ABSTRACTION

 Religions
Indian creativity is evident in religion as the country is the birthplace of two
important faiths: Hinduism, the dominant religion, and Buddhism, which ironically
became extinct in India but spread throughout Asia.
a) Hinduism, literally “the belief of the
people of India,” is the predominant faith
of India and of no other nation. The
Hindus are deeply absorbed with God
and the creation of the universe.
 The Purusarthas are the three
ends of man: dharma – virtue,
duty, righteousness, moral
law; artha – wealth; and
kama – love or pleasure. A fourth end is moksha – the renunciation of
duty, wealth and love in order to seek spiritual perfection. It is achieved
after the release from samsara, the cycle of births and deaths. The
Hindus believe that all reality is one and spiritual, and that each individual
soul is identical with this reality and shares its characteristics: pure being,
intelligence, and bliss. Everything that seems to divide the soul from this
reality is maya or illusion.
 Life is viewed as an upward development through four stages of effort
called the four asramas: a) the student stage – applies to the rite of
initiation into the study of the Vedas; b) the householder stage – marries
and fulfills the duties as head of the family where he begets sons and earns
a living; c) the stage of the forest dweller – departs from home and
renounces the social world; and d) ascetic – stops performing any of the
rituals or social duties of life in the world and devotes time for reflection
and meditation.
 Kama refers to one of the proper pursuits of man in his role as
householder, that of pleasure and love. The Kama-sutra is a classic
textbook on erotics and other forms of pleasure and love, which is
attributed to the sage Vatsyayana.
 The Hindus regard Purusha, the Universal Spirit, as the soul and original
source of the universe. As the universal soul, Purusha is the life-giving
principle in all animated beings. As a personified human being, Purusha's
body is the source of all creation. The four Varnas serve as the theoretical
basis for the organization of the Hindu society. These were thought to
have been created from Purusha’s body:
 - The Brahman (priest) was Purusha’s mouth. Their duty is to
perform sacrifices, to study and to teach the Vedas, and to guard the
rules of dharma. Because of their sacred work, they are supreme in
purity and rank.
- The Ksatriyas (warriors) are the arms. From this class arose the
kings who are the protectors of society.
- The Vaisyas (peasants) are the thighs. They live by trading, herding,
and farming.
- The Sudras (serfs) are the feet. They engage in handicrafts and
manual occupation and they are to serve meekly the three classes
above them. They are strictly forbidden to mate with persons of a
higher varna.

b) Buddhism originated in India in the 6th century

B.C. This religion is based on the teachings of
Siddhartha Gautama, called Buddha, or the
‘Enlightened One.’ Much of Buddha’s teaching
is focused on self-awareness and self-
development in order to attain nirvana or
enlightenment.
 According to Buddhist beliefs, human
beings are bound to the wheel of life
which is a continual cycle of birth, death, and suffering. This cycle is an
effect of karma in which a person’s present life and experiences are the
result of past thoughts and actions, and these present thoughts and actions
likewise create those of the future. The Buddhist scriptures uphold the
Four Noble Truths and the Noble Eightfold Path. The Four Noble Truths
are: 1) life is suffering; 2) the cause of suffering is desire; 3) the removal
of desire is the removal of suffering; and 4) the Noble Eightfold Path leads
to the end of suffering. The Noble Eightfold Path consists of: 1) right
understanding; 2) right thought; 3) right speech; 4) right action; 5) right
means of livelihood; 6) right effort; 7) right concentration; and 8) right
meditation. The Buddhist truth states that bad actions and bad feelings
such as selfishness, greed, hostility, hate are evil not because they harm
others but because of their negative influence on the mental state of the
doer. It is in this sense that evil returns to punish the doer.

c) The history of the Vaishnava movement from the end of the Gupta period till the
first decade of the thirteenth century AD is concerned mainly with South India.
Vaishnava poet-saints known as alvars (a Tamil word denoting those drowned in
Vishnu-bhakti) preached single-minded devotion (ekatmika bhakti) for Vishnu and
their songs were collectively known as prabandhas.
 d) Shaivism had its origin in antiquity. Panini refers to a group of Shivaworshippers as
Shiva-bhagavatas, who were characterised by the iron lances and clubs they carried
and their skin garments. Shaiva Movement in the South: The Shaiva movement in the
South flourished at the beginning through the activities of many of the 63 saints
known in Tamil as Nayanars (Siva-bhakts). Their appealing emotional songs in
Tamil were called Tevaram Stotras, also known as Dravida Veda and ceremonially
sung in the local Shiva temples. The Nayanars hailed from all castes. This was
supplemented on the doctrinal side by a large number of Shaiva intellectuals whose
names were associated with several forms of Shaiva movements like Agamanta,
Shudha and Vira-shaivism.

