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Module 1Topic 1: The Task of Defining Globalization The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
•We are living in different circumstances and ideas of the present age in a colloquial “in
modern times like these”.•We need to look at the situation which considers the past and
future; our cultural-way of life and at the same time understanding the world of having
diversity. Why Contemporary World?
•Since our world is diverse, we practice what anthropologist called as “Cultural
Relativism” ; this is to understand diverse culture and the uniqueness of one’s culture
without prejudice and biases. •Economic and technological advances are characteristics
of the contemporary world and there are fundamental aspects of it.
There are different issues about globalization that most people would debate about like
the issue of global governance. This aspect of globalization resonance with the stability
of government of each state. Other issues are equitable development among nations
and countries around the world and how humans will survive in the future which is
crucial in maintaining sustainability
of world’s resources like food security and energy resources. Different debates about
Globalization
•One of the most important challenges facing the world in the 21stcentury is
globalization; to look at the concept of “Globalization” it is generally defined as the
increasing interconnectedness of people and places through converging economic,
political and cultural activities.Attributes of Globalization:•Global communication
systems that link all regions and most people on the planet
instantaneously;•Transportation systems capable of moving goods quickly by air, sea
and land;•Transnational business strategies that have created global corporations more
powerful than many sovereign nations;Defining Globalization
•New and more flexible forms of capital accumulation and international financial
institutions that make 24-hour trading possible;•Global agreements that promote free
trade; •Market economies and private enterprises that have replaced state-controlled
economies and services;•An abundance of planetary goods and services that have
arisen to fulfill consumer demand –real and imagined;•Economic disparities between
rich and poor regions and countries that drive people to migrate, both legally and
illegally, in search of a better life;•An army of international workers, managers, and
executives who give this powerful economic force a human dimension
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Module 1Topic 2: Metaphors of Globalization The Contemporary World (Coworld)
The metaphors of globalization describe the process of globalization and how these
phenomena can be best articulated. In general, it is described in two opposing poles –
the solid and liquid, and how it flows. Solid and LiquidSolidity refers to barriers that
prevent or make difficult the movement of things. Furthermore, solids can either be
natural or man-made. Metaphors of Globalization
•Liquidity refers to the increasing ease of movement of people, things, information, and
places in the contemporary world.•Liquid phenomena change quickly and their aspects,
spatial and temporal, are in continuous fluctuation.•Space and time are crucial elements
of globalization.
FlowsFlows is the movement of people, things, places, and information brought by the
growing “porosity” of global limitations (Ritzer, 2015). As Landler (2008) put it: “in the
global financial system, national borders are porous”. This means that a financial crisis
in a given country can bring ramifications to other regions in the world.
•The term globalization first appeared in Webster’s Dictionary in 1961; it is then
classified as either (1) broad and inclusive or (2) narrow and exclusive;•Ohmae(1992)
stated that “globalization means onset of the borderless world” –an example of a broad
and inclusive type of definition•Robert Cox’s definition is narrow and exclusive –“the
characteristics of globalization trend include the internationalizing of production, the new
international division of labor, new migratory movements from South to North, the new
competitive environment that accelerates these processes, and the internationalizing of
the state.. Making states into agencies of the globalizing world”.Defining Globalization
Recent definition by Ritzer(2015) –“globalization is a transplanetaryprocess or a set of
processes involving increasingly liquidity and the growing multidirectional flows of
people, places, and information as well as the structures they encounter and create
that are barriers to, or expedite, those flows”; this assumes that globalization could
bring either or both integration and/ or fragmentation; although things flow easily in a
global world, hindrances or structural blocks are also present, these blocks could slow
down one’s activity in another country or could even limit the places a person can visit.

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Module 1Topic 3: Globalization TheoriesThe Contemporary World (Coworld)
Globalization as a process increases either homogeneity or heterogeneity.
Homogeneity–refers to the increasing sameness in the world as cultural inputs,
economic factors and political orientations of societies expand to create common
practices, same economies, and similar forms of government. Homogeneity in culture is
often linked to cultural imperialism. This means, a given culture influences other
cultures. Globalization Theories
In homogeneity, a given culture influences other cultures. A good example is
Americanization through global economy that brought American products, ideas,
images, practices and behavior to the world. This process also spread ideologies like
capitalism, neoliberalism and the market economy in the world. The political realm also
suffers homogenization if one takes into account the emerging similar models of
governance in the world.
Ritzer (2008) claimed that, in general, the contemporary world is undergoing the
process of McDonaldization. It is a process by which Western societies are dominated
by the principles of fast food restaurants. It involves the global spread of rational
systems, such as efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control.
Heterogeneitypertains to the creation of various cultural practices, new economies, and
political groups because of the interaction of elements from different societies in the
world. Heterogeneity refers to the differences because of either lasting differences or of
the hybrids or combinations of cultures that can produced through the different
transplanetaryprocesses. Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is
associated with cultural hybridization.
Contrary to cultural imperialism, heterogeneity in culture is associated with cultural
hybridization. A more specific is “glocalization” coined by Roland Robertson (1992). It
explain that as global forces interact with local factors or a specific geographical area,
the “glocal” (global+ local) is being produced. This is not only happening in culture but
also in economic issues and in political institutions.

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Module 1Topic 4: Dynamics of Local and Global Culture The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
Global flows of culture tend to move more easily around the the globe than ever before,
especially through non-material digital forms. There are three perspectives on global
cultural flows. These differentialism,hybridizationand convergence. Dynamics of Local
and Global Culture
•Cultural differentialism emphasizes the fact that cultures are essentially different and
are only superficially affected by global flows. The interaction of cultures is deemed to
contain the potential for “catastrophic collision.” •Cultural hybridization approach
emphasizes the integration of local and global cultures. Globalization is considered to
be a creative process which gives rise to hybrid entities that are not reducible to either
the global or the local.
•Cultural convergence approach stresses homogeneity introduce by globalization.
Culture are are radically altered by strong flows, while cultural imperialism happens
when one culture imposes itself on and tends to destroy at least parts of another
culture. •One of the critique of cultural imperialism is Deterritorializationof culture which
means that it is much more difficulty to tie culture to a specific geographic point of origin.
In the convergence of culture around the globe these concepts describe different
processes like: •“Glocalization” or the interpenetration of the global and local resulting
unique outcomes in different geographic areas.(Giulianotti & Robertson, 2007)•Arjun
Appadurai’s “Scapes” in 1996, where global flows involve people, technology, finance,
political images, and media and the disjuncture between them, which lead to the
creation of cultural hybrids.
•Global cultural flow, a theory coined byArjun Appadurai, demonstrated the definition
and effects of cultural flows in 5 distinct scapes: ethnoscapes, technoscapes,
financescapes, mediascapes and ideoscapes. Global cultural flow is a result of the
process ofglobalization.•1. Ethnoscapesrefer to the shifting landscape of people across
culture and borders such as tourists, immigrants, refugees, exiles, guest workers. An
example of ethnoscapes is Australia –a multi-ethnic countrywith one of the most
linguistically and culturally diverse populations in the world.
•2. Technoscapesare the transmission of cultures through the flow of technology. New
types of cultural interactions and exchanges are brought about by technology,
particularly the Internet. The globally integrated information network has become a
powerful tool in shaping how culture and communication aretransmitted across the
globe. Nowadays, it is extremely easy to access an online forum and hear an English
man complaining about politics or watch a Brazilian dancing Samba.•3.
Financescapesrefer to the global movement of money, including currency, trade and
commodity. Countries nowadays are allowed to freely exchange good. However, it
leads to the intensification of competition amongst corporations.
•4. Mediascapesrefers to the electronic capabilities of production and dissemination of
information through media. •5.Ideoscapes are the global flow of ideologies.
Mediascapesand ideoscapes have a close relationship as they usually work upon the
reliance of the other scape. Ideas can be disseminated via media platforms. An
example is Michael Jackson, famously known as the king of Pop. He used his fame to
promote world peace, equality and human rights through his songs. These songs were
then broadcasted on media and his ideology approached thousands of his fans around
the world, which helped shape their perceptions and inspire them.

