C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 19

present and past engineering literature written in the English engineering system,
literature that will be used well into the future. The modern engineering student
must be bilingual in these units, and must feel comfortable with both systems.
For this reason, although many of the worked examples and end-of-the-chapter
problems in this book are in the SI units, some are in the English engineering
system of units. You are encouraged to join this bilingual spirit and to work to
make yourself comfortable in both systems.

1.5 AERODYNAMIC FORCES AND MOMENTS

At first glance, the generation of the aerodynamic force on a giant Boeing 747
may seem complex, especially in light of the complicated three-dimensional flow
field over the wings, fuselage, engine nacelles, tail, etc. Similarly, the aerody-
namic resistance on an automobile traveling at 55 mi/h on the highway involves
a complex interaction of the body, the air, and the ground. However, in these and
all other cases, the aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are due to only
two basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
No matter how complex the body shape may be, the aerodynamic forces and
moments on the body are due entirely to the above two basic sources. The only
mechanisms nature has for communicating a force to a body moving through a
fluid are pressure and shear stress distributions on the body surface. Both pressure
p and shear stress τ have dimensions of force per unit area (pounds per square
foot or newtons per square meter). As sketched in Figure 1.15, p acts normal to
the surface, and τ acts tangential to the surface. Shear stress is due to the “tugging
action” on the surface, which is caused by friction between the body and the air
(and is studied in great detail in Chapters 15 to 20).
The net effect of the p and τ distributions integrated over the complete body
surface is a resultant aerodynamic force R and moment M on the body, as sketched
in Figure 1.16. In turn, the resultant R can be split into components, two sets of

Figure 1.15 Illustration of pressure and shear

stress on an aerodynamic surface.
20 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

Figure 1.16 Resultant aerodynamic force

and moment on the body.

Figure 1.17 Resultant aerodynamic force and the

components into which it splits.

which are shown in Figure 1.17. In Figure 1.17, V∞ is the relative wind, defined
as the flow velocity far ahead of the body. The flow far away from the body is
called the freestream, and hence V∞ is also called the freestream velocity. In
Figure 1.17, by definition,
L ≡ lift ≡ component of R perpendicular to V∞
D ≡ drag ≡ component of R parallel to V∞
The chord c is the linear distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge of
the body. Sometimes, R is split into components perpendicular and parallel to the
chord, as also shown in Figure 1.17. By definition,
N ≡ normal force ≡ component of R perpendicular to c
A ≡ axial force ≡ component of R parallel to c
The angle of attack α is defined as the angle between c and V∞ . Hence, α is
also the angle between L and N and between D and A. The geometrical relation
between these two sets of components is, from Figure 1.17,
L = N cos α − A sin α (1.1)
D = N sin α + A cos α (1.2)
 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 21

Figure 1.18 Nomenclature for the integration of pressure and shear stress distributions over
a two-dimensional body surface.

Let us examine in more detail the integration of the pressure and shear stress
distributions to obtain the aerodynamic forces and moments. Consider the two-
dimensional body sketched in Figure 1.18. The chord line is drawn horizontally,
and hence the relative wind is inclined relative to the horizontal by the angle of
attack α. An x y coordinate system is oriented parallel and perpendicular, respec-
tively, to the chord. The distance from the leading edge measured along the body
surface to an arbitrary point A on the upper surface is su ; similarly, the distance
to an arbitrary point B on the lower surface is sl . The pressure and shear stress
on the upper surface are denoted by pu and τu , both pu and τu are functions of su .
Similarly, pl and τl are the corresponding quantities on the lower surface and
are functions of sl . At a given point, the pressure is normal to the surface and
is oriented at an angle θ relative to the perpendicular; shear stress is tangential
to the surface and is oriented at the same angle θ relative to the horizontal. In
Figure 1.18, the sign convention for θ is positive when measured clockwise from
the vertical line to the direction of p and from the horizontal line to the direction
of τ . In Figure 1.18, all thetas are shown in their positive direction. Now con-
sider the two-dimensional shape in Figure 1.18 as a cross section of an infinitely
long cylinder of uniform section. A unit span of such a cylinder is shown in
Figure 1.19. Consider an elemental surface area dS of this cylinder, where dS =
(ds)(1) as shown by the shaded area in Figure 1.19. We are interested in the
contribution to the total normal force N  and the total axial force A due to the
pressure and shear stress on the elemental area dS. The primes on N  and A
denote force per unit span. Examining both Figures 1.18 and 1.19, we see that
the elemental normal and axial forces acting on the elemental surface dS on the
22 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

