Pentecostalism (Walter Hollenweger)

Origins and
Worldw J e
vV! TER 1, HOLI YWEG

ne of the premier interpreters
0 of Pentecostalism, Walter J.
Hollenweger has written what is in
many ways a sequel to his
magisterial The Pentecostals (1972).
This volume assesses the origins of
perhaps the fastest-growing
religious phenomenon in this
century in light of its current
development. Hollenweger
contends Pentecostalism is at a
critical crossroads in its evolution.
Focusing on the theological stories
of the Pentecostal movement
within the contexts of its "Black
Oral Root," "Catholic Root,"
"Evangelical Root," "Critical Root,"
and "Ecumenical Root,"
Hollenweger calls our attention to
the significance of this movement
for religion, politics, and, indeed, WALTER J. HOLLENWEGER,
the future of the world. a Swiss-born theologian, was
Professor of Mission at the
University of Birmingham. He
currently resides in Switzerland.
Origins and
Developments
Worldwide
WALTER J, HOLLENWEGER
W \HENDRICKSON
L&P U B L I S H E R S
Copyright 1997 by Hendrickson Publishers, Inc.
P. 0. Box 3473
Dedication
Peabody, Massachusetts 0196 1-3473
All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
To my friends and teachers in the Pentecostal Movement
who taught me to love the Bible
First Printing-October 1997
and to my teachers and friends in the Presbyterian
ISBN 0-943575-36-2
Church who taught me to understand it.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

To my friends and scholars in the Pentecostal
Movement who taught me to criticize and understand
Pentecostalism’s weaknesses and blind spots
Hollenweger, Walter J., 1927-
Pentecostalism: origins and developments worldwide / Walter J.
and to the friends and scholars in the universal
Hollenweger.
Includes bibliographical references and index. Church who showed me Pentecostalism’s strengths
ISBN 0-943575-36-2 (cloth) and potentials.
1. Pentecostalism-History. I. Title
BR1644.H65 1997
270.8’.2-dc21 97-35885
CIP To the ex-Pentecostals who were wounded and broken
by Pentecostalism and who couldn’t help but respond
by fighting their former friends and to the new
converts to Pentecostalism who found an inspiring
spirituality and new life in Pentecostalism.
All these are included in my prayers which accompany

this book.
i
t
L
P
Table of Contents
1. Introduction 1
2. Saints in Birmingham 6
Bombs in Birmingham 7
When Jesus Comes . . . 8
The Hippie from Athens 9
Party or Prayer Meeting? 10
The Memorial Service 11
I. THE BLACK ORAL ROOT
3. The Beginnings 18
A Black Church Founder:
William Joseph Seymour (1870-1922) 19
Parham or Seymour? 20
4. A Kite Flies Against the Wind: Black Power and

\ Black Pentecostalism in the USA 25
A Black Pentecostal Evangelist: Arthur Brazier 25
The Black Pentecostals Awake 27
Revolutionary Past of White Pentecostals 30
The Songs of the Blacks 32
Movements of Social Transformation 34
Tolerance and Conviction 35
The Holy Spirit is a “Gentleman” 38
The “Miracle of Memphis” 39
5. South Africa 41
Dangerous Memories: Integrated Beginnings 41
Recapturing the Past in Overcoming Racism 44
Re-Evaluation of Black Roots 46
A Relevant Pentecostal Witness 47
uMoya-A Black Pentecostal Pneumatology 51
...
Vlll PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
Table of Contents ix
54 The Epistle to the Colossians: An Example of a

6. Pentecost of N’Kamba: Simon Kimbangu and His Church Theologically Responsible Syncretism
55 137
Pentecostal Movement and Kimbanguists in ZaYre A Modern Example: Syncretism with the Culture
Simon Kimbangu 58
61 of Economism (Capitalism) 139
In the Name of Law and Order . . .
Sufferings 62
64 11. THE CATHOLIC ROOT
The Kimbanguist Church Today
The Catholicity of the Kimbanguists 68 12. Wesley’s Catholic Roots 144
An African Theology 70 Perfectionism in Swiss and German Methodism 144
Kimbanguism of the Kimbanguists and “Official Kimbanguism” 77 Wesley’s Doctrine of Perfection 146
The “Catholic” and the “Methodist” Wesley 149
7. Mexico: Flowers and Songs.
A Mexican Contribution to Doing Theology 81 13. Pentecostals and Catholics 153
Intercultural Theology-A Two-way System 81 A Catholic Pentecostal Movement 153
When the Silenced Begin to Speak 82 Relation Between Catholics and Pentecostals 154
To Enable Others to Develop a Face 83 Theological Characteristics 155
Enter the “True Faith” 84 Ecumenical Significance of Catholic Pentecostals 159
A Heretic Defends the Indians 85 Catholic Pentecostals-Ecumenicalor Denominational? 162
Ruins 87 The Vatican/Pentecostal Dialogue 165
Iglesia Cristiana Independiente Pentecost& 87
Ixmiquilpan 89 111. THE EVANGELICAL ROOT
A Pentecostal Cooperative 91
92 14. From the American Holiness Movement to Pentecostalism 182
Dangers from Outside
93 “The Higher Christian Life” 182
Conversion and Development
95 Frank Bartleman 185
Excavating the Ruins
95 Pacifism 187
The “Flowers and Songs” Method
The Human and the Holy 96 15. Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 190
Non-Christian Religions 97 Pentecostalism and Fundamentalism 190
Outlook 98 Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 192
Pentecostalism and Academic Theology 194
8. Korea: The Oral Shamanistic Culture in Pentecostal Transformation 99
An Old Culture 99 IV. THE CRITICAL ROOT
Fundamentalist Pentecostalism 101
Mystical Pentecostalism 101 16. Battle Against Unjust Structures 204
Minjung Pentecostalism 102 Social Ethics: Making the Truth Visible 204
Pentecostalism and Theology of Liberation 208
9. England: Interaction between Black and White in Pentecostalism and Marxism 214
Theological Education 106
The Story of the “Black School” 106 17. Rethinking the Spirit 218
The Black School in the Context of TCI 112 A Western or an Eastern Pneumatology? 218
Baptism of the Spirit: “Subsequent to and Different from Conversion” 222
10. Chile: Methodism’s Past in Pentecostalism’sPresent 117 Natural and Supernatural 224
The Story 118
124 18. Signs and Wonders 228
The Interpretations
129 The Critique by Pentecostals on the Healing Evangelists 229
A Quest for an Intercultural Theology
A Community Liturgy for Sick and Healthy People 233
11. A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism 132 ‘XI1 Nations Were Deceived by Your Pharmakera“ 237
Christianity is a Syncretism Par Excellence 132 Non-Christian and Non-Medical Healing 241
Religion is the Business of the Future 134 Conclusion 242
X PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Table of Contents xi
€9. Soteriology: W h o Is Saved? 246 27. Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 367
Soteriology: The Theory of Salvation 247 Latin America 367
The Praxis of Salvation: Experience 253 North America 37 1
Towards a New Soteriology 255 Europe and Africa 374
258 Consultation in Bossey (1980) 377
20. Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church?
258 Pentecostals a t the Full Assembly of Canberra (1991) 382
Charisma and Institution
Pentecostal Member Churches of the World Council of Churches 384
Baptism 26 1
Who Belongs to the Church? 264 28. Conclusion: Problem and Promise 389
Women 267 Problem: The Victims 389
If This Movement Be of the Spirit . . . 397
21. Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 269
Promise 398
A Genuine Oral Liturgy 269
The Future of Pentecostal Liturgy 272 Short Titles List 401
The Social Implications of an Oral Liturgy 273
Index of Names 480
Pentecostal Music: Problem and Promise 277
The British Context 279
The Way Forward 282
ission: What Kind of Missionaries? 288
Introducing the Topic 288
The Academic Task of Pentecostal Studies 292
Practical Implications 295
Pentecostal Missiology: Promise and Problem 298
23. Hermeneutics:Who Interprets Scripture correctly? 307
Why Hermeneutics? 307
The Problem Recognized 311
Criticism of Non-Pentecostal Hermeneutics 3 14
Elements of a Pentecostal Hermeneutics 316
Hermeneutics as I Lived It 317
24. Historiography:W h o Tells the Pentecostal Story Correctly? 326
Controversies 326
Research Reviews, Bibliographies, etc. 329
V. THE ECUMENICAL ROOT

25. Ecumenical Beginnings 334
Jonathan A.A.B. Paul (1853-193 1) 334
Louis Dallikre (1887-1976) 338
Alexander A. Boddy (1854-1930) 343
Gerrit Roelof Polman (1868-1932) 345
Other Ecumenical Pentecostals 347
Ecumenical Follow-Up 350
David J. Du Plessis 350
Four Phases of Ecumenical Development 355
Kilian McDonnell 356
The United Presbyterian Church, USA, and the Charismatic Renewal 360
The Protestant Charismatic Renewal, Ecumenical or What? 362
Introduction
Little did I know when I started Pentecostal research

almost forty years ago that at the end of my academic career I
would return to this very topic. In fact my wife, who has
followed my theological pilgrimage patiently and critically-
thank God for a critical and questioning wife-asked me:
“Why do you invest so much work in this book? Your academic
career is completed.’’
If one’s wife asks such a question, one had better have a
convincing answer. My answer was: T h e main reason is not the
stupendous growth of Pentecostalism/Charismatism/Inde-
pendentism from zero to almost 500 million in less than a
century, a growth which is unique in church history not ex-
cluding the early centuries of the church. The main reason is
that Pentecostalism “has come to a crossroads.”’ From its own
ranks there comes the challenge for a critical historiography,
for social and political analysis, for a more differentiated treat-
ment of the work of the Spirit, for a spirituality which does not
blend out critical thinking, for a new appraisal of pre-Christian
cultures in their own Third World sister churches, for ecu-
menical openness and dialogue. This story must be told, all the
more as this is not understood by Pentecostals as a concession
to the world or the ecumenical movement but as a more
thorough reading of their own past. T h e details are worked out
in this volume. It is difficult to predict which way the major
Pentecostal churches, the Charismatic Renewal Movement,
and the Pentecostal or Pentecostal-like “non-white indigenous
churches” (Barrett) in the Third World will go. It is my hope
and my prayer that this volume will perhaps help Pentecostals
Faupel, “Whither?” 9-27, quote, 10. See also Robeck, “Where?”1.

2 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Introduction 3
and non-Pentecostals to a more genuine understanding of what it means to be a That makes it attractive. Is this why a prestigious Presbyterian Church,
Pentecostal. the Riverside Church, New York, has appointed of all people a black Pente-
Compared to the earlier volume, The Pentecostals, this is a thoroughly costal, Professor James A. Forbes4 from Union Theological Seminary, as
pastor, without asking him to give up his Pentecostal affiliation? I suppose it
-
theological book, but it tells theology in the form of histories. This seems to
me to be a form of scholarly treatment which is more appropriate to the will take some time before European universities and cathedrals will look for
contextual spiritualities of Pentecostalism than propositional, so-called uni- help from Pentecostals. But who knows?
versal statements and discussion, because it places Pentecostal convictions and “Pentecostal spirituality is the future,” says Werner Hoerschelmann,’ one
practices in their different cultural contexts. This is already visible in the of the “Hauptpastoren” of the Lutheran Church in Hamburg. For many years,
complex analysis of the five historical roots. Graphically this can be presented Hans-Jurgen Becken, a German specialist of the African Independent Churches,
as follows: points not only to the growth but also to the theological and medical contri-
bution of these churches. From an encounter with them he expects not only
African Traditional Religion Catholicism Reformation help in “solving the apparent crisis of our Western Health services but also a
change of heart of the individual, be he or she medical doctor or patient.”6
I
Afro-American Slave Religion \ / Wesley John A. Mackay, the grand old man of Presbyterianism and ecumenism,
one-time president of Princeton Theological Seminary, has said that “the true
II -
catholic critical evangelical ecumenical mot
hope of ecumenism is the charismatic renewal,”’ for “uncouth life is better
than aesthetic death.”* That Pentecostalism and ecumenism must find a way
of working together much more intensely seems clear to any informed ob-
I
I
I HolinessMovement server. This will require repentance on both sides, and organizational, finan-
cial and theological commitment. After all, the World Council of Churches
actively sought the cooperation of the Orthodox Churches (a very much
smaller segment of Christianity) and did this-rightly so, I think-at great
political and financial risk. So why not with the Pentecostals?
H\
Pentecostalism
It seems that the World Council of Churches is slowly moving in this
direction. On the question “Whither World Council of Churches?” its
Non-White Indigenous Churches Charismatic Movement Classical Pentecostal Churches general secretary, Konrad Raiser, had this to say: “The present growth of
Christianity is almost entirely due to Pentecostal and evangelical churches . . .
I
Neo-Pentecostal Churches
This means for the World Council of Churches that it has to open itself to
these new manifestations of Christian existence, Christian church, and Chris-
tian witness.”’
I am not the only one who has discovered the significance of our topic for From the Pentecostal side the problem has also been recognized as will be
religion, politics and the future of our world. Harvey Cox, famous for his The seen in section V (pp. 334-88). As the Pentecostal ecumenist Cecil M. Robeck,
Secular City, in contrast to the general ignorance on the subject in academia, Jr. says: “Ultimately, the Twentieth Century will be evaluated by church
writes: “A religious movement that already encompasses nearly half a billion historians as the century in which the Holy Spirit birthed and nurtured two
people and is multiplying geometrically should not be dismissed so easily.” great movements: one of them formally known as the Ecumenical Movement,
Cox cites eminent sociologists as projecting that “by early in the next century, the other one, hardly acknowledging itself as ecumenical, the Pentecostal/
Pentecostals in all their variegated manifestations will outnumber both Catho- Charismatic Movement. These two movements have had much in common,
lics and Protestants.” However, “its real growth area is not in America, not on but have rarely acknowledged the hand or Spirit of God as being present in
television and not among white people”’ but in the Third World, because it
represents a certain “down-to-earth this-worldliness Christian ~ecularity.”~
4Stout, “Forbes,” 34.
Hoerschelmann, “Machtfaktor,” 67-70, quote 67.
’COX,“Why,” 3-8,47, quote, 8. On Cox see Hollenweger, Wie, 142-45 and ITh Becken, “Afrikanisches,” 166.
2,35f, 39, 123; ZTh 3, 164, 176-78. ’John A. Mackay in an interview, quoted in Curlee/Curlee, Springtime, 79.
Cox, “Reflections,” 29-34, quote 31. For Cox’s pertinent critique mainly on ‘Mackay, Ecumenics, 198.
North American Pentecostalism, see ch. 16, pp. 213f. Raiser, LLInterview,’9
5.
L
4 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Introduction 5
the other.”And Dale T. Irvin adds that Pentecostals have yet to act on the Dear God,
M y father says that I am too small.
ecumenical theology of their founder, William J. Seymour.” M y mother says that I am slow,
Critical discussion with Non-Pentecostals can be seen in the growing M y teacher says that I am a dreamer.
interest of Pentecostal theologians in the work of Jiirgen Moltmann. They M y boss says that the others are better,
discuss with him in writing and face to face. The Journal of Pentecostal M y colleagues say that I lack solidarity.
Theology has dedicated a whole issue to Moltmann’s The Spirit of Lt&. Pente- M y lieutenant says that I am a coward.
M y pastor says that I am a sinner.
costal theologians seem to be well informed on the whole work of Moltmann, M y wiye says that others earn more.
at least as far as it has appeared in English. Some read his books also in M y children say that I am old-fashioned.
German. They welcome his overcoming of the Filioque (chapter 17, pp. And you, my God, what do you say?
2 18-22), his emphasis on pneumatology, his attempt to include experience in You say that you made me in your likeness.
theological reflection. However, they regret that he seems to be unaware of the
This book contains many quotations. They are important, at any rate more
growing scholarly literature of charismatics and Pentecostals.” Moltmann
important than my interpretation, for I intend to document the state of
defends himself against this reproach. He declares himself as a German
discussion at a decisive moment of Pentecostal/Charismatic history. These
theologian, influenced by Luther, Melanchton, Kant, Hegel, and Barth.’* For
quotations are almost without exception drawn from scholarly articles. I could
these reasons specific questions of the Pentecostals did not find an echo in his
almost entirely omit propaganda, polemics, and devotional literature. I am
opus. This is of course true. Only, it also shows the narrowness of what we call
looking for readers of the kind which I have described in the dedication:
scholarly theology. Moltmann says against the reproach of the Pentecostals,
Pentecostal/Charismatics and their opponents but also those who long for the
that he “was unfortunately never ‘the World Council of Churches’ theolo-
renewal of the Church. Where I use formulations which might hurt a reader,
gian.’”13 In spite of this he has always been very alert on the ecumenical
I ask for forgiveness in advance. My intention is not to hurt, but to challenge.
development. If such a theologian must confess his ignorance on such an
Writing a theological book on such a controversial topic can only be done in
important issue, how would his colleagues fare? This is unfortunate and will
the hope of mercy, both from God and the readers.
have to change in the future if European theology is not to become the ideology
This book is not a translation from the German. I tried to write it in
of some “Western European tribes.”
English. I am grateful to Joan Pearce, my former secretary from Birmingham,
One of the most difficult but also most promising areas of ecumenical
for helping me. Other people too have generously helped me. Professors
cooperation is prayer-prayer in public. Public prayer is very difficult because
Robeck and Spittler, both Assemblies of God ministers from Fuller Theologi-
one has to find a balance between exhibitionism on the one side and religious
trivialities on the other. The cultural and psychological differences between a cal Seminary, Pasadena, have graciously supplied me with information and
have frequently discussed the content of this book. William Faupel, Professor
Latin American and a German praying, between a Pentecostal and a Lutheran
at Asbury Theological Seminary, Wilmore, Kentucky, and one of my former
praying, are enormous. Nevertheless, I believe there are ways of praying
together, not least the Lord’s Prayer. doctoral students, has supplied me regularly with news from the Society for
For many years I have tried to formulate prayers in which religious and Pentecostal Studies. Other Pentecostal researchers have sent me articles and
books and kept me informed on important trends. Credit is given to them
non-religious people, people of the high-voltage religion of the Pentecostals
and of the low-tension religion of the main-line churches can join. I have wherever I have used their material. Finally, I want to thank the publisher for
inserted some of these in this v ~ l u m e . ’ ~ his patience and encouragement.
Krattigen, Switzerland
September 28, 1997
Seventy-five years after the death of the black founder of the
lo Robeck, in his review of Jerry L. Sandidge, Roman Catholic/Pentecostal Dia-
Charismatic/Pentecostal movement, William J. Seymour
logue in Pneuma 11/2, 1989, 135-37, quote 135. Irvin, “One Bond,” 53.
Stibbe, “Appraisal,” 5-16; Kuzmii., “War-Time Reading,” 17-24, esp. 23;
Macchia, “Response,” 25-33, esp. 33; Chan, ‘Asian,’’ 35-40; Sepulveda, “Perspec-
tive,” 41-49; Lapoorta, “African,” 51-58.
Moltmann, “Response,” 59-70, esp. 60.
l 3 Ibid., 61.
l4 Prayers on pp. 40 (earthworm), 80 (caterpillar), 180 (mosquito), 199-200
(turtle), 216217 (cow), 286-87 (singing bird), 387-88 (frog),400 (ostrich).
Saints in Birmingham 7
police cordon blocked the way. A police constable ordered everyone to leave the
area immediately because a bomb had gone off in a very crowded pub. When he
looked round, Chips could see the broken windows. He walked away but did not
know where to go. It was obviously going to be impossible to find a taxi as they were
all too busy assisting the ambulances to carry the many injured to hospital. He tried
telephoning his friend Shirley Delattre, a French nun, to explain his predicament.
He found a phone box and looked for Shirley’s number, but a big bang shook the
booth. Chips covered his ears with both hands. As he jumped outside the booth he
could see that another bomb had exploded on the other side of the street. He could
hear the cries and moans of the wounded. Half the street was littered with debris, and
Saints in Birmingham Chips could hardly believe his eyes when he saw bruised and bleeding arms and
legs lying among the scattered furniture, bricks and broken glass. He ran across
the road and helped a woman to get out of the ruins of the bombed building.
“Just like during the war, just like during the war,” he thought. “And we
The following story tries to cover all aspects of Charis- have learned nothing.” Although the woman was only slightly injured, her face
matic/Pentecostal spirituality in order to give an introduc- was gruesomely cut by the broken glass and she was covered in blood. Chips
tion to this type of religion. The main character (Mr. Chips) gave her his handkerchief. Now the police and the ambulance men who had
is of course fictional’ but the events either are documented been working at clearing the pub where the first explosion had occurred came
or have been observed by me. The “memorial service” at the running over to search for further victims. A constable said politely but firmly
end of the story was-at the time of writing-wishful think- to Chips, “Please move along. There could be another bomb in store for us.”
ing. In the meantime great progress has been made.’ The Chips looked at him. “Of course. If only I knew where to go.”
story started as a lecture at the consultation between the Somehow he found another taxi, and the driver told him that he had heard
Charismatic Movement and the World Council of Churches on local radio that over two hundred people had been wounded and twenty
at Bossey3 and has since been reprinted several times. had been killed. “It’s always these bloody Irish,” he added, and shook his head.
As Mr. Chips approached the city center the taxi driver “Just in time, just in time,” said Shirley Delattre, when Chips arrived at
pointed out the Rotunda, an elegant thirty-story building her home. “Tonight you are coming with me to an evening of spirituality at
which towered over the shopping center. The traffic came to the home of Mr. Hellberg, a well-known orthopedic surgeon.” “Wait a minute
a halt and the taxi stopped. Chips saw the blue lights of police . . . ” Chips grumbled. “No, there is no time for waiting, you can explain
cars and ambulances and heard their familiar siren. A police everything on the way.” Before Chips realized what was happening, he was in
loudspeaker announced: “This is an emergency. Will all taxi Shirley Delattre’s French “Ugly Duckling” and off they went.
drivers please come to the Rotunda. They are urgently He cleared his throat and said, “You heavenly charismatics, you don’t care
needed.” The taxi driver said, “Sorry!” and leaned back to a thing about the world. As long as you have your religious parties, nothing
open the cab door. Before Chips realized what was happening else matters. The world could go to pieces or starve to death. . . . ”
he found himself standing on the pavement in the cold. “Oh, I see,” the French nun smiled at him. “You know, my friend, when
Luckily he had just enough time to grab his suitcase. you come to the Hellberg’s you will see for yourself that now is the time to
pray and that prayer is more important than mourning and complaining.”
Bombs in Birmingham Mrs. Hellberg received them personally at the front door and introduced
He was sorry that he had never learned to curse properly. them to the other guests who had already arrived and who were sitting or
Now, he thought, he could have used a few strong words-but standing in the big living room. Shirley Delattre told Chips about Mr. Hell-
after all he was a well-educated man and a grammar school berg: He was regarded very highly for his professional skill, although he was
teacher. He started to walk towards New Street Station, but a looked on as a little bit odd. For instance it was said that he had introduced
himself at an official banquet as a carpenter. A carpenter he was, so he said,
because he repaired bones. He replaced them, put them together again just as
For the fictional person of Mr. Chips see James Hilton, Goodbye, Mr. Chips.
’See ch. 9, pp. 106-16. a cabinet maker would repair a precious antique cupboard. In their house the
3See ch. 27, pp. 377-82. For earlier publ. see Hollenweger, “Saints.” Hellbergs had an old French medicine cabinet made in Napoleon’s time. Chips
8 PENTECOSTALISM: origins and Developments Worldwide Saints in Birmingham 9
would have loved to have seen it, but he did not have the courage to ask. After Everyone joined in the chorus, “When Jesus comes . . . ” The two Irish
all, he had been invited to an “evening of spirituality.” women had unpacked their guitars and were also playing, whilst a young black
man accompanied the singing with an original ostinato bass on his trombone.
When Jesus Comes. ..
The Hippie from Athens
For the moment, however, the atmosphere did not look spiritual to him.
People were laughing and talking, and what did he see over there-the Then Mrs. Hellberg began to recite a kind of litany. It sounded very
manager of the local bank had a whiskey in his hand. Chips greeted him with Catholic to Mr. Chips’ ears, and yet it was not Catholic in the way that he
a nod of the head. Ah, yes, the Hellberg’s eldest son was pouring out drinks expected it to be. The invocation of the saints began with the “bridegroom of
for everyone. There was white wine, red wine, whiskey, beer, and orange juice. poverty, our brother Francis, follower of Jesus and friend of creation.” It
Suddenly a young woman smiled at him and said with a marked Irish accent, included Gandhi, “apostle of non-violence, reproach to the churches”; “Good
“Good evening, Mr. Chips. Don’t you recognize me?” Pope John, friend of the poor, who longed for the unity of all people”;
Chips could not place her, until it dawned on him that this was the young Athenagoras, “patriarch of love” and Simon Kimbangu, “prophet and pris-
woman who cleaned his classroom every evening. In her trousers, headscarf oner of hope”; the “peace-makers,” Dag Hammerskjold and Albert Luthuli,
and apron, she looked very different. Now for the first time he could see her Gautama Buddha, “mask of Christ” and “fountain of compassion”; John of
shining red hair and her brilliant eyes. Patmos, “visionary and apostle, resister to the World Beast”; Dante, Bunyan,
“My sister is with me,” she said, and smiled teasingly. “She has never seen a and Isaac Watts, “visionaries and poets, pilgrims of the inner light”; Mary
real live grammar school teacher. Moira, come over here!” Moira came across and Magdalene, “faithful harlot, first witness of new life”; Bach, Mozart, and
greeted Mr. Chips. “So this is what a grammar school teacher looks like,” she said. Beethoven, “who speak the soul’s language”; Darwin and Teilhard de Chardin,
Embarrassed, Chips laughed uncomfortably and thought, “And this is what a real “students of the earth, voyagers in the past and in the future”; Einstein, Marx,
Irish revolutionary bride looks like.” But, being an Englishman, he hid his thoughts. and Freud, “children of the synagogue”; Menno Simmons and George Fox,
Instead he said, “Nice to meet you. What are you actually doing here?” “explorers of the gospel, generals in the warfare of the Lamb,” and many
“For the past year we have come regularly to these prayer meetings,” she others whom Chips did not know. Also included were the innocent victims of
replied. “When we first came to England, we were lost. The weather and the Coventry, Dresden, and Hiroshima and the more recent ones in Londonderry,
people seemed so cold. The manager of the bank over there-I clean his bank Belfast, and Birmingham. (“So, had they heard of the bombs?” Chips asked
every Friday-invited us here. He is an Anglican, but I am a Catholic. I wanted himself.) Socrates was called “the hippie of Athens,” much to the astonishment
to ask our priest if we should go, then he decided to come with us and was of Mr. Chips who was after all an educated man.S
astonished to find out that the hosts, the Hellbergs, are Catholics too. English Mrs. Hellberg continued, remembering the “unwed mother, blessed
Catholics of course. And what’s more, we found quite a number of sisters and Mary, wellspring of our liberation.” The litany culminated in the praise of
monks from different orders here as well. I like it here.” “our hero and leader, Jesus the manual laborer, root of our dignity, the prophet
Nobody seemed to have heard about the bombs in the city center. Every- who resisted the Establishment, the Liberator, the king because first a servant,
body was happy-Irish and English, Catholics and Protestants. the poet who gave us a new language, Jesus, the Son of God, bright corner-
Mrs. Hellberg lifted her guitar down from the wall and began to sing some stone of our unity in a new Spirit.”
short simple songs which Mr. Chips had never heard before. “Spirit of the Chips was profoundly astonished by this intercultural theology. The
living God” was one; another was the story of a man- prayer meeting went on. Without embarrassment they prayed for personal
matters, for sickness, children, their work, the school (here Chips sighed
Who sat alone beside the highway begging.
His eyes were blind, the light he could not see.
slightly), the churches, their boys in the British Army and their boys in the
He clutched his rags and shivered in the shadows. Irish Republican Army. Again and again they prayed for the Holy Spirit.
Then Jesus came and bade his darkness flee. “Come, Holy Spirit!” they sang.
When Jesus comes the tempter’s power is broken, A man, whom Chips did not know, prayed in tongues. Chips turned his
When Jesus comes the tears are wiped away. head in order to hear better, but he could not understand a word. After the
He takes the gloom and fills the life with glory message in tongues-silence. One of the Irish girls interpreted. “How could
For all is changed when Jesus comes to stay.4 she?” Chips asked himself. Her English was simple and almost without fault,
‘Oswald J. Smith, “Then Jesus Came,” 35. ’This liturgy in Brown-York, Covenant. Discussion in ITh 1, 96ff.
10 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
have prayed too. But Peter’s leg is not right. And why was it injured in the first
something which Chips noticed with satisfaction. At least these prayer meet- place? Peter is not a politician, just a schoolboy. Why should he have been
ings were good for the culture of the English language. wounded? Now he will never be able to walk normally. Who has done a shoddy
Chips kept his eyes open. Something tickled his nose. The Catholic priest job here, Jesus or I, or both?”
sitting on the floor next to him was slowly smoking his pipe. “Well,” thought Chips felt very uncomfortable. He had never expected to hear the famous
Chips, “is this a party or a prayer meeting?” doctor talk like this. Mrs. Hellberg came in and joined them at the table in silence,
for there was nothing to say. Embarrassed, Chips put his hand into his pocket
Party or Prayer Meeting? and pulled out a tract which somebody had given him that evening. He read:
Mrs. Hellberg began to lead the small community in a chorus and then If you will turn your faith loose tonight you can take heaven home with you.
asked: “Does anyone want to read a Bible passage or ask a question?” If there is going to be any healing for that body in that heaven, there is healing
Chips would have liked to put his question, “Party or Prayer Meeting?” down here now.’
but now a woman, a late-comer he had so far not observed, stood up. She tried
to talk but she couldn’t because her words were smothered by waves of violent Such nonsense, Chips thought, and he decided to put the tract back in his
weeping. Chips was very embarrassed but he was obviously the only one who pocket.
was. At last the woman began to speak. Then he realized that the doctor was still looking at him and waiting for
“I have just lost my brother and my husband,” she said. “Blown to pieces an answer. “I cannot answer your question,” Chips said abruptly. “But one
by an Irish bomb.” Silence. “I am a Protestant and I would like to ask a Catholic thing I can tell you. What you have said to me tonight is more important for
and a Protestant to pray together with me so that the bitterness in my heart me than the whole evening of spirituality. I too have my difficulties, but that
does not take root. Please help me to believe in God and to love his children.” a famous doctor like you has his doubts, that has been a visitation of the Holy
She sank to her knees and broke down. Spirit for me.”
T h e Catholic priest came forward. “Which of the Protestants is going to On his way home Mr. Chips sang quietly to himself, “When Jesus comes
pray with me?” he asked. Shirley Delattre nudged Chips, but he did not want the tempter’s power is broken.” But he was slightly irritated by the song. Was
to be part of this public group-therapy scene. “No,” he whispered. Fortu- it not a little bit too simple?
nately Mr. Thoroughgood, a teacher whom he knew by name, volunteered.
What they prayed, Chips immediately forgot, because he just could not The Memorial Service
understand how on earth a Catholic and a Protestant could pray together in The following Sunday a great remembrance and memorial service was
this situation for peace and reconciliation.6 held in the Cathedral under the auspices of the Birmingham Council of
They must be suffering from a mild form of religious madness, he told Churches. In order not to offend either the Protestants or the Catholics, it was
himself. Then they all sang the Lord’s Prayer together and most of the guests decided that John Adegoke, a leader of a black Christian church, should
left for home. preside. At least half the nave was filled with black people who had come to
Chips wanted to leave and to say good-night to Mr. Hellberg, but he could mourn and pray with the white congregation.
not find him. Mrs. Hellberg explained that her husband had been called out A long procession filed into the church: first a large black choir, followed
to a patient during the meeting, but that he was now in the kitchen drinking by the choir and the canons of the Cathedral; then the Chancellor of the
coffee. Chips knocked at the door and went in. Mr. Hellberg was sitting at the University; behind him the Catholic Archbishop and the Anglican Bishop;
kitchen table, his head buried in his hands. The coffee in his cup was cold. following them the chief shop stewards at British Leyland and the Conserva-
Chips would have liked to make his excuses and leave, but the doctor said, tive Mayor of the city; and finally John Adegoke, Senior Apostle of the
“Come in. Come and sit down. My coffee is cold. Let’s make a fresh pot.” Cherubim and Seraphim Society.
Chips said nothing and sat down. A young Negro opened the service with a song. He sang accompanied by
“Something is very wrong with little Peter,” the doctor continued, speak- a battery of drums and the cathedral organ.
ing his thoughts aloud. “Something is very wrong and I have failed. True “When the Holy Ghost fills you
‘when Jesus comes the tempter’s power is broken.’ I have done my job and I you can smile
When you feel like the baptist . . . ”
6~ the significance of the charismatic movement for the conflict in Ireland, see
McCarthy, “Charismatic Renewal.” Idem, Significance; Kerr, Power to Love. Flynn,
Irish Esperience. ’From a tract of the ‘Apostolic Faith” (Portland, Oregon).
12 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Saints in Birmingham 13
and here he interrupted his singing and commented: “You know, brothers and “What, brothers and sisters, shall we lay down?” asked one of the singers.
sisters, John the Baptist, the one who had to eat locusts and wild honey. When And in full harmony the choir and congregation replied, “I’m going to lay
you feel like the Baptist . . . ” And most of the congregation-although not down my heavy load.”
the two bishops-joined him: “YOU can smile.” An elderly Negro woman sang the next stanza. She did not only sing with
her mouth, which she could open unbelievably wide. Everything about her
‘‘When your heart is full of mourning sang-the well-upholstered hips, the thick legs, the strong arms. Even the
you can smile.” large, swaying breasts sang the rhythm of the hymn:
The black choir, dressed in long bright gowns took up the theme. “You “I know my robe’s going to fit me well.
can smile.” The drummers took up the rhythm, first very softly: “You can, I’ve tried it on at the gates of hell.”
you can, yes, you can smile.” The choir joined in with full harmony and strong
syncopation. And the drummers made their sticks dance on their drums. “You And again the congregation joined in: “I’m going to lay down my heavy
can smile.” load.”
The soloist sang the next stanza: Chips couldn’t help but think of the civil war which was tearing his
country apart, a war between Catholics and Protestants, between Irish and
“When they throw bombs at you” English, between the left and the right. Unbidden a prayer rose in him: “Thy
And here he was not able to sing “You can smile.” Only the drummer beat Kingdom Come.”
out the rhythm and the congregation remained silent. When the hymn ended, John Adegoke greeted the few German Lutherans
who were also among the congregation. “You know, Martin Luther, the great
“When they stare at you because you are black hero of faith, is their church father,” he explained, for he had learned some-
you can smile.” thing about Luther in the Theology Course which the University of Birming-
“Hallelujah, you can smile.” The choir began to move and, with short, ham had started for black church leaders. To Chips’ great astonishment, the
rhythmical steps, they danced up the aisle into the church nave. Many in the congregation-first the black and then the white-broke out into the hymn:
congregation stood up and shouted and sang repeatedly, “We shall overcome. . . ”
Chips wondered whether they were not confusing Martin Luther with
“Yes, Lord, you can smile.” Martin Luther King. Perhaps the two were one and the same person to them.
“When the National Front throws stones at you It seems that the dimension of time does not exist for the black Christians.
you can smile.
Nearness to them is neither temporal nor spatial. That which moves them is
When the Black Power people call you a coward
you can smile.”
near.
“Yes, good people,” the Catholic Archbishop took up the theme, “we shall
John Adegoke stood up. “In the name of the Father, and of the Son, wonder, wonder and marvel, when we overcome, when we all triumph over
and of the Holy Spirit.” T h e choirs and the congregation responded, our own egoism, when all the saints are marching into the city of golden streets
“Amen.” . . . ” He had hardly finished when the trombone began to play-it was the
“Here in the cathedral of Birmingham we all meet as brothers and sisters, same trombonist whom Chips had seen at the Hellbergs. The trombone
members of the body of Christ. We greet the Anglican Bishop, the Roman played: “Oh, when the Saints . . . ” The music now came from all sides in any
Catholic Archbishop. We greet Catholic and Protestant Christians.” number of variations. “Oh, when the saints, oh, when the saints, oh, when the
“And now with angels and archangels and all the glorious company of saints come marching in.” And the choir and some members of the congrega-
heaven, the saints of the past from Europe and Africa, including those saints tion stood up and danced and marched through the church.
who died this week, we laud and magnify thee.” Then the Catholic Archbishop said aloud, “Amen” and everything was
“Amen,” sang the choirs again. quiet again.
“Let them rest in peace,” said the Senior Apostle. “Friends,” it was now the turn of the Anglican Bishop to preach.
The black choir sang another hymn. It was one of those famous spirituals “Friends,” he said, “when the saints march into the new Jerusalem, do you
about the final liberation of all people. Superficially it was a hymn about think there will be Catholic saints, Lutheran saints, Anglican saints, Pentecos-
heaven. “I’m going to lay down my heavy load.” Chips knew the spiritual well. tal saints?”
It came from Michael Tippett’s oratorio “A Child of Our Time.” His wife had “No, no,” the black Christians shouted and the white Christians looked
sung it to him many times. around. T h e Anglican Bishop was very surprised-bishops are always
“And now that our country is in ruins
surprised when the people of God answer their rhetorical questions- but he our youngsters laugh at us
continued. “Will there be black saints and white saints, Irish saints and English our neighbors shake their heads
saints?” We come humbly to thee, 0 Lord, and beseech thee,
And the congregation shouted again “No, no,” and this time a number of to help us to become human,
the English and Irish joined in. human in our industrial negotiations,
“NO,” the preacher continued. “No, there will only be saints. Saints who human in our political tactics.”
have dedicated their lives to Christ. But some of us will marvel. In heaven we “Lord have mercy.”
will marvel even more than down here. You see, in heaven it will become clear,
very clear indeed, what we worship, Whether we worship Jesus, the manual After a long silence, the Chancellor of the University made the final
worker, Jesus our savior, or whether we worship our own fears and our own announcements. He said, “Let me ask you a question which puzzles me.
prejudices. Yes, it will become clear whether we worship our own race, our Although I am a Christian, I do not understand why it is that we can mourn
money, our church, our culture, and our tradition, or whether we worship together but not act together. Why is it that we can sing together but not
Jesus. I wouldn’t be a bit surprised if, on the Day of Judgment, all white people celebrate the Eucharist together? Will you promise me that you will think
stand confronted by a black Jesus . . . ” T h e preacher paused. There was dead about this? It is a simple question of a layman.”
silence in the church. With this “benediction” the congregation was dismissed and Chips re-
T h e Bishop continued. “Yes, I wouldn’t be surprised in the least if all flected: A simple question of a layman, certainly, but the most important
white people stand confronted by a black Jesus, and all black people by a white question.
Jesus. Amen.” That was the beginning of a thorough process of re-thinking by the
John Adegoke thanked the two preachers and added, “I wouldn’t be a bit Christians in Birmingham. They pooled their spiritual and intellectual re-
surprised if, on the last Judgment Day, all Irish stand confronted by an English sources-and occasionally even their financial resources-and demonstrated
Jesus, and all English by an Irish Jesus. Let us pray.” that Christians are different.
T h e prayer was a silent prayer. Nobody said a word. Only a few sighs were
to be heard and some weeping. After the prayer the Cathedral choir sang one
of its beautiful traditional hymns.
“Let us confess our sins,” said John Adegoke. The Mayor, the chief shop
steward from British Leyland and a black lady came forward. They prayed in
turn, and in the intervals the choir sang “Lord have mercy.”
“We first sought to win elections
and not the good of the people.”
“Lord have mercy”
“We first sought to coerce people into trade unions
and did not seek the good of the people”
“We thought that first and foremost our people want money
and we did not realize that what they wanted was honesty.”
“We behaved like the churches.
We believed that we, the vicars of the Unions,
we believed that we, the pundits of the parties,
knew best what was good for the people.”
The Beginnings 19
between body and mind, the most striking applications of this insight
being the ministry of healing by prayer and liturgical dance.
3 THREE In Europe and North America, Pentecostalism is fast developing into an
evangelical middle class religion. Many of the elements that were vital for its
rise and expansion into the third world are disappearing. They are being
replaced by eficient fund-raising structures, a streamlined ecclesiastical bu-
reaucracy, and a Pentecostal conceptual theology. In Europe and North Amer-
ica this theology follows the evangelical traditions, to which is added the belief
in the baptism of the Spirit, usually but not always characterized by the “initial
The Beginnings sign” of speaking in tongues.
Things were different, however, at the beginning, during the Azusa
Street’ revival in Los Angeles under the black leader William Joseph Seymour.
His story was told for the first time by Douglas Nelson.* James Cone is right
A Black Church Founder: when he states: “The histories are going to have to be rewritten after reading
William Joseph Seymour (1870-1922) Nel~on.”~
Who was William Joseph Seymour? He was born the son of former slaves
Two worldwide Christian movements were founded by
from Centerville, Louisiana. H e taught himself to read and write and was for
non-Europeans. One is the global Pentecostal Movement,
a time a student in Charles Fox Parham’s Bible School in Topeka, Kansas.
the other is Christianity. T h e former’s founder was a black
Parham (1873-1929), often described as a pioneer of Pentecostalism, was also
ecumenist from the United States, the latter’s a story-telling
a sympathizer of the Ku Klux Klan-he therefore excluded Seymour from his
Rabbi who belonged to the oral culture of the Middle East.
Both movements owe their initial growth to the oral Bible classes. Seymour was allowed only to listen outside the classroom
structures of their origins. The reason for Pentecostalism’s through the half-open door. Nevertheless, Seymour accepted Parham’s doc-
breathtaking growth does not lie in a particular Pentecostal trine of the baptism of the Spirit and began to teach it in a Holiness church in
doctrine. Doctrinally, Pentecostalism is not a consistent whole, Los Angeles.
still less if one subsumes under Pentecostalism the non-
white indigenous churches and the Charismatic Movement. ‘This chapter is kept short because Cecil M. Robeck is preparing a meticulous
There are trinitarian and non-trinitarian, infant and adult history of the Azusa Street revival, in which he will use a detailed file containing the
names of all documented visitors and/or members of the Azusa Street meetings, along
baptizing Pentecostals, and many other variations. There are with a documented history of every meeting in spring and summer 1906, thus giving
even Pentecostal denominations which accepted state subsi- a minute reconstruction of the revival’s religious and sociological development: Cecil
dies (e.g., Norway, certain Eastern European countries under M. Robeck, The Azusa Street Revival (in preparation). A foretaste is Robeck, “Azusa,”
the communist regimes and certain African countries). The 31-36 (with a list of international visitors to Azusa) and in Robeck “Origins,” 166-80
reason for this growth lies in its black root which can be (contra Robeck: Goff, “History,” 186-91. Lapoorta, “South Africa,” 25-33. Horn,
“Experience,” 117-40. Lovett, “Black Origins.” Faupel, “Durham,” 85-96. DuPree,
described like this Biographical, reviewed by David D. Daniels, Pneuma, 13 (1, 1991), 86-88.
’Sources: Nelson, For Such a Time as This. For a thorough review of this
orality of liturgy; important dissertation including its weaknesses see van der Laan, C., EPTA Bulletin
narrativity of theology and witness; 411, 1985, 13-16. Older literature in The Pentecostals, 22-24. See also MacRobert,
maximum participation at the levels of reflection, “Black Roots,” 73-84; idem, Racism; idem, Black Pentecostalism; Hollenweger, “Bon-
prayer and decision-making and therefore a form of hoeffer,” 192-201; Synan, “Seymour,” 778-81; Tinney, “Seymour,” 33-34; idem,
community that is reconciliatory; “Blackness,” 27-36; Robeck, “Seymour,” 72-95; idem, “Taking Stock,” 35-60, in
Particular, 11-14; Brooks, Azusa Street Revival. Nelson-Gerloff, “Seymour,’’ 908-9;
inclusion of dreams and visions in personal and pub- Irvin, “One Bond,” 25-53. Important are the first issues of Seymour’sApostolic Fairh
lic forms of worship; these function as a kind of icon (LOSAngeles, 1906-8), reprinted in Corum, Like as o f Fire; idem, God’s Glorious
for the individual and the community; outpouring (two documentary videos available from CTL Productions, P.O. Box 1428,
an understanding of the body/mind relationship Whittier, CA 90609). Van der Laan, C., “Portret,” 7-11.
that is informed by experiences of correspondence Quoted by Clemmons, “True Koinonia,” 46-56, quote 52.
20 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide The Beginnings 21
main thesis as follows: “It is Parham alone who formulated the distinguishing
Seymour and his black brothers and sisters suffered bitterly. During
ideological formula of tongues as initial evidence for Holy Spirit baptism.
Seymour’s adult lifetime 3436 black persons were known to have been lynched,
That discovery, in effect, created the Pentecostal movement.”8
averaging two a week. Innumerable brutalities took place around him, many
Goff describes in detail how Parham developed the “initial evidence”
of them instigated by Christians. In spite of constant humiliation, he devel-
doctrine. In fact, all authentic glossolalia was for Parham xenolalia (that is the
oped a spirituality that in 1906 led to a revival in Los Angeles which most
ability to speak an identifiable human language without ever having learned
Pentecostal historians believe to be the cradle of Pentecostalism. T h e roots of
it); and xenolalia was to become for him both the “seal” of a missionary’s call
Seymour’s spirituality lay in his past. He affirmed his black heritage by
to a particular mission field and the divine enabling gift to carry out this call.
introducing Negro spirituals and Negro music into his liturgy at a time when
Goff shows convincingly, in other words, that glossolalia did not “fall from
this music was considered inferior and unfit for Christian worship. At the same
heaven” (as it is often described in Pentecostal books). “There can be little
time he steadfastly lived out his understanding of Pentecost. For him Pente-
doubt that Parham was consciously motivating his students toward this mis-
cost meant more than speaking in tongues. It meant loving in the face of
sion tongues c ~ n c e p t . ” ~
hate-overcoming the hatred of a whole nation by demonstrating that Pente-
Goff illuminates further details of Parham’s life which have not been
cost is something very different from the success-oriented American way of
taken seriously enough in the past; for example, Parham’s strict and life-long
life.
opposition to medicine and vaccination,” his pacifism during World War I,
In the Los Angeles revival white bishops and black workers, men and
his sympathy for socialism, and his doctrine of “conditional immortality” (i.e.,
women, Asians and Mexicans, white professors and black laundry women were
the “destruction of the wicked”).”
equals (this in 1906!).No wonder the religious and secular press reported the
On the homosexuality charge, Goff comes to the conclusion that “in the
exttaordinary events in detail. As they could not understand the revolutionary final analysis the Parham scandal remains a mystery.”12Too many questions
nature of this Pentecostal spirituality, they took refuge in ridicule, scoffing: remain open. Where did the rumors come from? Voliva of Zion City was of
“What good can come from a self-appointed Negro prophet?” course highly motivated to destroy Parham-he was his arch-rival. But he
The mainline churches also criticized the emerging Pentecostal move-
could not have invented the charges, although he “produced” evidence which
ment, despising the Pentecostals because of their lowly black origin^.^ Social nobody else could confirm. Why was Parham arrested and then the charges
pressure soon prompted the emerging Pentecostal church bureaucracy to tame dropped, and why can court records not be found? It seems to me that, until
the Los Angeles revival’ by segregating Pentecostal churches into black and further evidence is presented, Parham should be considered as having been
white organizations just as most of the other churches had done. This segre- “not guilty as charged.” Furthermore, the Parham story (and other similar
gation, however, did not hinder the Pentecostal denominations from develop- stories) might sometime stimulate Pentecostals to theologically re-examine
ing on a worldwide scale. Today, Pentecostalism is strongest in those countries their approach to homosexuality, especially in the light of newer theological
of the Third World where an oral mode of communication is almost the only and medical evidence.
way to spread the Gospel. In the light of later racial separation in Pentecostalism, Parham’s racial
ideology and praxis are important. He propagated Anglo-Israel theories and
Parham or Seymour? Zionism. I quote verbatim from Parham: “The Old Testament distinction of
Most Pentecostal historians mention Parham6 and Seymour as co-foun- the peoples of the earth remain almost the same today. The Hebrews, Jews,
ders of the movement. Who was Charles Fox Parham? The most thorough and the various descendants of the ten tribes-The Anglo-Saxons, High
answer is given us in a well-documented biography by James R. G ~ f fGoff
.~ Germans, Danes (Dan), Swedes, Hindoos, Japanese and the Hindoo-Japanese
makes clear-and it has not been disputed by knowledgeable researchers-that of Hawaii, and these possess all the spiritual power of the world. T h e
Parham “invented” the doctrine of “initial evidence.” Goff thus states his
‘Goff, Fields, 164.
4L‘Theamazing argument that Pentecostalism should be repudiated on the basis
’Goff, Fields, 75.
lo “The devil tried to make us believe that we could be a physician and a Christian
of the Los Angeles connection was probably an allusion to the black origins” (Van der
too,” Parham, Charles E, fiice, 18-19; Goff, Fields, 28. Parham, Charles E, Voice,
Laan, C., “Proceedings,” 36-41, quote 39).
’Detailed and documented reported by Gerloff, Plea, 67ff. (reviewed by Peter
46f; Goff, Fields, 41. Apostolic Faith (Topeka) 1 (13.9.1899), 7; Goff, Fields, 43. Kansas
Hocken in Pneuma 15/1, 1993, 117-19). c i t y Times (1901); Goff, Fields, 83.
6 0 n e of the first to “re-evaluate” Parham was Kendrick, Promise Fulfilled, 52ff. “Apostolic Faith (Baxter), Special ed. (25.12.1910), 5 and 2 (2.8.1962), 2; Goff,
Fields, 153.
7 G ~ f fFields
, (reviewed by Augustus Cerillo, Jr., in Pneuma 15/1. 1993,7748).
See also Goff, “Parham,” 660-61. ’* Goff, Fields, 141.
The Beginnings 23
Gentiles-French, Spanish, Italian, Greek, Russian, and Turkish. These are Parham’s pacifism, his doctrine on the “destruction of the wicked,” his
formalistic, and so are their descendants in all parts of the world. Heathen are animosity to medicine, his Anglo-Israel theories, his sympathy with the Ku
mostly heathen still-the Negro, Malay, Mongolian and 1ndian.”l3 Klux Man-all this has been contradicted by Pentecostalism. What is more,
Parham’s hierarchy of races, with the Anglo-Saxons on top as master-race, American Pentecostalism is not the only kind of Pentecostalism. Take away
fits well with the attitudes current in the southern US of his time. In fact some Seymour’s understanding of Pentecost and all the statistical hallelujahs of
Christian leaders were much more racist than he (e.g. Carother), but others Pentecostalism are silenced, because there is hardly a Pentecostal movement
rejected all racist theories and attitudes (e.g. J. A. Dowie and parts of the in the world that is not built on Seymour’s oral black modes of communica-
Holiness Movement). tion. Furthermore, Pentecostalism has not yet come to its maturity. It could
For Parham, to allow W. J. Seymour to follow his Bible studies in an very well be that it offers the key to overcoming racism in the world today, as
adjoining room through the half-open door was already a great concession. some of the more enlightened Pentecostals are now discovering that Pentecost
Goff calls this a “benign paternalistic” approach. However, when Seymour no is more than Parham’s narrow ideology.
longer accepted Parham’s authority without question, the benign paternalism It seems that by now the Assemblies of God have cast their lot with
turned into hostility. Parham said that Seymour was “possessed with a spirit Seymour as founder of the movement. They write: “The Azusa Street revival
of leadership.” Now the black Pqntecostals were “spook-driven” and “hypno- witnessed the breakdown of barriers which normally divide people from one
tized.”14 “The paternalistic racism which he had practiced prior to Azusa another: race, class, gender, wealth, language, education, church affiliation and
Street gave way to a harsher, more blatant r a ~ i s m . ” ’ ~ culture . . . The mission had an integrated leadership and congregation-and
Finally, Goff’s claim that Parham and Parham alone is the founder of although it was decades before the civil rights movement, had an amazing lack
Pentecostalism-because he formulated the doctrine of the “initial evidence” of discrimination. This did not please all who observed-including Charles
for the first time-must be examined. Parham, the spiritual father of William J. Seymour. Racially prejudiced him-
I do not want to disagree with Goff on facts (although I suppose there are
self, Parham came to Azusa Street and denounced the mingling of races and
others who would make the same claim of primacy for Tomlinson).16 His thereafter his ministry declined. God will not bless such hostility toward
conclusions, however, are another matter. Goff dismisses W. J. Seymour as the
anyone for whom Christ died.””
pioneer of Pentecostalism because his ecumenical, race- and class-transcend- In the final analysis the choice between Parham and Seymour is not an
ing understanding of Pentecost was by and large unsuccessful in the United historical but a theological one. Where does one see the decisive contribution
States. Therefore the only candidate left is the racist Charles E Parham. With of Pentecost: in the religious experience of speaking in tongues as seen by
this kind of argumentation one can of course prove that Jesus Christ is not the Parham, or in the reconciling Pentecostal experience of Pentecost as seen by
founder of Christianity, because the Christian church very soon gave up
Seymour (which of course includes glossolalia and gives it an important role)?
important aspects of Christ’s example and teaching. More ironically, however, In my opinion Goff made the wrong theological decision. But that hardly
if one applies Goff’s criteria to Parham himself, he too fails badly. His under- diminishes the importance of his book. By giving all the details of Parham’s
standing of glossolalia as missionary xenolalia did not survive much longer
life fairly and squarely, he makes it possible for the critical reader to come to a
than Seymour’s interracial understanding of Pentecost. Even the “initial sign”
conclusion which is diametrically the opposite of his own.
is now questioned. Russell Spittler, an American Assemblies of God pastor, Finally, Azusa fits in with a much larger and older Christian tradition,
New Testament scholar and director of the David Du Plessis Center at Fuller namely that of a congregation where everybody is a potential contributor to
Theological Seminary, says: “Glossolalia is a human phenomenon, not limited the liturgy. This can be demonstrated in the arrangement of the benches in
to Christianity nor even to religious behavior. . . The belief that distinguishes Azusa: all seats are on the same level; there is no elevated front-platform
the movement can only wrongly be thought of as describing the essence of
(where everything happens). See the following comparison between the Azusa
Pentecostalism .’”’
Street Church and a rural Kimbanguist church (chapter 6, p. 24).
Other churches emerging in the midst of persecution are the Waldensian
l 3 Topeka StateJoburnal9.1.1901, 6; see also 6.1.1901, 2 and 21.1.1901, 7; Goff,
Fields, 102.
churches in the Piemont and the Camisards in the Cevennes (France) (chapter
I4Parham, Sarah E., L$e, 163; Goff, Fields, 130. 25, P. 338). Both have architectural arrangements very similar to that of Azusa
Goff, Fields, 132.
16E.g., Conn, Like a Mighty Army. But Harold Hunter (like Conn, from the “Being the People God Called,” PE, 29.9.1991, 3-7, 20-21 (quote 6). This is
Church of God [Cleveland]) dismisses the claim: Hunter, “Spirit-Baptism,” 1-17. an official report of the “Spiritual Life” committee of the Assemblies of God. See
Spittler, “Glossolalia,” 340. See ch. 17, p. 222. also Robeck, “Social Concern,” 97-106.
Street. T h e oral participatory style was not restricted to Pentecostals or to

