04: FUNCTION

Programming Technique I
(SCSJ1013)
 Modular Programming

• Modular programming: breaking a program up into smaller,

manageable functions or modules
• Function: a collection of statements to perform a task
• Motivation for modular programming:
– Improves maintainability of programs
– Simplifies the process of writing programs
 Function

• A collection of statements that performs a specific task.

• Commonly used to break a problem down into small
manageable pieces.
• In C++, there are 2 types of function:
– Library functions
– User-defined functions
 Library Functions

• “Built-in" functions that come with the compiler.

• The source code (definition) for library functions does NOT
appear in your program.
• To use a library function, you simply need to include the
proper header file and know the name of the function that
you wish to use.
– #include compiler directive
 Library Functions (cont.)

• Libraries under discussion at this time:

Compiler directive Purpose

Character classification
<ctype>
and conversion
<cmath> Math functions

<stdlib> Data conversion

<time> Time functions

 Library Functions (cont.)

• A collection of specialized functions.

• C++ promotes code reuse with predefined classes and
functions in the standard library
• The functions work as a black box:

x=4 sqrt(x) 2
 Math Functions

• Required header: #include <cmath>

• Example functions

Function Purpose

abs(x) returns the absolute value of an integer.

calculates x to the power of y. If x is negative, y must be an

pow(x,y)
integer. If x is zero, y must be a positive integer.

pow10(x) calculates 10 to the power of x.

calculates the positive square root of x.

sqrt(x)
(x is >=0)
 Library Functions: Example 1
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
double area, radius;

cout<< "This program calculates the area of a

circle.\n";
cout<<"What is the radius of the circle? ";
cin>>radius;
area=3.14159 * pow(radius,2.0);
cout<<"The area is " << area <<endl;
system (“pause”);
return 0;
}
 Library Functions: Example 2
#include <iostream>
#include <cmath>
using namespace std;
main(){
int nom1,nom2, result;
cout<<"Enter two numbers";
cin>>nom1>>nom2;
if ((nom1<0)||(nom2<0))
{ cout<<“negative number/s";
}
else
{
result= sqrt(nom1 + nom2);
cout<<"The square root of "<< nom1+nom2 << "is"
<< result;}
}
More Mathematical Functions
More Mathematical Functions
 More Mathematical Functions

• Require cmath header file

• Take double as input, return a double
• Commonly used functions:

sin Sine
cos Cosine
tan Tangent
sqrt Square root
log Natural (e) log
abs Absolute value (takes and returns an int)
 More Mathematical Functions

• These require cstdlib header file

• rand(): returns a random number (int)
between 0 and the largest int the compute holds.
Yields same sequence of numbers each time
program is run.
• srand(x): initializes random number generator
with unsigned int x
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 10, Exercise 2, No. 1 (pg. 141)

• Do Lab 10, Exercise 2, No. 2 (pg. 141)
 General Purpose Library

• These require cstdlib header file

• rand(): returns a random number (int) between 0 and the
largest int the compute holds. Yields same sequence of
numbers each time program is run.
• srand(x): initializes random number generator with
unsigned int x
 Character Manipulation

• The C++ library provides several functions for testing

characters.
• To use these functions, you must include the cctype header
file.
FUNCTION MEANING
isalpha true if arg. is a letter, false otherwise
isalnum true if arg. is a letter or digit, false otherwise
isdigit true if arg. is a digit 0-9, false otherwise
islower true if arg. is lowercase letter, false otherwise
isprint true if arg. is a printable character, false otherwise
ispunct true if arg. is a punctuation character, false otherwise
isupper true if arg. is an uppercase letter, false otherwise
isspace true if arg. is a whitespace character, false otherwise
 Example – Character Testing
#include <iostream>
#include <cctype>
using namespace std;
int main()
{
char input;
cout<<"Enter any character: ";
cin.get(input);
if (isalpha(input)){
cout.put(input);
cout<<"It is an alphabet";}
if (isdigit(input))
cout<<"It is a digit";
if (islower(input))
cout<<"The letter entered is lowercase";
if (isupper(input))
cout<<"The letter entered is uppercase";
return 0;
}
 Exercise 01

