Ancient History of India  Archaeology.

INTRODUCTION  Radiocarbon dating.

Modern Historian of Ancient India  Literature & Scriptures.
 The British East India Company occupied Bengal,  Coins – The Study of coins and money is called
Bihar and Orissa in 1763. numismatics.
 The ‘Manusamriti’ was translated into English as  The Guptas issued the largest number of gold
the Code of Gentoo Law in 1776. coins in Ancient Indian.
 Sir William Jones established the Asiatic Society of  Punch marked coins were issued by the
Bengal at Calcutta in 1784. He observed that Mahajanpadas in 600 BC.
Greek, Latin, and Sanskrit belong to the same  The Indo-Greek Satrap Antichios-II issued first
language family. He translated gold coins in India around 270 BC.
‘Abhijnanshakuntalam’ into English in 1789.  Inscriptions – The study of inscriptions is called
 Charles Wilkins translated the ‘Bhagavat Gita’ Epigraphy.
into English in 1785.  Palaeography – The study of old writings.
 The Asiatic Society of Bombay was established in  James Princip deciphered the Brahmi script
1804. inscribed on Ashokan pillars at Bengal in 1837.
 The Asiatic Society of The Great Britain was  Firoz Shah Tughlaq discovered two Ashokan
established at London in 1823. pillars- one at Meerut, and other at Topra in
Imperialist Historians: Haryana.
 Frederic Max Muller (1823-1902) – An Indologist  Prayag Prashasti–An Ashokan pillar that was also
and Sanskrit expert from Germany. inscribed by Samudra Gupta.
 The first systematic history of India – ‘Early
History of Ancient India’ (1904) by Irish historian INDIAN LITERATURE
Vincent Arthur Smith.  Rigveda (1500 BC):
Nationalist Historians:  10 Mandalas (Units) and 1028 hymns.
 Rajendra Lal Mitra – ‘Indo Aryans’ (1881) &  Theme: Gods, prosperity and nature.
‘Buddha Gaya’ (1878).  Kotri and Motri priests are related to RV.
 R.G. Bhandarkar – He reconstructed the history  Shakala Shakha is included in the RV.
of the Satavahanas in Deccan.  Athreya and Kushiyaki Brahmanas are included
 Kashinath Rajwade – ‘The History of Institution of under RV.
Marriage’ (1926).  Yajurveda:
 Panduranga Waman Kane – ‘History of  Sacrificial rites and rituals.
Dharamshatras’.  It has two Sub-Vedas: Shukla Yajurveda &
 Devdata Ramakrishna Bhandarkar – Ashokan Krishna Yajurveda.
History.  Its Samhitas are Vajasaneyi Samhita &
 Hemachandra Rayachaudhry – He reconstructed Taittiriya Samhita.
the Mahabharata epic.  Taittriya & Shatapatha Brahmanas are studied
 R.C. Majumdar – ‘History of the Indian People’. under the YV.
 K.A. Nilakantha Shastri – ‘A history of Ancient  Samaveda:
India and A History of South India’.  The book of chants.
 K.P. Jayaswal – ‘Hindu Polity’ (1924).  Its name is derived from the word ‘Sama’
Non-Political Historians: which means melody or song.
 A.L. Basham – ‘The Wonder that India Was’  It has 1,875 hymns out of which only 75 are
(1951). original and rest are borrowed from the RV.
 D.D. Kosambi – ‘An Introduction to the Study of  It has 16,000 ragas (Musical notes).
Indian History’ (1957) & ‘The Civilization Ancient  Tandya Mahabrahamana & the Satvimsha
India in Historical Outline’ (1965). Brahmana are included in SV.
Ultranationalist Historians:  Atharvaveda:
 Vinayak Damodar Savarkar.  Aka Brahmaveda.
 Bal Gangadhar Tilak.  It was composed by Sages Atharvana and
 Keshav Baliram Hedgewar. Angiras, collectively called Athravangirasa.
 It includes magical spells, universal
speculations, and rituals for treating diseases.
NATURE & SOURCES OF HISTORICAL CONSTRUCTION
  It includes Pipalada and Shaunakiya Shakhas,  Vishakha Dutta:
and Gopatha Brahamana. o Mudrarakshasa – The rise of Chandragupta
 Aranyakas: Maurya and tactics used by Kautilya.
 Forest books about Karmakanda. o Devichandraguptam.
 Rituals and sacrifices.  Bhavabhuti: Uttara Ramacharita, 7th century
 Upanishads: ad. It deals with the later life of Rama.
 These texts deal with philosophical  Bhasa:
speculations (Jnankanda). o Swapanavasavadutta – Vasavadutta in
 They were transmitted orally through the dream.
Guru-Shishya Parampara. o Pancharatra.
 They form the last part of Vedas – The o Urubhanga – Duryodhana v/s Bhima, a
Vedanta. tragedy.
 The 108 Upanishads are collectively called  Harshavardhana
Muktika Canon. o Ratnavali – The love story of Sri Lankan
 Ramayana: The Adikavya composed by the princess Ratnavali and King Udayan. It
Adikavi Valmiki. It has 7 divisions and 24,000 contains the earliest reference to the Holi
verses. festival.
 Mahabharata: o Nagananda – The story of prince
 The original version of Mahabharata, the Jaya, Jimutavahanah who saved the Nagas from
had 8,000 verses composed by Vedavyasa. getting sacrificed to Garuda by sacrificing
 Bharata was a lengthened version of Jaya & himself. In this play Harsha invokes Buddha
contained 24,000 verses. in the Nandi verse.
 The current version of the Mahabharata has o Priyadarshani – The love story of Udayana
100,000 verses divided into 18 parvas. and Priyadarshika.
 The narrator of this epic in Krishna.  Sanskrit Poetry
 Puranas: 18 Mahapuranas and 12 Upapuranas.  Kalidasa:
 Panchatantra: A collection of fables by Vishnu o Kumarsambhava – The birth of Kartikeya.
Sharma. o Meghadoota – The Cloud Messenger.
 Hitopadesha: A collection of fables by Narayan o Raghuvamsha – The Dynasty of Raghu.
Pandit. o Ritusambhara – A Compilation of Seasons.
(Note: A parable is about human characters).  Harisena: He wrote poems to glorify his patron
 Upapuranas: Samudragupt.
 The Upapuranas are based on 5 subjects  Jayadev: Gitagovindam, 12th century ad.
dictated by the Sanskrit writer Amarsimha of  Bharavi: Kiratarjuna, 6th century ad.
the Gupta period: Sarga meaning creation of  Magha: Shishupalvadh, 7th century ad.
universe, Pratisarga meaning cycles of  Other Major Sanskrit Texts
universe, Manvantara meaning periods of  Manusamriti, 1st century ad – Manu.
Manu, Vamsha meaning lineage of Kings, and  Arthashastra – Kautilya or Vishnu Sharma.
Vamshacharita meaning biographies of  Chandashastra – A book on medicine by
Vamshas. Pingala.
 Ashtadhyayi – The first Sanskrit grammar by  Shushrut Samhita – A treatise on surgery by
Panini. Shushrut.
 Dramas:  Madhavanidana – A text of pathology by
 Kalidasa: Madhava.
o Malvikagnimitra – The story of a courtesan  Vrihat Samhita (Astrology) – Varahmihir.
Malvika and Agnimitra, the son of  Panchasidhanta – Varahmihir.
