufficient
reason for its being and existence.
Since its beginnings, however, the scope of philosophy has changed. Early Greek
philosophers studied aspects of the natural and human world that later became separate
sciences-astronomy, physics, psychology, and sociology. On the other hand, certain basic
problems-the nature of the universe, the standard of justice, the validity of knowledge, the
correct application of reason, and the criteria of beauty have been the domain of
philosophy from its beginnings to the present.

These problems are the subject matter of the five branches of philosophy-
metaphysics, ethics, epistemology, logic, and aesthetics. These branches will be discussed
in the next section. There are also special branches of philosophy like the philosophy of
science, philosophy of the state, philosophy of politics, philosophy of mathematics,
philosophy of education, philosophy of law, philosophy of language, and others.

Finally, in attaining wisdom, there is a need for emptying. Emptying can be

intellectual. For instance, the Taoist considers an empty cup more useful than a full one.
This means simplicity and humility. Emptying can also be spiritual. For Christian
philosophy, poverty in spirit means compassion. Emptying is also physical. The Buddhist
refrain from misuse of the senses, thereby emphasizing a unified whole (Elgin 2009).
Without the virtue of emptying, students will learn partial philosophy that is
knowledge-based, without becoming holistic (i.e., acquiring wisdom through various
dimensions of being human including the psychological, social, emotional, and moral
aspects).

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
GREEK PHILOSOPHERS – believes that what constitutes the world is also what
constitutes human.
1. THALES
⮚ A Greek Philosopher, everything is water. He claims that
everything we experience is water- which we call “reality.”
Everything else is “appearance.”
⮚ We then try to explain everything else (appearance) in
terms of water (reality).
For example, Clouds or the blocks of ice do not look like
water, but they can be explained in terms of water. When
water evaporates, it becomes a cloud, and when water
freezes, it becomes ice.

2. ANAXIMENES
⮚ He equated the first material principle with the divine so
that effectively "air is God,” both being infinite and eternal.
⮚ He gives an account of how our world came to be out of
previously existing matter. According to him, the earth was
formed from the air by a felting process. It began as a flat disk.
From evaporations from the world, fiery bodies arose, which
came to be heavenly bodies.

3. PYTHAGORAS
Pythagoras was a Greek philosopher who made significant
developments in mathematics, astronomy, and music theory.
The theorem now known as Pythagoras's theorem was known to
the Babylonians 1000 years earlier, but he may have been the
first to prove it.

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 4. PROTAGORAS
He is known primarily for three claims
● that man is the measure of all things
● that he could make the “worse (or weaker) argument appear
the better (or stronger).”
● that one could not tell if the gods existed or not.

5. SOCRATES
⮚ Human THINKS and WILLS. The human soul is more
important than the body.
⮚ Born to a midwife and sculptor
⮚ Studied under Pericles
⮚ Influenced by Heraclitus and Parmenides
⮚ Famous for creating the Socratic Method of Teaching or
The Socratic Method is a teaching method where a person
digs deeper into a particular idea utilizing creating and
using follow-up questions, which will eventually lead to the truth.
The Socratic Method is done by a minimum of two (2) participants
● the one who inquires (student)
● one who intrigues (teacher)
⮚ He never wrote his philosophies

6. PLATO
● DUALISTIC nature: body–material, ergo, mutable and
destructible; Soul – immaterial, ergo immutable and
indestructible.
● Three components of the soul
A. Rational soul – mind, and intellect
B. Spirited soul – will or volition
C. Appetitive soul – emotion or desire
It means that the development of the character and intelligence
like the body is open to human choice.
- Born as Aristocles from a wealthy family

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 - Plato was a nickname given to him by friends
- Won two (2) prizes as a champion wrestler
- Studied under Socrates
- Plato's writings reflect the teaching methods of Socrates
- Possibly dualistic because of his perception of life o
- He believed that life is nothing more than the imprisonment of the soul in a
physical body

7. ARISTOTLE
⮚ No dichotomy between body and soul.
⮚ Body and soul are in a state of unity
⮚ Plato's best student
⮚ Became the well-paid tutor for Alexander the Great
⮚ Started his philosophical school at age 50
⮚ Known as a peripatetic philosopher
▪ A peripatetic [Gk. peripateo = "to walk around"]
philosopher is someone who lectures while taking
a stroll
⮚ Wrote many books and pamphlets, but only a few survived
⮚ Founded the school of Logical Theory

8. STOICS
➢ He believed that perception is the basis of true
knowledge.
➢ The soul is the matter with seven parts
➢ Five senses
➢ The power of speech
➢ The power of reproduction
➢ Another Stoic view is that human nature is part of the
determined universe. “Man must be the subject of the will of God
and to the law of nature.”

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
Human Activities that Emanated from Deliberate Reflection

After examining the definitions of Philosophy, this section distinguishes its

branches from where recognition of various human activities emanated from deliberate
reflection and dialogs. Many of the most vital issues of philosophy are still disputed and
have unsettled questions today.
Nevertheless, one of the greatest needs of anyone seeking “wisdom” is genuine
sympathy and understanding all the most diverse points of view (holistic perspective). A
narrow provincialism of mind, limited to the ideas and outlook of a single party or a
single age (partial perspective), is wholly incompatible with the real philosophical
attitude.

The Branches of Philosophy

A. Metaphysics
(What is the ultimate reality? Is reality one or many different things? )
The study of reality. Metaphysics is only an extension of a fundamental and necessary
drive to know what is real.
a. Ontology- this is the philosophical exploration of what reality is in the final
analysis.
b. Cosmology – metaphysical science which studies the nature of the world. (How is
the world related to human beings? Is the world created or has it been existing for
all eternity.)
c. Theodicy – a philosophical study of God. (Does God exist? What is the proof of
God’s existence? What is the problem of evil?)
d. Psychology –studies of man’s nature as being endowed with reason and intellect.