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Module 1 Topic 5: Globalization and RegionalizationThe Contemporary World (Coworld)
The process of globalization and regionalization reemerged during the 1980s and
heightened after the end of Cold War in the 1990s. At first, it seems that these two
processes are contradicting, but the regionalization of the world system and economic
activity undermines the potential benefits coming from a liberalized global economy.
This is because regional organizations prefer regional partners over the rest. Regional
organizations respond to the states’ attempt to reduce the perceived negative effects
of globalization. Therefore, regionalism is a sort of counter-globalization. Globalization
and Regionalization
According to Hurrell(2007) “one world/ many worlds relationship. Regional
developments in one part of the world have affected and fueled regionalization
everywhere else in a sort of contagion or domino effect. This fact, along with increasing
developments in interregional cooperation, shows the regionalization process is global
in nature. Therefore, regionalization is intimately linked to globalization since it is a part
of it and it builds on it.”
Regionalization (Hurrell(2007) –societal integration and the often undirected process of
social and economic interaction. Different from regionalism(Ravenhill, 2008) which is
the formal process of intergovernmental collaboration between two or more states.
•Huntington (2006), believed that cultureand identity guide regionalization. For him “in
the post-Cold War world, states increasingly define their interests in civilization terms”.
Non-state actors, such as Trans National Corporations (TNCs), act as a driving force
toward regionalism. These TNCs, whose host countries are not part of a given regional
trade agreement, find themselves in a disadvantaged commercial situation with respect
to competing companies belonging to the regional organization in question.
•Ravenhil(2008) said that disadvantaged TNCs will lobby their national governments to
sign similar trade agreements in order to end their disadvantaged commercial situation.
•Many policy makers and scholars think that globalization must be regulated and
managed. The threats of an “ungoverned globalization” can be countered what Jacoby
and Meunier(2010) called managed globalization –refers to all attempts to make
globalization more palatable to citizens.
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Module 2Topic 1: The Globalization of Religion The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Today, most religions are not relegated to the countries where they began. Religions,
have, in fact, spread and scattered on a global scale. Globalization provided religions a
fertile milieu to spread and thrive. Globalization has also allowed religion or faith to gain
considerable significance and importance as a non-territorial touchstone of identity.
Being a source of identity and pride, religion has always been promoted by its
practioners so that it could reach the level of globality and be embraced by so many
people as possible. Globalization of Religion
Turner (2007) explained that globalization transforms the generic “religion” into a world-
system of competing and conflicting religions. This process of institutional specialization
has transformed local, diverse and fragmented cultural practices into recognizable
systems of religion. Globalization has, therefore, had the paradoxical effect of making
religions more self-conscious of themselves as being “world religions”. Such conflicts
among world religions exhibit a solid proof confirming the erosion and the failure of
hybridization. Globalization, as stated in the above excerpt, makes religions more
conscious of themselves as being “world religions” reinforcing their respective specific
identities. These identities are strengthened by globalization and cannot, in any way,
intermingle or hybridize.
Religion seek to assert its identity in the light of globalization. As a result, different
religious identities come to the fore and assert themselves. Such assertions of religious
identities constitute a defensive reaction to globalization. Scholte (2005), in this respect,
maintained, “At the same time as being pursued through global channels, assertions of
religious identity have, nationalists strivings, often also been partly a defensive reaction
to globalization”.
•It had been difficult for religion to cope with values that accompany globalization like
liberalism, consumerism, and rationalism. Such phenomena advocate scientism
andsecularism. •This, in fact, pushed Scholte (2005) to speak of the anti-rationalist
faiths. Since he equated rationalism with globalization and considered religion anti-
rationalist, it can be deduced that religion is anti-globalization. •According to Scholte
(2005) “transplanetary relations helped to stimulate and sustain some renewals of anti-
rationalists faith, but global networks have more usually promoted activities involving
rationalist knowledge. Contemporary revivalist movements have largely replayed a long-
term tendency –one that well predates contemporary accelerated globalization –
whereby certain religious circles have from time to time revolted against modern
secularism and scientism.”
•As Scholte (2005) made clear ”Accelerated globalization of recent times has enabled
co-religionists across the planet to have greater direct contact with one another. Global
communications, global organizations, global finance, and the like have allowed ideas of
the Muslims and the universal Christian Church to be given concrete shape as never
before”.

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Module 2 Topic 2: Origins and History of Globalization The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
There are many perspectives about how globalization started and these are the five
different perspectives :1.Hardwired2.Cycles3.Epoch4.Events5.Broad changes Origins
and History of Globalization
According to Chanda (2007), it is because of our basic human needs to make lives
better that made globalization possible. Therefore, one can trace the beginning of
globalization from our ancestors in Africa who walked out from the said continent in the
late Ice Age. This long journey finally led them to all-known continents today, roughly
after 50,000 years ago. Hardwired
Chanda (2007) mentioned that commerce, religion, politics and warfare are the “urges”
of people toward a better life. These are respectively connected to four aspects of
globalization and they can be traced all throughout history: trade, missionary work,
adventures and conquest.
•For some globalization is a long-term cyclical process and thus, finding its origin will be
a daunting task. What is important is the cycles that globalization has gone through
(Scholte, 2005). Subscribing to this view will suggest adherence to the idea that other
global ages have appeared. There is also the notion to suspect that this point of
globalization will soon disappear and reappear. Cycles
•Ritzer (2015) cited Therborn’s (2000) great epochs of globalization. These are also
called “waves” and each has its own origin. The following are the sequential occurrence
of the epochs:1. globalization of religion (4th-7th centuries)2. European colonial
conquests (late 15th century)3. Intra-European wars ( late 18th to early 19th
centuries)4. Heyday of European imperialism (mid-19th century to 1918)5. Post-World
War II Period6. Post-Cold War periodEpoch
•Specific events are also considered as part of the fourth view in explaining the origin of
globalization. Several points can be treated as the start of globalization. Gibbon (1998),
for example, argued that Roman conquests centuries before Christ were its origin.
Rosenthal (2007) gave premium to the voyages of discovery –Christopher Columbus’s
discovery of America in 1492, Vasco De Gama in Cape of Good Hope in 1498, and
Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. Events
•The recent years could be also regarded as the beginnings of globalization with
reference to specific technological advances in transportation and communication.
Some examples include the first transatlantic telephone cable (1956), the first
transatlantic television broadcasts (1962), the founding of the modern internet in 1988,
and the terrorist attacks on the Twin Towers in New York (2001).
•These broad changes happened in the last of the 20th century. Scholars today point to
these three notable changes as the origin of globalization that we know today. They are
as follows:1. The emergence of the United States as the global power (post-World War
II)2. The emergence of multi-national corporations (MNCs)3. The demise of the Soviet
Union and the end of the ColdWarBroader, More Recent Changes