␶
s
l
ds

y
x
␣

V

Figure 1.19 Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface.

upper body surface are

d Nu = − pu dsu cos θ − τu dsu sin θ (1.3)

dAu = − pu dsu sin θ + τu dsu cos θ (1.4)

On the lower body surface, we have

d Nl = pl dsl cos θ − τl dsl sin θ (1.5)

dAl = pl dsl sin θ + τl dsl cos θ (1.6)

In Equations (1.3) to (1.6), the positive directions of N  and A are those shown in
Figure 1.17. In these equations, the positive clockwise convention for θ must be
followed. For example, consider again Figure 1.18. Near the leading edge of the
body, where the slope of the upper body surface is positive, τ is inclined upward,
and hence it gives a positive contribution to N  . For an upward inclined τ , θ would
be counterclockwise, hence negative. Therefore, in Equation (1.3), sin θ would
be negative, making the shear stress term (the last term) a positive value, as it
should be in this instance. Hence, Equations (1.3) to (1.6) hold in general (for
both the forward and rearward portions of the body) as long as the above sign
convention for θ is consistently applied.
The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating
Equations (1.3) to (1.6) from the leading edge (LE) to the trailing edge (TE):
 TE  TE
N = − ( pu cos θ + τu sin θ ) dsu + ( pl cos θ − τl sin θ ) dsl (1.7)
LE LE
 TE  TE
A = (− pu sin θ + τu cos θ ) dsu + ( pl sin θ + τl cos θ ) dsl (1.8)
LE LE
 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 23

Figure 1.20 Sign convention for aerodynamic moments.

In turn, the total lift and drag per unit span can be obtained by inserting Equa-
tions (1.7) and (1.8) into (1.1) and (1.2); note that Equations (1.1) and (1.2) hold
for forces on an arbitrarily shaped body (unprimed) and for the forces per unit
span (primed).
The aerodynamic moment exerted on the body depends on the point about
which moments are taken. Consider moments taken about the leading edge. By
convention, moments that tend to increase α (pitch up) are positive, and moments
that tend to decrease α (pitch down) are negative. This convention is illustrated
in Figure 1.20. Returning again to Figures 1.18 and 1.19, the moment per unit
span about the leading edge due to p and τ on the elemental area dS on the upper
surface is
d Mu = ( pu cos θ + τu sin θ)x dsu + (−pu sin θ + τu cos θ )y dsu (1.9)
On the bottom surface,
d Ml = (−pl cos θ + τl sin θ)x dsl + ( pl sin θ + τl cos θ )y dsl (1.10)
In Equations (1.9) and (1.10), note that the same sign convention for θ applies
as before and that y is a positive number above the chord and a negative number
below the chord. Integrating Equations (1.9) and (1.10) from the leading to the
trailing edges, we obtain for the moment about the leading edge per unit span
 TE

MLE = [( pu cos θ + τu sin θ)x − ( pu sin θ − τu cos θ )y] dsu
LE
(1.11)
 TE
+ [(− pl cos θ + τl sin θ)x + ( pl sin θ + τl cos θ )y] dsl
LE
In Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11), θ, x, and y are known functions of s
for a given body shape. Hence, if pu , pl , τu , and τl are known as functions of s
(from theory or experiment), the integrals in these equations can be evaluated.
Clearly, Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11) demonstrate the principle stated earlier,
namely, the sources of the aerodynamic lift, drag, and moments on a body are
the pressure and shear stress distributions integrated over the body. A major goal
of theoretical aerodynamics is to calculate p(s) and τ (s) for a given body shape
and freestream conditions, thus yielding the aerodynamic forces and moments
via Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11).
As our discussions of aerodynamics progress, it will become clear that there
are quantities of an even more fundamental nature than the aerodynamic forces
and moments themselves. These are dimensionless force and moment coefficients,
defined as follows. Let ρ∞ and V∞ be the density and velocity, respectively, in
24 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

the freestream, far ahead of the body. We define a dimensional quantity called the
freestream dynamic pressure as
Dynamic pressure: q∞ ≡ 12 ρ∞ V∞
2

The dynamic pressure has the units of pressure (i.e., pounds per square foot
or newtons per square meter). In addition, let S be a reference area and l be a
reference length. The dimensionless force and moment coefficients are defined
as follows:
L
Lift coefficient: CL ≡
q∞ S
D
Drag coefficient: CD ≡
q∞ S
N
Normal force coefficient: CN ≡
q∞ S
A
Axial force coefficient: CA ≡
q∞ S
M
Moment coefficient: CM ≡
q∞ Sl
In the above coefficients, the reference area S and reference length l are chosen
to pertain to the given geometric body shape; for different shapes, S and l may be
different things. For example, for an airplane wing, S is the planform area, and l
is the mean chord length, as illustrated in Figure 1.21a. However, for a sphere,
S is the cross-sectional area, and l is the diameter, as shown in Figure 1.21b.