Pushyamitra Shunga.  Aryabhatiya – A book on astronomy &
o Vikramorvashiya – The love story of Vikram mathematics by Aryabhatt.
and Urvashi.  Vedanga Jyotisha by Lagadha.
o Abhijnanshakuntalam – The recognition of  Buddhacharita - Biography of Buddha by
Shakuntala. Ashvaghosha.
 Shudaraka: Marichakatika (The Little Clay  Shantinathachariya (Biography of the 16th
Cart), the love story of a young Brahmin named Tirthankara) – It was written by Ajita Prabhsuri
Charudutta and a courtesan.
 in 1397 ad. It has been registered to Memories woman named Kannagi against a Pandyan
of the World Programme by UNESCO. Monarch (Nedunjeliyan-I).
 Rajatarangini – Kalhana (The first Indian  Chivaka Chintamani (Tamil) by Tirtakkatevar.
Historian), 12th century ad.  Nalatiyar by a Tamil Jain monk.
 Kathasaritasarga – Samadeva, 11th century ad.  Tatvarthasutra (2nd century ad) in Sanskrit by
 Buddhist Literature in Pali Umaswati – Logic, epistemology, ethics, and
 Tripitika – The Buddhist canon. astronomy. It is accepted by both Jain sects.
 Vinaypitika – Rules and regulations for monks.  Mahapurana & Adipurana (8-9th century ad) –
 Suttapitaka – Teachings of Buddha. Digambar monk Jinsena, a disciple of
 Abhidharmapitika – Philosophy, psychology Veersena.
and metaphysics.  Kalikalasarvajna (The Knower of all Knowledge
 Non-canonical Buddhist Literature in His Times), 12th century ad, in Sanskrit by
 Jataka – 550 Birth stories of Buddha. Hemchandra.
 Dipavamsha – A Sri Lankan Buddhist text. The  Anekantajayapataka, Yogadrstisamuccaya,
tooth relic of Buddha was taken to Sri Lanka. Ashtakaprakarna, & Sastravartasamuccaya –
 Milind Panha – Nangasena. Haribhadra Suri, 6th century ad.
 Mahavamsha – Sri Lanka.  3 Gems of Jain Kannada Literature – Sri
 Mahavastu - It is composed in a hybrid of Ponna, Pampa, and Ranna.
Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit. It includes Jatakas  Gathasaptasati in Prakrit by Satavahan King
and Avadanas. Hala.
 Lalitavistara Sutra – A Mahayana Sanskrit  Prakritprakasha by Varahruchi – The older
text. Prakrit grammar.
 Udana – Theravada text.  Other literary works
 Bodhivamsha – A Sri Lanka Buddhist text by  Harshacharita – Banabhatta, 7th century ad.
Upatisa in Sankritized Pali.  Ramcharita – Sandhyakar Nandi, 12th century
 Mahavibhasa Shastra – A Mahayana text. ad.
 Vishudhi Marga – Buddhaghosha, 5th century  Vikramankadevacharita (Chalukyan King
ad, Sri Lanka. Vikrama VI) – Bhilana, 12th century ad).
 Canonical Jain Literature  Mushika Vamsha (Kerala Kings), 11th century –
 Jain Agams – These texts were originally Atula.
compiled by Ganadharas, disciples of  Art and Culture
Mahavira.  Painted Grey Ware (PGW) – Indo-Aryans.
 Angas were recompiled by Shvetambara  Red and Black Polished Ware – The Highest
monks in a council at Vallabhi in 5th century ad. level of India pottery associated with Magadha
 Agams include 46 texts: 12 Angas, 12 culture.
Upangas, 10 Prakirnaka Sutras, 4 Mulasutras,  Ochre Coloured Pottery – Copper Hoard
6 Chedasutras, and 2 Culasutras. Culture.
 Digambar texts: Karmaprabharita or  Black on Red Ware – Southern Megalithic
Shatakhandagams (by Pushpadanta, and Culture.
Bhutabali), and Kasayaprabhrita (by Acharya
Gunadhar). HUMAN EVOLUTION & THE STONE AGE
 Non-canonical Jain Literature  Prehistoric period in India according to the use of
 Uvasaggaharam Strotra & Kalpasutra tools:
(Biographies of Tirthankaras) by Bhadrabahu  Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 500,000
(3rd century BC), the Digambar mentor of BC – 10,000 BC.
Chandragupta Maurya.  Mesolithic Period (Late Stone Age): 10,000 BC
 Samyasara & Niyamsara by Archarya – 6,000 BC.
Kundkund.  Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 6,000 –
 Ratnakaranda Sravakacharita (The life of Jain 1,000 BC.
Laymen) & Aptamimamsa by Samantabhadra,  Chalcolithic Period (Copper Stone Age): 3,000
2nd century ad. BC – 500 BC.
 Silappadikaram (a Tamil epic), 2nd century ad,  Iron Age: 1,500 BC – 200 BC.
by Ilango Adigal. It’s about the revenge of a  Australopithecus: The Southern Ape.
 Fa-Hein Cave, Sri Lanka: 34,000 years old Homo o Diamabad: The Largest Jorwe site influenced
sapiens fossils. by Harrapans.
 Homo sapiens evolved in South Africa. o Inamgaon: It was almost an urban
 Prehistoric Sites in India: settlement.
 Potwar, Pakistan: Rama/Shiva-pithecus, 22 o Navadatoli: It was near the Narmada River.
million years old. o Most of Jorwe sites are found near Tapi,
 Narmada valley (M.P.): Archaic Homo sapiens Godavari, & Bhima rivers.
fossils.  Ganeshwaran, Rajasthan (2,800 – 2,200 BC):
 Belan valley (U.P.): Lower Palaeolithic. o This site is situated near Khetri goldmines.
 Didwana: Rajasthan. o Ochre-coloured pottery.
 Chikri Nevasa: Maharashtra.  Pre-Harappa sites:
 Nagarjunkonda: Andhra Pradesh. o Kalibangan, Rajasthan.
 Bhimbetaka (M.P.): Cave paintings. o Banewali, Haryana.
 Neolithic Age (Polished Stone Tools): o Kot-Diji, Pakistan.
 Mehrgarh, Balochistan: 7,000 BC, The bread  Kayatha Culture (2,000 – 1,800 BC):
basket of Sindh. o Fortified settlements.
 Kashmir Neolithic sites:
o Clear Harrapan influence.
o Burzahome:
 Malwa Culture (1,700 – 1,200 BC):
 The place of Birch, near Srinagar.
o Navdatoli.
 Coarse grey pottery (2,700 BC).
o Eran: Fortified settlements.
 Pit Dwelling.
o Nagda.
o Guffkral, Kashmir:
 Copper Hoard Culture (2,000- 1,500 BC):
 The cave of potters.
o Minor contemporaries of the I.V.C.
 Semi-Agrarian.
o Ganges-Yamuna doab.
 Bone weapons.
o Ochre-coloured pottery.
o Chirand, Patana: Ganges River.
o Garo Hills: Meghalaya.
THE INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION
 South Indian Neolithic Sites
 Area: 1,299,600 km².
 Karnataka: Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur,
 The first modern account of IVC: Charles Masson,
Kodakkal, Sanganakallu, Piklihal (cattle
1829.
herders), & Takkalkota.
 Alexander Cunningham led a short excavation of
 Andhra Pradesh: Utnur.