 Philosophies of Ancient India

Religion of the Rig Vedic people was very simple in the sense that it consisted
mainly of worship of numerous deities representing the various phenomena of nature
through prayers. It was during the later Vedic period that definite ideas and philosophies
about the true nature of soul or Atman and the cosmic principle or Brahman who
represented the ultimate reality were developed. These Vedic philosophical concepts later
on gave rise to six different schools of philosophies called shada darshana. They fall in
the category of the orthodox system as the final authority of the Vedas is recognised by
all of them. Let us now find out more about these six schools of Indian philosophy.
1) Samkhya System
The Samkhya philosophy holds that reality is constituted of two principles one
female and the other male i.e. Prakriti, Puriusha respectively. Prakriti and Puriusha
are completely independent and absolute. According to this system, Purusha is mere
consciousness; hence it cannot be modified or changed. Prakriiti on the other hand is
constituted of three attributes, thought, movement and the change or transformation of
these attributes brings about the change in all objects. The Samkhya philosophy tries to
establish some relationship between Purusha and Prakriti for explaining the creation
of the universe. The profounder of this philosophy was Kapila, who wrote the
Samkhya sutra.
2) Yoga
Yoga literally means the union of the two principal entities. The origin of yoga
is found in the Yogasutra of Patanjali believed to have been written in the second
century BC. By purifying and controlling changes in the mental mechanism, yoga
systematically brings about the release of purusha from prakriti. Yogic techniques
control the body, mind and sense organs. Thus this philosophy is also considered a
means of achieving freedom or mukti. This freedom could be attained by practising
self-control (yama), observation of rules (niyama), fixed postures (asana), breath
control (pranayama), choosing an object (pratyahara) and fixing the mind (dharna),
concentrating on the chosen object (dhyana) and complete dissolution of self, merging
the mind and the object (Samadhi). Yoga admits the existence of God as a teacher and
guide.
 3) Nyaya
Nyaya is considered as a technique of logical thinking. According to Nyaya,
valid knowledge is defined as the real knowledge, that is, one knows about the object
as it exists. For example, it is when one knows a snake as a snake or a cup as a cup.
Nyaya system of philosophy considers God who creates, sustains and destroys the
universe. Gautama is said to be the author of the Nyaya Sutras.
4) Vaisheshika
Vaisheshika system is considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of
universe. The reality according to this philosophy has many bases or categories which
are substance, attribute, action, genus, distinct quality and inherence. Vaisheshika
thinkers believe that all objects of the universe are composed of five elements–earth,
water, air, fire and ether. They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living
beings were rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on actions of
merit and demerit. Creation and destruction of universe was a cyclic process and took
place in agreement with the wishes of God. Kanada wrote the basic text of
Vaisheshika philosophy.
5) Mimamsa
Mimamsa philosophy is basically the analysis of interpretation,
application and the use of the text of the Samhita and Brahmana portions of the
Veda. According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all
knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by the Vedas.
This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-Vaisheshika systems and emphasizes the
concept of valid knowledge. Its main text is known as the Sutras of Gaimini
which have been written during the third century BC. The names associated with
this philosophy are Sabar Swami and Kumarila Bhatta.
6) Vedanta
Vedanta implies the philosophy of the Upanishad, the concluding portion
of the Vedas. Shankaracharya wrote the commentaries on the Upanishads,
Brahmasutras and the Bhagavad Gita. Shankaracharya’s discourse or his
philosophical views came to be known as Advaita Vedanta. Advaita literally
means non-dualism or belief in one reality. Shankaracharya expounded that
ultimate reality is one, it being the Brahman. According to Vedanta philosophy,
‘Brahman is true, the world is false and self and Brahman are not different,
Shankaracharya believes that the Brahman is existent, unchanging, the highest
truth and the ultimate knowledge. He also believes that there is no distinction
between Brahman and the self. The knowledge of Brahman is the essence of all
things and the ultimate existence. Ramanuja was another well-known Advaita
scholar.
7) Charvaka School
Brihaspati is supposed to be the founder of the Charvaka School of
philosophy. It finds mention in the Vedas and Brihadaranyka Upanishad. Thus it
is supposed to be the earliest in the growth of the philosophical knowledge. It
holds that knowledge is the product of the combination of four elements which