blacks, but can be observed in many other churches of the persecution.
....................
Rural Kimbanguist Church
.....
......
. ..
A Kite Flies Against the Wind:
U .................... Black Power and Black
S = Seymour who acts as enabler
and leader but not as the only or
A rural Kimbanguist “church” consists of
sticks which mark the “sanctuary” as long
as the saints gather for worship. This is
Pentecostalism in the USA’
even as the most important “performer.”
the church of a pilgrim congregation in the
times of persecution. After the service
the sticks are taken out. For each service
the “church” is rebuilt. In the middle there
is an area for the leader who acts very T h e United States “must choose between democracy and
much like Seymour. No benches!
repression, between the republic and a police state; for America
cannot keep down thirty million people who are moving up,
without destroying the entire nation in the process.”* This
was not written by a critical leftist theologian, but by
A Black Pentecostal Evangelist: Arthur Brazier3

In an exact and detailed report, written in the late 1960s,
he describes one of the slum quarters of Chicago, the so-called
Woodlawn. This is not an idyllic park lawn but a slum area,
where 60,000 black people vegetate on two square miles, in
‘This chapter started as a chapter in my Pentecost Between Black and White. It

appears here in a revised, updated, and annotated version. Documents, literature and
sources on Black Pentecostals in Hollenweger, Black Pentecostal Concept. Cf. too,
The Pentecostals, 22-24, 469f. Lovett, “Black Holiness-Pentecostals,” 76-84. idem,
“Black Theology,” 84-86. idem, “Black Origins,” (Lovett’s pioneering works are a
mine of seminal thinking and information). Jones, C.E.., Black Holiness (bibliography).
’Brazier, Black Self-Determination, 5 .
3Cf. Brazier’s “Origin,” 3, as well as his official request to the executive board
of his church (Pentecostal Assemblies of the World; lit., documents, sources,
Handbuch 02a.02.139; Hollenweger, Black Pentecostal Concept 59-67; Reed, “Assemblies,”
700-701) for “guidance in regard to taking part in demonstrations presently being
conducted in Albany, Georgia. He read a telegram from the Reverend Abernathy and
Reverend Martin Luther King asking either the support of our Bishops or his [Elder
Brazier’s] presence in the demonstrations. After due deliberation and counsel, we
recommend that Elder Brazier be left to the discretion of his own conscience.” (1963
Minute Book of the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, n.p., 1963, 63; Hollenweger,
Black Pentecostal Concept, 67.)
26 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A Kite Flies Against the Wind 27
indescribable conditions of hygiene; where garbage is either not, or only partly, Similar programs are invented for improving the miserable schools, which
collected; where rats and vermin reign; and where the children learn so little in are under white direction. In order to put an end to looting and shoot-
their over-crowded classes that on leaving school they only swell the army of ing-against which the police are almost powerless-two youth organizations
unemployed and drug-addicts. (“Rangers” and “Disciples”) have been trained and are used to maintain order.
Brazier protests against this state of affairs. He wants to destroy the myth Theologically these different activities are seen within the framework of
of the intellectual and moral supremacy of the whites. America, he says, was a Pauline doctrine of charisms. In addition to the charisms which are known
built on the backs of the blacks. The blacks planted the cotton; but they walked in the history of Pentecostalism, such as speaking in tongues, prophecy,
around in rags. The blacks built the railways; but they were not allowed to ride religious dancing, and praying for the sick, they practice the gifts of demon-
on them. A black doctor discovered blood plasma; but he died because nobody strating, organizing, and publicizing. These are considered as another kind of
was ready to give him a blood tran~fusion.~ prophecy. I have known black Pentecostal churches in which these activities
This situation cannot be changed by the violence of arms; only by the were explicitly mentioned in a list of gifts of the Spirit.’ These gifts do not
violence of non-violence. We black people, he writes, are also for law and order; usurp the place of others, as in the many political church groups in Europe
but not for that law which the white wants to force upon us, which brands as where political analysis replaces prayer and song (not to speak of dancing and
criminals the demonstrators who publicize this appalling injustice, while those speaking in tongues). Instead, they become part of a new unity between prayer
responsible are left in peace. We do not understand as law the practice of the and politics, social action and song.
police by which a suspect can be shot down as a criminal-making the
policeman judge, juror, and hangman in one person. Certainly, Brazier con- The Black Pentecostals Awake
cedes, the majority of the police do not misuse their power. But there are too
In this battle against injustice, the church is ahead of the world-this is
many who do.
how Brazier summarizes his book. Yet Brazier’s example is not unique. During
How does the “violence of non-violence” which Brazier advocates work
a research tour in 1970 of the most important black Pentecostal churches in
in practice? Brazier’s program is one of self-determination for the people of
the USA (whose adherents number in the millions6), I discovered similar
Woodlawn, carried out through the Woodlawn Organization. This organiza-
programs. Dietrich Bonhoeffer’ has already drawn attention to these black
tion is at first subsidized by white churches, but it is organized and directed
American “step-children of church history.” Yet their oral theology (handed
by the blacks of the slum area. Its founding principle is that it is up to the
down just as the New Testament was handed down [according to form
blacks themselves to do something about the up-grading of their houses.
criticism] before it attained written form), their missionary work in the West
Otherwise they will never learn to organize, to think and to cooperate. Under
Indies, their elementary social and political reflection-all of these are still
the direction of Brazier and other black Pentecostals, Woodlawn Organization
ignored, and even misunderstood as evidences of a form of the faith growing
sets up control-stations where those who feel that they have been cheated in
towards fully-fledged European literary Christianity, both by white Pente-
the shops can check the prices, quality, and weight of the goods they have
costals and by the main-line churches. There are important exceptions to this
bought. Offending shop-keepers are taken to task and in the case of repeat
oversight and misinterpretation, however, not so much in the standard works
offenders, their names are published. House owners who make their money in
on social ethics, or in the histories of theological thought, but in certain other
Woodlawn by overcharging on rents, but who themselves live in the villas of
works. Take for example the thoughtful study of worship by the Roman
the suburbs, are informed of the miserable state of the houses they rent Catholic liturgiologist Lothar Zenetti, who has dedicated his book Hot Melodies’
o u t - o f the plague of rats and woodworm. But that hardly helps. So then the to a black Pentecostal church (Temple Church of God in Christ), in whose midst
press and television are invited in to photograph the defunct toilets, the houses he experienced the power of the living Holy Spirit and the “new song”; or the
where heating systems have ceased to function, the houses where plaster is travel report by the late Ernst Benz, professor at the University of Marburg,
falling down, where doors and windows are cracked and roofs leak. This is
uncomfortable for the owners, but seldom alters their ways. Generally Wood-
’The House of the Lord (Hollenweger, Black Pentecostal Concept, 57ff).
lawn has to go a step further-to organize a rent strike, in which the rents are 6At least 1.5 million, at the most 5 million, depending whether or not one is
paid to an account of Woodlawn Organization instead of to the banks of the prepared to accept the statistics of the Church of God in Christ (3.7 million;
owners. If the lazy house owners then go to court, all their misbehavior is 02a.02.075; Black Pentecostal Concebt.
- . 27) and those of the House of Praver for All
I
exposed. People (Handbuch, 02a.02.097; Black Pentecostal Concept, 43ff). Barrett gives 3.4
million (“Statistics.” 817).
’Bonhoeffer, “Bericht,” I, 97.
4Brazier, Black Self-Determination, 12. *Zenetti, Heisse, 7.
a
28 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A Kite Flies Against the Wind
29
who, in his book The Holy Ghost in America’ describes his first encounter with Pentecostals in a very personal way, but has SO far not destroyed their hope in
black Pentecostals as a “surprising discovery of something absolutely new”; or the power of non-violence.
the masterly Religious History of the American People by S . E. Ahlstrom,” That hope, in turn, means that black Pentecostals cannot agree with a
which gives some recognition to black Pentecostalism; or finally, works by my purely “spiritual” evangelism. In an interview regarding Billy Graham, the
doctoral researchers Roswith Gerloff” and Ian MacRobert.I2 black Pentecostal evangelist George M. Perry said: “We believe in the content
An increasing awareness of the values inherent in black culture can be of the Graham message, but we can’t go along with its suburban, middle class,
observed among the black Pentec~stals.’~ One of their churches, the Church white orientation that has nothing to say to the poor nor to the black people.”
of the Living has expressed this awareness in an interesting exegesis of In short, the mass evangelism practiced by the Reverend Billy Graham and
the Bible-claiming that most of the Bible saints, including Jesus, belong to other preachers-Perry concluded-never had and never will have any rele-
the black race. As Jesus is descended from David and Abraham (both belong- vance to the black community.18
ing to the black race), Jesus himself belongs to the black race. At the same time, “A theology developing out of any oppressive situation such as the black
however, Jesus did not have an earthly father; thus he belongs to all men and scene in America must begin with the socio-cultural factors that act upon one’s
not just to the blacks: he represents the whole of humanity. humanity for good or evil,” says the black Pentecostal theologian Leonard
Concerning social issues Bishop E D. Washington, from the Church of Lovett. H e adds:
God in Christ, deplores the church’s “mental block” which is responsible for
The avoidance of local problems of socio-economic injustices and discrimina-
a false understanding of evangelism because it attempts to promote the church tions in changing society on the part of early White Pentecostals led to what
building or organization when, as he states: Fidler refers to as a “fatalistic Premillennialism which allowed White Pente-
Whether we like to admit it or not, the church (as a building or denomination) costals to relegate the close range problems to ‘when Jesus comes,” while in
has the poorest appeal of all to sinners. Its rating is exactly zero, because most foreign areas they could “rush the rapture” with a distant paternalistic applica-
sinners do not go to church. Yet the fantastic fact remains that the person of tion of Christian love and concern.”
Jesus Christ-when He is presented right-has the greatest single appeal to the Another issue which might be even more disturbing for the white Pente-
human heart in this w0r1d.l~ costal denominations is the discovery by some researchers not only of the
It is only logical that this black Pentecostal leader was greatly attracted by Afro-American, but also of some of the original African roots of the Pentecos-
the concept of evangelism as presented in the studies by the World Council of tal revival. But why should this frighten us? As God chose the despised
Churches.16 “How can one join this World Council of Churches?” he asked children of Israel to bring blessings to the whole world, he chose again black
abruptly and unexpectedly. It is furthermore understandable that the strike of slaves (including that which was good in their pagan past) to bring blessings
sanitation workers in Memphis under the leadership of Dr. Martin Luther to their white masters, and to the church universal. After all, Christianity was
King had its headquarters in the big Mason17 Temple of the above-mentioned not born in Europe!20 One practical manifestation of those blessings is that
Church of God in Christ. T h e murder of Martin Luther King hit the black black Pentecostals have won seats on city councils and in state legislatures and
have been appointed to minor cabinet positions in the executive branch of the
’Benz, Amerika. federal government. Robert L. Harris, a Church of God in Christ pastor, became
lo Ahlstrom, History, 1059f. See also Piepkorn, Religious Bodies (esp. vol. 111: the first black state legislator in Utah history when he defeated a white Mormon
Holiness and Pentecostal). candidate. J. 0.Patterson, Jr., the son of the late leader of the Church of God in
I ’ Gerloff, Plea. Christ, is the first African-American candidate from Shelby County, Tennessee,
MacRobert. Racism (for further publications on the topic by MacRobert see to be elected to the Tennessee state senate since Reconstruction. Samuel Jack-
short titles list).
l 3 Cf. Jones, 0. T, “Crisis,” and the works by Lovett (see short titles list).
son, a Church of God in Christ member, served as assistant secretary of Housing
l 4 Handbuch, 02a.02.082; Hollenweger, Black Pentecostal Concept, 34-40. Jones,
and Urban Development during the 1 9 7 0 ~ . ~ ’
C. E., “Living God,” 211.
”Bishop €7 D. Washington at the 62nd Convocation of the Church of God in Dugan, “Mass Evangelism.”
Christ 1969 (Holy Convocation, ed. J. 0.Patterson, n.p., 1969). I9 Fidler, “History,” quoted in Lovett, “Perspectives.”
l6 Wieser, Planning for Mission. Hollenweger, Church for Others. Idem, Kirche. ’ Full discussion in my Handbuch, 02a.02.049. Sources: Herskovits, Myth,
O
Further developed in ITh, 3 vols. DuBois, Souls, idem, Negro Church, von Hornbostel, “African Negro Music,’’ idem,
l7 C. H. Mason (1866-1961) was the almost legendary founder of the Church of “American Negro Songs,” Tiersot, “La musique,” Ley, Spirituals.
God in Christ (biography and lit., Handbuch, 07.907.001; Clemmons, “Mason,” Lincoln-Mamiya, Black Church, 84, quoted in Baer-Singer, African-American
585-88, lit. See also Baer, “Socio-Religious.” Religion, 176f.
prohibited racially mixed meetings. It would therefore be unfair to blame the

Revolutionary Past of White Pentecostals white Pentecostals alone for this development. They have simply adapted
It is clear that this new orientation of black Pentecostals is watched by the themselves to what was considered at that time to be American Protestantism.
established white Pentecostal churches of the USA with amazement. However, Black Pentecostals are not satisfied that some white Pentecostals in Amer-
as we have seen, they know that they themselves trace back their history to a ica still see social and political commitment as a task for the individual
revival in a black church in Los Angeles. T h e Pentecostal movement began in Christian and not for the churches as a whole,29 nor with their tardy and
the same milieu in which the spiritual, jazz, and blues emerged. Yet while black generalized appeals for Christian love.30For black Pentecostals the “Pentecos-
music has gained recognition as a contribution by the Negroes to universal tal problem” is the “cleavage of the races,” which must be solved before the
culture, the black influence on the Pentecostal movement, which has today movement can “shake the world.”31 T h e appeal by R. C. Cunningham for
over 400 million adherents, has been forgotten-and this in spite of the fact “conversion,” “not coercion”32will fall on deaf ears as long as it continues to
that the Pentecostals regard W. J. Seymour as one of their pioneers. “That the be uttered only to those below and not equally loudly to those above.
one outstanding personality in bringing about the Pentecostal revival in Los One can understand the pastor of the Assemblies of God in Alabama who
Angeles was a Negro is a fact of extreme importance to Pentecostals of all stated: “I felt that the greatest indictment against the church of the Lord Jesus
races” states the Pentecostal historian Vinson Syrian." I agree with this in our country is our stand (or lack of one) on racial problems.”33 And the
evaluation. “Even more significant is the fact that this inter-racial accord took historian of the Pentecostals Assemblies of the World, Morris E. Golder,
place among the very groups that have traditionally been most at odds, the compares the Baptist Martin Luther King and his liberating ministry (“almost
poor whites and the poor blacks.”23Even more astonishing, white Pentecostals single-handedly he challenged the mores of the South”) with the high-flung
received their ordination from the hands of black Pentecostal bishops.24 A statements of the Pentecostals on the power of the Holy Spirit. Golder says:
Pentecostal eye-witness, Frank Bartleman, proudly relates that in the revival If the white [Pentecostal] brethren would have stood firm against prejudice and
in Los Angeles “the ‘color line’ was washed away in the Another racial injustice, having the most powerful authority (the Holy Spirit) and the
Pentecostal pioneer, the Anglican clergyman Alexander A. Boddy, described most powerful message (the Gospel of Jesus Christ), they could have been the
the revival in Los Angeles as “something very extraordinary” because “white instruments of God for the destruction of this hideous ideology. But instead of
pastors from the South were eagerly prepared to go to Los Angeles to the fighting against it, they submitted to its influence and have been affected by it
Negroes, to have fellowship with them and to receive through their prayers even until now.34
and intercessions the blessings of the Spirit. And it was still more wonderful And Lovett concludes:
that these white pastors went back to the South and reported to the members
Black Pentecostalism affirms with dogmatic insistence that liberation is always
of their congregations that they had prayed in one Spirit and received the same
a consequence of the presence of the Spirit. Authentic liberation can never occur
blessings as they,”26a tradition which is followed up by Michael Harper: “To apart from genuine Pentecostal encounter, and likewise, authentic Pentecostal
deny a colored person the same human rights as a white one, or treat a person encounter cannot occur unless liberation becomes the consequence. It is another
differently because of the color of his skin, is a sin against God. A prophetic way of saying no man can experience the fullness of the Spirit and be a bona fide
ministry should seek to bring conviction of this sin to those who indulge in it.”27 racist” (italics mine).35
No explanation has been offered as to why the Negro churches have not
become part of the organization of the Pentecostal Fellowship of North I wonder what white Pentecostals and theologians have to say to this
America.” T h e reason for this development lies on the one hand in the loud pneumatology!
criticism against Pentecostalism voiced by the mainline churches, which tried
to discredit Pentecostals by pointing to their lowly beginnings in a Negro 29Cf. a report of a speech by former Congressman W. H. Judd, “Political
Action,” 23.
church; and on the other hand in the laws of the southern states, which have 3 0 A ~ ~ e m b lofi e ~
God, Our Mission in Today’s World, 85. But see the very
~
different tone in ch. 3, p. 23 and ch. 15, pp. 193f.