Harappa in 1872-73. He tried to interpret an Indus
 Tamil Nadu – Priyampalli.
seal (bull) in 1875.
 Chalcolithic Age (2,100 BC – 1,500 BC):
 Dayaram Sahani excavated Harappa in 1921, and
 Copper based cultures.
in the same year Mohenjo-Daro, the largest site
 Terracotta - Clay dolls and art.
of IVC, was excavated by R.D. Banerji.
 Black Red pottery.
 No use of burnt bricks  Other Harappa excavators: McKey (1930), John
Marshall (1931), Vats (1940), & Mortimer
 Crops grown at Chalcolithic site (particularly
Wheeler (1946).
Navadatoli: Lentils, black gram, green gram,
grass pea, line seeds & ber.  F.A. Khan excavated Kot-Diji in Pakistan.
 Ahar (Tambavati), & Gilund, Banas Valley, in  Major Site of the IVC:
Rajasthan.  Harappa:
 Kayatha, & Eran in M.P. (Western Malwa). o On the bank of Ravi River in Pakistan.
 Maharashtra sites: Jorwe, Nevasa, Diamabad o Six granaries.
(Ahmadnagar); Inamgaon, Chandoli & o Discoveries: The bronze sculpture of dog
Soangaon (Pune). chasing deer.
 Crops grown in Deccan: Cotton, rai, bajra,  Mohenjo-Daro:
semal silk. o On the bank of Indus River in Pakistan.
 Crops grown in Eastern India: Rice. o The Great Bath & the Great Granary.
 Jorwe Culture (1,400 – 1,700 BC): o Discoveries: Bearded priest, bronze dancing
o It was spread all over Maharashtra except girl, & Pashupati seal.
Konkan.  Dholavira (Gujarat):
o A giant reservoir, dams & embankments.
 o The latest IVC city to be excavated.  Rangur: Gujarat.
o 10 sign boards.  Shikharpur: Gujarat.
 Lothal (Gujarat):  Sanauli: UP.
o The Manchester of the IVC.  Kunal: Haryana.
o A dockyard, modern chess, rice husks, &  Karanpura: Rajasthan.
horse toys.  Ganeriwala: Punjab.
 Rakhigarhi (Haryana):  Features of IVC:
o The largest IVC site to be excavated yet.  A non-Aryan bronze age civilization. (Copper +
o The possible provincial capital of Harappan Tine = Bronze)
Civilization.  Ragi or finger millet hasn’t been found in any
 Ropar (Punjab): Harappan site in northern India.
o On the bank of Sutlej River.  IVC settlements followed a grid like pattern.
o Dogs were buried with their masters in oval  Burn bricks (size ratio 1:2:4) were joined using
pits. gypsum mortar. Unlike Harappa, dried bricks
o The first site to be excavated after Indian were used in Sumer & Egypt.
independence.  Large granaries: Harappans collected taxes in
o Copper axes have been discovered here. grains like Mesopotamians.
 Sophisticated drainage system & private
 Balathal & Kalibangan (Rajasthan):
bathroom.
o Discoveries: Bangles, toy carts, bones of
 No window faced streets.
camel, etc.
 Wooden plough: Barley, wheat, rai, peas,
 Surkotada (Gujarat):
cotton, etc.
o Supposed horse fossils were excavated at
 No horses, spoked wheels, & war chariots.
this site.
 Unicorn or deified Rhinoceros.
 Banawali (Haryana):
 Bead making.
o It’s situated on an unknown dried up river.
 Pasupathi Seal: Possibly Rishabhanath of
o Barley was grown at this site.
Jainism.
o The only city with radial streets & oval
 Fertility cult.
shaped settlements.
 Some seals depict human sacrifice.
 Alamgirpur (Meerut, UP):
 Harappan script hasn’t been deciphered yet.
o One the bank of river Yamuna.
 IVC weighed thing in multiples of 16.
o The eastern most IVC sites.
 Terracotta & clay seals.
 Mehrgarh: A pre-Harappa settlement in
 Harappan imports:
Pakistan.
 Gold: Iran, Kolar, & Karnataka.
 Chanhudaro (Pakistan):
 Copper: Khetri mines (Rajasthan) &
o The Lancashire of the IVC.
Baluchistan.
o No citadels.  Tin: Afghanistan & Iran.
o Discoveries: Bead making factory & lipsticks.  Lapis Lazuli: Afghanistan.
 Kot Diji (Pakistan):  Turquoise: Khurasan.
o Tar statues of bull & mother goddesses.  Steatite: Iran.
 Suktagandor (Pakistan):  Bitumen: Sumer & Baluchistan.
o The western most IVC site.  Lead: South India.
o Clay bangles.  Post-Harappa Phase (1,900 – 1,500 BC)
 Balu (Haryana):  Rise of Chalcolithic cultures.
o The earliest remains of garlic.  Degenerate Harrapans: Bhagalpur, Haryana.
 Diamabad (Maharashatra):  Writing was forgotten.
o The southernmost IVC site.  Burnt bricks were rarely used.
o Bronze chariot.  Elam dominated the land and sea trade in the
 Kerala-no-dhoro: The IVC salt mine in Gujarat. Middle East.
 Kot Bala (Pakistan): The earliest use of
furnace. THE ARRIVAL OF ARYAN NOMADS
 Mand (J&K): The northern most IVC site.  Central Asian Nomads.
 Desalpur: Gujarat.  Vedic Sanskrit, an Indo-European Language.
 Pabumath: Gujarat.  Rig Veda (1,500 BC).
 Cows are mentioned 176 times in RV.  Himalaya was called Manjuvat in R.V. It was
 Horses are mentioned 215 times in RV. known for high quality soma plant that grew on
 Birch tree. it.
 Pit Dwellings in Swat valley.  Theology of Indo Aryans:
 Cremation & mound burial.  Indra: 250 times in RV.
 Kotri-Motri priests.  Agni, the messenger of gods; mentioned 200
 Spoked wheels: Invented in Caucasus around times in RV.
2,300 BC.  Varuna: The god of oceans and maintainer of
 Vajpaya chariot race is mentioned in RV. Rta, the cosmic order.
 Horse remains in India: Gandhara culture, (1,400  Soma: The god of plant. 9th mandala of RV is
BC), Swat Valley, & Pirak complex, 1,700 BC, dedicated to his praise.
(Baluchistan).  Savitri: The Gayatri mantra (3rd mandala of RV)
 Fire worship: Vedi & Hotr. is dedicated to her.
 Animal Sacrifice: Ashvamedha horse sacrifice.
 Soma: The god of plants (9th mandala of RV). LATER VEDIC PERIOD (1000 – 500 BC)
 Mitanni, 1400 BC: An Indo-Aryan super state with  Iron:
kings having Rig Vedic names.  Iron was discovered by ancient near
 Agade Dynasty, Iraq: Indo-Aryan inscriptions. easterners.
 Anatolia: The hypothesized homeland of Aryans.  Egyptian black copper from heaven, 3000 BC.
 Zend Avesta, 1400 BC: Indo-Iranian scripture.  It was called Shyama Ayas or Krishna Ayas in
later Vedic texts.
THE RIGVEDIC PERIOD
 It reached Gandhara in 1000 BC and Uttar
Pradesh in 800 BC.
 Sapta Sindu region: Tajikistan to Punjab.