• Write a program with if statements that will display the word

“digit” if the variable ch contains numeric data, or display
the word “letter” if the variable ch contains alphabet data.
Otherwise, it should display “special character”
 Character Case Conversion

• Require cctype header file

• Functions:
toupper: if char argument is lowercase letter, return
uppercase equivalent; otherwise, return input unchanged
char ch1 = 'H';
char ch2 = 'e';
char ch3 = '!';
cout << toupper(ch1); // displays 'H'
cout << toupper(ch2); // displays 'E'
cout << toupper(ch3); // displays '!'
 Character Case Conversion

• Functions:
tolower: if char argument is uppercase letter, return
lowercase equivalent; otherwise, return input unchanged
char ch1 = 'H';
char ch2 = 'e';
char ch3 = '!';
cout << tolower(ch1); // displays 'h'
cout << tolower(ch2); // displays 'e'
cout << tolower(ch3); // displays '!'
 Example – Character Case
Conversion
#include <iostream>
#include <cctype>
using namespace std;

int main()
{
char input[15];
cout<<"Enter a name ";
cin>>input;
for(int i=0;input[i] != '\0';i++)
input[i]=toupper(input[i]);
cout<<"The name in upper case is:" << input;
return 0;
}
Character Manipulating
Functions
 Exercise 02

• Write a program to toggle the contents of a string character

from lower to upper case or vice verse.
 Review of the Internal Storage of
C-Strings
• C-string: sequence of characters stored in adjacent memory
locations and terminated by NULL character
• String literal (string constant): sequence of characters
enclosed in double quotes " " :
"Hi there!"

H i t h e r e ! \0
 Review of the Internal Storage of
C-Strings
• Array of chars can be used to define storage for
string:
const int SIZE = 20;
char city[SIZE];
• Leave room for NULL at end
• Can enter a value using cin or >>
– Input is whitespace-terminated
– No check to see if enough space
• For input containing whitespace, and to control
amount of input, use cin.getline()
 C-Strings Manipulation Functions

• The C++ library has numerous functions for handling C-strings.

• Requires cstring header file be included.
• Functions take one or more C-strings as arguments. Can use:
– C-string name
– pointer to C-string
– literal string
 Functions for C-Strings

• Functions:
– strlen(str): returns length of C-string str

char city[SIZE] = "Missoula";

cout << strlen(city); // prints 8

– strcat(str1, str2): appends str2 to the end of str1

char location[SIZE] = "Missoula, ";

char state[3] = "MT";
strcat(location, state);
// location now has "Missoula, MT"
 Function for C-Strings

• Functions:
– strcpy(str1, str2): copies str2 to str1

const int SIZE = 20;

char fname[SIZE] = "Maureen",
name[SIZE];
strcpy(name, fname);

Note: strcat and strcpy perform no bounds checking to

determine if there is enough space in receiving character array to hold
the string it is being assigned.
 Function for C-Strings

• Functions:
– strstr(str1, str2): finds the first occurrence of str2 in
str1. Returns a pointer to match, or NULL if no match.
char river[] = "Wabash";
char word[] = "aba";
cout << strstr(state, word);
// displays "abash"
 Comparing C-Strings

• Also cannot use operator ==

char aString[10] = “Hello”;
char anotherString[10] = “Goodbye”;
aString == anotherString; // NOT allowed!
• Must use library function again:
if (strcmp(aString, anotherString))
cout << “Strings NOT same.”;
else
cout << “Strings are same.”;
 Working with C-Strings - Example
#include <iostream>
#include <cstring>
using namespace std;
int main()
{ char reply;
char garment[]="overcoat";
cout<<"Is it raining outside? Answer y/n\n";
cin>>reply;
if(reply=='y')
strcpy(garment,"raincoat");
cout<<"before you go out today take your "<<garment;
return 0;
}
Predefined C-String Functions
Predefined C-String Functions
 String/Numeric
Conversion Functions
• These functions convert between string and numeric forms of
numbers
• Need to include cstdlib header file