Figure 1.21 Some reference areas and lengths.

 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 25

The particular choice of reference area and length is not critical; however, when
using force and moment coefficient data, you must always know what reference
quantities the particular data are based upon.
The symbols in capital letters listed above (i.e., C L , C D , C M , and C A ) denote
the force and moment coefficients for a complete three-dimensional body such
as an airplane or a finite wing. In contrast, for a two-dimensional body, such as
given in Figures 1.18 and 1.19, the forces and moments are per unit span. For these
two-dimensional bodies, it is conventional to denote the aerodynamic coefficients
by lowercase letters; for example,
L D M
cl ≡ cd ≡ cm ≡
q∞ c q∞ c q∞ c 2
where the reference area S = c(1) = c.
Two additional dimensionless quantities of immediate use are
p − p∞
Pressure coefficient: Cp ≡
q∞
τ
Skin friction coefficient: cf ≡
q∞
where p∞ is the freestream pressure.
The most useful forms of Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11) are in terms of
the dimensionless coefficients introduced above. From the geometry shown in
Figure 1.22,
d x = ds cos θ (1.12)
dy = −(ds sin θ ) (1.13)
S = c(1) (1.14)
Substituting Equations (1.12) and (1.13) into Equations (1.7), (1.8), and (1.11),
dividing by q∞ , and further dividing by S in the form of Equation (1.14), we

Figure 1.22 Geometrical relationship of

differential lengths.
26 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

obtain the following integral forms for the force and moment coefficients:
 c  c  
1 dyu dyl
cn = (C p,l − C p,u ) d x + c f,u + c f,l dx (1.15)
c 0 0 dx dx
 c    c 
1 dyu dyl
ca = C p,u − C p,l dx + (c f,u + c f,l ) d x (1.16)
c 0 dx dx 0
 c  c 
1 dyu dyl
cm LE = 2 (C p,u − C p,l )x d x − c f,u + c f,l x dx
c 0 0 dx dx
 c   c   (1.17)
dyu dyl
+ C p,u + c f,u yu d x + −C p,l + c f,l yl d x
0 dx 0 dx
The simple algebraic steps are left as an exercise for the reader. When evaluating
these integrals, keep in mind that yu is directed above the x axis, and hence is
positive, whereas yl is directed below the x axis, and hence is negative. Also,
dy/d x on both the upper and lower surfaces follow the usual rule from calculus
(i.e., positive for those portions of the body with a positive slope and negative for
those portions with a negative slope).
The lift and drag coefficients can be obtained from Equations (1.1) and (1.2)
cast in coefficient form:

cl = cn cos α − ca sin α (1.18)

cd = cn sin α + ca cos α (1.19)

Integral forms for cl and cd are obtained by substituting Equations (1.15) and
(1.16) into (1.18) and (1.19).
It is important to note from Equations (1.15) through (1.19) that the aerody-
namic force and moment coefficients can be obtained by integrating the pressure
and skin friction coefficients over the body. This is a common procedure in both
theoretical and experimental aerodynamics. In addition, although our derivations
have used a two-dimensional body, an analogous development can be presented
for three-dimensional bodies—the geometry and equations only get more com-
plex and involved—the principle is the same.

EX A MPL E 1.1
Consider the supersonic flow over a 5◦ half-angle wedge at zero angle of attack, as sketched
in Figure 1.23a. The freestream Mach number ahead of the wedge is 2.0, and the freestream
pressure and density are 1.01×105 N/m2 and 1.23 kg/m3 , respectively (this corresponds to
standard sea level conditions). The pressures on the upper and lower surfaces of the wedge
are constant with distance s and equal to each other, namely, pu = pl = 1.31 × 105 N/m2 ,
as shown in Figure 1.23b. The pressure exerted on the base of the wedge is equal to p∞ .
As seen in Figure 1.23c, the shear stress varies over both the upper and lower surfaces as
τw = 431s −0.2 . The chord length, c, of the wedge is 2 m. Calculate the drag coefficient
for the wedge.
 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 27

Figure 1.23 Illustration for Example 1.1.