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Module 2 Topic 3: Global Demography The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Demographic transition is a singular historical period during which mortality and fertility
rates decline from high to low levels in a particular country or region. The broad outlines
of the transition are similar in countries around the world, but the place and timing of the
transaction have varied considerably. Global Demography
•The transition started in mid or late 1700s in Europe. During that time, death rates and
fertility began to decline. High to low fertility happened 200 years in France and 100
years in United States. In other parts of the world, the transition began later. It was only
in the 20thcentury that mortality decline in Africa and Asia, with the exemption of Japan.
According to Maddison (2001), life expectancy in India was only 24 years in the early
20thcentury while same life expectancy occurred in China in 1929 until 1931.
•Fertility decline in Asia did not begin until 1950s and so on. In the case of Japan, it was
until the 1930s that “total fertility rate did not drop below five births per woman”
(Shigeyuki, et. al. 2002). This resulted in rapid population growth after the World War II,
affecting the age structure of Asia and the developing world. Specifically, the baby
boom in the developing world was caused by the decline of infant and child mortality.
The West, on the other hand, experienced baby boom that resulted from rising birth
rates.
A remarkable effect of the demographic transition, as Shigeyuki et. al, (2002) stated, is “
the enormous gap in life expectancy that emerged between Japan and the West on the
one hand and the rest of the world on the other”. By 1820, the life expectancy at birth of
Japan and the West was 12 years greater than other countries.
There was a reverse in global population shares during the 20thcentury as Africa, Asia,
Latin America and Oceania had high levels of population growth rates. The United
Nations projected the population growth will be shifted toward Africa. It is estimated that
by 2150, the regions’ share to the world population will be almost 20 percent, relatively
much greater than its share in 1820 (7%) and 1900 (6%). Also in 2150, there will be a
projected increase of two billion if we combine the populations of Asia, Latin America
and Oceania.

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Module 2 Topic 4: Global MigrationThe Contemporary World (Coworld)
Migration is one key factors of globalization. The nuances of the movements of people
around the world can be seen through the categories of migrants –“vagabonds” and
“tourists” (Bauman, 1998). GLOBAL MIGRATION
•Vagabondsare on the move “because they have to be” (Ritzer, 2015) –they are not
faring well in their home countries and are forced to move in the hope that their
circumstances will improve. Tourists, on the other hand, are on the move because they
want to be and because they can afford it. Refugees are vagabonds forced to flee their
home countries due to safety concerns (Haddad, 2003). Asylum seekers are refugees
who seek to remain in the country to which they flee.
•According to Kritz(2008), those who migrate to find work are involved in labor
migration. Labor migration is driven by “push” factors as well as “pull” factors. Labor
migration mainly involves the flow of less-skilled and unskilled workers, as well as illegal
immigrants who live on the margins of the host society (Landler, 2007).
Migration is traditionally governed either by “push” factors such as political persecution,
economic depression, war and famine in the home country or by “pull” factors such as
favorable immigration policy, labor shortage, and similarity of language and culture in
the country of destination (Ritzer, 2015). Global factors, which facilitate easy access to
information about the country of destination, also exert a significant influence.
•According to Malkin(2007), the Philippines is one of the leaders when it comes to the
flow of remittances ($14.7 billion), next to India ($24.5 billion) and China ($21.1
billion).•The term “diaspora” has been increasingly used to describe migrant
communities. Paul Gilroy’s (1993) conceptualization of the diaspora as a transnational
process, which involves dialogue to both imagined and real locales.
Diasporizationand globalization are closely interconnected and the expansion of the
latter will lead to an increase in the former (Dufoix, 2007). Today, there exists “virtual
diasporas”(Laguerre, 2002) which utilize technology such as the internet to maintain the
community network.