 The word Janapada occurred in Brahmanas [800
 Aryans were familiar with barley according to RV.
BC].
 Rajan: Tribal chief.
 Prajapati became the deity supreme of Indo-
 Sabha: Assembly.
Aryans.
 Samiti: Tribal Council.
 Idolatry became common and the fourfold caste
 Senani: Commander-in-chief.
system was developed by the Brahmins.
 Purohit: Head priest.
 Rituals like Ashvamedha, Vajapeya & Rajsuya
 Copper was called Ayas in RV.
became popular.
 Sarasvati River: Nadotama, the modern-day
 Upanishads were compiled in Panchala & Vidheya
Helmand River of Afghanistan.
regions.
 Aryan came into conflict with dark-skinned
 Aryans became agriculturalists and adopted a
aboriginals often called Dasa or Dasyu in RV.
settled life style.
 Dasaraga: The battle of 10 kings in which Bharata
 The word Gotra [lineage] first appeared in
chief Sudas defeated a confederation of 10 tribes
Atharvaveda.
led by Purukutsa, the Puru chief.
 Atraiya Brahmana accepts superiority of
 Sudas’ grandfather, Divodas had defeated a
Kshatriyas over Brahmins.
Kirata warlord named Shambhara and destroyed
 The text collector was called Sanghittri.
his 99 forts. Sage Vashishta was Divodas’
 Aryans started cultivating rice [vrihi] and wheat.
minister, and Virchi was Shambhara’s minister.
 Iron axe allowed the Aryan tribes to clear thick
 Vishwamitra: Unlike Vashishta, he was a liberal
forests of Ganga-Yamuna doab region.
Aryan sage who composed the Gayatri mantra to
 The term ‘Rashtra’ appeared in this period.
Aryanize non-Vedic infidels.
 Hymns speculating about the nature of universe
 Tribe was called Jana (mentioned 25 times in RV),
were added to 10 mandalas of RV.
& Vis (mentioned 170 times in RV).
 The first 3 Ashrams of life appeared in
 Family was called griha & children were called
Chhandogya Upanishad.
praja.
 The concept of Samsara first appeared in
 The word ‘nagar’ comes in Taitraiya Brahmana,
Brihadarnyaka Upanishad.
but it used for tribal settlements, not towns.
 4 ashrams were mentioned in Jabala Upanishad.
 Marriage: Polygamy, polyandry, & even the
 The great flood first appeared in Shatapatha
shameful practice of widow remarriage.
Brahmana.
 Different Shramanic philosophical traditions like  Jains believe that the universe is uncreated and
Jainism and Buddhism developed in this period. it has always existed.
 Jainism rejects the existence of God, but
accepts existence of soul.
 Unlike Vedanta, the Jain soul is unique and no
two souls are identical.
JAINISM
 Mythical founder: Rishabhanath. He was born at
Ayodhya. BUDDHISM
 Historical founder: Mahavira. He was born in 520  Founder: Siddhartha Gautama [born at Lumbini
BC at Vaishali and died at Rajgir in 468 BC when in 567 BC]. He was son of Shakyan King
he was 72 years old. His mother was Trishala and Shudhodhana and Maya.
father was Sidhartha.  He went fort at 29 and attained nirvana at 35 at
 Mahavira left his palace at 30 years of age and Bodh Gaya under a peepal tree.
attained Kevalaya at 42.  He gave his first sermon at Sarnath, Varanasi.
 Jains believe that there had been 24 Tirthankaras  He died at Kushinagara in 487 BC at 80 years of
in this epoch. age.
 First Jain Council: It was presided over by  Buddhist Philosophy:
Sthulbhadra, at Pataliputra around 320 BC.  Pratitya Samutpada: The theory of dependent
 Second Jain Council: It was presided over by origination.
Devaradhi, at Vallabhi in 453/466 BC. 12 Angas &  4 noble truths: Dukkha, Samudaya, Nirodha &
12 Upangas were compiled as a result of this Marga.
council.  The eightfold noble path.
 Jain Philosophy:  Trilaxana: Three marks of existence are Anitya,
 Theories: Anatama & Dukkha.
o Anekantvada – The doctrine of many-sided  Panchsheela.
realities.  The Pali canon:
o Syadvada – Jain Seven-valued logic. o Vinaya Pitaka.
o Nayavada – The theory of standpoints or o Suttapitaka [Buddhavachana].
viewpoints. o Abhidharma Pitaka.
 Epistemology: Three reliable source of  Languages used by Buddhist philosophers: Pali &
knowledge: Buddhist hybrid Sanskrit.
o Pratyaksha [Perception]  Schism:
o Anumana [Inference] o Theravadin: The school of elders.
o Shabda [Testimony] o Mahayana: Liberal Buddhism.
 Five minor vows: o Vajrayana: Tantric Buddhism.
o No stealing.  Yogacara Buddhism or The Vijnanavada:
o No killing.  Founder: Maitriya Natha.
o Truthfulness.  Asanga & Vasubandhu were two great masters
o Non-possessiveness. of this school of Buddhism.
o Celibacy.  Decline of Buddhism:
 Schism:  Pushiyamitra Shunga slaughtered millions of
o Svetambara sect arose at Magadha under monks during his reign.
the leadership of Acharya Sthalabahu.  The Huna warlord Mihirkula destroyed many
o Digambar sect was formed in southern India monasteries.
by Acharya Bhadrabahu.  Shashank of Gauda cut the Bodhi tree.
 Jains used Prakrit, Sursaini, other Apabhramsa  Islamic invaders destroyed Buddhism in Central
and Sanskrit languages. Asia and North-west India.
 Triratanas:  Buddhist Councils
o Right knowledge.  First Buddhist Council (400 BC):
o Right faith. o Location: Rajgraha (Satapani Caves).
o Right action. o Patron: Emperor Ajatshatru.
o President: Mahakasyapa.
 o Objective: Preservation of Sutras after  Mahavira & Buddha spent their lives in these
Buddha’s death. kingdoms.
o Upali recited Vinaya and Ananda recited  The Sarasvati River was in Gandhara.
Sutras.
 Second Buddhist Council (383 BC): MAGADHA
o Location: Vaishali.  According to Dharmashastras, Magadha was
o Patron: Kalashoka Shishunaga. inhabited by Kiratas and Magadhas of lowly birth.
o President: Sabbakammi.  Haryanka Dynasty [544-413 BC]:
o Agenda: Schism of Buddhism: Theravada,  Bimbsara (544-492 BC):
Sravasthivada, etc. o His personal physician was Jivaka.
o The Mahasanghika doctrines were rejected. o His capital was at Rajgir [Girivrija] that was
 Third Buddhist Council (250 BC): surrounded by 5 hills.
o Location: Pataliputra (Ashokarama Vihara).  Ajatshatru (493-463 BC):
o Patron: Emperor: Ashoka. o He annexed Koshala.
o President: Moggaliputta Tissa. o He was a contemporary of Mahavira and
o Agenda: Purification of Buddhist texts and Buddha. Buddha died during his reign.
spread of Buddhism across the known o He used siege-engines & catapults against
world. the Lichhavis.
 Fourth Buddhist Council (72 AD): o He was an expansionist.
o Location: Kashmir (Kundalavana). o He invaded Vaji and conquered Vaishali.
o Patron: Prince Kanishka.  Udayin [460-444 BC]:
o President: Vasumirtra and Ashavghosha. o He was a brutal warlord.
o Agenga: Schism of Mahayana and o He built at fort at Pataligrama on the
Hinayana. confluence of Son & Ganges.
