Experiments in Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits (PDFDrive)
Experiments in Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits (PDFDrive)
Experiments in Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits (PDFDrive)
- -
David E. LaLond
Ji vA-3 John A. Ross
EXPERIMENTS IN
PRINCIPLES OF
ELECTRONIC DEVICES
AND CIRCUITS
by
David E. LaLond
and
John A. Ross
E>
Delmar Publishers Inc.™
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COPYRIGHT © 1994
BY DELMAR PUBLISHERS INC.
All rights reserved No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form
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123456 7 8 9 10 XXX 00 99 98 97 96 95 94
ISBN: 0-8273-4664-6
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 92-36004
CONTENTS
Preface vi
EXPERIMENTS
1 VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 1
2 THEVENIN’S THEOREM 5
3 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 3
6 RECTIFIER FORMS 21
9 VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 36
21 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 90
CONTENTS iii
25 CLASS C AMPLIFIERS 107
50 RC OSCILLATORS 206
67 TRIACS 274
70 IC REGULATORS 285
APPENDICES
A COMPOSITE EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS LIST . . 296
B DATASHEETS 300
PREFACE
assign (and expect every student to complete) all of the experiments available in
this manual. The tables on the following pages list a nominal assignment rate
on an assumed laboratory time of approximately eight lab hours per
that is based
week. In this list, some experiments are marked in italics. These specially
marked experiments could be deleted to accommodate shorter laboratory times
or slower work rates. In addition, the tables list supplementary experiments that
might be assigned for a particular program emphases or extra work for advanced
learners.
Suggested Experiments
Two-Quarter Program
1 1 Voltage Dividers
1 2 Thevenin’s Theorem 3 Superposition Theorem
1 4 TesT Equipment Limitations
2 5 The PN Junction Diode
3 6 Rectifier Forms
3 7 Capacitor Input Filters
3 8 Zener Regulation Of Power
Supplies
3 9 Voltage Multipliers
3 10 Signal Clippers and
Clamper
4 1 1 Basic BJT Characteristics
4 12 Beta Effects in the BJT
4 13 Emitter Bias of the BJT 14 Collector Feedback Bias
4 15 Voltage Divider Bias for
BJTs
7 27 JFET Characteristics
7 28 Self-Biased JFET
7 29 Voltage Divider Bias 30 Current Source Biased JFET
7 31 Common-Source JFET
Amplifiers
7 32 Commmon-Drain JFET
Amplifiers
8 33 Biasing D MOSFETS 34 MOSFET Amplifiers
9 35 BJT Switches
9 36 BJT Schmitt Trigger 38 UJT Relaxation Oscillators
9 37 JFET Switches 39 BJT Ramp Generators
12 45 Noninverting Voltage
Amplifiers
12 46 Inverting Voltage 47 Op-Amp Current
Amplifiers Amplifiers
12 48 Voltage-to-Current
Converters
12 49 Summing Amplifiers
13 50 RC OScillators
13 51 Colpitts and Clapp
Oscillators
13 52 Hartley Oscillators 53 Relaxation Oscillators
13 54 Differentiators and
Integrators
18 66 Silicon-Controlled
Rectifiers
18 67 Triacs 68 Full-Wave Phase Control
8 33 BiasingDMOSFETS
8 34 MOSFET Amplifiers
16 64 Digital-to-Analog
Conversion
17 65 555 Timer Circuits
18 66 Silicon-Controlled 67 Triacs
Rectifiers
18 68 Full- Wave Phase Control
3. The voltage dropped across any one resistor in a series circuit is "equal to
the ratio of that resistance value to the total resistance (Rx / Rt) times the
applied voltage (Va)."
You will see that the voltage divider principle is also used in series-parallel
circuits.This occurs when you place a "load" on one of the resistors in the volt-
age divider. The troubleshooting part of the experiment permits you to see the
effect of a resistor failure in your voltage divider circuit. You will also be able to
relate measurement values to circuit fault.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
S Prove that multiple voltages are available with the use of only one
power supply
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 1
The circuit shown below in
Figure 1.1 is the same one
explained in your textbook. SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Since all calculations for the
circuit are done, you are
1 . Adjust the variable power supply to 10 V. With the power supply turned
ready to construct this cir-
off, connect power to the circuit.
cuit on your breadboard.
2. Since you already know the expected voltage drops on each resistor, it is
now time to verify these calculated results. Use your multimeter to meas-
ure each voltage drop. Record your readings in the chart below.
Va =
Figure 1.1 Your calculated value of Va should agree (within the voltmeter accuracy). If
thereis a significant difference, recheck your measurements of steps 1,2, and 3
4. Using Ohm’s law, you can also prove that the current flowing through
this circuit is the same at any point in that path. This is accomplished by
taking each voltage drop and dividing it by its respective resistance
value. Record your results below.
5 . Construct the circuit shown in Figure 1 .2 and adjust the power supply to
10 V.
The portion of this lab starting The addition of a 1-kO load across Ri alters the makeup of the circuit in Figure
with step 5 will enable you to 1.2. This is due to the fact that the new load has provided another path for current
study the effect of a "load" on a to flow. Another item to consider will be the effect this load will have on total
voltage divider. The circuit used resistance and, therefore, total current.
in Figure 1 1 will be utilized so
.
2 EXPERIMENT!
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Using your digital multimeter, measure the voltage drop on each resistor
and record this reading below.
Va = Vri +Vr2 + V R3 -
Fault 2 - Load resistor open
1 . Using Figure 1 .2, let’s assume that the 1 -kI2 load resistor foils, or opens.
Rt = It =
Vri = VRLoad =
Vr2 = Vr3 =
Vr2 = Vr3 =
3. From your measured data it should be clear that the circuit fault lies with
R3 or Rl. List the measurement you would make to isolate the failure to
the specific resistor that failed.
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . In Section I you measured voltage drops and compared those to the calcu-
lated values in your textbook. Discuss the relationship of each resistor’s
ratio to the measured voltage drop.
VOLTAGE DIVIDERS 3
2. Discuss how a voltage divider could be used to supply a certain amount
of voltage to a circuit or to a component.
3. Discuss how you would connect a load that operates with a certain volt-
age/current demand to a voltage divider circuit (see Figure 1 .3).
Section II
Figure 1.3
1 . If the circuit of Figure 1 .4 were mounted in a printed circuit board,
describe the measurements you would make to be certain that the failure
was an open resistor rather than a break in the solder connection on the
board connecting one leg of R3 to the circuit board.
2. Referring to the loaded voltage divider circuit failure, could you with just
IMft
one voltage measurement determine if the failure was Rl instead of R3 ?
Explain why you chose your answer.
3 k ft
1 k ft Quick Check
1 . Solve for the voltage drops of the voltage divider shown in Figure 1.5.
3. Figure 1.6 shows a loaded voltage divider. With the information given,
determine the following values:
Vr3 = Iri=
lR2 = r2 =
4 EXPERIMENT 1
2
THEVENIN’S THEOREM
INTRODUCTION
Thevenin’s theorem provides a way to take a complex circuit and reduce it to a
simple Thevenin voltage (Vth) source in series with a Thevenin resistance
(Rth). Thevenin’s theorem is also used for simplifying circuits that involve more
than one power source. This experiment provides a functional review of the ap-
plication of Thevenin’s theorem and an experimental application.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
THEVENIN’S THEOREM 5
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
8kfl
i—vw
Figure 2.1
VLoad (calc.) =
3 . Adjust the power supply for 12V and connect this voltage to the circuit.
Using the circuit of Figure 2.1, Thevenize and reconstruct the circuit on
your breadboard.
Rth NOTE: The calculations for this particular circuit have been com-
pleted on pages 30 and 3 1 of the textbook. Figure 2.2 shows the
equivalent (Thevenized) circuit after your calculations.
R Load
2 kft
A standard 2.7-kfI resistor is used instead of the calculated 2.67-kQ
resistance shown on page 31 of the text. If you want to be more ac-
curate, use a potentiometer that is adjusted to 2.67 k£2 in place of
the 2.7-kii resistor.
VLoad(measured) ‘
_
6 EXPERIMENT 2
8kfi
6. To verify Rth, construct the circuit of Figure 2.3 and measure the
resistance at points A and B.
7. Turn off the circuit power and restore your circuit to that of Figure 2.1,
except use an 82-k£2 load resistance. Apply 12 VDC to the circuit and
measure the value of Vl.
Vl =
8. Calculate for your circuit the value of It, II, and Vl.
It = Il= Vl =
Vl =
11 . Using the Thevenin equivalent circuit form, calculate the value of It and
VL .
It = Vl =
Can you agree that calculations of circuit values are much easier us-
ing the "Thevenized" circuit form?
DISCUSSION
1 . Discuss the reasons for any differences you might have encountered be'
tween your calculated values and your measured values.
THEVENIN’S THEOREM 7
Quick Check
1 . When calculating Rth, you should remove the power supply and replace
it with a/an (short, open).
Vth = Rth =
2 kn
4kfl
Load
Figure 2.4
8 EXPERIMENT 2
3
SUPERPOSITION
THEOREM
INTRODUCTION
The superposition theorem is helpful when analyzing circuits that have more
than one source. The superposition theorem can, with some restrictions, be used
in both AC and DC and in circuits where both sources are used In this experi-
ment you will construct and analyze two circuits, one with both DC sources and
the other with an AC and a DC source.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 9
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
NOTICE Two DC Sources
When a step in this experi-
1 . Construct the circuit in Figure 3.1.
ment instructs you to "short"
a power supply, you should
2 . Calculate Rt, I3, and V3 for r2
disconnect the designated
power supply and replace its
Vb shorted. Record as Vb
AMr -1
VW-
.
9.
4. Reconnect the Va supply, but do not turn it on at this time.
5 . Connect an ammeter in the R3 branch.
6 Turn on the Va supply. Measure I3 and V3 and record the values as Vb
,
Rt I 3 V3
Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas.
Vb Shorted
Va Shorted
Full Circuit ...
Table 3.1
10 EXPERIMENT 3
Mixed DC and AC Sources
shorted. Record the values in the Calc, columns of Table 330 ft 220 ft
3.2.
6V--
Do your measured values in step 13 agree with the calculated
values for I3 and V 3 with two supplies? If they do not, recheck 4V -
Graph 3.1
Rt I 3 V3
Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas. Calc. Meas.
Vb Shorted
Va Shorted
Full Circuit —
Table 3.2
SUPERPOSITION THEOREM 11
DISCUSSION
1 . Explain the signal you drew in step 13. Indicate for example, the
reference voltage. Was it zero? Why?
2. What signal would you expect to see if the DC and AC levels were
negative?
|
Quick Check
I
2. The equation for finding Rt in question 1 is Rt = Ri + —
R.2
—
R3
R2 + R3
True False
!
3. In the superposition theorem, currents and voltages are analyzed with one
source applied at a time
True False
|
4. The superposition theorem can be used to analyze circuits with both DC
and AC sources.
True False
! 5. It is not possible to determine the direction of current flow using the super-
position theorem.
True False
12 EXPERIMENT 3
4
TEST EQUIPMENT
LIMITATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Measuring instruments are very important in technology. Whether you are trou-
bleshooting or gathering data for an engineering project, having good measure-
ment skills and knowing the limitationsof your test equipment are imperative.
When using a DMM, VOM, or an oscilloscope, several things you should re-
member.
Each piece of measurement equipment, oscilloscope, CMM, or VOM
has a
finite input impedance. This impedance, in parallel with the circuit element
where the measurement is being made, can alter the circuit, and thus the meas-
urement. Secondly, when you are measuring AC
voltages, frequency limitations
of the measuring equipment can result in misleading data being obtained.
In this experiment you will observe the effect of meter loading on a circuit
and measure the input impedance of a meter. You will also examine the fre-
quency limitations of the AC voltmeter.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 1, Section 1.7
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Input Impedance
Determine the input impedance from you meters’ specification for two
voltage scales (ranges). Record below.
Scale: Zin
Scale: Zm
Adjust the DC supply voltage to equal the first voltage scale of step 1.
Connect the circuit of Figure 4.1. Do not readjust the power supply value
set in step 2.While measuring the voltage across Ri, adjust the potenti-
ometer until the meter displays one-half of the initial voltage set in step
2. Since this is a series circuit and each impedance-potentiometer and me-
ter has one-half the total supply voltage, their impedances are equal.
Figure 4.1 5. Measure the resistance of the potentiometer. Compare this measurement to
the rated Zm of step 1 and record below.
Zm (meter) =
|
6. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 for each of the voltage ranges of step 1
I
2. Construct the circuit in Figure 4.2. Adjust the DC supply to provide 10 V,
and record the supply value. Measure and record the voltage across R2
using your DMM.
Vdc =
Vr2 (measured) =
14 EXPERIMENT 4
3. Repeat the measurement of step 2 using a VOM, if available. Record your
meter reading below.
V R2(measured) =
4. The expected voltage reading across R2 is one-half the DC supply voltage.
Calculate and record the expected meter reading.
V R2 (expected) =
Calculate the error in the actual voltage reading using the formula
below.
~ VMeasured
% Error = V Expected
V Expected
Record the % Error for the readings of Procedure steps 2 and 3
step 2 %Error =
step 4 % Error =
These errors, while they include meter accuracy, are due to loading of the
circuit by the voltmeter.
Vr2 = (p-p)
Figure 4.3
Vr2 (DMM) =
3 . Increase the input frequency to 20 kHz. Repeat the measurements of
steps 1 and 2.
Vr2 = (p-p)
Vr2 = (RMS)
Vr2 (DMM) =
You should have found that at the higher frequency, your DMM measured a
lower value than it did at 1 kHz. This is due to frequency response characteristics
of the DMM.
1 . Describe the effect the meters had on the voltage measurements in the
Procedure for Effects of Input Impedance. Was there a difference when
using the DMM versus the VOM?
2. Explain why it is important that you understand circuit loading by your
measurement equipment.
Quick Check
True False
True False
True False
True False
5
THE PN JUNCTION
DIODE
INTRODUCTION
The PN junction diode in the simplest sense is a device that will conduct current
in one direction and block current in the opposite direction. When forward biased
to overcome the internal barrier potential, the diode will conduct. Since its for-
ward-biased resistance is low, current must be limited by external resistance of
the circuit. When the diode is reverse biased, the diode current is very small,
typically in the nano amp range, thus approximating an open circuit.
In this experiment, you will perform measurements to let you see the char-
acteristics of the PN junction diode. Also, from your measured data, you will
plot atypical diode characteristic curve.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 2, Sections 2.6 and
2.7
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
S Measure the forward voltage and current of a diode and plot the result
The first measurement of the diode is a simple resistance test that will give you
an idea ofthe diode forward and reverse resistances. This test is also a good quick
to verily a good (or foiled) diode. Set your DMM
to ohms and the 1-kfl range.
CAUTION
When making resistance checks of a diode, do not use low meter ranges.
Some ohmmeters can supply sufficient voltage with minimum resistance to
damage a low-current diode.
Forward Bias
(a) Low Resistance
1 . Connect the diode to the ohmmeter as shown in Figure 5. la. Record the
resistance reading.
Rf=
2. Reverse the ohmmeter leads connection to that of Figure 5.1b. In the
you may want to increase your ohmmeter range
reverse bias connection
setting. Record foe reverse bias resistance reading.
(b) 4.
High Resistance
Rr=
Figure 5.1
In the next procedure steps you
be measuring the forward-bias charac-
will
teristics of the diode. To make measurement you will adjust the source to
this
obtain the required current reading of Table 5.1, and at each current value step
you will measure and record foe diode forward voltage drop.
3. Construct foe circuit of Figure 5.2. Starting with foe power supply set to
zero volts, slowly increase foe DC voltage to obtain foe required current
values of Table 5 . 1. At each current value, record foe forward voltage
(Vd) drop of foe diode.
When all forward bias data points are completed, set foe DC supply to
zero volts.
In foe next procedure steps, you will be measuring foe reverse bias values for foe
diode. Since reverse current is too low to read directly on your ammeter, your
18 EXPERIMENTS
5 . Construct the circuit of Figure 5.3. Starting with the power supply set to
zero volts, slowly increase the supply while reading the diode reverse
voltage. At each diode reverse voltage step of Table 5.2, measure the
voltage drop across Rs (220 kQ) and calculate the current to record in
Table 5.2.
6. When data measurements for Table 5.2 are complete, turn off the DC
supply.
Vd Ir
1.0V
2.5 V
7. 5.0 V *
10.0V x
15.0V
Table 5.2
Rr =
+ 10
+ 15
-L 20
Ir (nA)
Graph 5.1
i 1. Describe how to determine the anode and cathode of a diode by using the
diode test of the DMM. Assume that the diode has no markings.
|
2. When forward-biased, at what diode voltage did you notice the diode
begin to conduct?
\
3. Did you observe any conduction while the diode was in the reverse-biasd
mode?
|
4. For a forward-biased diode, describe how the current is able to increase
while the voltage across the diode remains nearly constant.
i Quick Check
j
1 . The typical reverse/forward resistance ratio of a silicon diode is 1 000: 1
True False
True False
j
3. One characteristic of a silicon diode is that as the current increases, the
resistance decreases.
True False
j
4. A diode in reverse bias will conduct only at low current levels.
True False
20 EXPERIMENTS
6
RECTIFIER FORMS
INTRODUCTION
The purpose of a rectifier circuit is to convert AC power line voltage to DC. |
this experiment: the half-wave rectifier, die full-wave, and full-wave bridge rec- j
tifier. You will contrast the advantages and disadvantages of each rectifier as you j
voltage and ripple frequency of the bridge rectifier if a diode opens, if the sec- |
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.2
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this experiment, you will:
Materials Note
EQUIPMENT AND MATERIALS If only a 115:12.6 V trans-
former is available, the fol-
115:12.6 Vcenter-tapped transformer, equipped with AC power cord,
lowing additional items are
fused primary, and power switch (see Materials Note)
required for safe connec-
tion of the transformer:
Circuit protoboard
Digital multimeter
Oscilloscope
AC power line cord
In-line fuse holder
Circuit protoboard
1/2-A fuse
Rectifier diode [4], 1N4001 or similar
Resistor, 1 kO (1/2 W) SPST toggle switch
3 ea. wire nuts
RECTIFIER FORMS 21
BE CAREFUL! SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
There will be 120 VAC on If your transformer is equipped with an AC line cord, fuse, and switch, begin this
the primary side of the trans- procedure from step 2.
former. This is sufficient
voltage to be a hazard.
1 . Assemble the power line cord, fuse holder, and transformer as follows
USE CAUTION!
(refer to Figure 6. 1):
Half-Wave Rectifier
Build the rectifier circuit of Figure 6.2. Apply AC power.
22 EXPERIMENT 6
Full- Wave Rectifier
D,
6 . Build the rectifier circuit of Figure 6.3. Apply AC power.
7. Use your digital voltmeter to measure the transformer secondary Vrms
and DC output of the rectifier circuit. Record the data in the Full-
Wave column of Table 6. 1
Bridge Rectifier
10 . Build the circuit of Figure 6.4. Following construction,
take a minute and check your circuit to ensure that the
diodes are installed correctly.
Graph 6.3
V secondary (RMS)
VouKpk)
VouKDC)
Ripple Frequency
Table 6.1
RECTIFIER FORMS 23
Reminder
24 EXPERIMENT 6
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . All three rectifier circuits had the full transformer secondary connected,
yet the DC output of the bridge rectifier was larger than the others (Refer
to your data of Table 6. 1). Briefly, for each rectifier circuit explain why
you obtained the DC output voltage values measured.
2. Refer to your data of Table 6.1 and the output waveform drawings made
for all three rectifier circuits. Two of the rectifier circuits had a higher rip-
ple frequency. Discuss the rectifier circuits, describing why the ripple fre-
quency differences.
Section II
RECTIFIER FORMS 25
Quick Check
2. When a diode of the half wave rectifier is biased off, the current through
the load is amps.
26 EXPERIMENT 6
7
CAPACITIVE INPUT
FILTERS
INTRODUCTION
The capacitive filter is used to smooth out the pulsating DC voltage of the recti-
fier circuit. The capacitor changes to the AC peak value, thus providing an output
larger than the average value. This gives a DC output voltage of a much higher
value than the unfiltered output voltage.
In Section I of this experiment, you will observe the effects on your bridge
rectifier output voltage when you add an output filter capacitor. You will then
add a series resistance and a second capacitor to improve the output ripple volt-
age even further. You will also explore how different size load resistors Affect
the ripple output voltage. In Section II you will observe the effect of an open
diode and open filter capacitor on the supply ripple voltage. Learning to recog-
nize the effects of these common faults will make troubleshooting power sup-
plies much simpler and faster.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Measured DC V av e =
4. Using your oscilloscope to observe the output voltage, sketch the wave-
form on the scale provided in Graph 7.1. Also note the peak output volt-
age value.
VP =
5. Turn off the rectifier power and install Ci, a 470 |J.F capacitor connected in
parallel with the load resistor. Ensure that the negative side of the capaci-
tor is at ground or the most negative part of the circuit.
6. Turn on the rectifier and measure the output voltage with your DC voltme-
With your oscilloscope coupling set to DC, observe the supply out-
ter.
Vout=
7. Now switch the oscilloscope coupling to AC and adjust the vertical range
selector until the ripple is at least 1 division in height. Measure and re-
cord the peak-peak ripple voltage (Vnp). Sketch this waveform on the
scale provided in Graph 7.2.
Charge TC =
Discharge TC =
9. Turn off the AC power and exchange the 33-kfi load resis-
tor for the 200-Q resistor.