FUNCTION PARAMETER ACTION

atoi C-string converts C-string to an int value, returns the
value
atol C-string converts C-string to a long value, returns the
value
atof C-string converts C-string to a double value, returns the
value
itoa int,C-string, int converts 1st int parameter to a C-string, stores
it in 2nd parameter. 3rd parameter is base of
converted value
 String/Numeric
Conversion Functions
• atoi converts alphanumeric to int
• atol converts alphanumeric to long
• atof converts a numeric string to a double

• if C-string being converted contains non-digits, results are

undefined
– function may return result of conversion up to first non-digit
– function may return 0
 String/Numeric
Conversion Functions
• Examples:
– int number;
– long lnumber;
– double dnumber;
– number = atoi("57");
– lnumber = atol("50000");
– dnumber = atof(“590.55”);
 String/Numeric
Conversion Functions
• itoa converts an int to an alphanumeric string
• Allows user to specify the base of conversion
itoa(int num, char numStr, int base)
– num : number to convert
– numStr: array to hold resulting string
– base: base of conversion
• Example: To convert the number 1200 to a hexadecimal string
– char numStr[10];
– itoa(1200, numStr, 16);
 User-Defined Functions

• User-defined functions are created by you, the programmer.

• Commonly used to break a problem down into small
manageable pieces.
• You are already familiar with the one function that every C++
program possesses: int main()
– Ideally, your main() function should be very short and should
consist primarily of function calls.

Main Program

Function 1 Function 2 Function 3

 Defining and Calling Functions

• Every functions must have:

– Function call: statement causes a function to execute
– Function definition: statements that make up a function

Function
definition
Function call
 Function Definition

• Definition includes:
– return type: data type of the value that function returns to
the part of the program that calls it
– name: name of the function. Function names follow same
rules as variables
– parameter list: variables containing values passed to the
function
– body: statements that perform the function’s task,
enclosed in {}
 Function Definition (cont.)

• The general form of a function definition in C++ is as follows:

function-returntype function-name( parameter-list )
{
local-definitions;
function-implementation;
}

Note: The line that reads int main() is the function header.
 Function Return Type

• If a function returns a value, the type of the value must

be indicated:
int main()
• If a function does not return a value, its return type is
void:
void printHeading()
{
cout << "Monthly Sales\n";
}
 Calling a Function

• To call a function, use the function name followed by ()

and ;
printHeading();
• When called, program executes the body of the called
function
• After the function terminates, execution resumes in the
calling function at point of call.
 The Flowchart

Start

print “Hello from main”

displayMessage

print “Back in function

main again”

End
 The Pseudo Code

• Start • displayMessage:
• Print “Hello from main” – Print “Hello from the function
displayMessage”
• call displayMessage
• Print “Back in function main
again”
• End
The Structure Chart

main_program

displayMessage
 Calling a Function - Example

Function
definition

Function call
Flow of Control in Program 6-1
 User-Defined Functions:
Example 2
01 #include <iostream>
02 #include <cmath>
03 using namespace std;
04
05 float distance(float x, float y)
06 { float dist;
07 dist = sqrt(x * x + y * y);
08 return dist;
09 }
10
11 void main()
12 {
13 float x,y,dist;
14 cout << "Testing function distance(x,y)" << endl;
15 cout << "Enter values for x and y: ";
16 cin >> x >> y;
17 dist = distance(x,y);
18 cout << "Distance of (" << x << ',' << y << ") from origin is
" << dist << endl << "Tested" << endl;
19 }
 Calling Functions
• main can call any number of functions
• Functions can call other functions
• Compiler must know the following about a function before it
is called:
– name
– return type
– number of parameters
– data type of each parameter
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 1, No 1 (pg. 147-149)