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Module 3 Topic 1: Economic Globalization and Global Trade The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
According to the United Nations –Economic globalization refers to the increasing
interdependence of world economies as a result of the growing scale of cross-border
trade of commodities and services, flow of international capital, and wide and rapid
spread of technologies. Economic Globalization and Global Trade
•There are two different types of economies associated with economic
globalization:•Protectionismmeans “a policy of systematic government intervention in
foreign trade with the objective of encouraging domestic production. This
encouragement involves giving preferential treatment to domestic producers and
discriminating against foreign competitors” (McAleese, 2007)Trade protectionism
usually comes in the form of quotas and tariffs. Tariffs are required fees on imports and
exports.
•Trade liberalization or free trade means goods and services move around the world
more easily . Trade liberalizationis the removal or reduction of restrictions or barriers on
the free exchange of goods between nations. These barriers include tariffs, such as
duties and surcharges, and nontariff, such as licensing rules and quotas.
Globalization made some countries, especially the developing ones, to gain more in the
global economy at the expense of other nations. There are various ways, however, the
country can make trade easier with other countries while lessening the inequities in the
global world. One of them is “fair trade” (Nicholls & Opal, 2005). Fair trade is defined
as “concern for the social, economic, and environmental well-being of marginalized
producers (Downie, 2007).
Fair trade aims for a more moral and equitable global economic system that is
concerned with protection of workers and producers, establishment of more just prices,
engagement in environmentally sound practices and sustainable production, creation of
relationships between producers in the South and consumers in the North, and
promotion of safe working environment. A concrete example of fair trade is the case of
American coffee chains where coffee from taken from the South.
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Module 3 Topic 2: Economic Globalization and Sustainable Development The
Contemporary World (Coworld)
There are some significant downsides to globalize trade and perhaps the strongest
argument against economic globalization is its lack of sustainabilityor the degree to
which the earth’s resources can be used for our needs, even in the future. Economic
Globalization and Sustainable Development
•Sustainable development is defined as development of our world today using the
earth’s resources and the preservation of such resources for the future. Common
challenges in sustainability are environmental degradation and food security.
Environmental degradation became blatant during the Industrial Revolution where the
concept of efficiency was introduced.Efficiencymeans finding the quickest possible way
of producing large amounts of a particular product. This process made buying of goods
easier to the people. Then, there is an increased demand.
•There was an increase in demand that yields higher efficiency. This cycle harms the
planet in a number of ways. For instance, the earth’s atmosphere is damaged by more
carbon emissions from factories around the world. Also the destruction of coral reefs
and marine biodiversity as more and more wastes are thrown into the ocean.Harvey
(2005) noted that neoliberalsand environmentalistsdebate the impact of of free trade on
the environment. Environmentalist argue that environmental issues should be given
priority over economic issues (Antonio, 2007).
Neoliberals see the efforts of the environmentalists as serious impediments to trade. But
some seek to integrate in other approaches like ecological modernization theory which
sees globalization as a process that can both protect and enhance the environment
(Yearley, 2007). Kyoto Protocol aimed at a reduction of global carbon emissions, but
failed to take off largely because it was not ratified by the United States (Armitage,
2005). There are measures like “carbon tax” and “carbon neutrality” to deal with
environmental problems (Ritzer, 2015).
Global food security means delivering sufficient food to the entire world population. It
should be a priority of all countries, it also means the sustainability of society such as
population growth, climate change, water scarcity, and agriculture. The challenges to
food security can be traced to the protection of the environment. A major environmental
problem is the destruction of natural habitats, particularly, deforestation (Diamond,
2006).
Other challenges are industrial fishing, declining usable farmland, and availability of
fresh water. Other challenges are destruction of water ecosystem, pollution through
toxic chemicals, greenhouse gases, melting of glacial ice, flooding, reduction of
alkalinity of the oceans, and other destructions of existing ecosystems. Ultimately,
global warming poses a threat to the global supply of food as well as to human health
(Brown, 2007). Population growth contributes to increase consumption that intensify
ecological problem.
The UN promotes sustainable agriculture as the second of its 17 Sustainable
Development Goals (SDGs) for the year 2030. The World Economic Forum (2010)
addressed the issue through New Vision for Agriculture(NVA) where public-private
partnerships were established. This is a cooperation that encourage exchange of
knowledge among farmers, government, civil society and the private sectors.

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Module 3 Topic 3: Economic Globalization, Poverty, and Inequality The Contemporary
World (Coworld)
Most big companies search for cheapest sources of raw materials and labor because of
economic and trade globalization. The result is that labor-intensive products like shoes
are often produced in countries with the lowest wages and the weakest regulations.
Economic Globalization, Poverty, and Inequality
The multiplier effect means an increase in one economic activity can lead to an increase
in other economic activities. For instance, investing in local businesses will lead to more
jobs and more income. Economic globalization has helped millions of people get out of
extreme poverty but the challenge of the future is to lift up the poor while at the same
time keep the planet livable. Opponents of economic globalization called the
outsourcing of jobs as exploitation and oppression, a form of economic colonialism that
puts profit before people.
Globalization and inequality are closely related. There are two main types of economic
inequality: wealth inequality and income inequality. Wealth refers to the net worth of a
country; all assets of a nation –natural, physical and human less than liabilities. Wealth
inequality speaks about the distribution of assets. To measure global economic
inequality, economists look at income using Gross Domestic Product(GDP).
This “explosion” of industry and modern technology causes economic differences
among nations. The result is economic gap. Today, economic globalization and
international trade are the forces responsible for global inequality. Access to technology
also contributed to worldwide income inequality. In modernized economies, jobs are
more technology-based, generally requiring new skills. This is referred as skill-based
technological change.
Division of the world comes in different labels. The term “First, Second and Third World”
date back to the Cold War, when Western policymakers began talking about the world
as three distinct political and economic blocs. Western capitalist countries were labeled
as the “First World”. The Soviet Union and its allies were termed the “Second World”.
Everyone else was grouped into “Third World”.
After the Cold War ended, the category of Second World countries became null and
void, but somehow the terms “First World” and the “Third World” stuck around in the
public consciousness. The Third World b ecame associated with impoverished
states, while the First World was associated with rich, industrialized countries. But the
term “First World” and “Third World” aside from being outdated, are also inaccurate
because of different levels of economic stability. Another classification was North-South,
when the Second World joined either the First or the Third.
United States, Canada, Western Europe, and developed parts of Asia are regarded as
the “Global North”, while the “Global South” includes the Caribbean, Latin America,
South America, Africa, and parts of Asia. These distinctions point largely to racial
inequality, specifically between the Black and the White. According to Ritzer (2015), “At
the global level, whites are disproportionately in the dominant North, while blacks are
primarily in the south; although this is changing with South-to-North migration”.

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Module 3 Topic 4: The Global City The Contemporary World (Coworld)
The rural-urban differentiation has a significant relationship to globalization.
Globalization has deeply altered North-South relations in agriculture. For instance, the
relations of agricultural production have been altered due to the rise of global
agribusiness and factory farms (McMichael, 2007).The Global City
•In the scenario of relations between North and South in agriculture, the South produces
non-traditional products for export and become increasingly dependent on industrialized
food exports from the North. Consequently, this leads to a replacement of the staple diet
as well as the displacement of local farmers.
•Sassen(1991) used the concept of global cities to describe the three urban centers of
New York, London and Tokyo as economic centers that exert control over the world’s
political economy. World Cities are categorized as such based on the global reach of
organizations found in them. Not only are there inequalities between cities, there also
exists inequalities within each city (Beaverstock, 2002). According to Castells (2000)
these global cities can be seen as important nodes in a variety of global networks.
Although cities are major beneficiaries of globalization, Bauman (2003) claimed that
they are also most severely affected by global problems. Therefore, the city faces
peculiar political problems, wherein it is often fruitlessly seeking to deal locally with
global problems and “local politics has become hopelessly overloaded.