Picture Source: https://www.prophetiksoul.com/the-connection-between-spirituality-and-visual-communication-part-1/

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Metaphysics is really only an extension of a fundamental and necessary drive in
every human being to know what is real. The question is how to account for this unreal
thing in terms of what you can accept as accurate. Thus, a huge part of the
metaphysician’s task is to explain the part of our experience, which we call unreal in
terms of what we call natural.
In our everyday attempts to understand the world in terms of appearance and
reality, we try to make things understandable by simplifying or reducing the mass of stuff
we call appearance to a relatively fewer number of things we call reality.
For instance, for Thales, A Greek Philosopher, everything is water. He claims that
everything we experience is water- which we call “reality.” Everything else is
“appearance.” We then try to explain everything else (appearance) in terms of water
(reality). For example, Clouds or the blocks of ice do not look like water, but they can be
explained in terms of water. When water evaporates, it becomes a cloud, and when water
freezes, it becomes ice.
Both the idealist and materialist metaphysical theories are similarly based on
unobservable entities: mind and matter. We can see things made of matter, such as a book
or a chair, but we cannot see the underlying matter itself. Although we can experience
thoughts, ideas, desires, and fantasies in our minds, we cannot observe or experience the
sense of having these thoughts, ideas, and desires. This tendency to explain the
observable in terms of the unobservable has given metaphysics a bad name to more
down-to-earth philosophers.
Plato, Socrates” most famous student, is an excellent example of a metaphysician
who draws the sharpest possible contrast between reality and appearance. Nothing we
experience in the physical world with our five senses is real, according to Plato. The
reality is just the opposite. It is unchanging, eternal, immaterial, and can be detected only
by the intellect. Plato calls these realities ideas of forms. These are meanings that
universal, general terms refer to, and they are also those things we are talking about when
discussing moral, mathematical, and scientific ideas.

Reflections, Meditations, and Conversations the Rocked the World:

By What Values Shall I Live in the World?
Plato
This leads up to the famous simile of the cave or den. According to this, those
who are destitute of philosophy may be compared to prisoners in a cave who can only
look in one direction because they are bound and who have the fire behind them and
the wall in front. Between them and the wall, there is nothing; all that they can see are
shadows of themselves and objects behind them cast on the wall by the light of the
fire. Inevitably, they regard these shadows as real and have no notion of objects to

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
which they are due (Price 2000). At last, a man succeeds in escaping from the cave to
the light of the sun; for the first time, he sees real things and becomes aware that
shadows had hitherto deceived him. He is the sort of philosopher who is fit to become
a guardian; he will feel it is his duty to those who were formerly his fellow prisoners
to go down again into the cave, instruct them as the sun of the truth and show them the
way up.
However, he will have difficulty persuading them because of coming out of the
sunlight. He will see shadows clearer than they do and will seem to them stupider than
before his escape.
Plato seeks to explain the difference between clear intellectual vision and the
confused vision of sense perception by an analogy from the sense of sight. Sight, he
says, differs from the other senses since it requires not only the eye and the object but
also light. We see objects on which the sun shines; in the twilight, we see confusedly;
and in pitch -darkness, not all. Now the world of ideas is what we see when the sun
illuminates the object, while the world of passing things is a confused twilight world.
The eye is compared to the soul, and the sun, as the source of light to truth or
goodness (Mitchell 2011).

B. Ethics
(What is morally right? Are moral values absolute or relative?)
⮚ The study on the morality of human actions or moral philosophy. Ethics is the
branch of philosophy that explores the nature of moral virtue and evaluates human
actions.
⮚ It is generally a study of the nature of moral judgments. Philosophical ethics
attempts to provide an account of our fundamental ethical ideas. In comparison,
religion has often motivated individuals to obey habitual ethics but adopts a
critical perspective. It insists that obedience to moral law be given a rational
foundation. In the thought of Socrates, we see the beginning of a transition from a
traditional, religion-based morality to philosophical ethics (Landsburg 2009).

Picture Source: Picture Source:

https://www.intheblack.com/articles/2015/04/01/why-ethics-and-law-are-not-the- https://www.rediscoveringfoodmaine.com/single-post/2019/04/14/is-it-concern-or-cri
same-thing ticism

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OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Reflections, Meditations, and Conversations that Rocked the World:
What Constitutes a Human Person?
Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle

For Socrates to be happy, a person has to live a virtuous life. Virtue is not
something to be taught or acquired through education, but rather, it is merely an
awakening of the seeds of good deeds that lay dormant in the mind and heart of a
person. Knowing what is in the mind and heart of a human being is achieved through
self-knowledge. Thus, knowledge does not only mean theoretical or speculative but a
practical one. Practical knowledge means that one does not only know the rules of
right living, but one lives them.
Hence, for Socrates, true knowledge means wisdom, which in turn means
virtue. The Greek word arête, which we translate as a virtue, seems original to have
been associated with courage in battle and may be connected with the name of the
Greek god of war, Ares, whom we know better under His Roman name, Mars. Both
the Greek word arête and its English equivalent, virtue, has connotations of
masculinity and manliness. So, when Socrates came to define virtue, he thought of
courage, therefore, as virtue is also knowledge.

C. Epistemology
(What is knowledge? Is knowledge acquired exclusively through the senses or by
some other means? How do we know that what we perceive through our senses is
correct?)
⮚ It deals with the nature, sources, limitations, and validity of human knowledge.
Epistemological questions are basic to all other philosophical inquiries.
⮚ Epistemology explains:
o how we know what we claim to know;
o how we can find out what we wish to know; and
o how we can differentiate truth from falsehood.
⮚ Epistemology addresses varied problems:
o the reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge;
o truth;
o language;
o and science and scientific knowledge.

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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 How do we acquire reliable knowledge? Human knowledge may be regarded as
having two parts.
1. On the one hand, he sees, hears, and touches; on the other hand, he organizes
what he learns through the senses in his mind. Philosophers have given
considerable attention to questions about the sources of knowledge. Some
philosophers think that the particular things seen, heard, and touched are more
important. They believe that general ideas are formed from the examination of
particular facts. This method is called induction, and philosophers who feel
that knowledge is acquired in this way are called empiricists (e.g., John
Locke). Empiricism is the view that learning can be attained only through
sense experience. According to the empiricists, real knowledge is based on
what our sight, hearing, smell, and other senses tell us out there, not what
people make up in their heads.
2. Other philosophers think it is more important to find a general law according
to which particular facts can be understood or judged. This method is called
deduction; its advocates are called rationalists (e.g., Rene Descartes). For
instance, what distinguishes real knowledge from mere opinion, in the
rationalist view, is that real learning is based on logic, the laws, and the
methods that reason develops. The best example of real knowledge, the
rationalist holds, is mathematics, a real understanding that is obtained entirely
by reason that we use to understand the universe (Soccio 2007).
A newer school, pragmatism, has a third approach to these problems. Pragmatists,
such as William James and John Dewey, believe that value in use is the real test of truth
and meaning. In other words, the meaning and validity of an idea are tested by its
practical consequences.