• Which of the following function headers are valid? If they are
invalid, explain why.
– one (int a, int b)
– int thisone(char x)
– char another (int a, b)
– double yetanother
 Function Prototypes
• Ways to notify the compiler about a function before a call to
the function:
– Place function definition before calling function’s definition
– Use a function prototype (function declaration) – like the function
definition without the body
• Header: void printHeading()
• Prototype: void printHeading();
 User-Defined Functions:
Function Prototypes
01 #include <iostream>
02
03 void first();
Function prototypes
04 void second();
05
06 void main()
07 {
08 cout<< "Starting in main function \n";
09 first();
10 second();
11 cout<<"Control back to main\n";
12 }
13
14 void first()
15 { cout<<"Inside the first function\n";}
16
17 void second()
18 { cout<<"Inside the second function\n";}
 Structured Chart

Main Program

first() second()
 Prototype Notes

• Place prototypes near top of program

• Program must include either prototype or full
function definition before any call to the function –
compiler error otherwise
• When using prototypes, can place function
definitions in any order in source file
 User-Defined Functions:
Functions with No Parameters
01 #include <iostream>
02 void printhi();
03
04 void main(){
05 cout << "Testing function printhi()" << endl;
06 printhi();
07 cout << "Tested" << endl;
08 } // End of main
09
10 // Function Definitions
11 void printhi()
12 {
13 cout << "Hi \n";
14 }
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 3, No. 1 (pg. 163)

 Sending Data into a Function

• Can pass values into a function at time of call:

c = pow(a, b);
• Values passed to function are arguments
• Variables in a function that hold the values passed as
arguments are parameters
 A Function with a
Parameter Variable
01 void displayValue(int num)
02 {
03 cout << "The value is " << num << endl;
04 }

The integer variable num is a parameter.

It accepts any integer value passed to the function.
 User-Defined Functions: Functions with
Parameter and No Return Values (1)
01 #include <iostream>
02 using namespace std;
03 void printhi(int);
04
05 void main(){
06 int n;
07 cout <<"Enter a value for n: ";
08 cin >> n;
09 printhi(n);
10 cout << "Tested \n";}
11
12 void printhi(int n)
13 {
14 int i;
14 for (i = 0; i < n; i++)
15 cout << "Hi \n";
16 }
The Structure Chart

main_program

printHi
 User-Defined Functions: Functions with
Parameter and No Return Values (2)
01 #include <iostream>
02 using namespace std;
03
04 void displayValue(int);
05
06 void main()
07 {
08 cout<<"Passing number 5 to displayValue\n";
09 displayValue(5);
10 cout<<"Back in main\n";
11 }
12
13 void displayValue(int n)
14 {
15 cout<<"The value is " << n << endl;
16 }
 Other Parameter Terminology

• A parameter can also be called a formal parameter or

a formal argument
• An argument can also be called an actual parameter
or an actual argument
 Parameters, Prototypes, and
Function Headers
• For each function argument,
– the prototype must include the data type of each
parameter inside its parentheses
– the header must include a declaration for each parameter
in its ()
void evenOrOdd(int); //prototype
void evenOrOdd(int num) //header
evenOrOdd(val); //call
 Function Call Notes
• Value of argument is copied into parameter when the
function is called
• A parameter’s scope is the function which uses it
• Function can have multiple parameters
• There must be a data type listed in the prototype () and
an argument declaration in the function header () for
each parameter
• Arguments will be promoted/demoted as necessary to
match parameters
 In-Class Exercise
01 #include <iostream>
• What is the output 02
of this program? 03
04
// Function prototype
void showDouble(int);
05
06 int main(){
07 int num;
08 for (num = 0; num < 10; num++)
09 showDouble(num);
10 system(“pause”);
11 return 0;
12 }
13
14 //Definition of function
15 void showDouble(int value) {
16 cout<<value <<"\t“;
17 cout << (value * 2)<< endl;
18 }
 User Defined Functions: Passing
Multiple Arguments
• When calling a function and passing multiple arguments:
– the number of arguments in the call must match the prototype and
definition
– the first argument will be used to initialize the first parameter, the
second argument to initialize the second parameter, etc.
 User-Defined Functions: Passing
Multiple Arguments (cont.)
01 #include <iostream>
02 using namespace std;
03 void showSum(int, int, int);
04
05 int main()
06 {
07 int value1, value2, value3;
08
09 cout<<"Enter 3 integers: ";
10 cin>> value1 >> value2 >> value3;
11 showSum(value1, value2, value3);
12
13 return 0;
14 }
15
16 void showSum(int a, int b, int c)
17 {
18 cout<<"The sum: "<<a+b+c;
19 }
 Passing Multiple
Arguments (cont.)