22 Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal. 31 Editorial in International Outlook (Los Angeles), Oct./Dec. 1963, 15; quoted
23 Ibid., 165. in Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal, 179.
24 Sources in Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal, 80, 137. 32 Cunningham, “Social Concern,” 5.
25 Bartleman, What Really Happened at Azusa Street? 29. 33 Assemblies of God, Our Mission in Today’s World, 133.
26 Boddy, “Ueber Land und Meer.” ”Golder, History o f the Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, 80.
27 Harper, “Question,” 2-3. 35 Lovett, “Perspectives”; also in his unpublished dissertation, “Black Holiness-
28 Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal, 180. Pentecostals,” 165; quoted in Volf, “Materiality,” 447-67, quote, 462, note 97.
A Kite Flies Against the Wind 33
Whether or not one accepts M. M. Fisher’s interpretation of the spiritual
The Songs of the Blacks as a means of communicating historical data in an oral culture, to save the black
past from being forgotten, it is certain the spiritual is a powerful means of
We have noted that the Pentecostal movement arose in the same milieu communication which has “preached” and communicated the gospel in black
which incubated and birthed the now-famous music and songs of the blacks. American communities more powerfully than any book or sermon. And it is
Opinions vary concerning the origin and function of the Negro spiritual. It is this element of black spirituality that was taken u p by the Pentecostal revival
either considered as a misinterpreted hymn of white C h r i ~ t i a n s as
, ~ a~ “con- in those parts of the world where that revival was really successful; e.g. Latin
fession of faith” of the black as the “clearest exponent of the Negro’s America, Zaire, Italy, Indonesia, Korea, and Russia. Where Pentecostals work
real self,”38 as an oral document of events in the history of the American in a pre- or post-literary society, they do not think along systematic and logical
Negro,39 as a protest against social injustice,# as an adaptation of African lines, but in parables and associations. Their main medium of communication
songs>l as songs originating in the camp meetings of the white revival move- is not the book or the newspaper but the proverb, the chorus, the joke, the
ment,42 as the products of black bards like “singing Johnson” and “Ma testimony, the miracle story, or the television and radio program.
White,”43 or as a blending of American and European melodies with African These songs are not, as James H. Cone pointed out, unpolitical and
rhythm.# Whatever the history of the spiritual$5 it is itself at the root of at otherworldly. “Contrary to popular opinion,” says Cone,
least four musical trends today: 1. T h e different styles of jazz including the
blues. 2. T h e music found in white Pentecostal churches, which is rooted in the spirituals are not evidence that black people reconciled themselves with
black music but which has been greatly changed and adapted to the white ear, human slavery. On the contrary, they are black freedom songs which emphasize
black liberation as consistent with divine revelation. For this reason, it is most
particularly in the USA, where some of the earliest hymn writers were black
appropriate for black people to sing them in this ‘new’ age of Black Power. And
Pentecostals.M 3. T h e spontaneous gospel music which is more contemporary, if some people still regard spirituals as inconsistent with Black Power and Black
and related mainly to the Pentecostals and to some black Baptist churches. T h e Theology, that is because they have been misguided and the songs misinter-
gospel song is indigenous to the local community and reflects the current preted. There is little evidence that black slaves accepted their servitude because
living conditions of the congregation, in contrast to the more traditional they believed God willed their slavery. The opposite is the case. The spirituals
spiritual. 4.Attempts to adapt it to European and American traditional church speak of God’s liberation of black people, his will to set right the oppression of
music.47 Yet there is great controversy as to whether the spiritual has a place black slaves despite the overwhelming power of white masters. For blacks be-
in a non-black church service, a controversy which becomes even sharper lieved that there is an omnipotent, omnipresent, and omniscient power at work
when the spirituals are translated into French or German or when they are in the world, and that he is on the side of the oppressed and the downtrodden.
sung in English by a non-English ~ongregation.~’ As evidence they pointed to the blind man who received his sight, the lame who
walked, and Lazarus who was received into God’s kingdom while the rich man
was rejected. And if “de God dat lived in Moses’ time is jes’ the same today,”
36 Jackson, G. P., “Spirituals,” 8.8-12. then God will vindicate the suffering of the righteous blacks and punish the
37 Lauchli, “Negro Spirituals,” 446ff.
38 Odum, “Religious Folk Songs,” 265-365.
unrighteous whites for their wrongdoing^.^^
39 Fisher, Negro Slave Songs.
Starting from M. M. Fisher’s fundamental analysis, Cone says:
4o Lovell,“Social Implications,” 634-43. See also his monumental Black Song.
Also: Spencer, Protest and Praise. The divine liberation of the oppressed from slavery is the central theological
41 Krehbiel, Afro-American Folk Songs. DuBois, Negro Church.
concept in the black spirituals. These songs show that black slaves did not believe
42 Washington, Booker T, The Story of the Negro.
that human servitude was reconcilable with their African past and their knowl-
43 Johnson, Books of American Negro Spirituals.
44 Von Hornbostel, “American Negro Music,” 30-62. Idem, “American Negro
edge of the Christian gospel. They did not believe that God created Africans to
Songs,” 748-53. be the slaves of Europeans. Accordingly they sang of a God who was involved in
45 More literature in Handbuch, 02a.02.049ff.; in Hollenweger, Black Pentecostal history-their history-making right what whites have made wrong. . . .
Conce t , 9 10, and in idem, “Spirituals.”
’E;. G. T Haywood (“Jesus, the Son of God,” ‘‘I See a Crimson Stream of Because black people believed that they were God’s children, they affirmed their
Blood”; literature in Robeck, “Haywood,” 349-50). T Harris (“All That Thrills My somebodiness, refusing to reconcile their servitude with divine revelation.’’
Soul is Jesus,” “He’s Coming Soon,” “More Abundantly,” “By His Stripes We are
Healed,” “Pentecost in My Soul,” “Jesus Loves the Little Children”); Wilson, E. A., “Jazz”; Koch, “Variationen,” 77f.
“Harris,” 347-48. 49 Cone, “Black Spirituals,” 5469, quote 60. See also idem, Spirituals and the
47 Examples: Michael Tippet, Oratorio ‘2 Child of Our Time, ” and Dvorak’s Blues.
Strin Quartet, F major, op. 96 (“Sometimes I feel like a motherless child”). Cone, “Black Spirituals,” 59.
‘E.g., Rutenborn, “Theologie,” 65-69. Hanft, “Theologie,” 160-68. Kern,
The black man’s church these people not only speak in tongues and pray together; they eat, smoke, and
drink together. Luther P. Gerlach has observed that people with a higher
was his school, his forum, his political arena, his social club, his art gallery, his
education are attaining the Pentecostal experience of baptism in the Spirit
conservatory of music. It was lyceum and gymnasium as well as sanctum sanc-
torum. His religion was his fellowship with man, his audience with God. It was more readily than students with an inferior education, and that speaking in
the peculiar sustaining force which gave him the strength to endure when tongues is less frequent among Pentecostal Mexicans than among white,
endurance gave no promise, and the courage to be creative in the face of his own middle-class Americans. The attempts to describe speaking in tongues as a
dehumanization.51 pathological or half-pathological phenomenon of marginal people have been
disproved (insofar as it is possible to give objective criteria) by competent
It is by now clear that the Christians of the Third World will outnumber psychological and sociological studies.54
those of Europe and America in the year 2000.52Christianity started as a Third In their comparison between Black Power and Pentecostalism these two
World movement somewhere in a forgotten corner of the Roman Empire; it American anthropologists, who belong neither to Black Power nor to the
now returns to its non-western beginnings-within a decade the majority, or Pentecostal movement, came to the conclusion that Black Power cannot be
at least a very considerable part, of Christians will identify most strongly with seen as a contrast to the black Pentecostal movement. Both movements are
the spontaneous non-literary type of Pentecostal spirituality. It seems there- religious and revolutionary, and it is difficult to draw a dividing line between
fore that the spiritual and liturgical methods of the black Pentecostal and the two.
Pentecostal-like communities in the USA will play a strategic role in the Pentecostalism is revolutionary because it offers alternatives to “literary”
future, as they belong phenomenologically to non-literary humanity, although theology and thus defrosts the “frozen thinking” within literary forms of
they are living in the literary culture of America. That is why in future they worship and committee-debate and gives the same chances to all-including
may have to play an important role in the “translation” from one culture into the “oral” people. It allows for a process of democratization of language
the other, in both the theological and the political realm. through a dismantling of the privileges of abstract, rational and propositional
systems-which, as is shown by the growth of the charismatic movement
Movements of Social Transformation within the historical churches, is even experienced as beneficial by the intel-
From the foregoing we can see that black Pentecostalism and Black Power lectuals. Such examples of political alphabetization are found not only in the
are not opposites, as some might wrongly suppose. A European observer might black Pentecostal churches in the USA, but also in the Russian, South African,
be inclined to consider black Pentecostalism as a religious mechanism of Swedish and Latin American Pentecostal movements. Our socio-political
adaptation and Black Power as a political protest movement. This is not the search has entirely by-passed-and here the World Council of Churches must
case-at least not in this antithetic formulation. In a comparative study Luther explicitly be mentioned among the culprits-this political and religious awak-
P. Gerlach and Virginia Hine describe both as “movements of social transfor- ing, sometimes with a light undertone of regret for these religiously slightly
m a t i ~ n . ” ’In
~ Pentecostalism they include not only black and white Pente- doped believers.
costals, but also the mushrooming and increasingly important charismatic Likewise Gerlach affirms that Black Power is a religious movement. He
groups within the main-line churches, particularly among Roman Catholic points to the conversion of Malcolm X to Islam, from which emerged the
intellectuals. This burgeoning “main-line” movement has destroyed the gen- Black Muslim identity. The religious language of the rest of the Black Power
erally accepted theory that Pentecostal spirituality is bound to the milieu of movement is also remarkable. Devotees talk of “transfiguration into black-
the spiritually and materially poor. At the meetings of the charismatics one ness” and “baptism into blackness,” and see in Black Power expressis verbis a
found initially not the uneducated but the intellectuals, not the uncritical but religion, into which one is initiated by an experience of commitment-a kind
the critical exegetes, not frustrated puritans but normal Christians. Still today, of conversion, which is articulated in the framework of a liturgy.
51 C.E. Lincoln, preface to Washington, J. R., Black Sects and Cults, ix-x. 54Theliterature on glossolalia is legion. One of the first was the South African
52SeeBarrett, WCkE. Idem, Schism and Renewal. Idem, “AD 2000,” 39-54. psychiatrist L. M. Vivier-van Eetveldt. Others were G. J. Jennings, V. H. Hine, W. J.
Criticizing Barrett’s view: Osobo, “Fascinating,” 64-69. Mitchell, “Towards the Samarin, D. Christie-Murray, M. T.Kelsey, W. E. Mills, C. C. Williams, R. I? Spittler
Sociology of Religious Independency,” 2-21. Barrett’s statistics in the seventies have (Spittier also mentions the European research from the beginning of this century
proved to be accurate. His critiques were wrong because they did not consider the which did not subsume “glossolalia” under “pathology,” e.g., Lombard and Mosi-
missionary and innovative power of the independent and Pentecostal churches. mann). Robert Mapes Anderson (in his otherwise excellent Vision of the Disinherited)
Whether Barrett’s predictions for the year 2000 will be as accurate we do not know. disregards newer research on glossolalia and therefore comes down on the side of the
However, the trend is clear. old, but out-dated, deprivation theory. For full bibliography see short titles list. See
53 Gerlach-Hine, People, Power, Change. also ch. 26, pp. 358-62.
It belongs furthermore to the essence of this cultural revolution that it fascist states, and in Russia. Yet in the United States-and one would like to
develops fluid organizational forms, which our linear thinking can only un- add, in the Christian church-such a method is unthinkable. Therefore,
derstand with difficulty. It is led in a polycephalous way-i.e., by several Gerlach concludes, what ecclesiastical intervention is brought to bear against
heads-and finds its adherents through normal communication in everyday charismatic revolutionaries, and what state intervention comes against Black
life, in the lower class particularly among relatives, in the upper class among Power, represents exactly that amount of wind which those movements need
circles of friends. T h e executives in this polycephalous arrangement change in order to rise and fly. It produces exactly the opposite of what is intended.
frequently, and the different groups change their status in the whole frame-
work of the movement from week to week. Only this polycephalous organiza- Tolerance and Conviction
tion makes it possible for a minority to withstand a majority. The unity of the Gerlach’s analysis is fascinating. But does it fit all situations? It seems to
movement is not assured by normal headquarters but by “traveling evangel- me that the revolutionary quality of such movements depends on two condi-
ists” (in the charismatic movement as well as in the Black Power movement) tions which are logically exclusive of each other. Firstly, they must have an
and through common code words and songs. It is easy, says Gerlach, to find almost axiomatic emotional and existential basis which cannot be shaken either
out if a Black Power group is led by communists. As soon as there are clear by argument or further investigation; or-if one prefers-they must rest on a
hierarchical structures and traceable executive centers, then we are dealing religious conviction. But secondly, they must allow question and criticism by
with a communist organization. And that is exactly why the very few commu- fact and argument, in order to prevent this religious conviction from becoming
nist-led Black Power groups are not revolutionary but reactionary, because an ideological prison.
they do not liberate black people from white tutelage, but replace one infan- For the first thesis there are enough examples in the present day. Looked
tilizing structure with another. at objectively and rationally, the Red Chinese were defeated by Chiang Kai
Likewise the transition from the charismatic movement to a Pentecostal Shek when they started their long march. Similarly, the escalation of the
church is recognizable by the emerging linear structure of dependence and bombardment of North Vietnam should have led to the capitulation of the
direction. Such a transition from the polycephalous charismatic movement to North Vietnamese. However, in both instances the “logical” consequence did
a centrally organized church (whether along presbyterian, congregational, or not result. Why not? Gerlach answers (according to his conviction as an
episcopal lines) can often be observed in individual cases. At the same time, a agnostic) that religious commitment has such a power that it changes
new protest is kindled against the manipulative “thinking from above,” which realities. From this Gerlach draws a conclusion which is extremely relevant to
either leads to the formation of a new charismatic/pentecostal revival (outside the whole debate on development and hunger, namely that political and
the organization in question) or calls the organization back to its initial economic tinkering with the treatment of symptoms has to be replaced by the
polycephalous form. acknowledgment of these culturally revolutionary groups as catalysts of
In dealing with the attitude of these movements to opposition, Gerlach transformation.
draws a further parallel. A kiteflies against the wind. A revolutionary movement For the second thesis Mao Tse Tung and the Pentecostal movement again
like Black Power or the Pentecostal movement can only rise against the wind provide striking examples. T h e undifferentiated and unquestioned ideologies
of opposition. That is why Black Power emerged in many towns only with the which prohibit tolerance and lay taboos on important questions destroy, by
help of police action. In the same way many charismatic movements could only this very act, the original charismatic and revolutionary outbreak. What we
form themselves in the main-line churches with the help of the opposition of then face is the well-known keeping of the letter of the law-whether Protes-
the ecclesiastical hierarchy to speaking in tongues.55 tant, Catholic, Pentecostal or communist-by which people compensate for
Such a polycephalous revolutionary movement, says Gerlach, can be the sacrifices they have had to make by compelling others to make the same
effectively counteracted only by “overkill,” i.e. by a rigorous control of all the sacrifices (Ersatz-Lust). 56 Black Power and Pentecostalism have broken up
media of communication, including the mail and the telephone, and by arresting institutionalized hypocrisy by taking literally that which was affirmed of%-
and eliminating all suspicious and sympathetic fellow-travelers, including cially but not practiced (in the church: the priesthood of all believers; in the
those who are wrongly thought to be in sympathy with the movement. This state: equal rights for black and white). Yet these movements become victims
method was used in earlier times in the Roman Catholic Church, in certain of institutionalized hypocrisy at the moment when they create a closed ideol-
ogy of this revolutionary act. It seems that utter commitment and conviction
5 5 A similar observation has been made by G. Balandier on the rise of Kimban- does not allow for the “luxury of tolerance.” Either a person is ready to risk
guism in Zaire (ch. 6): “We have to see that the organized repression by the Belgian
authoritieshas really established the new Church. . . .” (Balandier, Sociofogie actuefle,
434f.). 56 Mitscherlich, Die Unfhigkeit, 122.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A Kite Flies Against the Wind
38 39
practice an oral theology as an alternative or complement to a rational and

everything for a recognizable goal, but then is not prepared to be diverted
logical system of terms, is greatly increasing. This topic has been developed
from this goal by arguments or by facts; or he is a critical, liberal and tolerant
in depth in the three volumes of my intercultural theology and in many plays
person, but then lacks that utter commitment which alone acts as a catalyst of
for musicians, dancers and actors in Germany and Switzerland. In these plays,
trans for mation.
One may well ask: Can only fanatics be evangelists? Church history seems there is no need for the artists to be committed Christians, because the biblical
to answer this question in the affirmative. Neither the biblical prophets, nor texts-and in the case of the Bonhoeffer Requiem the texts of Bonhwf-
the New Testament evangelists, nor the Reformers, nor the theologians, fer-find their way into the hearts of both spectators and actor^.'^
evangelists, and missionaries of today, all of whom are faithful to an utter One thing is sure: the ecumenical problem of the immediate future is not
commitment, have been tolerant-with some notable exceptions. In light of the relationship between Catholic and Protestant, but between “oral” and
this fact, the Pentecostals have sometimes said that the tolerance of many of “literary” theology.
today’s Christians has its roots in their religious insecurity. The relationship between oral and literary, between black and white, is
also an unsolved intra-Pentecostal problem. The white Pentecostal Cecil M.
The Holy Spirit is a “Gentleman” Robeck, Jr., bluntly states: “Most of the major Pentecostal denominations in
the US. are highly segregated. Racism is a rampant problem in American
In spite of all this, I am not prepared to accept that there is a definite Pentecostalism. . . . White Pentecostals have supported the Republican party
conflict between utter conviction and genuine tolerance. The Holy Spirit is a and the so-called ‘religious right’ while Black Pentecostals have tended to
“gentleman,” the Pentecostals rightly say.57If we have to use all our energies support the Democratic party and have refused to be co-opted by the ‘religious
in order to suppress all critical arguments, then we lack the necessary energy right.’ ”59
which we need for more differentiated tasks. To combine tolerance with utter Samuel Solivan criticizes the failure of Pentecostalism in relation to race:
conviction, however, demands one’s whole life and energy. In this sense lived
tolerance can be understood as a concretization of the doctrine of justification We have opted for an easy “I love you in the Lord” approach to the problems of
by grace alone: If we really believe that we are sola gratia Christians, theologi- racism and bigotry. Our denominational structures, or district organizations, our
ans, pastors, church bureaucrats, evangelists, or politicians, then we will national assemblies are controlled and defined by a small number of people and
their friends who all if not the great majority look and think alike. We have
always have to reckon with the possibility that we might be wrong-and yet
institutionalized our prejudice, and our racism. We have justified, sanctified,and
justified by God-and secondly that the one whom we want to convince will have baptized it and we have fooled ourselves into believing that the Spirit has
be justified by God sola gratia, even if he is wrong. led us. A spirit has, but which one? Not everything that claims to be of the Spirit
In relation to Black Power and to the Pentecostal movement, this would of God is His Spirit.60
mean we have to acknowledge equal rights to non-literary theology. Only in
the encounter between “literary” and “oral” cultures can we find out how far The “Miracle of Memphis”
our “literary” theology (i.e., our critical analytical methods) relates to pre-and
post-rationality, and what the relationship is between “the logic of the guts” In the fall of 1994 the old Pentecostal Fellowship of North America (in
and “the logic of the brain.” Then we can ask: How does the dance speak to which only white churches were represented) was dissolved.61A new organi-
us and how does the thesis provide a variation on a theme? Or in an image: zation was founded, in which black and white Pentecostal churches were equal
what is the reason that it is only the many colors of the rainbow in the spectrum members (but without the Oneness Churches).62 It was called ‘‘Pentecostal/
which can create that bright light which allows us to see reality? If God has Charismatic Churches of North America.” With explicit reference to the founder
given us a head, “heart and reins” that we might know the world, he surely of Pentecostalism, William Joseph Seymour, who saw in the integration of black
will not allow us to let one of these ways of perception wither. On the contrary, ~~
we have to investigate how the head can learn from the heart-beat and the heart ”The topic is further developed in ch. 9, pp. 106-16, in Hollenweger, “Theol-
from critical thinking. ogy,” and idem, “Music,” 276-86. On my plays and musicals see Heuberger, “Hollen-
weger als Dichter und Liturgiker,” 61-72. For a list of these plays see ch. 21, note
These are not the questions of a specialist. In answering (or refusing to
29, p. 283.
answer) these questions, we decide whether the church, as a universal, really 59 Robeck, “Taking Stock,” 35-60, quotes 46f., emphasis mine.
catholic church, has a future, because the number of those Christians and Solivan, “Cultural Glossolalia,” 25. See also, Butler, “Walls.”
theologians-if we are prepared to call them by this name-who look for and Span, “Miracle,” n.p.; Robeck, “Memphis,” 36-73; Maempa, “Interracial,”
2426.
’’The Holy Spirit is a woman, say the feminists, because “Ruach” is female. 62 Reed, “Oneness,” 644-5 1.
and white people in his church an essential characteristic of the work of the
Holy Spirit, the race-war between black and white Pentecostals was ended.63
A symbol ofthis was that a white Assemblies of God pastor spontaneously washed
the feet of black bishop Ithniel Clemmons‘-a gesture whose significance cannot
(: H A P ‘1- E K F I V E
be underestimated and which would have been impossible a few years ago.
The choice of Memphis for the event is no accident. That is the place
where Martin Luther King, Jr., was shot. Without the confession of guilt, “our
participation in the sin of racism by our silence, denial and blindne~s”~’
reconciliation would not have been possible. Whether this reconciliation is as
“epochal” as some observers think will only be seen when the religious
reconciliation is transformed into political reality.66 South Africa
Prayer of the Earthworm
Dear God,
sometimes Ifeel like an earthworm. Dangerous Memories: Integrated Beginnings
I crawl on my belly and eat earth from morning till evening and dirt from evening
till morning. In South Africa, Pentecostalism started as an integrated
And people walk by and say: Ha, it’s only an earthworm and they hurt me and church and developed-as in the USA-into a segregated
trample on me with their shoes. And sometimes a magpie walks up and down, church. The roots and origins have been described in detail
all majestic in black and white, and he pecks at me and I have to slip away into
the earth.
’
in The Pentecostals. There one may also find a description of
Why do I have to be an earthworm? the connection between Pentecostalism and the black Zionist
Why can I not be a flamingo, or a mighty roaring lion, or at least a butterfly? churches.’
Why am Ijust an earthworm? The first Pentecostal services, although not initiated by
blacks, were conducted in a black church in D ~ o r n f o n t e i n . ~
Dear God, you did not ask me whether I wanted to be an earthworm.
My parents did not ask me whether I wanted to be an earthworm, or whether I
John G. Lake ( 1870-1935)4 and Thomas Hezmalhalch
wanted to be at all. (1845-1934),’ the early Pentecostal missionaries to South
And so I am what I am, an earthworm Africa, had both worshipped in Seymour’s church and were
’ti1 that moment when you God, whisper into my ear: already acquainted with the non-racial commitment and
Earthworm, you are important! Without you there is no life, no plants, no practice of Seymour at the Azusa Street Mission. Although
vegetables, no animals, no people, no university, no government, no science and
art and no magpies in all their academic glory there is a theory that Lake advocated segregation in social
What can I say to this, dear God? life,6 he initially supported non-racialism in the church.’
I know what I say: I say, thank you, dear God, thank you indeed.
I am important.
But, dear God, I wonder whether you couldn’t tell that to the magpies too.
’ The Pentecostals, 111-75. Other sources are: Hayes, Black Charismatic Angli-
cans. Robinson, To the Ends of the Earth. Merwe Burger, Die Geloojigeskiedenis.
Thank you. Horn-Louw. EPn Kudde. Watt, From Afrtca’s Soil, de Wet, Apostolic Faith Mission in
South Africa. Horn, “Experience,” 117-40. idem, “South African Pentecostals and
Apartheid,” 157-68. Saayman, “Some Reflections,” 40-56 (richly documented).
’The rest of this chapter mostly follows Horn verbatim (“Experience,” 128-30).
Merwe Burger, Die Geloojigeskiedenis, 167.
4Zeigler, “Lake,” 53 1.
Warner, “Hezmalhalch,” 389.
~
63 Point 10 of the “Racial Reconciliation Manifesto” (“lay aside our warring”), 6While Kamphausen accepts my theory that Zionism is a fruit of the Pentecostal
PE 4205, 11.12.1994,25. missionary, he states that Zionism has paralyzed Ethiopianism and robbed it of its
@See the photography in Ministries Today 13/1, Jan./Feb. 1995, 36. political substance. He quotes from a letter from Lake to the President of the
65 Point 4 of the “Racial Reconciliation Manifesto” P E 4205, 11.12.1994, 25. Transvaal, Louis Botha: “We have worked mostly among the Ethiopians with the
Ministries Today 13/1 Jan./Feb. 1995, 38. intention to bring them under white control. . . . We have found that when the
66 Critical voices on “Memphis” in Pneuma 18/1, Spring 1996 (contributions by Ethiopians are really saved, they give up their Ethiopianism and accept with joy white
Clemmons, Lovett, Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Solivan, Amos, Robeck, and Macchia). control and government from us.” (Letter from Lake to Louis Botha, 27.9.1909,
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide South Africa
42 43
It is therefore not surprising that white South African Pentecostals reject

After Lake had moved from the black church in Doornfontein to a white the idea that the Pentecostal Movement was founded by a black minister, along
Zionist church (“White Zionist” does not refer to Zionism in South Africa, with the broader notion that the black experience has had an impact on the
but to the Catholic Apostolic Church from Zion, Ill.)’ in the center of beliefs and practices of the movement. Like many white Pentecostals, E P.
Johannesburg, he openly resisted whites who wanted to exclude the later Moller traces the origin of the movement back to Parham.13 Although he
well-known black Pentecostal leader, Elias Letaba, from the church, and he recognizes the part played by Seymour, he dismisses the whole controversy
kissed him in the sight of the whole congregation. around the leadership of Seymour and the black/white relationship: “Later
However, the executive, which consisted only of whites, soon gave in to Seymour was replaced by more able people and the different races ceased to
the pressure of the racist white community. As early as November 1908, the worship t ~ g e t h e r . ” ’ ~
executive decided “that the baptism of natives shall in future take place after Burger, an historian of the Apostolic Faith Mission, sees Parham as the
the baptism of the white people.”’ Early in 1909 the executive decided that dogmatic father of the movement. He describes my own thesis (as well as
baptism of “whites, coloreds and natives shall be separate.”” Lovett’s and MacRobert’s) which states that Pentecostalism was born in a
T h e Apostolic Faith Mission, the movement started by Lake, reflected all Negro church, as a “warped, one-sided conclusion.” He calls the subsequent
the racial taboos of South African society. In 1910 Lake could still write to the segregation of the Pentecostal Movement a “natural and spontaneous racial
Upper Room Mission that although the Afrikaners have, like the Southerners, segregation.” H e also states that when Seymour had fulfilled his function
a strong prejudice against blacks, there are many white workers whose hearts “stronger men with more initiative and stronger leadership potential” took
“God has caused to love the natives.”” In 1944, however, the executive stated over.” Burger ascribes segregation in the Apostolic Faith Mission to the fact
that the Mission stood for segregation. “The fact that the native, Indian or that the Afrikaners understood the history, nature, and attitude of race rela-
colored is saved does not render him European.”12 tions in South Africa better than did the American missionaries.16
After the Second World War, when the Nationalist Party gained power in It would be unfair to ascribe the black/white split in the South African
South Africa, the Apostolic Faith Mission consistently supported the govern- Pentecostal Movement to apartheid. It has been shown that the white South
ment and its apartheid policy. In 1955, when prime minister J. Strydom African Pentecostals did not differ from the rest of the movement. Neither can
enlarged the Senate to obtain the required majority in both Houses of Parlia- the interpretations by Burger and Moller be seen as unique to South Africa.
ment to remove the so-called colored voters from the electoral roll, G. R. However, in South Africa, with its legalized apartheid, the distortion of
Wessels, vice-president of the Apostolic Faith Mission, was one of the senators history has prevented Pentecostals from breaking the racial barriers and
while remaining an ordained minister. Thus the Apostolic Faith Mission becoming a unique witness of the unifying power of the Spirit. The major
became a direct partner of the Government in its implementation of apartheid. breakthrough in the fight against apartheid came from a Dutch Reformed
Prime Minister negotiating with the leader of the African National Congress
Secretary for Native Affairs, vol. 92, No. 36606, 1909, Gov. Arch. Pretoria; Kam- and not from the Spirit-filled Pentecostal leaders? T h e observation by Mac-
phausen, Anfange, 464. Kamphausen quotes the letter in his own German translation. Robert concerning the American and British Pentecostals (at least in the past)
I have translated the letter back into English).
is also applicable to South Africa:
It is certain that this document mirrors the opinion of the then missionaries and also Many white Pentecostals I have spoken to-both British and American-are
of today’s leaders of the Apostolic Faith Church. But that does not mean that the profoundly embarrassed by the black origins of the movement and are quick to
Zionists agree with it. Why did they all split from the Apostolic Faith Church? refute the leading role played by Seymour. They would rather rehabilitate
Whether Zionism is apolitical is still another question, since we find among their first
prophets such political leaders as Elias Mahlangu (1881-1960) who joined the African Parham-even if he was homosexual, at least he was white-or deny the exist-
National Congress (Sundkler, Zulu Zion, 61). Or, to give an example from a different ence of human leadership, than accept a black man as their founder.”
quarter, an evangelist who sounds as apolitical as Nicholas Bhengu told me: “There
is no point in telling the Europeans the truth. They only hear what they want to hear.
I am too old to change anything. However, things cannot continue as they are.” How
right he was!
Merwe Burger, Die Geloofigeskiedenis, 149f; Burton, Pastor, 55f. l3 See also E P. Moller’s remarks on my chapter on South Africa, The Pente-
The Pentecostals, 116ff. costals, 121, 124f., 145f., 148, 155, 171, 173.
’Burton, Pastor, 52. Minute Book of the Apostolic Faith Mission, 6.11.1908, l4 Moller, Diskussie oor die Charismata, 18.
Sundkler, Zulu Zion, 54. Merwe Burger, Die Geloofigeskiedenis, 80.
lo Merwe Burger, Die Geloofigeskiedenis, 175.
I6Ibid.. 175.
“ Ibid. See also Lindsay,3ohn Lake, 22. Sundkler, Zulu Zion, 54.
l7 MacRobert, “Black Roots,” 89.
l2 Merwe Burger, Die Geloofigeskiedenis, 422f.
South Africa
44 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide 45
C. de Wet, a Pentecostal missiologist from South Africa, tries to explain

Recapturing the Past in Overcoming Racism the return of Pentecostal believers to racism from a pneumatological perspec-
This section is again based on J. N. Horn. Mostly I quote him verbatim, tive. H e suggests that during times of dramatic outpourings of the Spirit a d
since I want to give prominence to a new way of doing Pentecostal theology consequent revivals, the color line is swept away.” Or, putting it more theo-
which sees in the “black connection” not an embarrassment but a promise. In logically, the indwelling Spirit, who fills the Christian, takes away all racism.
my opinion this relates both to the origins of the movement and to its Once the revival is over, however, and the initial enthusiasm makes way for
implantation in Africa, as for example in the form of Kimbanguism,18 and organization and dogmas, all the old prejudices come back.
ioni ism.'' If de Wet’s hypothesis is to be taken seriously by Pentecostals, it will have
As we have seen, the Pentecostal Movement changed from a fully inte- an important outcome. It will mean that the Pentecostal doctrine of the
grated movement often under black leadership in its early years, into several baptism of the Holy Spirit will have to be investigated in light of the “original
segregated communities. However, the most shameful aspect of this history is sin” of Pentecostals, i.e., racism. In this light we may see that Spirit baptism
not merely that the movement eventually organized itself into racial assem- is not a “once and for all” experience. Certainly, the racial experiences of the
blies and churches, but that some of its white leaders were later involved in Pentecostal fathers indicate that Spirit-filled Christians can lose the fullness
racist activities, while many others tacitly accepted the racism of church and of the Spirit. T h e question often asked by black Pentecostals needs more
society.” attention: “Can a white racist be filled with the Spirit?”
At least two early Pentecostals, Charles Parham and Aimee McPherson,’l By accepting the possibility that believers can lose the fullness of the
had close ties with the Ku Klux Klan in the 1 9 2 0 ~ Parham.~~ contributed Spirit, Pentecostals will bring their pneumatology in line with their soteriol-
articles to a racist, anti-Semitic periodical and often preached to the Klans- ogy, which accepts that believers can lose their salvation. Pentecostal history
men, whom he referred to as “those splendid men,” and whose aims he reminds us that non-racialism was one of the clearest signs of the baptism in
interpreted as “high ideals for the betterment of mankind.”23 the Spirit. This does not mean that Pentecostals should necessarily reject their
Anderson divides Parham’s life into three periods, the pre-Pentecostal doctrine of tongues (or other gifts) as the initial evidence of the baptism. But
period in which his racism was clearly apparent, the initial dynamic phase of it will ask Pentecostals not to rely merely on the “initial evidence,” but to
the Pentecostal Movement in which his racism was held in abeyance, and expect of those who claim to have had a Pentecostal or charismatic experience
finally the post-revival period during which those racial hostilities matured. that they rid themselves of racism.
Anderson suggests that the Pentecostal experience might have been the reason T h e statement by the Assemblies of God in the twenties that “there might
for the moderate approach of Parham and other white Pentecostals during the be true Christians in the Klan” and similar statements by South African
movement’s initial phase.24 Pentecostals concerning the right-wing political movements need to be ques-
tioned.26
’*See ch. 6, pp. 54-80. More positively: If there is any substance of truth in de Wet’s hypothesis,
l9 See The Pentecostals, 149-75.
then the Pentecostal message has the challenging latent potential of overcom-
”This tacit acceptance was broken in the “Declaration of Solidarity with the
Relevant Pentecostal Witness from South Africa” at the “Conference on Charismatic ing racism. Thus, despite the negative history of Pentecostalism in this area,
and Pentecostal Research” in Kappel a. A., Switzerland, July 1991. It states: “We its positive beginning gives hope for the future. If the South African Pente-
regret that we did not speak out courageously and consistently against apartheid and costal movement can experience a real “outpouring of the Spirit,” it can (and
the political oppression and economic exploitation that this immoral system has will) serve as an example to the world. T h e Pentecostal movement can then
caused for our brothers and sisters in South Africa. We also acknowledge our
uncritical attitude in accepting the information disseminated by the media without serve as a catalyst for a new society, an instrument of hope in “our broken
independently verifying the facts about the ongoing struggle of the Church in the land.”
South African situation. Therefore we repent . . . ” Published with an introduction T h e “color line” can once again be “washed away in the blood.” When the
by Murray W. Dempster in Transformation 9/1. January/March 1992, 32f. and in Spirit comes, proud white racists kneel before black ministers for prayer, white
E P T A Bulletin 10/1. 1991, 34f. The declaration was signed by a number of well-
known Pentecostal scholars.
ministers are ordained by black prophet^,'^ and Christians see one another as
21 Although Robeck mentions that McPherson encouraged Black evangelist
children of God, rendering skin pigmentation irrelevant.
Emma Cotton. Robeck, “McPherson,” 568-71. On the McPherson controversy see
The Pentecostals, 487-88. 25 deWet, Apostolic Faith Mission in South Africa, 181f.
22 Anderson, Robert Mapes, Vision of the Disinherited, 190. 26 Anderson, Robert Mapes, Vision of the Disinherited, 191.
23 Ibid. 27 Horn, “Experience,” 122. Clemmons, “Mason,” 585-88.
24 Ibid.
c
South Africa
me sick at my stomach is to see white people imitating unintelligent, ,-rude

Is it far-fetched to dream of white ministers coming from Krugersdorp to negroism . . . and laying it on the Holy Ghost.31
Soweto to receive the baptism in the Spirit? And is a non-racial congregation
under the leadership of a black minister possible in South Africa? If the Holy However, this black heritage does not have to be an embarrassment, but
Spirit is really moving, it is not an eschatological dream, but a Pentecostal rather can be a liberating experience for white South African Pentecostals. The
possibility. long controversy between Pentecostal and mainline churches over liturgical
Not only the early history of the classical Pentecostal movement, but also practices is just one area where black history can be valuable for Pentecostals.
the history of the charismatic movement has underlined the potential of the MacRobert points out that the Afro-American heritage of Seymour and his
Pentecostal experience in bringing people from a diversity of backgrounds compatriots was the main influence that gave the Pentecostals their unique
together. In the heyday of the charismatic movement in America, Catholics, liturgy. Seymour affirmed his black heritage by introducing Negro spirituals
Orthodox Christians, Protestants (and even Pentecostals!) gathered in their and Negro music into his liturgy at a time when this music was considered
thousands to praise the Lord and to have fellowship.28J. Buck, commenting inferior and unfit for Christian worship, for “he had drunk from the ‘invisible
on the third Holy Spirit conference in Jerusalem, points to the fellowship institution’ of black folk Christianity” with its themes of freedom, equality
between the Orthodox priest, Fr. Bartholomew, and a Roman Catholic, Fr. and community.32
O r ~ i n i . ’In~ South Africa, the South African Renewal Conference in 1980 had For many years, Pentecostal liturgy came under fierce attack in South
the same impact. In an editorial on this event, Crompton comments: Africa. As late as 1984 some of the larger Reformed churches reacted strongly
against the South African Broadcasting Corporation when it invited Pente-
More hundreds than we can estimate came into an experience of the Holy Spirit
costals to take part. The “unacceptable liturgy” of the Pentecostals and the
and thousands had their attitudes fundamentally changed towards one another:
English to Afrikaans [sic], Afrikaans [sic] to English, Black to White, White to
“disorder” in the services were the main reasons for the opposition.
Black, Colored to African and both to Indian, Protestant to Catholic and vice If the African influence in such liturgy is taken into account, this criticism
30 can be seen as opting for “superior Western values” in the church. To
versa, Pentecostal to mainline.
broadcast Pentecostal liturgies can have significant symbolic meaning as an
Unfortunately, this “flow of the Spirit,’’ like the first Pentecostal revival, expression of the African roots of all South African Pentecostals. Pentecostals
did not produce lasting inter-racial results. There are literally thousands of have always refused to be impressed by the Western Protestant criticism of
Spirit-filled Pentecostals and charismatics in South Africa who fail to under- their liturgy. Apart from the traditional defenses-“Scripture ordains free-
stand the discrepancy between racism and a Spirit-filled life. dom,” “the Bible instructs us to praise the Lord” etc.-Pentecostals in South
The early Pentecostal movement showed us an alternative to the way we Africa can add one more very legitimate defense: Pentecostal liturgy in South
currently deal with the race problem. Discovering the roots and history of Africa is an expression of our rich African heritage and a valuable expression
their own movement will allow South African Pentecostals to face the chal- of faith for the people of Africa, both white and black.33
lenge of the Spirit to break through the strong barriers of racism, racial Blackness as an experience and a God-given reality can also find liberation
superiority complexes and racial hatred. in Pentecostal history. In a world where blackness has often been portrayed as
at worst a curse, or at best something second-class, black Pentecostals can
Re-Evaluation of Black Roots rejoice in the fact that God chose to use a black man to kindle the Pentecostal
As we have seen, the humble beginnings of the movement in a black fire.
church under black leadership are an embarrassment for many white Pente- Pentecostals believe that the Pentecostal revival was an act of God, an
costals. The reaction of Charles Parham in his post-Pentecostal period is still outpouring of the Spirit. If this Pentecostal Movement is of the Spirit, then
typical of many Pentecostals and charismatics: it is also of the Spirit that a black man stood at its beginning. In South Africa’s
apartheid this fact alone must liberate white Pentecostals from their paternal-
There was a beautiful outpouring of the Spirit in Los Angeles . . . Then they
ism and from their tendency to expect so little from blacks.
pulled off all the stunts common in old camp meetings among colored folk . . .
That is the way they worshipped God, but what makes my soul sick, and make[s]
31 Quoted in Anderson, Robert Mapes, Vision of the Disinherited, 190.
32 Hollenweger, “Intercultural,” 526-56; MacRobert, Black Pentecostalism
28 Buck, “Logos,” 4Of. (bibl.).
29 Ibid. 33 This has enormous consequences for Pentecostal mission, see ch. 22, pp.
30 Crompton, “Tide Has Turned,” 1-13. See also Poewe, “Links and Parallels,” 288-306 on mission and ch. 6, pp. 54-80 on Simon Kimbangu.
141-58.
e
48 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide South Africa 49
The fear of black leadership in South Africa is not confined to the political other hand, P. L. le Roux, president of the Apostolic Faith Mission from 1913
arena. In white Pentecostal circles this fear has been the major stumbling-block to 1943, “fought a long battle against Afrikaner nationalism, nazism and other
in the way of unification attempts between the black and white sections of right wing movements.”” He held, for example, that “The remembrance of
. ~ ~far I followed Nico Horn, a
more than one Pentecostal d e n ~ m i n a t i o nSo white military victories and occupation of the land caused racism and anti-
colored South African Pentecostal. Semitism, which is not of God, but of the spirit of the time and of the
Anti-Chri~t.”~~
A Relevant Pentecostal Witness On the other hand the Apostolic Faith Mission is-as far as I know-the
only Pentecostal denomination which has an official Secretary for Ecumenical
For three decades I have advocated the thesis that Pentecostalism owes a
Affairs (who was very prominent at the Roman Catholic/Pentecostal dia-
great part of its substance to William J. Seymour and his African heritage. I
l ~ g u e ) . ~Ultimately
’ of more significance than this officially sanctioned Office
have been maligned and ridiculed for taking this position, but now it is
for Ecumenical Affairs may be the work of Pastor Frank Chikane. Because of
winning ground, and the consequences of its acceptance are obvious.
his outspoken criticism of the South African system of Apartheid, he has on
What are these consequences for South Africa? Among others, they
several occasions been detained by the police, imprisoned, and tortured.
include a political awareness which pleases neither the theologians of libera-
Throughout his troubles, he attempted to serve as a minister with the Apos-
tion (because it rejects violence) nor the more conservative theologians (be-
tolic Faith Mission. In 1981, however, he was placed on suspension by the
cause it is revolutionary). Revolutionary it is, because it starts to question the
denomination, and asked to return his credentials for actions which the church
traditional South African Pentecostal theology. E P. Moller for instance wrote
labeled “political.” Although Chikane returned his credentials, he remained a
in 1988: “In the event of a revolution, or armed revolt, the church must not
member in good standing of the Apostolic Faith Mission by holding member-
be implicated. She must always be in a position where she can minister to
ship in his father’s congregation. In 1990 his suspension was lifted; today, he
people of all conflicting groups,”35to which de Wet replied:
once again appears on the clergy rolls of the Apostolic Faith Mission.
Presently the church is not ministering to “people of all conflicting groups.” The From 1983 onward Chikane was General Secretary of the Institute for
Apostolic Faith Mission has chaplains ministering to the government’s troops. Contextual Theology. Among the programs which he oversaw, one of the most
When a pastor of the Apostolic Faith Mission in Africa, Frank Chikane, tried to ecumenically significant was the writing of the now famous Kairos Document.
minister to the “other” groups, he was defrocked for “being involved in poli- Later, together with 132 “Concerned Evangelicals,” he signed the document
t i c ~ . If
”~ Moller’s
~ statement is to be taken at face value, and the Apostolic Faith
Evangelical Witness in South Africa, a re-writing of the Kairos Document in
Mission wants to minister to “people of all conflicting groups,” it will have to
appoint chaplains also to the forces opposing the government. If not, the evangelical language.43It was against these documents that R. P. Moller wrote
chaplains serving the armed forces of the government must be ~ithdrawn.~’ his book Church and Politics, already quoted. In particular Moller said that it
breathed “the spirit of revolution and confrontation” and used “the Bible and
Japie Lapoorta, another Black South African Pentecostal, shows convinc- theological utterances” to promote Marxist ideology. Indeed, so convinced
ingly that the Apostolic Faith Mission was heavily involved in the politics of was Moller of the “Marxist-Communist” sympathies of some of his Pentecos-
Apartheid; for instance, when they adopted a resolution in April 1947 to tal sisters and brothers that he argued that the “Marxist-Communist on-
acknowledge December 16th, Dingaansdag (the commemoration of the day slaught against South Africa . . . clothes itself with a religious cloak :. . It is
when the Boers made a vow to God and killed a large number of Zulus at Blood even prepared to pose as ‘Pentecostal.’ ”#
River) as a religious holiday of the same importance as Christmas or Good Shortly after the publication of the Kairos Document, Frank Chikane was
Friday.38The involvement of G. R. Wessels in the Nationalist Party has already elected to replace Archbishop Desmond Tutu as Secretary General of the
been d ~ c u m e n t e das
, ~has
~ the fact that Nationalist leaders and ministers were South African Council of Churches. This is extraordinary since the Apostolic
frequently invited to Apostolic Faith Mission Workers’ Conferences. On the Faith Mission is not part of the Council. It is said that this denomination is
34Horn-Louw, EPn Kudde, 78. I am not sure on what Horn bases his statement. Horn, “South African Pentecostals and Apartheid,” 160.
For the education of Seymour see Nelson, For Such a Time as This. 41 Le Roux, “Die Gees,” 6-7; quoted in Horn, “South African Pentecostals and
35 Moller, Church and Politics, 39f. Apartheid,” 160.
36 On Frank Chikane see Chikane, N o Life of M y Own. 42 Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 20. See also Hollenweger, “Koi-
37 De Wet, Apostolic Faith Mission in South Africa. nonia ” 1 5 4 5 7 .
38 Lapoorta, “South Africa,” 28. Horn-Louw, EPn Kudde, quoted in Lapoorta, 4’ This section is heavily based on Robeck, loc. cit., Kairos Document, Evangelical
“South Africa,” 28. Witness. See also Robeck, “Taking Stock,” 35-60, in particular 48f.
39 Lapoorta, “South Africa,” 28. 44 Moller, Church and Politics, 20.
South Africa 51
As to the call for full integration, the question must be allowed: What does
now about to consider a request for official observer T h e most
integration mean? Does it include the many independent Pentecostal Zionist
important contribution by Frank Chikane was, however, the writing of A churches in South Africa? And does it mean-for instance in matters of liturgy
Relevant Pentecostal Witness.& This document should be read and studied by and theology-the capitulation of black identity to the white tradition? It
every Pentecostal and Charismatic because it shows the political, social, and cannot mean this. This has been tried for over a hundred years and has failed.
theological potential of Pentecostal e ~ p e r i e n c e It
. ~starts
~ with a reminder of Does it mean the capitulation of white culture to the black tradition? This has
the black roots of Pentecostalism and bemoans the “silence of Pentecostals”:
never been tried, and it is not at all clear that it would work. Does it mean a
“Our silence is a willful support of an ideology that is irreconcilable with the
compromise between the two? What would such a compromise look like?
Holy Scriptures and with our Christian Faith. . . . It is ironic that severe
Would it mean integrated congregations, or more or less segregated congre-
discipline is placed upon those who falter and commit sins which we as
gations in an integrated denomination? It certainly could mean integration in
Pentecostals emphasize, yet those who are guilty of many of the apartheid sins
theological education, if it were made clear from the beginning that theological
can even find sanctuary behind our pulpits.” Then follows a discussion of
holiness, life of morality, goodwill, honesty, sober habits, meekness, obedience education does not indoctrinate, but rather develops several theological and
to the Word of God and respect for law and order. cultural models of being a Christian. It could also mean holding occasional (or
even regular) integrated meetings, while maintaining culturally and racially
What is not understood, however, is that these virtues are normally easily segregated congregations. This is a tricky question; one which we will explore
attainable in an affluent middle class society. Those who have to struggle with further in chapter 9.
inferior housing, and inferior jobs, have neither the luxury nor the inclination to
J. N. Horn seems to be aware of the structural difficulties of an integrated
indulge in feelings of goodwill, meekness and obedience to their white “mas-
ters”. Consequently we are faced with the situation where a believer from an church when-in another context-he discusses the leadership patterns of the
oppressed community, in order to receive the Spirit baptism, has to make a church and asks tentatively whether or not an apostolic (or in modern eccle-
greater stride towards holiness than a believer from an affluent white community. siological terminology an “episcopal”) leadership might not be at least as
spiritual as a polity led by democratically elected leaders.48But then, persons
As Pentecostals we have failed to see that the maintenance of white affluence is of “apostolic stature” are not particularly numerous in the Christian church.
done at the expense of black poverty and oppression. We have failed to acknowl- Not everyone claiming apostolic authority is a Don Helder CPmara, or a
edge that the social conditions in the oppressed communities are a direct result Martin Luther King, a Beyers Naude or a Frank Chikane. In fact-with
of the social conditions in the affluent white communities. We do not deny that
one exception, namely Chara-none of those mentioned had the title of
those aspects of morality and holiness which Pentecostals point out are impor-
tant. However, in our situation they are ineffective when they are not seen as
“bishop” or “apostle” conferred on him. Certainly there are real apostles and
being intrinsically linked with the corruptness of white affluence. . . . In South bishops in the Christian church. Unfortunately-or perhaps fortunately, who
Africa the Body of Christ is not united but politically and economically divided.” knows?-they are seldom recognized as such. That there are many so-called
apostles and bishops in the Christian churches-both big and small-is too
The document adds, “The early Christians did not appease the ruling commonly known to need d o c ~ m e n t a t i o n . ~ ~
government so that life could be made easy.” And Japie Lapoorta says bluntly:
“Non-racialism is a gift of the Spirit just like tongues.” Finally, the black uMoya-A Black Pentecostal Pneumatology
Pentecostals in South Africa ask over and over again: Can one be Spirit-filled
and racist? Another option might be to resolutely explore the possibilities of a black
This question surely went through Frank Chikane’s mind when he was pneumatology based on the Zulu concept and experience of uMoya, the Spirit
tortured by an elder of his own Pentecostal denomination (who was a police- in Zulu culture.50Such an attempt is made by the Pentecostal theologian Allan
man). Who is Spirit-filled here: the torturer, the tortured, both, or neither? It Anders~n.H ~ ’e reminds us of the fact that Christian theology has not entered
is high time that Pentecostal theologians and exegetes address this kind of Africa in a vacuum. Just as the Hellenistic theologians accepted certain con-
question. notations of Greek culture with the Greek term pneuma; just as the Latin
theologians accepted certain dualistic connotations of the Latin-Hellenistic
Horn, “Apostolic Leadership.”