 The Kannauj Council (643 AD):  Shishunaga Dynasty [613-345 BC]:
o Location: Kannauj, near Ganges.  This dynasty was founded by Amatya
o Patron: Emperor Harsha. Shishunaga. He invaded Avanti and defeated
o President: Xuan Tsang. Pratyoda.
 Kalashoka/Kakavarna: He organised the 2nd
MAHAJANAPADA PERIOD Buddhist Council at Vaishali in 384 BC. He
 Panini mentions 40 Janapadas (including transferred his capital to Pataliputra.
Afghanistan, Tajikistan & Kyrgyzstan).  Mahanandi [345 BC]: He was killed by his
 Pali texts mention following 16 Mahajanpadas or illegitimate son Mahapadma Nanda.
Super States:  Nanda Dynasty [345-322 BC]:
Mahajanpad Capital  Mahapadma [Ugrasena according to Jain
a texts]:
Anga Champa (Vaniyagama o The first empire builder.
in Pali) o A barber [Ekarata] according to Jain and
Magadha Rajgir Buddhist sources.
Lichhavi Vaishali o He invaded Kalinga & brought Jina idols to
Kashi Varanasi
Pataliputra as trophies.
Koshala Shravasti
o He ruled over Magadha during Alexander’s
Ashmaka Potali
Avanti Ujjain invasion of India.
Chedi Suktamati (Jains)  Dhanananda:
Gandhara Taxila o He died in 321 BC.
Kamboja Rajpura [Kazakhstan] o Agrammes/Xandrames according to Greek
Malla Kushinagara sources.
Kuru Indraprastha o He was a Jain and a patron of Acharya
Matsya Viratnagara
Sthulabhadra.
Panchala Adhichhatra
o He invented Nandopakrami measuring unit.
Shursaina Mathura
Vajji Vaishali o He was overthrown by Chandragupta with
 Republican states [Ganasangha]: Shudraka, Chanakya’s support.
Shakya, Koliya, Malla & Lichavi.  Persian invasion of India:
  Achaemenid King Cyrus was the first Persian  He is mentioned in Divananda as Ashoka’s
ruler to invade Indian subcontinent. father.
 Darius-I invaded Sindh and Punjab in 516 BC.  Ashoka [272-232 BC]:
 India paid 320 talents of gold to Iran in 5th  His ascension to the throne was aided by
century BC. Amatya Raddhagupta.
 Persians introduced writing to India. Kharosthi  His evil wife Tissarakhita tried to cut the Bodhi
script was derived from Iranian script. tree.
 Persian word for script was ‘dipi’ and Ashokan  He invaded Kaling in 265 BC.
word for script was ‘lipi’.  He issued 182 rock edicts in Dhamma Lipi:
 Ashokan inscriptions were inspired by Darius. Brahmi, Khroshti, Greek and Aramaic.
 Magadhan architecture was influenced by  His inscriptions refer to him as ‘Devanampriya
Persia. Priyadarshin’.
 Alexander’s Invasion:  He sent his son Mihinda and daughter
 He crossed Khyber Pass in 326 BC. Sangamitra to Sri Lanka to propagate
 King Ambi of Taxila submitted to him. Buddhism.
 His army mutinied near Beas River.  He is mentioned in ‘Ashokavandana’. Sinhala
 He remained in India for 9 months. texts Dipavamsha and Mahavamsha have
 His invasion established first direct contact references to him.
between India and Europe.  He appointed Rajukas to govern his provinces.
 Early Magadhan Economy:  He appointed Dhammamahantras to
 Punch marked coins appeared during the age propagate Buddhism.
of Buddha.  Akhenaton of Egypt adopted the policy of
 1/6th of agricultural output was paid in tax. pacifism in 14th century BC, but Ashoka was not
 Paddy transplantation began in 6th century BC. inspired by him.
 Iron was procured from Bihar & Jharkhand.  During his reign use of burnt bricks began once
 Rivers were used for transportation and again.
communication.  His capital Pataliputra was famous for its
wooden architecture.
THE MAURYAN AGE  His 7 years old nephew monk Nigrodha was
 Chandra Gupta Maurya: responsible for converting him to Buddhism.
 The founder.  His evil wife Tishyaraksha blinded his good wife
 He liberated northwest India from Seleucids. Padmavati’s son Kunala.
 He signed a treaty with Greeks and married  Significance of Mauryan Rule:
Seleucus’ daughter in 305 BC.  Mauryans unified India under a single banner.
 He is mentioned in works of Greek historian  The spread of Buddhism.
Justin.  Mauryan totalitarianism: Military controlled
 Seleucus sent architect Magasthenes to state.
Chandragupta’s court.  Xie Huang Ti [247-210 BC], the first emperor of
 He laid the foundation of Grand Trunk Road. unified China, constructed the Great Wall of
 ‘Mudra-Rakshasa’ by Vishakhadutta [9th China to check Scythian invasion.
Century AD] mentions tactics used by  Fall of the Mauryan Empire:
Chanakya against his adversaries.  Senapati Pushyamitra Shunga, a Brahmin
 He became a pupil of Jain monk Bhadrabahu contemporary of Patanjali, killed Brihadrath,
and committed Sallekhana at Sravanabelagola the last Mauryan monarch in 185 BC.
in Karnataka.  His son Agnimitra Shunga is the hero of
 He maintained a huge standing army and his Kalidasa’s play ‘Malavikagnimitra’.
capital was Pataliputra, the city of gates.  Pushyamitra defeated Demetrius, the Bactrian
 Bindusara [297-273 BC]: Greek king.
 He patronised Ajivika philosophy.  The Shungas were succeeded by the Kanavas in
 He conquered land between the Arabian sea 75 BC.
and the Bay of Bengal.  Shatavahanas succeeded the Mauryans in
 He is also called Amitraghata or Amitrochates. Deccan.
 Greek ambassador Deimachus attended his  Devabhuti was the last Shunga ruler.
court.  Greek Territories in Northwest India:
  Arachosia: Kandahar.  Kushan Empire was a Central Asian empire as
 Gedrosia: Baluchistan. it extended from Khurasan to Pataliputra.
 Parapomisadai: Afghanistan.  They replaced Saka, Bactrian and Parthian
warlords.
CENTRAL ASIANS IN INDIA  They adopted the Greek satrap system of
 Bactrian Greeks: government.
 In 206 BC, Bactrian Greeks became the first to  Kujula Kadphises (30-80), a Buddhist, was the
invaded India. They introduced the system of founder of the Kushan dynasty.
Satraps [military governorship].  Vima Kadphises (112-127), the ‘Maheshwara’,
 They invaded as far as Ayodhya and Patliputra. was a Shaivite and the first Kushan Emperor to
 Menander (165-145 BC) ruled from Sialkot and issue gold coins.
Mathura. His discourses with Buddhist monk  Kanishka (120-144), the ‘Devaputra’ converted
Nag Sen were recorded in Milindpanha. to Mahayana Buddhism, convened the fourth
 They patronized Gandhara and Mathura art Buddhist council in Kashmir and patronized
form. Gandharan art. He ruled from Peshawar and
 Greek devotee Heliodors erected a pilled to patronized scholars like Ashvaghosha,
honour Vishnu near Vidisha in MP. Parshava, Vasumitra, Charaka, Mathar &
 Demetrius defeated Pushyamitra in 192 BC Nagarjuna.
and seized north western parts of the Mauryan  He started the Saka era in 78 ad.