The function call in line 18 passes value1,

value2, and value3 as a arguments to the
function.
 In-Class Exercise
01 #include <iostream>
• What is the output 02
of this program? 03
04
// Function prototype
void func1(double, int);
05
06 int main(){
07 int x = 0; double y = 1.5;
08 cout << x << " " <<y<< endl;
09 func1 (y, x);
10 cout << x << " " <<y<< endl;
11 system (“pause”);
12 return 0;
13 }
14
15 void func1(double a, int b){
16 cout << a << " " <<b<< endl;
17 a=0.0; b=10;
18 cout << a << " " <<b<< endl;
19 }
 User-Defined Functions:
Passing Data
• Passing by Value
• Passing by Reference
 Passing Data by Value

• Pass by value: when an argument is passed to a function,

its value is copied into the parameter.
• Changes to the parameter in the function do not affect
the value of the argument
 User-Defined Functions: Passing
Data by Value (cont.)
01 #include <iostream>
02 using namespace std;
03
04 void f( int n ) {
05 cout << "Inside f( int ), the value of the parameter is "
<< n << endl;
06 n += 37;
07 cout << "Inside f( int ), the modified parameter is now "
<< n << endl;}
08
09 int main() {
10 int m = 612;
11
12 cout << "The integer m = " << m << endl;
13 cout << "Calling f( m )..." << endl;
14 f( m );
15 cout << "The integer m = " << m << endl;
16 return 0;
17 }
User-Defined Functions: Passing
Data by Value (cont.)
 Passing Information to
Parameters by Value
• Example: int val=5;
evenOrOdd(val);

val num

5 5

argument in parameter in
calling function evenOrOdd function

• evenOrOdd can change variable num, but it will have no

effect on variable val
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 1, No. 12 (pg. 152)

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 3, No. 3 (pg. 164)
 Using Functions in
Menu-Driven Programs
• Functions can be used
– to implement user choices from menu
– to implement general-purpose tasks:
• Higher-level functions can call general-purpose functions,
minimizing the total number of functions and speeding program
development time
• See Program 6-10 in the text book (pg. 310-311)
 The return Statement

• Used to end execution of a function

• Can be placed anywhere in a function
– Statements that follow the return statement will not be
executed
• Can be used to prevent abnormal termination of
program
• In a void function without a return statement,
the function ends at its last }
 Returning a Value from a Function

• A function can return a value back to the statement that

called the function.
• You've already seen the pow function, which returns a
value:

double x;
x = pow(2.0, 10.0);
 Returning a Value from a Function

• In a value-returning function, the return statement can be

used to return a value from function to the point of call.
Example:

int sum(int num1, int num2)

{
double result;
result = num1 + num2;
return result;
}
 A Value-Returning Function

Return Type

int sum(int num1, int num2)

{
double result;
result = num1 + num2;
return result;
}
Value Being Returned
 A Value-Returning Function

int sum(int num1, int num2)

{
return num1 + num2;
}

Functions can return the values of expressions,

such as num1 + num2
The return Statement - Example
 The return Statement - Example

Program 6-11(Continued)

Return to
called
function
Returning a Value From a Function
 Returning a Value From a Function

Program 6-12 (Continued)

 The Structure Chart

main_program

value1
total
value2

sum
 Returning a Value From a Function

The statement in line 17 calls the sum function, passing

value1 and value2 as arguments. The return
value is assigned to the total variable.
 Returning a Value From a Function

• The prototype and the definition must indicate the

data type of return value (not void)

• Calling function should use return value:

– assign it to a variable
– send it to cout
– use it in an expression
 Returning a Boolean Value