45 Robeck,“Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 20. 49 See Donald Gee quoted in The Pentecostals, 193.
46 Originally published under the title “The Road to Damascus: Kairos and See the extensive discussion in The Pentecostals, 149ff.
Conversion”; commonly quoted as A Relevant Pentecostal Witness.
47 See in particular Lapoorta’s interpretation, “South Africa,” 28.
’’ Anderson, Moya.
52 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide South Africa 53
culture with the term spiritus (with far-reaching consequences for European ogy. A recently published book by Allan Anderson, Ba~alwane,~’ will be
theology-which has forgotten the original meaning of ruach jahwe, the He- important for this discussion because of its rich historical material on African
brew term);52 just as the French theologians hear in the word esprit and the Pentecostals in South Africa (including Zionists and other independent Pen-
German theologians in the word Geist some of the intellectual and “spirited” tecostal churches) and because the author sees not only a historical but also a
cultural background of these words; so Anderson tries to use the term Moyu theological link between these different types of Pentecostalism in South
in order to discover the Holy Spirit in an African context with its under- Africa.
standings of power, spirit, world, and the ancestor cult. It will be interesting This theological link is identified by a Canadian anthropologist, Karla
to see how his fellow Pentecostals in Africa and elsewhere will react. Poewe. She observes that in South Africa, as anywhere else,
He underlines the phenomenological and historical parallels between written liberation theologies were popular among students, professors, and
Pentecostalism and African religion, and is particularly interested in what he especially, politically radical Christians of the South African Council of
calls the Spirit-type churches (which I call independent African Pentecostal Churches. They were oppositional theologies whose adherents talked revolution,
or Zionist churches). He includes in his overview also Kimbanguism from but worked within the formal sectors of society which they opposed. While
Zaire, Aladura churches from Nigeria and similar churches from Ghana. T h e liberationist practices were often rejected by members of the various inde-
most important conclusion of this thesis, which was submitted to the Univer- pendent churches, even by their well-educated followers, written liberation
sity of South Africa-beside his clear acknowledgment of a historical contin- theologies were understood by them and were seen to have served a specific and
uum between African religion and Pentecostalisms3-is his statement: “The important function.59
Holy Spirit has sanctified for his use religious expressions which are found in “Black theologians talk black and do white,” says Kenosi Mofokeng, who
traditional Africa!”54 heads the Association of African Spiritual Churches.60 The reason is that
On the other hand, I did not find any trace of such reflections in the written theologies of liberation
otherwise interesting story of the Assemblies of God in Southern Africa by
grew out of the experiences of Catholic priests, often well educated Americans,
Peter Watt-and this, in spite of his emphasis on the fact that the majority of
or other scholars who worked with the poor. They did not grow out of the
the adherents of the Assemblies of God are black. He is very clear on “eccle- experiences of the poor themselves, but out of how priests and scholars who
siastical colonialism” by foreign missionariess5 and pleads for ecumenical encountered the poor imagined the poor to experience their poverty. Conse-
openness.s6 On the other hand there is a very clear political commitment quently, they are first and foremost theologies which registered the culture shock
expressed in an official statement already in 1989 (!): of those who worked with the poor.61
We are against unjust exploitation, racial discrimination . . . Biblical justice Unfortunately this type of liberation theology has at times developed into
would best be expressed in the principle of one person, one vote. We believe an ideology where all evil is seen in “the system,” and where to kill and
that it is a real matter of urgency that a National Convention be convened.
mutilate blacks and whites alike who happen to disagree with one’s revolution-
This must include the leaders of significance in South Africa, whether these
ary ideology is seen as necessary, in the interest of the struggle for freedom.
be presently detained, banned, imprisoned, in exile, or functioning under the
present system. 57
As an outsider to this struggle I do not feel that I can or should pass a
judgment on this. One thing however is sure: T h e liberationists have so far not
Certainly that is not the expression of a “pie-in-the-sky” apolitical shown enough respect for the religion of those whom they want to liberate.
spirituality. Theirs is very often still a colonialist
A discussion between Peter Watt, Allan Anderson, J. Nico Horn, Japie
Lapoorta, Frank Chikane, and others might produce a fruitful South African
theological and political agenda, or in African terms, an African pneumatol-
’*On this in detail 17% 3.

53 Anderson, Moya, 126-29.
541bid., 123. An important paper on this issue was delivered at the Brighton 58 On this book see ch. 20, pp. 266f.
conference by Daneel, ‘African”; also in International Review o f Mission, 821326, 59Poewe,“Theologies of Black South Africans,” 43-65, quote 46.
April, 1993, 143-66. Ibid., 46.
55 Watt, From Africa’s Soil, 197f. 61 Ibid., 47. See also Poewe-HexhadHexham, “Apartheid,” 78-83. Responses
561bid.,151-64. by J. N. Horn and Wynand J. de Kock in the same volume.
”Ibid., 182f. 62 More on African theology in ch. 6, pp. 70-80.
Pentecost of N’Kamba 55
Brazilian Pentecostal church B r a d para Cristo6 was admitted to the World

Council together with the Kimbanguist Church, the Brazilian Pentecostal leader
:SIX Manoel de Melo named the chief spiritual of the Kimbanguists, Joseph Di-
angienda, a Pentecostal, while the latter accepted de Melo as a Kimbanguist.
There is another reason for including this chapter in a book on Pente-
costalism’s promises and problems. The EJCSK is one of the best documented
and researched churches of a Pentecostal type in the Third World. Its history
and theology contain in a nutshell almost all the problems and promises of
such churches.
Pentecost of N’Kamba: Simon Pentecostal Movement and Kimbanguists in Zai’re’
KimbanguJ and His Church’ Susan Asch givesgrosso mod0 the following statistics: 12 million Catholics,
9 million in the Eglise du Christ au Zaire,’ and three million Kimbanguists,’
out of a population of 28 million. The number of Pentecostals in this picture
is almost negligible, perhaps 130,000. The following statistics are available:
Neither in the strictly dogmatical nor in the historical
sense does the Eglise de Jisus-Christ sur la terre d’apris le Cornrnunauti Assemblit-s de Dieu ri I’Est du Zaire (Handbuch, 01.18.003):
prophkte Simon Kimbangu (EJCSK) belong to the Pentecostal 21 congregations, 30,613 members ( W C h H 1968,64); Barrett ( WChE,
movement. Their idiosyncratic practice of Spirit baptism: for 762) gives for the same church 220 congregations, 4,409 members,
example, is unknown among Pentecostals. In contrast to other 10,780 adherents (ex Assemblies of God, UK).
independent churches in A f r i ~ athe
, ~ Kimbanguist Church did Communautk Assemblies de Dieu au Zaii-e (Handbuch, 01.18.004): 5 1
not emerge from Pentecostal missionary work. But on the pastors and congregations, 50,000 adherents ( W C h H 1968, 64); Bar-
other hand there are remarkable parallels between Pentecostals rett ( WChE, 762): 270 congregations, 16,019 members, 50,000 adher-
and Kimbanguists: healing through prayer; spontaneous wor- ents (ex Assemblies of God, USA)
ship within the framework of unwritten, but nevertheless Communauti Evangiligue de PentecSte au Shaba: Barrett ( WChE, 763)
efficient, liturgies; the congregation as a brotherly, all-embrac- 120 congregations, 18,014 members, 50,000 adherents (related to
ing community; the hierarchical leadership of the church; and Zai’rian Evangelistic Mission).
speaking in tongues, trembling4 and visions. Above all both Communauti PentecSttste au Zaire: Barrett ( WChE, 763) 600 congre-
Kimbanguists and Pentecostals believe that the Holy Spirit can gations, 54,371 members, 180,000 adherents (ex Zai’rian Evangelistic
be experienced, and that evil spirits are best counteracted by Mission).
the power of the Spirit.5 When at the Central Committee of Eglise de Dieu: Barrett ( W C h E , 762) 29 congregations, 6,163 mem-
the World Council of Churches in Canterbury (1969) the bers, 10,000 adherents (ex Church of God, Cleveland).
Communautk des Eglises de Grace au Zaire: Barrett ( WChE, 762) 152
‘This chapter started as a chapter in my Pentecost Between Black and White. It congregations, 5,538 members, 20,000 adherents. Together less than
has been thoroughly revised, updated, and annotated. one of the splinter churches of the “official” EJCSK. Obviously,
*See below p. 70. Pentecostalism in Zaire is not represented by the many Pentecostal
- . in South Africa, cf. The Pentecostals, 120-22, 149-75 and Oshun, “Per-
3E.a.,
spective,” 105-14; EPTA Bulletin 4/2, 1985, 73f. mission churches but by Kimbanguism in all its forms. Barrett rightly
4See the oldest report (Nfinanangani-Nzungu, “Kimbangu,” 15-42). The
document was found in the archives of the Service Colonial des Affaires Indigenes The Pentecostals, 99-108.
et de la Main d’Oeuvre, Ltropoldville (today Kinshasa). It mentions Kimbanp’s ’Zai’re is the African name for the former Belgian Congo.
speaking in tongues twice: “I spoke in a strange tongue” (“Kimbanp,” 24); “He ‘This is the name of the former Protestant Council of Churches into which most
spoke in a new tongue” (“Kimbangu,” 35). Trembling and speaking in tongues are Protestant missionary churches were forced by government decree. In the statistics
discouraged today. below all the churches with the prefix “communaut6” are members of the Eglise du
’This aspect particularly has been treated by E. Bazola in his sociological Christ au Zaire.
analysis. Bazola, “Kimbanguisme,” 144-52. ’Asch, Kirnbangu, 91.
56 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecost of N’Kamba 57
mentions the different organizations of Kimbanguism under the heading ment-the voices of those Pentecostals who see in the Kimbanguists their
brothers and sisters are increasing. Christian Krust, a German Pentecostal,
“Pentecostalism.~’10 It is of course a Pentecostalism sui generzs.
reports from the Fourth Assembly of the World Council of Churches at
The history in Zai‘re of the British and North American Assemblies of Uppsala in 1968 as follows:
God,” the British Congo Evangelistic Mission (today Zai‘rian Evangelistic Hitherto I had known nothing of the existence of such a church [namely the
Mission, ZEM)12 and French Assemblkes de Die~’~-including the remark- Kimbanguist church]. But when, after greeting and introducing ourselves, we
able school and hospital work of the N ~ r w e g i a n ’and ~ SwedishI5 Pente- knelt down and prayed together, the two [Kimbanguist] brethren from the
costals-has not yet been written. We know little or nothing about their Congo joined in prayer. It is true that I understand French only partially and it
relationships (or non-relationships) to Kimbanguism. was not possible for me to follow the exact wording of their prayer but the way
It seems that the different Pentecostal missions have had hardly any in which they prayed and spoke with God, that made a tremendous impression
contact with each other, possibly because each works in a different part of this on me and the others in the prayer-room: These brothers are specially inspired
large country. Marie-Louise Martin mentions 46 Protestant missionary socie- by the Holy Spirit! They spoke with such dignity and serenity that it warmed
ties and churches in Zaire-many of them evangelical.’6 One must look at the one’s heart. In the subsequent informal discussion the impression was deepened
that those two brothers Uean-Claude L. Luntadila, Philip Nanga] were firmly
protest against the fragmentation of the church in Zai’re in light of this
rooted in faith, that they were true members of the body of Christ, born again
background. Young people lay the blame for this at the feet of “the treacherous
and baptized with the Holy Spirit.20
and merchandising mis~ionaries.”’~
One would have hoped that there would be cooperation a t least between One can only hope that the Assemblies of God will change their unfavor-
Pentecostals and Kimbanguists in Zaire, and one can see a few encouraging able judgment of the Kimbanguists (a “false Christ” religion) in the light of
signs here. While it is true that the rejection of black Pentecostal churches in the reports by European Pentecostals.
South Africa in the past” finds its parallel in the rejection of the Kimbanguists My assessment is based on confidential documents and correspondence
by the American Assemblies of a t present-and this is a new develop- in the archives of the World Council of Churches,21on personal acquaintance
with Kimbanguists and a visit to Zaire, and above all on the seminal works by
’“Barrett, WChE, 762f. Asch and Ustorf.22
Wilson, E. A. G., Making M a n y Rich, 161-70. Carmichael, “Congo,” 19f.
’’ Steiner, L., M i t folgenden Zeichen, 98. Burton, “Kongo.” 19ff; idem, Man;
ritual includes elements of witchcraft and perverted prayer. It will take real prayer in
idem, Working; idem, Village; idem, Pastor; idem, Missionary; idem, Signs; idem,
the name of our Lord Jesus Christ to overcome this ‘false Christ’ religion.” P E
Mafundijyo. Moorhead, Congo Forest. Gee, Flesh, 63-67 (also in Gee, Wind and Flame,
2401,15.5.1960, 10. Against these reproaches see pp. 69f.
passim); Frodsham, With Signs Following, 165-75; Hodgson, Out of the Darkness.
2o Krust, “Kimbanguistenkirche,” 147-48. Cf. also Steiner, L., “Kimbanguis-
I 3 Giraud, “Congo,” 3 5 / 7 4 : 22-23; 35/11: 24-25. Vernaud, “Congo,” 37/6:
tenkirche.”
23-24; 3 7 / 7 4 20-21; 36/10: 21-22.
2’ Partly summarized in a document which was written together by the WCC and
I 4 Andresen, “Literaturmisjon,” 189-92. Birdli, “Skolearbeidet,” 176-88. Ber-
the Kimbanguists, “The Kimbanguist Church in the Congo,” printed: Ecumenical
resen, “1955-1960,” 165-69. Orlien, “Sykehuset i nay Kaziba,” 169-75.
Reciew l9/1, Jan. 1967, 29-36. Some of the more important of these documents are
Stenholm, “Svenska,”quoted by Blomquist, Svenska pingstcrickelsen, 264.
quoted and summarized by Niederberger, “Kimbangu-Kirche,” 21 5-19.
“Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 56f.
’’ Mukuan, “Dupl. minutes.” Cf. also, Serrice oecuminique de Presse 38/15,
” I n addition to the literature mentioned in the notes, one would have to
mention: Beguin-Martin, “Kimbanguisme,” 5-37; Casebow, Kimbanguisme. “Le
10.6.1971, 2 (WCC, Geneva, only in the French edition) and Ecumenicd Press Serrire
Kimbanguisme,” Courrier hebdomodaire 8.1.1960. Dialungana, Kisikulusa; Di-
39/2, 20.1.1972.
angienda, “Kimbanguisme,” 16-17; idem, “Coup”; Lasserre, “L’Eglise,” 45-52;
I 8 The Pentecostals, 126-39; above ch. 5, pp. 41-43.
Lerrigo, “Prophet Movement in the Congo,” 270-77; Luzolo, Muand ‘uvelela; Mar-
l9 “The village of Banza Mateke, seventy-five miles northeast of Matadi, Belgian
tin, M.-L., “Prophetism in the Congo,” 154-63. Idem, Prophetic Christianity in the
Congo, has become the center of a nationalistic religious movement which is causing
Congo; Masembo, L e Prophitisme kongo. Mwene-Batende, Etude sociologique; Nton-
some concern among the Congo missionaries. The ‘Ngunza’ movement is extremely tolo, Mouoementsprophitiques; Ryckmans, Les mouoements prophitique du kongo; Dou-
nationalistic, having vowed to ‘drive all whites into the ocean’. It has within its creed
treloux, “Prophetisme”; Lanternari, Movimenti, 1lff. Bibliography in Mitchell-Turner,
a mixture of spirit worship, materialism, and elements of Christianity. Their Christ
Bibliography. Follow-up in Journal o f Religion in Africa I , 1968, 173-210. Chassard,
is a Congolese, Simoni Kimbangi (sic), who lived a good life and died a Romanist.
“Essai de bibliographie,” 4 3 4 9 .
They maintain that ‘Jesus Christ is the white man’s Savior. Ours is Simoni Kimbangi,
and he will soon rise from the dead and lead us to victory’. The Ngunza preachers Besides the work of Susanne Asch, the most important research is by Werner
Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative. In his Christianized Africa- De-Christianized Europe?
Pray ‘in the name of the Father and Simone, and the Holy Ghost’. It is not unusual Ustorf summarized in a less critical form his insights (34,436 49-57,60-70,736 99).
for thousands to come to this village bringing their sick to the Ngunza preacher
Gabriel Mabwaka, for prayer, hoping for some miracle to relieve their suffering. T h e For solid research on Kimbanguism, Ustorf’s Afrikanische Initiative is indispensable.
Pentecost o f N’Kamba 59
Marie-Louise Martin also had access to documents relevant to the origin In 1918 he tried his hand as a worker in the Huileries du Congo Beige,
of the church, and was able to interview e y e w i t n e s s e ~ That
. ~ ~ enabled her to and later as a kind of street seller in Kinshasa, for which he needed a ‘‘permis
recognize many stories and reports as legends and to discard them. Some of de ~ k j o u r . ”T~h~e street trading was a failure. He “returned to N’Kamba and
these legends appeared in 1961 in a small liturgy,2’ allegedly published by tried to make ends meet as a farmer and a carpenter. Nevertheless the family
Kimbanguist pastors with the approval of their spiritual head. Though this suffered greatly.”30
booklet has often been used as a source by researcher^,^' it is without doubt a Already in 1915/ 16 he had received a first vocation: “I had a dream from
forgery; for one thing, the Kimbanguists did not use printed liturgies.26 God who told me: ‘I have heard your prayer. People think that one needs “de
Werner Ustorf, however, has serious doubts whether Marie-Louise Mar- l’esprit’’31for doing my work, but I will give you in abundance.’ ”32
tin’s description presents anything more than the streamlined “orthodox” One night in the year 1918, when many were dying of flu because the
view of Kimbanguism as it is presented today by its urban leadership. He has medical help promised by the missions did not arrive, Kimbangu heard a voice
attempted a thorough reconstruction of the life and death of Simon Kimbangu saying: “I am Christ, my servants are unfaithful, I have chosen you to witness
on the basis of hitherto unknown or forgotten documents (among them two and convert your brothers. . . Take care of my sheep.”33Simon answered: “I
letters by Simon Kimbangu). do not know this kind of work, Lord. There are others better educated than
me, they will take care of the flock.”34 Night after night the audition was
Simon Kimbangu repeated, and Simon’s wife heard Simon answering.
T h e Kimbanguists make fun of the European pneumatology which says On the morning of the 6th of April, 1921 (today celebrated as the foun-
that the Holy Spirit is a bird; for the Kimbanguists the Spirit manifests itself dation-day of the church) Simon went to the market. Then he felt compelled
in a man, Simon K i m b a n g ~ . *A~very interesting pneumatology! However, against his will to go into the neighboring village of Ngombe-Kinsukke, to
once this man had died, his sons became the incarnation of divine power and enter the hut of Nkiantondo, a sick woman, and to lay his hands on her head
guidance. and heal her in the name of Christ. The woman was healed. Soon other
Who was Simon Kimbangu? He was born in 1889 at N’Kamba (Thys- healings followed. Marie-Louise Martin sums up this period:
ville, Lower Zaire). Kuyela, his father, and Lwezi, his mother, died early. He T h e most important point made by Kimbanguist narrators is: “Should the same not
was educated by his aunt, Kinzembo. As a young man he became a Chris- happen in the Congo as happened in Palestine? Has the time of miracles passed?
tian. He had his theological education from the Baptists, and in July 1915 Did Christ not ordain his disciples to preach and heal? If we recall the stories in
was baptized in the river that passes by Ngombe-Lutete, together with his the Acts of the Apostles, did they not do it in the power of the Holy
wife Mvilu Marie and the man who later became his assistant, Mikala Man-
“As far as the followers of Kimbangu were concerned, nothing less than a
dombe. He tried to become a catechist with the Baptist Missionary Society,
new Pentecost had come. T h e Holy Spirit had evidently descended on Simon
but was refused because he was only “village trained” and could only read
Kimbangu and had given him authority to heal and to preach.”36This convic-
“stumblingly.”28
tion is so great that the trinitarian formula “in the name of the Father, the Son and
the Holy Ghost” is often supplemented by the words “which has come upon
23 Among the documents, hitherto unknown, particularly important are: reports
Simon Kimbangu,” or “which has spoken to us through Simon Kimbangu.”
of the secretaries of Simon Kimbangu, Nfinangani and Nzungu, which were confis-
cated by the Belgian colonial administration 17.6.1921 (see above, note 4); a report That does not mean, as has been stated,37that Simon Kimbangu replaces the
by the Belgian administration (so-called “documents secrets belge”) which fell into
the hands of the Kimbanguists in 1960; a number of letters and reports by mission- 29 Ordonnance of 10.8.1920, quoted by Feci, “Kimbangu,” 9, according to the
aries of the British Baptist Missionary Society (in their London archives) and others. ProgrPs colonialof 16.6.1921 and 23.6.1921, quoted in Asch, Kimbangu, 21.
24 Nkanda Bisamu bia Simon Kimbangu. French subtitle: Office du prophite Simon 30 Sources in Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative, 125.
Kimbangu, 1961. 31 “De I’esprit” in the French sense means “intelligence.”
” Chome, Kimbangu; Raymaekers in his introduction to the document men- 32 Nfinangani-Nzungu, “Kimbangu,” 4 2.
tioned in note 4. 33 Choffat, “Kimbanguiste,” 4.
26 Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 48; English translation: Kimbangu, 40. 34 Desanti, “Golden Anniversary,” 7-19 (with excellent photographs).
27 Asch, Kimbangu, 165. 3’ From an unpublished draft of Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse.
28 Casebow on the 23d April 1958 from Ngombe Lutete in the Circular Letter 36 Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 74; English; Kimbangu, 47 (my translation).
no. 2 to the Baptists Missionary Headquarters (Baptist Missionary Society Archive, 37 Buana-Kibongi, “Kimbanguisme,” 75-81. This formulation is very similar to
Casebow Papers; Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative, 122, 154. Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Montanus’. Tertullian’s use of the term “Spirit,” “when describing Montanus seems
weisse, 70). Today’s Kimbanguist leaders say Kimbangu was a catechist with the to have been his way of equating the mords of Montanus with the teachings of the
Baptists. Spirit, not their persons.” Robeck, Prophecy, 260, note 27. O n the famous comparison
60 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Deoelopments Worldwide Pentecost of N’Kamba 61
Holy Spirit in the eyes of his followers, b u t it does mean that they consider In the Name of Law and Order. . .
him to be an instrument (or perhaps an incarnation) of the Holy Spirit.
T h i s becomes m o r e understandable if o n e realizes the plight in which T h e Belgian civil servant Morel was asked to open an investigation of the
the population found itself at this time. Colonialism, with its oppression Kimbanguist revival. When Morel arrived at N’Kamba the prophet and his
and its contagious diseases, had reduced the population of t h e Bakongo by five disciples felt the Spirit upon them, and they spoke in tongues and sang
two-thirds. I n the face of epidemics European medicine was powerless. I t throughout the whole night.43
is therefore understandable that Kimbangu’s healings were considered a Morel came to the conclusion:
gift from God.38 Kimbangu wants to found a religion which reflects the mentality of the Africans,
Now the masses flocked together. Without wanting it, Kimbangu became a religion, which contains the fundamentals of Protestantism, mixed up with
the founder of a large and enthusiastic movement which shook the whole practices of witchcraft . . . Everybody can see that the European religions have
country. With the Bible in his hands he asked his countrymen to stamp out all been petrified by abstractions and do not correspond to the mentality of the
witchcraft and to abstain from heathen dances and from polygamy. Surprised Africans who are longing for tangible facts and protection from demons. The
religion of Kimbangu suits them because it is supported by tangible facts.44
by the great success, he chose five African helpers. B u t the missionaries and
the then Belgian colonial government became very suspicious.3yChurches and And Marie-Louise Martin adds: “How right Morel was, b u t the time to
workshops were deserted, for which Kimbangu was made responsible. How- view this insight positively had n o t yet come!”45 for M o r e l continues:
ever, one could call this-as Ustorf does-an “apocalyptically-based move- “Therefore it is necessary to fight Kimbangu. His tendency is Pan-African. Natives
m e n t of non- cooperation which spoiled the smooth r u n n i n g of colonial will say: ‘We have found a God of the blacks, the religion which suits the
economy.”4” Kimbangu was unjustly accused of hatred of the Europeans4’ and African’ . . . Law and Order demands that Kimbanguism be stopped quietly
of seducing people into laziness and refusing to pay their but i m m e d i a t e l ~ . ” ~ ~
When the colonial government decided to arrest Kimbangu, he fled from
of man “as a lyre” see Robeck, Prophecy, 287, note 29. Robeck is a Pentecostal patristic N’Kamba; but in September 1921, of his own free will, he presented himself
scholar who writes about prophecy in Carthage as somebody who knows the problem before his persecutors. Before that, he admonished his followers to accept
and promise of continuing revelation and prophecy today. See also Robeck, “Canon.” sufferings courageously, never to use the sword, and never to repay the evil done
I owe this comparative reflection to Dr. Robeck.
38 Asch, Kimbangu, 17,19, quoting van Wing, “Kimbanguisme,” 563418, quote 565.
by the Europeans by doing evil to them. Although no white man was ever
39 Choffat (“Kimbanguiste,” 32, note 34) quotes some such voices from La Voir injured, Kimbangu was arrested in September 1921 after only five months of public
du Ridempteur, Aug . 1921 and Dec. 1921; likewise Bertsche, “Kimbanguism,” 18) ministry. In a pseudo-process- the Belgian writer Chomi. called it a “judicial
quotes Dunfoneny, Congo, 2/4, 1924, 380-88. monstrosity”47-the military commander Rossi sentenced him to 120 lashes,48
Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative, 194.
4’ This is contradicted by a prayer of Simon Kimbangu which has been kept:
“Bless all the races of the earth, the big and the small ones, women and men, white 43 Nfinangani-Nzungu, Kimbangu, note 4.
and black” (published in the Kimbanguist document Mise aupoints, 1957, quoted by *The Morel Reports in Ryckmans, Les mouaementsprophPtiques du kongo, 47 and
Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 77.) Cf. Gilis, Kimbangu, fondateur de l’iglise, 39, in Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative, 375, note 4. The reports of the colonial administra-
and furthermore by a declaration which appeared in the periodical Kimbanguisme (no. tion were extremely racist and superficial. They accused Kimbangu of “superstition”
1, May 1960): “Our religion remains open to all races” (quoted by Decapmaeker, (Rapport de I’administration du Congo Belge, 1922, quoted in Asch, Kimbangu, 28)
“Kimbanguisme,” 64). In spite of the hard and unjust treatment, which the Kimban- or of mental illness (same report 1921, Asch, Kimbangu, 25).
guists experienced from the whites, it was a Kimbanguist (Charles Kosolokele) who ‘j Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 87f.; English, Kimbangu, 57 (my translation).
during the riots in 1960 used all his influence in order to get the whites free (Martin, ” Ryckmans, Les moucements prophiriques du kongo. Indeed it is possible that
M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 171. Hoskyns, Congo, 90). On the other hand it is true that, Kimbangu had been in contact with the ideas of some black Baptists whose ideas one
according to Bazola, the Kimbanguists have occasionally criticized the missionaries. can summarize like this: a) the black civilization is a t the root of European civilization;
But from this one cannot easily deduce that they hated the whites. See e.g.: “The b) blacks must break their chains and become again pioneers of humanity; c) Christ
catholic and protestant missionaries have brought us the Gospel and the doctrine of himself was black; d) he calls the blacks to create their own religion based on their
Jesus Christ, only begotten Son of God, who died on the cross for the salvation of all own traditions. For connections between black Baptists and Kimbangu, see Asch,
men, who, by the sin of Adam, have violated the divine ideal which had become Kimbangu, 21f. On a visit to Kinshasa the Kimbanguists told me that two of them had
impossible to attain because of their degenerated nature” (Wikisi-Yowani-Lun- tried to visit the aging Morel in order to tell him that they had forgiven him. Although
tadila-Diata, Mise a u point, quoted by Bazola, “Kimbanguisme,” 133). “The rnission- they had flown to Brussels for this visit, Morel did not receive them.
aries have falsified the message of the Gospel in hiding some doctrine, namely the 47 ChomC, Kimbangu, 72.
one of the Holy Spirit” (Bazola, “Kimbanguisme,” 148). 48 A later lashing, when he was delivered to prison, is described by one of colonial
42 Cf. the obligation to pay taxes in the Kimbanguist ethics, below p. 67. agents as follows: “First discipline. My Kibangu [sic] has earned his lashes, he shall
62 PENTECOSTALISM: Origtns and Developments Worldwide Pentecost of N’Kamba 63
followed by capital punishment. However the Belgian King, Albert I,