Empire.  Kushans introduced rope stirrups & cavalry to
 Hermes was the last Bactrian Greek ruler to India.
rule in India.  They were in control of the silk route.
 The Greeks were followed by the Scythians or  Kanishka II (225-45) adopted the title of
Sakas. ‘Kaiser’.
 Scythians:  The Kushans were uprooted by the Sassanians
 According to Mahabhashya they were in the northwest.
Anirvasita Shudras.  Religion and Culture Under Central Asian
 The Kardamaka dynasty was established by Warlords:
Chashtana in 120 BC.  Buddhist centres:
 Maus was the first Saka warlord to annex o Andhra: Amravati & Nagarjunkonda.
Gandhara. o Gandhara: Mahayana and Yogacara
 Vikramaditya of Ujjain expelled Sakas from his Buddhism.
kingdom in 57-58 BC. He defeated Saka o Kashmir: Sravasthivadin.
warlord Aziz. On this occasion the Vikrami o Texts: Mahavastu & Divyananda.
Samvant was started.  Greek influence on the Indian culture:
 Saka Rudramana I (130-150 BC) ruled Sindh Horashatra (Astrology introduced by the Indo-
and Gujarat, patronized Sanskrit and issued Greeks) and Yavanika theatre curtains.
the first Sanskrit inscription (Junagarh) in 150  ‘Charak Samhita’ was written by Charaka, the
ad. He patronized Yavaneshvara who Kashmiri physician of Kanishka.
translated the ‘Yavanajataka’, an astrological  The Sanchi Stupa was originally built by
text, from Greek to Sanskrit. Ashoka.
 The 5th branch of Sakas penetrated deep into  Vagbhata, a disciple of Charaka wrote
Deccan. ‘Ashtanghridya’ and ‘Ashtangsamgraha’.
 Parthians or Pahlavas:  Ashvaghosha wrote ‘Buddhacharita’ and
 Parthians invaded north west India in the 1st ‘Saundrananda’.
century.  Mahavibhasa, a Sanskrit encyclopaedia of
 Gondophernes (19-46) or Guduvaraha was the Buddhist philosophy was compiled by monk
founder of the Indo-Parthian kingdom. He Vasumitra.
issued the Takht-i-Bahi inscription. St. Thomas  Nagrajuna, the Indian Einstein, wrote
died at Chennai during his reign. ‘Mulamadhyamikakarika’ and
‘Shunytasaptati’.
THE KUSHAN EMPIRE (9-230 AD):  Bharat Muni gave the theory of rasa in his text
 Sanskrit texts call them Tushara. Chinese call ‘Natya Shastra’.
the Yuezhi.
  ‘Abhinaya Darpan’ was written by  Buddhist Chaityas: Amravati stupa,
Nandikeshvara. Nagarjunkonda stupa.
 Vatsyayan compiled his ‘Kamasutra’ in 3rd  The Nagarjunkonda caves were commissioned
century ad. by the Ikshvakus.
 A Sassanian inscription dating back to 262 Ad  Satvahana King Hala composed the
mentions the word ‘Hindustan’. ‘Gathasatsai’ in Prakrit.
 A Greek architect named Agesilaus constructed
the Peshawar stupa. ANCIENT HISTORY OF SOUTHERN INDIA
 The Megalith Builders:
 South Indian Highlands: Eastern Andhra &
SATAVAHANAS Tamil Nadu.
 They claimed to be brahmins and the lords of the  Black and red ware: The megalith ware.
Dakshinapatha.  Use of iron in Kaveri delta.
 They succeeded the Mauryan empire in the  Srilanka was called Tamraparni in ancient India.
Deccan in 1st century.  Dakshinapatha was the route that Deccan
 The Shungas in the north were uprooted by a connected Deccan to North India.
brahmin named Vasudeva Kanava. He killed  Sangam literature mentions Ganges and
Devabhuti, the last Shunga ruler, and established Pataliputra.
the Kanava dynasty aka Shunghabhrityas (75-30  Southern dynasties mentioned in an Ashokan
BC). inscription are: Cholan, Pandyan and Cheras.
 Simuka established the Satavahana dynasty by  Cholan Kingdom: The Cholanmandalam.
killing Susharma, the last Kanava ruler.  Emblem: Tiger.
 Prakrit, written in Brahmi script, was the official  Capital: Uraiyur; later, Kaveripatanam.
language of the Satavahanas. (Puhar).
 Regions of Satavahana influence: Deccan,  King Elara invaded Anuradhapuram (Sri Lanka).
Karnataka and Andhra.  King Karikala established Puhar and
 Satavahanas were first rulers to issued land constructed a dam over Kaveri.
grants to Brahmins. They issued a large number  Chera or Keralaputras:
of led coins.  Emblem: Bow.
 Satavahanas ruled from their capital at  Romans built two regiments at Muziris.
Pratishthana or Paithan, on the bank of Godavari,  Romans built a temple of Augustus in the
in Maharashtra. Their second capital was in Chera kingdom.
Amravati (Andhra), on the bank of Krishna River.  Senguthuvan, the Good Chera, was the
 Gautamiputra Satakarni (106-130 Ad): greatest Chera ruler.
 Shatakarni-II’s mother issued the Nashik  Pandayan Kingdom:
Prashasti.  Emblem: Fish.
 He claimed to be the Eka-Brahmana.  Capital: Madurai (Tamilakam).
 He destroyed many Kshatriya lineages, one of  Pandayans patronized the Sangam.
them were Nahapanas who were probably  They sent ambassadors to Augustus.
Sakas.  The Sangam Literature:
 He defeated Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.  Sangam was an assembly of poets and
 Vashishtiputra Puluyami (130-154): philosophers.
 He issued the Andhra inscription.  Tamil Brahmi script.
 Rudramana I defeated him.  Narrative texts: Melkannakku (18 major
 Yajnashri Satakarni (165-194): works).
 The last strong Satavahana ruler.  Didactic texts: Kilkannaku (18 minor works).
 He defeated Sakas and annexed Malawa &  Many Sangam texts were composed in Sanskrit
Konkan. and Prakrit.
 Pulomavi IV was the last Satavahana ruler.  Tolkappiyam: Tamil grammar by Tolkappiyar.
 The Satavahana dynasty ended in 230 ad.  Tirukkural: Thiruvalluvar.
 Religion and Culture during the Satavahanas:  Tamil Epics: Silappadikaram & Manimekalai
 Naneghat inscription: Satakarni I. (Odyssey of Tamil poetry).
 Vedic religion and Buddhism.  Craft, trade and urbanisation:
 Sea trade with Rome and China.
  South Indian trade guilds: Lords of trade.  He allowed Meghaverman of Sri Lanka to build
a shrine at Bodhgaya.
TRADE IN NORTHERN INDIA  He performed many Ashvamedha sacrifices.
 Artisan guild: Shreni.  His coins mention him as the ‘Aprathiratha
 Merchants: Sethi. Prakrama’.
 Perfume sellers: Gandhikas.  His mother was Kumar Devi Gupta.