DC Vout = VnP =
Charge TC = Discharge TC =
DC Vout = Vnp =
14. Turn off the AC power and remove the 33-kO Rl and the 470-pF capacitor
C2 Notice that the peak-peak ripple voltage increases slightly. While it
.
appears that the addition of C2 did not have much effect, if you look
closely, you will see that as a percentage it helped quite a bit.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
DC Vout = V p=
ri
DC Vout = Vnp ~
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . You should have found that the average DC voltage decreased while the
ripple increased as the load resistor got smaller in value. Why do you
think the output voltage dropped as the load resistance decreased?
2. Explain in your own words why the shorter time constant for charge and
the longer time constant for discharge provided this increased output volt-
age magnitude.
Section II
30 EXPERIMENT 7
reading below normal. At this point you would suspect die power
supply and troubleshoot accordingly.
You also found that the load resistance can effect the power supply
Vout. Can you think of a way to determine if the power supply or
the load is the problem?
on the DVM goes down. What does the oscilloscope waveform tell
you about the condition of the power supply that the DVM does not?
Quick Check
True False
True False
INTRODUCTION
The zener diode can act as a regulator for power supplies since its voltage drop
(Vz) is nearly constant for a wide range of zener current. This characteristic also
functions to reduce power supply ripple variations.
In Section I of this experiment you will measure the current through the
zener and the output voltage for three different values of load resistors. You will
also measure ripple voltage and see that the zener improves out ripple as well. V
In Section II you will observe the effect on the zener regulated voltage if
either a rectifier diode or a filter capacitor foils open.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, you will:
Rs
Build the circuit of Figure 8.1, leaving the zener diode
1 .
Bridge -W\r
out of the circuit. Rectifier 330 n RL
(Exp. 7) |_Z
2 . Measure the output peak-to-peak ripple voltage using the 470 pF 1.2kfi
oscilloscope. 25 V
Vrfp —
Figure 8.1
3. Turn off the power and add the zener diode. (Remember to reverse bias
ammeter in series with the zener to monitor
the zener diode). Insert your
zener current.
4. Turn on the power supply and measure the output peak-to-peak ripple
voltage again. Also measure and record the zener current (Iz).
V rip = Iz=
5. With circuit power off, disconnect your zener current ammeter. Reapply
AC power. Use your DC voltmeter and measure and record DC Vout.
Vout =
6. Turn off the power supply and replace the 1 .2-kQ load resistor (Rl) with
a 560-Q resistor.
7. Turn on the power supply and measure the output peak-to-peak ripple, Iz , i
and DC Vout-
Vn 'p = Iz = V 0ut =
8. Turn off the power supply and replace the 560 Q Rl with a 470 Q
resistor.
9. Tum on the power supply and measure output pk-pk ripple, Iz and DC
Vout.
Vrip = Iz = Vout = I
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
PROCEDURE
Fault 1 -Di open
With circuit power off, disconnect one leg of Di in the circuit of
Figure 8.1. Measure the peak-to-peak output ripple, Iz, and DC Vou t.
Vout =
Fault 2 -C open
i
Graph 8.1
Vrip — Iz — Vout —
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . From your measured data, you should have found that with changing load
resistors, DC Vou t remained nearly constant and zener current was differ-
ent for each value of Rl. Looking at the relationship of Iz value vs. Rl
value, briefly discuss this relationship and the zener regulation.
2. You should have found that the magnitude of ripple voltage was signifi-
cantly less with the zener diode than without it. Discuss why this
occurred.
Section II
(a) Can you verify that the zener diode is operating? Why do you
believe this is so?
(b) Is there any indication in the output waveform that suggests that the
filter capacitor failed? Describe the indication in the waveform that
supports your answer.
34 EXPERIMENTS
Quick Check
True False
3. If the zener were installed backwards in the power supply of Figure 8.1,
what do you think the result would be?
4. What is the total current through Rs in the circuit of Figure 8.1 when the
load resistor is:
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 3, Section 3.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
V in pk = Vnp = DC Vout =
Notice that if Vm were unknown, the DC Vou t reading would tell
3 . Turn off the power and replace the 100-kO Rl with a 500-0 Rl. Measure
theDC Vout and the peak-peak ripple voltage and record below.
Rl = 5QPQ
5.
DC Vout = Vrip =
Vin pk =
DC Vout =
Figure 9.2
With the circuit turned off, replace the 1 OO-kO Rl with the 500-0 Rl. Ap-
ply AC power. Measure the DC output and peak-peak ripple voltage and
record below.
Rl = 5HQ-Q
DC Vout = Vrip =
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 37
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 2 - Di open
1 . With circuit power off, reconnect capacitor Ci. Disconnect one leg of
diode Di.
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . You should have discovered that the voltage multipliers were sensitive to
increased load. Explain why you think these circuit’s DC output de-
creased to a lower value when the Rl went down.
2. With reference to the voltage doubler or tripler, what do you think would
be the effect on the DC output if one or more capacitors in the multiplier
circuit were leaky?
Section II
Fault 1 -
Ci open
You should have found that if Ci failed open, the circuit output
dropped to that of a doubler. Explain why this should be.
Fault 2 - Di open
Briefly explain why you obtained the DC output you measured for
this fault. Also indicate what other (if any) component failures
could have produced the same result.
Quick Check
3. With reference to the circuit of Figure 9.1, the PIV seen by diode Di is
(a)Vinpk (b)2Vinpk
pk
(c) 3 Vin (d) 4 Vm pk
Refer to the circuit of Figure 9.2. If AC Vin were 12.6 Vrms, the DC
output would be
VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS 39
10
SIGNAL CLIPPERS
AND CLAMPERS
INTRODUCTION
Clippers are circuits that operate to limit (clip) a signal waveform at a given
voltage. Clampers are circuits that change (clamp) the reference voltage level of
a signal waveform. In this experiment you will study series, shunt, and biased
clippers. You will also see how clamper circuits operate.
In Section I you will build and make measurements on series, shunt, and
biased clipper circuits as well as a clamper circuit. In Section II you will examine
the effects of several common defects on the operation of clippers and clampers.
REFERENCE *
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
S Observe and draw the output voltage signals of clippers and clampers
S Learn how to clip a signal at a certain level using biased clippers
S Observe the effects on a signal voltage when clamped
S Through measurement, learn the effect of typical clipper and clamper
failures
40 EXPERIMENT 10
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Figure 10.1
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 10. 1 Set your function generator to supply a
.
Adjust the scope sweep timing to obtain about 2 cycles of the input
waveform. Sketch the oscilloscope display on the scale in Graph
10.1a. Note on the sketch the values of the positive and negative
peak voltage.
3. Switch the input signal off. Reverse the diode in thecircuit. Apply the
input signal and repeat the measurements of step 2. Use Graph 10. lb for
this version of the oscilloscope display.
Figure 10.2
to the circuit output. Adjust the scope sweep timing to obtain about 2 cy-
cles of the input signal. Sketch the scope display on the scale provided as
Graph 10.2a. Indicate on your sketch the positive and negative peak volt-
age values.
|
6. Turn off the input signal and reverse the diode connections in the circuit.
Apply the input signal and repeat the measurements of step 5. Use Graph
10.2b for this version of the oscilloscope display.
|
7. Build the circuit of Figure 10.3.
i
8. Connect a DC source of 5 V to the diode ( plus to the cathode of the diode,
minus to circuit ground). Connect the function generator set to provide a
12-Vp.p, 1-kHz signal input.
|
10. Adjust the DC source for a value of 3 V, and repeat the measurements of
step 9. Use Graph 10.3b for this sketch of the oscilloscope display.
What effect did reducing the DC voltage level have on your output
signal?
42 EXPERIMENT 10
Graph 10.3a Graph 10.3b
1 1 . Disconnect your circuit and build the clamper circuit of Figure 10.4. Ob-
serve the capacitor polarity. Connect the function generator set to pro-
vide a 10- Vp*l -kHz signal.
12. Connect channel 1 of your oscilloscope to the circuit input, and channel 2
set to DC coupling to the circuit output. Sketch the scope display on the
scale provided in Graph 10.4. Mark the signal positive and negative peak
voltage values.
Ci
Figure 10.4
1 . With the function generator off, restore Rs to its 1 -kQ value Disconnect .
Clamper Failures
Fault 1 Diode Di open
-
1. Build the circuit of Figure 10.4. Disconnect one leg of Di. Connect
your function generator set to apply an input of 12 Vp.p at 1 kHz.
Fault 2- Ci leaky
1 . With the function generator off, connect a l-k£2 resistor in parallel with
44 EXPERIMENT 10
Graph 1 0.7 Graph 10.8
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Considering the output waveform of the circuit of Figure 10. 1, you should
have found that the output is the same shape as that of the half-wave rec-
tifier. Explain why you think we call this circuit a clipper instead of a rec-
tifier.
2. Compare the output waveform and signal levels of the series and shunt
clipper.With the understanding that for the shunt clipper Rs and Rl do
not have to be a 10: 1 ratio, list the advantages and disadvantages for each
circuit.
3 . In Figure 10.3 you saw that you could pick the amount of voltage you
wished to clip. Why do you think we might wish to clip only the top of a
waveform?
4. Finally, in the circuit of Figure 10.4, you saw how to place the entire
signal DC voltage level. These circuits are necessary in some elec-
on a
tronic equipment, such as television sets, to force a signal to a certain DC
voltage level for proper operation. What is another name for the clamper
circuit?
Section II
Fault 1 -
Rs open
When Rs is open in the circuit of Figure 10.2, the output goes essen-
tially to 0 V because there is no current flow in the circuit. During
your troubleshooting procedures, how would you isolate the fault to
Rs?
Fault 2 -
Di open
When Di in Figure 10.2 opens, the output has the complete signal
waveform. Briefly explain why you believe (or don’t believe) that
ure.
Fault 3 - Di open
In the clamper of Figure 10.4, if the diode Di opens, the normal sig-
nal voltage appears across Ri.. Why does this occur?
Quick Check
1 . In our shunt clipper of Figure 1 0.2, what would happen to the Vout if Rs
shorted?
True False
4. If you wish to make a negative shunt clipper out of a positive shunt clipper,
what should you do?
46 EXPERIMENT 10
11
BASIC BJT
CHARACTERISTICS
INTRODUCTION
In a base biased transistor circuit, the quiescent collector current is determined
by the base current and the beta of the transistor. Also, the base current may be
varied by changing the amount of the base-emitter bias voltage.
In Section I of this experiment, you will see how the current in a transistor
varied by changing the amount of forward bias of the base-emitter junction with
its corresponding change in base current.
In Section II you will explore two of the most common transistor failures:
the C-E open and the C-E short. You will also leam to perform a quick measure-
ment to determine the status of a transistor.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
+5 V o Ic = Ib =
Calculate the values of emitter current and beta ( P); and then measure
Re
1 kQ
and record the value of Ie.
Calculated:
Ie = DC P =
Figure 11.1
Measured:
Ie =
5. Replace the 36-kO Rb with a 22-k£1 RB, measure the Vbe and Ic, and
record these values below. Note: The value of Vbe will be small, in the
range of 0.6 to 0.8 volt. Make and record as accurate a value as you can.
Rb = 22 kfl:
Vbe = Ic =
6. Replace the 22-kO Rb with a 100-kQ Rb; measure and record the Vbe and
Ic-
Vbe = Ic =
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Apply power to the circuit and measure the C-E voltage. You should find
this voltage very low. Remember: The voltage drop across a short is
Vce =
48 EXPERIMENT 11
3 . Remove the transistor and the shorting wires from the circuit and check
theVce circuit point again. You should now find the voltage drop very
power supply level. (Remember: The voltage source
close to the will be
dropped across an open circuit.)
Vce =
Voltage checks are the easiest and less time-consuming tests for a technician to
make. The information gained from this type of testing plus the knowledge of
how the circuit and components operate is essential for successful troubleshoot-
ing. Once you have made the decision to change a transistor that is inoperative,
it is good to make a quick check with an ohmmeter to verify that the transistor
is bad.
The following is a quick check procedure to determine the condition of a
transistor.
CAUTION
Do not use the very low (R x 1 or R x 10) range of your ohmmeter fortesting
transistors. On some ohmmeters, these ranges can cause a large current that
will damage a diode or transistor. If your ohmmeter has a range identified for
diode tests, use that range.
Figure 11.2
Section I
2 . You also found that the amount of forward bias voltage between the base
and emitter controls the amount of collector current flow in the transistor.
What use do you think this control of a transistor by the base voltage
maybe?
3. In step 4 of the experiment, you calculated the beta of the transistor used
in the experiment. Using the beta box model for the circuit of Figure
11.1, predict the value of collector current for a transistor with beta 50%
larger than your calculated value.
Section II
1 . You found that a transistor that was shorted from collector to emitter has a
very small voltage drop across it. How can this knowledge be useful to a
technician as a troubleshooting aid?
Quick Check
1 . A transistor will operate correctly even without any base current flow.
True False
3. A varying forward bias voltage between the base and emitter of a transistor
will not affect the collector current.
True False
12
BETA EFFECTS
IN THE BJT
INTRODUCTION
Base biasing, although the simplest of transistor biasing forms, provides the least
stable quiescent operating point. This experiment introduces transistor biasing
and allows you to observe variations in the "Q" point for different transistors and
two circuit forms of base biasing.
In the troubleshooting section you will make measurements to identify and
enable you to learn the effects of failure of the base biasing resistor and circuit
power supply.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Sections 4.4
and 4.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Rc
Vbe = Vrb =
2.2 kn
Vce = .
P= 150 Reapply circuit power. Make and record the following measurements:
Vbe = Vrb =
Vce =
3 . Turn off the circuit power. Remove transistor B and insert transistor C.
Reapply circuit power. Make and record the following measurements:
Vbe = Vrb =
Vcc = 20 V Vce =
Disconnect your circuit, and connect the circuit in Figure 12.2, using
transistor A. Reapply circuit power; then measure and record the follow-
Rc ing circuit values:
1.2 kn
Vbe = Vrb =
Vce =
5. Turn off the circuit power. Remove transistor A and install transistor B.
Reapply circuit power; then measure and record the following circuit
values:
Vbe =
Vce =
6. Turn off the circuit power. Remove transistor B and install transistor C.
Reapply circuit power, measure and record the following circuit values:
Vbe = Vrb =
Vce =
52 EXPERIMENT 12
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Rb open
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . In your measurements of the two circuits (Figures 12. 1 and 12.2), you
should have found that one circuit showed less variation in collector cur-
2. As you know from your text and this experiment, you cannot depend on a
base-biased transistor to have a stable quiescent operating point. This
means that this bias form is not useful in an amplifier circuit. Can you
think of a circuit application where a base-biased transistor would be use-
ful? Why?
3 . You should have found in Procedure steps 1, 2, and 3 that each transistor
most likely resulted in a different value of collector current. Why do you
think this was the case?
Section II
True False
True False
54 EXPERIMENT 12
13
EMITTER BIAS OF THE
BJT
INTRODUCTION
In Experiment 12 you found that base bias could not provide stable collector
current or voltage for transistors having different values of beta. In this experi-
ment you will explore emitter bias. Emitter bias makes the circuit much more
independent of beta, thereby stabilizing changes in collector current and voltage
better than the base bias circuit. Although emitter bias provides an improvement
in circuit stability, it has the disadvantage of requiring two power supplies to
operate.
In the troubleshooting section you will examine the effect on your circuit if
Rb opens, Rc opens, or the transistor shorts.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Vcc 1 . Using the first transistor, construct the circuit in Figure 13.1. Check your
circuit to be sure that your connections are correct. Apply circuit power;
then measure and record the following circuit values:
2. Turn off the circuit power. Remove the transistor and replace it with
transistor #2. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following
circuit values:
Ic = Vre = Ve=
Vb = Vc = Vce =
3 . Turn off the circuit power. Remove transistor #2 and replace it with
transistor #3. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following
circuit values:
Figure 13.1
Ic = Vre = Ve =
VB = Vc = VCE =
4. Using the laigestand smallest values of collector current measured for your
circuit, calculate the mean value of collector current using the formula
below.
Step 4 completes the measure-
ment portion of the experiment. IC(mean) — Vlc(max) X Jc(min)
If you are proceeding to the
troubleshooting portion of the Ic(mean) ~
experiment, leave your circuit
connected.
5. Using the beta box model with an assumed beta of 173, calculate the
following values for the circuit in Figure 13.1.
Ic- Ve=_
Vc = VCE =
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Rb open
Ensure that circuit power is off. Replace the l-k£2 Rb with a 2.2-M£2
resistor. Turn on circuit power. Measure and record the following circuit
values:
VB = Vc = Vrf.
Vce = Ic =
56 EXPERIMENT 13
Fault 2 - Rc open
Turn off the circuit power. Replace Rb with a 1-kQ resistor. Exchange the
470-Q Rc with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Reapply circuit power. Measure and
record the following circuit values.
Vb = Vc= Vre =
Vce = Ic=
cuit values.
Vb = Vc= '
Vre =
Vce = Ic =
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Your measurements for the emitter biased circuit should have shown that
the base voltage is almost 0 volts. Explain how it possible to forward
bias the emitter-base diode with 0 volts on the base.
Section II
Fault 1 - Rb open
You should have found, with Rb open, that the base voltage dropped com-
pletely to zero and there was no base current. Since base voltage in this
circuit form is small (about 0.09 V), can you suggest a better voltage test
that would indicate the transistor circuit operation?
Fault -Reopen
According to your measured data, what is the most obvious indication that
Rc is open in this circuit form?
1 . The emitter bias transistor circuit should provide better stability than the
base biased circuit.
True False
58 EXPERIMENT 13
14
COLLECTOR
FEEDBACK BIAS
INTRODUCTION
Collector feedback bias is an older form of bias originally designed to provide a
simple circuit independent of variations in beta. In this experiment you will cal-
culate and measure the DC values and then introduce beta changes to observe
on circuit stability.
the effect
The troubleshooting section will explore the effects of an open Rb and Rc.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
3. Ie = Ic = Vb =
Ve = Vc = Vce =
4.
If possible, use two digital voltmeters for Procedure step 3. If you cannot use two
DMMs, make the collector current measurement first; then make the collector
voltage measurement.
Connect one DMM to measure collector current and the other to measure
Figure 14.1 collector voltage. Apply power and record these measurements. They
should be approximately as recorded in step 2.
Ic= Vc =
While monitoring these values use the heat gun to warm the transistor or
the freeze spray to coolit. Use care to avoid overheating the transistor.
Step
&
4 completes the measure-
Limit heat gun application to approximately 1/2 minute to 1 minute maxi-
mum, and let the transistor cool before reheating. As collector current in-
creases, you should notice the collector voltage decreasing; and as
ment portion of the experiment. collector current decreases, collector voltage increases. If you have ac-
You may leave the circuit con- cess to both a heat gun and freeze spray, you may wish to make the meas-
nected if you are going to pro- urements first with the heat gun and then with the freeze spray.
ceed to the troubleshooting
section.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Rc open
Make sure the circuit power is turned off. Leaving the DMMs connected
to read collector current and collector voltage from Section I, step 5, re-
place the 2.2-kO Rc with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Apply power to the circuit;
measure and record the values indicated below.
Ic = Vc = Vrc-
Vbe = VcE =
60 EXPERIMENT 14
Fault 2 -Rb open
Turn off the circuit power. Again leaving the DMM connected as in
step 4 of Section I, replace the 2.2-kQ collector resistor, and exchange
the Rb with a 2.2-MQ resistor. Apply circuit power; measure and record
the values below.
Ic= Vc = Vrc =
Vbe = Vce =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Section II
Fault 1 - Rc open
1 . You have found that if Rc opens, collector current and forward base-
emitter voltages are zero. Vc also goes to zero volts. Why does the base
emitter voltage also disappear when Rc opens?
2. You also observed that when Rc opens, the entire Vcc ( 10 V) is dropped
across Rc. Why does this occur?
Fault 2 - Rb open
Explain why you found that with Rb open, collector current was zero and
Vce = Vcc-
Quick Check
1 . The feedback used in the collector feedback bias circuit demonstrates the
of the output current or voltage to regulate a circuit by affecting
ability
the input current or voltage.
True False
3. The collector saturation current for the circuit in Figure 14. 1 is:
True False
True False
62 EXPERIMENT 14
15
VOLTAGE DIVIDER
BIAS FOR BJTS
INTRODUCTION
Voltage divider bias one ofthe best and most commonly used bias methods for
is
stabilizing BJT circuits.In Section I of this experiment you will set up a voltage
divider-biased circuit, predict circuit values, and make circuit measurements to
evaluate the stability of the quiescent circuit values.
Section II of this experiment deals with troubleshooting. In this section you
will simulate three different faults and make measurements of the circuit for
each fault. This will develop your troubleshooting knowledge by letting you
observe tire effects of a component’s failure and by giving you the measurement
data of the fault.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Sections 4.7 and
4.10
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
2. Using the digital multimeter, measure and record the circuit parameters
listed below.
Ie = Vb = Ve=
Vc = Vce ~
3 . Turn off the DC power supply and substitute a second 2N3904 transistor.
Figure 15.1 Reapply circuit power; measure and record the circuit parameters again.
Ie - Vb = Ve =
Vc = V Ce =
5. Now you have three sets of data from your circuit. Solve the circuit for
NOTE
the same parameters as those measured. Calculate the Thevenin values of
An alternative method to
heating the transistor is to the voltage divider —
th and Vth. Enter these values in the blanks pro-
cool it using component vided below and in the beta box model in Figure 15.2. Assume a beta of
cooler spray. This will de- 150, and, using the beta box model, calculate emitter current, collector
crease beta. voltage, base voltage, and emitter voltage. Also enter these results in the
appropriate blanks provided below.