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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Reflections, Meditations, and Conversations that Rocked the World:
Women’s Equal Rights
Mary Wollstonecraft
The spirit of modern philosophy is an outburst of discovery. Rationalism (17th
century) and empiricism (18th century) relied on human findings such as the world,
thought, and humanity in all sorts of conditions. Knowledge, however, was
male-dominated. Mary Wollstonecraft envisioned an education for women. In her
work, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792), Wollstonecraft dictated that
women were to be more than just wives and caretakers; they were to educate children
and act not as slaves to their husbands as companions (Rifkin 2009).
As technology enters the larger conversation of humanity, students should
understand that education is simply by browsing the Internet but emphasizes the
concept of “progress,” which asserts that human beings can improve their constantly
changing environment.

D. Logic
(What makes an argument valid or invalid?)
⮚ The term “logic” came from the Greek word logike and was coined by Zeno, the
Stoic (c.340-265BC).
⮚ Etymologically, it means a treatise of matters about human thought.
⮚ The study of correct thinking and reasoning. This is the primary tool that
philosophers use to investigate reality.
⮚ It is important to underpin that logic does not provide us knowledge of the world
directly, for logic is considered a tool, and does not contribute directly to the
content of our thoughts.
⮚ Logic is not interested in what we know regarding certain subjects. Its concern,
instead, is the truth or the validity of our arguments regarding such objects.

Picture Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z9FzDdZnI24

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OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Aristotle was the first philosopher to devise a logical method. He drew upon the
emphasis on the “universal” in Socrates, negation in Parmenides and Plato, and the
reduction to the absurd of Zeno of Elea. His philosophy is also based on the claims about
propositional structure and the body of argumentative techniques (e.g., legal reasoning
and geometrical proof).

Aristotle understood truth to mean the agreement of knowledge with reality; truth
exists when the mind’s mental representations, otherwise known as ideas, correspond
with things in the objective world. Logical reasoning makes us certain that our
conclusions are accurate, and this provides us with accepted scientific proofs of
universally valid propositions or statements. Since the time of Aristotle, the study of lies
or fallacies has been considered an integral part of logic.

Zeno of Citium is one of the successors of Aristotle. He is also the founder of a

movement known as Stoicism, derived from the Greek Stoa Poikile (Painted Porch). The
Painted Porch referred to the entrance in Athens, where the early adherents held their
regular meetings. Other more influential authors of logic then are Cicero, Porphyry, and
Boethius, in the later Roman Empire; the Byzantine scholar- Philoponus and Al-Farabi,
Avicenna, and Averroes in the Arab World.

Even before the time of Aristotle down to the present, the study of logic has
remained significant. We are human beings possessed with reason. We use it when we
make decisions or when we try to influence the decisions of others, or when we are
engaged in argumentation and debate. Indeed, a person who has studied logic is more
likely to reason correctly than another who has never thought about the general principles
involved in reasoning.

Reflections, Meditations, and Conversations that Rocked the World:

Artificial Intelligence
Alan Mathison Turing

Turing was an English mathematician, logician, cryptanalyst, and computer

scientist. He was highly influential in the development of computer science, providing
a formalization of the concepts of “algorithm’ and “computation” with the Turing
machine, which played a significant role in creating the modern computer. Turing is
widely considered to be the father of computer science and artificial intelligence (AI)
(Carr 2009).

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E. Aesthetics
When humanity has learned to make something valuable to them, they plan and
dream about making it beautiful. What therefore is beauty? The establishment of
criteria of beauty is the function of aesthetics.
Aesthetics is the science of the beautiful in various manifestations- including the
sublime, comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly. To experience aesthetics, therefore, means
whatever experience has relevance to art, whether the experience is that of the
creative artist or appreciation. As a branch of philosophy, students should consider the
importance of aesthetics because of the following:
● It vitalizes our knowledge. It makes our knowledge of the world alive and
valuable. We go through our days picking up a principle as fact, here and
there, and too infrequently see how they are related. It is the part of a play, a
poem, or a story to give us new insight, to help us see a new relationship
between the separated items in our memories.
● It helps us to live more deeply and richly. A work of art- whether a book, a
piece of music, painting or a television show- helps us rise from purely
physical existence into the realm of intellect and the spirit. As being a body
and soul, a human being needs nourishment for his higher life and his lower.
Art, therefore, is not something merely like craft or applied arts, but
something of weight and significance to humankind. It is what Schopenhauer
meant when he said, “You must treat a work of art as a great man. Stand
before it and wait patiently until it designs to speak.” (Scruton et al. 1997)
● It brings us in touch with our culture. Things about us change so rapidly
today that we forget how much we owe the past any more than we can shut
ourselves off geographically from the rest of the world. It is difficult that the
great problems of human life have occurred repeatedly for thousands of years.
The answer of great minds in the past to these problems is part of our culture.
Hans-Georg Gadamer, a German philosopher, argues that our tastes and
judgments regarding beauty work in connection with one’s own personal experience and
culture. Gadamer believes that our culture consists of the values and beliefs of our time
and our society. That is why a “dialog” or conversation is important in interpreting works
of art (White 1991).
A conversation involves an exchange between conversational partners that seek
agreement about some matter at issue; consequently, such an exchange is never
completely under the control of either conversational partner but is rather determined by
the matter at issue. Conversation and understanding involve coming to an agreement. In
this sense, according to Gadamer, all learning is interpretative and insofar as all
interpretation consists of the exchange between the familiar and the alien.