 Trade was dominated by Jains and Buddhists.  Chandra Gupta II (380-412):
 Mathura was famous for Shataka cloth.  His titles were ‘Vikramaditya’ and
 The Parthians of Iran imported steel from India. ‘Simhavikrama’.
 Romans exported lead to India.  His Digvijay yatra is mentioned in his Udaigiri
 India’s export to Rome: Pepper (Yavnapriya), inscription.
muslin, pearls, animals, cutlery & iron goods.  He issued gold coins called dinari.
 Pliny criticized Romans for importing luxury goods  The first ruler to issued silver coins caller
from India in his text ‘Natural History’ written in rupiya.
77 Ad.  Mehrauli iron pillar inscription.
 Kushans issued the largest number of pure gold  His daughter Prabhavati governed the Vetaka
coins in India. kingdom. She was married to the brahmin King
Rudra Sen II.
THE GUPTA PERIOD (The Golden Age of Ancient India)  He killed his brother Ramagupta.
 Emblem: Garuda.  Fa-Hien (399-414) visited India during this
 Rise and Growth of the Gupta Empire: period.
 Guptas were feudatories of Kushans.  Navaratnas of Chandra Gupta II were:
 They succeeded Murundas in 275 Ad. o Kalidas: A Sanskrit playwright.
 Centre of Gupta power: Prayag. o Amar Singh: A grammarian who wrote
 They belonged to the Vaishya caste. ‘Amarkosha’, Sanskrit vocabulary.
 ‘Maharaja’ Shri Gupta (240-280): The founder of o Varahmihira: ‘Pachasidhatha’, ‘Brihat
the Gupta dynasty. His son was Ghatotkatch. Samhita’ and ‘Brihat Jataka’.
 Chandra Gupta I (319-34): o Dhanavantri: Physician.
 He assumed the title of ‘Maharajadhiraja’. o Kshapanaka: A Jain monk who wrote
 He started the Gupta era in 319-20 Ad. ‘Dvatrishatika’.
 Samudra Gupta (335-380): o Shanku: Shilpashastra.
 He assumed the title of ‘Anukampavan’. o Vararuchi: A Prakrit poet and grammarian.
 V.A. Smith called him ‘the Napoleon of India’. He wrote ‘Prakrit Prakasha’.
 His coins depict him playing veena. o Vetal Bhatta: ‘Niti Pradipam’ and
 He patronized Buddhist philosopher ‘Mantrashastra’.
Vasubandhu. o Ghatakarpara: A sculptor.
 He is often called the Kaviraja. o Vishakhadatta: ‘Devi Chandra Guptam’.
 His Prayag inscription was engraved on an  Kumargupta I (415-455):
Ashokan pillar by Harisena in Sanskrit.  He called himself ‘Shakraditya’ and
 Veer Sen was his commander-in-chief. ‘Mahendraditya’.
 Kingdoms conquered by Samudra Gupta:  He laid foundation of Nalanda monastery.
o Rulers of Ganga-Yamuna Doab: 9 Naga  He successfully repelled initial Huna invasions.
rulers.  Bilsad, Karandanda, Mandsore and Damodar
o Eastern Himalayan kingdoms: Nepal, inscriptions belong to him. The Damodar
Assam, Bengal and Eastern Punjab. inscription is related to trade guilds.
o Kingdoms of Central India (Vindhya): They  Skandagupta (455-465):
were called Atvikrajas.  He assumed the title of Vikramaditya.
o Deccan & Southern Kingdoms: He reached  Girnar inscription of Junagarh was issued by
Kanchi and forced Pallvas to submit. him.
o North Western Kingdoms: Kushan & Saka.  His successors were overwhelmed by Hunnic
 He conquered Kosambi & destroyed the Mitra hordes.
dynasty.  Gupta Empire suffered from economic crisis
during its last phase. They had to inflate their
gold coins by mixing them with other metals.
 A guild of silk weavers migrated from Gujarat to  ‘Sushrutasamhita’ mentions rhinoplasty and
Malwa in 473 Ad according to Mandsore plastic surgery.
inscription.
 Hunnic invasion: SPREAD OF CIVILIZATION IN EASTERN INDIA
 Tormana conquered western Malwa, Punjab &  Kalinga: Mahendrabhoga: Mahanadi
Kashmir in 485 Ad.  Kharvel (209-169 BC):
 He was succeeded by Mihirkula in 515. o The Bhikshuraja.
o Kalhana mentioned him in his ‘Rajtarangini’. o Mahameghvahan dynasty.
o Xuan Tsang called him a persecutor of o A Jain monarch.
Buddhism. o He issued Hathigumoha inscription
o He was defeated by a coalition of (Udaigiri).
Yashodharman of Malwa, Baladitya Gupta  Mathara dynasty (4th-5th century ad):
& Maukharis. o Orissa.
o Yashodharman Vishnuvardhana is o Founder: Shankar Verman.
mentioned in the Mandsore stone.  Nala dynasty (6th century):
o Baladitya Gupta was also known as o Founder: Varajraja.
Narsingha Gupta.  Vasishta dynasty (5th century).
 Causes of Decline: The rise of powerful  Pitrabhaktas (5-6th century).
feudatories in Thanesar and the invasion of  Manas dynasty.
Hunas.  Eastern Ganga dynasty (5-15th century):
 Vetaka Dynasty: o Founder: Ananta Verman.
 It was established by a brahmin named  Bengal:
Vidyashakti.  Anga Kingdom (1100-500 BC):
 Vetakas’ capital was at Kanchanaka. o Founder: Anga, son of Bali.
 Parvara Sen I was the only Vetaka king who  Vanga Kingdom (1500-300 BC):
called himself samarat. He commissioned the o Black Polished Ware.
painting named ‘Mahabhinishkraman’. o Prince Vijaya migrated to Sri Lanka.
 Parvara Sen II composed ‘Setubandhakavya’.  Purandravardhana Kingdom:
 King Sarva Sen wrote ‘Harivijaya’ in Prakrit. o The birthplace of Jain Acharya Bhadrabahu.
 Rock cut caves and chaityas of Ajanta were  Gauda Kingdom (320-625):
built under the Vetaka Lord Hari Sen. o Shashank (590-623): The Gaureshvara who
cut the Bodhi tree at Bodhgaya. He was a
CULTURAL CONTRIBUTION OF THE GUPTAS rival of Harsha.
 Puranas were written during the Gupta period.  Assam: Kamrupa or Pragyajyotishpura.
 Bhatti composed ‘Ravanavaddha’.
 Mentha wrote ‘Hayagrivavaddha’. HARSHA AND HIS EMPIRE
 ‘Mrichakatika’ by Shudraka.  Mukharies:
 ‘Panchtantra’ by Vishnu Sharma.  They were samantas of the Guptas.
 Aryabhata, the father of algebra, wrote  They ruled Kannauj before Pushyabhutis. They
‘Aryabhatiya’. are mentioned in Patanjali’s texts.
 Bhaskara I wrote commentaries on  During Ishaan Verma’s (554 Ad), Mukharies
‘Aryabhatiya’. were at their zenith.
 Bhaskara II wrote ‘Lilavati’, a treatise on  The Pushyabhuti or Vardhan dynasty of Thanesar
calculi. was a feudatory of the Guptas.
 Dandin wrote ‘Kavyadarshana’ and  Harshvardhan (606-647):
‘Dasakumaracharita’.  The ‘Shiladhitya’ and ‘Sakaluttarapathanatha’.
