Soil as an innovative sustainable flooring material

Harsha Galabada P. Dhammika. Dharmaratne Himahansi Galkangda

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering Department of Civil Engineering
University of Moratuwa University of Moratuwa University of Moratuwa
Moratuwa, Sri Lnka Moratuwa, Sri Lnka Moratuwa, Sri Lnka
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Malsha Mendis Renuka Nilmini Rangika Umesh Halwatura

Department of Civil Engineering Department of Engineering Technology Department of Civil Engineering
University of Moratuwa University of Sri Jayawardhanapura University of Moratuwa
Moratuwa, Sri Lnka Sri Jayawardhanpura, Sri Lanka Moratuwa, Sri Lnka
[email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract— The natural material, earth, has been used in the financial limitations, together with a lack of support and
construction industry for thousands of years. There is a great knowledge, is the most significant factor to introduce and
deal of research worldwide, including in Sri Lanka, related to invent appropriate sustainable housing solutions. Further, it
earth as a construction material. Therefore, earth used as a
is important to support and promote sustainable housing for
flooring material has been investigated and according to the
results obtained in previous studies, it was identified that earth
small housing cooperatives and individual householders who
can be used for this purpose. However, there is a need to build and renovate their houses. Therefore, researchers or
investigate the requirement of a wash coat and identify a engineers need to invent environmentally-friendly
suitable material to surface finish, matching with the service construction materials, techniques, and new technologies,
requirement of the floor finish. Hence, this study was focused to using existing local resources in order to reduce negative
have a better understanding of the possibility to use synthetic impacts on the environment. The innovation of any
resin as a surface coating for soil flooring. This paper presents construction material or techniques should be done by
the preliminary experimental results to introduce the top considering several aspects, such as the use of renewable
surface finishing layer for the soil floor. Soil floor samples were local raw materials, maintaining quality, cost, and suitability
cast according to the mix design identified for soil flooring in
previous research. Novolac resin and Hexamethylenetetramine
of building materials, as well as social aspects such as health
(HMTA) hardener were used to prepare the surface coating. and happiness of the residents.
Samples were tested for several aspects. According to the When considering building construction, the floor in a
primary experimental results, it can be concluded that there is building is the main and also the most frequently used part of
a possibility to use this resin as the top surface coating for soil a building. At present, there are several conventional floor
flooring material. finishing materials, such as ceramic tile, terrazzo, marble,
vinyl, etc. in Sri Lanka as well as worldwide. Most of these,
Keywords— sustainable construction, Stabilized soil, conventional floor finishing materials are not produced in
synthetic resin, flooring materials,
sustainable ways. The production and transport of such
materials lead to relatively high levels of environmental
I. INTRODUCTION
pollution, high embodied energy, high initial cost, etc.
Unlike other species, who seek a balance with nature, However, there are some sustainable construction materials
humans are concerned only with immediate satisfaction of such as bamboo and wood, as well as earth and adobe blocks
their "needs," even though, that may cause the collapse of the that can be used in some parts of a building. They create local
ecosystem of which they are an integral part. At present, employment and promote local craftsmanship, which can be
unplanned development carried out continuously, due to truly sustainable. These materials and new technologies
these unlimited needs, has a tremendous undesirable effect on based on traditional building methods can be developed for
the environment and ecosystem. Among several industries, the construction of housing, and at the same time they are
the construction industry is one of the largest and most active sustainable and affordable for the urban-poor communities,
industries. This industry has a highly unfavorable effect on especially in developing countries.
the environment due to carbon dioxide emissions, a large The use of sustainable and locally suitable building
amount of raw material consumption, etc., clearly resulting in materials, such as bamboo, wood, compressed earth blocks,
an unsustainable situation. The projected increase in the and adobe blocks can be very promising with regard to
world’s population and their needs, in terms of buildings, will sustainability. As a result, this century has witnessed several
further escalate the consumption of non-renewable materials remarkable achievements in sustainable construction through
and the emission of greenhouse gases, as well as the development of construction materials that have less
accumulation of wastes [1, 2]. harmful effects on the environment, less demand for non-
Therefore, the continuous on-going urban growth is renewable resources, etc. while managing its required
causing a search for sustainable, low-cost housing delivery properties, maximum user-friendliness, and comfortability.
systems to fulfill these demands for low-income groups in Among several such materials, soil can be considered as the
developing countries [3]. Within this context construction most suitable construction material with respect to the
materials and construction techniques are very important environment, because earth has low embodied energy for its
towards more sustainable construction and development [2]. manufacturing method, and also zero embodied energy for
However, there are many factors to be considered when being raw material, if earth and only earth is used [4].
introducing sustainable construction systems. Household