• Function can return true or false

• Declare return type in function prototype and heading as
bool
• Function body must contain return statement(s) that
return true or false
• Calling function can use return value in a relational
expression
Returning a Boolean Value
Returning a Boolean Value
 In-Class Exercise
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
void try1(int p)
void try1(int p);
{
int try3(int r);
p++;
int main()
cout << p <<endl;
{ int a=2; }
cout << a <<endl;
try1(a); int try3(int r)
cout << a <<endl; {
int b=3; return r*r;
cout << b <<endl; }
int c=4;
try3(c);
cout << c <<endl;
c=try3(c);
cout << c <<endl;
cout << try3(5) <<endl;
return 0;}
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 2 – Program 11.9 (pg. 159)

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 3 (pg. 164)
• Write a function prototype and header for a function named
distance. The function should return a double and have
a two double parameters: rate and time.
• Write a function prototype and header for a function named
days. The function should return an integer and have three
integer parameters: years, months and weeks.
• Examine the following function header, then write an example
call to the function.
– void showValue(int quantity)
 In-Class Exercise

• The following statement calls a function named half. The

half function returns a value that is half that of the
argument. Write the function.
result = half(number);
• A program contains the following function:
int cube (int num)
{
return num*num*num;
}
Write a statement that passes the value 4 to this function and
assigns its return value to the variable result.
 In-Class Exercise
• Write a C++ program to calculate a rectangle’s area. The program consists
of the following functions:
– getLength – This function should ask the user to enter the
rectangle’s length, and then returns that value as a double.
– getWidth – This function should ask the user to enter the
rectangle’s width, and then returns that value as a double.
– getArea – This function should accept the rectangle’s length and
width as arguments and return the rectangle’s area.
– displayData – This function should accept the rectangle’s length,
width and area as arguments, and display them in an appropriate
message on the screen.
– main – This function consists of calls to the above functions.
 Local and Global Variables

• Variables defined inside a function are local to that

function. They are hidden from the statements in other
functions, which normally cannot access them.
• Because the variables defined in a function are hidden,
other functions may have separate, distinct variables
with the same name.
Local and Global Variables - Example
 Local and Global Variables - Example

• When the program is executing in main, the num variable

defined in main is visible.
• When anotherFunction is called, however, only variables
defined inside it are visible, so the num variable in main is
hidden.
 Local Variable Lifetime
• A function’s local variables exist only while the function is
executing. This is known as the lifetime of a local variable.

• When the function begins, its local variables and its

parameter variables are created in memory, and when the
function ends, the local variables and parameter variables are
destroyed.

• This means that any value stored in a local variable is lost

between calls to the function in which the variable is
declared.
 Global Variables and
Global Constants
• A global variable is any variable defined outside all the
functions in a program.

• The scope of a global variable is the portion of the

program from the variable definition to the end.

• This means that a global variable can be accessed by all

functions that are defined after the global variable is
defined
 Global Variables and
Global Constants
• You should avoid using global variables because they
make programs difficult to debug.

• Any global that you create should be global

constants.
Global Constants – Example
Global constants defined for
values that do not change
throughout the program’s
execution.
 Global Constants – Example
The constants are then
used for those values
throughout the
program.
 Initializing Local and Global
Variables
• Local variables are not automatically initialized. They must be
initialized by programmer.

• Global variables (not constants) are automatically initialized to

0 (numeric) or NULL (character) when the variable is defined.
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 1, No. 17 (pg. 155 -156)

 Static Local Variables
• Local variables only exist while the function is executing.
When the function terminates, the contents of local variables
are lost.

• static local variables retain their contents between

function calls.

• static local variables are defined and initialized only the

first time the function is executed. 0 is the default
initialization value.
Local Variables - Example
 Local Variables - Example

In this program, each time showLocal is called, the localNum

variable is re-created and initialized with the value 5.
A Different Approach, Using a
Static Variable
Using a Static Variable - Example

statNum is automatically initialized to

0. Notice that it retains its value
between function calls.
 Using a Static Variable - Example
If you do initialize a local static variable, the initialization only happens
once. See Program 6-22…
 In-Class Exercise

• Given the following programs compare the output and reason

the output.
#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;

void showVar(); void showVar();

int main ( ) { int main ( ) {

for (int count=0;count<10; count++) for(int count=0;count<10; count++)
showVar(); showVar();
system(“pause”); system(“pause”);
return 0; return 0;
} }

void showVar() { void showVar() {

static int var = 10; int var = 10;
cout << var << endl; cout << var << endl;
var++; var++;
} }
 In-Class Exercise

• Identify global variables & local variables in the following

program. What is the output?