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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Quiz 1.1-2
Direction: Multiple Choice. Read and answer the following questions. Choose and
encircle the correct answer. (2points each)
_______1. The Greek word “Philo” in Philosophy means ______.
a. Wisdom c. Patient
b. Love d. Care
_______2. What disciplines of philosophy study correct thinking and reasoning?
a. Logic c. Metaphysics
b. Ethics d. Epistemology
_______3. What disciplines of philosophy study the validity of human knowledge?
a. Ethics c. Epistemology
b. Metaphysics d. Logic
_______4. Who is Plato’s best student?
a. Socrates c. Pythagoras
b. Aristotle d. Anaximenes
_______5. It is metaphysical science that studies the nature of the world.
a. Cosmology c. Ontology
b. Theodicy d. Psychology

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OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 INFORMATION SHEET # 1.2-2
TOPIC: Doing Philosophy

Picture Source: https://www.tomvmorris.com/blog/2019/6/16/six-ways-of-doing-philosophy

Summary of Learning Content:

At the end of this module, the learner will be able to:

1. Realize the value of doing philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective on life

2. Create a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic
perspective

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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
MOTIVATION
Sensitivity Check!

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1. Look at the images. What do you think is the message conveyed?

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2. For you, what is the meaning of the symbol above?

3. Brainstorming: What virtues do you value most? Wisdom? Honesty?

Open-mindedness? Beauty? Why?

4. Explain the meaning of “holism” in your own words.

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Doing Philosophy

Human beings have a unique facility to reason, and all understanding stems from
our self-conscious ability to know that we exist. We are not like computers which simply
manipulate information and are not self-aware.
Philosophy involves thinking in abstract ideas (e.g., not where I should go this
afternoon, but why am I here at all)
This sort of thinking helps us ask questions concerning our existence concerning
our place as individuals in an often puzzling world. First, it allows us to determine
whether the question is meaningful (and that we are justified in pursuing an answer).
Second, it helps us work through the problem, obtain a conclusion, and decide whether it
is valid. Whether or not the decision is proper will depend on the truth contained in the
argument.
The method of philosophy as a way of thinking can be (and is) used in all fields of
human inquiry: scientific, ethical, religious, political, or any other matter of
psychological importance to us as individuals or members of society.
We do philosophy all the time because we continually take information, think
about it, and come up with conclusions. We often arrive at conclusions very different
from other people. However, the human difference is valuable and important –the world
would be a very dull place if everyone thought x was good-looking – but sometimes the
human difference results from different people tackling thinking in different ways. This
may not be so important when working out whether or not someone is good-looking, but
it may have severe consequences for the person accused of murder whose future is
dependent on a jury.

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The reason to philosophize need not be abstract. Primitive people were doing
philosophy when they thought about the best ways of trapping animals for food. Should
they dig a hole and cover it to make a trap, or should they make a net, chase the animal
and throw the net over it? If we like to eat wild ducks, what would our method of

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catching them be? Would the same reasoning apply to bears? How we come to
conclusions about these questions involves us in thinking and involves us in philosophy.

Philosophy first started when human beings began to wonder why their world was
like it was. They assumed that God created the earth, but when they started to wonder
about the nature of God himself (e.g., who is they? Where is God? Is God mighty? Is God
good? Etc.) They have begun to philosophize. This sort of thinking is called
“metaphysics” and involves thinking about what and why things “really are.” All
philosophy in some way connects to this central metaphysical theme.

What is the best approach to philosophy?

We can approach philosophy by looking at its history (e.g., the ancient Greeks,
Descartes, etc.), or we can study by topic (philosophy of science, philosophy of mind,
etc.); both have their merits. Whichever we choose, it’s essential to understand what
philosophers have thought about, and we will examine the critical philosophers’
keywords. Philosophy is also about using our imagination to develop new ideas and argue
in their defense or to challenge existing ideas by providing rational arguments against
them. It is an activity. To argue effectively, we need to be aware of what it is to reason.
It is little (or nothing) to be gained by proclaiming we have a “philosophy” about this or
that without supporting our ideas by reason or if we have no declared reasons for holding
a view to simply state “that’s what I believe and that’s all there is to it.”

Philosophy of Man – is the philosophical study of man. It is an endless inquiry in

his attempt to understand himself and the world he lives in, his dignity, truth, freedom,
justice, love, death, and his relations with others and with God. It is a course that delves
into the origin of human life, the nature of human life, and the reality of human existence.
Example Philosophy:
“To remain relevant, learn from the past, live in the present with an eye in the future.”

What is Philosophy for?

People are understandably confused about what philosophy is. It seems weird,
irrelevant, boring, and yet also – just a little – intriguing from a distance. But it’s hard to
put the finger on what the interest is. What are philosophers? What do they do? And why
does one need them?
Though a rather abstract term, the concept of ‘wisdom’ isn’t mysterious. Being
wise means attempting to live and die well, leading as good a life as possible within the
troubled conditions of existence. The goal of wisdom is fulfillment. You could perhaps
say ‘happiness’ but ‘happiness’ is misleading, for it suggests continuous chirpiness and
joy, whereas ‘fulfillment’ seems compatible with a lot of pain and suffering, which every
decent life must by necessity have.

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 So a philosopher or ‘person devoted to wisdom’ is someone who strives for
systematic expertise at working out how one may best find individual and collective
fulfillment.

In their pursuit of wisdom, philosophers have developed a particular skill-set.

They have, over the centuries, become experts in many of the general, significant things
that make people not very wise. Six central ones have been identified:

1. We don’t ask big questions

What is the meaning of life? What should I
do with my work? Where are we going as a
society? What is love? Most of us have these
questions in our minds at some point (often in
the middle of the night), but we despair of trying
to answer them. They have the status of jokes in
most social circles: we get shy of expressing
them (except for brief moments in adolescence)
for fear of being pretentious and getting
nowhere.

But these questions matter deeply because only with sound answers to them can
we direct our energies meaningfully.

Philosophers are people unafraid of large questions. They have, over the
centuries, asked the very largest. They realize that these questions can always be
broken down into more manageable chunks. The only pretentious thing is to think one
is above regularly raising naive-sounding inquiries.