28 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

■ Solution
We will carry out this calculation in two equivalent ways. First, we calculate the drag
from Equation (1.8), and then obtain the drag coefficient. In turn, as an illustration of an
alternate approach, we convert the pressure and shear stress to pressure coefficient and
skin friction coefficient, and then use Equation (1.16) to obtain the drag coefficient.
Since the wedge in Figure 1.23 is at zero angle of attack, then D  = A . Thus, the
drag can be obtained from Equation (1.8) as
 TE  TE
D = (− pu sin θ + τu cos θ ) dsu + ( pl sin θ + τl cos θ ) dsl
LE LE

Referring to Figure 1.23c, recalling the sign convention for θ , and noting that integration
over the upper surface goes from s1 to s2 on the inclined surface and from s2 to s3 on
the base, whereas integration over the bottom surface goes from s1 to s4 on the inclined
surface and from s4 to s3 on the base, we find that the above integrals become
 TE  s2
− pu sin θ dsu = −(1.31 × 105 ) sin(−5◦ ) dsu
LE s1
 s3
+ −(1.01 × 105 ) sin 90◦ dsu
s2

= 1.142 × 104 (s2 − s1 ) − 1.01 × 105 (s3 − s2 )

 c 
= 1.142 × 104 − 1.01 × 105 (c)(tan 5◦ )
cos 5◦
= 1.142 × 104 (2.008) − 1.01 × 105 (0.175) = 5260 N
 TE  s4  s3
pl sin θ dsl = (1.31 × 105 ) sin(5◦ ) dsl + (1.01 × 105 ) sin(−90◦ ) dsl
LE s1 s4

= 1.142 × 104 (s4 − s1 ) + 1.01 × 105 (−1)(s3 − s4 )

 c 
= 1.142 × 104 − 1.01 × 105 (c)(tan 5◦ )
cos 5◦
= 2.293 × 104 − 1.767 × 104 = 5260 N

Note that the integrals of the pressure over the top and bottom surfaces, respectively,
yield the same contribution to the drag—a result to be expected from the symmetry of the
configuration in Figure 1.23:
 TE  s2
τu cos θ dsu = 431s −0.2 cos(−5◦ ) dsu
LE s1

s20.8 − s10.8
= 429
0.8
 c 0.8 1
= 429 = 936.5 N
cos 5◦ 0.8
 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 29

 TE  s4
τl cos θ dsl = 431s −0.2 cos(−5◦ ) dsl
LE s1
 
s40.8 − s10.8
= 429
0.8
 c 0.8 1
= 429 = 936.5 N
cos 5◦ 0.8

Again, it is no surprise that the shear stresses acting over the upper and lower surfaces,
respectively, give equal contributions to the drag; this is to be expected due to the symmetry
of the wedge shown in Figure 1.23. Adding the pressure integrals, and then adding the
shear stress integrals, we have for total drag

D  = 1.052 × 104 + 0.1873 × 104 = 1.24 × 104 N

     
pressure skin friction
drag drag

Note that, for this rather slender body, but at a supersonic speed, most of the drag is pressure
drag. Referring to Figure 1.23a, we see that this is due to the presence of an oblique shock
wave from the nose of the body, which acts to create pressure drag (sometimes called wave
drag). In this example, only 15 percent of the drag is skin friction drag; the other 85 percent
is the pressure drag (wave drag). This is typical of the drag of slender supersonic bodies.
In contrast, as we will see later, the drag of a slender body at subsonic speed, where there
is no shock wave, is mainly skin friction drag.
The drag coefficient is obtained as follows. The velocity of the freestream is twice
the sonic speed, which is given by
 
a∞ = γ RT∞ = (1.4)(287)(288) = 340.2 m/s

(See Chapter 8 for a derivation of this expression for the speed of sound.) Note that, in
the above, the standard sea level temperature of 288 K is used. Hence, V∞ = 2(340.2) =
680.4 m/s. Thus,

q∞ = 12 ρ∞ V∞
2 = (0.5)(1.23)(680.4)2 = 2.847 × 105 N/m2

Also, S = c(1) = 2.0 m2

Hence, D 1.24 × 104
cd = = = 0.022
q∞ S (2.847 × 105 )(2)
An alternate solution to this problem is to use Equation (1.16), integrating the pressure
coefficients and skin friction coefficients to obtain directly the drag coefficient. We proceed
as follows:
pu − p∞ 1.31 × 105 − 1.01 × 105
C p,u = = = 0.1054
q∞ 2.847 × 105
On the lower surface, we have the same value for C p , that is,