Vth = Rth = Vb =
Ve = Vc = Vce =
P=150
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
1 . Modify your circuit of Figure 15. 1 by replacing the 2.7-kO resistor with
64 EXPERIMENT 15
2. Apply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the digital multimeter, measure and re-
cord the circuit values listed below:
Vb = Ve =
Vc = Vce =
3 . Compare the circuit values just obtained to those of a normal circuit (Sec-
tion I, Step 2 or 3). Notice in particular the readings that had the large
change.
2. Reapply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the multimeter, measure and record
the circuit values listed below.
VB = VE =
Vc= Vce =
You should have found that the measured circuit values for this fault are quite
different from those of a normal circuit. Also notice the differences from the
values obtained for the Rb fault.
1 . Turn off the DC power to the circuit and replace resistor Ri with the
correct value of 12-kfl Exchange the 270-Q emitter resistor for the
2.2-MQ resistor.
2. Reapply 12 VDC to the circuit. Using the multimeter, measure and record
the circuit values listed below.
VB = VE =
Vc = Vce =
Notice that each fault gave a different and unique set of circuit values, and that
in each case, the transistor shifted to either a cutoff or a saturation condition.
DISCUSSION
Section I
3 . Compare the stability of voltage divider bias and emitter bias (Experiment
13).
4. If you used the quick method of your text for solving the firm or stiff
divider for the circuit in Figure 15 1, do you believe this would give a
. sat-
Section II
1 . For each fault, describe the transistor state (cutoff or saturation). Describe
how you would use this knowledge in troubleshooting a circuit.
Quick Check
True False
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 4, Section 4.8
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Vcc
In step 2 you will be measuring the DC values of your circuit. As
? +12 V
a reminder, where a parameter has a single subscript such as Vc or
Ve the measurement is to be made from the element to circuit com-
mon (ground).
Vb
Ve
Vc
EB Ib
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Ri open
1 . Construct the circuit of Figure 16. 1 . Check your circuit to ensure proper
operation. Turn off circuit power. Remove the 10-kfi Ri and replace
with a 2.2-MO resistor.
2. Reapply circuit power. Measure and record the following circuit values:
Vb = Ve — Vc —
68 EXPERIMENT 16
Fault 2 - Transistor shorted
1 . Turn circuit power off. Replace the transistor in the circuit. Place a
shorting wire from the emitter to base and the base to collector. Turn on
circuit power.
DISCUSSION
Section I
operated at the same quiescent point. Why do you think these differences
are important to the technician?
2 . Because the circuits of F igure 16.1 and your circuit of Figure 16.2 had the
same values of Ic and Vce, the values of the base-emitter voltage and the
voltage from collector to emitter were the same. Identify other voltages
and currents that were the same in the two circuits.
Section II
Fault 1 - Ri open
In Fault 1 you found that Vb and Ve were at 1 2 V, while Vc had no voltage.!
Explain why you think these values were measured.
Quick Check
4. The quiescent operating point of the circuit of Figure 16.1 would depend
on the transistor beta.
True False
70 EXPERIMENT 16
17
COMMON EMITTER
AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
One of the most commonly used small-signal amplifiers is the common emitter
configuration. In this experiment you will be testing a single-stage common
emitter amplifier. You will be measuring voltage gain for both an unswamped
and a swamped configuration, measuring amplifier phase shift, and observing
the amplifier response to loading.
In the troubleshooting section, you will insert amplifier faults and observe
the failed amplifier AC and DC circuit values.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Sections 5.3
and 5.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Figure 17.1
VB = Ve =
Vc = VcE =
4.
To transistor
network of Figure 17.2 to your circuit.
base
Do not rely on the divider value to de-
termine the amplifier input signal.
To amplifier Measure the signal at the base of the
ground transistor and adjust the function gen-
erator to obtain the required value.
Figure 17.2
72 EXPERIMENT 17
5. Set Ihe oscilloscope coupling to DC. Measure and sketch the com-
bined AC and DC signals at the base (Vb), emitter (Ve), and col-
lector (Vc) in Graph 17.1. Record the positive and negative peak
values obtained at the collector in the waveform sketch.
Phase angle =
Vjn = V out = Av =
-HI-
8. Turn off the circuit power and connect the 3.9-kQ load. Measure the
input signal and output across the load. Record these values. Cal-
culate the amplifier loaded voltage gain.
9. Turn off the circuit and replace the 3 ,9-k£2 load with 47-kQ measure-
_ Ve
ments of step 8 to determine the loaded voltage gain.
Avl = I"
10. Turn off the circuit power. Modify your circuit to the
swamped am-
plifier of Figure Apply the circuit power. Set the function
17.3.
generator to apply a 20 mVp. p , 1 kHz input signal, using your os-
cilloscope. Measure and record the amplifier input and output sig-
“ i 1
1'
_ Vc
Graph 17.1
Vin =_
Vou,=
Avl =
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Vout = Av =
Without emitter bypass capacitor:
Vout = Av =
Fault 2 - Transistor shorted
1 . The transistor in the CE amplifier has two main failure modes: The
transistor can open or short from emitter to collector. You will explore
the shorted failure mode here.
2. Turn off the circuit power. Place a shorting wire from the emitter to the
collector of the transistor. Apply circuit power. Monitor the output signal
and record the voltages below.
Vout Ve
Vc VRC
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . In Procedure step 6, you measured the phase shift between the signal
input on the base to the signal output on the collector. Describe, using the
functional operation of the transistor, the reason for the phase shift you
measured.
2 . In Procedure step 4, using the oscilloscope with AC coupling, the
average value of the amplifier signal was 0 V. That is because the posi-
tive peak value was equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity to the
negative peak value.
A. In Procedure step 5, the average value of the output signal was not
zero. Calculate the average value from the data of Figure 17.3.
Vavg =
Section II
1 . In Fault 1 you discovered that the emitter bypass capacitor can greatly
of the amplifier. What operational measurement would
affect the gain
you make to determine if the capacitor was open? Why?
2. In Fault 2 you found that sometimes the AC signal may disappear com-
pletely. You must then rely on DC voltage measurements for trouleshoot-
ing. Which of the DC voltages checked do you think was the most
obvious for showing a shorted transistor? Why?
Quick Check
2. What should be the normal AC voltage read at the emitter of the transistor
amplifier of Figure 17.1?
3 . If the amplifier of Figure 17.1 were exactly midpoint biased (Vcz = 6 V),
what would be the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing?
(a)4 V (b) 5 V
(c)6 V (d) 10 V
4. If capacitor C3 in Figure 17. 1 shorted, the transistor would likely be
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.5
OBJECTIVES
When you complete this experiment, you will:
76 EXPERIMENT 18
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
BEFORE STARTING
The circuit you will be
working with has a rela-
tively high gain. This will
require an input signal of 20
mVp-p. If your function
generator won’t adjust to
that level, use the Input Sig-
nal Divider of Figure 18.2
between your function gen-
erator and your amplifier
Figure 18.1
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 18.1. Apply +12 VDC to your circuit. Do not
connect or apply the AC signal at this time. Measure and record the fol-
lowing DC circuit values:
Ic = Vce =
Vjn = V0 =
ut Figure 18.2
From these values, calculate the circuit loaded voltage gain (Avl).
Avl =
3. From the data of step 2, calculate the theoretical loaded voltage gain of
your circuit (Avl).
Calculated Avl =
Did clipping start simultaneously on both positive and negative peaks? circuit connected. TUrn off all
2. Measure and record the output signal voltage at TP2 with the oscilloscope.
VtP2 =
Vtpi =
Vc = Vbe =
Fault 2- Ci open
1 .Turn off circuit power. Install the transistor and disconnect one end of Ci.
3 . Measure and record the signal voltage at the following test points:
Fault 3 - C2 shorted
1 .Turn off circuit power. Reconnect Ci and place a shorting wire across C2 .
VtP2 =
Fault 4 - C2 open
1 . Turn off circuit power, remove the shorting wire and lift one end of C2 .
Apply circuit power, measure and record the signal voltage at TP2.
VtP2 =
Vc =
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. In procedure step 4, you drove the amplifier to the point ofjust detecting
clipping or limiting of the output signal. What does equal (symmetrical)
clipping say about the quiescent operating point? Was the clipping you
observed in step 4 cutoff clipping or saturation clipping? Explain why
you chose your answer to the last question.
Section II
Fault 1 - open
Transistor
1 . For you found that the output voltage at TP2 was 0 V while
this fault
the input voltage at TP1 was 20 mV. What do these two measurements
signify to you?
1 . You should have found that the output voltage at TP2 was missing. This
time your measurements showed you that the input voltage at TP1 was
also missing. However, the signal was present at TPO. You found that Ci
being open will prevent the signal from ever reaching die transistor in-
put. Does this suggest a pattern for troubleshooting to you? Explain.
Fault 3 -C 2 shorted
The measured output voltage at TP2 was seen to be superimposed on a
DC level. If C 2 were operating normally, the DC voltage would be
blocked. What possible problem with oscilloscope switching could pre-
vent you from seeing this?
Fault 4 -C 2 open
In Fault 4you should have found that the output voltage was missing.
This time, when you measured the collector voltage, you found the out-
put voltage present. This signal was on a DC voltage level and is hard to
see with the oscilloscope. Would it be appropriate to measure this signal
voltage with the oscilloscope coupling switch on AC?
Quick Check
True False
True False
80 EXPERIMENT 18
19
COMMON COLLECTOR
AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
The common collector or emitter follower amplifier provides current gain and a
nominal voltage gain of slightly less than unity. This amplifier is also charac-
terized by a moderately high input impedance and low output impedance.
In this experiment you will verify voltage gain for several loads to illustrate
the output impedance character of the, amplifier and, through measurement, you
will determine the input impedance of the CC amplifier. The troubleshooting
section will enable you to relate measured circuit values to voltage divider faults
in the CC amplifier.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
S Examine the effect of small load resistors on the voltage gain of the
emitter follower
S Verify the phase relationship between the input and output signal
voltages of the common collector and amplifier
S Determine the input impedance of a common collector amplifier
V Understand and learn how to recognize failures of the bias resistors
2. Use your oscilloscope to measure, and then record the values of the input
signal (Vin) and the output signal at Rl (Vout).
Vin = Vout=
Avl =
Phase shift =
Turn off the circuit power. Replace the 100-kQ load with a 1-kQ resistor.
Reapply circuit power. Measure and make sure that the input signal to
the amplifier is 1.5 Vp- p .
Measure the signal output at Rl, record Vou t , and calculate the volt-
age gain.
Vout = Avl =
5 . Turn off circuit power. Replace the 1 -kft load resistor with a 470-Q
resistor. Reapply circuit power and repeat the measurements of Step 4.
82 EXPERIMENT 19
6 . Ensure that the circuit power is off. Disconnect the base lead of the transis-
tor from the junction of Ci and the voltage divider. Connect a 10-kQ
potentiometer in series with the function generator to Ci as shown in Fig-
ure 19.2a.
Beginning with step 6, you will
7. Apply circuit power. Set the function generator to have an output of 2 Vp p
. be measuring the input imped-
at 1 kHz, measured with the oscilloscope. Set the scope vertical range se- ance of the CC amplifier. This is
not a difficult measurement;
lector to obtain as close to a full screen display as possible. After setting
however, it cannot be made di-
the function generator, move the scope connection to read the AC volt- rectly as you would measure a
age across Rb of the divider. Do not change the setting of the scope verti-
resistor. If you look at the circuit
cal range selector. Adjust the 10-kQ potentiometer for a scope display of of Figure 19.1, you will see that
exactly one-half the value set for the input signal. at capacitor Ci, there are two
impedances in parallel: the bias
8 . Turn off circuit power. Remove the potentiometer from the circuit and voltage divider and the ampli-
measure its resistance. Record this value as Zd. It is the value of the di- fier input impedance. You want
vider impedance. to obtain the AC or active im-
pedance of the amplifier so that
ZD = the measurement must be made
in an operating circuit.
9. Replace the potentiometer in the circuit. Reconnect the transistor base
lead to the junction of Ci and the voltage divider as shown in Figure The way that you will do this is
19.2b. Repeat exactly the measurement procedure of step 7. This time to first, with the transistor dis-
the resistance of the potentiometer is the total impedance of the divider connected, determine the di-
vider impedance Zd. Then with
and amplifier. Record your measured value of Zj.
a second measurement, obtain
Zt = the total impedance with the
The differ-
transistor connected.
10 . Repeat the measurement steps of 7 and 8, and average the values of the ence of the two impedance
readings made. measurements will allow calcu-
lation of the amplifier input im-
Calculate the input impedance of the amplifier from the measured pedance.
and averaged data of steps 7 and 8, using the formula below.
^ — Zt Zd
Zja
•
Z d -Zt
VE = Ve =
resistor Ri of Figure 19. 1 foils open. What do you think will happen to
the output AC and DC voltages? Record your answer below; then meas-
ure and record the results.
VE = ve =
Apply circuit power and AC signal input. Measure and record the voltages,
AC and DC at the emitter paying attention to the AC signal waveshape.
VE = ve =
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . In your procedure you should have determined that the common collector
amplifier had a moderately high input impedance and was capable of
driving a fairly small load resistance. What purpose does this serve in
electronics?
2. You also found that the voltage gain (Av) of the emitter follower was at
or a little less than unity ( 1). You found that this A v remained close to
unity for several different load resistances. In your opinion why is this an
advantage?
3. Your measurements showed that the output signal voltage is the same
phase as the input signal voltage. Can this be an advantage? If yes, how?
4. Why is the output signal of the common collector amplifier just slightly
less than the input signal?
84 EXPERIMENT 19
Section II
1 . In Fault 1 you found that if the bias resister Ri opens, you lose both Ve
and v e Explain
. why this happens.
Quick Check
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.7
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
'C Verify through circuit measurements, the voltage gain and phase shift
of the common base amplifier
This completes your circuit measurements. Your circuit may be left connected if
you are going to continue to the troubleshooting section.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Re open
Build the amplifier circuit of Figure 20. 1 Replace the
Estimated Measured .
Fault 2 -C 2 shorted
Turn off circuit power. Replace the emitter resistor
Estimated Measured
with the correct 2.7-kQ resistor. Place a jumper wire
Vout to short the output capacitor Ci. Estimate the effect
Fault 3 Ci open
-
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . You should have found that the gain of the common base amplifier is high
and the input impedance is very low. What effect do you think the low in-
put impedance would have on most input signals to the amplifier?
88 EXPERIMENT 20
2. Even though the common base amplifier has a high gain, why do you think
it is not very popular for use as an audio amplifier?
Section II
Fault 1 Re open
-
Fault 2 - C2 shorted
In Fault 2 the output coupling capacitor (C 2 ) was shorted. You should
have found that the output signal was superimposed on the DC voltage
level of Vc. In troubleshooting there are two ways of finding this prob-
lem. Can you think of a problem you might have in troubleshooting this
failure?
Fault 3 -C 2 open
You found that when the C2 , becomes open, the
output coupling capacitor,
and no output voltage will be seen. What do
signal path is interrupted
you think the output voltage would look like if C2 were leaky instead of
open or shorted?
Quick Check
True False
2. There is a 180-degree phase inversion between the input and output signals
of the common base amplifier.
True False
3 . The low input impedance of the common base amplifier makes it ideal as
a voltage amplifier.
True False
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 5, Section 5.9
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment, you will:
90 EXPERIMENT 21
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Figure 21.1
21 . 1 .
DC Values AC Values
Vb Ve Vc Vb vc Ve Vout
Stage 1
Stage 2
Table 21.1
5. From your measured data, calculate the loaded voltage gain of each stage
and record below. Figure 21.2
MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 91
6 . Calculate the overall voltage gain of the amplifier by taking the product of
the individual stage gains from step 5.
7. From the data of Table 21.1, calculate the overall gain of the amplifier.
Avt =
This result should be the same as the value calculated in step 6. The total gain of
a multistage amplifier is the product of the individual stage gains.
8. Connect your oscilloscope to measure the phase shift from input to output
of the amplifier. Connect one channel of the scope to the input signal at
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - C 2 open
1 . Turn off circuit power. Open C 2 by disconnecting one end from the capa-
citor at Qi. Reapply circuit power and the AC signal of 20 mVp. p at
1 kHz. Measure and record in Table 21 .2 the AC and DC voltages at the
C2 open
C2 shorted
Table 21.2
92 EXPERIMENT 21
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Calculate the unloaded voltage gain of the amplifier first stage. How does
it compare to your measured value?
2. The overall gain you measured for your multistage amplifier could be
approximated by a single-stage unswamped amplifier. What reasons
would you give for using the multistage amplifier? What reasons would
you give for using the multistage amplifier as a better choice?
Section II
1 . What effect did an open coupling capacitor have on the circuit? Also,
explain how and why the signal changed when C 2 was reinserted into the
network.
2. Explain what effect a leaky coupling capacitor would have on the opera-
tion of the multistage amplifier.
3. Explain the measurements you observed when C2 was shorted. What, for
example, happened to the gain of the amplifier, or to the output signal
waveshape?
Quick Check
True False
MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS 93
22
GLASS A POWER
AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
As its name notes, the emphasis of the power amplifier is power gain. It is most
often found in the final stages of multistage amplifiers. Some important features
of the class A
amplifier are the current drain, maximum power dissipation by the
transistor, the stage efficiency and full power output (maximum unclipped signal
the amplifier can deliver).
In this experiment you will calculate and measure power output and effi-
ciency of a class A
Power amplifier.
The troubleshooting section of this experiment will simulate two amplifier
faults and you will, through measurements made, be able to relate failures to
circuit measured values.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
2 . Apply DC power and with no signal applied, measure and record in Table i
22.1 the values of Icq, Vceq, and the total current drawn by the amplifier i
(Icc).
3. Connect the function generator and adjust for a signal of 20 mVp.p at 1 kHz
at the base of the transistor.
Using the oscilloscope, observe the load voltage while increasing the AC
input signal. Continue to increase the input signal until clipping is ob-
vLrms2
served. Take note of the nonlinear distortion of the signal, in fact the sig- Rl
nal begins to squash and elongate before clipping in reached. This is due
to the changes in r’ e .
NOTE: Although, at the power levels of your circuit you won’t do any damage,
it is usually not desirable to operate an amplifier in saturation clipping for long Efficiency = ~~ x 100%
intervals. Pdc
4. Reduce the input signal until the output signal is at its maximum value
without clipping.
5. Measure and record in Table 22. 1 the peak-to-peak output voltage (Vp. p ).
6 . Calculate and record in Table 22. 1 the DC power supplied to the amplifier
(Pdc).
7. Calculate and record in Table 22. 1 the total power delivered to the load
(Pl).
Table 22.1
9. Turn off the circuit power. Change the emitter circuit to add a swamping
resistor as shown in Figure 22.2. Reapply circuit power and the AC
signal input.
1 0 . Connect the oscilloscope to monitor the amplifier output. Adjust the input
signal amplitude until die output just starts to clip. Compare the signal
waveshape to that observed in step 3 . Does it appear to be less distorted?
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Vc = Vce = Vrl -
Vc = Vrl =
Vb = Vc = VE =
2. Apply an input signal of 20 mvp-p at 1 kHz. Measure the record the follow-
ing peak-to-peak AC voltages:
Vc = Vrl =
96 EXPERIMENT 22
Observe the waveshape of the output signal at the collector and
load. Does this waveshape imply anything about the state of the
transistor?
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. The amplifier efficiency you calculated in step 8 should have been much
less than the ideal class A efficiency of 25 percent. With reference to
your text, can you identify measured circuit parameters that contributed
to the low efficiency?
Section II
1 . What happens to the signal at the load when the bypass capacitor shorts.
Why does this occur?
2. What does nonlinear distortion look like and explain why it occurs in a
class A amplifier
3 . What one measurement could you make to be certain to identify a shorted
output capacitor? Explain why this measurement would be certain.
Quick Check
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Sections 6.4
and 6.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Crossover Distortion
1. Construct the circuit in Figure 23.1.
CAUTION
Step 5 below must be performed carefully to avoid ex-
ceeding the current limit of Qi and Q 2 .
Figure 23.1
5. Slowly adjust the potentiometer (R2 ) while observing
the milliammeter. Adjust R2 to obtain a current
value of 0.25 mA. The exact value is not critical
Qi Vceq =
Q2 Vceq =
9. Using the oscilloscope, observe the signal across the load resistor. The sig-
nalyou observe should have crossover distortion.
The following procedure step allows you to provide Class AB biasing of your
voltage divider biased circuit and observe the elimination of crossover distortion.
Graph 23.1
The Diode Biased Amplifier
1 . Connect the circuit in Figure 23.2.
Crossover distortion is
caused by need for the input
2. Calculate and measure the DC level at the emitter junction of Qi and Q2
signal to increase to the
(point A). Record your data in Table 23.1.
point where the Class B bi-
ased transistor will turn on
3 . Calculate the remaining parameters shown in Table 23.1 and enter the re-
and start conduction. In-
sults in the Calculated column.
creasing the bias to a point
where the transistor is barely
Reminder: Ice is equal to the sum of the current mirror bias network (Id) plus
inconduction (Class AB) al-
the amplifier transistor collector current (Iceq):
lows the transistor to follow
the input signal without the
Icc = Id + Iceq
delay that appears as cross-
over distortion. This is not
easily accomplished with
Since your circuit may not be operating at maximum power to the load,
voltage divider biased tran-
sistors because of the diffi-
use an estimated load voltage value of 9 Vp p to calculate load power.
.
5 . Connect the function generator to your circuit and set the generator to pro-
vide a 1-kHz signal at 2 Vp p . .
Calculated Measured
Qi VCEQ
Q2 VCEQ
Iceq
Pl
Icc
Pdc
Eff
100 EXPERIMENT 23
6 . Connect the oscilloscope to measure the output voltage
across the load. While observing the scope display, adjust
the function generator output amplitude to obtain the
maximum undistorted (no clipping) load voltage.