2. We are vulnerable to errors of common sense.

Public opinion – or what gets called ‘common sense’ – is sensible and reasonable
in countless areas. It’s what you hear about from friends and neighbors, the stuff
that’s just assumed to be accurate, the stuff you take in without even thinking about it.
The media pumps it out by the gallon every day. But in some cases, common sense is
also full of daftness, error, and the most lamentable prejudice.

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 Philosophy gets us to submit all aspects of
common sense to reason. It wants us to think
for ourselves, to be more independent. Is it
true what people say about love, money,
children, travel, and work? Philosophers are
interested in asking whether an idea is logical
– rather than simply assuming it must be right
because it is popular and long-established.
 
Picture Source:
https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/what-is-philosophy-and-whats-it-for/

Philosophy gets us to submit all aspects of

common sense to reason. It wants us to think for ourselves, to be more independent.
Is it true what people say about love, money, children, travel, and work? Philosophers
are interested in asking whether an idea is logical – rather than simply assuming it
must be right because it is popular and long-established.
 
3. We are mentally confused.
We’re not very good at knowing what goes on in our minds. We know we like a
piece of music. But we struggle to say quite why. Or someone we meet is very
annoying, but we can’t pin down what the issue is. Or we lose our temper but can’t
readily tell what we’re so cross about. We lack insight into our satisfactions and
dislikes.
That’s why we need to examine our minds. Philosophy is committed to
self-knowledge – and its central precept – articulated by the earliest, greatest
philosopher, Socrates – is just two words long: Know yourself.

4. We have muddled ideas about what will make us happy.

We’re powerfully set on trying to be happy but go wrong in our search for it
regularly. We overrate the power of some things to improve our lives – and underrate
others. In a consumer society, we make the wrong choices because guided by false
glamour. We keep on imagining that a particular kind of holiday, car, or computer will
create a more significant difference than it can. At the same time, we underestimate
the contribution of other things – like going for a walk, tidying a cupboard, having a
structured conversation, or going to bed early – which may have little prestige but can
contribute profoundly to the character of existence.

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 Philosophers seek to be wise by getting
more precise about the activities and attitudes
that can help our lives go better.

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https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/what-is-philosophy-and-whats-it-for/

5. Our emotions can send us in dangerous directions.

We are inescapably emotional beings but regularly forget this uncomfortable fact.
Occasionally certain emotions – certain kinds of anger, envy, or resentment – lead us
into serious trouble. Philosophers teach us to think about our feelings rather than
simply have them. We learn to see how emotions impact our behavior in unexpected,
counterintuitive, and sometimes dangerous ways by understanding and analyzing our
feelings. Philosophers were the first therapists.

6. We panic and lose perspective.

We are constantly losing a sense of what matters and what doesn’t. We are – as
the expression goes – constantly ‘losing perspective.’ That’s what philosophers are
good at keeping a hold of. On hearing the news that he’d lost all his possessions in a
shipwreck, the Stoic philosopher Zeno simply said: ‘Fortune commands me to be a
less encumbered philosopher.’ It’s responses like these that have made the very term
‘philosophical’ a byword for calm, long-term thinking and strength-of-mind, in short,
for perspective.

What we call the ‘history of philosophy” is made up of repeated attempts over the
centuries to address ways in which we are unwise. So, for example, in ancient Athens,
Socrates paid particular attention to how people get confused in their minds. He was
struck that people didn’t quite know what they meant by critical ideas – like courage
or justice or success – even though these were the main ideas they used when talking
about their own lives. Socrates developed a method (which still bears his name) by
which you can learn to get clearer about what you mean by playing devil’s advocate
with any idea. The aim isn’t necessarily to change your mind. It is to test whether the
ideas guiding your life are sound. 

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 Picture Source: https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/what-is-philosophy-and-whats-it-for/

A few decades later, the philosopher Aristotle tried to make us more confident
around big questions. He thought that the best questions were those that ask what
something is more precise. He did this a lot and, over many books, asked: What is
government for? What is the economy for? What is money for? What is art for? Today he
would be encouraging us to ask questions like: What is the news media for? What is
marriage for? What are schools for? What is pornography for?

Also active in Ancient Greece were the Stoic philosophers, who were interested in
panic. The Stoics noticed a central feature of panic: we panic not just when something
terrible occurs, but when it does so unexpectedly when we assume that everything will go
rather well. So they suggested that we should arm ourselves against panic by getting used
to the idea that danger, trouble, and difficulty are very likely to occur at every turn.

The overall task of studying philosophy is to absorb these and many other lessons
and put them to work in the world today. The point isn’t just to know what this or that
philosopher happened to say, but to aim to exercise wisdom at an individual and societal
level – starting now.

The overall task of studying philosophy is to absorb these and many other lessons
and put them to work in the world today. The point isn’t just to know what this or that
philosopher happened to say, but to aim to exercise wisdom at an individual and societal
level – starting now.

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 The wisdom of philosophy is – in modern
times – primarily delivered in the form of
books. But in the past, philosophers sat in
market squares and discussed their ideas with
shopkeepers or went into government offices
and palaces to give advice. It wasn’t abnormal
to have a philosopher on the payroll.
Philosophy was thought of as a regular, primary
activity – rather than an unusual, esoteric,
optional extra.

Nowadays, it’s not so much that we overtly deny this, though – we are always
getting snippets of wisdom here and there – but we just don’t have the right institutions
set up to promulgate understanding coherently in the world. In the future, though, when
the value of philosophy is a little clearer, we can expect to meet more philosophers in
daily life. They won’t be locked up, living mainly in university departments, because the
points at which our wisdom bites – and messes up our lives – are multiple and urgently
need attention right now.

Meaning and Process of Doing Philosophy

• Doing philosophy means engaging oneself in “matters of utility” and methodologies
to eliminate any practical problem or an abstract idea.
• In doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic point of view—the perception of
looking at all aspects of a situation first before concluding. Some other skills involved
in doing philosophy are critical, logical, analytical thinking, observation, and
communicative skills.

Holistic and Partial Points of View

• Before engaging in philosophical inquiry, one must distinguish between a holistic and
partial point of view. This is critical for anyone doing philosophy because it limits
coming up with conclusions about a given situation.