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int j = 8;

int main()
{
int i=0;
cout<<"i: "<<i<<endl;
cout<<"j: "<<j<<endl;
system("pause");
return 0;
}
• Identify global variables, local variables and static local variables in
the following program. What is the output?
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;
int j = 40;

void p()
{ int i=5;
static int j=5;
i++;
j++;
cout<<"i: "<<i<<endl;
cout<<"j: "<<j<<endl;
}
int main()
{ p();
p();
return 0;}
 Using Reference Variables as
Parameters
• A mechanism that allows a function to work with the
original argument from the function call, not a copy of
the argument
• Allows the function to modify values stored in the calling
environment
• Provides a way for the function to ‘return’ more than one
value
 Passing by Reference

• A reference variable is an alias for another variable

• Defined with an ampersand (&)
void getDimensions(int&, int&);
• Changes to a reference variable are made to the
variable it refers to
• Use reference variables to implement passing
parameters by reference
Passing by Reference – Example
The & here in the prototype indicates that the
parameter is a reference variable.

Here we are passing value by

reference.
 Passing by Reference - Example
Program 6-24 (Continued)
The & also appears here in the function header.
 Reference Variables Notes
• Each reference parameter must contain &
• Space between type and & is unimportant
• Must use & in both prototype and header
• Argument passed to reference parameter must be a
variable – cannot be an expression or constant
• Use when appropriate – don’t use when argument
should not be changed by function, or if function needs
to return only 1 value
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 1, No. 19 (pg. 157 – 158)

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 2 – Program 11.10 (pg. 159)
• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 4 (pg. 160)
#include <iostream> void test(int first, int& second)
using namespace std; {
void test(int, int&); int third;
third=first+second*second+2;
int main() first=second-first;
{ second=2*second;
int num; cout<<first<<" "<<second<<"
num=5; "<<third<<endl;
test(24, num); }
cout<<num<<endl;
test(num,num);
cout<<num<<endl;
test(num*num, num);
cout<<num<<endl;
test(num+num,num);
cout<<num<<endl;
system("pause");
return 0;
}
#include <iostream> void test(int& a, int& b, int c, int&
using namespace std; d)
void test(int&, int&,int,int&); {
cin>>a >> b>> c>> d;
int main() c = a* b+d-c;
{ int a,b,c,d; c=2*c;
a=3; b=4; c=20; d=78; }
cout<<a<<" "<<b<<" "<<c<<"
"<<d<<endl;
test(a,b,c,d); The input:
cout<<a<<" "<<b<<" "<<c<<"
"<<d<<endl;
d=a*b+c-d;
6 8 12 35
test(a,b,c,d); 8 9 30 45
cout<<a<<" "<<b<<" "<<c<<"
"<<d<<endl;
return 0;
}
 Default Arguments
• A Default argument is an argument that is passed
automatically to a parameter if the argument is missing on the
function call.
• Must be a constant declared in prototype:
void evenOrOdd(int = 0);
• Can be declared in header if no prototype
• Multi-parameter functions may have default arguments for
some or all of them:
int getSum(int, int=0, int=0);
 Default Arguments – Example
Default arguments specified in the prototype

(Program Continues)
 Default Arguments – Example
Program 6-23 (Continued)
 Default Arguments

• If not all parameters to a function have default

values, the defaultless ones are declared first in the
parameter list:
int getSum(int, int=0, int=0);// OK
int getSum(int, int=0, int); // NO
• When an argument is omitted from a function call, all
arguments after it must also be omitted:
sum = getSum(num1, num2); // OK
sum = getSum(num1, , num3); // NO
 Default Arguments