7. Measure the output voltage across the load and sketch the
load signal waveform in Graph 23.3.
Graph 23.2
You may leave the circuit connected if you are proceeding to the troubleshooting I
section.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Di shorted
Place a jumper wire across Di Measure the
. DC levels and signals at the
base of Qi and Q2 and the output junction before the coupling capacitor.
,
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Explain the term push-pull. How does this term describe the class B
amplifier?
2. Describe crossover distortion. What does it look like and how can it be
eliminated?
Section II
1 . Describe the procedure you used to troubleshoot the fault that your
instructor or partner injected into the circuit.
Quick Check
True False
3. The class B amplifier consists of two transistors each conducting for 270
degrees of the input signal.
True False
4. Provided the transistors are biased equally, the DC level at the collector
emitter junction of a class B amplifier is .
102 EXPERIMENT 23
24
DARLINGTON
AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
The Darlington amplifier is a common transistor network. In the common col-
gain of 1 , a high input impedance, and a low output impedance. Therefore, the
Darlington amplifier is often used to isolate a high input source from a low input
load
In this experiment you will construct two darlington pair amplifiers: a com-
mon emitter and a common collector amplifier. You will also calculate DC and
AC levels, inject an AC signal, and measure the current gain.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
104 EXPERIMENT 24
7. Calculate the total input current (It) and the divider
current (Id) using the formulas of Figure 24.2c.
It =
Id =.
Ia =
Zjn ~
lout
=
(b)
12. Calculate Ai from the data of steps 8 and 11
I- Vi -|
Ai =
This completes your measurements of the common col-
lector amplifier. T\im off the power and disconnect your
circuit.
Common Emitter Amplifier
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 24.3. Apply 12 VDC
power. Do not connect the function generator at
this time.Measure and record in Table 24.1 the
DC voltages at the bases of Qi and Q2 , and the
emitter and collector voltages of Q 2 .
Figure 24.3
DARLINGTON AMPLIFIERS 1 05
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 24. 1 Have your lab partner take your circuit
.
and install a fault. To troubleshoot the circuit, use the schematic diagram
and have your lab partner make and give the measurement values for any
measurement you request.
When you have identified the fault, exchange roles; that is, you in-
stall a fault and make the measurements for your lab partner.
DISCUSSION
1 . What can you say about the current and voltage gains of the common
emitter darlington pair amplifier. Explain why the voltage gain is less
than 1.
2. How does the voltage gain in the common collector differ from the
voltage gain of the common emitter darlington pair?
3 . Which of the two circuits has the lesser voltage gain. Why?
4. Which of the darlington pairs has the greater current gain. Why?
Qjuick Check
True False
106 EXPERIMENT 24
25
GLASS C AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
In a class C amplifier, the transistor conducts for less than 180 degrees of the
input cycle. Because the transistor conducts for a only a small portion of the
input signal, the efficiency can be very high. To obtain a sinewave output, the
class C amplifier uses a parallel LC resonant circuit.
In this experiment you will construct a class C amplifier and will measure
and record its characteristics. You will also simulate circuit faults and, through
measurement, will relate measured parameters to failures.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
CLASS C AMPLIFIERS 1 07
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Vb = Ve = Vc =
Calculated fr =
7. Without changing the function generator frequency, adjust the output ampli-
tude of the generator to the laigest value that won’t produce an output
signal at the collector. Measure and record this peak-to-peak minimum
signal level.
8. Increase the function generator level while observing the amplifier output.
Adjust the function generator signal level to the minimum value that just
produces a complete sinusoidal output signal. Measure and record the
peak-to-peak input and output signal levels and record these values.
Vout -
NOTE
Your amplifier should be ca-
Using your scope to measure the 2 Vp-p. Set
signal, set the input signal to
pable of operation as a fre-
the scope to monitor the amplifier output,and decrease the function gen-
quency doubler if the tank Q
is a reasonable value. You erator frequency to approximatey one-half the frequency measured in
may find that the output am- step 6. While monitoring the amplifier output, tune the function genera-
plitude is a bit less in fre- tor frequency to obtain the maximum output of your output frequency.
quency doubling since the
tank circuit is receiving a
pulse input every other cy-
cle.
108 EXPERIMENT 25
10. Reset the function generator frequency and amplitude to the values Remember
measured in steps 6 and 8. Time the generator frequency to ensure that
you are at the frequency that produces the maximum output sinewave sig-
Frequencies fi and h are the
two frequencies: fi below
nal. With the scope connected to the amplifier output, tune the generator
and fc above resonance
to the tank comer frequencies fi and fj. where the output signal am-
plitude is 0.707 of the maxi-
Measure and record the two comer frequencies. mum signal at resonance.
fi= f2 =
11 . From the comer frequencies measured in step 10, calculate the tank band
width (BW) and Q. Record these values.
half the value, what effect would this have on the circuit operation and
parameters? Write your prediction here:
2. With the circuit power off, install a second 470 pF capacitor in parallel
with Ct. Apply circuit power and input signal. Measure the circuit pa-
rameters to determine the effect of this fault.
CLASS C AMPLIFIERS 1 09
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Discuss the operation of the class C amplifier. Where might this type of
amplifier be used, and what are some of its characteristics?
2. In steps 7 and 8, you should have found that your class C amplifier re-
sponse to input signal level was not linear. That is, the signal input had to
be above a specific value before any output could be obtained. Consider-
ing the bias of the amplifier, explain why the class C amplifier behaved
in this fashion.
Section II
1 . For Fault 1, discuss the reason for the change in resonant frequency in
your class C amplifier for a change in the tank circuit capacitance. What
single measurement would isolate the fault to the tank circuit?
2. In Fault 2, it is likely that you found a new resonant frequency for your
amplifier tank circuit. Discuss the reasons that the tank circuit could (and
would) have a new resonant frequency even though die capacitor was
open.
Quick Check
110 EXPERIMENT 25
4. The LC tank is used to
(a) increase the gain (b) decrease the gain
(c) produce a sinewave output (d) increase the bandwidth
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 6, Section 6.7
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Measure the input and output signals for each stage of your amplifier.
ft In step 4, if your function gener-
5. j
l
ator has an offset control, this
Stage 1: ;
must be adjusted so that there is
; no DC offset of your signal.
Vin = Vci = !
Your amplifier will amplify any
i DC offset just as well as an AC
Stage 2: I
signal.
Vb2 = VC2 =
6. From your data of step 5, calculate the individual stage gains and the total
amplifier gain.
RB
10 ka To Q! base
Potentiometer SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2.2 kt2
Fault 1 - Transistor Q2 has a base-emitter short.
To -5 V 1. With the of Figure 26. 1, ensure that power is off. Jumper the
circuit
B-to-E junction of Q2 Replace power and inject a 200-mV p- p, 1-kHz
.
Figure 26.2 signal at the base of Qi. Measure the AC and DC levels.
Note these measurements in a table or notes of your own.
2. Remove power.
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . The gain of your direct coupled amplifier was significantly less than that
of a capacitively coupled amplifier like that of Experiment 2 1 Identify .
one major factor responsible for the low gain, and explain why this fac-
tor caused the low gain.
Section II
1 . What effect did the B-to-E short of Q 2 have on the overall circuit? Did the
Q 2 failure affect the signal at the collector of Qi?
2. Using your measured data for Fault 2 (base-to-emitter short of Qi),
identify and give your rationale for each of the following:
a. If you could use only one piece of test equipment for troubleshooting,
what would you choose?
114 EXPERIMENT 26
b. What is the minimum number of different measurements you would
need to confirm the specific failure of Qi (base-to-emitter short)?
3 . Describe the method you employed to isolate the problem your instructor
or lab partner inserted into your amplifier.
Quick Check
1 . The direct coupled amplifier is used when low frequency signals need to
be amplified.
True False
2. In a direct coupled amplifier, the dc collector voltage of the first stage does
not affect the base voltage of the second stage.
True False
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.1
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
116 EXPERIMENT 27
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Measuring Pinch-OffVoltage, Vp
2. Set the DC power supply for zero volts, and connect the power supply to
your circuit. Measure and record in Table 27. 1 the value of Id.
3. Carefully increase the power supply output until Vds is 500 mV ±20 mV.
Record Id and Vds in Table 27. 1.
5 . Once you have completed the table, graph the data onto Graph 27. 1 Your .
Vp =
2. Adjust Vdd to zero volts and adjust the gate resistor until Vgs is al»
zero.
VGS(off)-
Figure 27.2
6. VGS(off) =
Increase Vgs to each of the values in Table 27.2. Measure and record in
Table 27.2 the value of Id for each Vgs value.
Note: Omit those values that are greater (more negative) than the
VGS(off>
Plot the data in Table 27.2 onto Graph 27.2. Your graph should resemble
the graph in Figure 7.9 of your textbook.
Vgs Id
- 1.0
-1.5
17
-2.0
T
-- 16
-- 15
-2.5
-- 14
-3.0 -- 13
-- 12
-3.5
-- 11
-4.0
-- 10
-4.5
-5.0 Id
-5.5
(mA)
-6.0
-6.5
-7.0
-7.5
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
-8.0 -15-14-13-12-11-10-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1
-8.5 Vgs
(Volts)
Table 27.2
Graph 27.2
118 EXPERIMENT 27
DISCUSSION
1. Referring to the data in Table 27.1 and Graph 27.1, was there a point
where the Id no longer increased as Vds increased? What is this charac-
teristic called? At what point did this occur?
3. Referring to the data in Table 27.2 and Graph 27.2, at which point does
Vds = VP ?
4. Explain the terms Vds, Vgs, Vdd, and Vss. How do they relate to a
BJT?
Quick Check
True False
True False
3. indicates the area where Id stabilizes and any increase in Vds will
not result in an increase in Id.
4. The term that defines the relationship between Id and Vgs is called
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
120 EXPERIMENT 28
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
In the procedure steps that follow, you will determine the value of source resis-
tance to bias a common source stage, construct the circuit, and measure the DC
circuit parameters to verify your selection value.
1 . From the data sheet for a 2N5459 JFET, obtain and record the following
minimum and maximum parameters.
Minimum:
VGS(off) = Idss =
Maximum:
Vgs(o«)= Idss =
From these data you will calculate a set of minimum and a set of
maximum tables of Id versus Vgs. Then using your tabled data, you
will draw two transconductance curves (minimum and maximum)
for the JFET.
2 . Calculate for the minimum and maximum levels in Table 28.1 the values
of Id for three values of Vgs that fall in the range between Vgs - 0 and
= Idss - VGS
VGS(ofl). Use the formula Id 1
VGS(off)
3. Plot your tabled data on Graph 28. 1 . Your plotted data should resemble
your text Figure 7.19.
4. Select a load line that will pass through approximately the center of the
minimum value transconductance curve and extend the straight line
through the maximum value transconductance curve. Following example
7.5 in your text, determine the value of R« represented by that line and re-
cord the resistance value.
Calculated Rs =
Standard Rs =_
Minimum Maximum
Vgs Id Vgs Id
0 (Idss) 0 (Idss)
(VgS(oIT)) 0 (VGS(off)) 0
Table 28.1
Minimum Id =
Maximum Id =
Vs=_
Vd = Vgs =
Graph 28.1
The value of Id that you measured should fall between the minimum and
maximum values you recorded in step a minor discrepancy
4. If there is
With this work, you have established the ability to verify that self-bias of a JFET
can predict and establish a Q point within device limits. This completes the first
section of your experiment.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Id = Vs =
Vd = Vgs =
Fault 2 - Drain resistor Rd open
1 . With circuit power off, remove the 1-MO source resistance and replace it
with the correct resistor. Remove the 2.2-kO drain resistor and replace it
2. Apply circuit power. Measure and record the following circuit values:
Id = Vs =
Vd = Vgs =
122 EXPERIMENT 28
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. Could you put any 2N5459 JFET in your circuit of Figure 28. 1 with the
value of Rs that you determined and be certain of die knowledge of Q
point? Discuss the reasons for your answer.
Section II
you obtained for this fault, for example, an internal open in the JFET
source lead? Discuss the effect that this device failure would have on the
measured circuit values.
Quick Check
True False
Vth = x Vdd
Ri + R2
v 1
In this experiment you will construct a voltage divider JFET circuit, and you
will calculate and measure Vs, Vg, Id, and Vd.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
124 EXPERIMENT 29
Vdo
Vd - Vg =
Vs — Vgs =
Id =
3 . Your measured Q point should lie on the circuit load line between the
minimum and maximum Q points. Using the data of Experiment 28, plot
the minimum and maximum transconductance curves on Graph 29.1.
A Q point value that is out of range by a small amount accounted for by meter
tolerance or curve accuracy is acceptable. In the event of greater differences, you
should recheck your measurements and your plotted data of Graph 29. 1
Rs =
-- 10
6. From the plot of Graph 29. 1, determine the new minimum and
maximum values of Id and record below. 8
Id
7. Install the new Rs in your circuit and measure and record the
quiescent circuit values below.
Id = Vs = 4 - 2
Vd = Vgs - I f I I I I
-10 -4 -2
You should find that the new quiescent value of Id fells be Vgs
tween the predicted minimum and maximum values. (Volts)
Graph 29.1
2. Apply circuit power. Measure and record the below listed circuit DC values.
Id = Vg =
Vd = Vgs =
VS =
Fault 2- JFET gate-source shorted
1 . With circuit power off, remove the 1-MQ resistor and replace it with the
correct Ri 4.7-kQ resistor. Place a jumper wire from gate to source of the
JFET.
Id = VG =
Vd = Vgs =
VS =
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. In your voltage divider biased circuit of Figure 29. 1 , the voltage divider
resistors are 4.7 kf2 and 2.2 kQ. Would the circuit function equally well
if the divider resistors were 4.7 MQ and 2.2 MQ? Discuss this and ex-
plain why you think the smaller and larger resistance values might be pre
ferred.
Section II
126 EXPERIMENT 29
Fault 2 - JFET gate-source shorted
You should have found with this fault that the circuit still was functional
although the Q point had made a significant shift. Discuss how you could
be certain that die circuit had a failure and what additional (if any) meas-
urements you would make to isolate the failure to the JFET.
Quick Check
2. The voltage divider biased JFET has a stable Q point because the slope of
the DC lead line is nearly horizontal.
True False
True False
5. In comparing a BJT and JFET, Idss is the JFET equivalent to the BJT
ICSAT.
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.3
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
128 EXPERIMENT 30
Vdd
3. For the circuit of Figure 30.1, calculate the value of Ie and record it in
Table 30.1.
Table 30.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Turn on the power and measure the appropriate voltages. Were there any
changes to Vb, Vd, or Id?How do your measurements match your pre-
dictions?
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. In Procedure step 5 it was noted that the current source should not exceed
theJFET minimum value of Idss- Discuss this statement and indicate
why you think this limitation is placed on current source bias.
Section II
130 EXPERIMENT 30
Fault 2 - Emitter resistor open
1 Do your measured data conclusively prove Re failure? If your answer is
measurement data.
yes, cite the If your answer is no, explain what meas-
urements you would make.
Quick Check
Yes No
2. The BJT must be forward biased at all times to ensure a constant current
source for the JFET.
True False
(a) -2 V (b) 2 V
(c) OV (d) VG = V c
4. Current source biasing provides the most stable Q for the JFET.
True False
INTRODUCTION
The common-source JFET amplifier is a good choice for single-ended DC and
general-purpose AC amplifiers. The common-source JFET amplifier has the
same general characteristics of the common emitter B JT amplifier. However, the
voltage gain of the JFET amplifier is less than that of the BJT.
In this experiment you and explore the characteristics of a
will construct
common-source JFET amplifier. You measure both the DC and AC circuit
will
values and voltage gain, comparing them to your estimated values.
In the troubleshooting section, you will simulate a component failure and
will measure circuit values to observe the effect of the fault.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.5
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
132 EXPERIMENT 31
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
vDD
1. Build the circuit shown in Figure 31.1. Temporarily omit Rl. Set the DC
power supply for a Vdd of 12 V.
Vd= Vgs =
Id =
4. Set the function generator for an input voltage of 500 mVp.p at a frequency
of 1 kHz. Measure the amplitude and frequency of the input with the
oscilloscope.
Vi„= f =
7. Measure and record Vout and the phase difference between the signal input
and the amplifier output.
Vou t = (unloaded)
V ou t
= (loaded)
Phase shift = Vs =
Av = Avl =
9. Obtain and record below the typical (midrange) values of g mo and VGS(off)
from this specification sheet for the 2N5459.
gmo = VGS(off)
10. Using the data of step 9 and the Vgs value recorded in step 3, calculate
and record the value of gm for your operating point.
gm =
Calculate the predicted loaded voltage gain for your amplifier, where
Avl = gmH) and it> = Rd Rl
||
Predicted Avl =
How well does your predicted gain compare to your measured loaded
gain?
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Measure and record the output voltage across Rl and then the AC signal
JFET source with CH 2 of the oscilloscope. Record the result
at the
below:
Vout = Vs = Avl =
3 . Compare the output values just obtained with those from Section I, steps
7 and 8 Note the decrease in
. V ou t.
DISCUSSION
Section I
134 EXPERIMENT 31
2.
Section II
1 . The A v of the amplifier was decreased when the C3 was removed from
the circuit. From your observations during the experiment, describe how
you could determine the cause of a reduced output, and the measure-
ments) to prove the failure of the source bypass capacitor.
Quick Check
True False
For AC:
INTRODUCTION
Just asBJT amplifier circuits are classified according to their configuration, and
each configuration has its own unique characteristics, the JFET amplifier is also
classified according to its configuration.
In this experiment you will construct a common-drain amplifier, the JFET
equivalent of the BJT common-collector amplifier, and you will make measure-
ments to evaluate this circuit configuration.
In the troubleshooting section, you will simulate a circuit failure and meas-
ure the circuit parameters to see the effect of the fault.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 7, Section 7.5
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
136 EXPERIMENT 32
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
1. Build the circuit shown in Figure 31 .1. Set the DC power supply for a Vdd
of 12 V.
Id -
3. Connect your function generator and set it to apply a 500-mVp-p, 1-kHz in-j
put signal. Connect your oscilloscope channel 1 to the signal input and
channel 2 to the circuit output. Measure and record the peak-to-peak in-
put and output circuit values.
Vin= Vout =
4. Measure and record below the phase difference of the output to the input j
signal.
Output phase =
Vdd
Figure 32.1
5 . With circuit power off, disconnect Rl. Apply circuit power. Set the signal
input to 500 mVp p at
. 1 kHz. Carefully measure Vin and then the no-load
Vout and record below.
The unloaded value of Vout is the value of Vs in the diagram of Figure 32.2.
6. Turn circuit power off. Connect a l-k£i load resistor. Reapply circuit
power and input signal. Ensure that the input signal is exactly the same
as recorded in step 6. Measure and record the peak-to-peak loaded value Figure 32.2
of V0 ut.
Vout = (loaded)
„
Zs=
—RL(Vs-Vout)
v^;
Zs =
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Apply circuit power and the 500-mVp p 1-kHz input signal. Use your
.
,
Vm = Vout=
3 . Compare the output values j ust obtained with those from Section I, step 3
Note the decrease in Vou t.
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. Even though the gain of the common-drain amplifier is less than unity, the
device can be useful in conjunction with other amplifier types and con-
figurations. Discuss what major characteristics the common-drain ampli-
fier has in common with its BJT equivalent, and how it may be useful.
Section II
The Av of the amplifier was further decreased when the Rg was opened.
From your observations during the experiment, discuss how you could
determine the cause of the circuit failure.
138 EXPERIMENT 32
Quick Check
1. For the circuit of Figure 32.1, if g m = 3500 pS, Rs = 2.2 kQ, determine
Av.
Av =
True False
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 8, Section 8.4.
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
140 EXPERIMENT 33
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Vd= Vgs =
3 . Turn off the DC power. Modify your circuit to that of Figure 33 .2. This is
the no-bias case, and Idq will be Idss-
4. Apply DC power to your circuit. Measure and record the following circuit
values.
Id = Vs =
Vd = Vgs =
5. The following Procedure steps will permit you to observe the enhance-
ment mode of the D MOSFET. +20 V
6. Turn circuit power off. Add the voltage divider of Figure 33.3 to the gate
R i
9iokn;
of your circuit.
1. With circuit power off, reconfigure your circuit to that of Figure 33.1.
Disconnect the ground end of the 1-MO gate resistor.
Vd = Vgs=
Id = Vs=
VD = Vgs =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Section II
Did the open gate resistor cause the D MOSFET to stop conducting?
Discuss the circuit response to this failure mode by explaining how the
open gate resistor affected the D MOSFET operation.
Fault 2 Drain resistor open
-
Did your measured data for this failure prove the failure to be a specific
component? Describe, as appropriate, measurement to prove the failure
of the drain resistor.
142 EXPERIMENT 33
Quick Check
True False
Vr2 =
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 8, Sections 8.4
and 8.5.
OBJECTIVE
Through this experiment, you will:
144 EXPERIMENT 34
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
-o
Measure and record the peak-to-peak values of the input sig- V out
nal and output signal and the phase difference between the in-
put and output.
V;„ = V0 ut =
Phase difference =
4. From your data of step 3, calculate the gain of your MOSFET ampli-
fier.
Figure 34.1
AV =
5 . Observe carefully the amplifier input and output waveforms. The output
should be a close replica of the input signal —
a uniform sinusoidal wave-
form.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Vg — Vd= Id =
Vi„= Vout=
Phase difference =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Section II
2. Compare the data of step 4 and Section I step 3. Are these data sufficient
to prove a foiled gate resistor? Would die DC measurements of step 2 be
sufficient?
Quick Check
AV =
146 EXPERIMENT 34
2. The output of the common-source amplifier is in phase with the input.
True False
3 . If Rg of the circuit of Figure 34. 1 were open, only the MOSFET circuit
DC parameters would be affected.