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 Holistic Point of View Partial Point of View
• Look at all aspects of the given • Look at only a limited number of
problem or situation. aspects of the given problem or
• All aspects are given importance situation
when making conclusions. • The conclusion is made based on
• All aspects are tied in together to considering some, but not all, sides
form a general overview of the of the issue or situation
problem or situation.

Example: Example:
A teacher listens first to both A teacher scolds Student A after
stories of her two arguing students Student B accused him of stealing her
before making any conclusions about pencil case. However, the teacher only
the issue. listened to the story of Student B and
not to Student A before deciding to
scold the students.

• Looking at the characteristics of holistic and partial points of view, it can be

concluded that using a holistic perspective is more desirable in doing philosophy than
using a partial perspective. Partial points of view only promote limited knowledge of
the situation. This leads to wrong conclusions.
• Learning philosophy requires learning to look into all available perspectives and work
on their relationship to come up with sound, logical, and valid conclusions. In the
process, doing philosophy helps one develop broadly, looking at the situation first
before concluding anything.

Importance of Doing Philosophy

• Doing philosophy can be applied in day-to-day activities and life perspectives.
Because it involves an evaluative process, doing philosophy allows a person to make
better decisions and act accordingly to situations with the help of various
philosophical skills.
• Furthermore, on life perspectives, philosophy enables reflective thinking, which
significantly influences a person’s view of life, challenges, and relationships. Doing
philosophy directs how a person will perceive these factors in life and how they will
be faced. In any setting, wisdom is always gained when philosophy is applied to
formulate a conclusion about a particular concern.

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 Philosophical Reflections 1.2-2
Direction: Based on the topic “Doing Philosophy,” write your philosophical reflection about
why? Or why not philosophy is essential in the age of globalization.

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RUBRICS FOR ESSAY

CATEGORY DESCRIPTION PERCENTAGE

Fluency Can express himself/herself fluently and spontaneously 40%

almost effortless  

Content Relevant to the topic discussed.  30%

Presentation Finished within the time limits and eye contact, and a 20%
positive outlook. 

Punctuality The students submitted the task on time. 10%

Total 100%

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TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 INFORMATION SHEET # 2.3-1
TOPIC: METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

Picture Source: https://elazarablog.wordpress.com/2016/12/04/methods-of-philosophizing/

Summary of Learning Content

At the end of this module, the learner will be able to:

1. Distinguish opinion from truth.

2. Analyze situations that show the difference between truth and opinion.
3. Realize that the methods of Philosophy lead to wisdom and truth.
4. Evaluate opinions.

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COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
MOTIVATION

Brain-teaser is a form of puzzle that requires thought to

solve. It often requires thinking in unconventional ways
with given constraints in mind; sometimes, it also
involves lateral thinking, logical puzzles, and riddles.

Direction: Answer the following questions below.

1. Eskimos are excellent hunters, but they never hunt penguins. Why not?

2. You are in a cabin, and it is pitch black. You have one match on you. Which do you
light first, the newspapers, the lamp, the candle, or the fireplace?

3. There was an old man who lived by himself. He felt tired, so he went into the
bathroom, went to the toilet, and then turned the light off before bed. The following
day there was a news flash on the radio that a boat crashed. The man opened the
window and jumped out. Why?

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TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 34 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Philosophizing is a way to reveal the truth about the various stages of life and
everything associated with it and to reveal the fulfillment of the purpose for each stage of
life and to express the way for the realization of these things are in a relevant way, to
obtain the best compromise of all that we face.

Philosophy should not merely deepen our understanding about something, but that
we are more aware of how something can be beneficial to us or not with a certain way
peculiar to ourselves personally. Whether we are using logical thinking, spirituality, or
any other means to understand something, but eventually, it must guide us to an essential
(deeper) understanding of ourselves and the place where we live, and we can use that to
make a better adjustment in all that we face.

This section shall introduce methods or ways of looking at truth and what will be
considered as mere “opinions.” Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner. It considers or discusses a (matter) from a philosophical
standpoint. In phenomenology, truth is based on the person’s consciousness while
existentialism, truth, is based on exercising choices and personal freedom.

Date Developed: Document No.

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INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 35 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
A. Phenomenology (On Consciousness)
The word “phenomenon” comes directly from the Greek
(phainomenon) meaning appearance. Edmund Husserl
founded phenomenology, which is essentially a
philosophical method. This focuses on careful inspection
and description of phenomena or appearances, defined as
any object of conscious experience, that is, that which
we are conscious of.
Picture Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousness

● Phenomenology is the scientific study of the essential structure of consciousness.

By describing those structures, Husserl believes that we can find certainty, which
philosophy has always sought.
● This process entails a method or a series of continuously revised methods-for
taking up a peculiarly phenomenological standpoint, “bracketing out’ everything
that is not essential, thereby understanding the basic rules or constitutive
processes through which consciousness does its work of knowing the world.

B. Existentialism (On Freedom)

Picture Source: https://ethical-leader.blog/2020/04/11/dailywritingchallenge-day-18-freedom/

One’s search for truth might be based on one’s attitude or outlook. Take, for instance,
existentialism. Unlike phenomenology, existentialism is not primarily a philosophical
method. Neither is it precisely aware a set of doctrines, but more of an outlook or attitude
supported by diverse philosophies centered on specific common themes.
These themes include:
● The human condition or the relation of the individual to the world;
● The human response to that condition;

Date Developed: Document No.

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INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 36 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 ● Being, especially the difference between the being of person (which is
“existence”) and the being of other kinds of things;
● Human freedom;
● The significance (and unavoidability) of choice and decision in the absence of
certainty and;
● The concreteness and subjectivity of life are lived against abstractions and false
objectification.
✔ If we generalize for just a moment, we might suggest that existentialists
share a concern for the individual and personal responsibility (Chambers
2001)

C. Postmodernism (On Cultures)

Picture Source: https://www.inc.com/marissa-levin/6-reasons-cultures-change-and-3-ways-leaders-can-respond.html

“Postmodernism” has come into vogue as the name for a rather diffuse family of ideas
and trends that insignificant respect rejects, challenges, or aims to supersede
“modernity”; the convictions, aspirations, and pretensions of modern Western thought
and culture since the Enlightenment. Postmodernism is not a philosophy.