leaves no trace after death. Charvaka philosophy deals with the materialistic
philosophy. It is also known as the Lokayata Philosophy - the philosophy of the
masses. According to Charvaka there is no other world. Hence, death is the end of
 humans and pleasure is the ultimate object in life. Charvaka recognises no
existence other than this material world. Since God, soul, and heaven, cannot be
perceived, they are not recognised by Charvakas. Out of the five elements earth,
water, fire, air and ether, the Charvakas do not recognise ether as it is not known
through perception. The whole universe according to them is thus consisted of
four elements.
8) Jain Philosophy
Like the Charvakas, the Jains too do not believe in the Vedas, but they
admit the existence of a soul. They also agree with the orthodox tradition that
suffering (pain) can be stopped by controlling the mind and by seeking right
knowledge and perception and by observing the right conduct. The Jaina
philosophy was first propounded by the tirthankar Rishabha Deva.
The Jainas believe that the natural and supernatural things of the universe
can be traced back to seven fundamental elements. They are jiva, ajivaa, astikaya,
bandha, samvara, nirjana, and moksa. Substances like body which exist and
envelope (like a cover) are astïkaya. Anastikayas like ‘time’ have no body at all.
The substance is the basis of attributes (qualities). The attributes that we find in a
substance are known as dharmas. The Jainas believe that things or substance have
attributes. These attributes also change with the change of kala (time). From their
point of view, the attributes of a substance are essential, and eternal or
unchangeable. Without essential attributes, a thing cannot exist. So they are
always present in everything. For example, consciousness (chetana) is the essence
of the soul; desire, happiness and sorrow are its changeable attributes.
9) Philosophy of Buddha
Gautama Buddha, who founded the Buddhist philosophy, was born in 563
BC at Lumbini, a village near Kapilavastu in the foothills of Nepal. His childhood
name was Siddhartha. His mother, Mayadevi, died when he was hardly a few days
old. He was married to Yashodhara, a beautiful princess, at the age of sixteen.
After a year of the marriage, he had a son, whom they named Rahul. But at the
age of twenty-nine, Gautama Buddha renounced family life to find a solution to
the world’s continuous sorrow of death, sickness, poverty, etc. He went to the
forests and meditated there for six years. Thereafter, he went to Bodh Gaya (in
Bihar) and meditated under a pipal tree. It was at this place that he attained
enlightenment and came to be known as the Buddha. He then travelled a lot to
spread his message and helped people find the path of liberation or freedom. He
died at the age of eighty.
Realization of Four Noble Truths. The knowledge realized by Buddha is
reflected in the following four noble truths:
a. There is suffering in human life. When Buddha saw human
beings suffering from sickness, pain and death, he concluded that
there was definitely suffering in human life. There is pain with
birth. Separation from the pleasant is also painful. All the passions
that remain unfulfilled are painful. Pain also comes when objects
of sensuous pleasure are lost. Thus, life is all pain.
 b. There is cause of suffering, The second Noble Truth is related to
the cause of suffering. It is desire that motivates the cycle of birth
and death. Therefore, desire is the fundamental cause of suffering.
c. There is cessation of suffering. The third Noble Truth tells that
when passion, desire and love of life are totally destroyed, pain
stops. This Truth leads to the end of sorrow, which causes pain in
human life. It involves destruction of ego (aham or ahamkara),
attachment, jealousy, doubt and sorrow. That state of mind is the
state of freedom from desire, pain and any kind of attachment. It is
the state of complete peace, leading to nirvana.
d. Path of Liberation. The fourth Noble Truth leads to a way that
takes to liberation. Thus, initially starting with pessimism, the
Buddhist philosophy leads to optimism. Although there is a
constant suffering in human life, it can be ended finally. Buddha
suggests that the way or the path leading to liberation is eight-fold,
through which one can attain nirvana.

 Religious and Philosophical Works

1) The Upanishads form a highly sophisticated commentary on the

religious thought suggested by the poetic hymns of the Rigveda.
The name implies, according to some traditions, ‘sitting at the
feet of the teacher.’ The most important philosophical doctrine is
the concept of a single supreme being, the Brahman, and
knowledge is directed toward reunion with it by the human soul,
the Atman or Self. The nature of eternal life is discussed and
such themes as the transmigration of souls and causality in
creation.

2) The Dhammapada (Way of Truth) is an anthology of basic Buddhist

teaching in a simple aphoristic style. One of the best known books of the
Pali Buddhist canon, it contains 423 stanzas arranged in 26 chapters.
These verses are compared with the Letters of St. Paul in the Bible or that
of Christ’s Sermon on the Mount.