978-0-7381-4428-3/20/$31.00 ©2020 IEEE

Traditional building materials such as loam and adobe can be objective of this study is to identify the surface coating for
used in new ways, such as with uniform rectangular soil flooring.
Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB) and the Interlocking For the appropriate treatment for the protection of the
Stabilized Soil Block (ISSB) system. In both systems, the use top surface to achieve the proper service requirement, it is
of cement is minimized. As a professional mix-preparation is necessary to identify the most suitable surface coating with
necessary, field and laboratory tests, and training of the respect to sustainability, while preserving the aesthetic
labour force is required [5]. However, appropriate earth beauty of mud concrete as much as possible; cost-
technologies are being used in many countries including Sri effectiveness also must be considered. Several important
Lanka. Walls made from CEB have excellent thermal requirements must be fulfilled when selecting the appropriate
performance, reducing heating and cooling costs. If properly coating, such as the bonding capacity of the coating with the
constructed, buildings made with CEB can be sustainable and mud concrete, water absorption, slip resistance, wear
durable. This implies that technological improvements can be resistances, etc. As an approach, among several resins, one
used on a small-scale and at the local level, potentially synthetic resin [18-21] was selected and applied on top of
contributing to the construction industry [6, 7]. mud concrete floor samples to investigate the possibility to
There is more evidence to prove that the soil as a have smooth durable surface finishes.
natural material, has been used in the construction industry
from ancient times. Numerous studies are being done by II. METHOD
many researchers worldwide as well in Sri Lanka, to upgrade A. Floor base preparation
the use of soil as a construction material [8-11]. Soil
The previous studies have identified that natural soil can
properties, such as tensile strength, shear strength, etc., that
be stabilized with a lesser amount of cement and used as a
are strongly dependent on the environmental conditions,
construction material, named mud concrete [9, 13]. The
should be improved before soil is used as a construction
preliminary studies have identified that natural soil can be
material. According to the literature, soil properties can be
used as a floor finishing material. A series of experiments
improved by stabilizing them chemically or mechanically
were conducted and a mix design was identified that allows
[12].
natural soil to be used as flooring material by stabilizing with
In the last decade, more research articles related to
a lesser amount of cement [17]. Based on these data, this
earth construction have been published mostly related to
experiment was carried out at the laboratories in the
rammed earth, and it is a considerable increase compared to
University of Moratuwa.
the research articles publish in the 1990s concerning earth
The required soil was extracted from the university
construction. This means more and more research efforts are
premises, and the extracted soil was analyzed to identify its
being dedicated to transform the current building industry
composition by performing the sieve analysis. Then the
towards a more sustainable entity. Earth construction
extracted soil was determined to have gravel (sieve size 4.75
encompasses several techniques such as the wattle and daub,
mm ≤ gravel ≤ 20 mm) 35%, sand (sieve size 0.425 mm ≤
cob, rammed earth, earth bricks (adobe) and compressed
sand ≤ 4.75 mm) 60% and fine particles (sieve size ≤ 0.425
earth blocks (CEB). There are many important aspects related
mm) 5%. The maximum gravel size used in all mixes were
to earth construction such as economic advantages, use of
20 mm, which was identified as the best proportion for mud
renewable resources, low waste generation, reduced energy
concrete in previous research [9]. The samples were casted
consumption, carbon dioxide emission, and toxicity, and
with 18% cement; ordinary Portland cement was used as a
improved indoor air quality [6, 13].
stabilizer in all mixes. According to the selected mix
Mud concrete is a newly invented earth construction
proportion concluded in the preliminary studies, the soil floor
technique aimed at addressing the drawbacks of cement
samples were cast first. Steel moulds in size 150 mm x 150
concrete, which is commonly used in the construction
mm x 50 mm. were used to cast the floor samples. Material
industry. Currently, mud concrete is used as a sustainable
preparation, mixing, and casting procedures were described
low-cost construction material in indoor constructions as well
in a previous study [17]. After 24 hrs from the casting,
as outdoor constructions [10, 11].
samples were de-moulded and cured under the same
Among several ancient earth constructions, the earthen
conditions. The mud concrete preparation process was shown
floor is an ancient flooring technique that has been revived
in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2 showed the prepared soil floor samples
and modernized in recent years. Earthen floors are made of
and cubical samples.
natural materials that can be sourced locally (gravel, laterite,
After seven days from casting all the floor samples were
sand, clay and water). Once the floor covering is assessed
ground using a grinder to smoothen the top surface. Fig. 3
with respect to its environmental impact, various aspects of
showed the floor samples after being ground and
the impact should be considered, such as the depletion of raw
sandpapered. After 28 days of curing, the cubes were tested
materials, cumulative energy requirement, global warming,
acidification, tropospheric ozone creation, stratospheric for compressive strength.
ozone depletion, eutrophication, production of waste and In addition, three standard test cubes (150 mm x 150
human health [14 -16]. x 150 mm) were cast using the steel mould to determine the
This research was focused to improve the service and compressive strength and three samples were oven-dried at
durability characteristics of soil flooring material, which is constant temperature (105 °C) for 24 hrs. to calculate the
made out of earth stabilized with cement [17]. This paper moisture content of the mix.
represents the experimental results obtained to introduce a top
surface coating for the soil-based flooring material to meet
the service and durability characteristics. The specific
 B. Surface preparation for the top finishing layer
The prepared floor samples were further smoothened by
Gravel Sand
applying clay cement plaster. The clay in size < 0.425 mm
Extracted soil was prepared by sieving the soil by a 0.425 mm sieve. Then
from ground the clay was mixed with cement in several cement : clay
ratios. The clay and cement were mixed thoroughly in dry
conditions and then water was added little by a little while
mixing thoroughly. Fig. 4 showed the prepared clay cement
mix and application process.