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Module 3 Topic 5: Theories of Global Stratification The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Theories of stratification explain reasons why some parts of the world develop faster
economically compare to others like modernization theory, dependency theory and
modern world-system. Theories of Global Stratification
Modernization Theory frames global stratification as a function of technological and
cultural differences between nations. Like the history of Western Europe, the Columbian
Exchange –spread of goods, technology, education and diseases between Americas
and Europe after Columbus so called “discovery of Americas”. An then, the Industrial
Revolution, when new technologies allowed countries to replace human labor with
machines and increase productivity. So modernization theory, rests on the ideas that
affluence could be attained by anyone.
•Modernization theory, in general, argues that if you invest capital in a better
technologies, they will eventually raise production enough that there will be more wealth
to go around and overall well-being will go up. Furthermore, rich countries can help
other countries that are still growing by exporting their technologies. •Walt
Rostowdivided modernization in four stages: traditional stage, take-off stage,
technological maturity and high mass consumption. These stages describes
modernization process in the West.
Dependency theory was a product of colonial experiences. Dependencyis a condition in
which the development of the nation-states of the South contributed to a decline in their
independence and to an increase in economic development of the countries in the
North. (Cardoso & Felato, 1979). It argues that liberal trade causes greater
impoverishment to less developed countries. Dependency theory focuses on how poor
countries have been wronged by richer nations because global stratification starts with
colonialism. .
Another common assumption of the theory is that even after de-colonization, there are
still important ties between the developed and less developed countries, which mainly
consist in the exploitation od peripheral natural resources and workforce by the center
(Anton, 2006). Dependency theorists saw the development of peripheral nations is
stagnant because of the exploitative nature of the core nations (Ferraro, 2008). Less
developed periphery countries are said to primarily serve the interests of the wealthier
countries.
Cardoso & Felato(1979) believed that Latin American economies were the results of
capitalist expansion in the United States and Europe. The idea of dependence refers to
the conditions under which alone the economic and political system can exist and
function in its connections with the world productive structure. In other words, it was
used to underscore the extent to which the economic and political development of poor
countries was conditioned by the global economy, whose center of gravity was located
in the developed countries.
The Modern World System was a model by American sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.
He described high-income nations as the “core” of the world economy. This core is the
manufacturing base of the planet where resources funnel in to become the technology
and wealth enjoyed by the Western world today. Low-income countries, meanwhile, are
called the “periphery”, whose natural resources and labor support the wealthier
countries.
In Wallerstein’smodel, the periphery remains economically dependent on the core in a
number of ways, which tend to reinforce each other ( also called as neocolonialism).
Critics of this theory argues that the world economy is not a zero-sum game –one
country getting richer does not mean other countries are getting poorer. Innovation and
technological growth can spill over to other countries, improving all nations’ well-being
and not just the rich.

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Module 4 Topic 1: International Financial Institutions and Economic OrganizationsThe
Contemporary World (Coworld)
Economy became one of the social institutions that has the biggest impacts on society.
It is a social institutions that organizes all production, consumption, and trade of goods
in the society. Economic systems vary from one society to another. But any given
economy, production typically splits into three sectors. Market Integration
The primarysector extracts raw materials from natural environments. The
secondarysector gains the raw materials and transforms them into manufactured goods.
The tertiary sector involves services rather than goods. It offers services by doing things
rather than making things. International Financial Institutions •The following are the
financial institutions and economic organizations that made countries even closer
together, at least, when it comes to trade:
Because of the fear of the recurrence of lack of cooperation among nation-states after
WW I and II, political instability and economic turmoil, reduction of barriers to trade and
free flow of money among nations became the focus to restructure the world economy
and ensure global financial stability. It has five elements:1.The expression of currency in
terms of gold or gold value to establish a par value. Bretton Wood System
2. The official monetary authority in each country ( central bank or equivalent) would
agree to exchange its own currency for those of other countries at the established
exchange rates, plus or minus a one-percent margin. 3. The establishment of an
overseer for these exchange rates; thus, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) was
founded. 4. Eliminating restrictions on the currencies of member states in the
international trade. 5. That the U.S. dollar became the global currency.
One of the systems born out of Bretton Woods was the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) that was established in 1947. GATT was a forum for the meeting of
representatives from 23 member countries. It focused on trade goods through
multinational trade agreements conducted in many “rounds” of negotiation. However, it
was out of Uruguay Round (1986-1993) than agreement was reached to create the
World Trade Organization (WTO).
Unlike GATT, World Trade Organization is an independent multilateral organization that
became responsible for trade in services, non-tariff related barriers to trade, and other
broader areas of trade liberalization. The general idea where the WTO is based was
that of neoliberalism. This means that by reducing or eliminating barriers , all nations will
benefit. There criticisms against WTO, one is that the trade barriers created by
developed countries cannot be countered enough by WTO, especially in agriculture.
International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank (WB) were founded after the World
War II. Their establishment was mainly because of peace advocacy after the war. They
were designed to complement each other. The IMF’s main goal was to help countries
which were in trouble at that time and who could not obtain money by any means. IMF
served as a lender or a last resort for countries which needed financial assistance. The
WB, in comparison, had a more long-term approach, its main goals revolved around the
eradication of poverty and it funded specific projects that helped them reach their goals,
especially in poor countries.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) has 36 rich countries
membership founded in 1961. It is highly influential, despite the group having little
formal power. This emanates from the member countries’ resources and economic
power. It is a forum of countries describing themselves as committed todemocracyand
themarket economy, providing a platform to compare policy experiences, seek answers
to common problems, identify good practices and coordinate domestic and international
policies of its members.
Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was founded in 1960, originally
comprises of Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran and Venezuela. OPEC was formed
because member countries wanted to increase the price of oil, which in the past had a
relatively low price and had failed in keeping up with inflation. Today, the United Arab
Emirates, Algeria, Qatar, Nigeria and Indonesia are also included as members.
The European Union (EU) is made up of 28 member states. Most members in the
Eurozone adopted the euro as basic currency but some Western European nations like
Great Britain, Sweden and Denmark did not. Critics argue that euro increased the prices
in Eurozonesand resulted in depressed economic growth rates, like Greece, Spain and
Portugal. North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) is a trade pact between the
Unites States, Mexico and Canada created on January 1, 1994 when Mexico joined the
two nations. It was created in 1989, with only Canada and U.S. as trading partners. It
helps in developing and expanding world trade by broadening international cooperation.
It also aims to increase cooperation for improving working conditions in North America
by reducing barriers to trade as it expands the markets of the three countries.