• Consider the following function prototype:

void funcExp(int,int, double=55.5,char=‘A’);
• The following function calls are legal:
– funcExp(3,4,45.5, ‘B’);
– funcExp(3,4,45.5);
– funcExp(3,4);
• The following function calls are illegal:
– funcExp(3,4, ‘C’);
 Default Arguments

• The following are illegal function prototypes with default

arguments:
– void funcOne(int,double=23.45,char,
int=45);
– int funcTwo(int=1, int, int=1);
– void funcThree(int, int&=16,double=34);
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 5 (pg. 160)

• Consider the following function prototype & function
definition:
void testDefaultParam(int , int=5, double=3.2);

void testDefaultParam(int a, int b, double z)

{
int u;
a=a+static_cast<int>(2*b+z);
u=a+b*z;
cout<<"u = "<<a<<endl;
}
What is the output of the following function calls?

a) testDefaultParam(6);
b) testDefaultParam(3,4);
c) testDefaultParam(3,4.5);
d) testDefaultParam(3,4, 5.5);
e) testDefaultParam(3.4);
 In-Class Exercise
• Write a function prototype and function header for a function
called compute. The function should have 3 parameters: an int,
a double and a long. The int parameter should have a default
argument of 5, and the long parameter should have a default
argument of 65536. The double parameter should have no default
arguments. The parameters no necessarily in the order.

• Write a function prototype and function header for a function

called calculate. The function should have 3 parameters: an
int, a reference to a double and a long. Only the int
parameter should have a default argument, which is 47. The
parameters no necessarily in the order.
 Overloading Functions
• Overloaded functions have the same name but different
parameter lists
• Can be used to create functions that perform the same task
but take different parameter types or different number of
parameters
• Compiler will determine which version of function to call by
argument and parameter lists
 Function Overloading Examples
• Using these overloaded functions,
void getDimensions(int); // 1
void getDimensions(int, int); // 2
void getDimensions(int, double); // 3
void getDimensions(double, double);// 4
• the compiler will use them as follows:
int length, width;
double base, height;
getDimensions(length); // 1
getDimensions(length, width); // 2
getDimensions(length, height); // 3
getDimensions(height, base); // 4
Function Overloading – Example

The overloaded
functions have different
parameter lists

Passing a double

Passing an int (Program Continues)

 Function Overloading – Example
Program 6-26 (Continued)
 The exit() Function
• Terminates the execution of a program
• Can be called from any function
• Can pass an int value to operating system to indicate status
of program termination
• Usually used for abnormal termination of program
• Requires cstdlib header file (Borland)
 The exit() Function

• Example:
exit(0);

• The cstdlib header defines two constants that are

commonly passed, to indicate success or failure:
exit(EXIT_SUCCESS);
exit(EXIT_FAILURE);
 In-Class Exercise

• What is the output for the following programs

#include <iostream> #include <iostream>
using namespace std; using namespace std;
void function();
int main(){ int function();
function(); int main(){
cout << "Bye from main.\n"; function();
system (“pause”); return 0; cout << "Bye from main.\n";
} system (“pause”); return 0;
}
void function(){
cout << "Bye! from function int function(){
before exit\n"; cout << "Bye! from function
exit(0); before return\n";
cout << "Bye! from function return 0;
before exit\n"; cout << "Bye! from function
} before return\n”;
}
 In-Class Exercise

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 2, No. 7 (pg. 162)

• Do Lab 11, Exercise 3, No. 5 (pg. 165)
 In-Class Exercise
• Write a program that calculates the average of a group of test scores,
where the lowest score in the group is dropped. It should use the
following functions:
– getScore – This function ask the user for a test score, store it in a
reference parameter variable, and validate it. For input validation, do
not accept test scores lower than 0 or higher than 100. This function
should be called by main() once for each of the five scores to be
entered.
– calcAverage – This function calculates and display the average of
the four highest score. This function should be called just once by
main(), by should be passed the five scores.
– findLowest – This function finds and returns the lowest of the five
scores passed to it. It should be called by calcAverage function,
which uses the function to determine which of the five scores to drop.