C p,l = C p,u = 0.1054

30 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

Also,
τw 431s −0.2 431  x −0.2
c f,u = = = = 1.513 × 10−3 x −0.2
q∞ q∞ 2.847 × 10 cos 5◦
5

On the lower surface, we have the same value for c f , that is,
c f,l = 1.513 × 10−3 x −0.2
dyu
Also, = tan 5◦ = 0.0875
dx
dyl
and = − tan 5◦ = −0.0875
dx
Inserting the above information into Equation (1.16), we have
 c  
1 dyu dyl 1 c
cd = ca = C p,u − C p,l dx + (c f,u + c f,l ) d x
c 0 dx dx c 0
 2
1
= [(0.1054)(0.0875) − (0.1054)(−0.0875)] d x
2 0
 2
1
+ 2(1.513 × 10−3 )x −0.2 d x
2 0
2 2
= 0.009223x 0 + 0.00189x 0.8 0

= 0.01854 + 0.00329 = 0.022

This is the same result as obtained earlier.

EX A MPL E 1.2
Consider a cone at zero angle of attack in a hypersonic flow. (Hypersonic flow is very
high-speed flow, generally defined as any flow above a Mach number of 5; hypersonic
flow is further defined in Section 1.10.) The half-angle of the cone is θc , as shown in
Figure 1.24. An approximate expression for the pressure coefficient on the surface of a
hypersonic body is given by the newtonian sine-squared law (to be derived in Chapter 14):
C p = 2 sin2 θc
Note that C p , hence, p, is constant along the inclined surface of the cone. Along
the base of the body, we assume that p = p∞ . Neglecting the effect of friction, obtain
an expression for the drag coefficient of the cone, where C D is based on the area of the
base Sb .
■ Solution
We cannot use Equations (1.15) to (1.17) here. These equations are expressed for a two-
dimensional body, such as the airfoil shown in Figure 1.22, whereas the cone in Figure 1.24
is a shape in three-dimensional space. Hence, we must treat this three-dimensional body
as follows. From Figure 1.24, the drag force on the shaded strip of surface area is
dr
( p sin θc )(2πr ) = 2πr p dr
sin θc
 C H A PTER 1 Aerodynamics: Some Introductory Thoughts 31

p
v e rb
k wa
oc
Sh r

c

x dx

p

dr
sin c

Figure 1.24 Illustration for Example 1.2.

The total drag due to the pressure acting over the total surface area of the cone is
 rb  rb
D= 2πr p dr − r 2π p∞ dr
0 0
The first integral is the horizontal force on the inclined surface of the cone, and the second
integral is the force on the base of the cone. Combining the integrals, we have
 rb
D= 2πr ( p − p∞ ) dr = π( p − p∞ )rb2
0

Referenced to the base area, πrb2 , the drag coefficient is

D πrb2 ( p − p∞ )
CD = = = Cp
q∞ πrb2 πrb2 q∞
32 PA RT 1 Fundamental Principles

(Note: The drag coefficient for a cone is equal to its surface pressure coefficient.) Hence,
using the newtonian sine-squared law, we obtain

C D = 2 sin2 θc

1.6 CENTER OF PRESSURE

From Equations (1.7) and (1.8), we see that the normal and axial forces on the
body are due to the distributed loads imposed by the pressure and shear stress
distributions. Moreover, these distributed loads generate a moment about the
leading edge, as given by Equation (1.11). Question: If the aerodynamic force
on a body is specified in terms of a resultant single force R, or its components
such as N and A, where on the body should this resultant be placed? The answer
is that the resultant force should be located on the body such that it produces
the same effect as the distributed loads. For example, the distributed load on a
two-dimensional body such as an airfoil produces a moment about the leading
edge given by Equation (1.11); therefore, N  and A must be placed on the airfoil
at such a location to generate the same moment about the leading edge. If A is
placed on the chord line as shown in Figure 1.25, then N  must be located at a
distance xcp downstream of the leading edge such that

MLE = −(xcp )N 


MLE
xcp = − (1.20)
N

In Figure 1.25, the direction of the curled arrow illustrating MLE is drawn in the
positive (pitch-up) sense. (From Section 1.5, recall the standard convention that
aerodynamic moments are positive if they tend to increase the angle of attack.)
Examining Figure 1.25, we see that a positive N  creates a negative (pitch-down)
moment about the leading edge. This is consistent with the negative sign in
Equation (1.20). Therefore, in Figure 1.25, the actual moment about the leading
edge is negative, and hence is in a direction opposite to the curled arrow shown.

Figure 1.25 Center of pressure for an

airfoil.