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Module 4 Topic 2: History of Global Market Integration The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
The Agricultural RevolutionThe first big economic change was Agricultural Revolution.
When people learned how to domesticate plants and animals, they realized that it was
much more productive than hunter-gatherer societies. History of Global Market
Integration
This became the new agricultural economy. Farming helped societies build surpluses.
This led to major developments like permanent settlements, trade networks, and
population growth. Industrial Revolution (1800s)With the rise of industry came new
economic tools, like steam engines, manufacturing and mass production. Factories
popped up and changed how work functioned. People began working as wage laborers
and then becoming more specialized in their skills. Productivity went up, standards of
living rose, and people had access to a wider variety of goods due to mass production.
There were economic casualties, especially the workers in factories who worked in
dangerous conditions for low wages. It resulted a greater economic inequality because
19thcentury industrialists accumulated greater wealth. This is the beginning of labor
unions. These organizations of workers sought to improve wages and working
conditions through collective action, strikes, and negotiations. Inspired by Marxist
principles, labor unions gave way for minimum wag laws, reasonable working hours,
and regulations to protect the safety of workers.
Capitalism is one of the two competing economic models the other one is Socialism. It
sprung up around the time of Industrial Revolution, as economic capital became more
and more important to the production of goods. Capitalismis a system in which all
natural resources and means of production are privately owned. It emphasized profit
maximization and competition as the main drivers of efficiency.
This means that when one owns business, he needs to outperform his competitors if he
is going to succeed. He is incentivized to be more efficient by improving quality of one’s
product and reducing its prices. From the idea of Adam Smith in the 1770s, that if one
leaves a capitalist economy alone, consumers will regulate things themselves by
selecting goods and services that provide the best value.
In a socialist system, the means of production are under collective ownership. It rejects
capitalist’s private property and hand-off approaches. Instead, in socialism, property is
owned by the government and allocated to all citizens, not only those with the money to
afford it. Socialismemphasizes collective goals, expecting everyone to work for the
common good and placing a higher value on meeting everyone’s basic needs than on
individual profit.
When Karl Marx first wrote about socialism, he viewed it as a stepping stone toward
communism, a political and economic system in which all members of a society are
socially equal. In practice, this has not played out in countries that have modeled their
economies on socialism like Cuba, North Korea, China and the USSR.
Technology has reduced the role of human labor and shifted it from a manufacturing-
based economy to one that is based on service work and the production of ideas rather
than goods. This has had a lot of residual effects on our economy. Computers and other
technologies are beginning to replace many jobs because of automation or outsourcing
jobs offshore. Agricultural jobs have fallen drastically over the last century even the
manufacturing jobs also declined over the years. Most the economies shifted to tertiary
sector or the service industry. The Information Revolution
The service industry is a big and diverse group as defined mainly by what it produces
rather than what kinds of jobs it includes. The primary labor market includes jobs that
provide many benefits to workers, like high incomes, job security, health insurance, and
retirement packages. Secondary labor market jobs provide fewer benefits and include
lower-skilled jobs and lower-level service sectors jobs. They tend to pay less, have
more unpredictable schedules, and typically do not offer benefits like health insurance.
They also tend to have less job security.
Part of the contemporary economic and political landscape is corporation.
Corporationsare defined as organizations that exist as legal entities and have liabilities
that are separate from its members. They are their own thing. Corporations are
operating across national boundaries which means that the future of most countries’
economies will play out on a global scale.

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Module 4 Topic 3: Global Corporations The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Global CorporationsThe increase in international trade has both created and been
supported by international regulatory groups, like WTO, and transnational trade
agreements, like NAFTA. There is not a single country that is completely independent.
All are dependent to some degree on international trade for their own prosperity.
Without international trade, there would be no need for international regulatory groups.
Without the international regulatory groups, international trade at the current massive
scale would be impractical. The trade regulatory groups and agreements regulate the
flow of goods and services between countries. They reduce tariffs, which are taxes on
imports, and make customs procedures easier. This make trading across national
borders much more feasible.
The international trade agreements often benefit private industries the most. Companies
can produce their goods and services across many different countries. These
companies that extend beyond borders of one country are called multinational or
transnational corporations (MNCs or TNCs). They are also referred to as global
corporations. MNChas an international identity as belonging to a particular home
country where they are headquartered.
Atransnational company is borderless, as it does not consider any particular country as
its base, home or headquarters.Transnational corporations(TNCs) are a type
ofmultinational corporations.Global corporations intentionally surpass national borders
and take advantage of opportunities in different countries to manufacture, distribute,
market, and sell their products.
Global corporations often locate their factories in countries which can provide the
cheapest labor in order to save up for expenses in the making of a product. As a result,
developing nations will provide incentives, like tax-free trade zones or cheap labor. In
the end, these incentives often hurt the working population of the developing nation.
The global corporations also influence politics and allow workers to be exploited.
Positive effects of global corporations include better allocation of resources, lower
prices for products, more employment worldwide, and higher product output. The
changes a country experiences from international trade are not only economic. Many of
the cultural changes are as important and sometimes, even more obvious than the
economic changes the nation can experience. Cultural practices and expressions are
also passed between nations, spreading from group to group.
Nowadays, mass media and the internet allow the transfer of ideas almost
instantaneously. This is most commonly seen in the transmission of scientific
knowledge and spreading of the North American culture, which dominates the Internet.
International trade and global corporations, along with the internet and more global
processes, contribute to globalization because people and corporations bring their own
beliefs, their traditions, and their money with them when they interact with other
countries.

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Module 5Topic 1: Global Governance in the 21st Century The Contemporary World
(Coworld)
Global Governance in the 21st Century Globalization of politics created an atmosphere
where the ideas nation-state, state sovereignty, government control, and state policies
are challenged from all sides. With globalization, some scholars suggest a decrease in
the power of the state and that other actors are actually becoming more powerful.
These actors include multinational corporations and global civil society organizations,
like the Red Cross.
There many challenges in keeping the idea of nation-state in the contemporary world.
One of them is the idea of national autonomy comes from the non-state actors. One of
the these is the private capital groups, including banks and group of people, with money
that can determine the well-being of people in a particular area.
Multinational corporations and non-governmental organizations, such as Amnesty
International, are significant organizations that put into question the strength of national
autonomy and global politics. The emergence of non-state organizations like Al-Qaeda,
ISIS, and terrorist organizations, which seek power try to depose a government and
replace system with their own ideological belief.
There are specific factors behind the emergence of global governance:1.The declining
power of nation-states.2.The vast flows of all sorts of things that run and often right
through the borders of nation-states. This could involve the flow of digital information of
sorts through the internet. Global Governance in the 21stCentury
3. Mass migration of people and their entry, often illegally, into various nation-states. If
states are unable to control this flow, then there is a need for some sort of global
governance to help deal with the problem. 4. The horrendous events within nation-
states that the states themselves either foment and carry out, or are unable to control.5.
Global financial crises and panic that sweep the world periodically, which nations are
often unable to deal with on their own.