True False
*
MOSFET AMPLIFIERS 147
35
BJT SWITCHES
INTRODUCTION
Transistor switches can be useful as replacements for mechanical switches. Even
though the transistor switch is not perfect, it still has advantages over the me-
chanical switch. A solid state switch eliminates the problems of moving elements
and mechanical contacts, thereby providing reliability and greater operating
speed.
This experiment will examine the transistor switch and some of the parame-
ters that affect circuitperformance. Switching speeds and delay times will be
examined. You will also verify that the addition of a speed-up capacitor can
improve switching speed. In the troubleshooting part ofthis experiment, you will
simulate two faults in the transistor switch circuit and will measure the resulting
circuit parameters.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 9, Sections 9.
and 9.2
OBJECTIVES
After completing this experiment you will:
148 EXPERIMENT 35
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
1. Connect the circuit in Figure 35.1. Do not apply an input signal at this time.
Vcc
2. Measure and record the following:
Vb= Ve = Vc =
In the following Procedure steps you will measure the transistor switch response
times to a square wave input. The input signal needs to be a square wave that
transitions from 0 V to approximately +5 V
and back. Your signal generator
operating with a square wave output will not deliver the required waveform
since its square wave output swings from a negative level to a positive level
!
i
^
If your generator does not have
operating around a 0-V reference. i
a TTL output, you will need to
:feed the generator output
Connect the signal input to your switch circuit. Set the ;
through a negative shunt clipper
generator for an output frequency of 100 kHz. The input i
(Experiment 10). See Figure
signal levels at Rb should be close to +5 V and 0 V. _ 35.2.
ton — toff
—
Figure 35-3
10. Reapply circuit power and repeat the ton and toff measurements of step 8.
ton :
toff
=
1 1 . Compare the output waveforms. What conclusion can you draw about
adding a speed-up capacitor to the circuit?
Figure 35.4
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Graph 35.1
i
Fault 2 - Base-emitter junction leaky
|
1 . With circuit power off, replace Rc with the correct 1 .5-kQ resistance. Con-
nect a 4.7-kQ resistor from the transistor base to emitter.
|
2. Apply circuit power and input signal. Using your oscilloscope set to DC
coupling, measure the signal at the transistor base and the collector.
Sketch the base waveform in Graph 35.2 and the collector waveform in
Graph 35.3. Note the minimum and maximum DC signal levels.
Remove the 4.7-kQ B-E resistor and observe the signal at the base
again. Compare the scope waveform with your prior sketch of the
base waveform.
150 EXPERIMENT 35
Graph 35.2 Graph 35.3
Base Waveform Collector Waveform
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. The 2N3904 transistor has a maximum Ic rating of 200 mA. With this
what are some applications you can suggest for a BJT switch?
limitation,
Section II
If yoyr answer isyey, explain how the data prove this conclusion. If
152 EXPERIMENT 35
36
B JT SCHMITT
TRIGGER
INTRODUCTION
In today’s world of digital and industrial electronics, there is a requirement for
can serve to detect or provide a squaring function. Schmitt triggers
circuitry that
can satisfy that requirement. They allow a s low-transition waveform to be con-
verted to a quick transition pulse waveform.
In this experiment you will construct a BJT Schmitt trigger circuit and ob-
serve its operation. You will be observing non -square wave input signals and the
resulting square wave output signals. Switching characteristics such as upper
and lower threshold points will be calculated and verified.
In the troubleshooting portion of this experiment you will examine two of
the functional limitations of the BJT Schmitt trigger.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 9, Section 9.3
OBJECTIVES
After completing this experiment, you will be able to:
Vbi Ve
Vci Vb2
Vf.2 VC2
Vccx Rb
UTP =
Ri +Ri + Rb
Figure 36.1
Vcc x Re
LIT =
Ri + Re
VH = V lrtp -V hp =
Apply a 10-Vp.p, 1-kHz triangular waveform to the base
of Qi Monitor this waveform on channel 1 of the os-
.
cilloscope.
Graph 36.2
154 EXPERIMENT 36
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
I . With the function generator set to provide a 1 -kHz triangular wave output ait
10 Vp-p, decrease the input voltage level until the output signal disap-
pears.Measure and record the maximum peak-to-peak input signal that
won’t produce an output signal.
2. Increase the input to 10 Vp-p Begin increasing frequency until the output
.
DISCUSSION
Section I
Section II
1 . Discuss the operation of your schmitt trigger with low level signals. Con-
sider the output waveform with a triangular wave input in the range of
3 to 5 VP .
Quick Check
(a) usually higher than the LTP (b) always higher than the LTP
(c) usually lower than the LTP (d) always lower than the LTP
156 EXPERIMENT 36
37
JFEI SWITCHES
INTRODUCTION
The advantages of solid state devices over mechanical switches was pointed out
in Experiment 35. The JFET, like the BJT, can switch load current on or off and
provide output waveform transitions, although it is not necessarily the device of
choice for these applications.
The JFET characteristic of having a variable resistance from source to drain
that can conduct current in either direction, and change from a low resistance
(on) to a large resistance (off), gives the JFET the capability of performing some
switch functions not possible with the BJT.
In this experiment you will set up and examine a basic JFET switch and then
apply the JFET in a chopper circuit to illustrate the special switch capability of
an FET device.
Due to the circuit simplicity and your prior troubleshooting of the basic
JFET, no troubleshooting is provided in this experiment.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 9, Section 9.4
OBJECTIVES
After completing this experiment, you will:
JFET SWITCHES 1 57
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Sketch the input and output waveforms in Graph 37. 1, noting the
positive and negative peak values.
3 . Increase input frequency to the point where the output has clearly
degenerated from a square wave (approximately 100-150 kHz).
Record the input frequency below; sketch the input and output
waveform in Graph 37.2.
Freq. in =
158 EXPERIMENT 37
6. To see the effect of theJFET passing and stopping the input sine wave, Important
change the control frequency to 1 kHz and the sinewave signal input to
10 kHz. Adjust the oscilloscope to sweep and sync at the squarewave These adjustments will
likely require careful ad-
frequency and you should observe a burst of 10-kHz signal followed by
justment of the scope trig-
no signal and then a burst of the 1 0-kHz signal.
ger control. Your
oscilloscope display should
resemble the signal shown
DISCUSSION in Figure 37.3.
Quick Check
mw
1 . A JFET switch will perform better at higher frequencies than a BJT switch.
Figure 37.3
True False
3. The source, gate and drain terminals on a JFET compare to what terminals
on a BJT?
(a) base, emitter, and collector (b) collector, base, and emitter
(c) base, collector, and emitter (d) emitter, base, and collector
that .
(a) JFETs are slower operating (b) JFETs are faster operating
(c) JFETs have contact bounce (d) JFETs will cause arcing
5. The JFET bilateral characteristics allow its use in switch applications not
possible with a BJT.
True False
Negative
resistance
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 9, Section 9.5
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this experiment, you will be able to:
S Measure Rbb
•S Determine the intrinsic standoff ratio (t|)
160 EXPERIMENT 38
From the measured values of
step 3and Table 38. 1, you can
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT determine that there is a certain
amount of interbase resistance
and that a PN junction exists be-
1 . Identify the B 1, B2, and emitter leads on the UJT. tween the emitter and B1 and
the emitter and B2.
2. Set the meter to the OHMS function, 10-k range.
Base 2 Base 1
Base 1 Base 2
Emitter Base 1
Base 1 Emitter
Emitter Base 2
Base 2 Emitter
4. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 3 8.3 The component values should
.
VP =
Describe the waveform.
6. Using the formula r\ = Vp/V bb, determine the intrinsic standoff ratio.
Once the intrinsic standoff ratio is found, this will enable you to calculate
Vp for any value of Vbb-
= Figure 38,3
r\
7. Calculate the period (T) of the output waveform using the formula
T = Ri x Ci, and record this in Table 38.2. Do this for all indicated val-
ues of Ri and Ci.
Table 38.2
9. Using the indicated values and oscilloscope, measure and record the period
and frequency in Table 38.2.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
1 . Remove Ci from the circuit. Use the oscilloscope to measure the period of
the emitter waveform.
T=
2. Compare this value to that recorded in Table 38.2.
3. Replace Ci, and lightly touch the emitter lead with your finger. Record
your observation.
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. The intrinsic standoff ratio for a 2N2646 UJT is listed as a range from
0.56 to 0.75. Explain how this range of values might come about.
Section II
Quick Check
Vbb = 16 V, Vp =
V BB = 5 V, Vp =
162 EXPERIMENT 38
2. In a UJT relaxation oscillator, if the value of capacitance doubles, the
output frequency .
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 9, Section 9.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
164 EXPERIMENT 39
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Graph 39.1
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Section I
2.
I
1 . Discuss how you would use a pulse generator in this circuit
to generate a ramp.
Section II
a. Do you feel that the output waveform and amplitude pointed to the
capacitor being defective?
Quick Check
1 . The transistor is parallel with the capacitor to furnish a charge path only.
True False
2. When the transistor is turned off, the capacitor charges through the resistor.
True False
3 . The negative portion of the sine wave or a negative pulse applied to the
base of the transistor will cause a constant ramp output.
True False
4. The negative voltage at the base of the transistor biases the transistor into
cutoff.
True False
166 EXPERIMENT 39
40
FREQUENCY EFFECTS
IN BJT AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
To this point in your transistor amplifiers, it has been assumed that capacitances
in the amplifier were always a short circuit to AC and an open circuit to DC. In
this experiment you will now see the practical limits that circuit capacitances
impose on the amplifier in limiting both low and high frequency responses.
You will measure both the low and high comer (critical) frequencies for a
typical common emitter amplifier. You will also, from your measured data, make
a Bode plot for your amplifier and, through circuit calculation, identify die ca-
pacitors that control the frequency limits for your amplifier.
In the troubleshooting section, you will simulate circuit faults and through
your measurements, see the effect on the amplifier AC and DC parameters.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 10, Section 10.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
S Verify the effect of the coupling and bypass capacitors on the amplifier
frequency limits
VB =
Ve=
Figure 40.1
Vc =
Av =
4. The data sheet for the 2N3904 transistor shows that the collector junction
capacitance (Cob) has a value of 4 pF. With this information you should
be able to calculate your Miller capacitance values.
Av =
Ci„ (Miller) = C ou t (Miller) =
168 EXPERIMENT 40
10. Decrease the generator frequency to Vmid =
find the lower critical frequency point Low Band High Band
(Vout= 0.707Vmid). Record this fre-
Vout freq. Vout freq.
quency in the Low Band section of
Table 40.1. 0.707Vmid 0.707Vmid
0.5Vmid 0.5Vmid
11 . Decrease the generator frequency to ob-
tain the frequencies for the 0.5Vm id 0.25Vmid 0.25Vmid
and 0.25Vmid values. Record these fre-
quencies in the Low Band section of
BW =
13. Table 40.1.
0.25 V mid
(Hz) (kHz)
Fluency
^
2. Apply circuit power. Measure the amplifier mid-band gain and observe
the output waveform. Is the signal saturation or cutoff clipping? Discon-
nect the function generator and make any DC voltage measurements you
would like. Record measurement points and values in the blanks pro-
vided (next page).
Section I
1 . Discuss what effect the input and output coupling capacitors and the
emitter bypass capacitor have on the output frequency response.
Section II
Is there any other component failure that could have the same effect on
these two parameters?
Quick Check
1 . The coupling capacitors affect the lower critical frequency points for the
small signal amplifier.
True False
2. Which of the bias resistors will have the most effect on the overall gain of
the amplifier?
3. The output shunt network is always the most dominant network in a small-
signal amplifier.
True False
True False
170 EXPERIMENT 40
41
FREQUENCY EFFECTS
IN JFET AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
Practical JFET amplifiers have upper and lower frequency limitations on the
signals they amplify. The frequency-limiting components in the circuit are the
coupling and bypass capacitors and the capacitance in the JFET.
In this experiment you will calculate these values fi and h and measure and
record them. These measurements are a very useful check for amplifiers. In the
troubleshooting section, you will simulate faults that will affect die comer fre-
quencies and, through circuit measurements, you will see how the amplifier is
affected.
In Section II you will observe the effects on our circuit if the output coupling
capacitor and the JFET internal capacitors change values.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 10, Section 10.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
signals.
6. For the of Figure 41.1, calculate the low frequency cutoff point of
circuit
the output coupling and bypass capacitors.
Cutoff frequencies:
7. Calculate and record in Table 4 1 1 the dominant low frequency cutoff. Re-
.
member, whichever capacitor cuts off the frequency at the highest point
is the dominant low frequency cutoff.
To calculate the high dominant frequency cutoff, you calculate the effect
of the internal capacitance of the JFET. Calculate and record the value of
Calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier, and record in Table 41.1. Compare
Ciss
your calculated data to the measured data.
Cg d = 3 pF.
172 EXPERIMENT 41
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
3 . Adjust the function generator to 5 kHz, and slowly adjust the input fre-
2. quency down until Vout falls to 0.707 of the maximum V ou Record this
t.
frequency: fi =
_ 1 PF RL
"'i
4. Adjust the function generator again for ^ 40 kft
1000 pF
200 mV at 10 kHz, and slowly increase the
input frequency. Measure and record the fre- IMfl'
T1
1000 pF
quency where V ou t is 0.707 times Vout Rs C3
maximum. This new frequency is: 680 ft
47 PF
f2 =
Figure 41 .2
DISCUSSION
Section I
3 . Today, many companies use automatic test equipment (ATE) to check the
frequency response of amplifiers. ATE systems are usually controlled by
about one minute or less. In addition to speed, can you think of another
advantage of ATE systems?
Section II
Quick Check
True False
True False
174 EXPERIMENT 41
42
BJT DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
The differential amplifier is a special amplifier that amplifies only the difference
in two input voltages. This characteristic, amplification of a signal common to
both inputs (common-mode rejection), is an important consideration in indus-
The differential amplifier is used in instrumentation and opera-
trial electronics.
tional amplifiers.
In this experiment, you will perform tests to determine the differential volt-
age gain (Av), the common-mode voltage gain (Acm), and the common-mode
rejection ratio (CMRR).
In Section n of this experiment, you will observe the effects on the Vou t of
open and shorted transistors.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 10, Section 10.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Vcc
Differential input: Vm =
Differential output: Von =
Differential gain: Vn =
Common-mode input: Vicm =
1 . Construct the circuit of Figure 42. 1 . Do not apply DC power to the circuit
yet. Potentiometer Rjused to balance the amplifier by compensating
is
for component and transistor differences in each half of the amplifier. Set
the potentiometer to its mid-scale value so that each transistor sees the
+10 V same value of resistance. Connect a 100-0 resistor in parallel with the
Record this voltage value in Table 42. 1. You will use it later to determine
the input offset voltage (Vid).
Figure 42.2
3. Disconnect and remove the 100-Q resistors installed in step 1. With the
voltmeter still connected to read the amplifier differential output, adjust
Ri for a voltmeter output of zero volts. This compensates for the ampli-
fier output and corrects it to zero.
4. Connect the voltage divider of Figure 42.2. Set the potentiometer so that
&
Beginning with step 4, you will
the wiper is at the ground end (zero output). Connect the wiper connec-
tion to the amplifier Vin+ input, and adjust the potentiometer for a DC
output of 15 mV. Record this value in Table 42. 1 as Vid.
measure the differential gain of
your amplifier. Your input sig-
5 . Connect your voltmeter to read the amplifier differential output (between
nal will be connected to the
the two collectors). Record this voltage value (Vod) in Table 42.1.
Vin+ input. With no signal at the
Via- input the differential input
signal is that of the Vi n+ input.
176 EXPERIMENT 42
6. Calculate the differential voltage gain of your amplifier. Record your Useful Formulas
result in Table 42.1.
Step 6:
7. Calculate the value of input offset voltage (V io) by dividing the prior Avd = Vod/ Vid
measured output offset voltage (Voo) by the amplifier differential gain,
Av d. Record the value of Vio in Table 42.1. Step 12:
8. Connect a jumper from the Vin+ to the Vm- input so that both inputs have
CMRR = ^^
Avcm
the same input. Adjust the voltage divider potentiometer to provide its
maximum output, approximately 100 mV. Measure and record the com-
mon-mode input voltage in Table 42.1 (Vicm)-
10. Calculate the common-mode gain (Avcm) of the amplifier and record this
termine the CMRR
value in Table 42.1.
11 Calculate the CMRR of the amplifier and record the value in Table 42. 1
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Qi Q2 Qi Q2
the C-E of Qi. Reapply DC power.
VE
2. Measure and record the DC voltages for Qi AND Vc
Q2 as indicated for Fault 1 in Table 42.2.
VB
Fault 2 - Qi C-E open
F
Table 42.2
1 . With circuit power off, remove the shorting wire and disconnect Qi from
the circuit. Reapply DC power.
2. Measure and record the DC voltages for Qi AND Q2 as indicated for
Fault 2 in Table 42.2.
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . You should have measured a relatively large differential voltage gain for
your amplifier. There are two features of the differential amplifier that
contribute to this gain. One is that the gain of each transistor is the collec-
Rc
tor resistance divided by 2/e : Av = —r . Describe and discuss the other
2r
feature that contributes to the gain.
Section II
From your measured data, describe the operating state of each transistor
and discuss the reason for each state.
Quick Check
True False
5. In the circuit of Figure 42. 1, the input marked Vin+ has the designation be-
cause a positive input signal causes the collector of Qi to be positive.
True False
178 EXPERIMENT 42
43
BASIC OF AMP
PARAMETERS
INTRODUCTION
The operational amplifier, abbr jviated op-amp, is an amplifier with a very high
gain, a high input impedance, and a low output impedance. The op-amp has
many applications in electronic Some of these include active filters, compara-
tors, level detection, and instrumentation amplifiers.
In this experiment you will perform tests to measure and let you see some
of the basic characteristics of an IC op-amp.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 11, Sections 11.1
and 11.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Rt
4.7 kn Input offset voltage cannot be measured directly. You will
make your measurement indirectly by measuring the out-
put due to the input offset voltage and calculating the
magnitude of input offset voltage by the following for-
mula:
Vio = — Rf
1 +
Ri
where:
Vo = amplifier output
Figure 43.1
1 . Construct the circuit of Figure 43 . 1 . Ensure that the supply voltage + is
connected to the V+ pin and that the supply voltage - is connected to the
V- pin. (Note: These are not the input + and - of the op-amp.) Set the DC
supply to provide +15 V to V+ and -15 V to V-.
2 . Use your DC voltmeter to measure the amplifier output. Record this voltage
&
The maximum value you 3.
Vo=
Use the formula cited above to calculate Vi 0 :;record this value below.
should have measured in step 2
is approximately 70 mV. If Vio =
your measured value is
greater, turn off circuitpower Is this value within the op-amp specifications?
and check your circuit connec-
tions. Gain Bandwidth
1 . Each amplifier will have a characteristic gain BW product. The gain BW
for the 74 1 op-amp is 1 x 1 0 Hz. This means that if, for example, the
gain is 10, the amplifier should comer at approximately 100 kHz. In this
you will measure the
section bandwidth at unity gain (Av = 1) and then
measure the bandwidth at a higher gain.
a 1-Vp.p sine wave at 1 kHz. Because the 741 can operate to DC, you can
take 0 Hz for the lower comer frequency.
Vout (1 kHz) = Av =
180 EXPERIMENT 43
Increase the generator frequency while monitoring the amplifier + V
output. Measure and record the frequency where the output
is 0.707 of the 1-kHz output amplitude. This is the upper cor-
fz (upper comer) =
Vout (1 kHz) =
Av = fz =
8. Compute the gain BW product again. You should find that this
value is in close agreement with the value of step 4.
Figure 43.2
gain BW =
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio
R
rejection ratio (CMRR) is
f
1 . The common-mode a measure of the
amplifier’s ability to reject a common-mode signal input.
The formula you will use to calculate the CMRR is
CMRR JmRMsnaa!n_
common-mode gain
2 . Connect the circuit of Figure 43.3a. You will use this circuit to
obtain the op-amp differential gain.
Av = (amp gain)
Vin(p- P )
- Vout(p-p)
Av = (common-mode gain)
5 . Calculate the CMRR using the formula at the beginning of this experiment.
CMRR =
DISCUSSION
1 . Considering the input offset voltage you measured for your 74 1 op-amp,
describe the output signal you would expect for that amplifier operating
with a gain of 10 and an input sinewave signal of 200 mVp.p at 1 kHz.
3 . What kinds of applications can you suggest for an amplifier with a high
CMRR? Select one application and describe.
Quick Check
1 . The operational amplifier has high gain and low output impedance.
True False
True False
3. The operational amplifier has three inputs: inverting, noninverting, and null.
True False
CMRR =
5 . What is the unity-gain bandwidth for a 74 1 op-amp?
BW =
182 EXPERIMENT 43
44
OP-AMP SLEW RATE
AND CMRR
INTRODUCTION
The slew rate of an op-amp tells how fast the output voltage can change with
respect to a change at the input. The unit of measurement of slew rate is volts per
unit of time, typically V/jls. The slowest rate of changeof output occu rs at unity
gainjthereforeitisunderthisconditionthattheparameterismostoften stated.
Common-mode rejection (CMRR) is defined as an op-amp’s ability to mini-
mize the effects of unwanted input signals. These signals may be the result of
power supply fluctuations or electromagnetic interference (EMI). CMRR
is the
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 11, Section 11.3
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this experiment, you will be able to:
Channel 2: 2 V/div
Figure 44.1
2. Apply DC power and a 25-kHz, 6-Vp-p square wave to the noninverting
input. You should observe two waveforms similar to those in Figure
44.2.