Sufferings
commuted capital punishment to life imprisonment, partly because of inter-
cessions by some mis~ionaries.’~ Kimbangu was deported to Katanga where Much sulkring down here.
he was imprisoned for thirty years. He died in the prison of Elisabethville Sickness makes us suffer.
Tears are flowing.
(today Lubumbashi) on the 12th October 1951. J. van Wing (whose report Come to our aid!
was also obviously used by the Assemblies of God) stated that on his H o b Ghost, corn<, o come!
death-bed Kimbangu had agreed to become a Catholic, but this statement Come to our aid!ib
is categorically denied by the sisters who had looked after Kimbangu in
prison, and by one of his warders. Many hymns tell of the sufferings of this time when Kimbangu accepted
T h e Benedictine Franqois Xavier Nsenkoto affirms that Kimbangu con- his imprisonment without putting up any resistance. Before entering prison,
verted to the Catholic Church shortly before his death and he, Nsenkoto Kimbangu had admonished his followers not to exercise any opposition,
baptized him.” This is strongly denied by Sinda” and the neo-Kimban- leaving them nothing but the Bible and the suggestion that they should join
guist leaders.j2 Ustorf, who discusses the whole material carefully and in the Protestant missions. T h e Kimbanguists were now faced with a cruel
detail, had corresponded with Nsenkoto and published also two (disputed) persecution which lasted almost forty years. About 37,000 persons were
letters by Kimbangu from prison. Nevertheless he tends to agree with deported, and most of them died in exile.” One had only to be accused of
Nsenkoto. Gilis says rightly: “Whether he died a catholic or a Kimbanguist, being a Kimbanguist, or to utter the name Simon Kimbangu, in order to be
what does it matter. He died in peace.”j3 deported without trial. During a meal in Kinshasa at which a drama group
Ustorf, who discusses the emerging prophetic awareness in Kimbangu in played the “Passion of Kimbangu,” a Kimbanguist told me that he was
the social and historical context of the time can explain a certain sobering in arrested at four o’clock in the morning because the police found in his house
prison (cf. M t 11:3) and interprets Kimbangu’s mission adequately when he a newspaper article on Kimbangu. He was put into a concentration camp5*
writes: “Kimbangu tried less to find a meaning in the Bible or to find a text where each morning a number of Kimbanguists were beaten up and killed-just
geared to his situation. He was looking much more-as Pentecostals do in for fun. However, deportation did not break the spirit of witness of these
general-for parallels to his social and personal history in the Bible which Christians. Proof of this is in their hymns:
would uncover its meaning. Clearly he discovered other texts in the Bible than God has created Heanen and Earth.
~ ~ that this is a kind of hermeneutics which we find
the m i s s i o n a r i e ~ . ”Note Nobody is more powerful than He.
also among the early disciples of Jesus.” One o f these dajis he i s goin to end all palaver.
Come quickly, let us pray! 54
In the former Belgian and French Congo, Gabon, Angola, and Rwanda,
Kimbanguist congregations emerged, but mostly in secret. As the leaders were
have them, this is clear. The Kimbanguists smiled. They thought the whip would
break in the air. Kibangu and his epidermis are holy, untouchable. A miracle was regularly arrested, some of these groups degenerated and began endless
going to happen. Emotion. Silence. Whack! My prophet cries like mad. H i s . . . well, quarrels with each other. T h e latest arrests took place in 1957 (according to
you understand, was sensitive like that of anyone. Whack! He is writhing and Ustorf 1959). Then followed the episode-famous in the history of the
grimacing. That was the end. Kibangu understood that he was not a prophet and the Kimbanguist church-in the sports stadium of King Baudouin, today Stadion
other prisoners understood too. That heals many a thing, the whip.” (Statement by St. Raphael. Joseph Diangienda recounted the event to Marie-Louise Martin
Enauts, quoted in Chalux [pseudonym], Congo Belge, 409).
49 The difficult situation of the protestant missionaries who “were caught in a
as follows: While he stayed in the car and prayed,
cross-fire between the administration, the Roman Catholic and many African Prot- a delegation of Kimbanguists went with a letter to the Belgian Governor-General,
estant Christians” (Irvine, “Birth,” 23-76) is discussed by Ustorf, Afrikanische
Pktillon The letter, signed by six hundred leading Kimbanguists who were
Initiative; Irvine, “Birth”; and Fehderau, “Prophetic Christianity,” 157-78.
50
Nsenkoto, L a Croix du Congo, 25/46, 17.11.1975, If. quoted in Ustorf, Afri-
kanische Initiative, 457f. Similar van Wing (“Kimbanguisme” note 39) and Ngindu, 56 Bolamba, Dzaconre, 19; Asch, Kimbangu, 23. The Kimbanguist hymns were
‘‘Colloque,” 63 1-45. collected bl the Belgian police, see Boka-Raymaekers, Chants.
51
Sinda, L e messianisme congolais, 85. 57 On14 2685 survibed. Asch, Kzmbangu, 40,qhoting a document by Luntadila,
52
Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 97; English: Kimbangu, 64. NOV.1971, 3 (archives EJCSK, General Secretariat). Also Desanti, “Golden Anni-
53G.ills,
’
Kimbangu, fondateur de l’iglise, 109. versary,” 18.
j4 Ustorf, Afrikanische Initiative, 184. 58 Such concentration camps are documented in Asch, Kzmbangu, 33.
j5 Weber, H.-R., “Bibel,” 97-107. 59 Boka-Raymaekers, Chants, no. 3.
Pentecost of N’Kamba 65
“prophet”63and “example”@; as the one through whom “the people of the

known for their irreproachable conduct read as follows: “We are suffering too Congo know that God and Jesus remembered us”65;and in one instance as the
much. Wherever we assemble for prayer your soldiers arrest us. We do not want
comforter promised in John 14:12-18.66 T h e statements on the second coming
to make such trouble for the police. We will all assemble in the stadium of King
of Kimbangd’ and his pre-existence,68 which a European theologian could
Baudouin- unarmed- and there you can massacre u s if you want.” T h e
alternative solution-not expressed in the letter-“or give us religious liberty.” misunderstand as Christological ideas, are interpreted by Marie-Louise Martin
in the context of an African understanding, which-similar to that of the
T h e delegation went to M . Petillon while the Kimbanguists began to assemble Orthodox church-assumes the living and the deceased Christians to be one
in the Stadium Baudouin to prepare themselves for arrest and death. T h e single community. The title “God” is explicitly rejected for K i m b a n g ~The
.~~
governor was in a very tricky situation. “DO you believe that the government has most understandable term for a European reader is probably that of an
the right to wipe out a whole section of the population without reason?” he asked interce~sor;’~
i.e., Simon Kimbangu has a position in the Kimbanguist Church
the delegates. They answered: “Well, does the government not have this right?
Why then does it have the right to deport 37,000 families?” Petillon hesitated.
H e wanted to avoid a decision. What would Brussels say if he were to order the Simon Kimbangu i Ntumwa Nfumu’ eto Yesu Klisto” (Both catechisms quoted in
police to shoot at the unarmed crowd? What would the world press say? On the full by Raymaekers, Zaire, 737-40.
63 Dialangana, Zolanga, no. 3; quoted by MacGaffey, “Beloved City,” 138.
other hand, what would the colons, the white settlers, say if he were to concede
Dialangana, Tanganinia, 22ff: “Tata has exactly walked in the foot-prints of
religious freedom to the Kimbanguists? But the delegation insisted on a clear yes o u r Lord Jesus Christ. We must follow him, because our Lord has chosen him to show
or no. Finally the governor did the only reasonable thing. H e conceded tolerance, us the way” Quoted by Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 205; English: Kimbangu, 145.
saying: “I grant you tolerance but without the guarantee of the government. For 65 Dialangana, Zolanga, no. 4.7: “Because Simon Kimbangu obeyed the voice of
this I am not authorized. Yet I do not arrest you.’76o Jesus, all things promised were fulfilled in him, the work of Jesus was revealed, and the
names of God the Father and the Lord Jesus were glorified. Since the coming of the
“We were overjoyed,”61 ends Luntadila, the general secretary of the missionaries it had never happened that the dead arose, the lame walked, and the blind saw,
Church, in his report on the incident. T h e negotiations still took some time. or that people of their own free will threw away their fetishes, or wanted to pray to God.
At Christmas, 1959-after almost forty years wandering in the wilderness-the And only then did we the people of Kongo know that God and Jesus remembered us. The
grief and suffering of our fathers were heard by God the Father, and the tears of us the
Kimbanguist Church was recognized by the Belgian government and put on black people are wiped away in Kongo” (quoted by MacGaffey, “Beloved City,” 139).
the same level as the Catholic and Protestant missions. On June 30th, 1960, h6 Catechisme, 11.7.1957, question 2: “Comment le savons-nous que Tata Simon
the Congo shook off the colonial yoke. Those deported Kimbanguists who had Kimbangu est l’envoye de Notre Seigneur Jesus-Christ? Jesus-Christ hi-meme nous
survived could return. a promis de demander a son pere de nous envoyer un autre Consolateur pour realiser
plus que h i . Lisez Jean 14.12-18.” Kikongo: “Bweyi tuzayidi vo tata Kimbangu
Simon i Ntumwa Klisto? Kadi Yandi Mfumu eto Yesu Klisto kibeni watusila nsila vo
The Kimbanguist Church Today sikatulombela kwa S e katufidisila onsadisi wa nkaka yni sikavanga mavangu
The Actual Doctrine on Simon Kimbangu masundidi (Womai 14: 12-18),” quoted by Raymaekers, Zaire, 737-40.
6 7 T h e catechisms of 1957 (answer 13) speaks of Kimbangu, who “est mort et
An examination of all the passages in Kimbanguist literature which relate resuscite et demeure avec nous en tout esprit.” Question 11: “Tata Simon kirnbangu
to Kimbangu show him as the “envoy of Our Lord Jesus Christ”62; as saura-t-il revoir encore? Quelle est la conclusion de tout cela? Certes, il reviendra,
car tout ce qui a commence doit avoir sa realisation! Jean 16.19-33” (quoted by
Ravmaekers, Zaire).
60Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 151-53; English: Kimbangu, 105 (my 68 Catkchisme, 1957, Question 20: “A quel moment Tata Simon Kimbangu a-t-il
translation); Asch, Kimbangu, 38f. T h e Kimbanguists had already acted in a similar commence? I1 demeurait avec Dieu des le commencement (Jean I.]),’’ quoted by
way earlier: 1923 when several catechists were arrested (Balandier, Sociologie actuelle, Raymaekers, Zaire, and Gilis, Kimbangu,fondateur d’iglise, 104. Le CatPchisme concer-
443) and 1964 in Stanleyville (Choffat, “Kimbanguiste,” note 34, 12). Ustorf (Afri- nant le prophhte Simon Kimbangu (N’Kamba 1970) likewise (1.4, quoted by Wain-
kanische Initiative) considers the story to be a legend. In general he considers wright, “Reflections,” 22f.
Marie-Louise Martin’s Kirche ohne Weisse (English: Kimbangu) to be an uncritical 69 Catkchisme, 1957, Question 19 and hymn no. 5 in collection of hymns men-
adaptation of the “official church history” by the now leading Kimbanguist hierarchy. tioned in note 56 above, also quoted by Bazola, “Kimbanguisme,” 132f
But Asch gives good documentation. Ustorf expressed his criticism of the ‘‘official 70 Calendar of the Kimbanguist church 1969: Simon Kimbangu “intercedes for
history” also in the review of Diangienda’s L’histoire du Kimbanguisme in Zeitschrift the needs of the believers with Jesus, so that he might have mercy.” (Martin, M.-L.,
fur Mission 11/4, 1985, 248-50. Kirche ohne Weisse, 208). Likewise in their magazine Kimbanguisme (2.9. 1960) in an
61 Luntadila, L’Essor. article by Victor Fwakwanzo: “Oh prophete, vous qui aves rkpondu a la voix de Dieu,
CatPchisme 11.7.1957, question 1: Qui est Tata (respectful title which means ~ O U Squi avez vkcu tant de peines pour le salut d e tous les hommes sans distinction
father addressed to every adult man) Simon Kimbangu? Answer: “Tata Kimbangu de couleur ni de race, veus qui avez vecu une vie miserable ici-bas, vous qui prechez
est l’envoye de Notre Seigneur Jesus-Christ.” In the Kikonga catechism (1958) the l’amour du prochain, vous qui avez t t e maltraite pour avoir preche la doctrine divine,
corresponding passage reads as follows: “0Tata Simon Kimbangu inani? 0 Tata
66 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecost of N’Kamba
67
similar to that of the saints in the Catholic church. That may be due to Catholic the pygmies are first given help with their economic needs in the transition
influence. “Yet more important is the fact that in Africa one does not approach the from a hunting culture to an elementary agricultural culture.
highest authority directly; modesty forbids it. One turns to a go-between . . .”71 In and with this social work the Kimbanguists proclaim the Gospel. They
even began a mission among the blacks in the United States, with whom they
The Hereditary Princes expressed their solidarity. In one of their catechisms we read:
The Kimbanguist church is today led by a kind of hereditary hierarchy, Know this, that we the black race are the most dishonored of all races whom God
created on this earth. We could not finish telling the torments imposed upon us
embodied in the sons of Kimbangu. Joseph Diangienda for instance is Tata
by the white man, especially the government white men. Think how we were
mfumu ’a nlogon, translated by the Kimbanguists as chief spiritual. This title
transported by the peoples of Europe, how many blacks were put in ships like
means in fact a kind of sacred supreme head or king. This hereditary religious sardines at sea, with never a hand extended to save them. At other times a small
hierarchy is often criticized by Christian theologians as being contrary to the number managed to arrive in America and other countries of the white man, but
principles of a Christian church. In this connection Marie-Louise Martin even those few fell into unlimited s~ffering.~’
says: “We need not only educated leaders, but also charismatic leaders, in
whom-as in Joseph Diangienda-something of the exousia, of the authority Ethics and Political Position76
of Christ shines through. T h e lack of such leaders in Africa [and in Europe?]
is responsible for many a crisis in the church. Africa does not live by ideas, According to the church order of March 6th, 1960, the Kimbanguists
formulas and sound creeds but by incarnations of Christian faith in the widest follow these ethical rules:
sense.”72In my opinion Martin does not here quite explain why this charis- to respect the authorities (Rom. 13:l-3)
matic quality has to be hereditary-despite all the profound insights expressed to love each other, including one’s enemies (Mt. 5:43-45)
in her statement. The problem will come up again, in all its ambiguity, in the to abstain from strong drinks
next generation of leaders. to abstain from tobacco and above all from drugs
to abstain from dancing or even assisting at dances (immoral dances)
Schools, Mission, and Social Work not to swim or sleep naked
to act with charity towards those who need it, irrespective of race or
When the Kimbanguist children were forbidden to attend the missionary color (Rom. 12:9-21)
schools, the Kimbanguists had to build their own schools and dispensaries. By to abstain from witchcraft
1968, the Kimbanguist school system taught 96,000 pupils in state-subsidized to pay taxes (Mt. 22:17-21)
schools and many hundreds of thousands of children and young people in to avoid all backbiting against a neighbor
schools which at that time had not been recognized. Today, the system is under to avoid all calumny against a neighbor
the leadership of E M ’ V ~ e n d y a, ~Kimbanguist
~ who earned his doctorate at every member to confess his faults to a selected body
the Sorbonne. M’Vuendy has also become Ye nouveau commissaire d’ktat a Kimbanguism is a church of the Holy Spirit. Therefore all the Kim-
l’einseignement primaire et secondaire”-a kind of Minister of Education in banguist Christians have to behave according to the Holy Spirit.
the Government.74 the EJCSK does not prohibit any food, except pork and monkey
In addition there are schools for women, workshops for apprentices and the church has the right to exclude a member who does not want to
cooperatives for farmers, as well as Kibbutzim (collective farms). The Kim- follow these rules.77
banguists also build their own bridges, electricity plants and factories. A
Kimbanguist evangelist has begun missionary work among the pygmies, and The Church “condemns all use of violence in trying to settle problems
shows them how to plant manioc and corn and how to raise chickens. Thus among men.”” In spite of this, the Kimbanguists sign on for military service.
vous qui avez vbcu une vie semblable a celle de notre Seigneur Jesus-Christ, nous 75 Dialangana, Zolanga no. 3.1; quoted MacGaffey, “Beloved City,” 136.
vous implorons que ceux qui vous ont fait souffrir soient pardonnes, car ils ne savaient jh Cf. on this Sinda, Le messianisme congolais. Hollenweger, Marxist and Kimban-
pas ue vous &tesl’envoye de Dieu.” Lasserre, “L’eglise,” 26. guist Mission; idem, ITh 1 (index). Banda-Mwaka, “Kimbanguisme,” 3-53. Cf. also the
“Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 208; English: K i m b a n g u , 147 (my “mes_sage to all Christians” of the EJCSK, published in Zeichen der Zeit 31 193, 112.
translation). I 7 Quoted by Martin, M.-L., Kcrche ohne Weisse, 186; English: Kimbangu, 132 has
72 Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 215f; English: Kimbangu, 152 (my translation). a different version. A similar church order quoted by Raymaekers, Zaiie, 695, from
73 M’Vuendy, Kimbanguisme. the year 1959.
74Asch,Kimbangu, 76, 81. 78 Diangienda, “Eglise et politique,” 41.
69
the World Council of Churches. In the view of the Kimbanguists, a Zayrian

They reject capitalism and communism alike.79 This statement has been
church is not a church in the full sense of the word, for the church is either
questioned by most knowledgeable observers; they point to the extreme
universal or it is not a church at all.85As the Kimbanguist church cannot be
loyalty of the Kimbanguist leadership to the Mobutu regime” which can only
universal on its own, it considers the World Council of Churches to be an
be understood (but perhaps not justified) as the reaction of a persecuted
instrument through which it can participate in the catholicity of the whole
minority to finding, at last, a respectable place in society.
church-an ecclesiological insight which many European churches lack.
Worship However, considerable opposition was mounted against the entry of the
Kimbanguists into the World Council of Churches.
In the Kimbanguist service the hymns,81 which have sometimes been This came from two quarters: On the one hand it was feared-and rightly
created during the times of persecution, are as important as the sermon. The so!-that the reception of the Kimbanguists into the World Council would
first historian of the Kimbanguists called their singers ‘Lchantres.”82Often the relativize European and American missionary work in Africa. On the other,
singing is accompanied by flute orchestra. Occasionally a brass band plays. the Kimbanguists were not trusted theologically. They were asked to submit
Men and women share alike in the proclamation of the word. The chief their confession of faith-something which had never been asked from a
spiritual, Joseph Diangienda, does not preach. He prays; for-he says-praying European or American Church. But the Kirnbanguist church did not have a
is more important for a religious head or bishop, than preaching. Kimbanguists confession of faith. Their theology is embodied in their hymns and liturgy. “I
meet daily in small groups for a short house-meeting. At twelve o’clock they pray do not have the spirit for reading,” said Simon Kimbangu. “Nevertheless I
again. Wednesday afternoon and evening they hold short prayer-meetings. have considerable intelligence for religion.”s6 In order to please the World
Every Saturday they meet in small prayer-groups in houses and pray through- Council of Churches the Kimbanguists wrote a normal evangelical confession,
out the night. On Sundays they celebrate their main service which-above all which was recognized in Geneva as plagiarism. The submission by one of the
in Kinshasa-is extended once a month to a big festival service. At the festival World Council of Churches executives in Geneva-which stated that under
service they bring their offerings according to the African custom: money, these conditions neither the apostles nor our Lord Jesus Christ would ever
produce and other gifts. Without ever having read Bonhoeffer, the Kimban- have had a chance of being received into the World Council of Churches-re-
guists admit no strict division between sacred and profane. The social get-to- mained unanswered. As the negotiations dragged on for several years, Joseph
gether and profane singing, music-making, palavering, and gift-giving have as Diangienda wrote an important letter to the General Secretary of the World
much religious character as the “religious” singing, praying, music-making, Council of Churches on July ISth, 1969.87
offertory and stylized dancings3 Three points from that letter:
The Catholicity of the KimbanguistsS4 1. T h e Kimbanguist Church does not seek entry into the World Coun-
cil of Churches for material advantage. She has developed inde-
With endurance and patience, the Kimbanguists have tried to enter into pendent of foreign money and she will continue to do so.
dialogue with the European churches. For this purpose, they sought entry to
2. T h e reason for the Kimbanguist church’s application is a spiritual
one. It is high time that Christians take seriously the problems of
79 “Un fidkle de l’EJCSK ne peut accepter de propager ou d’adherer a une ideologie,
doctrine ou theorie sur laquelle se fonde un syteme politique, economique et social qui world peace, of justice, of help to those without any rights. This is
tend a expliquer I’kvolution historique du monde en ecartant l’intervention divine” something the Kimbanguist church cannot do by herself. This task
(Diangienda, “Eglise et politique,” 40). Cf. also Diangienda, “L‘EJCSK face aux has to be undertaken by the world-wide church.88
problemes politiques, economiques, sociaux tel qu’ils se posent au Congo, en Afrique
et dans le monde” (dupl.; quoted by Bertsche, “Kimbanguism,” 27), where a plea is
made for a free medical service, free schooling for all citizens, and other things. Minutes and Reports o f the W r d Meeting, CC 1969 (Canterbury), 11. L a Documentation
Asch, Kimbangu, 109, 130-33, 74-78. catholique, no. 1547, Sept. 1969, 830: “L’Eglise Kimbanguiste admise au C.O.E.”
” On this in detail Raymaekers, Zaire, 675-756. and Masson, “Chants kimban-
”That can already be seen in the name of the church: Eglise de Jesus-Christ sur
guistes,” 82-90. la l u r e par le prophete Simon Kimbangu. “Sur la terre” can be understood as a
82 In the report, mentioned note 4, p. 35.
translation of “kat’holen ten gen” (catholic). T h e knowledge of languages and the
83 One would be tempted to describe the rhythmical stylized steps of this ceremony
multi-language services among the Kimbanguists (Kikongo, Lingala, Tchiluba,
as a dance. But dancing is highly controversial (both sacred and secular) in the Kimban- French) underline the ecumenicity of the church (Heimer, “Kimbanguists,” 16-17).
86 Quoted in the report of Kimbangu’s secretaries, quoted above note 4 (p. 21).
guist church, cf. above, p. 67, Raymaekers, Zaire, 587f and Asch, Kimbangu, 143.
84 Cf. Niederberger, “Kimbangu-Kirche,” 215-22. Italiaander, “Prophet,” 31-44.
87 Letter of 15.7.1969, archive of the General Secretariat of the WCC.
Martin, M.-L., “Afrikanische Gestalt,” 16-29. Central Committee of the WCC, “ T h e Brazilian Pentecostal leader M. de Melo had argued similarly: The
71
3. But if the World Council of Churches comes to the conclusion that Marie- Louise M a r t i n
the entry of Kimbanguists would “pollute” the purity of the ecu-
T h e pastors of the church are mostly honorary and earn their own living.
menical institution then we have to accept this with regret. But we
The problem of theological education for present and future pastors is there-
would still like to let you know that we remain your friends.
fore quite acute. T h e late Marie-Louise Martin tackled this problem in spite
T h e Kimbanguist Church was received into the World Council of Churches of great difficulties and at great personal sacrifice. It seems that she succeeded
in 1969. in educating a score of African theologians without alienating them, by their
education, from their social92and religiousg3milieu.
An African Theology One evaluation of the church which I want to mention is that by
T h e African elements in the Kimbanguist church have already been Geoffrey Wainwright. He measures the Kimbanguists with the yardstick of a
pointed out. T h e question is, however, whether or not the Kimbanguist rather strictly definable protestant orthodoxy. Not everything in the doctrine
church will develop a theory; that is, a theological articulation of its practice. and practice of the Kimbanguists corresponds with these assumptions. In
Perhaps this might happen in their doctrine of the sacraments. Until recently spite of this Wainwright comes to the conclusion that “within Kimbanguism
the church did not celebrate the Lord’s Supper, being of the opinion that the an African conception of Christ . . . may be struggling to find theological
sacraments do not belong to one denomination-even if that be the Kimban- expression, and that in a potentially orthodox way.” He concedes, however,
guists. In principle the Kimbanguists argue that there are no denominational that already in New Testament times the concepts of Christ (Christ, Lord,
(i.e., sectarian) sacraments but only catholic (i.e., ecumenical) sacraments. Savior, Son of God, Son of Man) “came from their previous multiple back-
“For us,” declared Joseph Diangienda to Dominique Desanti, “communion ground charged with associations not entirely appropriate to Jesus without
will be more ecumenical than it is for the Catholics or the Western Protes- transformation.”” Wainwright does not seem to consider the possibility that
tant~.A ” ~denominational
~ Communion contradicts the intention of the Sac- the so-called orthodox position might perhaps not be as biblical as is generally
rament, which is a non-rational expression of the communion of all Christians assumed.
transcending rational articulation. In the opinion of the Kimbanguists it is Marie-Louise Martin judges the chances for an “African theology” much
therefore necessary that Communion be dealt with at least within the frame- more positively: “What faces us in the independent churches of Africa in
work of all the churches in Zaire. In spite of this the first Communion of the general and in the Kimbanguist Church in particular is that for which missi-
Kimbanguists celebrated on 6th April 1971 was not held as an open Commun- ologists in Europe have been asking for so long: the beginnings of a Christian
ion.” Three hundred and fifty thousand Kimbanguists took part in a celebra- theology in African garb.”95H . W. Fehderau concludes pointedly: “There has
tion which lasted for one and a half days. Instead of imported wine and bread been much talk of making our mission churches indigenous; the Kimbanguist
they used “honey-water; a bread made with potatoes, maize and bananas ~ ~ James E. Bertsche compares the mission-based
church is i n d i g e n o u ~ . ”And
prepared in a traditional way, the banana acting as leaven.”” At the mo- churches with the Kimbanguists:
ment-as in Zwingli’s days-it will be celebrated only three times a year Against a background of a partially subsidized and largely institutionalized
(Easter, the memorial day of the death of Kimbangu, and Christmas). mission program, there is the challenge of Kimbanguism’s dynamic grass-roots
So far the church does not practice baptism by water. Instead they practice lay movement. Spreading along arteries of communication, across tribal lines
spirit baptism (by a handshake, followed by the raising up of the candidate, and language barriers, its shock troops have been its enthusiastic, unsalaried
who kneels before the pastor). This spirit baptism is not administered to laymen. . . . By comparison with the effervescence of this lay movement, the
Christians who come to the Kimbanguists from other churches. As they have average mission-established church program must appear quite routine and
already been baptized, they are simply prayed for. For children there is a unexciting indeed to the Kimbang~ist.~’
ceremony of blessing.
From this Marie-Louise Martin draws the following conclusion:
Pentecostals, 99-1 10. D e Melo, “Participation,” 2 4 5 4 8 .
92Education takes place partly in evening courses.
89 Diangienda, in an interview with Desanti, “Golden Anniversary,” 18.
93Education takes place within the framework of Kimbanguist spirituality.
90 Whether that is meant as a transitory solution or as an adaptation to the general
94 Wainwright, “Reflections,”l8-35. Cf.also, van Wing, “Kimbanguisme,” 618.
denominational policy of the Christian churches (negative influence of ecumenical
95 Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 203; English: Kimbangu,175 (my translation).
fellowship!) remains to be seen.
96 Fehderau, “Prophetic Christianity,” 178.
91 Martin, M.-L., “Congolese Church Celebrates,” quoting an undated press
97 Bertsche, “Kimbanguism,” 32.
release by Luntadila (“Rkflexions sur la Sainte Ctne”).
73
Until now in most African theological faculties and seminaries one has taught social justice, peace, following from this no discrimination, no bitter poverty side
theology according to the European pattern. Even the courses were-and still by side with overwhelming riches; brotherhood, order in freedom, development
are-in keeping with this pattern. Of course one has translated the dogmas into of all one’s potentials, but in such a way that the community is served, which is
African languages, and the German, French and English hymns have also been more important for Africans than individual fulfillment. Salvation includes
translated into the languages of the Basotho, the Zulu, the Bavenda, the Bakongo healing; a new life in a new earth, free of hatred, passion, lies, corruption,
and many other people, together with the Western revival or reformation melo- oppression; and holiness as an expression of our thankfulness and the freedom
dies, and even the harmoniums. But have these translations brought the Gospel which God has given in his love to all men.98 That will be a true e s ~ h a t o l o g y . ~ ~
to them? There is something more needed than just translation if we are really
to communicate the Gospel. T h e Gospel and the church must no longer appear
Other African Theologies
in Western garments. Such new clothing can only be tailored by an African
Church, tested through sufferings and proud of its mission. I believe that this is Since Marie-Louise Martin wrote her book, others have developed Afri-
the case in the Kimbanguist existential interpretation of salvation-history, their can theologies, but mostly as ideas and not-so far as I can see-in an African
hierarchy, their symbols, their rites, their African or Africanized music and
theological education program. One might mention, among others,lO”Kwesi
images. That is a promising beginning. We can only hope that when the Kim-
Dickson, and above all, E. Fashole-Luke. Dickson, an African professor in the
banguist church has its own university-trained theologians they will not betray
their heritage and speak in Western jargon. We theologians from the West have University of Ghana, describes the plight of African theological education in
only a small part to play in this development by explaining the historical unflattering terms (quoting Fashole-Luke’o’):
background of the biblical texts, pointing out the Formgeschichte, the literary
African theologians continue to mouth the theological platitudes they have
forms of biblical tradition, which have many similarities with African forms of
picked u p in universities, theological seminaries and colleges abroad, or parade
passing on tradition. Perhaps we can also be of help when the Africans use our
their erudition by quoting the latest theological ideas in Europe and North
own terminology and do not understand it. We might also assist them in telling
America. In consequence theological education in Africa has generally had the
them how other churches have developed in other parts of the world, with special
effect of producing theologians who are more at home in Western theological
emphasis on the Early Church, the church fathers and the old African churches
in Egypt, Nubia and Ethiopia, as far as we know their development. This gives thought even if such thought pertains only to a certain level of their conscious-
us an opportunity to show where-as the case may be-wrong developments ness. True, one cannot ignore what has gone on before, even if it has come out
took place and why certain churches have accepted certain rites and forms. T h u s of other contexts. Nevertheless, it cannot be seriously argued that in the interests
we can further ecumenical understanding. Perhaps we can also assist in solving of uniformity of theological expression, and as a symbol of the oneness of the
the burning ethical questions in the new Africa on the basis of a biblical theology Church, the theological insights emanating from the West should be considered
by pointing out the dangers of a new legalism. And finally it will be our task to normative also outside the West.
point again and again to the cross of Christ, which is the crisis of all human
undertaking, of all human desires, ideas, symbols and theologies, but where
He goes on to regret the fact that all theological expression is tied to
pardon, resurrection and the new creation is promised. English, French or Portuguese, and therefore-since these languages are
foreign languages in almost all African countries-remains a foreign affair.
I do not believe that we can do much more. We have to leave as much as possible Thus, he says, the Church suffers under a devastating and unbiblical division
to the Africans and be patient even when their expression, their terms, their of labor: here the producers of theology, the clergy; there the mere consumers,
forms, their organizations and their structures appear to us to be imperfect or the laity. No wonder that some of the better-trained lay people are no longer
even totally wrong. We have to overcome our fear of a possible syncretism interested in this kind of theology, since they are mainly considered as sources
[chapter 11, pp. 132-411, which does not mean that we close our eyes to its
of income, and not as theological partners and experts in applied theology.
dangers. But it means that we trust the Holy Spirit, as Paul did, to lead the
African brothers into all truth. If we adopt this attitude the day might come when This is a situation of course which we in the West already know only too well.
Africa will produce a new formulation of the message of Jesus Christ, which
might be significant for the West too and might give to the ecumenical dialogue 9RO n such an understanding of salvation see the papers of the ecumenical study
a new dimension. on ”Structures of a missionary congregation.” Wieser, Planning f o r Mission; Hollen-
weger, Church for Others; idem, Kirche. See also ch. 19 on soteriology, pp. 246-57.
99 Martin, M.-L., Kirche ohne Weisse, 248-50; English: Kimbangu, 175-77 (my
T h e Gospel is a Gospel of salvation. T h a t is exactly what Africa has perhaps
translation).
understood better than the West, where we understand the word “salvation” too
‘OoPobee, Exploring Afro-Christology. Parrat, Reader in African Christian Theol-
often as the “salvation of the soul.” Salvation means in Africa that which ogy. Berinyuu, Pastoral Care. Lartey, Pastoral Counseling.
‘‘shalom’’ meant for the Hebrews: Salvation and healing-not only from infir- lolE. Fashol&Luke, in Anderson and Stransky (eds.), Mission Trends no. 3, 137;
mity, but salvation in the widest sense, “a new earth and above all, a new heaven,” quoted in Dickson, Theology,4.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecost of N’Kamba
74 75
here the condensed result of years of joint critical research. It is a book which
Dickson draws attention to the different approach in the independent
questions, sometimes with humor, sometimes with painful accuracy, not only
churches (such as the Kimbanguist church), and states in no uncertain terms:
our own missionary and theological past (this, it seems, we are now almost
“No serious study of Christian theology in Africa can with any justification
forgiven by the Africans), but, even more, our thoughtless present-day Euro-
ignore these churches and their life and thought.”102‘And thought,” he adds!
pean theological isolation.
African theology may not be systematic, he says; but the systematic form, the
We are told by R. Elliot Kendall that 36,000 missionaries are now working
propositional articulation of a chain of arguments, is not obligatory for its
in Africa.lo6 While the older missionary societies reduce the number of their
presentation. So, one wonders, what are the alternatives?
One may justly consider Dickson’s theology as such an alternative. Out- missionaries, the new faith missions increase the number of theirs. There are
wardly, it looks like a systematic presentation; but its inner dynamic is differ- now more missionaries working in Africa than before independence, yet they
ent. To be sure it is coherent and clear, but its coherence is more that of a New are less significant in the leadership of the churches. lo’ There are for example
Testament Gospel or a radio feature than that of a systematic treatise. This an estimated 36,750,000 Roman Catholics in Africa. These are served by 3,700
becomes evident when one considers that the first item he treats under African and 10,900 white priests (1973). Adrian Hastings describes strikingly
“Towards a Theological Expression” is music. Then in the chapter on “The what “africanization” means in this context. “300 dioceses means 300 bishops,
Theology of the Cross in Context,” he deals at length with European/Ameri- 300 vicars general, 300 priests to administer the cathedral parish, 600 or more
can commercialized funeral customs (as an example of avoiding the reality of to teach in seminaries, 300 directors of diocesan catechesis, 300 chaplains for
death), which he contrasts with the public mourning in African society (as an secondary schools, a hundred or so for national ecclesiastical administration,
example of what Mitscherlich calls Trauerarbezt [ “ m ~ ~ r n i n g - w ~ r k ~ ’He
]).”~ another hundred to study, two or three hundred more sick or old. How many
looks for new christological titles like Christ “the Ancestor,” “the greatest of are left for regular rural pastoral work?”108T h e answer to that anomalous
ancestors who never ceases to be one of the ‘living-dead.’ ”lo4 situation is not “the need for more priests, more sisters and brothers, and more
It is clear that Dickson would have failed had he presented his book for a money” from abroad. “It is illusory to hope for a really ‘local’ Church in Africa
doctoral degree at a British, Swiss or German university. That is of course not unless we are prepared to question even the system itself,” says the former
a verdict on Dickson’s book but on our own lack of flexibility. It is perhaps not director of the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership in Birming-
without significance that one of the most important books of European ham, Patrick A. K a l i l ~ m b e . ’ ~ ~
theology, namely Karl Barth’s Commentary on the Epistle to the Romans, would One of the facts which put the system in question is that, in order to
have suffered the same fate had he not chosen to bypass the academic estab- survive, the older churches tend to become more and more like the inde-
lishment. Why is it that we are not able to recognize the seminal thinking of pendent churches.”’ These independent churches are not merely marginal
such works within the structure of our educational tradition? sects but a newly emerging social and political force, as we have seen in this
To this one must add the plight of scholarly theology in Europe and chapter. Turner describes a visit to the Celestial Church of Christ in Ibadan
America. We are drilled in all methods of critical exegesis and critical thinking, in 1973. “I found myself in conversation before and after the service with four
but our church members still discuss whether or not Adam and Eve, Noah and people-the first two worked in administrative offices of the University of
Methuselah, were historical persons. They still discuss whether or not God Ibadan, the third was a lecturer there, and the fourth (who earlier had been
could have created the universe in seven days. T h e whole theological estab- observed leading a Bible class in his white robe and bare feet) proved to be the
lishment looks like a huge, expensive, but futile hobby. Theology has “become Deputy Vice-Chancellor of the University.””’ Similarly, “top politicians,
cut off from the community for whose life its results might be significant.”’” ministers of state or members of Parliament” frequently consult the prophets
Since my topic here is not European theological education I leave it with these of the Aladura churches (a group of Independent churches) in Nigeria.’I2
remarks. But when one thinks that we export this “hobby” to the Third World as
the latest achievement in scholarship then one finds Dickson’s verdict even mild.
1n6Kendall,“Missionary Factor,” 16.
As another example of African theology I take the important book Chrzs- 1 o i Tasie-Gray,“Introduction,” 7.
tianity in Independent Africa, edited by E. Fashole-Luke. Almost fifty schol- Io8Hastings, “Ministry,” 38. Cf. also Hastings, History of African Christianity.
ars-African and European, Catholic, Protestant and Independent-present ~.
1 0 9alilombe, “Local Churches,” 89.
“‘Tasie-Gray, “Introduction,” 4. Setiloane, “Traditional,” 404 (quoting
Sundkler, African Studies, 20.4.1961, 203).
“*Dickson, Theology, 10.
’“Turner, “Patterns,” 50. I have visited the same church and was impressed by
Io3 Mitscherlich, Die Unfahigkeit.
its vitality, openness, and innovative spirit (e.g., in church architecture).
‘04Dickson, Theology, 198.
“*Omoyajowo, ‘Rladura Churches,” 99.
lo’ Wink. Bible in Human Transformation, 10. More on this in ch. 23, pp. 307-25.
c
76 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecost of N ’ K a m b a
77
movement of Africa’s dance in the liturgy. . . Let African theology enthuse about
It is, however, for another even more important reason that the spirituality
the awesomeness of the transcendent when others are embarrassed to speak
of these churches is becoming politically significant. “The political signifi-
about the King, high and lifted up, whose train fills the temple.lZ2
cance of a church depends on the nature of its contacts with women, rural
illiterates, urban unemployed, and other less privileged sections and minori- I Even an organization like the World Council of Churches finds it difficult
ties.”l13 The great festivals of the Kimbanguist and other churches, which to match words with deeds. Gabriel S e t i l ~ a n edescribes
’~~ his disappointment
regularly bring together thousands of worshippers, “have an immensely sig- when a World Council publication crossed out the section on the ancestors in
nificant potential as communication foci in a situation where other media tend one of his meditations. T h e ancestors are present everywhere in Africa and not
to be either under strict surveillance or primarily concerned with the interest only for the poorly educated. Simon Barrington-Ward, Anglican bishop in
of the highly e d ~ c a t e d . ” ” ~ Conventry, and Michael Singleton’24deserve high praise for introducing this
In this communication process women are crucial. T h e revival in the fascinating but controversial topic. For them belief in ancestral spirits is not
Bukoba church “meant that women, who had always been quiet in public, just a remnant of the African past but a way of dealing with a complex
began speaking in meetings and at small gatherings.””’ It is just here that the technological and pluralistic situation, a way of putting a shattered world
traditional churches have proved very “unpolitical,” because of their poor together, and a bridge between Europe and Africa-an idea which has already
record in the matter of “female clerical leadership.”’I6 been put forward by the French sociologist Roger Bastide. l Z 5
Politics in Africa cannot be divorced from religion. “Virtually no African This excursus into African theology suffices to show that Kimbanguist
ruler has been able to adopt a purely secular In principle it is
theology is not just a kind of local or exotic theology. The questions which
possible to conceive of a basis for nations other than religion. “In practice only Kimbanguism raises are questions central to Africa (and Europe), although it
religion is strong enough to sustain them.”’l8 “Scratch the prominent layman is debatable whether they have yet found adequate answers.
politician and you discover that his public bold face and animal courage are
against the background of his secret endless groveling before masters of the Kimbanguism of the Kimbanguists and “Official Kimbanguism”
supernatural forces in traditional
T h e interdependence of politics and religion has both its dangers and T h e Kimbanguist church has experienced tremendous growth. From a
promises. A critical and prophetic religious ministry is only slowly emerging, small minority church it has grown to a church of the masses with three (or
but it is emerging, for instance in South Africa (chapter 5 , pp. 48-51), or in perhaps even more) million adherents. This growth happened-at least in the
Rwanda, where racial riots “brought an African state, founded on a moral initial stage-without money from outside. With their own hands-but with
cause, into the innermost circle of political hell reserved for South Africa.””’ some help from the government-they have built their churches and their
Dr. Fasholk-Luke, Head of the Department of Theology at the University of schools. One might say: well, missions have done just the same. True, but here
Sierra Leone, writesI2’ that Christians in the independent states of Africa seem is a church which, out of her poverty, out of the midst of her celebration and
to believe that oppression is confined to South Africa and to white colonialism, prayer, has opened herself to the social problems of her country without asking
but fail to see the oppression of blacks by blacks in their own countries. for crumbs from the rich tables of Europeans and Americans.
In the more theological field Desmond Tutu complains that “African The wildfire development of Kimbanguism not only implies great oppor-
theology has failed to produce a sufficiently sharp cutting edge.” The South tunities but also many dangers. Many questions remain open, as Dominique
African archbishop and Nobel Peace Prize Winner adds: Desanti, who describes himself as a “non-believing, yet profoundly interested
Why should we feel embarrassed if our theology is not systematic? Why should observer,”126has put it.
we feel that something is amiss if our theology is too dramatic for verbalization It might be argued, in the first place, that the strict morality and austere
but can be expressed only adequately in the joyous song and the scintillating puritanism of Kimbanguism is running counter to present-day trends. The
young people in the town, who are constantly faced with such a totally different
‘13Tasie-Gray, “Introduction,” 7. style of life, may well prefer a more tolerant form of religion. Perhaps there’s
II4Ibid., 12.
“’Swantz, “Changing Role,” 145.
II6Steady, “Role of Women,” 156. ‘”Tutu, “Whither African Theology?” 368f.
”‘Tasie-Gray, “Introduction,” 8. 123 Setiloane, “Traditional,” 406.
“‘Mushete, “Authenticity and Christianity in Zaire,” 238. ‘24Barrington-Ward, “Centre Cannot Hold,” 455-70. Singleton, “Direction,”
“’Ayandele, “Appendix,” 612. 471-78.
I25 Bastide, Les religions afrtcaines au Brisrl, 515 ( T h e Pentecostals, 97).
I2’Linden, “Rwanda,” 250.
12’ Fashole-Luke, “Introduction,” 358. IZ6Desanti,“Golden Anniversary,” 15 (only in the French version of this article)
L
Pentecost of N’Karnba 79
as then, these problems will have to be dealt with on at least two levels. Firstly,
danger that the hierarchical organization of the clergy, who are picked by the
almost certainly the Kimbanguist Church will have to write its history in
spiritual leader with no right of appeal, might tend to dampen the mystical ardor
dialogue with and in opposition to those rural Kimbanguists who do not see a
which was the strength of the early communities. Will the Church find herself
forced into a certain conformity by accepting Government subsidies for schools continuum between Simon Kimbangu and today’s leadership of the EJCSK.
and clinics? Finally, isn’t it possible that the introduction of the Holy Cornmun- What will happen if the documentary basis of the “official” church history is
ion’27will put an end to one of the most original aspects of this religion, namely shaken? What will happen if the diversity of opinions as to the “right inter-
direct communication with God through invocation and mysticism? pretation” of Kimbanguist history forces the Kimbanguists to write their
history in dialogue with their own dissenters? What will happen if all docu-
These are questions which faced the early Christians almost two thousand ments are made available? Many of the more rural Kimbanguists are probably
years ago; questions with which the Waldensians, the Anabaptists, the churches closer to the tradition and values of Simon Kimbangu than to those of the
of the Reformation, and in our century the Pentecostals had to wrestle, and present leaders in Kinshasa, who have rejected Kimbangu’s own teachings as
which they all tried to solve in their own way; questions which focus once “heretical.” Some of these rural Kimbanguists have remained with the “offi-
again on the ecumenical significance of Kimbanguism. They expected the cial” church, others have formed their own Kimbanguist or quasi-Kimban-
kingdom of God. What came was the (Kimbanguist) church. That is how Paul guist organizations. T h e battle-cry “Back to Kimbangu; back to the times of
Raymaekers paraphrases the situation. He concludes: “But the new church revival” might create similar stimuli and confusions as the cry “Back to
and the new society in Zaire would not have come without this faith in a Luther,” “the Church Fathers,” “the early Pentecostal revival” or even “the
kingdom which is beyond the churches and New Testament.” One would expect a serious questioning of ecclesiastical
On another level, questions arise which are similar to those known in the authority in the Kimbanguist church. If one of the dissident bodies should
European and American churches. They are highlighted by Werner Ustorf decide to apply for membership in the World Council of Churches, both the
and Susan A s ~ h .Werner
’ ~ ~ Ustorf shows certain parts of the “official version” World Council and the Kimbanguist leadership would be in troub1e.l3*
of Kimbanguist history to be legendary. After all, the documents issued by the Secondly, the problem of authority in the church is not solved. T h e
present leadership in Kinshasa reflect the history of their church from the system of hereditary princes will certainly be challenged, in relation to the
orthodox (Kimbanguist) point of view. In historical terms, their documents direction of the church and in relation to the right interpretation of the life
reflect church history written from the point of view of the victors. But the and message of Simon Kimbangu. As the case of Bamba and those of other
Kimbanguist history also includes victims who so far have been silenced. dissenters shows, the story of Kimbangu can be interpreted in different ways.
Those are the Kimbanguists who cling to the old rural tradition of Simon A situation could arise in which the Kimbanguist church would be forced to
Kimbangu. They are condemned by the Kimbanguist leadership as hereti- go back to its tradition of opposition through suffering.
cal-thus since 1966 at least 17 factions (some of them rather strong) have Susan Asch comes to conclusions similar to those of Werner Ustorf. She
separated from the EJCSK; for instance “Le Salut en Jtsus-Christ par le speaks of the Kimbanguism of the Kimbanguists (with its rural tradition) in
Ttmoin Simon Kimbangu, Eglise C ~ n g o l a i s e . ”This
’ ~ ~ church was prohibited distinction from the official Kimbanguism of the church’s Kinshasa leaders.
on June 9th 1966 because of “danger to public order.” Their founder, Bamba, The irony is that the “official” Kimbanguism is a minority.’33
was executed on June 2nd 1966 after a trumped-up and illegal trial in the This situation is of course not peculiar to Kimbanguism. Probably official
center of Kinshasa before 300,000 spectators. T h e reason for the assassination Catholicism is a tiny minority in the world-wide Catholic Church, and the
of Bamba and three other high-ranking ministers in the Republic of the Congo same applies probably more or less to all big churches, as well as to political
was the formation of a “Committee for Returning to Legality,” which tried to parties. It is certain that the leadership of the British Conservative Party is
end the bloody regime of General Mobutu without the shedding of blood. rather a small minority in the party; the same is true for the French socialists
However, the plot was betrayed.131 and many other organizations.
T h e transition from an oppressed movement to an established church has There are two churches in the Kimbanguist church in another sense, as
produced problems for the Kimbanguists similar to those experienced by the well. When I visited the Kimbanguists I observed that when they spoke in an
early church as it moved from persecuted minority to state church status. NOW, African language they spoke unashamedly of Kimbangu, on whose presence
and help they were counting. But when they spoke in French a kind of flawless
‘”On the introduction of Communion see above, p. 70. Barthianism was produced. That is not just a question of language. To the
Ravmaekers, “Kirnbanguisme,” 7- 14.
lZ9Asch,Kimbangu, 51. ‘321bid.,51.
13’On this church and its leader see ibid., 37, 68, 64, 67. ‘33Asch,Kimbangu, 95, 299.
13’ Ustorf, Afiikanische Initiative, 222
outsider the Kimbanguists presented the image of an orthodox Protestant