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Module 5Topic 2: Effects of Globalization to GovernmentsThe Contemporary World
(Coworld)
Effects of Globalization to GovernmentsThere have been several challenges to the
government and ultimately, to state autonomy:1. Traditional challenges2. Challenges
from national or identity movements3. Global economics4. Global social movements
External intervention like invasion by other countries could be a challenge to a
sovereign state. Example is the invasion of Kuwait by Iraq (Saddam Hussein) in 1990.It
was dislodged by an international coalition led by the U.S. It could also be be internal
political challenges like the Arab Spring in Egypt. Traditional Challenges
Nationhas cultural identity that people attached to, while a state is a definite entity due
to its specific boundaries. However, different people with different identities can live in
different boundaries. For example, the Kurds reside in several different countries
including Iraq, Iran and Turkey. The Catalans live primarily in Spain but we can also find
some of them in France. Challenges from National/ Identity Movements
Scottish nationalism is another example that challenges the traditional notions of state
sovereignty. In 2014, Great Britain had a vote in Scotland to decide whether Scotland
was going to become its own autonomous state apart from Great Britain. They voted
against it but Scotland has a significant degree of autonomy now as compared to more
than two decades years ago. Global movements, such as the Al-Qaeda, and ISIS, are
another example of national or identity movements. In this case, they are structured
around the fundamentalist version of Islam.
Global economy demands the states to conform to the rules of free-market capitalism.
Government austerity comes from the developments of organizations that cooperate
across countries, such as WTO and regional agreements, such as NAFTA, the
European Union (EU), and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).
Neoliberalism economics or neoliberal capitalism started in the 1980s. It focuses on free
trade and dismantling trade barriers. Global Economy
It made sure that governments did not impose restrictive regulations on corporate
presence, as well as on the free flow of capital and jobs. Free trade was seen as the
ideal or the normative belief, that is, the best economy is one where there is free trade
everywhere. Laws and standards that would interfere with the flow of capital in a
particular country, including environmental regulations, were deemed to discourage
economic growth.
Neoliberalism economies requires a state to cooperate in the global market through free
flow of capital, the privatization of services, and fiscal austerity or constraint. In turn, the
government’s role is diminished as it relates to the market. Neoliberal economics is
seen as a threat, in general, because a state cannot protect its own economic interest
as a sovereign state.
Social movements are movements of people that are spontaneous or that emerge
through enormous grassroots organization. These social movements are transnational
movements which means they occur across countries and across borders. Therefore,
states have less control over them. Example, human rights movements create a public
sentiment, value, and agenda. The idea is that there are certain rights that states cannot
neglect or generally, what we call human rights. Global Social Movements.

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Module 5Topic 3: The Relevance of the State amidGlobalization The Contemporary
World (Coworld)
The Relevance of the State amidGlobalizationThe state is a distinctive political
community with its own set of rules and practices and that is more or less separate from
other communities. The state is distinct from the concept of a nation.
A variety of arguments are made including that nation-states continue to be the major
players on the global stage, that they “retain at least some power in the face of
globalization” and the rumors of the demise of nation-state are greatly exaggerated.
Beland (2008) argued that “the role of the state is enduring –and even increasing –in
advanced industrial societies”. He saw greater demands being placed on the state
because of four major sources of collective insecurity: terrorism; economic globalization,
leading to problems such as outsourcing and pressures towards downsizing, as well the
current economic crisis; threats to national identity due to immigration; and the spread
of global diseases such as AIDS.
Further, the state does not only respond to these threats, but may also exaggerate or
create dangers, thereby making its citizens more insecure (Glassner, 2000). The other
side of this argument in support of the nation-state is that global processes of various
kinds are not as powerful as many believe.
For example, global business pales in comparison to business within many countries. It
would be a mistake simply to see globalization as a threat to, a constraint on, the
nation-state; it can also be an opportunity for the nation-state (Conley, 2002).

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Module 6Topic 1: Institutions that Govern InternationalRelations The Contemporary
World (Coworld)
Institutions that Govern InternationalRelations There are several international
organizations that governments of countries around the world and individuals participate
in. These include United Nations, the International Court of Justice, NAFTA and NATO.
There are also non-governmental organizations promoting social and economic growth.
The United Nations (UN) is one of the leading political organizations in the world where
nation-states meet and deliberate. However, it remains as an independent actor in
global politics. Generally, its functions in four areas: military issues, economic issues,
environmental issues and human protection. It is made up of 193 member states. Peace
Treaties and s: The UN and NATO
The term UN was coined by US President Franklin Roosevelt in 1942. Its operations
began on October 24, 1945. It started with 50 representatives countries. The UN, with
its headquarters in New York City, was designed to be a place where countries could
come to discuss their issues without resorting to violence and war. Maintaining peace
and building friendships and providing a forum where countries could gather to discuss
global issues. Maintaining international peace and security became the central mission
of the UN after the war.
The UN has the Security Council, this group of countries decides what to do when two
or more countries are waging war or are on the verge of fighting. There are five
permanent members of the UN Security Council –the United States, Great Britain,
Russia, China, and France. In addition to the five members, 10 additional countriesjoin
the permanent members for two-year terms, making a total of 15 countries.
The Security Council tries to be the arbiter in ceasefires between two sides. They can
pass sanctions like block trade with another country as a punishment. They can send
troops or observers and, if worst comes to worst, they can use military force. The “big
five” permanent members have a veto power, which means that one member can stop
the entire council from taking action against a country.
The General Assembly provides a forum for member states to express their views and
reach a consensus. The UN is not all about fights. It has a program called UNICEF
(United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund), its primary goal is to help children around
the world. They collect funds to distribute emergency relief from famine and poverty and
disease. It also provides education programs in areas where there are no schools.
The UN main focus in economic issues is the reduction of global inequality. The
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) cover a range of concerns for the improvement
of all aspects of life. According to the UN, sustainable development encompasses
economic prosperity, social well-being, and environmental protection. Environmental
issues, such as pollution and hazardous wastes, are addressed through United Nations
Environment Programme(UNEP). There is also UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change(IPCC) that took efforts in order to mitigate climate change.
The UN has the International Court of Justice (ICJ) located in the Hague, Netherlands
where countries can settle disputes in a court of law, as well as a place where war
criminals and rulers can be put to trial for their crimes. There is also another court which
is the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (ITLOS). Since 1948, human rights
have been brought into the realm of international law. This is reflected in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights. A variety of of UN-sponsored human rights treaties and
agreements have been done for human protection.
Other mechanisms include the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR), the Human Rights Council, human rights treaty bodies, the UN Development
Group’s Human Right Mainstreaming Mechanism(UNDG-HRM), and the Special
Advisers on the Preservation of Genocide and the Responsibility to Protect.
NATO –North Atlantic Treaty OrganizationNATO is a defensive treaty or military alliance
between the United States, Canada, and 25 European counties. This treaty and
international organization is based on the idea of collective security. The countries in
this organization basically agreed to combine their militaries and will protect its member
states.
Non-governmental organizations like Red Crosswere organized to help countries in dire
needs of support for emergency relief such as food, water, and medical supplies
especially for those homes or towns that have been destroyed by disaster or war. The
Red Cross remain neutral and would help the wounded from both sides of war. Their
headquarter is in Geneva, Switzerland. Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs)