3. In Graph 44.1, add time and amplitude units and sketch the waveforms.
Channel 1
Vin
Channel 2
Vout
r\i
Figure 44.2 Graph 44.1
4. Measure the peak-to-peak voltage of the output waveform and record this
below as AV.
AV =
5. Measure the amount of time it takes the waveform to change from one
peak to the other (this can be on either the positive-going or the negative-
going edge). Record this value as At below.
At =
6. Calculate the slew rate of the op-amp using the following formula:
slew rate =
184 EXPERIMENT 44
The slew rate of an op-amp limits its performance with a sinusoidal signal
also. If the slope of the sinusoidal signal is greater than the op-amp slew
rate distortion or power bandwidth. The relationship between the fre-
quency where the signal starts to distort and the amplifier slew rate is
given by
SR = 2tt fmV
8 . Change the function generator output to a sinewave signal. Maintain the
output at 6 Vp.p. Starting at a frequency of 1 kHz, observe the op-amp
output while increasing the frequency. Adjust the generator frequency
to the value where you can just begin to detect distortion of the sine As the frequency is increased,
wave. This is fm Record this frequency.
. you will note that the output
signal will become triangular
fm = shaped.
9. Using the formula of step 7, calculate the op-amp slew rate, and record
your result.
slew rate =
11 . Turn off power from the function generator; then remove DC power from
the circuit. Disassemble the circuit.
Op-Amp CMRR
1 . Connect the circuit in Figure 44.3.
A = Rf/Ri
A=
3. Apply DC power and a 6-Vp.p, 60-Hz sine wave to the input.
This voltage will be used to represent EMI from a nearby
piece of machinery.
Figure 44.3
4. Observe the input and output signals on the oscilloscope. You should ob-
serve a 6-Vp.p input signal and a small signal at the output.
5. Measure the AC voltage (vin) at pin 2 (or pin 3) of the op-amp. Measure
the AC voltage (v ou t) at pin 6 of the op-amp. Use the formula vout/vin to
find the common-mode gain (A cm ). Record these values below.
CMRR = log
Acm
CMRR =
DISCUSSION
1 . The op-amp parameter, slew rate, can have an impact on how a particular
op-amp will perform in different situations. Describe what effect fre-
quency variations might have on slew rate.
Quick Check
True False
2. If a certain op-amp has a voltage swing from +5.5 V to -7.5 V in 0.25 ps,
the slew rate is equal to .
186 EXPERIMENT 44
45
NONINVERTING
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER
INTRODUCTION
The noninverting voltage amplifier has the characteristics of an ideal voltage
amplifier: exceptionally high input impedance and very low output impedance.
on a high-gain op-amp, has a
Additionally, this amplifier, like any other based
voltage gain and stability that are dependent upon the external circuit resistors
and independent of amplifier variations.
In this experiment you will construct a series-parallel negative feedback op-
amp noninverting voltage amplifier circuit. You will verify and observe the ef-
fects of feedback resistors in setting the voltage gain, and you will demonstrate
that negative feedback reduces the output impedance of hie op-amp.
REFERENCES
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 12, Sections 12.1
and 12.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
From your measured data, calculate the amplifier gain and re-
cord in Table 45.1.
Figure 45.1
4. Your measured value of gain should agree with the calculated value,
within resistor and equipment tolerances. If you find a greater deviation,
recheck your measurements.
5. Select anew value of Rfto set the amplifier gain in the range of 6 to 25.
Record the new value of Rf in Table 45.1 with your predicted gain.
Turn off AC and DC sources. Install the new Rf resistance you selected.
Beginning with step the pro-
7,
Reapply DC power and signal input. Repeat the gain measurement of
cedure demonstrates that
steps 2 and 3. Record the peak-to-peak values of Vin and vout in Table
negative feedback reduces the
45 1 Calculate the amplifier gain from the measured data and record in
effective op-amp output im- . .
Av = _ Av =
Calculated Calculated
Ay = _ Ay =
Table 45.1
188 EXPERIMENT 45
8. Turn DC and AC sources off. Change Rl to a 75-D resistor. Reapply DC
power and the amplifier signal input. Ensure that the peak-to-peak input
signal is exactly the same as used in step 8. Measure and record in Table
45.1 the peak-to-peak output voltage level. This measurement won’t give
the output impedance value, however; if Vou t is one-half that of step 8,
Your measured V
out should be nearly that of step 8 (approximately 10% to
20% less), demonstrating that the amplifier output impedance is signifi-
cantly less than 75 Q and has been reduced by die negative feedback.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Apply DC power and a 1-kHz, 200-mV p-p input signal. Using your
oscilloscope, observe the amplifier output, noting in particular the
waveshape and peak-to-peak amplitude of the signal.
Vi„= V0 ut =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Section II
Quick Check
True False
True False
4. The input signal is in phase with the output signal in a noninverted series-
parallel negative feedback circuit.
True False
True False
190 EXPERIMENT 45
46
IN VERTIHG
VOLTAGE AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
The op-amp is a very popular amplifier. It displays
inverting voltage amplifier
most of the of the noninverting amplifier except the extremely
characteristics
high input impedance. In addition, at low gains, it will have a smaller gain band-
width product.
In this experiment you will build and test an inverting op-amp voltage am-
plifier and examine the characteristics of input impedance and gain bandwidth
product.
The troubleshooting section will let you see die effects of simulated compo-
nent failures on your amplifier.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 12, Section 12.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Rt
15 kn
3 . Measure and record in Table 46. 1 the input and output peak-to-peak
voltages using your oscilloscope. Use the data from step 3 to determine
7.
the actual Av ; record it in Table 6.1.
4. Calculate the expected gain for your amplifier and record in Table 46. 1
Note: If your measured and calculated values for Av are not close, check
your calculations and your circuit measurements.
5. Remove power from the amplifier. Select a new value of Rf in the range
of 2.2 kfi to 39 k£2. Record your Rf value in the second box of Table
46.1.
6. Reapply DC power and input signal of 500 mVp.p at 1 kHz. Measure the
peak-to-peak input and output voltages, and use the data to determine the
actual amplifier gain. Record these values in the second box of Table
46.1.
Table 46.1 Calculate the expected gain for your amplifier and record in Table 46. 1
&
Beginning with step 8, you will 9.
Rf back to the 15-kQ resistor.
Vou t
=
192 EXPERIMENT 46
10. Turn off the AC and DC sources. Disconnect the potentiometer and meas-
ure its resistance. This is the input impedance value of your amplifier. Re-
cord in Table 46.1.
12. Turn on DC power and the AC signal source. Measure the amplifier peak-
to-peak input and output voltages. Note these below. Calculate the ampli-
fier gain and note below.
Vin = Vout — Av =
13. While ensuring that Vin stays constant, increase the generator frequency to
the amplifier upper comer frequency. Measure and record this frequency.
f2 =
Since the amplifier should operate to DC, fz is the bandwidth.
14. Calculate the gain bandwidth product.You should find that your value is
3.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Vout (p-p) ~
original 15-kQ Rf. Remove the 2.2-kQ R; resistor and replace with the
2.2-MQ resistor. Again, this won’t completely
simulate an open resistor, but it
2. Apply DC power and the AC signal input of 500 mVp- p . Measure and is sufficient for demonstrating
record the circuit values listed below. this fault.
V+DC = V-DC =
Section I
Section II
2. Discuss how well the measurements made point to the external circuitry
as the fault rather than the op-amp.
okay, with the fault having to be in the external circuitry? Discuss this
concept, considering what op-amp failures could produce the same cir-
cuit fault measurements.
Quick Check
True False
2. If the value of the input resistor decreases, the gain will increase.
True False
3. If the value of the feedback resistor increases, the gain will increase.
True False
4. For the amplifier of Figure 46.1, if Rf = 27 k£2 and Rj = 3.9 kfi, the
amplifier gain would be .
194 EXPERIMENT 46
47
OP-AMP
CURRENT AMPLIFIERS
INTRODUCTION
The ideal current amplifier has zero input impedance, infinite output impedance,
and a constant current gain. The ideal current amplifier can be approached using
an op-amp with an inverting current feedback. This current amplifier form pro-
vides a linear gain response to the point where the op-amp reaches its output
voltage saturation limit.
In this experiment you will construct a current amplifier and make measure-
ments to see die basic characteristics. Then you will set up a simulated circuit to
obtain concepts involved in a circuit application.
The troubleshooting section will aid you in developing skills for effective
troubleshooting of op-amp circuits.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 12, Section 12.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Figure 47.1
4 . If the current amplifier has a high output impedance< as a good amplifier
should, changing the size of Rl should not significantly affect the load
Current Gain
current. In the next procedure steps you will test the amplifier with differ-
ent Rl values.
lout - 5. Turn off the DC supply. Remove the 2.2-kD load resistor, and install a
560-£2 load. Reapply DC power. Ensure that the input current is still
Ai =
150 (lA. Measure and record the output current (lout) in Table 47.1 in the
box labeled Rl = 560 Q.
Load Variations
(Rl = 560 Q)
6. Repeat step 5, this time using a 3.9 k£2 load resistor. Record the output cur-
I in
= rent in the box labeled Rl = 3.9 kQ in Table 47. 1 You should have
. found
that changing the load resistance through a range of almost 4: 1 had little
7 . Turn off the DC power. Disconnect the output current ammeter and com-
Load Variations plete the output circuit connections without the ammeter. Reapply DC
(Rl = 3.9 kD)
power, and ensure that the input current is still 150 pA. Measure the volt-
age from the op-amp output to ground. You should find a reading of be-
tween 7.5 V and 8.0 V. As long as the size of the load resistance doesn’t
lout - require more than the saturated op-amp output, the current amplifier will
be linear.
Vout =
8. To see one application of a current amplifier, assume that you have a
Table 47.1 1-mA ammeter with a meter resistance of 1.8 k£2, and you must be able
to measure a current of 250 pA. You can use a current amplifier with a
gain of 4 to scale the current up to the meter full-scale range.
Since Ai = —
Rf
Kb
+ 1, the
Rf
Kb
ratio needs to be 3. So when Rf = 10 k£2,
196 EXPERIMENT 47
9. Turn off the DC supply. If you have access to a 1-mA meter movement,
install it in place of Rl. If not, you can use a 1 ,8-kQ resistor and an am-
meter to measure the current. Install a 10-kfi potentiometer which is set
1 0. Reapply DC power. Adjust R2 for an input current of 250 |iA and measure
the output current. You may need to adjust the potentiometer of Rb for an
exact scaling to produce the 1-mA output.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
spread through several circuit boards in the system. You will fault the cir-
cuit by providing excessive feedback, thereby reducing the gain.
1 . Turn off the DC power. Replace Rf with a 1 00-kQ resistor and Rb with a
50-kQ resistor. This simulates an excessive feedback.
4. While monitoring the input and output currents, adjust Rf until a current
ratio of approximately 11:1 is reached.
If you can achieve current gain called for in the specifications, the fault
lies in the feedback circuitry. If not, the problem lies in the op-amp cir-
cuitry. If you
have a discrete component op-amp, you’ll have to trouble-
shoot each BJT or FET network independently.
DISCUSSION
Section I
Quick Check
True False
3. The ideal current amplifier will have a very high input impedance.
True False
198 EXPERIMENT 47
48
VOLTAGE-TO-CURRENT
CONVERTERS
INTRODUCTION
The voltage-to-current converter uses noninverting current feedback to control
The noninverting feedback increases input imped-
the operation of the amplifier.
ance and output impedance, so that the amplifier approaches the ideal voltage-
to-current converter.
This experiment will examine the basic voltage-to-current converter. You
will construct a floating -load noninverting voltage-to-current converter, and you
will make measurements of this basic converter. Then you will build and test a
circuit illustrating an application of the voltage-to-current converter.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 12, Section 12.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Vin lout
RL Conversion Scaling
ikn
V/mA =
Voltmeter
2.
Vin iout
Rb
2.2 k a 0.5 V
0.75 V
Figure 48.1
Table 48.1
1 Construct the circuit in Figure 48.1.
200 EXPERIMENT 48
6. Apply DC power. Adjust the divider potentiometer for an input of 0.5 V.
Your scale factor is
7. Adjust the divider potentiometer for an input of 0.75 V. Measure and also
record the output current as voltage in the Voltmeter box of Table 48. 1
DISCUSSION
Quick Check
True False
True False
3. For the circuit of Figure 48.1, if Vin were 10 V, the output current would
be .
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 12, Section 12.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
202 EXPERIMENT 49
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
has no DC offset.
2.2 kn
2.2 k fi
(Vini) and output voltage (V out) levels. Record the values
in the column labeled R 2 Open of Table 49.1
5. Turn off the AC and DC sources. Remove the 2.2-kQ R2 and replace it
with a 3.3-kQ resistor. Apply DC power and the AC signal of step 2. Use
V0ut(pk+) = Vout(pk-)
=
Vjn2 --
Vout
Av
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Can you predict what effect an open Rf will have on the circuit operation?
3 . Reapply circuit DC power. Connect your function generator to both the Vini
and Vin2 inputs. Set the function generator to supply an 800-Hz signal at
500 mVp-p.
Vout(p-p) =
6. Measure the input signal at the op-amp input (pin 2). Is this signal essen-
tially 0?
Pin 2 input =
7. Measure the op-amp supply voltage values (V+ and V-). Are these normal?
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Suppose you are given the circuit of Figure 49. 1 supplied with two 1-kHz
signals of exactly the same amplitude, but exactly 180 degrees out of
phase (Vini with a signal at 0 degrees and Vin 2 with a signal of 1 80 de-
grees). Discuss what you would expect to see at the output of the sum-
ming amplifier. Include a description of the amplifier operation that
would produce the output you expect.
2. Given the circuit of Figure 49. 1, what sort of output signal would you
expect to see if one input were a 1 -kHz signal and the other was a 2 -kHz
signal?
204 EXPERIMENT 49
Section II
Quick Check
True False
2. Vout can be described as the sum of the input voltages times the ratio,
Rf : Rin-
True False
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 13, Sections 13.3
and 13.44
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
206 EXPERIMENT 50
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Wien-Bridge Oscillator
fc =
V0ut (peak-to-peak) =
Measure and record the frequency at the output signal.
fc =
5 Slowly readjust R5 to increase its resistance and note below the results on
the output waveform.
Slowly readjust R5 to decrease its resistance and note below the ef-
Rs =
7. Replace R5 in the circuit. Remove the jumper shorting R4 and the diode
network. Adjust R5 to obtain a stable sinewave form of approximately
4 to 5 Vp-p.
RC OSCILLATORS 207
Could you do this with the diode network shorted?
fo =
f= =
Note: You should find pretty close agreement in the two values,
t= (measured)
7. Monitor the circuit output and slowly adjust R4 (near its midpoint) to a
point of minimum of no output. This the notch point of the twin-T. Re-
call that at the notch frequency minimum regenerative feedback is ob-
tained, and at this frequency the phase shift through the twin-T filter is
measure R/2?
208 EXPERIMENT 50
DISCUSSION
3. What effect did changing the twin-T capacitors Ci and C 2 have on the
operation of the circuit?
Quick Check
True False
3 . The twin-T oscillator is part of the negative feedback circuit and therefore
increases gain.
True False
True False
RC OSCILLATORS 209
51
COLPITTS AND CLAPP
OSCILLATORS
INTRODUCTION
The Colpitts and the Clapp oscillators are used wherever frequencies greater
than 1 MHz are needed. The Clapp oscillator is a variation of the Colpitts oscil-
lator, having an extra capacitor in the tank circuit, which is the primary fre-
quency-determining capacitor, providing a more stable oscillator.
In this experiment you will construct a Colpitts and Clapp oscillator, calcu-
late the output frequency, and observe and measure the output frequencies.
The troubleshooting section will let you see the effect of an open capacitor
on the oscillator operation.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 13, Section 13.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
210 EXPERIMENT 51
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
51.1.
fc = (measured)
Figure 51.1
Calculate the expected resonant frequency for your oscillator. How well
does this compare to the measured frequency?
fc = (calculated)
Figure 51 .2
4. Reapply circuit power. Using your oscilloscope, observe the output signal.
With the frequency meter, measure the output frequency and record it be-
low.
fc =
1 With circuit power off, disconnect and remove the 20pF capacitor shunting
the base of the transistor. Simulate an open feedback capacitor by discon-
necting one end of Cf.
Using the oscilloscope, monitor the output signal. What do you observe?
DISCUSSION
Section I
1. Discuss the reason, using frequency calculations, why the 20-pF capacitor
affected the Colpitts oscillator to a greater extent than the Clapp oscilla-
tor.
3. Discuss the feedback signal to the base of the transistor. Is the feedback
regenerative or degenerative?
Section II
212 EXPERIMENT 51
Quick Check
True False
True False
True False
This experiment will let you build and test a Hartley oscillator and check
your measured values against your calculated values.
In the troubleshooting section, you will simulate a circuit failure and make
measurements to see the effect on circuit operation.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 13, Section 13.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
214 EXPERIMENT 52
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
fc =
4. Remove power from the circuit. Replace the 100-pF capacitor with a
47-pF capacitor. What effect do you predict this will have on the opera-
tion of the circuit?
fc =
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
fc=
Note: This is not a normal failure mode for the circuit; however, it
fo
=
DISCUSSION
Quick Check
True False
True False
4. The term for introducing a small amount of energy back into an electronic
oscillator is .
True False
216 EXPERIMENT 52
53
RELAXATION
OSCILLATORS
INTRODUCTION
An important application of RC networks is in the relaxation oscillator, where
the RC timing controls the circuit, producing a square wave. This type of oscil-
lator is often called a multivibrator.
In this experiment you will build an op-amp relaxation oscillator and,
through circuit measurements, see the basic characteristics of the relaxation os-
cillator.
The troubleshooting section will let you simulate a circuit failure and see the
effect on the circuit operation.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 13, Section 6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Vout =
f0 = (measured)
f0 = (calculated)
5.
Connect channel 2 of your oscilloscope to the top of
capacitor Ci (at the inverting input of the op-amp). With
channel 1 connected to the oscillator output, observe the
capacitor waveform versus the output diagrams of
Figure 13.35 in your text.
Figure 53.1
Can you relate the UTP and LTP to the output waveform?
Disconnect power and adjust the potentiometer for a resistance of 2.5 kQ.
What effect do you predict this will have on the operation of the circuit?
6. Turn on power. Measure and observe the waveform and frequency at the
output.
f0 = (measured)
f0 = (calculated)
f0 = (measured)
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
218 EXPERIMENT 53
2.2-MQ resistor. What do you predict the effect will be on the operation
of the oscillator?
2. Turn on the power. Monitor the output signal. Is there an output square
wave?
2. Turn on the power. Monitor the output signal and note below the output
you observe.
DISCUSSION
Section I
quency?
2 . Describe how you would modify or what additional circuitry you would
add to the circuit of Figure 53 . 1 to make the output TTL compatible, that
is, to obtain an output square wave that changes from 0 V to +5 V.
Section II
Could an op-amp failure have resulted in the same measured output from
your oscillator? Discuss what additional measurements you would make
to isolate the failure to capacitor Ci.
Quick Check
2. The teim trip point refers to the voltage the capacitor must exceed to pro-
duce changes in output.
3 . The output frequency depends on the charge and discharge time of the
resistors.
True False
4. If the Ri value were 3 k£l and the Ci value were 0.47 pF, what would the
output frequency be for the circuit in Figure 53.1?
220 EXPERIMENT 53
54
DIFFERENTIATORS
AND INTEGRATORS
INTRODDCTION
The differentiator is an electronic circuit that performs the mathematical func-
tion of differentiation. The output voltage is proportional to the slope (rate of
change) of the input voltage. The integrator performs the mathematical function
of integration.
Differentiator and integrator circuits find application in industrial electronic
control loops. Additionally, they can be used to change signal waveforms. The
differentiator willproduce a rectangular waveform from a triangular input. The
integrator will produce a triangular waveform from a rectangular input.
In this experiment you will build and explore the op-amp differentiator and
integrator. You will also see the waveform-changing function of these circuits.
The troubleshooting section will let you see the effect of a simulated circuit
failure on circuit operation.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 13, Section 13.7
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
The Differentiator
Avin
v0ut = CiR2
At
Sketch the oscilloscope display in Graph 54.1, noting the peak values of
the signals.
Sketch the oscilloscope display in Graph 54.2, noting the signal peak values.
222 EXPERIMENT 54
The Integrator
1 . Construct the circuit in Figure 54.2.
3 . Connect your oscilloscope to monitor both the input and output signals.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
For the second measurement connect your function generator and apply a
2-Vp.p, 10- kHz squarewave input. Measure the input and output signals.
Record your observations for each measurement.
First Measurement
Second Measurement
2. Remove Ci from the circuit. Before reconnecting power, can you predict
what the output might be?
3. Reapply DC power and the squarewave input. Monitor the input and output
signals. Note your observations.
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. Discuss what you think the output of the integrator would have been with a
10-kHz sinewave applied. (Consider the differentiator measurement of
and the integrator measurement of step 3.)
step 4
Section II
Quick Check
True False
True False
224 EXPERIMENT 54
3 . The differentiator response to the input pulse width is dependent on the RC
time constant.
True False
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 14, Section 14.1
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
226 EXPERIMENT 55
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
2.2 kn
2 . Connect your oscilloscope to monitor the input signal and
the output signal across the load resistor.
228 EXPERIMENT 55
5 . Turn off circuit power. Connect the diode in reversed
direction (cathode to the op-amp).
7.
Graph 55.7
Sketch the oscilloscope display in Graph 55.7, noting the 0-V reference
and signal peak values.
DISCUSSION
Quick Check
1 . The term nonlinear means that something is not moving in a straight line.