D. Analytic Tradition
Can language objectively describe truth?” For the
philosophers of this tradition, language cannot
objectively describe truth. For Ludwig
Wittgenstein, an analytic philosopher, language is
socially conditioned. We understand the world
solely in terms of our language games-that is, our
linguistic, social constructs. Truth, as we perceive
it, is itself socially constructed.

Picture Source: https://philosophynow.org/issues/109/Analytic_Philosophy_Continental_Literature

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 37 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 ● Analytic philosophy is the conviction that to some significant degree,
philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors are rooted in language and can be
solved or avoided by a sound understanding of language and careful attention to
its workings. “Analysis” refers to a method; owning a great deal to the pioneers,
Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore, Wittgenstein, and J.L. Austin.

E. Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Reasoning

Picture Source: https://www.learnreligions.com/what-is-logic-what-is-critical-thinking-249764

● Logic is centered on the analysis and construction of arguments. In the first
chapter, the reason is discussed as one of its main branches. Logic and critical
thinking serve as paths to freedom from half-truths and deceptions.
● Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and opinions or personal feelings. In
making rational choices, first, we suspend beliefs and judgment until all points
have been gathered and considered.
● Though facts are essential, critical thinking also takes into consideration cultural
systems, values, and beliefs. Critical thinking helps us uncover bias and prejudice
and is open to new ideas not necessarily in agreement with previous thought.
● In general, there are two basic types of reasoning: deductive and inductive.
✔ Inductive reasoning is based on observations in order to make
generalizations. This reasoning is often applied in prediction, forecasting,
or behavior.
Example: 
Cathleen was playing Mobile Legends during class and was
reprimanded by the teacher. Dany was also playing Mobile
Legends during class and was reprimanded. Thus, if I play Mobile
Legends during the course, I will be reprimanded. 

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 38 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 ✔ Deductive reasoning usually concludes one broad judgment or
definition and one more specific assertion, often an inference.

Take for instance:

All philosophers are wise (major premise)
Confucius is a philosopher (minor premise)
Therefore, Confucius is wise (conclusion)

F. Fallacies

Picture Source: https://www.intellectualtakeout.org/blog/logical-fallacy-hasty-counter-example/

● Fallacies are common errors in reasoning that will undermine the logic of your
argument. Fallacies can be either illegitimate arguments or irrelevant points and
are often identified because they lack evidence that supports their claim.
● On the other hand, a fallacy is a defect in an argument other than having false
premises. To detect fallacies, it is required to examine the argument’s content.

Usually committed errors:

a. Appeal to Pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam)- a special kind of
appeal to emotion in which someone tries to win support for an argument
or idea by exploiting his or her opponent’s feelings of pity or guilt.
Example:
I deserve an “A” on this paper, professor. Not only did I study during my
grandmother’s funeral, but I also passed up the heart transplant surgery,
even though that was the first matching donor in 3 years.

Explanation: The student deserves an “A” for effort and dedication, but,
unfortunately, papers are not graded that way. The fact that we should pity
her has nothing to do with the quality of the paper written, and if we were
to adjust the grade because of the sob stories, we would have fallen victim
to the appeal to pity.

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 39 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 b. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad ignorantiam)- whatever has not
been proved false must be accurate and vice versa.
Example:
Although we have proven that the moon is not made of spare ribs, we have
not verified that its core cannot be filled with them; therefore, it is filled
with spare ribs.

Explanation: There is an infinity of things we cannot prove -- the moon is

filled with spare ribs, is one of them. Now you might expect that any
“reasonable” person would know that the moon can’t be filled with spare
ribs, but you would be expecting too much. People make wild claims and
get away with them simply on the fact that the converse cannot otherwise
be proven.

c. Equivocation is a logical chain of reasoning of a term or a word several

times but giving the particular word a different meaning each time.
Example:
The priest told me I should have faith.
I have faith that my son will do well in school this year.
Therefore, the priest should be happy with me.

Explanation: The term “faith” used by the priest was in the religious

sense of believing in God without sufficient evidence, which is different
from having “faith” in your son in which years of good past performance
leads to the “faith” you might have in your son.

d. Composition- this infers that something is true of the whole from the fact
that it is true of some part of the whole. The reverse of this fallacy is
division.
Example:
▪ Each brick in that building weighs less than a pound. Therefore,
the building weighs less than a pound.
▪ Hydrogen is not wet. Oxygen is not wet. Therefore, water (H2O)
is not wet.
▪ Your brain is made of molecules. Molecules are not the source of
consciousness. Therefore, your brain cannot be the source of
consciousness.

Explanation:
I included three examples demonstrating this fallacy from the very
obvious to the less obvious but equally flawed. In the first example, it was

Date Developed: Document No.

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INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 40 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 evident because weight is cumulative. In the second example, we know
that water is wet, but we only experience the property of wetness when the
molecules are combined and on a large scale. This introduces the concept
of emergent properties, which, when ignored, tend to promote magical
thinking. The final example is a common argument made for a
supernatural explanation for consciousness. On the surface, it is difficult
to imagine a collection of molecules resulting in something like
consciousness because we are focusing on the properties of the parts
(molecules) and not the whole system, which incorporates emergence,
motion, the use of energy, temperature (vibration), order, and other
relational properties.

e. Division- one reason logically that something true of a thing must also be
true of all or some of its parts.
Example:
I heard that the Catholic Church was involved in a sex scandal cover-up.
Therefore, my 102-year-old Catholic neighbor, who frequently attends
Church, is guilty as well!

Explanation: While it is possible that the 102-year-old granny is guilty for

some things, like being way too liberal with her perfume, she would not be
guilty in any sex scandals just by her association with the Church alone.
Granted, it can be argued that Granny’s financial support of the Church
makes her morally complicit, but it is clear her “crimes” are in a different
category than those behind the cover-ups.

f. Against the Person (Argumentum ad hominem)-this fallacy attempts to

link the validity of a premise to a characteristic or belief of the person
advocating the premise. However, in some instances, questions of personal
conduct, character, motives, etc., are legitimate if relevant to the issue.
Example:
My opponent suggests that lowering taxes will be a good idea -- this is
coming from a woman who eats a pint of Ben and Jerry’s every night!