church, an image provoked into life by endless discussions in the World
Council of Churches (and elsewhere), during which the Kimbanguists have
had to prove that they are not heretics. But among their own African rural
constituency they speak from the heart.
This double face of Kimbanguism is confirmed by an alarming discovery
made by Susan A ~ c h . She ’ ~ ~shows that most of the prestige development
projects of Kimbanguism are-because of imported methods and person-
nel-a failure. This is true no more in Kimbanguism than in other churches,
but nevertheless it is disturbing. Asch says that most of Kimbanguism’s
teaching corpus is foreign (Haitian and Egyptian).I3’ I am not able to judge Mexico: Flowers and Songs.
Susan Asch’s evaluation, but some of the facts which she presents seem to
suggest that the Kimbanguist Church has received too much finance from A Mexican Contribution to
development agencies, and that this money has been unhealthy for the very
development projects being funded. If this is true, then we have a situation
Doing Theology’
similar to that facing other development projects in Africa.
However, I do not want to end the chapter on this somber note. Whatever
the organizational and political draw-backs of Kimbanguism, its spiritual and
practical vitality impresses any observer. The Kimbanguists will have to sort out Intercultural Theology-A Two-way System
their difficulties with their own insights and spiritual strength. No ex-patriate Is a theological dialogue possible between the churches of
can do this for them. Third World and the theological systems of Europe and Amer-
Prayer of the Caterpillar
ica? If there is any meaning in the ecumenical slogans “Unity
of Mankind, Unity of the Church”2 or “Mission in Six Con-
Dear God, t i n e n t ~ , ”then
~ such a dialogue must be possible. But up to now
Sometimes I feel like a caterpillar, I eat grass and leaves and leaves and grass. the Third World has made a theological appearance only when
Sometimes a bird flies over me and I am afraid. Or a hen comes along and cackles
and scratches the earth with her foot, and I have to hide again. it has made use of European/American concepts. Our theo-
W h y must I be a caterpillar, dear God, logical partners from the Third World, who think differently
why can I not j u m p like an ibex, fly like an eagle, swim like a fish. from us, either never make themselves heard in their own
W h y can I only creep Iike a caterpillar. terms, or else lose interest in this theological debate. It becomes
I have not made myself, and you did not ask me whether I wanted to be a a luxury which they can afford only with subsidies from abroad.
caterpillar, nor whether I wanted to be at all. Nor did my parents consult me
and ask for my consent. The rules of this theological game are ours even when the game
And that’s why I am what I am, a poor creepy caterpillar from A to Z.
Until that day when I am closed in a little chamber and the door falls into the I This chapter started in Spanish (Concepto Latinoamericano 111: “Flores y
lock, and I am longing, longing, longing in the dark, and things move and I get Cantos:” U n Concepto Mexicano, Concept, Special Issue 32, Oct. 1970, Geneva:
changed and I break out of the chamber World Council of Churches). A summary appeared later in Int. Review of Mission
and I f l y into the sunshine of an eternal Sunday morning. (601238, April 1971, 232-44) and in my Pentecost Betmeen Black and White. It is
And then I am happy having been a caterpillar because you, my God, you give a published here in a revised, updated, and annotated version. In addition to the
new life to this caterpillar, the life of a beautiful butterfly. Sources quoted in the following notes one may consult: Gaxiola-Gaxiola, “Inicios del
Pentecostalismo en Mexico,” 2 5 4 8 . Idem, “Pentecostal Ministry,” 57-63. Idem, The
Serpent and the Done. Goodman, ‘‘Apostolics of Yucatan.” Idem, ‘‘Shaman,” Pneuma
1312, 1991, contains original articles from Latin American Pentecostals and an
excellent bibliography (193-97). Since this is primarily a chapter in which the oral
root (in some cases pre-Christian) of Pentecostalism is discussed, I do not enter into
a detailed history of Pentecostalism in Mexico.
’Theme of the “Commission for Faith and Order,” 1971, at Louvain. Cf. the
‘341bid., 117, 183, 185, 187, 190, 256. study document “Unity.” Also J. Robert Nelson, “Unity of the Church.”
13’Ibid., 204. 30rchard, Witness in S i x Continents.
Mexico: Flowers and Songs 83
a2 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
they are certainly experiments! The different road the World Council is
is played in Nairobi or Mexico. This is the main reason for the alarming fact that seeking can be found only in dialogue with those people in the Third World
most of the Christian churches in the Third World are not members of the World who cannot and will not accept our modes of communication.
Council of Churches, and most are also disregarded in the fields of systematic The historical background to such conversations in Mexico is interesting.
theology, church history, and missiology. Comb the theological literature of the The purpose of what the World Council of Churches is doing was described
past twenty years or the reports of the various committees of the World Council at a press conference in Mexico as the revolutionary movement “which
of Churches for theological contributions from the Third World, and the result Christian faith not merely permits but positively requires,” whereby
is lamentable. Philip Potter of the West Indies, former General Secretary of the
World Council of Churches, explains that it is easy to see why (for example) men without a voice, men who have been reduced to silence by our intellectual
African delegates at the Fifth Assembly of the Lutheran World Federation in concepts and racial prejudices should be allowed to speak for themselves. It
means that the dialogue must not have a built-in advantage for the Westerner.
Evian, 1970, simply imitated traditional European theology:
This is the revolution we seek. This, too, is what Paolo Freire is after. T h e rulers
What opportunity had they to think about the faith in their own way? If they of Brazil feared this revolution more than they feared any armed uprising. T h a t
hadn’t been “good boys” they would never have become church leaders. . . . We is why they jailed the former minister of education, Freire, for men who are
have seldom been allowed to think for ourselves. For long enough we have put aware of their dignity and significance are more dangerous than armed slaves.”
up with a kind of theological imperialism. I call this racism. Unless we non-
Westerners stick rigidly to the precise formulae of Western scholasticism, we are To Enable Others to Develop a Face
not considered theologians, or bright enough to communicate the G o ~ p e l . ~
A thousand years ago Mexico had already developed one of the most
The Mexican Pentecostal bishop, Manuel Gaxiola-Gaxiola, joins in this advanced programs of education, and a fascinating philosophy. To formulate
critique in his dissertation on Mexican Pentecostalism. He describes Mexico their philosophy, however, they did not create a system comparable with the
as being “so far from God and so close to the United States”’ and speaks of system of an Aristotle, a Thomas Aquinas, or a Hegel. Miguel Leon-Portilla,
“an unnecessary meddling by the United States in the internal affairs of the the expert on ancient Mexican (Nahuatl) civilization, rightly points out that
Latin Americas [Monroe d o ~ t r i n e ] , ”and
~ “the American intervention in the quality of a philosophy, theology or theory of education cannot be judged
favour of Victoriano Huerto, the bloodiest villain of the Mexican Revolution, by whether or not it creates a system.” While there may be philosophers and
and, of course the large American investments, which require diplomatic theologians “who still consider the construction of a coherent logical system
protection and pressure.”’ This situation “has not yet convinced everybody to be the only form of philosophical thought”’* this is a mistaken attitude
that becoming Protestant does not equal becoming American, which is one of which if accepted would require us to exclude from discussion even such
the greatest obstacles to the conversion of many.”’ “The new proletarian in famous Western philosophers as Augustine, Pascal, Kierkegaard, Unamuno,
Mexico is super efficient and super cheap. The man finds work outside the Ortega and Bergson, not to mention Luther and the Bible.
modern factories, but he knows he is being employed because he is the lowest The non-systematic philosophy of the ancient Mexicans did not prevent
paid man doing that work, but once the transnational company he works for them from creating a compulsory educational program which gave children in
finds another man in another country who is willing to work for less, the the humblest circumstances an equal opportunity of education with the nobil-
factory will move to that country.”’ ity and r ~ y a l t y .The
’ ~ key figure in this education was the tlamantini: the wise
man, or “he who knows things,”14 or “the one who makes others develop a
When the Silenced Begin to Speak face, a personality.” Of this figure, Lebn-Portilla tells us “He puts them, as it
It is high time to look for non-Western categories for thinking theologically were, before a mirror and makes them discover themselve~.”’~ Under his
and presenting theology. The Division of World Mission and Evangelism of
the World Council of Churches has been working on such experiments-and “Boletin de Cencos A. C. Nr. 4164, Mexico, 13.5.1970. Freire, Pedagogy.
I’ Leon-Portilla, Lafilosofia nahuatl, XV.
l 2 Ibid.. XVI.
4Philip Potter in an interview on the “so-called crisis of Mission.” “Zur SO- 13 Soustelle, La vie quotidienne, 203; Leon-Portilla, L a jilosojia nahuatl, 224.
genannten Grundlagenkrise der Mission.’’ “Codice Matritense de la Real Academia (textos en nahautl de 10s indigenos
Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mexican, 49. See also his “Inicios del Pentecostalism0 en informantes de Sahagim), ed. facs de Pasy y Troncoso, Madrid, VIII, 1936, 118r, 1 1 8 ~ ;
Mexico.” Leon-Portilla, Aztec Thought and Culture (English translation of Lafilosofia nahuatl),
6Gaxiola, Mexican, 48. 63f. On the grammar of the old Mexican language: Garibay, Llave de Nahuatl.
’Ibid., 49. 15 Te-ix-tomani, ibid.; Lebn-Portilla, A z t e c Thought, 13; idem, La filosofia
‘Ibid., 256. nahuatl, 68.
’Ibid., 301.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mexico: Flowers and Songs
84 85
plundered, their language suppressed, their teachers and priests put to death.
influence people “humanize their will.” “The good tlamantini-like a good
Las Casas, a Catholic missionary and defender of the Indians, estimated that
doctor-submits himself to practical criticism of his methods and is ready to
12 million Indians died in 38 years, mostly as slaves in the
experiment. A bad tlamantini-like a bad doctor-keeps his tradition to
T h e last testimony of the Nahuas is found in the contemporary record25
himself. Like the lizard, he likes the dark corners; he deals in secret magic
of the discussion which some of the tlamatinime had with the newly arrived
potions and in this way destroys men’s faces, men’s personality.”“
Spanish missionaries. T h e missionaries urged them earnestly to abhor, to
T h e educational medium among these ancient Mexicans was not the
despise, to curse and spit on the gods they had worshipped. T h e Mexicans
manual or the textbook, but poetry. O n this earth no one can declare the truth,
answered courteously that they were fully aware of the difficulties and dangers
said the tlamantini, except perhaps through “flowers and songs.”17 If they
the Spaniards had had to endure in crossing the ocean:
wanted to be precise they did not call for sharper definitions, but described
what they meant by referring to two of its most remarkable features (di- Our Lords, our very esteemed Lords:
frasismo). For example, they described a woman as “skirt and blouse,” a city great hardships have y o u endured to reach this land. . . . 26
as “water and hill” and the transcendence of God as “night and wind.”” You said
Like a hunter, the tlamantini was chasing songs; he “steals flowers and that we know not
the Lord of the Close Vicinity27
songs,”1y “butterflies of song.”20
to Whom the heavens and the earth belong.
This approach refused to express the inexpressible. Hence the skepticism You said
and agnosticism of the Nahuas. Can we say anything certain about the future, that our gods are not true gods.
about life after death, or even about life’s meaning?21This skepticism found N e w words are these
final expression in the question: Does man possess any truth?” What was in that you speak;
question here was not man’s sincerity; it was the much more radical question because of them we are disturbed,
of whether man could possess truth at all. Both the nature of truth and the because o f them we are troub1ed.2x
world of goods, we have to “consider as lent to us, oh friends.”23
How could the missionaries say such offensive things? The Mexicans had
known God for centuries, insofar as God can be known by anyone. What the
Enter the “True Faith” missionaries wanted them to believe they did not believe to be true, even if to
With the arrival of the Spaniards, the songs died away, the flowers were say this offended the missionaries. Then, simply and impressively, the Mexi-
trampled under foot, the quetzal-feathers torn out. T h e philosophy of the cans responded:
Mexicans was despised as superstition, even though on the basis of their
Allow us then to die,
educational program of “flowers and songs” the Mexicans had developed a let us perish now,
mathematics, an astronomy and an architecture which still move us to admi- since our gods are already dead.29
ration today. T h e books of the Nahuatl people were burned, their temples
A Heretic Defends the Indians
l6 Itech netlacaneco, ibid.; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c Thought, 15; idem, L a filosofia
nahuatl, 70. From about 1509 Catholic legal experts held it to be necessary, before
” Ibid. 118/19; Leon-Portilla, Aztec Thought, 27, 73; idem, Lafilosofia nahuatl, embarking on war, to justify this step to the heathen peoples of Latin America
84. in xochitl in cuiatl; Pefiafiel, Cantares Mexicanos, 13r; Leon-Portilla, Aztec and to call upon these peoples to surrender voluntarily.
Thou ht, 76; idem, Lafilosofia nahuatl, 153.
‘
’
i% In cutitl in huipilli-in at1 in ttpetl-yohualli ehecatl. Leon-Portilla, Aztec This official proclamation (known as the requertmiento) was obligatory from the
Thou ht, 102; idem, Lafilosophia nahuatl, 178. year 1513 . . . The country’s inhabitants were informed that there was only one
Peiiafiel, Cantares Mexicanos; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c Thought, 181; idem, L a
iloso hra nahuatl, 320.
’
24 Biermann, Las Casas, 59.
Pefiafiel, Cantares Mexicanos, 1lv; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c Thought 182; idem, La
25Lehrnann, Sterbende Gotter. The excellent source-book contains the text in the
’
rloso hra nahuatl, 321. original Nahuatl and in an Old Spanish translation from Jose Maria Pou y Marti, El
Pefia fiel. Cantares Mexicanos, 17r; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c Thought, 7; La filoso- libre erdido.
phia nahuatl, 60.
Lehmann, Sterbende Gotter, 93.
‘22 ?Cuix oc nell’n tlaca? Peiiafiel, Cantares Mexicunos, 1Ov; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c

Thou ht, 7, Lafilosophia nahuatl, 61.
Ma oc netlataneuh o nican in antocnihuam. Pefiafiel, Cantares Mexicanos, 17r;
Leon-Portilla, A z t e c Thought, 124; idem, LafiIosophia nahuatl, 203.
‘’
‘*
In tloque navaque (name of God).
Lehmann, Sterbende Gotter, 102.
29 Ibid.
86 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Mexico: Flowers and Songs
87
God and that His representative was the Pope in Rome and furthermore that the lives for His sake. TO his opponent’s final point, Las Casas answered that war
latter had given their territories to the kings of Spain. The people were then required brought in its train enormities, hatred, fear, and falsehood; thus the evils of war
to accept and submit to the Christian faith. Willful refusal to do so would bring far outweighed any possible benefits to be gained in protecting the innocent.37
on them war, all kinds of misfortune, the enslavement of them all together with
their wives and children, since they would be rebels against their rightful lord. Ruins
Since no one, of course, submitted voluntarily, the slaughter began.30
Las Casas was not heeded. All that is left, therefore, of the Mexican
Those who did submit were nevertheless enslaved. One of the few to educational system, language, art, and architecture is-ruins. It is not unfair
challenge these practices was the Dominican, Fray Bartolome de las Casas. to say that Mexico’s present widespread illiteracy and economic dependence
Briefly and sharply he branded as unjust all the wars fought by the Span- were created by Europeans, and have been maintained by Americans. T h e
i a r d ~ . “The
~ ’ supposedly glorious feats of Spanish heroes are gross iniquities. invasion and conquest of Mexico was the beginning of a long martyrdom. It
Spain will still have to pay for this to the last farthing. She has failed in the is still going on before our very eyes. T h e mestizos and the Indians, “out of a
task entrusted to her and proved herself unfit to derive the least material sense of the profoundest spiritual shame, hardly dare to raise their heads. T h e
benefit from these colonial lands.”32 Accordingly Fray Bartolome refused problem of the peasant is not simply that he has only a few coins in his purse.
absolution to the departing s01diet-s.~~ Furthermore, he insisted that the It is something more, which reduces him to something less than a man,” says
Emperor Charles V should restore all the property he had unjustly s e i ~ e d . ~ ’ Oscar Maldonado, a Mexican Roman Catholic priest.38
We are not surprised to learn that Spaniards reviled Las Casas as a heretic, and Yet in a fragmentary way the ancient Mexican tradition lives on. Even the
a Lutheran a n t i ~ h r i s t . ~ ’ remains of the sculptures, temples and books compel the admiration of the
T h e controversy came to a head in the disputation between Las Casas and visitor to the Anthropological Museum in M e ~ i c o . ~But’ the ruins that are left
Juan Gin& de Sepulveda in 1550-1557. Sepulveda gave four reasons to justify are not only those of stone. There are remnants of the Mexican tradition which
war against the heathen: are discovered, for example, when priests and nuns join with the campesinos in
1. Because of the heinous character of their sins, particularly their idolatry excavating the buried humanity of the ancient Mexicans. T h e peasants can
and sins against nature, they deserved to be punished. once again recover “their face.” But we also meet this ancient Mexican
tradition in the Mexican Pentecostal movement. These Pentecostals are devel-
2. Because of their primitive condition, they had a duty to serve the more ad-
oping their own social and economic life-perhaps even their own theol-
vanced Spaniards, and if they refused, should be compelled by war to do so.
ogy-independently of foreign m i s s i ~ n a r i e s . ~ ~
3. Because the way to the preaching of the Gospel could only be prepared by
conquest. Iglesia Cristiana Independiente Pentecost&
4. Because the innocent human beings destined for sacrifice must be freed, One of the churches of these Pentecostals is the Iglesia Cristiana Inde-
and cannibalism wiped out.36 pendiente Pentecostts with 150,000 member^.^' Its founder was Andres
Las Casas’ reply to the first point was that the sins of the heathen did not
37 Las Casas, Apologia, preserved as Manuscript at the Bibliotheque Nationale,
come within the competence of the church. “For what have I to do with
Paris, Nuevos Fondos Latinos 12, 926. Biermann, Las Casas, 43.
judging outsiders? . . . God judges those outside,” said St. Paul (1 Cor. 5: 12f). 38 Maldonado, “Mexicanos,” 20-25.
T o the second point he replied that the Indians were not merely uncouth 39 Cf. e.g., Bernal, Cien obras.
barbarians. H e answered the third point by reminding Sepulveda that Christ, 40Exactstatistics on Mexican Pentecostalism are difficult to assess. Cf. Hand-
h h , 02b.22. The best is probably Barrett, WChE, 487, which gives for 1980 550,000
in sending his disciples, counseled them that they must be ready to lay down their
Protestants and 1,500,000 Mexican Independents (most of them Pentecostals). Fur-
ther statistics in Gaxiola, Mexican, 227, and in Muller, “Mexiko,” 692, where he
30Biermann,Las Casas, 55. mentions over 4 million protestants (1990); but he does not break down this figure
31 In the tract “Sobre 10s indios hechos esclavos.” Las Casas, Opusculos, 257-90 into protestants and Pentecostals resp. independents. For the whole of Latin America
(quoted Obras V); quoted in Biermann, Las Casas, 53. about 25% of the population will be euangilicos, the majority Pentecostals (2000;
321nDoce Dudas (Obras V, 478-536); Biermann, Las Casas, 71. Zanuso, Iglesias, 267; Gaxiola-Gaxiola, “Latin American,” 107, 129, quote 107. In
33 Biermann, Las Casas, 18. Brazil there are more people in Assemblies of God churches than catholics in Catholic
34 In the Representacibn (Obras V, 123-33); Biermann, Las Casas, 26, note 99. Churches (14.4 million as over against 12.6 million), hence the nervous statements
35 Ximenez, Historia, I, 346; Biermann, Las Casas, 32. of catholic bishops and the pope (Robeck, “Southern,” 101-6, quotes, 102).
36Biermann,Las Casas, 43. 41 Barrett, WChE, 491. Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixmiguilpan, 88.
L
Mexico: Flowers and Songs
steadily. In 1941 Ornelas disassociated himself from foreign missionaries. In

Ornelas Martinez (died 1958),42a miner from San Juan de Los Lagos in the 1953 he was successful in pulling together two hundred congregations into
Mexican state of Jalisco. Shortly after the First World War Ornelas emigrated one organization. “It was an historic act when he threw away the yoke of the
to Miami (Arizona) where somebody gave him a Spanish edition of the Book
bad foreigners and their Mexican paladines,” states the official journal of the
of Proverbs. The book at first sight did not interest him. On his return to his
church in a short historical In 1955 the church amalgamated with
native illa age,'^ he began reading it out of boredom, and found it interesting.
the important Iglesia Evangelica Independiente. The united church is called
But the last pages in the book were missing, so he ordered the whole “Book of
today-after further amalgamations-Iglesia Cristiana Independiente Pente-
Proverbs” from the address in Los Angeles printed at the bottom of the title
costts. Very early they sent their missionaries to Colombia and Puerto Rico.’O
page. H e received some tracts, the book of Proverbs, and a New Testament.
The study of the New Testament captivated him so much that when others They were also instrumental in founding a bank, El Banco del Fondo
were sleeping at night he went into the countryside to pray, confess his sins, C ~ m u n . Ramirez
~’ proudly relates in the preface to his history of the church:
and ask God that he might use him for something worthwhile. In December “The movement is genuinely indigenous. It does not receive subsidies from
19204’ he traveled again to Miami in search of a complete Bible. Overhearing any foreign country or mission.”52
a fellow-miner uttering the word “Bible” he asked him: “DO you have a Bible?
Can you show it to me?” H e could hardly wait for the end of the shift in order Ixmiquilpan
to see the Bible. The colleague took him to his pastor who gave Andrts Ornelas “The Mesquital region of the state of Hidalgo in Mexico is one of the
a Bible. (This Bible is kept today at the headquarters of the Iglesia Cristiana driest and poorest places of the country. Prairie-like valleys are framed by
Independiente Pentecostts, Pachuco). yellow mountains. During the day the sun burns mercilessly and at night it
In May 1921 Ornelas returned to Mexico, and went first to the services can become very cold, as the valleys are 6,000 feet above ~ e a - l e v e l . ” ~ ~
of the Methodists in Pachuco (Hgo). There he met Raymundo Nieto, who T h e industrialization which invaded Mexico City, Monterrey, and
introduced him to the Pentecostal baptism of the Spirit and baptized him in Guadalajara in the fifties has not yet reached the region of Mesquital, where
October 1922 in a river.45 By June 1922 the two had already founded a agriculture and a small cottage industry give a very meagre income, and where
Pentecostal congregation in Pachuco which is considered today as the mother
in 1960 more than half of the population still spoke the Indian Otomi lan-
church of the Iglesia Cristiana Independiente P e n t e c o ~ t t sBy
. ~ ~their fearless
guage. Those Indians can be divided again into half who speak Otomi exclu-
testimony, healing of the sick, and practical Christianity, they won a number
sively and half who, beside the Indian language, have mastered some
of followers. However, that was also the time when the government favored
Spanish.54More than a third are illiterate.
Protestantism because of its antipathy to the Catholic Church.” In 1927
The effects of the political and social revolution which conquered the big
Raymundo was no longer “considered to be in a position to continue his
pastorate” (as Ramirez puts it).48 Ornelas became the pastor of the Pachuco cities between 1910 and 1917 reached the country of the Otomi much later.
church. Far into the thirties one could find hardly any Protestants here. Those who
By amalgamation with other churches, among them one which had been dared to confess the new faith were either driven away or killed.
founded by the Swedish Pentecostal missionary Axel Anderson (Filadelfia That is why in 1936 a young Indian by the name of Venancio Hernandez55
Church, renamed Saron Church) in Mexico City, the organization grew had to leave his native valley and the hacienda where he and his ancestors had
worked since the arrival of the Spaniards. After having taught himself to read
42 The important diaries of Andres Ornelas Martinez are at the headquarters of
and write, he managed somehow to acquire a Bible. He began to read it, at first
the Iglesia Cristiana Independiente Pentecostts in Pachuco (Hgo). There one finds very skeptically because he knew that the great Mexican revolution was very
also the autobiography of the founder (now out of print). Lit. on Martinez and
his church: Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixmiquilpan, 88f. Crouch, World Outlook, 33-35. 49 Espinosa, “Datos.”
Ornelas, “Libertad.” Espinosa, “Datos.” Idem, “Cinco.” Tschuy, “Lateinamerika,” Ramirez, Bodas de OYO,96f.
1-4. Ramirez, Bodas de Oro. j 1Ibid., 84.
43 Ramirez indicates El Saus de 10s Ibarras as the native village of Andres Ornelas ”Ibid., 13.
(Bodas de Oro, 19). j3 Tschuy, “Lateinamerika,” 1.
#That is the earliest biographical date for Andres Ornelas Martinez which I 54 Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixmiquilpan, indicates 337,061 inhabitants in the region
could find (Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 24). of Mesquital (1960). Of these 81,562 speak Otomi and 17,113 only Otorni. In the
45 Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 3 1. region of Ixmiquilpan (24,871 inhabitants) 13,927 are bilingual and 5,763 speak only
46 Ibid., 30. Otomi. Hence the significance of services in Otomi (Ibid., 12).
47 Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixmiquilpan, 88.
55 See Hernandez, “Hombres nuevos.”
48 Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 39.
90 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mexico: Flowers and Songs
91
consciously anti-ecclesiastical if not anti-religious. As an Indian he knew too the military post gave them a certain protection. Hernindez knew that the small
how the religion of the conquerors had been thrust on the native population, congregation had to stick together if it were not to risk sudden disbandment.
often by brute force, and how the hierarchy of the church had sided, during At this time, the system of land reform limited estate ownership to five
the early nineteenth century’s war of independence, with the Spaniards and hundred hectares, thus one of the big land owners of Ixmiquilpan had to sell
the foreign king. part of his land. Venancio and his followers approached him and managed to
Yet the Bible which Venancio Hernandez now read appeared to him to be get a favorable contract. They bought a good piece of land with irrigation
entirely different. T h e Christ which it described was not half hidden by the rights. As they possessed very little cash, the former owner allowed them to
Virgin Mary or the Saints. He was neither a poor and feeble child nor a repay the purchase price by insta1lments.j’ T h e small evangelical community
thorn-crowned, weeping, dying, or even dead son of God. On the contrary: of Christians had impressed him and, in spite of pressure from other quarters,
he spoke with authority, he showed courage, and he feared neither the mighty he gave them a chance. “God has been with us!” said Venancio ponderingly,
ones of this world nor the indignation of the people who had expected another when recalling those pioneer days5’
Messiah. Such a personality would have fitted the Mexican revolution well!
More: this Christ talked with individual people about their sin, their lostness; A Pentecostal Cooperative
and he revealed God to them through his love for man, and through his T h e newly acquired farm land was under collective ownership, but the
sacrificial death, by which he reconciled man with God. One had only to land on which the small stone houses and family gardens were now gradually
accept this gift . . . ! Why had no one brought this message to Venancio being built were privately owned. U p to this time the Indians had lived only
Hernandez? T h e Virgin Mary, the Saints, the places of pilgrimage and the in Cactus huts; now they organized themselves into agricultural cooperatives,
indulgences: none of that was necessary if this book were true. And it was true, and built a cooperative textile factory which they continue to modernize.
for Venancio acquired an inner confidence hitherto unknown to him. Here was Compared with Europe and America, their tools and machines are modest.
a message which finally gave the right spiritual guidance to his revolutionary The outstanding fact, however, is that the Indians have created this local
thinking, and to his search for social and political justice.j6 economy themselves. They are not dependent on foreign finance and exper-
Venancio Hernandez did not want to, and could not, remain silent. During tise-even in the form of missionaries-since this handicraft production is
the siesta he read to the other farm workers from the wonderful book. They based on traditional skills. These Indians are unusually gifted, both intellec-
believed and were converted, changed their old habits, and soon, under the tually and manually: With precision and expertise such an Indian will install
tree where they assembled, were transformed into a small congregation. a projector together with a generator (in order to produce the necessary
T h e owner of the hacienda was informed that some of his Indian farm
electricity), not forgetting to check carefully all the contacts. He is also able to
workers had become Protestants. He summoned Venancio Hernandez and his
service and repair his versatile agricultural tractor himself.
friends before him and prohibited them to have any further religious meetings. Through the years, their church had to weather heavy persecution from
T h e Indians did not answer, but common prayer and Bible reading went on. the local Catholic clergy. “Sometimes the priest said we were not good people,
T h e owner of the hacienda, the local priest, and other Indians gathered to even that we were of the devil,” they recalled later to Maria Amerlinck (a
drive the small congregation out of their valley under threat of death. Catholic anthropologist who has made a careful anthropological study of the
Under the leadership of Venancio they wandered into the next valley, to the Pentecostal church at Ixmiquilpan).“ “In fact,” Amerlinck comments, “per-
village of I~rniquilpan,~’ where the main road from Mexico City to Guadala- secution had not been initiated by the priests, but by some of the richer people
jara passes. Outside the village, on a little hill on which the army had installed of Ixmiquilpan who could count on the local political structure and who
a small observation post, the small group settled down. Taking advantage of disliked the acquiring of land by the Indians. Yet with the help of regional6’
and national political forces and with some economic help from outside the
56Afterhis conversion he did not give u p his fight against the exploiting rich but difficulties were overcome.”‘* Pentecostals considered it their duty not to
he realized that the 300 shots of ammunition and his brother’s pistol (of best German
quality as he mentions explicitly) was too feeble for his battle. H e needed better and
more efficient weapons. And these are not peace in the heart and an individualistic 58 According to Amerlinck y Assereto, the Pentecostals bought 10,000 mz of land
religion, as one might expect, but the demonstration in praxis (and not just the and ?5 houses between 1948 and 1956 (Zxmiguilpan, 96).
proclamation) of models of an alternative society. See his letter to his brother 39 Tschuy, “Lateinamerika,” 1-3. According to Amerlinck y Assereto, the foun-
Silvester in Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 25f. dation of the congregation of Ixmiquilpan goes back to the years 1938 to 1940.
”According to Ramirez two years before the arrival of Hernandez (in the year Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixrniquilpan, 87.
1936) Prudencio Esquivel had already founded a small Pentecostal group in Ixmiquil- 61 A loan from the Instituto Linguistic0 de Verano (Ibid., 98).
pan. (Bodas de Oro, 125; pagination is wrong, wrongly printed 117). 62 Ibid., 87f. On the persecutions: Lascari, “Josefina Lascari.” Mensajero Pente-
92 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mexico: Flowers and Songs 93
respond to persecution with vengeance. “By praying and reading the Bible the guests. When the food had disappeared, everyone rose. “Excuse me,” said
they searched for the will of God and instead of exercising vengeance they the Indian chief, “I have a sick friend and I would like you to pray for him.”
offered pardon. T h e murderers recognized their wickedness, repented and “Of course,” answered the missionary. “Let us pray.” And in his booming
became members of the voice he rattled off a prayer: “Lord, you can heal even from afar. Make our
When the governor of their state needed workers for building roads, they unfortunate friend well. Amen. But now we have to be going.” And with that,
made the following offer: ‘LWeknow,” they said, “that you want to build roads he went. But Venancio was sorry for him. How could the missionary be blamed
in our region but that you lack workers. We will provide three hundred men for being a gringo?
daily free of charge if you provide machines and technical know-how. That is
how we are going to show to you that we ‘cristianos’ are useful citizens.” This Conversion and Development
demonstration proved better than any theoretical statement that they were
T h e secret of Venancio’s congregation lies in its theological and economic
not-as their persecutors accused-sectarian, but responsible members of
independence. I cannot find out exactly when Venancio united his congrega-
society. During the road-building they composed new songs in the soft re-
tion with the Iglesia Cristiana Independiente Pentecostes, whose headquarters
strained style of the Otomi. Today these songs form part of their liturgy, and
remind them of the time of persecution and how it was overcome.64 are in the nearby Pachuco. He is head pastor, and has under him about forty
obreros, lay preachers who each, in addition to their work as farmers and
Dangers from Outside craftsmen, serve congregations of about a hundred people.65
T h e upward social movement of the members of the church is phenome-
T h e church is no longer threatened by the Catholics. Indeed the latter nal. “There is a close link between evangelism and the search for education,”h6
are ready to learn from Venancio, who has, for example, been made a says Amerlinck. Giving their testimony,67 participating in the life of the
member of the Advisory Theological Commission of the Catholic Church congregation, financing the church themselves,“ “develops” the latent gifts
of Mexico. Today the church is threatened by a different “true faith.” I was in these Indians to their full potential. For them “giving” (money, animals,
personally present at a service in Ixmiquilpan at which an American mis- Yegetables, even drinks) to the church is not “alms-giving,” because God is
sionary was the preacher. At the beginning of the service three young not a beggar (limosnero). She sums up her assessment as follows: “Under these
Indians came forward with their guitars, knelt down and quietly prayed. Then circumstances religious conversion is the only way out of the narrow confines
they played and sang with a cultured restraint and manner which was ex- of traditionalism . . . T h e Indians need this new ideology as a means of
tremely moving. Even the members of the congregation did not sing at the top rationalization which enables them to understand their relationship to the
of their voices, as one usually finds in Pentecostal circles. But then came the changing world around them and gives a definite dignity to the individual
missionary’s sermon! His words went back and forth across the Indian con- per~on.’”~
gregation like a steamroller. The Indians gently lowered their heads but even While in the Catholic church in Ixmiquilpan most of the priests are
so I thought it scarcely possible for them to sustain this flood of oratory foreigner^,^" the Pentecostals have exclusively native ministers (who almost
without injury. But four centuries have developed in them a capacity to remain without exception earn their living in secular work). Before their conversion
dignified and noble even in humiliation. When the appeal for conversion was most of them were employed as farm workers on a day-to-day basis. Today
issued, many of them came to the front, covered their face with their rebozos
and quietly wept. Before the end of the service the missionary and his
65 Amerlinck y Assereto, Ixmiquilpan (23, 89) gives the following statistics:
entourage quit the chapel.
In the house of the chief a large table was spread with a dozen varied Catholics Pentecostals Others
Mexican dishes, lovingly and skillfully prepared, together with fruits and 1940 18,338 57
drinks. T h e missionary talked incessantly-in English, which the Otomi do 1950 20,912 245
not understand-while the chief stood a t the door with his wife and served 1960 23,657 1,069 145 (*)
(”) no information, no religion, 8 other denominations and religions