True False
True False
True False
4. Diode polarity has no effect on the polarity of the limiter output signal.
True False
230 EXPERIMENT 55
56
SCHMITT TRIGGER
CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
Schmitt trigger circuits are comparators that use positive feedback to accentuate
the switch transition. Positive feedback aids in reducing spurious triggering. The
Schmitt trigger is useful in industrial and control applications.
In this experiment you will construct an inverting and a noninverting
Schmitt trigger and observe the operation of both of these circuits.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and CVrcu to-Chapter 14, Section 14.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Monitor the input and output signals and sketch the waveforms in
Graph 56. 1, noting the voltage level of the input signal when your
Schmitt trigger changes state.
Turn on the power, and monitor the input and output waveforms. Sketch
the oscilloscope display in Graph 56.2, noting the input signal volt-
+15 V 2. Monitor the input and output of the Schmitt trigger. Sketch
the oscilloscope waveformsGraph 56.3, noting the
in
input signal voltage at the point where the Schmitt trigger
output switches.
UPT = LTP =
232 EXPERIMENT 56
Graph 56.3 Graph 56.4
DISCUSSION
2. Explain how you might use a Schmitt trigger with a temperature trans-
ducer whose output is 700 mV at 70°F and 750 mV at 75°F, to control
temperature in a house.
Quick Check
True False
3 . The Schmitt trigger produces a squarewave output for any wave form at
the input.
True False
4. What is the UTP and LTP for the circuit of Figure 56. 1 with Rb = 2.2 kO?
UTP = LTP =
parator.
The troubleshooting section will let you simulate a circuit fault and make
measurements to see the effect of the fault.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 14, Section 14.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
234 EXPERIMENT 57
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 57. 1 Apply. DC power. Connect your function
generator, set to provide a 40(>-Hz triangularwave at 10 Vp p . .
3. Measure and record the voltage level of the input signal at the point where
the output goes high (vini) and the input signal voltage at the point where
the output switches from higl to low (vin 2 ).
Vini
= Vin2 =
4. Using the data of step 3, calculate the input window voltage range,
Vw = Vini " Vin2-
Vw =
5 . Disconnect your function gei lerator. Using your voltmeter, measure the
DC voltage at the anode of Di to ground. This is vn i. Record it below.
Vnl =
Vn2 =
7. From your data of steps 5 an i 6, calculate the lower and upper trip points
for your circuit.
VltP = Vutp =
V-(pin4) =
V„1 =
Vn2 =
Graph 57.2
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Suppose you are required to monitor a 4.5-V power supply and indicate a
problem if the supply output shifts by more than 0.5 V. Discuss the use
of a window comparator for this application.
Section II
Quick Check
2. The output voltage goes high when the input voltage reaches LTP.
True False
236 EXPERIMENT 57
3 . The output voltage goes low when the input voltage reaches UTP.
True False
4. For the circuit of Figure 57. 1, what is the new Vltp if R3 = 3.9 kQ?
Vltp =
IHTRODUCTION
Active filters are popular because they produce better filtering at a lower cost.
The active component, the op-amp, makes up for losses the passive filters usu-
ally produce. Active filters are smaller, have less weight, and are less expensive
than the LC filters. The coils in the LC filters are expensive and large.
In Section I of this experiment you will calculate and measure the A v in the
mid-band and at fc of the op-amp Butte rworth active filter. You will also contrast
the rolloff differences above f between a first- and second-order filter.
In Section II you will see how a shorted Ci affects the filter output.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 15, Section 15.3
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
238 EXPERIMENT 58
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Vin = Vout = Av =
Figure 58.1
4. Adjust the signal generator to increase frequency until Vout drops
fc = freq. Vout
Vout(fc)
=
Table 58.1 Graph 58.1
Vin(p-p)
— _V0ut(p-p) - Ci -J_
0.01 pF
1 1 . Repeat the measurements of step 6, using Table 58.2 for
recording your data.
Figure 58.2
1.2
Vout
0.8
0.4
H 1 1 1 1 1
1
Frequency (kHz)
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Fault 1 - Ci shorted
1 . Turn DC power off. In your circuit of Figure 5 8 .2, place a shorting wire
across Ci. Reapply DC power.
2. Apply an input of 500 Hz at 500 mVp p . . Measure and record the circuit out-
put.
V 0„t =
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . You should have found that the Av (mid-band) of Figure 58.2 is approxi-
mately 1.60. Discuss this gain value; is there anything significant about
this figure to you?
2. You should have found that in the second order active low-pass filter of
Figure 58.2 the output voltage fell off very quickly. Discuss the rolloff
rate vs. the rolloff rate for the first-order filter of Figure 58.1.
Section II
Fault l- Ci shorted
Describe your circuit result for this failure. Could this same result have
been due to an op-amp failure? What do you think would be the effect if
Ci changed values?
Quick Check
2. The active low-pass filter is actually more expensive than the LC filter.
True False
fc =
INTRODUCTION
Active high-pass filters have the same advantages as the active low-pass filters
discussed in Experiment 58. Active filters are smaller, they weigh less, and they
are less expensive than their passive-filter counterparts. In addition, active filters
have fewer losses because of the active components they use. The major differ-
ence between high- and low-pass active filters is that low-pass filters pass low
frequencies up to a cutoff frequency, and high-pass filters cut off frequencies at
some lower frequency and pass all frequencies above that point.
In Section I of this experiment you will calculate and measure the A
v in the
midband and at fi of the op-amp Butte rworth active filter. You will also contrast
the rolloff differences above k between a first- and second-order filter.
In Section II you will see how an open Ci and a shorted resistor will affect
the circuit output.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 15, Section 15.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
242 EXPERIMENT 59
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Vin = Vout —
Av — Figure 59.1
4. Adjust the function generator to decrease frequency until the circuit output
drops off to 0.707 of the vout recorded in step 3. Record this frequency.
f* =
5. Calculate and record the Av , fc, vout(mid), and vout(fc) of Figure 59. 1.
Av = fc =
Vout(mid)
= V0ut(fc) =
0.8 --
8 . Build the circuit of Figure 59.2. Apply DC power. --
0.4
V in(p- P )
~ V out^-])) =
11 . Repeat measurements of step 6 for this filter, but use
Table 59.2 for your data.
Figure 59.2
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Vout
Fault 1- Ci shorted
1 . Turn off the circuit power. For the circuit of Figure 59.2, place a jumper
wire in parallel with capacitor Ci. Reapply circuit power. Adjust your
function generator to provide a 1 .5-kHz, 500-mVp.p input signal.
2. With your oscilloscope connected to monitor both the filter input and
output signals, measure and record the filter output for the frequencies
listed in Table 59.3.
Vout=
DISCUSSION
Section I
1. Forthe of Figure 59.1, you should have found the passband gain to
filter
2. Compare the two filter response graphs. Describe the attenuation slopes
you measured and discuss the slopes you obtained versus the ideal (pre-
dicted) slope for a first-order filter and second order filter.
244 EXPERIMENT 59
Section II
Fault 1 - Ci shorted
From the data measured, can you eliminate the op-amp as a problem and
determine the fault in the filter network? Discuss this, citing your meas-
ured data that illustrate your answer.
Fault 2- Ci open
Does measurement of the filter output give sufficient information to
the
suggest a filter network problem? Discuss this failure mode and indicate
what additional measurements you would make to isolate the fault.
Quick Check
1 . frequencies.
(a) 20 dB (b) 40 dB
(c) 60 dB
4. For the filter of Figure 59. 1, what would the comer frequency be if
£=
INTRODUCTION
Band-pass filters fill the application need for a circuit that will pass a range of
frequencies and reject (attenuate) frequencies above and below that range. Ac-
tive filters provide nearly ideal characteristics for filters in the frequency range
of a few Hz to approximately 1 50 kHz. For higher frequencies, passive LC filters
are likely the filter of choice.
In this experiment you will build and test two band-pass filter forms. The
a single-stage filter, and the second is a two-stage filter composed of a
first is
low-pass section and a high-pass section. The troubleshooting section will let
you see the effect of a component fault on the circuit operation.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 15, Section 15.3
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
246 EXPERIMENT 60
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
4. Adjust the signal generator to each of the frequencies listed in Table 60.1,
and measure and record the filter peak-to-peak output at each frequency.
5. Set your signal generator to 90 kHz and 100 mV|>.p Measure and . record
below the filter output.
Vout at 90 kHz =
Table 60.2; measure and record the filter output for each frequency.
7. For the circuit of Figure 60.1, calculate and record the cutoff frequencies
below.
fi= f2 =
f3 = U=
Calculate and record the bandwidth (BW) for the circuit of Figure 60.1.
BW =
2 . With your oscilloscope connected to monitor both Vin and Vou t, measure
the filter output and record below.
3 . Decrease the generator frequency until the filter output drops to 0.707 of
the value measured in step 2. Record this frequency below. This is the
lower comer frequency.
fc =
Table 60.2
4. Increase your generator frequency until the filter output again drops to
0.707 of the value measured in step 2. This is the upper comer frequency.
Record this frequency below.
fc
=
6. From your data of steps 3 and 4, calculate the bandwidth of the filter.
BW =
kHz
short Cr. Reapply DC power. With your signal generator connected to
Vin, apply a sinewave signal of 80 kHz at 100 mVp. p .
kHz
2. Measure and record below the filter output.
kHz
kHz V out (80 kHz) =
3 . Check the filter output at several of the frequencies of Section I, steps 4
and6. Record your frequencies and measured filter outputs in Table 60.3.
Table 60.3
DISCUSSION
Section I
248 EXPERIMENT 60
2. For the two-stage band-pass circuit of Figure 60.2, describe the circuit
operation. For example, is the lower comer frequency less than or greater
than the upper comer frequency, and which section controls the lower
comer frequency?
SECTION II
Fault 1 - Cr shorted
Describe what information about the circuit failure the measured data
gave you. Discuss also how well your measured data pointed to, or exon
e rated, the op-amp as a possible failed component.
Quick Check
b.
True False
3 . What is the first check you would make if there was no output from the
circuit of Figure 60. 1?
INTRODUCTION
Active band-reject filters are used where a specific band of frequencies are de-
sired to be attenuated, while passing the frequencies above and below the stop-
band. Often you may see a combination low-pass and high-pass active filter. In
this experiment, the filters are in parallel and their outputs are fed into a sum-
ming amplifier. One difference between the band-reject and the band-pass filter
is that, in the band- reject filter, the low-pass cutoff frequency must be lower than
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 15, Section 15.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
250 EXPERIMENT 61
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 61.1. Rio is used to minimize the input offset
of U3 due to differences of input bias currents.
v0ut at 200 Hz =
4. Increase the function generator frequency; measure and record the vout Table 61.1
for each listed frequency listed in Table 61.1.
7. Decrease the function generator frequency and measure v«it at each fre-
quency listed in Table 61.2. Record vout at these frequencies in that table.
8. From your data of steps 4 and 7, calculate and record the measured band-
width.
BW =
9. Plot the data of steps 4 and 7 in Graph 61.1 (next page).
Table 61.2
Figure 61.1
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
3. Your check of the data points of steps 4 and 7 should indicate a problem
in the low-pass section. Set your signal generator to 800 Hz. Measure
and record below the following signal voltages:
Voltage at Ui pin 3 =
Voltage at Ui pin 2=
Voltage at Ui pin 6 =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Your text points out that, for a band-reject filter in the form of Figure 61.1,
the cutoff frequency of the low-pass section must be less than the cutoff
frequency of the high-pass section. Discuss this requirement, indicating
what you feel would be the result of not following this requirement.
252 EXPERIMENT 61
Section II
Quick Check
1 . It is important that the low-pass filter have a higher cutoff frequency than
the high-pass filter.
True False
2. Are the low-pass and high-pass filters in this experiment Butterworth fil-
ters?
Yes No
in Figure 61.1?
4. How many poles are there in the low-pass filter section in the circuit of
Figure 61.1?
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 15, Section 15.4
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
lVp-p.)
lookn:
at
Vp .p sinewave signal
4 kHz. Connect your
HH!
°
|
0.022
^ *
pF
|
|
f
^
\
k’«n
'
Ri
oscilloscope to monitor D2
R .
_ __
56kft!
^
v^ and vou Meas-
both
ure and record the
t.
filter
2
2.7 kn
7 kt2 $
:
"T.
|
ioo
100
Rb
kfly
kn*
t> <
*
Ay = fc =
7. Calculate the gain and cutoff frequency for the high-pass filter of Figure
62.2.
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
Freq. V0ut(p-p)
Fault 1 - Ci changed value
4.0 kHz
1 . Turn off the circuit power. In the circuit of 62.2 remove Ci, a 0.022-pF
3.0 kHz capacitor, and replace it with a 0.01-pP capacitor.
2.8 kHz
2. Calculate the new k and record below.
2.3 kHz
fc=
2.0 kHz
1.0 kHz 3 . Apply DC power and input signal of 1 Vp.p at 4 kHz. Measure and record
the filter output at the frequencies listed in Table 62.3.
0.5 kHz
DISCUSSION
Table 62.3
Section I
Section II
Your measured data should have indicated that the fault was in the
external frequency controlling networks. What additional measurements
would you make to isolate the failed component?
Quick Check
256 EXPERIMENT 62
3. The VCVS filter is restricted to only a two-pole filter.
True False
4. The VCVS active filter has the advantage of being very tolerant of compo'
nent aging.
True False
5. For a Butterworth VCVS active filter all resistors and capacitors in the fre
quency -determining network are the same value.
True False
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 16, Section 16.2
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
258 EXPERIMENT 63
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
+15 V +15 V
Measure and record below v out and its polarity.
Average the gain values to obtain an average gain for the amplifier.
Ana =
Although this demonstration is not exact, notice that your instrumentation i
Vin= Vout=
Acm =
7. Calculate the amplifier CMMR in dB from the amplifier average gain and
the common mode gain.
CMMR = 20 log-^
6
Avm
CMMR =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Quick Check
True False
True False
True False
260 EXPERIMENT 63
64
DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG
CONVERSION
INTRODUCTION
Digital-to-analog (D/A) conversion is the process of changing a binary number
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 16, Section 16.3
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
+5 V 0 V
Figure 64.1
&
. .
You can substitute a jumper wire for each switch. There must be a jumper
If you don’t have a 20-kQ resis- wire for each input resistor (Ri through R 5 ), and each must make a con-
tor for R4 ,
use a 22-kO resistor nection to either +5 V or ground.
in parallel with a 220-kQ resis-
tor. Note: Do not leave any input open-circuited.
When a switch (or jumper) is connected to ground, a logic "0" is at that
input. When a switch (or jumper) is connected to +5 V, a logic "1" is ap-
plied. Initially, set all switches for a logic input of 0000.
2. Apply 17 VDC to the op-amp, and +5 V to the 5-V switch buss. Measure
the converter output voltage. Ideally, this should be zero. In a practical
circuit without nulling, you should find an output that doesn’t exceed
100 mV. For the purpose of this experiment disregard the output offset
and consider it as zero.
3 . Notice that your converter is just a summing amplifier. For the logic input
of 0000, record the converter output in Table 64. 1 in the appropriate row.
ming amplifiers, calculate the expected converter output and record in Ta-
ble 64.1.
5 . Repeat the process of step 4 for each digital entry in Table 64.1.
The resistor sizes and feedback scaling were selected so that your
converter should have given you the decimal value of each 4-bit digital
input. For example, for the 01 1 1 input you should have had an output of
essentially 7 V.
262 EXPERIMENT 64
Binary Inputs Output Voltages
A B
r
c^ D Measured Calculated
Si S2 S3 S4
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1
1 0 1 0
1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0
1 1 0 1
1 1 1 0
J 1 1 1
Table 64.1
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
3.
1 . Turn off all circuit power. Disconnect the feedback potentiometer and re-
2. Reapply the op-amp and 5 VDC power. Monitor the converter output and
apply 4 to 6 different digital inputs from 0000 to 1111. Describe below
the converter response to each input.
Make any additional measurements that you feel appropriate. List your
measurement and measured result below.
Section I
2. Discuss why this D/A converter form is not used in digital circuits and
what the limiting factors are that preclude the use of this circuit.
Section II
2. Describe the additional measurements you made and what the measured
result indicated about the circuit fault. If you made no additional meas-
urements, describe why your conclusions of the step 2 measured data iso-
lated the failure of Rf.
Quick Check
1 . If the inputs were all high (+5 V), you would expect to get the maximum
output signal.
True False
2. With all switches at zero, you would measure half the output because these
are weighted resistors.
True False
True False
5. If Rf in the circuit of Figure 64. 1 were 10 kD, what would the converter
output be for the logic switches set to 1001?
264 EXPERIMENT 64
65
555 TIMER CIRCUITS
INTRODUCTION
The 555 timer widely used as an IC timing device. It operates in both astable
is
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 17, Section 17.4
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
Astable Operation
! 1 . Connect the circuit as shown in Figure 65.1. Adjust the DC power supply to
+5 V for the 555 timer.
Note: Be sure that you don’t forget to connect pin 8 for the +Vcc
and pin 1 for ground.
2. Connect the oscilloscope to the output and measure the time for one com-
Use teh reult to determine the frequency of the output wave-
plete cycle.
form. Record it below.
fo=
|
|
3. With your oscilloscope set for dual-trace operation, connect one channel
(DC coupled) to the junction of Rb and C i to monitor the waveform of
Ci, and connect the other channel to the circuit output.
fo =
|
5. Calculate the duty cycle of the output waveform.
DC =
266 EXPERIMENT 65
6. Turn circuit power off. Replace R« with a 6.8 kQ resistor and Rb with a
DC = (predicted)
7. Turn on circuit power and measure the output frequency and the pulse on
time. Record below the output frequency and the new duty cycle.
fo
= DC =
Monostable Operation
Figure 65.2
Does the circuit generate an output pulse for every negative-going input
signal?
T- CM CO in <o
a> a> <D a> a> a>
_w
3 13 3 3 3 =3
CL CL Q_ CL CL a.
Input
Output
3 . Change the oscilloscope connections to monitor the trigger input and the
waveforms below.
voltage across Ci. Describe the
2. Apply circuit power and trigger input. Monitor the trigger input and circuit
output. Describe the circuit waveforms.
3 . Reconnect the oscilloscope to monitor the trigger input and the Vc i wave-
form. Describe the signal waveforms.
Vci (peak) =
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . Discuss the effect on the astable circuit operation and the circuit duty
cycle when R« is Ra cannot be
laige or small with respect to Rb. Since
zero, what value of Ra would you recommend for a duty cycle of 50%
when Rb is 15 kO?
2. Suppose you are working with a logic controller that (a) requires an input
pulse width of 10 ps minimum and (b) is driven by a logic sensor that
has negative-going pulses that vary in width from 1 (is to 15 ps. How
would you use a 555 timer to ensure proper operation of the system?
268 EXPERIMENT 65
Describe your solution and include a schematic diagram as part of your
description.
Section II
Quick Check
True False
3 . The output is always a square wave when the 555 timer is operating in
monostable operation.
True False
True False
INTRODUCTION
The silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) is one of many devices classified as a
thyristor. It is a four-layer, three-terminal device which acts like a latch with a
trigger input. These devices have many applications in commercial and indus-
trial electronics.
In this experiment you will see the basic operation of the SCR and make
measurements to observe the characteristics. Then, you will test the SCR in a
basic phase-control circuit, emulating one application of an SCR.
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 18, Section 18.2
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
270 EXPERIMENT 66
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
Note: When you want to repeat this measurement, turn down the
gate voltage slightly, and switch the power supply off, then back on.
It might take several operations of this measurement to obtain good
data.
Once you have a good and consistent gate voltage reading, leave the SCR
on and measure the voltage across the SCR Record your measured val-
ues in the SCR On box of Table 66. 1
4. With the potentiometer set to the point of turning the SCR on, turn off the Beginning from step 5, you will
DC supply and connect an ammeter in series with Rl and the SCR. set up a basic phase-control cir-
Switch the power supply on. Slowly decrease the power supply voltage The setting ofRz will deter-
cuit.
and note the SCR current at the point where the SCR stops conducting. mine the point in the AC sine
This is the SCR holding current Ihx- Record your measured value in die wave where the SCR will begin
to conduct.
SCR On box of Table 66. 1
6 . Apply AC power.
Figure 66.2
7. Change the oscilloscope connection to measure the voltage across the load
resistor. Sketch the load waveform in Graph 66.2, noting the peak load
voltage values.
r\ r\ You should find that with more resistance, the waveform approximates the dia-
gram of Figure 66.3 (a) and with less resistance in the gate circuit, the load
waveform approximates that of Figure 66.3 (b).
As the SCR conducts for more of the positive half cycle more power is delivered
to the load. And as the SCR conducts for less of the positive half cycle there is
less power to the load.
DISCUSSION
1 . In step 8 or your procedure, it is stated that as the SCR conducts for more
of the positive half-cycle, more power is delivered to the load. Expand
on this and discuss why this should be the case.
2. Figures 66.3 (a) and (b) give an approximate waveform for the load for
different SCR turn-on times (phase angles). For each of these figures,
sketch the waveform you would expect to see across the SCR and de-
scribe the reasons for your waveform sketches.
3 . Can you think of a household application for the SCR? Discuss this
application and explain how it would operate.
272 EXPERIMENT 66
Quick Check
True False
4. The SCR will stop conducting (turn off) when the SCR current is less than
Ihx.
True False
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
REFERENCE
Principles of Electronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 18, Section 18.3
274 EXPERIMENT 67
IMPORTANT!
Apply AC power. Close switch Si. Since the oscillo- 120 VAC
scope measuring the voltage across the triac which
is
7. Adjust Ri until the lamp turns on and stays lit, even though dim. Measure
and record below the conduction angle.
TRIACS 275
The circuit of Figure 67.3 has an added
RC network to give greater range of the
conduction angle.