 Brahmaguptra wrote ‘Brahamsputasiddhant’  He was a son of Prabhakar Vardhan.
(628), mentioning the law of gravitation, and  He shifted his capital to Kannauj.
‘Khandakhadyaka’ (665), describing perpetual  Chalukyan King Pulakeshin II defeated him in
motion. 618-19.
 Dharamshastras were compiled during the  His empire was more feudal and decentralized.
Gupta period.  Xuan Tsang visited India during Harsha’s reign
(629-45). He wrote ‘Si-Yu-Ki’.
  Two inscriptions of Harsha: Madhuvan &  It’s between the Bay of Bengal & the Great Salt
Banskhera. Lake in Tamil Nadu.
 He was an accomplished flute player according  A stone called Krishna’s butter ball is there.
to Banbhatta.
 Territories under his direct control: Malwa, PHILOSOPHICAL DEVELOPMENT
Bengal, Kalinga, Gujarat & Rajputana.  Orthodox sects:
 Feudatories: Kashmir, Jalandhar, Kamrup,  Nyaya: Logicism of Gautama.
Sindh & Nepal.  Samkhya: Dualism of Kapila.
 Harsha gave land grants to his officers in lieu  Yoga: Yoking of Patanjali.
of salary.  Vaisheshika: Atomism of Kanaad.
 Plays written by Harsha: ‘Ratnavali’,  Purva Mimansa: Vedic logicism of sage Jamini.
‘Priyadarshika’ & ‘Nagananda’.  Uttra Mimansa or Vedanta: Avaita of
 Banbhatta wrote ‘Harshacharita’ and Shankara, Dvaita of Madhava and Vishishtha
‘Parvatiparinaya’. Advaita of Ramanuja.
 Mayura wrote ‘Mayurashataka’.  Heterodox sects:
 He patronized the Nalanda monastery.  Lokayata or Charvaka: Materialism of
 He donated 1/4th of his revenues. Brihaspati & Ajita Kesakambli.
 The last emperor to rule India before Islamic  Buddhism: The 8-fold noble path of Siddhartha
invasion. Gautama.
 Harsha died heirless in 647.  Jainism: Restraint and renunciation of
 Chinese monk I-Tsing visited Nalanda in 670. Mahavira.
 Grammarian Bhratruhari worte ‘Vakapadiya’.  Ajivika: Fatalism of Makkaligosala.
 His military camps were called Skandavaras.  Ajnana: Agnosticism of Sanjaya Belathiputta.
 Akriyavada: Ahetuvada of Purana Kashyapa.
MEANWHILE IN SOUTH INDIA  Literary development:
 Kalbhara Revolt (250-690 ad):  ‘Brahmasutra’ by Bhadrayana.
 The revolt was against the Cholan, Pandyan,  Bhasa’s plays:
Chera & Pallavas. o Based on Mahabharata: Pancharatra,
 The Kalbhara nobility was Buddhist. Madhyama-vyayoga, Duta-Ghattotkacha,
 They performed genocide against the Duta-Vakya, Urubhanga (tragedy),
Brahmins. Karnabharam (tragedy) and Harivamsha or
 The Kalbhara dynasty was ended by a Pandya Balacharita with Krishna as the protagonist.
& Pallava coalition in 690. o Based on Ramayana: ‘Pritama-nataka’ and
 Pallavas of Kanchi v/s Chalukyas of Badami: ‘Yagna-phalam’ and ‘Abhisheka-nataka’.
 The Pandyan of Madurai played a minor role in o Independent plays: ‘Avimaraka’, ‘Daridra-
this conflict. Charudutta’ (it was unfinished and Shudraka
 Pulakeshin-II (609-642) subjugated Kadambas completed it in his ‘Marichakatika’),
of north Karnataka & the western Gangas of ‘Pratigya Yaugandarayanam’ and
south Karnataka. ‘Swapnavasvadattam’.
 Pallava King Narsingh Verman (630-668)  Miscellaneous:
annexed Chalukyan capital at Vatapi in 642  Mundeshvari Devi temple in Bihar is the oldest
and executed Pulakeshin-II. He called himself temple in India.
the ‘Vatapikonda Cholan’.  Shrirangaswamy temple in Tamil Nadu is the
 Vikrmaditya II (733-745) plundered Kanchi 3 largest temple in India.
times and in 740, he ended the Pallava lineage.  Angkorvat in Cambodia is the largest Hindu
 The Rashtrakuta ended the Chalukyan Dynasty temple in the world. It was built by King Surya
in 757. Verman II in 12th century ad.
 Religious Development:  Kambhoja: Cambodia.
 Alvars: Vaishnavism.  Java: Swranabhumi.
 Nayanars: Shaivism.
 Mahabalipuram: THE CHALUKYAS
 A U.N.E.S.C.O world heritage site.  Western Chalukyas/Chalukyas of Badami:
 It was built by Pallava King Narsingh Verman-I  They succeeded Vatakas.
in 7th century.  Pulakeshin I (535-66 ad):
 o He was the founder of Chalukyan dynasty. o His governor, Pulakeshi, of Navasari &
o He established his capital at Vatapi Southern Gujarat successfully repelled an
(Badami, Karnataka). Umayyad invasion.
 Pulakeshin II:  Kirti Varman II (743-57):
o The most famous and powerful Chalukyan o The last Vatapi Chalukyan ruler.
ruler. o Dantidurga, the Rashtrakuta, defeated him
o Aihole inscription was inscribed by his court in 757 and ended the Western Chalukyan
poet Ravikirti. lineage.
o He defeated his contemporary Harsha near  Eastern Chalukyas of Vengi:
the Narmada River and assumed the title of  They ruled in Andhra Pradesh.
‘Dakshinapatheshvara’.  Vishnu Vardhan (624):
o He sent an embassy to Khosrow-I of Iran o The ‘Vamsha Siddhi’.
(depicted in Ajanta caves). o He was appointed by Pulakeshin II to govern
o Xuan Tsang visited his kingdom and Vengi region in eastern Deccan in 624.
described him to be a tolerant ruler. o He moved his capital to Rajmahendra.
o He was killed by Pallava King Narsingh  Vijayaditya II (808-47):
Varman. o He defeated Rashtrakutas, who
o The Pallavas occupied Vatapi for 13 years acknowledged their defeat in an inscription.
after his death.  Vijayaditya IV (922):
 Vikramaditya I (655-80): o The last Eastern Chalukyan ruler.
o He recovered Badami from Pallavas and o Chola king Rajraja conquered Vengi in 999.
captured Kanchi.  Chalukyas of Lata (Gujarat):
o He assumed the title of ‘Rajamallas’ (Lord of  This branch of Chalukyas were established by
Mallas aka Pallavas). Nimbara.
o He defeated Cheras, Cholas and Pandyas.  Vatsaraja donated a golden umbrella to
 Vikrmaditya II (733-43): Somnath temple.
o The Zenith of Vatapi Chalukyans.  Trilochan Pala called himself ‘Maha-
o He invaded Tondaimandalam and defeated Mandaleshvara’.
the Pallava King Nandi Verman-II.  In 1074, the Solankies (Eastern Chalukyas of
o He engraved Kannada inscriptions on the Gujarat) vanquished this dynasty.
victory pillar of Kailashanatha temple.