costes 2/62, March 1961,20 (Victoriano Montiel, Ixmiquilpan) Raymundo Ramirez, 661bid., 112.
“Hilario Aragon,” quoted in Mensajero Pentecostis 2/72, Jan. 1972, 24f. (“en una ” Ibid., 122.
turba de fanaticos, el cura y el cdte municipal son 10s autores intellectuales del “Ibid., 123.
crimen”). Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 128-33, passim. 69 Ibid., 4-5.
63
Tschuy, “Lateinamerika,” 5. ’O Two Italian, one American priest, six American lady missionaries, no Mexican
64 Ramirez, Bodas de Oro, 80. in Amerlinck y Assereto’s list (Ixmiquilpan, 23).
94 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Mexico: Flowers and Songs 95
most of them are farm owners, masons, owners of small shops and mills, truck will the Otomi do if they are restricted by political and economic power
drivers, and mechanics.71 structures which cannot easily be overcome by their method of self-help?
T h e Pentecostal pastors do not consider their ministry as a purely relig- It is also possible that in a wider sphere their intelligence, charm and
ious ministry which would distinguish and separate them from the rest of the theological understanding will produce solutions which we Europeans have
population. They do not see themselves as paid specialists of religion, but very not yet discovered. But in order to give any solution the necessary scope, their
much more as “economic evangelists” of a kind, or “evangelistic development buried humanity and culture must be excavated in a broader, ecumenical field.
advisers.” They earn their living because their example and the way in which I was involved in an attempt at such an “ecumenical excavation expedition.”
they build their own houses is part of their proclamation. They feel themselves
to be superior to the Catholic priests and are very proud of their special Excavating the Ruins
ministry of evangelism. They criticize the priests openly-and, if opportunity In order to avoid wreaking destruction by our excavation, we had to find
arises, also the Catholic hierar~hy~~-because they work solely as priests and someone in Mexico who could talk both with intellectuals and with people
lay themselves open to the reproach that they exercise their ministry for
with little or no formal education. This was particularly important since our
money.73 Discussing the question of a full-time, paid pastoral ministry, they
efforts were not to be restricted to the Indians, but to cover all sections of the
say: “What would our colleagues at work say? As a full-time ministry we would
Mexican people, and be a joint discovery made with their participation. We
become estranged from them.”74Hernandez summarizes the theology of their
worked on the assumption that it was both possible and desirable to initiate a
lived fellowship in these words: “The community believes in the salvation of
theological dialogue between intellectuals and illiterate people; Mexican Indi-
the hands by work, of the mind by learning to read, of the body by divine
ans, European Mexicans and half-breeds; Jesuit college lecturers and Adventist
healing75and of the soul by new birth.”76
roadworkers; journalists and Pentecostal preachers; middle class Methodists
There is no doubt that the Otomi have created an example of development
and Indian Mormons. T h e invitation to the “discussions” had to be conveyed
policy which by its very simplicity is fascinating. Within this system they have
personally so as not to miss the illiterate. Miss Maria Antonieta Hernandez,
explicitly included the w~men’~-a revolutionary act in their society. Here and
then a lecturer in Christian Education in the Comunidad Teologica of Mexico,
there, but very reluctantly, there are also beginnings of a dialogue with
European theology and churches.78The attempt is not without dangers-Ma- was the right person for this job. Her unmistakable Mexican appearance
ria Amerlinck draws attention to growing paternalism, particularly among the overcame any mistrust on the part of the Indians and campesinos, Pentecostals
leaders in P a c h ~ c oTheir
. ~ ~ theological and economic independence is impres- and Mormons. As an Anglican she had access to both Protestants and Catho-
sive, and was a matter of life and death in the pioneering phase of the church; lics. Through her flair for the “flowers and songs” mode of communication
but will it last in the more complex economic situation of the future? And what she aroused the curiosity of journalists and television people. What were the
~~
results of the excavation? Since detailed reports of the six seminars held in the
’’ Amerlinck y Assereto gives an exact list from a pattern of 83 family fathers: spring of 1970 in Monterrey, Mexico, Merida, Amecameca and Guadalajara
have been published in Spanish, I confine myself to summarizing some of the
occupation before conversion, occupation after conversion; accommodation before
and after conversion etc. While almost all of them had been farm workers before main points that were discussed.”
conversion, Amerlinck y Assereto found after conversion: 18 farm owners, 23 masons
(almost a monopoly of the Pentecostals!), 3 shop owners (one owns a Nixtemal mill),
2 employees at a petrol station, 1 mechanic, 1 apprentice mechanic, 4 “promotores de
The “Flowers and Songs” Method
asuntos indigenas,” and only 8 farm workers and 2 women servants. (Zxmkpi/pan, A theological discussion on the basis of fictional or biblical stories, making
104ff.j.
’ Mensajero Pentecostks 2/61, May 1961, 20: “El Cardenal Josk ‘Efrain’ Rivera” use of films and pictures, seemed to most participants the obvious approach.
The showing of the film “Parable”-a silent film depicting the passion and
(quoted from Rototemas 6.32.1958): “Para nadie es un secret0 que Garibi Rivera
representa el sector mas sectario, intransingente y obstruso de la iglesia en Mexico.” resurrection of Christ using the medium of a clown’s martyrdom-provoked
’’ Amerlinck y Assereto, Zxrnigui/pan, 129. objections from some Methodist and Baptist intellectuals. Christ could not be
“Ibid., 130.
75 presented in the symbol of a clown, they believed. “Why not?” demanded a
That is how the doctrine of the American healing evangelists is taken up, such as
Oral Roberts, “Fe contra,” 9-1 1, Osborn, T.L., “Preguntas,” 6-8; idem, “Hoy,” 3-7. colored worker (a Pentecostal preacher). “This film shows the circus of life in
76 Tschuy, “Lateinamerika,” 4. which we are all performers whether we like it or not. We dance just like
”Special women’s meetings (cf. e.g., Mensajero PentecostPs 2/51, Aug. 1961, 5-7). puppets, to the pattern decided by those who manipulate the strings. Gracias
’* Niemoller, “Nochebuena” (Niemoeller’s sermon in Mexico and mention of
“El hombre que se enfrento a Hitler” by Pedro Gringoire, Mexico 1938).
79 Keller. “La Biblia.” *‘Available in Spanish in Concept mentioned above, note 1.
Mexico: Flowers and Songs 97
a Dios,Christ came, put himself in our place that we might be set free, that we Non-Christian Religions
might be people with a face.” In connection with the story of the Ethiopian eunuch (Acts 8:26-40), the
In the discussion of the four different versions of the story of Peter’s question was raised whether baptism was essential to salvation. T h e informa-
confession (Mark 8:27-33; Matthew 16: 13-23; Luke 8:18-22; John 6:66-71), tion that the critical verse 37 is absent from certain manuscripts stirred up no
two groups came to the following conclusion: fundamentalist feelings as sometimes happens in Europe. Neither when the
It is hardly possible to formulate a modern confession of faith in conceptual two-source theory was mentioned (only as a hypothesis), nor during detailed
terms. Confessing the faith today presupposes an on-going exchange, mutual discussion of form-criticism of Peter’s confession, did anyone ask the an-
correction and relation to constantly changing situations. We can, however, see guished question which inevitably arises in Europe: “What is there left to
four elements which must be there in any confession of faith: believe?” T h e facts were noted, but the question which mattered more for
A confession of faith today requires various confessions. This variety can these people was: What is the relevance of these facts?
sometimes even include mutually contradictory confessions. We could not In discussing the story of the Ethiopian eunuch, a Jesuit explained that
agree whether this pluralism had to be confined to various biblical positions Philip’s interpretation of the Isaiah passage (Isa 53:7-8) in Acts 8:32-33
or could be extended to include new positions not represented in the Bible. conflicts with that of the exegetes of his day. T h e question therefore arose as
Confessing the faith (martyria) involves the element of suffering. to the authority of Philip’s exegesis, interpreting the Isaiah passage as refer-
Every confession of faith must be related to the history of Jesus of Nazareth. ring to Jesus. Are there not events and texts which have today to be interpreted
The test as to whether a confession of faith is biblical or merely a human in terms of Jesus, in opposition to both Christian and non-Christian tradition?
invention is ecumenical discussion crossing racial, confessional, social, na- “There are disciples of Jesus Christ outside the Church. T h e external sign of
tional and sexual boundaries. being a Christian is not therefore baptism, nor abstinence from alcohol and
nicotine, nor the pictures of saints in our homes, but the discovery that Jesus
The Human and the Holy Christ is greater than our theological and political ideas, indeed, greater than
T h e participants then considered the story of the “Guardian Angel,” by our faith.”82
Gerard0 Murillo,*’ which tells of a rather uncouth but kind-hearted woman Some Indian Mormons “excavated” the buried concerns of their forefa-
who takes into her care a young girl whose mother has been wrongly imprisoned thers within the traditional Mormon fiction-history, with its insistence on the
for some months. By her courage and persistence she secures the mother’s appearance of Christ on the American continent before the arrival of Colum-
release. T h e discussion started from the question: In what sense was this bus. What they were primarily concerned with was not the historical accuracy
woman a “guardian angel”? In answering this question some took the tradi- of this statement but its function, namely the expression of the faith that even
tional line and separated the action of the Holy Spirit (or of the angel) from the ancient Mexicans had received a revelation from God. They also wanted to
purely human sympathy, while others maintained that the woman, being of know, therefore, whether the Christian revelation had been made once and for
all or whether there was still revelation today. When this was affirmed-with
divine origin as a human person, was in fact an instrument of the Holy Spirit
the qualification that present-day revelation must be considered in relation to
in spite of her crude language and penchant for alcohol.
This finding made necessary further discussion of the relationship be- its source and be corrected in ecumenical discussion-the decisive question
was put: Is this process of correction a mutual one? What they were obviously
tween the Lukan and Pauline pneumatologies in the New Testament. During
concerned to do was to excavate the buried testimonies of their past and to see
this fascinating discussion one of the campesinos formulated the following
them afresh in the light of the revelation of Christ. God’s ways here too are
pneumatology: “Training in the Bible and the liturgy is not a condition for the
strange: this illuminating suggestion came from Mormon Indians, of all
work of the Holy Spirit in a human being. T h e Holy Spirit has been given to
people!
the whole of mankind.” T o the objection that the Holy Spirit only works in
An evangelical reader may well ask: Where in all this is the center of the
those who are obedient to Him, one campesina said this: “That’s not true. Mary
€wspel, justification by faith? It was already formulated above in the story of
Magdalene, for example, who approached Jesus with a desire to win him, put
Mary Magdalene, in the insight that being a Christian transcends the tradi-
on a very revealing robe and covered Jesus with a very seductive perfume. Of
tional expressions of Christian faith. Perhaps it was also there in the view of
course she wasn’t ready to receive the gift of Jesus. But Jesus looked on her
one group about the theology of the Yahwist, which concluded with the wish:
and gave all he had to give.” Astonishingly it was a Catholic who put forward
this evangelical interpretation.
82 Later I developed this problem in a three-act play “The Adventure of Faith,”
Verlag Metanoia, Kindhausen, Switzerland.
Murillo, “Un angel mexicano,” 46-5 1.
“We need today prophets like the Yahwist to make it clear to the Church that
it lives solely by God’s mercy and not on the basis of its faith and Christian
achievements.”
Mexico is usually regarded as a secularized country. Theological and
:EIGHT
religious topics are seldom taken up by the mass media. It was all the more
surprising therefore to find the Monterrey television devoting an hour’s
program to this kind of interpretation of the Bible, and the press reporting it
as an “active, practical school of Christian renewal.” This dialogue was de-
scribed as a “faithful exegesis of Holy Scripture,” unlike the methods of
indoctrination and polemics.83
Outlook Korea: llie Oral Shamanist

Since I have visited the Mexican Pentecostals, Manuel Gaxiola-Gaxiola
has written his dissertation. H e mentions several problems which have
Culture in Pentecostal
emerged in the meantime (not specially with the Iglesia Cristiana Inde- Transformation
pendiente Pentecost& but more with the Pentecostal churches in Mexico
City). Here the Pentecostals must learn-according to Gaxiola-that “confes-
sions framed in one context do not remain the same when that context
changes.”84 That means that the Pentecostal minister must be able to speak on An Old Culture
several levels simultaneously. He must be bilingual; that is, he must know the
oral language of the roots of Pentecostalism, but he must also be able to Dr. Boo-Woong Yo0 is a Presbyterian pastor from Korea.
converse and understand the written language of concepts and definitions. His church sent him to Kenya as a theological teacher. At the
Thus a well educated ministry without a middle class image is emerging.85 same time, he was asked to write his theological dissertation
On the other hand the ecumenical climate is-in spite of the Pentecos- on Korean Pentecostalism, for which he traveled regularly to
tal/Vatican dialogues6-not satisfactory. A leading Archbishop has even said Birmingham. His topic is as extraordinary as his method and
that the “sects” are more injurious than AIDS.87 The Catholic church does his working energy.
not seem to learn that something fundamental must change if they want to First he had to gather the numerous Korean documents
stop the drain of 8,000 persons who break with the traditional system daily.8s on his topic. He found them in several archives in Korea and
Here again it is regrettable that the Latin American Pentecostals and Catholics in the United States. He studied them in Birmingham and in
were not involved in the Catholic/Pentecostal dialogue. It seems, however, a rather remote seminary at the foot of Mount Kilimanjaro
that this will change very quickly. where he taught theology. He told me how he wrote chapter
after chapter, packed his manuscripts into a land-rover and
traveled several days to Nairobi where he typed them on two
electric word processors, one in English, the other in Korean
(for the original documents). Word processors were not avail-
able in his African college.
In his introduction, Yo0 emphasizes that Korea has a very
old culture. The written history of Korea goes back to the first
millennium B.C.-a time when our forefathers had no written
83 Tribuna de Monterrey, 2.3.1970, 5; El Provenir (Monterrey), 2.3.1970, 5.
84 Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mexican, 290.
culture, and many still walked about in bearskins. The oral
Ibid., 318. tradition goes even further back, to the year 2332 B.C., 1000
86 See chapter 13, pp. 165-80. years before King David, and 3400 years before William the
Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mexican, 270.
Ibid., 276. More information on Mexican Pentecostalism in Gill, Contextual-
ised, and in Hollenweger, El Pentecostalismo, 83-1 17.
’ This chapter is heavily based on Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism and Yoo, “Response
to Korean Shamanism.”
100 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Korea 101
Conqueror. The modern history of Korea starts with the Yi Dynasty (A.D. 1392) Fundamentalist Pentecostalism
which unified the disparate Korean kingdoms.
Since Korea has for a long time been influenced by China, it is not The first Pentecostalism was a popular movement which worked through
astonishing that the first main religions of Korea were Buddhism, and later the shamanist forms of religion (characterized by the healing of the sick,
Confucianism. However, very early on these two religions were penetrated by visions, ecstasies, the priesthood of women, and lack of theological education).
Korean Shamanism. Christianity also, in its Catholic, Protestant and Pente- These forms were adapted in a Pentecostal way. These early Pentecostals took
costal versions, has borrowed much from Korean shamanism.* the biblical text at its face value and experienced deep revivals which can be
It was only in the sixteenth century that the first Catholic missionaries compared to the revivals of early Pentecostalism in Europe and America.
arrived in Korea. However, Catholicism did not spread a t the same rate as In contrast to those revivals, the Korean revivals did not lead to separate
Protestantism has in the twentieth century. One of the reasons for this may be churches, but remained more or less within the mainline churches as charis-
that Protestantism (under the influence of Pentecostal Minjung theology) is matic-ecumenical revival movements. They thus influenced these churches
financially and theologically more independent than Catholicism. deeply. It is this influence which makes early Korean Pentecostalism impor-
Protestantism in Korea started only about a hundred years ago-a very tant-more important at any rate than the later Korean Pentecostal churches.
short time compared with the many thousands of years of Korean history. The This influence has also had its drawbacks. Critical thinking has in the past
first Protestant missionaries concentrated their work among the poor, the been neglected in favor of religious experience; eternal salvation has been
peasants, and later, when industrialization came, among the workers. One of considered more important than changes in society. But both “weaknesses”
these first missionaries was H. Appenzeller, a Swiss-born American, who had are understandable. The people who were touched by these early revivals had
been taught the German Heidelberg Catechism by his mother. no access to higher education. And, since Korea was at that time occupied and
Since the year 1910 (the first year of the Japanese occupation, which lasted oppressed by Japan, ordinary people had no opportunity to “change society.”
until 1945) Protestantism has doubled every ten years (see chart). All churches However, the resistance to Japanese occupation among the ordinary people
contribute to this growth, but the Pentecostals have made a particularly strong was clearly felt.
contribution. T h e fact that today many Korean theologians (Pentecostals and others) do
post-graduate studies in America and Europe shows that change has been
Growth of Korean Protestantism 1960-83
rapid.
1960 1,250,000
1970 2,200,000 Mystical Pentecostalism
1980 7,000,000 The second Pentecostalism started with the mystical tradition of Korea.
1983 8,500,0003 Its most important representative is Yong-do Yi. Yi proclaimed a dualistic
doctrine: the spiritual, the religious, the immaterial is good; the material, the
Yo0 divides the history of Korean Pentecostalism into three typical
worldly is bad. He himself took his doctrine very seriously. He gave his clothes
streams: (1) fundamentalist Pentecostalism (from 1900 onward), (2) mystical
to a beggar, sold his house, and used the proceeds of the sale to finance the
Pentecostalism (in the thirties) and (3) Pentecostalism which takes its roots
studies of a young theologian. His cencral concept was that of “dying daily.”
from the Minjung tradition (1970ff.)
He was a poet, and wrote hymns on the passion of Christ:
’On the Pentecostal pastor as a “shaman” see The Pentecostals, 474ff. T h e famous The crown of thorns m y Lord once wore.
Korean Pentecostal pastor Paul Yonggi Cho (born 1936) could be considered a Come and put these on me.
Pentecostal Shaman par excellence, although his Western biographers avoid this term I see now my Golgotha is approaching
(D.J. Wilson, “Cho”; Kennedy, Dream). But see Villafaiie, The Liberating Spirit, 208, Whip me. Hasten me.
and Cho, Fourth Dimension, 90, 96, 100, where a very much more inclusive view of Let me declare m y completion.
the Spirit of God is presented. Mark R. Mullins describes Paul Yonggi Cho’s YOUshall know where I come from,
theology “as a synthesis of Korean shamanism, Robert Shuller’s ‘positive thinking’, When y o u drink m y blood and eat mjiflesh.
and the pragmatism of the Church Growth School of Missiology associated with 0 Lord, grant me the d a y when I may say,
Fuller Theological Seminary’s School of World Mission.” See the excellent article,
Mullins, “Empire,” 87-102, esp. 92.
“ZZis finished.”‘
Source: Studies on Pentecostalism in Korea (Seoul: Korean Christian Academy
Press, 1983, 300f. [Korean]); Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism, 3. 4Pyun, Diary. Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism, 119.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Korea 103
102
This lived Minjung theology, writes Yoo, has learned something very
Those knowledgeable in devotional literature will recognize in these
important from Korean Shamanism by giving a voice to the women,6 and to
lines Catholic or even Buddhist themes. An influence from Catholicism on
Yi is unlikely, in light of his attacks on the mainline churches which the so-called lay-people, the cultural proletariat of Korea.
rejected this outspoken passion mysticism. Yi’s community has died out- Yo0 has produced a new and original study. He has also described the
except for a small remnant-but his influence on Korean spirituality should various American “church growth evangelists” who have worked in Korea.
not be underestimated. My impression, however, is that because of the enormous language barriers
the Americans say one thing and the Koreans understand something else. For
Minjung Pentecostalism once the difficult Korean language, which cannot easily be learned by West-
erners, is an advantage. It protects the expertise of the people from being
T h e third Pentecostal movement has much in common with the so- paralyzed by foreign experts on evangelism.
called Minjung theology, which tries to interpret the Bible with the people Yoo’s presentation is also remarkable: Korean Pentecostalism is not pre-
(ochlos). In Minjung, theology is no longer something which is imported sented as a product of Western Pentecostal missionaries. That is why Korean
from abroad. T h e people of Korea also have knowledge; not everything Pentecostalism is very different. All founding pioneers are Koreans, who are
must be taught to them by American or European theologians. It is no
deeply rooted in Korean popular culture and integrate this culture selectively
longer acceptable that the people learn the culture of the oppressor, of the
into their spirituality.
intellectual and economic klite. How can those who are the prisoners of the
Accurate statistics are notoriously difficult to come by in a country where
culture of oppression (those theologians who are trained in a Western way)
new churches are founded every year, and people become Christians by the
know what the people feel? In contrast to the Latin American theology of
thousands. According to Yoo, of the 8,500,000 Protestants and 1,160,000
liberation, Minjung sees the police who persecute the Christians as also
part of the people. They too are oppressed; the torturers also need to hear Catholics (1983 figures-population of Korea: 37,500,000), two thirds are
the Gospel, many times by those they are torturing. Finally Yo0 and his influenced by Pentecostalism. There are, however, only about 1,100,000 ad-
friends ask: Why is there not one writer of the Latin American theology of herents of Pentecostal churches in the strict sense. It is difficult to assess the
liberation who is representative of the oppressed people of Latin America, accuracy of these statistics because it is not clear how many adherents of the
of the American Indians, of the blacks? Only the descendants of the “non-white indigenous churches’’ in Barrett’s statistics belong to independent
Spanish and Portuguese invaders write a theology of liberation. For Yo0 Pentecostal churches (see chart).
that means that the Latin American theology of liberation has yet far to go Christians in Korea (1985)
in order to become a theology of l i b e r a t i ~ n . ~
Non-white indigenous churches 4,801,600 12.8% of population
In relation to the Korean Minjung theology Yo0 suggests critically: Per-
Protestants 4,025,500 10.8% of population
haps the official printed Minjung theology is again a theology which an Clite
Catholics 1,160,000 3.1% of population
wrote for the people. For him a contrast and a complement to the printed
Sects 110,000 0.3% of population
Minjung theology is the lived Minjung theology of the independent indige-
Anglicans 110,000 0.3% of population
nous Pentecostal churches, and of those churches which have been influenced
Orthodox 43,000 0.3% of population’
by this tradition. In these churches the whole people of God does theology,
not only the scholars. It does theology in songs and prayers, in testimonies and
For 1985, Barrett gives 11,000,000 Christians; that does not agree entirely
Bible studies. This is a daring thought, which will not be acceptable every-
with Yoo’s numbers for 1983. Perhaps the difference between Yo0 and Barrett
where in Korea, Europe, or America. However, Yo0 teaches theology in Africa.
can be explained as follows: Yo0 is a Korean theologian. He includes the
He must have realized there that the thought-patterns of Western theology fail
to work in an Asian context. non-white indigenous Korean churches (which do not belong to any of the
Western churches) with the Protestants, and does not count them as a special
category. The Anglican Barrett on the other hand distinguishes between the
5 6 0 n e remembers the protest against Chung, Hyun Kyung at Canberra (see

When I wrote a review of Yoo’s book for a Swiss periodical, it was rejected
chapter 27, pp. 382-84). Chung, Struggle. She is another uncomfortable Korean
because the Catholics did not like his criticism of the (mainly Catholic) theology of
theological thinker; on a Pentecostal approach to ancestors see chapter 20, pp.
liberation. It is always the same story: Third World theologians may be as revolution-
266-67.
ary as they like as long as they are revolutionary in our way, but if they think
theologically for themselves they are not welcome! ’Source: Barrett, WChE, 440ff.
Korea 105
Western-based mission-churches and the financially and theologically inde- Pentecostalism. Yo0 sees in shamanism ‘Lafaith for the masses.” Because it is
pendent Korean churches. It is certain that Korean Protestantism will become oral, it articulates H u n (a kind of collective feeling of defeat, resignation and
more and more independent, both financially and theologically. T h i s is nothingness; but also of the tenacity and will for life which comes from the
already to be seen in their important missionary work in Asia and Africa. weak), and makes it concrete in healings, visions, and spirit experiences.”
Only Catholics and Anglicans will remain dependent on the West. Once “Although Pentecostal church leaders would deny the influence of ‘pagan
again it becomes clear that even simple statistics are theological judgments: religion’ most scholars agree that shamanism has been the central force
Including all Korean Christians (except the Catholics) with the Protestants shaping the development of Korean Pentecostalism.”12
presents a Korean picture of the Protestant Church. Distinguishing between
Korean independent churches and Western-based Protestants is the view
from outside.
Further development is difficult to assess. At the moment the churches
are still growing very rapidly. T h e influence of Shamanism, Minjung and
Pentecostalism, and revival spirituality will not wane. In the future we shall
see a strong theologically- and organizationally-independent Korean church
emerge.
T h e Korean interpretation of Pentecostalism by Yo0 got a very mixed
reception. Robeck for instance writes:
North American Pentecostals who align with the concerns of the Pentecostal
Fellowship of North America will find this study to be a frustrating one . . . This
is no history of North American Pentecostal missions. This is no history of the
founding and formation of Korean Pentecostal denominations along the lines of
their Pentecostal Fellowship of North America counterparts. This is no history
of such churches as Full Gospel Central Church. On the whole, it is an overview
of renewal movements in which the Holy Spirit has been acknowledged as
playing a major role.*
A Korean reviewer says: “I question whether Minjung theology can be
related to the Pentecostal movement of Christianity in Korea.”’ Yo0 is criti-
cized in Korea because he did not follow the neat categories of the Minjung
intellectuals. H e is rejected by American Pentecostals because they “will have
some difficulty recognizing themselves here.”” But what if Korean Pente-
costalism is a different kind of Pentecostalism (more related to the other
churches, less denomination-centered), and if it is not only permissible but
necessary to interpret and criticize it with the categories of a Shamanistic
culture of several thousand years? I wonder sometimes how one would have to
write the history of American Pentecostalism if one took as a starting point
history and theological categories imposed from outside the US; for instance,
from Korea. I1Yoo, “Response to Korean Shamanism,” and Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism, 223ff.
O n the other hand Mark R. Mullins, Associate Professor at Meiji Gakuin l2 Mullins, “Empire,” 92. Mullins i s supported by Grayson, Early Buddhism and_
University, Tokyo, seems to agree with Yo0 on the influence of shamanism on Christianity in Korea, 205, Lee, Jae Bum, Korean, 279-86, and Suh, “Forty Years
of Korean Protestant Churches: 1945-1985.” Mullins also discusses, in his well-
documented article, the following authors: Syn-Duk, Choi, “A comparative study of
‘Cecil M. Robeck, in a review of Yoo’s Korean Pentecostalism, Pneuma 1211, two new religious movements in the Republic of Korea: the Unification Church and
1990, 61, the Full Gospel Central Church”; Byron H. Earhardt, “The New Religions of Korea:
’Review by Wi Jo Kang in Missiology 21/1, Jan. 1993,593. The Korean book by A Preliminary Interpretation,” Transactions of the Korea Branch o f the Royal Asiatic
Jae Bum Lee (History) is not accessible to me. Society 49, 1974; Byong-Suh Kim, “The Explosive Growth of the Korean Church
”Robeck, Cecil M. Jr., Pneuma, 12/1, 1990, 62. Today: A Sociological Analysis,” Znt. Revielr, ofMission 74/293, 1985, 61-74.
England 107
only one theology. Some day you are going to ask for a Chair of Black Music and
Literature.”
To tell the truth, that is exactly what I had in mind. But I dared not
express this adventurous idea. I must add, however, that at least the theologi-
ans knew that such a thing as “black theology” exists. But the faculty was
unmoved by my remarks. Instead of a black theologian they appointed a
forensic graphologist-as if that were the most pressing academic need in our
university!
The results of this educational policy have been catastrophic. I do not
pretend that the riots and burning streets, the petrol bombs, and the dead and
England: Interaction Between wounded which Birmingham has seen in the 1980s2are the direct outcome of
our educational policy, but much of it could certainly have been avoided had
Black and White in Theological we had more black teachers, policemen, civil servants, politicians, social work-
ers and university students. The English will pay dearly for the fact that they
Education‘ have not taken a leaf out of the American book. Over twenty years ago the
Americans had to wrestle with similar problems, and decided to work for a
massive improvement in black education.
In this context, it is no wonder that the Anglican and Methodist churches
The Story of the “Black School” have hardly any black clergy (in spite of the fact that they have many black
Apartheid in spite of good laws on racial discrimination member^).^ If one points to this anomaly it is said: “Blacks do not apply for
these posts; and those who do apply are not qualified.” Even if one considers
“How is it,” the Dean of the Faculty of Arts in the this as just an excuse, it is at least a good excuse. However, it would be better
University of Birmingham asked, “that we have hardly any to go to the root cause than just to make excuses. That is exactly the task which
black students in our university? That is to say, we have quite the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership in Birmingham has
a number of black students from Africa, and even from the taken on.
United States, but where are our British-born blacks? I don’t
believe that they couldn’t cope with higher education. There The Beginning4
must be other reasons.” A remarkable observation indeed in a
country in which racism is outlawed; in which, to give just one At the start the Centre was mainly directed towards the training of worker
example, somebody who advertises a house for sale “to white pastors from the 750 black congregations in England, which are organized in
purchasers only” would be prosecuted. The reason for the lack over 100 black denominations. These churches are of very differing traditions:
of black British-born students at the university lies in the fact Methodist, Adventist, Pentecostal, and those which so far have not existed in
that English schools have been structured for English pupils, Europe-black independent churches from West Africa and the Caribbean.
so that blacks cannot identify either with their curriculum or Some of these churches are very large in their countries of origin, and twenty
with their staff. Black themes, black culture are absent. When percent of the black population of Britain belong to them. That makes the
I brought these facts to the notice of my colleagues in the church the most important, if not the only relevant, form of organization for
Faculty of Arts and asked for the introduction of black studies blacks in Britain, a fact of which white Christians, politicians, and local
at the university, so that we might get teachers who have at least councils were almost totally unaware,
an idea of black theology, black history, black language and It is quite remarkable that the British mission societies, which are famous
black music, I received benign smiles from some and raised for their pioneering ecumenical and missiological work in the Third World,
eyebrows from others: “What is this ‘black theology’? There is have almost totally missed the opportunity for a renewing intercultural
‘This chapter started as an article in TheoIogy (Hollenweger, “Interaction”). It On this see Hollenweger, “L’experience,’’ 186-92.
has been revised, updated, and annotated. See also Thompson (“Popular Religiosity Wilkinson, Church in Black and White.
in Britain”), who puts the black experience in Britain in a wider context. 4See the report by one of its first directors: Mazibuko, Education.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide England 109
108
which they have to learn in order to pass examinations, but as an important