Figure 67.3
SECTION II TROUBLESHOOTING
2. Turn on AC power. Close Si. Try adjusting Ri to turn on the lamp. Can
you get the lamp to light?
Vc l(pk) =
Observe and describe the triac voltage waveform.
DISCUSSION
Section I
1 . In your own words, describe the circuit operation of Figure 67. 1 . How
does it operate? Formulate your description as though you were the tech-
nician writing the service manual for the field technician.
Did the trigger voltage match the specs in the data book?
276 EXPERIMENT 67
Section II
2. What does the capacitor voltage waveform tell you about Ci? Can it be
open? Shorted?
Quick Check
True False
True False
68
FULL-WAVE
PHASE CONTROL
INTRODUCTION
The diac a thrysistor device that, like the triac, can latch on and conduct current
is
in either direction. Unlike the triac, the diac has no gate. The diac switches on
when the applied voltage reaches the breakover potential. One of its main appli-
cations is to serve as a trigger diode for the triac or SCR.
In this experiment you will see the diac as a trigger diode for a triac in a
phase-control circuit. The diac trigger provides a current pulse to the triac gate,
giving more consistent triggering than the sine wave of an RC trigger. The sec-
tion on troubleshooting will let you see the effect on a phase-control circuit when
the triac fails. You will make circuit measurements to determine the fault effect.
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 18, Section 18.3
278 EXPERIMENT 68
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT CAUTION
Do not operate the circuit
1 . Build the circuit of Figure 68.1. Make sure switch S 1 is open. Set potenti without an isolation trans-
ometer Ri to its maximum resistance. Do not apply AC power at this former. Your test equipment
time. will ground one of the AC
lines in your circuit. The iso-
2. Connect one channel of your oscilloscope to the MT2 terminal of the lation transformer will pre-
triac to measure the voltage across the triac. vent the possibility of
shorting the AC source.
Note: The voltage will at times
be 120 Vrms. You may need to
use a 10: 1 probe for your oscil-
loscope.
Vci(+pk) =
Figure 68.1
Vci(-pk) =
Conduction angle =
Conduction angle =
Note the peak positive and negative values of the capacitor waveform.
VC i(+pk) = Vci(-pk) =
DISCUSSION
Section I
Vbo =
Discuss your observation of the capacitor Ci voltage waveform. Was
there a large difference in the positive and negative peak values at the
point of triac triggering over several cycles of operation?
Section II
280 EXPERIMENT 68
2.
Describe the test steps you would make to troubleshoot a triac gate failure.
Quick Check
2. Breakover voltage is the voltage required for the diac to begin to conduct.
True False
True False
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 19, Section 19.2
282 EXPERIMENT 69
The circuit used in this ex-
periment is nearly identical
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT to Figure 19.7 in your text.
This experiment, however,
uses a forward-biased diode
1 . Construct the circuit of Figure 69. 1 Set the potentiometer
. R3 to approxi- in place of the zener diode
mate mid-range. shown in your text.
3.3 k Si
69.1 for the load resistance of 1 klL
7.
5 . Using the regulator output with a 1 -kQ resistor as nominal,
calculate the difference between the nominal and the output
readings having the greatest amount of difference. This is the
output variation for load changes. Record the variation be-
low.
Variation =
Variation
Regulation % = Nominal Output
XlOO
The Nominal Output is the regulator voltage measured with a 1-kQ load
and Variation is the value calculated in step 5.
Turn the DC power off. Install the 1-kO load. Apply the DC input.
Measure and record the DC input level.
DC input =
Measure the regulator output and the base voltage of Qi the series-pass
and record below.
transistor,
Voul = VB (Ql) =
DISCUSSION
2. Describe what changes you would make to the circuit of Figure 69. 1 to
make a fixed 9-V regulator capable of providing 0.5-A load current with
a DC input of 12.5 V.
Quick Check
1 . A series-pass regulator puts the regulating device in series with the load.
True False
True False
4. In a series-pass regulator like that of Figure 69. 1, the output voltage should
be approximately 0.7 V less than the base voltage of the pass transistor.
True False
284 EXPERIMENT 69
70
IC REGULATORS
INTRODUCTION
There are many integrated circuit (IC) forms of regulators available. These regu-
lators make possible very simple regulated power supplies with good line and
load regulation. One popular regulator is the 7805. It is part of a family of fixed
voltage regulators, intended primarily to provide an output of +5 V
In this experiment you will construct a circuit using the 7805 regulator and,
through measurement, evaluate the effects of varying line input and circuit loads.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 19, Section 19.6
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
IC REGULATORS 285
SECTION I FUNCTIONAL EXPERIMENT
4. From your load regulation data of Table 70.1, what is the larg-
8
+ O'
VDC
Input
C i
7805
X c2
—© +
Rl
220
Vout
Q
est variation
5 V
AVout =
of the output voltage (AVout) from the nominal
measured for a 220-Q load?
0.33 PF 1 PF
- o- -o - 5. Calculate the load regulation as a percentage, using the formula
below and the variation (AVout) from step 4.
Figure 70.1
% Regulation = x 100
% Regulation =
Load Regulation
Rl Vout 6. Make sure the DC power is off. Change the load resistor to the 100-12
resistor. Reapply DC power, and ensure that the input is 8.0 V. Measure
220 12 and record the actual value in the Line Regulation part of Table 70.1.
100 £2 7. Change the input voltage to each of the values in Table 70. 1 . Measure and
record the regulated output voltage in the table.
50 ft
Table 70.1 2. Discuss the advantages of using a regulator such as the 7805 in a power
supply. List as many advantages as you can.
286 EXPERIMENT 70
Quick Check
True False
True False
True False
4 . The data sheet indicates that the 7805 regulator can deliver a constant 5-V
level for input voltages between 7 V and 12 V.
True False
IC REGULATORS 287
71
SIGNAL MODULATION
AND DEMODULATION
INTRODUCTION
Modern electronic devices such as radio and television are made possible
through the process of impressing an intelligence signal upon a carrier. The high-
frequency signal is called the carrier, the low-frequency signal is called the
modulation or intelligence, and the resultant is called the modulated signal.
In this experiment you will construct an amplitude modulator and detector.
Through measurement of the input and output signals of each, you will see the
process of modulation and the process of demodulation, extracting the intelli-
gence from the carrier.
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 20, Section 20.2
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
6 . When you varied the modulation generator output level, what part of the
modulated output waveform changed?
H
Vary the modulation generator frequency while observing the modulator
output. What part of the modulated signal changed?
Figure 71.2
7. Construct the circuit in Figure 71 .3.
9. Note the signal at the input of the detector circuit. It should look like the
modulated wave you observed in step 5.
10 . Observe the output signal of the detector. Does it look like the
of the modulated waveform you observed
intelligence part o
in step 5? Modulator
Input
0.01 pF
Figure 71.3
2. What kind of circuit is the detector circuit? (Hint: You saw this type of
circuit in the beginning chapters.)
Quick Check
True False
True False
290 EXPERIMENT 71
72
PHASE-LOCKED LOOPS
INTRODUCTION
The phase-locked loop (PLL) has several important applications in communica-
tions and can provide voltage-to-frequency conversion,
industrial electronics. It
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 20, Section 20.5
OBJECTIVES
In this experiment you will:
2. Measure the frequency (£>) of the PLL’s internal VCO (pins 4 and 5).
L_ Adjust Ri to set this frequency accurately to 10 kHz.
^"3.7RiCi
Important: Set up the function generator as described in the fol-
8 £> lowign step prior to connecting the generator to the input of th ecir-
fh =±
Vcc cuit.
4. Apply Vin to the circuit. Measure the phase relationship of £> = fin with the
oscilloscope. Record the value in Table 72. 1 With a DVM, measure and
.
5. Slowly increase and decrease the frequency fin. Observe that as fin de-
&
Steps 6 through 8 provide data
6 . Slowly decrease
As the
fin below 10 kHz.
292 EXPERIMENT 72
7. The internal VCO will track input frequency changes until the phase rela-
tionship of fin vs. f0 becomes in phase or 1
80° out of phase. Beyond this
point, the PLL cannot remain locked on fin. Decrease fin and measure as
accurately as possible the frequency and demodulated voltage at the
lower lock range limit.
8. After you have gone below the lower lock range limit, slowly increase fin.
Record the frequency at which the PLL locks with fin. This is the lower
capture range limit. The capture ranges are functions of the low-pass fil-
ter (C2 ) and loop gain control (R2 ).
9. Repeat steps 7 and 8 to analyze the tracking response of the PLL for fre-
quencies above f0 Record the upper lock range and upper capture range.
.
1 1 . Plot in Graph 72. 1 , the input frequency vs. demodulated voltage from
measurements logged in Table 72. 1 . Label the lock and capture
ranges. Vd fin
12. Return fin to 10 kHz. Remove the low-pass filter, C 2 . Briefly describe
the duty cycle, frequency, and DC reference of the unfiltered
squarewave Vou t.
Graph 72.1
13 . Sweep fin throughout the lock range. Briefly describe the effects that a
change in fin has on the duty cycle (and hence the average voltage)
of Vout-
DISCUSSION
Section I
2. Describe how you would use the 565 PLL as a voltage -to-frequency
convertor where the output frequency is proportional to the input DC
voltage.
j
Quick Check
True False
;
2. If a PLL has an output frequency of 26 kHz at 1 .8-V input and an output fre-
quency of 32 kHz at 3.2-V input, what is the frequency-to-voltage con-
version of the VCO?
|
3. A PLL can be used to generate a frequency-modulated signal.
True False
294 EXPERIMENT 72
73
VARACTOR DIODES
IHTRODUCTION
The varactor (voltage- variable-capacitor) is a special purpose-silicon diode used
OBJECTIVES
Through this experiment you will:
REFERENCE
Principles ofElectronic Devices and Circuits - Chapter 20, Section 20.4
V control fr
Voltage
f0 =
4. Connect your signal generator to the circuit input, and use the oscilloscope
to adjust the generator for a sinewave signal of 2 Vp p at the frequency
.
5 . Adjust the signal generator frequency to obtain the maximum output signal
You should have found that the from your circuit. This is the circuit resonant frequency with a minimum
resonant frequency shifted
capacity of the varactor diode.
down approximately 5% to 8%,
and that you can control, within 6. Measure the circuit resonant frequency using your oscilloscope and record
the resonant frequency range of
below.
steps 6 and 7, the circuit operat-
ing frequency with the varactor
fr=
control voltage.
7. Decrease the varactor diode control voltage to 1 V. Adjust the signal gener-
ator to the circuit resonant frequency. Measure the frequency of the gen-
erator and record below.
fr =
8. Increase the varactor control voltage in 5-V steps and track the tank reso-
Do not exceed a 25-V varac- nant frequency by tuning the signal generator to each new resonant fre-
tor control voltage in steps 8 quency.
and 9.
296 EXPERIMENT 73
Record the control voltage and circuit resonant frequency in Table 73.1.
9. Is there a linear change in resonant frequency shift versus the control volt-
age?
DISCUSSION
1 . Recall that reverse bias of a diode widens the depletion area of the diode,
effectively increasing the distance between the conductors (plates) of the
diode appearing as a capacitor. Discuss the operation of your circuit and
its response to an increasing and decreasing bias of the varactor diode.
2. Suppose that the Q of the circuit of Figure 73. 1 was relatively low,
approximately 1 0, and that the circuit was supplied with a fixed input fre-
quency at or very near resonance. Describe the circuit output if the varac-
tor control voltage was a sinewave clamped with the positive peak at 0 V
(a negative sinusoidal waveform).
Quick Check
Tree False
True False
True False
Laboratory Equipment
Potentiometers
Any available type Ten-turn trimpots
100 O lkQ
25 kO 2kO
200 kO 5 k O [2]
10 kO [2]
50 kO
2 MO or 5 Mfl
298
Capacitors
Semiconductor Devices
Miscellaneous Items
APPENDIX A 299
APPENDIX B
DATA SHEETS
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Rating Symbol Value Unit
•THERMAL CHARACTERISTICS
Characteristic Symbol Max Unit
Characteristic |
Symbol |
Min |
Max |
Unit |
OFF CHARACTERISTICS
Collector-Emitter Breakdown Voltage! 1) v (BR)CEO 40 - Vdc
(1C
= 1 0 mAdc, Ib = 0)
ON CHARACTERISTICS
DC Current Gain(1) h FE
(lc = 0.1 mAdc, Vce = 1-0 Vdc) 2N3903 20 —
2N3904 40 —
|I
C = 1.0 mAdc, Vc E = 1.0 Vdc) 2 N 3903 35
2N3904 70 —
(lc = 10 mAdc, Vce = 1.0 Vdc) 2N3903 50 150
2 N 3904 100 300
(l
c = 50 mAdc, Vce = 10 Vdc) 2 N 3903 30
2N3904 60 —
(l C = 100 mAdc, Vce = 1.0 Vdc) 2N3903 15
2N3904 30 —
Collector-Emitter Saturation Voltage(l) VcE(sat) Vdc
(lc = 10 mAdc, B = l 1.0 mAdc) — 0.2
(lc = 50 mAdc, B = l 5.0 mAdc) — 0.3
SMALL-SIGNAL CHARACTERISTICS
Current-Gain — Bandwidth Product MHz
(1C = 10 mAdc, Vc E = 20 Vdc, f = 100 MHz) 2N3903 250 —
2N3904 300 —
2-3
300
2N3903, 2N3904
Noise Figure NF dB
dc = 100 /iAdc, Vce = 5.0 Vdc, R$ = 1.0 k ohms, 2N3903 — 6.0
f = 1.0 kHz) 2N3904 — 5.0
SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
Delay Time (Vcc = 3.0 Vdc, V B £ = 0.5 Vdc. td — 35 ns
(1) Pulse Test: Pulse Width 300 ns. Duty Cycle ' 2.0%.
FIGURE t - DELAY AND RISE TIME FIGURE 2 - STORAGE AND FALL TIME
EQUIVALENT TEST CIRCUIT EQUIVALENT TEST CIRCUIT
< t! < 500 MS -H
DUTY CYCLE - 2%
300 ns |
— +10.9 V
+^ ^ 10
DUTY CYCLE = 2% C
- + 10.9 V 3V«
275
[
/ '
iok /7T:*"
-0.5 V—'
< 1 ns-* Y T: - 9.1 V — 1N916
ik
1 ;i;
4 pF*
- < 1 ns
m mm i
II 1
1 i (! IX
P
$
1000
700
— — — — !— I r- ;
! !!
i
i — — 3 TL1 s5 | * iiII^B — •
ii
i\^m WTA n
500
300
i ii
1 II
II
H
m
FT?
•Si i^BI
ta
i II
fl
1 II
ii
IBB
II
TA
200
I !p i
cm * i
ii B1 1 Wa
i^BB
i]
100
70
—— _ — __
i | !!i
-Q 5
ii
!!
ii^S
i
BB I \
7 S m !f
ii
(|
!2
J
2-4
APPENDIX B 301
2N3903, 2N3904
In)
TIME
STORAGE
(dBI
FIGURE
NOISE
NF.
MPF102
CASE 29-04, STYLE 5
TO-92 (TO-226AA)
MAXIMUM RATINGS
Rating Symbol Value Unit
Drain-Gate Voltage V DG 25
Gate-Source Voltage VGS -25 Vdc JFET
Gate Current •g 10 mAdc VHF AMPLIFIER
Total Device Dissipation @ Ta = 25°C Pd 350 mW N-CHANNEL — DEPLETION
Derate above 25°C 2.8 mW/"C
Junction Temperature Range Tj 125 °c
OFF CHARACTERISTICS
Gate-Source Breakdown Voltage V (BR)GSS -25 — Vdc
<I
G = - 10 ^Adc, V DS = 0)
Gate Reverse Current 'GSS
(VqS = -15 Vdc, Vqs = 0) — -2.0 nAdc
(Vqs = - 15 Vdc, V DS = 0,T A = 100"C) — -2.0 f*Adic
4-62
APPENDIX B 303
LM555/LM555C
304
Absolute Maximum Ratings
If Military/ Aerospace specifieddevices are required,
LM555/LM555C
Parameter Conditions
Supply Voltage
Threshold Voltage
Reset Voltage
Reset Current
APPENDIX B 305
Electrical Characteristics Ta = 25*C, Vcc = + 5V to + 1 5V, (unless othewise specified) (Continued)
Umita
Parameter Condltlona LM555 LM555C Units
Typ Typ HI
Output Voltage Drop (Low) Vcc = 15V
l
S |NK = 10 mA 0.1 0.15 0.1 0.25 V
IsiNK = 50 mA
mm 0.5 0.4 0.75 V
IsiNK
I
IsiNK
S INK
Vcc= 5V
= 8 mA
IsiNK = 5 mA
=
=
100 mA
200 mA
H 0.1
2.2
0.25
2
2.5
0.25
2.5
0.35
V
V
V
V
Output Voltage Drop (High) ^SOURCE = 200 mA, Vcc “15V 12.5 12.5 V
SOURCE = 100 mA, Vcc “15V
1
13 13.3 12.75 13.3 V
>» II > in
3 3.3 2.75 3.3 V
Rise Time of Output 100 100 ns
Note 2: Supply current when output high typically 1 mA less at Vcc ” 5V.
Not* 4: This will determine the maximum value of Ra + Rb for 15V operation. The maximum total (Ra + Rb) Is 20 M(l.
Not* 5: No protection against excessive pin 7 current Is necessary providing the package dissipation rating will not be exceeded.
Not* S: Refer to RETS555X drawing of military LM555H and LM555J versions for specifications.
Connection Diagrams
Dual-ln-Llne and Small Outline Packagea
Vcc
OISCHARGE
CONTROL THREIH0L0
VOLTAGE
TL/H/7801 -2 VOLTAOE
Top Vlow
TL/H/7861-3
Order Number LM556H or LM666CH
See NS Package Number H08C
Order Number LM665J, LM666CJ,
LM666CM or LM665CN
See NS Package Number J08A, MOSA or N08E
8-66
306
LM741
Semiconductor
cation nearly foolproof: overload protection on the input and stead of - 55°C to + 1 25°C.
Schematic Diagram
NON-INVERTING 2 INVERTING
‘
INPUT INPUT
R7
4.5 K I
;
Cl ,
30 pF R8 I
7.5 K
OFFSET NULL
R12 S rii
50 K <50
TL/H/9341-1
TL/H/9341-7
APPENDIX B 307
Absolute Maximum Ratings
If Mllltary/Aerospace specified devices are required, please contact the National Semiconductor Sales Office/
Distributors for availability and specifications.
(Note 5)
LM741A LM741E LM741 LM741C
Supply Voltage ±22V ±22V ±22V ± 18V
Power Dissipation (Note 1) 500 mW 500 mW 500 mW 500 mW
Differential Input Voltage ±30V ±30V ±30V ±30V
Input Voltage (Note 2) ± 15V ± 15V ± 15V ±15V
Output Short Circuit Duration Continuous Continuous Continuous Continuous
Operating Temperature Range — 550 Cto + 125°C 0°C to +70°C — 55°C to + 1 25°C 0°C to + 70°C
Storage Temperature Range — 65°C to +150°C — 65°C to + 150°C — 65°C to + 150°C 65°C to +150°C
Junction Temperature 150°C 100°C 150°C 100°C
Soldering Information
N-Package (1 0 seconds) 260°C 260°C 260°C 260°C
H-Package (10 seconds)
J- or 300°C 300°C 300°C 300°C
M-Package
Vapor Phase (60 seconds) 215°C 215°C 215”C 215°C
Infrared (15 seconds) 215°C 215°C 215°C 21 5°C
See AN-450 “Surface Mounting Methods and Their Effect on Product Reliability” for other methods of soldering
surface mount devices.
15
6.0
H mV
mV
HV/'C
Input Resistance Ta = 25°C, Vg = ±20V 1.0 6.0 0.3 2.0 2.0 Mft
Tamin ^ T a ^ Tamax.
0.5 Mft
Vg = ±20V
Input Voltage Range
±12 ±13
3
mm
V/mV
VS = ±15V,V0 = ±10V 50 200 20 200 V/mV
Tamin ^ Ta ^ Tamax.
R l :> 2 kft,
1| 11 11
Vs = ± 20V, V0 = ± 15V 32 V/mV
Vg = ±15V,V 0 = ±10V 25 15 V/mV
Vg = ±5V, Vq = ±2V 10 V/mV
1-446
308
LM741
R|_
s 10 kn
S 2 kfl IB
Esa
V
V
Common-Mode
Rejection Ratio
Tamin £ Ta £ Tamax
Tamin ^ Ta £ t amax
Rs
RS
<:
<:
lOkn.VcM = ± 12 V
50n,VC M = ±12V
10
80 95
40
70 90
m
70 90
mA
dB
dB
t a = Tamin 150 mW
Ta = Tamax 150 mW
LM741 Vg = ± 15V
t a = Tamin 60 100 mW
Ta = Tamax 45 75 mW
Note 1: For operation at elevated temperatures, these devices must be derated based on thermal resistance, and Tj max. (listed under “Absolute Maximum
Ratings”). Tj = TA + (#jA p d)-
Note 2 : For supply voltages less than ± 15V, the absolute maximum input voltage is equal to the supply voltage.
Note 3:Unless otherwise specified, these specifications apply for Vs = ±15V, — 55°C £ T* £ +125°C (LM741/LM741A). For the LM741C/LM741E, these
specifications are limited to 0 C £ T* £ + 70°C.
6
Note 5: For military specifications see RETS741X for LM741 and RETS741AX for LM741A.
Note 6: Human body model, 1.5 kft in series with 100 pF.
1-447
APPENDIX B 309
Connection Diagrams
LM741
NC
TL/H/9341-2
Ceramic Flatpak
1-448
310