Explanation: The fact that the woman loves her ice cream has nothing to
do with lowering taxes, and therefore, is irrelevant to the argument. Ad
hominem attacks are usually made out of desperation when one cannot
find a decent counterargument.

g. Appeal to Force (argumentum ad baculum)-an argument where force,

coercion, or the threat force, is given as a justification for a conclusion.

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 41 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Example:
Jordan: Dad, why do I have to spend my summer at Jesus camp?

Dad: Because if you don’t, you will spend your entire summer in your
room with nothing but your Bible!

Explanation: Instead of a reason, dad gave Jordan a description of a

punishment that would happen.
h. Appeal to the People-an argument that appeals to or exploits people’s
vanities, desire for esteem, and anchoring on popularity.
Example:
Mark: Do you believe in virgin births?
Sue: You mean that babies are born virgins?
Mark: I mean birth without fertilization.
Sue: No.
Mark: How could you not believe in virgin births? Roughly two billion
people believe in them; don’t you think you should reconsider your
position?

Explanation: Anyone who believes in virgin births does not have

empirical evidence for their belief. This is a claim accepted on faith, a
personal and subjective form of receiving information that should not
affect your beliefs. Don’t forget that there was a time that the shared ideas
included flat earth, the earth-centered universe, and demon possession as
the cause of most illnesses.

i. False Cause- since that event followed this one, that event must have been
caused by this one. This fallacy is also referred to as coincidental
correlation, or correlation, not causation.
Example:
Many homosexuals have AIDS. Therefore, homosexuality causes AIDS.

Explanation: While AIDS is found in a much more significant percentage

of the homosexual population than in the heterosexual population, we
cannot conclude that homosexuality is the cause of AIDS any more than
we can conclude that heterosexuality is the cause of pregnancy.

j. Hasty Generalization- one commits errors if one reaches an inductive

generalization based on insufficient evidence. The fallacy is commonly
found on a broad conclusion upon the statistics of a small group survey
that fails to represent the whole population sufficiently.

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 42 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Example:
My father smoked four packs of cigarettes a day from age fourteen and
lived until age sixty-nine. Therefore, smoking really can’t be that bad for
you.

Explanation: It is extremely unreasonable (and dangerous) to draw a

universal conclusion about the health risks of smoking by the case study of
one man.
k. Begging the Question- this is a fallacy in which the proposition to be
proven is assumed implicitly in the premise.
Example:
Paranormal activity is actually because I have experienced what can only
be described as paranormal activity.

Explanation: The claim, “paranormal activity is real,” is supported by the

premise, “I have experienced what can only be described as paranormal
activity.” The belief presupposes, or assumes, that the claim, “paranormal
activity is real” is already true.

Determining Truth from Opinion

● Truth is defined as being in accordance with fact and reality, sometimes

considered as fidelity to an original or standard.
Example: Catriona Elisa Magnayon Gray was born on January 6, 1994.
-The statement is an example of truth because it is based on her real
identity.

● The opinion is defined as a view or judgment formed by a person about

something, which is not necessarily based on fact or knowledge.

Example: San Francisco Giants are the best baseball team.

-The statement is an opinion because it is based on someone’s point of
view without a basis.

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 43 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Written Work 2.3-2

Direction: Read the following statement below carefully. On Letter A, Determine

whether it is Truth or Opinion. Then, on Letter B, Explain your reason why you think it is
Truth? Opinion? (2 points each)
1. To solve traffic, it is better to invest in subways and trains than in road widening
programs.
A._____________________________________________________________________
B._____________________________________________________________________
2. Your heart pumps blood through your body.
A._____________________________________________________________________
B._____________________________________________________________________
3. I prefer using Facebook to twitter because Twitter has limited characters per caption.
A._____________________________________________________________________
B._____________________________________________________________________
4. Olivarez College Tagaytay offers Nursing courses for Tertiary.
A._____________________________________________________________________
B._____________________________________________________________________
5. The Gucci brand is the most expensive brand in the whole world.
A._____________________________________________________________________
B._____________________________________________________________________

Rubrics
CATEGORY DESCRIPTION PERCENTAGE
Content Demonstrate thorough self-reflective analysis 30%
Presents the reflection in a compelling, highly
Organization 30%
organized manner
Use of articulate and appropriate language, word
Fluency 20%
choice, and sentence structure.
Able to submit the task on or before the due
Punctuality 20%
time.
Total 100%

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 44 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
 Learning Feedback Diary 2.3-3

Direction: Please answer the following question guide in a narrative form.

1. What can you say about the activities used by the teacher to assess the learning of the
students?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. What are the strengths and weaknesses you noticed in the activities used on the topic?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
3. Did the teacher meet the expectation of the students? Yes or No? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 45 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal
REFERENCE:
Book:
● Abella, R. (2016). Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City.
C&E Publishing Inc.
● Ramos, Christine Carmela(2016) Introduction to the Philosophy of Human Person,
Sampaloc Manila, Rex Bookstore

Internet:
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://plato.stanford.edu/about.html
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: http://www.philosophybasics.com
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/intro_1.shtml
● Retrieved July 31, 2021:
https://www.theschooloflife.com/thebookoflife/what-is-philosophy-and-whats-it-for/

Picture Source:
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: An Introduction to Aristotle. If there is one thinker most… |
by Austin Tannenbaum | Medium
● https://www.britannica.com/biography/Plato
● Retrieved July 31, 2021:
https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/a33372667/earth-cubes-plato-theory/
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Socrates
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://iep.utm.edu/protagor/
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagoras
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximenes_of_Miletus
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://historica.fandom.com/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus
● Retrieved July 31, 2021: https://www.philosophy-foundation.org/what-is-philosophy

Date Developed: Document No.

2020-2021
PHILO 001 Date Revised: Issued by:
INTRODUCTION 2021-2022
TO PHILOSOPHY Developed by: Page 46 of 46
OF HUMAN Ms. J. R. Cainong
OLIVAREZ PERSON Ms. M. D. Punongbayan Revision # 2
COLLEGE Ms. I.A. Dimailig
TAGAYTAY Ms. N. E.T. Caringal