Ordinary
Developed soil Portland cement Water

Soil cement dry Adding water

mix

MUD concrete mix for Fig. 4. Prepared clay cement mix and application process
floor base
Clay plaster was applied in two layers. The first layer was
applied and kept 24 hr. in a moist condition for hardening the
Fig. 1. Mud concrete preparation process surface. Then the surface was sandpapered by using No. 180
water sandpaper. Next, same clay cement putty mix was
applied as the second layer. After 24 hrs., the second layer
was sandpapered by using No. 400 sandpaper. Then The
prepared soil floor sample is ready to apply the top finishing
layer. Fig. 5 showed the prepared floor samples for the
Floor application of the top surface finishing layer.
samples

Cubic samples
Fig. 2. Prepared floor sample and cubical samples

Fig. 5. Prepared floor samples for application of top surface layer after
applying clay plaster

Fig. 3. Floor sample after ground and sandpapered

C. Application of finishing layer
1) Materials used: Resin and Hardener
Phenol-formaldehyde novolac resin (commercial novolac
resin) of golden colour, as shown in Fig. 6 (a), was selected
for initial testing to apply as a top surface coating on the
flooring. Hexamethylenetetramine, shown in Fig. 6 (b), was
used as an external curing agent. Novolac resin was dissolved
in industrial-grade acetone to apply on the floor samples.
(a) Nonolac Resin (b) Hexamethylenetetramine

Fig. 8. Heating process

Fig. 6. Novolac resin and Hexamethylenetetramine

2) Application on the floor sample

Prepared floor samples were cleaned by washing and drying.
Then the novolac resin dissolved with industrial-grade
acetone was mixed with HMTA in different ratios by weight.
The ratios were resin:HMTE 1:4,1:6, and 1:8. The resin mix
was applied evenly over the floor samples using a scraper as
shown in Fig. 7 (a) and allowed to air dry. The air-dried floor
sample was shown in Fig. 7(b).

Fig. 9. Mud concrete floor final product

(a) Resin Application (b) Air-dried sample

Fig. 7. Novolac resin and Hexamethylenetetramine application

After the surface was dry, the samples were heated using an
LP gas flame. Fig. 8 below showed the burning process. Then
the samples were sandpapered by No. 1000 sandpaper for
smoothing the surface. Next, the same rein mix was applied
as the second layer and heated again. The same procedure
was applied for resin application and burning for the second
layer. This second layer was washed with a tile cleaner liquid. Fig. 10. Compressive strength test procedure
Fig. 9 showed the final surface appearance of the soil
flooring. III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

D. Determination of Compressive strength The soil-based floor consists of basically three main layers of
filler, plaster and washed coat. The filler is having the mud
To determine the compressive strength, axial compressive concrete made out of the soil (Gravel 35%, sand 60%, and
strength tests were carried out in accordance with the BSEN fine particles 5%) stabilized with 18-20% cement. The
12390-3:2009. An axial compressive load was applied using thickness of the filler is 75 mm. Moisture percentage was
a universal compressive strength testing machine with a observed as 18%-20%. The compressive strength of mud
capacity of 2000 kN under a constant rate of 6.8 kN/s until concrete was 12-15 kN/mm2. The compressive strength
the failure of the specimen. Fig. 10 showed the cube variation with the cement content is shown in Fig. 11.
specimen’s testing.
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1126, Dec. 2001, doi: 10.1016/S0360-1323(00)00054-8.
Compressive strength (MPa)

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