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Module 6Topic 2: Globalization and Globalism The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Globalization and GlobalismWhen you encountered the word globalization you probably
think about links, connections, and interrelatedness of things, people, and countries,
however, when compared to globalism, globalization would be better described as the
“increase or decline in the degree of globalism” (Nye, 2002).
Globalism refers to the network of connections that transcends distances of different
countries in the world while globalization is the “increase or decline in the degree of
globalism” (Nye, 2002). In other words, the link among countries and people are better
associated with globalism while the speed which they become linked with one another is
globalization.
We can differentiate globalism and globalization in terms of its “thickness”, Globalism is
thin. As it becomes thicker, globalization happens. This means that being able to
connect countries in the world through a more dynamic and faster way is globalization.
Example will be global trade. In the past, Silk Road served as the trade routes among
countries in Europe and Asia. Aside from silk trade there were other exchanges of
goods and cultural interactions.
However, they were felt by a relatively small group of people, most especially those who
were actually on the road and did trades. The connections were not intense nor “thick”.
In contrast to the contemporary world, “globalism become increasingly thick” (Nye,
2002). This is where globalization comes in. If we look at the global trade today, it has
reached a greater number of people around the world. For example, the selling products
are not solely done through physical transactions but can be done online as well.
Nye(2002) gave “four distinct dimension of globalism: economic, military, environmental
and social”. Like economic globalism, the three other dimensions also become thicker
and faster as globalization intensifies. The enormous speed of potential conflict and
threat of nuclear war is an example of military globalism. In terms of environmental
globalism, global warming continues to accelerate. The last dimension, social and
cultural globalism, “involves movements of ideas, information, images, and of people
who carry ideas and information with them”.
For instance, religious ideas have spread throughout the world at greater scope and
speed. Religious teachings are delivered today though the mass media, such as
televisions, radio, and the internet. Unlike before, religious leaders had to walk by foot
and had to deliver their messages in a face-to-face manner.

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Module 6Topic 3: InformationalismThe Contemporary World (Coworld)
InformationalismGlobalism is tied to the notion of networks. For Castells(2000),
“networks constitute the fundamental pattern of life, of all kinds of life”. Since the world
is connected because of globalization, it continues to intensify connections between
people in different places.
People are connected with one another whether as a small community or as a large
community. And with this, there is an increase and rapid growth of information as the
binding force among people, things, and places around the globe. This technological
paradigm, associated with computer science and modern telecommunication, that
replaces industrialism is called informationalism(Castells, 2004). These are technology,
the media, and the internet.
McLuhan andFiore (2005) argued that in the New Media Age, the importance lies in the
medium, the way in which the message is transmitted, not necessary in the content
presented through the medium. This means that televisions, radios, and newspapers
have been shaping “individual subjectivity and culture, not only locally but globally”.
French social theorist Guy DeBord(1994) emphasized in his idea of media spectacle,
the sophistication and ubiquity of spectacular visual in televisions. This made TV news a
form of entertainment.
When one mentions online social networking, spam, and computer viruses, it is the
Internet that binds them all. According to Ritzer(2015), “The Internet has prompted a
flat world thesis; anyone can be involved in it, at least theoretically”. We can gain
information by accessing different websites through the Internet. In the same manner,
the information about ourselves that we share is also exposed.
While globalization allowed the expansion of information, access to modern
technologies is not a universal matter that is available to every person around the world.
The internet and other technologies are limited by certain barriers. These barriers
include lack of electricity, illiteracy, weak financial systems, and government regulations.
When one mentions online social networking, spam, and computer viruses, it is the
Internet that binds them all. The Internet is a mark of the contemporary world. According
to Ritzer(2015), “The Internet has prompted a flat world thesis; anyone can be involved
in ite, at least theoretically”.
Having a computer today in our homes, our schools, our workplaces, and accessing the
Internet through our personal cellphones allow us to be connected with the rest of the
world. We can gain information by accessing different websites, such as Facebook and
Wikipedia, through the Internet. In the same manner, the information about ourselves
that we share is also exposed.

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Module 6Topic 4: Global Citizenship The Contemporary World (Coworld)
Global CitizenshipCitizenship is associated with rights and obligations, for instance, the
right to vote and the obligation to pay taxes. Traditionally this is associated locally but
can the idea of citizenship be transferred to the global level?
CaeciliaJohanna van Peski(2012), defined global citizenship “as a moral and ethical
disposition that can guide the understanding of individuals or groups of local and global
contexts, and remind them of their relative responsibilities within various communities”.
Global citizens are the glue which binds local communities together in an increasingly
globalized world. According to Van Peski(2012) “global citizens might be a new type of
people that can travel within the various boundaries and somehow still make sense of
the world”. Global citizenship does not automatically entail a single attitude and a
particular value with globalization. We must remember that globalization is not a single
phenomenon; rather, there are many globalizations.
While some need to be multiple futures for multiple globalizations. These globalizations
created enemies because according to one broad view, globalization failed to deliver its
promises. The so-called bottom billion lacks infrastructures and has been
disenfranchised. The opponents of globalization blame either Westernization or global
capitalism.
There are three approaches to global economic resistance. Trade protectionism
involves the systematic government intervention in foreign trade through tariffs and
non-tariffs barriers in order to encourage domestic producers and deter their foreign
competitors (McAleese, 2007).
Fair trade is a different approach to economic globalization, which emerged as a
counter to neoliberal “free trade” principles. Fair trade aims at a more moral and
equitable global economic system in which, for instance, price is not set by the market;
instead, it is negotiated transparently by both producers and consumers. While it is
popular among consumers in the North, it has met only limited acceptance among
producers. Its ability to supply a mass market and its applicability to manufacture
products are also doubted.
The third form of resistance to economic globalization relates to helping the bottom
billion. Increasing aid is only one of the many measures that are required. International
norms and standards can be adapted to the needs of the bottom billion. The reduction
of trade barriers would also reduce the economic marginalization of these people and
their nations.
The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can Be Done
About Itis a 2007 book byPaul Collier, Professor of Economics atOxford University,
exploring the reasons why impoverished countries fail to progress despite international
aid and support. In the book Collier argues that there are many countries whose
residents have experienced little, if any, income growth over the 1980s and 1990s. On
his reckoning, there are just under 60 such economies, home to almost 1 billion people.
When it comes to dealing with political globalization, increased accountability(Germain,
2004) and transparencyare the key issues. All political organizations, at different levels,
should be more accountable for their actions because they now surrounded by an
“ocean of opacity” (Holzner& Holzner, 2006). Increased transparency has been aided by
various mechanisms such as transnational justice systems, international tribunals, civil
society, and particularly the Transparency International.
Like globalization, resistance to globalization is multiple, complex, contradictory, and
ambiguous. This movement also has the potential to emerge as the new public sphere,
which may uphold progressive values such as autonomy, democracy, peace, ecological
sustainability, and social justice. These forces of resistance are themselves are
products of globalization and can be seen as globalization from below (Smith, 2008).
According to dellaPorta, et. al. (2006), the impetus for such a movement comes from
the individuals, groups, and organizations which are oppressed by globalization from
above (neoliberal economic systems or aggressively expanding nations and
corporations). They seek a more democratic process of globalization. However,
globalization from below involves less visible, more right-wing elements, such as the
American First Party and the Taliban.
The World Social Forum (WSF) is centered on addressing the lack of democracy in
economic and political affairs (Fisher & Ponniah, 2003). However, the diversity of
elements involved in WSF hinders the development of concrete political proposals. A
significant influence on WSF has been that of cyberactivism, which is based on the
“cultural logic of networking” (Juris, 2005) and “virtual movements”, such as Global
Huaren.