dialogue in their own country. T h e Labor Party also, which could not criticize
tool for dealing with the differences in the black Christian community.
South African apartheid enough, are unable to recognize the cultural, political
T h e course on Christian doctrine is developed in a similar way. Among
and spiritual leadership potential of these churches in their own country. It
the participants there are those representing at least half a dozen different
took two foreign “missionaries” to see this-a German pastor and a Swiss
doctrinal traditions. These can be explained on the one hand by different
university professor. On the basis of the research work of the former, Roswith
Western traditions to which the black churches have been exposed, and on the
Gerloff,’ contacts were made with black church leaders. In spite of the fact
other hand by different cultural influences (African, Caribbean, North Ameri-
that many of them had only a few years’ schooling, what they wanted was a
can). It is particularly important to isolate and interpret the African religious
theological educational program at a university level.
symbols and forms of language which stem from their common African
Almost all the black church leaders are worker-pastors. During the week
pre-Christian roots, and which have been “saved through slavery” by the oral
they work in factories, or as bus drivers, railwaymen or bookkeepers, unless
tradition of mothers and grandmothers. Worship, prayer, singing and witness-
they are unemployed-as is often the case. On weekends they are pastors or
ing are as important in this school as lectures and examinations.
bishops, and many of them wear beautiful liturgical gowns and episcopal
I suggested to my colleagues at the university that they make a practice
mitres, to which in comparison the vestments of a Roman Catholic cardinal of starting their lessons with prayer and singing; that they include a supper
pale. To create a theological program at a university level for these worker-pas- shared by students, teachers and guests; and that they conclude the week-
tors was quite a challenge. We had to invent a course of studies which both end course with a worship service either in a black or a white church. When
made sense for the blacks and was acceptable to the university. T h e school was I suggested that all these activities be considered as basic didactical ele-
organized as a series of weekend courses, taught by teachers from the univer- ments, they smiled a t me. I was reminded that Birmingham is a totally
sity and the Selly Oak Colleges. T h e educational method is that of Paolo secular university in which prayer, worship, banquets, singing and dancing
Freire: the language, thought categories, and experiences of the course partici- are not part of the educational program. I defended my proposal by
pants form the basis for the teaching. pointing to the facts that blacks do not speak about God without also
Later, in reading the reports of the theologians from Korea, I recognized speaking to God; that a critical analysis of biblical texts without dance,
in their oral language the same method, which rejects the conceptual (literary) singing and witnessing is inconceivable to them; and that to engage in a
language of the West and the cultural (literary) language of China. Yet it must fierce debate on white oppression without subsequent reconciling intercul-
be said that this method does not fit easily into our European scholarly tural celebration is not Christian to them. T h e result of these deliberations
tradition.6 was that all these elements were included in the course under the cover of
“cultural concessions.” In the meantime the white students asked me why
The Curriculum they could not be educated in a similar way, since the black students passed
T h e courses in the black program appear at first glance to be rather the rigid examinations of the university, and some of them even produced
traditional: Mission, Old Testament, New Testament, Christian Doctrine. In interesting master’s dissertation^.^
the mission course students start with the history and experience of black One experience is particularly revealing for understanding the theology
churches; with the experience of slavery, the experience of the church as “the which is taught in this school. One of the lecturers, a New Testament scholar,
place and means of survival,” the mission of black churches in white England. was also an Anglican clergyman. For many years he had had difficulties with
In the biblical courses, they start with the astonishing biblical knowledge of his received tradition. He explained to me once why he could not possibly
the participants, with the biblical vocabulary known to them, but also with the believe in God. His reasons did not make much sense to me because they
differing interpretations on fasting, foot-washing, visions, and speaking in belonged to the English tradition of rationalism and positivism. One day he
tongues, which emerge clearly for instance between the African and the startled his bishop by asking to be relieved of his ordination vow. He made
public his reasons for this step.
Caribbean students. They are then able to show that not only are opinions on
these and other forms of spirituality divided at the present time, but the New Think of the confusion that produced among the Christians in Birming-
ham. Some of the evangelicals who otherwise are not very interested in the
Testament itself already contains records of a plurality of spiritualities and
black Churches argued fiercely with them. “And this creature, who does not
theologies. Thus the participants see historical-critical research not as something
7 E.g., Foster, Black Women; Pemberton, A Study of Caribbean Religions; Sim-
See her exhaustive study: Gerloff, Plea. Also by the same author “Ed~cation.”
monds, “A Portrayal of Identity ”;Tomlin, Black Preaching S t y l e . Publication of some
There is more literature by the same author in the Short Titles List, pp. 4 2 6 2 7 .
or all is planned in IC.
Vongbock, Minjung Theology.
110 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide England 111
even believe in God (not to speak of the fact that he is not born again), this antipathy. This is the worst form of apartheid, we were told by Methodist
creature teaches you New Testament!” “Well, let us examine the situation,” headquarters. Pauline Webb, one of the foremost fighters against racism in the
answered the blacks. So they met with their teacher and said to him: world-wide ecumenical context, discovered how difficult it is to accept in her
own country that blacks do their own thing.
1. “You said on the radio that you did not believe in God. We knew this all the T h e introduction of black competence in church and university jeopard-
time. From now on things can only improve since you have confessed in izes white privileges. It calls into question our pecking order. When the
public.” theologically competent handling of an “unbelieving teacher” (see example
2. “We know that faith is a gift from God which we receive by grace alone. It above) is seen in its theological significance and is in fact theologically more
is obvious that so far you have not received this grace. However, you are an significant than the discussion of received theological traditions, then our
excellent teacher in New Testament exegesis. T h a t is why we come to the privileges are called into question. And that can be very threatening. However,
university. As to faith, we know that this cannot be taught, it is received by a theological school-if it is truly theological-has always been dangerous.
grace alone. But as to the craft of proper and skillful interpretation of the That has also been the experience of the Minjung theologians in Korea.
New Testament, you are our teacher. We do not think that you are disquali- They gave up the conceptual language of the oppressors and opted instead for
fied as our teacher because you do not believe in God.” the oral language of the common people, the ochlos of the Gospel of Mark, the
3. “You may be assured that we pray for you that the gift of faith may be given Minjung of Korea. This was both a cultural and a political decision. Many of
to you one day.” them have lost their academic status as a result of this choice. It does not mean
they choose a cultural class struggle; the Minjung theologians reject class
T h i s is the theology of pastors who are considered theologically theories. They look for a dialogue with their oppressors (for instance the
uneducated! policemen who torture them) analogous to that of Jesus and the Roman
Roswith Gerloff, for many years the director of the Centre, summarized colonial administrators. They are skeptical of the Latin American theology of
her experience in a biblical image: liberation and ask the obvious question: Are these theologians really theologi-
T h e friends of the lame man in the Gospel broke through the roof because they ans of the people or is their theology rather a theology written by an Clite for
were convinced that this man needed help and that Jesus was in the house. We the people?’
too have broken through the roof, we have protected underprivileged people For Birmingham this means that dialogue between the police, the church
because we are convinced of their spiritual and intellectual potential and because and the university authorities is as important as dialogue between whites and
we know that Christ has something to say to our academic and ecclesiastical the black grass roots. Only one condition has to be met-the dialogue has to
institutions. It was not confidence in the goodness of these institutions which be conducted in an oral language, so that the oppressors, the educated people,
prompted us to act in this way. It was confidence in the Christ who calls these cannot claim all advantages for their side. If this condition is met then both
institutions to repentance. In this process something like conversions were black and white, the so-called educated and so-called uneducated, will enter
possible, conversions of so-called uncritical students to clear thinking and
into a dialogue with a theological and humane promise.
conversions of so-called unspiritual scholars to an experience of faith.’
This insight has been articulated for many years for the Western churches
by Theophil Vogt.” On the basis of long experience, he describes the theo-
The Experiment and Its Assessment
logical fruit of group Bible study which is orientated to lived religion, and in
There are ways of communication other than those of propositional which the people of God are the subject of hermeneutics. Theoretically this
philosophical and theological discourse. There are ways of education other insight is already present in the Reformers and in Karl Barth, who started his
than those predominant in our universities. These forms are not inferior, they Church Dogmatics with the sentence, “theology is a function of the Church.”
are different. It is necessary to digress from the path of tradition if we want to However, it is not sufficient merely to put such a sentence at the beginning of
progress. Of course this was disputed. In our case protest did not come in the a dogmatic. We need methods which make it possible for the people of God to
first instance from the university but from the churches. They saw the enter into this theological process. If theologians call on the so-called outsid-
strengthening of black leadership potential as an unecumenical act. They ers, the oppressors and the oppressed, the “literary” and the “oral” people, for
would have liked us to condition our black students to return to the white the production of their theology, and theologians cease to believe in a “division
churches. Since the blacks had chosen the opposite path and had established of labor” into the producers (the university theologians) and the consumers
their own structures, the white churches reacted to the Centre with much
’See chapter 8, pp. 99-105.
‘From an earlier, unpublished draft of Gerloff’s “Education.’’ lo Vogt, Bibelarbeit, 149.
112 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide England 113
(the people of God), then a new and radical theology emerges. Since literary reflected in the liturgy and the theology of a congregation. That which is not
people are always also oral people (but not vice versa), it is important that our done is likely to be forgotten.”
study of the Bible be conducted in an oral medium. Vogt sees in this use of the Out of the blue, and apparently out of context, a student asked the teacher
oral medium a chance for “the discrepancy between a growing specialization (disturbance!): “Have you ever fasted in your life?” This question seemed to
of the academic theologian and an ever-growing theological illiteracy of the the teacher irrelevant, so he repeated: “This is a problem of text-tradition.
people of God to be bridged.” He regrets, however, that the fruits of these Bible That which is done is retained . . . ” However, the student was not to be
studies are so far almost completely ignored by the academic establishment. side-tracked. “But have you ever fasted?” he asked again. T h e teacher gave up
T h e reason for this might be that Vogt’s Bible-study method combines his fixation on the “it” and replied frankly: “No.” “But I have,” said the
insights from historical-critical exegesis with those of group therapy and student. “You see, I belong to a tradition in which experiences of fasting are
Theme-Centered Interaction (TCI). He manages to keep the tension alive made [he had learned to use abstract terminology in order to say simple
between the “foreignness” of the text and the nearness of its message by giving things]. And I can tell you, it is a beautiful and important thing.”
equal weight to both, to the exegetical and the TCI aspects. How such a Thus the ban was broken and the “topic” (namely fasting) was allowed to
combination can become fruitful is now demonstrated by looking at the black speak for itself apart from its literary fixed form. Similar things happened in
school in the context of TCI. interpreting healing stories in the New Testament, and in studying the reports
of visions and auditions.
The Black School in the Context of TCI”
T h e Group Interaction: “We”
At first glance it becomes clear that the four components of T C I are
present in the educational adventure of the Centre for Black and White Group interaction generally appears in university education in the form of a
Christian Partnership and that a balance is sought between [l] the person (I), seminar. Since we manage to create homogenous seminar groups through a seem-
[2] the group interaction (we), [3] the topic (it), and [4] the context (the globe). ingly objective process of selection (on the European continent we even manage
to separate Protestant and Catholic students for their theological education!), we
The Person: “ I ” either have to introduce artificial conflicts into the seminar in order to make it
interesting, or the seminar becomes just a lecture presented by several readers.
In university education the “I” is probably the most neglected of the four
A seminar in the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership is
ingredients. It is thought to be unscholarly to consider the “I” in academic different. There are white and black students, young and old, men and women,
research. That not only leads to an elimination of the “I” but it also gives the academically trained and students with only a few years elementary school, all
alpha-person (usually the teacher) an unacceptably privileged position-even adherents of many different churches. It must be ensured that interaction is
more so when this happens unconsciously. In science it has been understood not dominated by one group alone; say, the academically trained or the
for some time how heavily the “I” influences research results. This is no less religiously articulate. In the interest of a proper interaction, a continuous
true for human than for natural sciences.12T h e “I” is in part responsible for process of translation from one “language” into the other is necessary. This is
the questions we ask, the priorities of our research, and therefore the results only possible with the help of the students. Furthermore, it is important that
of our research. In the case of our school the inclusion of the “I” was a question the teacher learns the new “languages” from his students. Thus he is at the
of “to be or not to be.” same time a teacher and a student. A hasty harmonization has to be avoided,
I mention as an example a lecture in which a New Testament scholar for instance, when Sabbatarians defend the Saturday as a divinely ordained
explained to the students why Matthew had added the words “and fasting” in day of rest, or when others consider this sabbatarian biblical hermeneutic as
the sentence “this kind [of demon] never comes out except by prayer and an outmoded religion of the law.
fasting” (Matt 17:21), in contrast to Mark (Mark 9:29), who does not add “and
fasting.” Matthew, argued the teacher, adds these words because in his con- T h e Topic: “It”
gregation, in his tradition, fasting was well known. That which one does is
handed down (in our case we are not sure whether this was a tradition handed The curriculum of the school is grosso mod0 the Bible and the function (the
down from Jesus, or an addition influenced by the practice in Matthew’s mission) of black Churches and cultures in England. In order to understand
congregation). T h e students wrote in their notebooks: “That which is done is these, the students have to be introduced to their own history, the African
background, slave-trade and slavery, Caribbean culture, migration to England,
Farau-Cohn, Gelebte Geschichte der Psychotherapie. and SO on. They know this history as a family memory from their grandfathers
l 2 Kuhn,
The Structure of Scient@ Revolutions. and grandmothers, and as daily experience in England. Many of the students
England 115
ments into European academic learning all the more important; if an interac-
know that they themselves are the indirect results of the rape of their great- tion between black and white culture is successful, that would be the beginning
grandmothers by white overseers and governors. One of them, who knows his of a cross-cultural education, and of an intercultural theology. That we were
genealogy in detail, irritated the English participants by pointing out that he successful in securing black teachers for the school bodes well for such
was a relative to the Queen. (Sometimes a royal duke was active in increasing education (although one teacher had to be brought in from South Africa, as
the slave population-in particular after the abolition of slave trade.) we could find nobody suitable in the indigenous black population!).
However, the participants can not usually integrate this topic into a wider T h e Birmingham project is not the first school of this kind, for similar
world and church history. If they were ever taught history, it was always taught attempts are under way in the United States of America and in South Africa,
without reference to their own family and group experience, their own passion but it was the first of its kind in Europe. Hence it has been a test of the
story. This means that history has to be retold, but in such a way that the intercultural competence and ability of European scholarship. Of course much
individual and collective fragments of memories receive their legitimate place
has been written about this kind of education on a theoretical level-one
in this historical view.
thinks of Illich and Freire; but so far no sustained program has been attempted
in Europe. This experiment shows the viability of a workers’ university (about
The Context: “The Globe”
which much has been said but little done) that does not force students to give
T h e context of the school is the university and British society. A total up the scholarly competence of their working-class culture.
integration of black education into the university is logically not possible as It is my considered opinion that the experiment will either run out of
long as the university functions as a context for expressing and arguing for funds or it will be ignored. It is able to carry on now only thanks to subsidies
white privilege. Indeed, the black school is a foreign body in the corpus of the from Switzerland and Germany. T h e British Government contributes little or
university; but perhaps it is also a hope for the future, once we realize the nothing, and the churches are reluctant to help in a significant way, not least
shortcomings of our Western education. because the school strengthens the possibility of an attractive and sustainable
In spite of this logical impossibility, the school does function within the alternative to the European churches. After having received their certificates,
university framework of rules and regulations, essays and examinations. This if the blacks returned to the arms of the traditional churches, then the
is only possible because teachers and examiners are pragmatic English men experiment would be justified from the point of view of the British churches.
and women who-at least for the time being-are prepared to suspend their But so far this has not been the intention of the blacks. On the contrary, the
“academic prejudices.” school strengthens their self-awareness, and enhances their ability to articulate
A further insight of TCI is the connection between mind and body. “The their own spirituality, a fact which will also bear political fruit in the future. It
human person is a psycho-biological unity and is thus part of the universe.”13 If is commonly accepted that the blacks are to be admired so long as they do their
that is correct, then teaching and learning have to be related to this psycho- own thing in South Africa or in Zimbabwe. If, however, they intend to
biological unity and not just to the cognitive faculties of humankind. That is why contribute their black competence to an educational system which is very
the teaching is not only carried on by lectures and seminars, but also by prayer resistant to “alien” cultures, people become rather nervous.
(integration of the cosmos), worship (integration of the oikoumene), dramas It has to be admitted that a racially divided church is not ideal. But before
(in particular by ad hoc sketches in which problems and solutions are presented we can talk about ecumenical unity between black and white, black Christians
by the participants), and above all dance, about which we white teachers must become sure of themselves. They must discover their “I” and articulate
understand very little. Dance is a mode of expression which also contains
it in relation to the “We” and the “It.” At a later date one might work out a
cognitive elements. Watching others dancing, one can learn much about
more explicit interaction between black and white churches. However, this will
oneself and the others. By dancing oneself, one can learn much about the “I,”
not happen according to our rules and our priorities, but rather according to
the “We,” and the “It.” Furthermore, dancing is a mode of expression which
rules and priorities worked out together. In this sense the Centre for Black and
favors the gifts in which these students are more developed than the teachers.
White Christian Partnership is not only a school for underprivileged black
A Look Into the Future worker-pastors, but also a parable depicting the promises and problems of an
interaction between black and white competence.
Black churches are found not just in England, but in Holland, France, One thing is sure, at least for theology, but very likely also for medicine,
Germany, and Italy.14 This makes the introduction of significant black ele- psychology, pedagogy and economics: the model of interaction is not a luxury
in which we may indulge when we have nothing else to do. It is part of the very
l 3 Cohn, “Das Modell der themenzentrierten Interaktion,” 357. essence of education.
l 4 Ter Haar, “Strangers,” 1-31. Gerloff, “Lebendige Bibel,” 41 1-14.
1I6 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
In her seminal Plea for British Black Theologies, Roswith Gerloff shows
convincingly that most of the black churches in Britain are of a Pentecostal
type. John Wilkinson, in his analysis of blacks in the Anglican ! :TEN
shows that black Anglican spirituality has much in common with the black
Pentecostal tradition (although not so much with Pentecostal theology).
T h e story of the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership is
important for Pentecostal educators and mainline academic institutions. l6 It
shows what can happen both to Pentecostals and to university teachers when
they begin to do theology together.
I
In general it is feared that such an ecumenical adventure will either result
in Pentecostals losing their fire or-equally undesirable-academic estab-
lishments lowering their standards. These fears are understandable, but the
Chile: Methodism’s Past in
Birmingham experiment and subsequent experiments in Germany and Swit-
zerland show that such a fear is ill-founded. It is possible to combine the black
Pentecostal ism’s Present
oral root with the critical root of Western European education, and come to
both a more relevant and a more critical theology.
T h e purpose of this chapter is to prepare the reader
for chapter 12, where i t will be argued that much of
what today we call “Pentecostalism” is based on Wesley.
As an example I use the story of the early Methodist
mission to Chile, concentrating on the revival under Wil-
lis Hoover, the blending of Wesleyan and Chilean popular
cultures, the clash which arose between the Chileans and
the Americans, and the subsequent establishment of the
first theologically and financially self-sufficient Protes-
tant church in the Third World: the Pentecostal Church in
Chile.
In the following interpretive section, I shall ask why the
common roots of American and Chilean Methodists were not
discovered at the time, and why these commonalities are still
now accepted only with great reluctance. The answer is that
the conflict in our story was not a theological but a cultural
clash. This fact, in turn, has repercussions for our ecumeni-
cal and educational activities.
‘ T h i s chapter started as a lecture at the World Methodist Historical Society in

Birmingham (1978). It was published in Epworth Review 6/2, May 1979, 3 5 4 7 (but
with significant deletions mainly on early positive testimonies on Hoover) and
integrally in Methodist History 20/4, July 1982, 169-82. Spanish in Spiritus 111,
Wilkinson, Church in Black and White.
l5 1985, 31-46 (Mexico). It has been revised and updated.
“Roswith Gerloff now heads a similar program at the University of Leeds Sources: Methodist Files, Methodist Letter-books, Presbyterian Microfilms,
(England). Also, the integration of black Pentecostal churches into British and referred to hereafter, are located in the Interchurch Center, New York. Detailed
European ecumenical agencies is an exciting new development, but it will also create material in my Handbuch, 02b.08 (60 pages documents and interpretation). Also:
problems for the smooth running of these ecumenical organizations. Ossa, L o ajeno. Idem, Espiritualidad popular. Irma Palma, En tierra extraea.
118 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Chile 119
The Story
A Self-supporting Methodist Mission nml THE METHODISTS IN CHILE
h
The mission work of the Methodists in Chile started, in the late 1880s, with
William Taylor and his self-supporting mission. Because Taylor disagreed with
the mission board’s policy, which he felt provided too much financial support
and so undermined the new converts’ sense of responsibility, he was unwilling
to place his mission under the board’s control. In turn, the bishops of the
Methodist Episcopal Church felt that they could not ordain Taylor’s mission-
aries, and that they could not allow them to retain their conference connection
in the United States. Thus, Taylor’s hopes to finance his missionary enterprise
through missionary schools and colleges were frustrated, and the work was
taken over by the Methodist Church of the United States in 1897.*
Nevertheless the short attempt at a self-supporting church is in my
opinion a t the root both of the difficulties of the Methodist Episcopal Church
in Chile in 1909 and of the emergence of an indigenous Methodist Church I = t
(later the Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal).
As Taylor’s missionaries had-up to 1897-no official church backing,
they tended to be drawn from the less cultured, revivalist fringe of the
Methodist Church in the United States. No wonder that a Presbyterian, Y l l l , l , , , , , , l I [ I I I I I I I I I I (
Florence Smith, stated bluntly that the Chilean Presbyterian Mission ‘‘is far 1888 1891 18Y4 1897 1900 1903 19% 19ov 1912 l Y l S 1918 1921 I924 I927 1930 1933 I936 193Y 1‘242 IY4S I948 IYSI IY54 1 9 7 IV60 I%3
and away ahead of the Methodist Episcopal Church in education, culture,

sound judgment and worldly wisdom.’’ But she also had to admit: on the other I l l i n ~ i s He
. ~ studied medicine in Chicago, but the work of a doctor did not
hand, satisfy him. In 1889 he offered himself to William Taylor’s self-supporting
mission. He then learned to speak Spanish well, and became pastor at the
we do lack warmth of spiritual life and love, or is it that we do not know how to church in Iquique. In 1902 he replaced E. E. Wilson as pastor of the church
express the warmth and love we feel? Mr. Hoover, the Methodist Episcopal
in Valparaiso. There, he began to feel that the members had rather vague ideas
missionary in charge of the work here, is a man of one idea. H e is not too cultured
to call the Chileans brothers. H e is narrow, even bigoted, but I believe he can
on the vital Methodist teaching of sanctification. During a series of studies on
truly say: “This one thing I do” and “I count all but loss that I may win the the Acts of the Apostles for the Sunday School teachers, one of them asked
Chileans to Christ.” H e is inordinately proud of the remarkable success of their what prevented their church from being like the apostolic church. Hoover
work-to us offensively so! There is a great deal of froth and bombast and other replied that the only impediment to this lay in them~elves.~
defects it is easy to point out, but the fact remains, the poor have the Gospel In 1906 a terrible earthquake destroyed both their old church and a
preached to them.3 building under construction which was to have become their new church.
Renewed efforts were necessary in order to build a third church. It was
The “froth and bombast” produced interesting results. Between 1893 and
dedicated on March 7th, 1909.6 Built largely by the gifts of the congregation
1897 the Methodist church in Chile more than doubled in size; between 1897
itself, it seated 1,000 people. An important principle had been established
and 1903 it doubled again, and from 1903 to 1907 it doubled a third time. In
which became decisive for future developments; namely, that of large-scale lay
1906 Chilean Methodists numbered more than 4,000 (see chart).
participation both in financial and spiritual ministry.
T h e most important of these “bigoted” and “inordinately proud” but
successful missionaries was Willis Hoover. H e was born in 1858 in Freeport,
4Methodist Files; Kessler, Srudy, 108. Jones, C . E., “Hoover.”
5Hoover, Historia, 1 1 . This remark shows that Hoover took Arminianism to its
*Barclay, History of Methodist Missions, ZZZ, 792. Lalive d’Epinay, Haven of the logical conclusion, and also that even at that time he had decidedly opted for Luke’s
Masses, 5 . Bundy, “Taylora,” 197-210; “Taylorb,” 3-2 1. pneumatology. On this see Schweizer, “pneuma” and The Pentecostals, 3 3 6 4 1 .
Florence Smith’s letter to Speer written from Valparaiso, dated 22.1.1906 6Actas de la conferencia misionera ocridental de Sud Amkrica de la Iglesia Metodista
(Presbyterian Microfilms); quoted in Kessler, Study, 105. Episcopal, Temuco 19-23 de febrero 1909; Kessler, Study, 110.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Chile 121
120
called the members of the official board to occupy the front seats at the beginning
T h e younger and “better-educated’’ missionaries, however, who were now of the service. Reading the second chapter of Joel, from the 12th verse and
arriving from the United States, disapproved of Hoover’s old-time revivalism, onward, he said: “You and I are responsible for the condition of this church and
his self-assuredness, his friendship with the Chileans, and his protest against we must repent and get right with God [even] if it takes all night.” After a season
using the missionaries’ finance committee “for dealing behind the nationals’ of prayer at the altar he dismissed the congregation, asking the official board to
backs.”’ remain with him all night, with any others who might desire to remain with
them. Twenty or thirty remained. During the night one saw a brazier of coals
Methodist Past Revived within the altar. Others felt the hand of the Lord on their head as they prayed at
the altar; such was the blessing received that they asked this man to appoint
In 1907 Mrs. Hoover received a pamphlet on “the baptism of the Holy another all night meeting, which he did, naming the following Saturday.’j
Ghost and fire”’ written by Minnie Abrams, who had been a student at
Chicago Training School” a t t h e same time as Mrs. Hoover. T h e tract U p o n his return Hoover was asked what should be done about the vigil
describes a Pentecostal revival in the girls’ home r u n by a Brahman lady, planned for the following Saturday. His reply was that it should take place.
Pandita Ramabai, in Mukti.” Visions, trances, and speaking in tongues were T h i s was another turning point in the course of events. First the Chileans had
features of the revival. Most important was Miss Abrams’ contention that the taken responsibility for their church building, now they took responsibility for the
baptism of the Holy Ghost and fire was something additional to the experience content of their worship life and the direction of church life as a whole-the
of justification and sanctification known among the Methodists. l 2 Hoover cause both of the subsequent revival and the difficulties with the American
missionaries.
tried to find out more about the early Pentecostal revival, and corresponded
with, among others, T. B. Barratt, the controversial Methodist evangelist in The vigil became a regular feature in the church. But “the overwhelming flood
0 ~ 1 0 who
’ ~ was later to become the “Pentecostal apostle” for the whole of came on the 4th of July, 1909, which was Sunday. Saturday night was an all night
Europe.14 prayer, during which four vain young ladies (three of whom were in the choir)
On a Sunday night in February 1909, when Hoover was at the meeting of fell to the floor under the power of the Spirit. One of them, after lying a long
the annual conference in Temuco, one of the brothers of the Valparaiso church time, arose and with remarkable power began to exhort, saying, ‘The Lord is
~
coming soon and commands us to get ready.’ The effect produced was indescrib-
able.”’6
’Information given to Kessler by Merayne Copplestone, New York (Study, 110).
See also Campbell, Buell, letter to Stuntz, 31.10.1910, in which he complains that When Hoover was questioned about the girls lying o n the floor, “Llama
Hoover’s church felt that they were “more holy than the others.” Kessler, Study, 110.
‘Lalive states that the “birth of Chilean Pentecostalism is still too little known” U d , eso humano?” he replied calmly, “No.” “But what is it then?” he was asked
(Lalive d’Epinay, Haven ofthe Masses, 7). Yet the source situation is very good. The again. “Divino,” he said.”
Chilean Pentecostal leaders have-in good Methodist tradition-kept the records of T h e emphasis a t this early stage was on renewal of life by the Holy Spirit.
the past. Part of this material, plus the files of the Methodist Church in New York, Sins were confessed in public, debts repaid, hardened wrongdoers converted,
have been used by Kessler. In addition there are Chile Pentecostal and other religious and people who had been estranged from each other reconciled.’8
periodicals in Chile, and Vergara, Protestantismo. Less important for historical re-
search are the major sociological works: Lalive d’Epinay, Haven o f the Masses; An English girl, Nellie (or Elena) Laidlaw, was an important link between
Willems, N e w Faith; Martin, David, Tongues. Older literature extensively in my Valparaiso and Santiago. S h e had been a drunkard and a prostitute, but
Handbuch, 02b.08.
’Abrams, “ Mukti”; idem, Fire. l 5 Frodsham, Wirh Signs Following, 176f.
lo Frodsham, With Signs Following, 175.
l6Ibid., 177f.
I ’ The religious revival sometimes took ecstatic and strange forms. The religious
Hoover, Historia, 30.
press was jubilant about the “heavenly fire in India.” The careful biography of El Cristiano 5.7.1909; Hoover, Historia, 26f.; Kessler, Study, 116. Even Buell
Ramabai by Sengupta (Pandita Ramubai) gives some cautious information on the Campbell who was the first permanent pastor of the Methodist church in Valparaiso
revival, emphasizes the social work of Pandita Ramabai, but plays down the theologi- after Hoover, and who was very critical of his predecessor, admitted that these early
cal and cultural problems of the revival. Today the Ramabai Mukti Mission states meetings had “many elements of good” (Campbell, letter to Stuntz, 25.7.1910;
that they are totally ignorant of the Pentecostal revival (Letter G. Fletcher, Superin- Kessler, Study, 114). One brother left a vigil to give back some goods that had been
tendent Ramabai Mukti Mission, 21.3.1963 to the author). Extensive bibliography entrusted to him at the time of the earthquake in 1906, but which he had not returned.
and discussion in Handbuch, 03.07.013. Bixler puts the record straight (“Ramabai”). At the next vigil, while he was praying, he was overcome by a bout of gentle laughter
See also, McGee, “Abrams,” 7. (Hoover, Historia, 20). Victor PavCz Tor0 (El Cristiano, 21.6. and 2.8.1909; Kessler,
Hoover, Historia, 14. Study, 116), Rice (Actas; Kessler, Study, 116), Tulio Moran, a Presbyterian from
l 3 Barratt’s answer to Hoover in ibid., 95-98.
Concepcibn, were convinced at that stage of the genuineness of the work.
l 4 Bloch-Hoell, The Pentecostal Movement, 75ff.
professed conversion, and became one of the chief prophetesses in Valparaiso. September 12th, 1909, is an important date in Chilean church history. O n
Her most controversial activity was to walk about the congregation with closed this day the Methodists secured law and order, but lost the people’s heart. T h e
eyes, suddenly single somebody out, and order them to kneel down. Nellie Pentecostals celebrate September 12th as their reformation anniversary. T h e
then revealed what was in their heart, called them to repentance and laid her third reformation, as Lalive calls it-the first being the reformation of Luther,
hands on them in order to give them the Spirit.20Even if Hoover had wished, Zwingli and Calvin, the second the reformation of Wesley.
he could not have intervened, as he had told his congregation that the pastor T h e meetings in Valparaiso went on in a rather noisy way, which disturbed
was nothing more than the humblest member, and that they all had merely to the neighborhood and led to an official investigation by the municipality.28
follow the leading of the Spirit. How this leading of the Spirit was to be made Then a journalist started reporting on the meetings. T o arouse the interest of
operational either in shamanistic,21Episcopal,22 or group-dynamic congrega- his readers he filed a criminal charge against Hoover for, among other things,
tional forms-this the Pentecostals had still to learn. I giving his congregation a pernicious drink called “the blood of the lamb,”
which made them lie for hours on the ground in a stupefied state.” Rice felt
Law and Order justified in intervening. Together with Robinson and the American consul he
In early September, 1909, Nellie Laidlaw visited her sister in Santiago. O n visited the judge in Valparaiso on October 4th, and found that an order had
September 12th, she went to one of the two Methodist churches in Santiago, been written to close the Methodist church there on the grounds that it was a
wanting to speak, but was refused by Robinson, the pastor. So Nellie went out public n ~ i s a n c e . ~T’ h e municipality required Hoover to sign a document
into the courtyard, where she gave her revelation^.^^ Later some of her undertaking that he would close the meetings at ten o’clock at night, but did
followers went inside again to remonstrate with Robinson. In the argument not otherwise interfere with his work. T h e criminal charge was soon dismissed
which followed, Robinson pushed a man away, but lost his footing and fell off as being absurd, but Rice cabled to New York: “Hoover criminally prose-
of the platform, cutting his head open.24 cuted. . .”3’ Under the impression that Hoover was under arrest, Stuntz
Reports based on hearsay and stating that “Robinson was struck a blow cabled the finance committee32 to send Hoover on furlough at once, if they
on the head”25were sent to New York. These and other even worse allegations thought this was necessary.33T h e scene was set for a great heresy trial.
are today irreconcilably contradicted by the best evidence available in Santiago.26
In the evening Nellie Laidlaw again wanted to speak in the church. Rice, The Heresy Trial
the minister, asked her to keep quiet. When she failed to do so, he brought the T h e place was Valparaiso and the date was February loth, 1910. A
waiting policeman into the meeting and told him to arrest her. At this Nellie’s commission under the chairmanship of Robert Elphick presented the findings
supporters became furious and shielded the girl so as to prevent her from being of its examination of Hoover’s doctrine and practice to the Annual Confer-
taken. T h e policeman called for reinforcements. These cleared the hall and ence. Apart from the charges connected with the excesses which have already
took Nellie to the police station, where she spent the night.27 been discussed, and which Hoover by this time had largely eliminated, the
commission found Hoover guilty of teaching false doctrines.34
l 9 On Nellie Laidlaw in detail (and documented): Kessler, Study, 117ff.; see also
A resolution was reached3’ which rejected the false doctrine that the
Lalive d’Epinay, Haven of the Masses, 9ff.
2o Hoover, Historia, 35.
baptism of the Holy Spirit is accompanied by tears, visions, miracles, healings,
2 1 On the Pentecostal minister as a “modern shaman” see The Pentecostals, 474ff.
22 Chilean Pentecostal churches are episcopal, so are most black Pentecostal 28 Hoover, Historia, 5 1.
churches in the USA and many Third World Pentecostal churches. 29 El Mercurio 2.10.1909; Hoover, Historia, 38f.
23 El Cristiano 20.9.1909; Hoover, Historia, 36. 30 Campbell, letter to Stuntz, 25.7.1910; Kessler, Study, 123.
24 El Mercurio, 13.9.1909; Kessler, Study, 117. 31 Stuntz, letter to Bristol, 7.10.1909 (Methodist Letter-book, vol. 155, 251).
25 Neely, Bishop, letter, 16.10.1909. (Methodist Letter-book, vol. 156, 109). 32 I.e., the committee in Chile which was composed entirely of missionaries.
Neely quoted a report by El Herald0 Evange‘lico, the Presbyterian paper in Chile, 33 Stuntz, letter to Neely, 19.10.1909 (Methodist Letter-book, vol. 155, 259);
which in turn had relied on other reports; Kessler, Study, 120. Kessler, Study, 123. Although Godsil Arms defended Hoover (Hoover, Historia, 55).
26 Kessler carefully examines the available documentary evidence and gives 34 On the sources: The conference minutes deleted almost all mention of Hoover
priority in his report (on which I base my summary) to eyewitnesses. being repudiated because a deal was made a t the last minute that Hoover should go
“ E l Cristiano 20.9.1909. Nellie Laidlaw’s further life was a tragic one. She on furlough and the case be hushed up, an agreement which in the end did not
became a drug addict and died unrepentant. (Stuntz, letter to Sampson Rogers, materialize. Most of the deliberations, however, were published in El Cristiano
10.5.1910 [Methodist Letter-book, vol. 156, 19]), Kessler, Study, 121. But ten years (14.2.1910, of which Rice was the editor), much to the chagrin of Hoover but to the
later her antagonist, Rice, was expelled from the Methodist mission for disciplinary advantage of today’s historian; Kessler is very detailed on this.
reasons (Lalive d’Epinay, Haven o f the Masses, 12). 35 Formally directed against Nellie Laidlaw, but in essence aimingat the new revival.
124 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Deuelopments Worldwide Chile 125
and other manifestations. It declared “that such doctrines are anti-methodist, Methodists and us does not lie in a different doctrine. It is just that they have
contrary to Scripture and i r r a t i ~ n a l . ” ~ ~ merely the Methodist doctrines, while we experience them.”
As the trial took place in public, the Chilean church members were able I n fact the Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal has not developed what is some-
to follow the proceedings themselves. I n their eyes it was not only Hoover but times called “a typical Pentecostal doctrine,” if by that is meant a Pentecostal
their own Chilean revival that was on trial. At stake was not only a vital doctrine of the type held by the Assemblies of God. T h e y do not teach the
doctrinal issue3’ but an even more important cultural issue. “Irrational per- “initial sign,” that is to say, that speaking in tongues is the outward sign of the
haps,” the Chileans responded to the charges leveled against them, “but baptism of the Spirit. Other signs and gifts can just as well fulfill this function.
certainly not anti-methodist and contrary to Scripture.” T h e y practice infant baptism, continue the Methodist class system and the
It was not Hoover but the awakened Chileans who finally realized that the Methodist episcopal order, use Methodist literature and liturgical agendas
break with the American missionaries was inevitable. Hoover was asked to go on freely, and print the twenty-five articles of the Methodist Episcopal Church
furlough, but the Chileans asked him to stay and stick it out together with them. without alteration in their hymn books. Moreover, they have strong objections
H e stayed, losing his status in and income from the Methodist Church. T h e to the USA-based missionaries of the Assemblies of God in Chile, both on
Chileans lost their church buildings, for which they had paid themselves, out of doctrinal grounds and in defense of their own cultural, political and organiza-
their poverty, but they gained what is very probably the first theologically and tional independenccW
financially independent Protestant church in the Third World. In this sense Sep-
tember 12th, 1909can be considered as the anniversary of the Third Reformation. The C u l t u r a l Question
“ T h e considered opinion even of those Methodists most able to appreciate
T h e Chilean Pentecostal movement interprets its own beginnings as
the good points in the Pentecostal revival in Chile, was that the movement was
follows: “ T h e brethren were possessed by dancing and spiritual visions, they
doomed to become a struggling sect which would probably collapse within a
spoke in tongues of angels, prophesying about the great spiritual revival. T h e
few years.”3RHow wrong they were. It took the Methodists not seven years to
Holy Spirit seized them in the streets. T h e authorities took them into the
double their membership again as in the years previous to the schism with the
prisons as criminals, but the brethren danced in the prisons, speaking in
Pentecostals, but seventy years, whilst in the same period the Pentecostal
tongues and prophesying to these same official^."^^
churches have reached approximately one million members. W. C. Hoover describes:
T h e Methodist Church cut itself off from what it considered to be
anti-methodist and irrational; by doing this, it also cut itself off from the very Laughing, weeping, shouting, singing, foreign tongues, visions and ecstasies
soil in which a Methodist Church in Chile could grow. during which the individual fell to the ground and felt himself caught up into
another place, to heaven, to Paradise, in splendid fields with various kinds of
The Interpretations experiences: conversations with God, the angels or the devil. Those who expe-
rienced these things profited greatly and generally were changed by them and
T h e Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal in Chile states categorically that it is a filled with praises, the spirit of prayer and love.42
faithful Methodist church.j9 T h e y have said: “ T h e difference between the
For the yellow press (El Chileno) it was the “work of a hoaxer o r mad-
36 Hoover, Historia, 62f.: “Resolucion: Por cuanto ciertas doctrinas falsa, tales man.” “Shouting, fainting fits, and blows” were considered “tragi-comical
como la enseiianza que el bautismo del Espiritu Santo es acompaiiado por el don de scenes.” It was therefore necessary that “the Law intervene.”43
lagrimas y visiones, milagres de sanidad, y otras manifestaciones, han sido disemi- T h e Christian and Missionary Alliance described the revival as an excess
nadas en varias partes de esta conferencia, y representadas como las doctrinas de la of religious fanaticism with “gesticulaciones grotescas.”
Iglesia Metodista Episcopal, nosotros por la presente declaramos que aquellas doctri-
nas son antimetodistas, contrarias a las Escrituras e irracionales, J nuestros miembros They prayed so loudly, that one could hear the cries as far as a block away. The
estan avisados que no deben aceptarlas como las enseiianzas de nuestra Iglesia.”
meetings lasted until midnight and sometimes even into the small hours of the
Speaking in tongues is not even mentioned!
37 Kessler, Study, 128.
3R Stuntz. letter to Robinson, 7.7.1910 (Methodist Letter-book, vol. 156, 101); Hollenweger, “Latinamerika.” See on this chapter 17, pp. 222-24.
Kessler, Stud$, 130. “ Chile Pentecostal, Sept. 1954; quoted by Vergara, Protestantismo, 111. On the
3 9 T h e Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal grew out of the Methodist Episcopal function of dance, see Hollenweger, “Danced.” See also Robeck, “Taking Stock,”
Church “no por ningun desacuerdo que tuviera con 10s principios o doctrinas, sin0 35-60, esp. 50.
que sigue el mismo regimen” (Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal, “Introd~ccibn,’’ ”Hoover, Historia, 3 3 .
Himnos), quoted in Vergara, Protestantismo, 123. Ibid., 39.
morning. . . Some cried like cocks, others danced, others thought they were narrow, and not interested in the wider church. Thus we have “explained” why
playing a string instrument, others again fell to the floor crying and shouting; the greater part of Christianity in the Third World is not related to any
their bodies became without feeling; others confessed their sins and the whole ecumenical agency. We must provide some explanation, considering how the
thing ended as a real scandal.44 World Council of Churches has set itself up as representative of Third World
Christianity. The Third World Christians are not in the World Council of
For the Methodists, as we have seen already, the revival was simply
Churches. Why not?
“antimethodist, contrary to Scripture and irrational.”
Listen to the story of one of the leaders of the Iglesia Metodista Pentecos-
There is not much theology in any of these interpretations. In fact the
tal, Alfred0 Ramirez Ramirez, who took part in the Uppsala Full Assembly of
Methodist periodical, El Crastiano, rejected an article by Hoover which con-
the World Council of Churches (1968). I listened to the report which he gave
sisted entirely of quotations from Wesley in defense of the revi~al.’~ If not
to his colleagues on his return to Santiago. Firstly Ramirez was greatly
theological, what then was the motivation for the strong statements made by
astonished that in Uppsala sermons were read: “As I said, the sermon was read,
those on both sides?
which seems to be customary [to them]. They do not preach as we do. We speak
T h e Pentecostals had found that the manifestations allowed them to
freely in our sermons with the aid of the Lord, with full spiritual freedom, in
participate in worship with their own gifts. They could become liturgically
accordance with the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, because he alone knows the
and theologically active on the level of and with the means of their own culture.
needs of every heart.” But he was greatly impressed by the singing in one of
As these means resembled so very much the records of the Methodist and
the services.
biblical past there was only one interpretation possible. If it was the Holy
Spirit then, it must be the same Holy Spirit today. T h e whole service was unforgettable. So was the band consisting of 120 wind
T h e Methodists and the Christian and Missionary Alliance were unable instruments which played the hymns so divinely that I was on the point of being
to join in worship on that level. Yet these manifestations came dangerously inspired to dance by the Spirit of the Lord. Yes, dear brethren, I was on the point
near to the records of their origin. T h e upsurge of the past, with all the of doing so. But I asked myself, “What would these brethren think, who do not
believe in the manifestations of the Holy Spirit?”Perhaps some of them would
religious prestige of treasured church history, was a most dangerous threat to
have been scandalized if they had seen me dance to the Lamb of God. Thanks
a present which pretended to be a continuation of that past, but which was in
be to God that He did not carry out this spiritual manifestation in me.47
fact culturally discontinuous.
What else was there left for the Methodists to do, other than to state that This last remark shows that although the Chilean Pentecostals understand
the Chilean revival was not part of their tradition? It was so threatening that their liturgical dancing to be inspired by the Spirit, it does not happen entirely
it had to be declared foreign and irrational-as if previous Methodist revivals outside their control. In fact, it is beautifully controlled and integrated into
had been particularly blessed by rationality, and as if in Scripture “rationality” their services. T h e nearest parallel I can find is that of a really skillful pianist
was presented as a touchstone for truth. who has mastered the technique of keyboard playing. The skill is a matter of
many years of practice and exercise; the way in which he uses it is a matter of
The Missiological Question the inspiration of the moment. This flair for dancing is something which the
Chileans have inherited from generations of dancers; the way in which they
What is the Western tradition of Christianity going to do when our
use it is a matter of the inspiration of the moment.
converts develop a type of Christianity which is‘not only different from ours,
But what about his other remark: “Perhaps some of them would have been
but strikingly resembles a stage of our own past? We do not, of course, object
scandalized . . . ”? It made me profoundly sad when I learned from him that
to historical research, but we are afraid when history comes alive again. What
he did not feel free to bring his contribution to that worship service.48Perhaps
is the Western tradition going to do if this new type of Christianity not only
he was right. Perhaps some would have been scandalized. But why should we
becomes a vital part of the Christian church, but seems to become the most
be more scandalized when the Chileans bring their liturgy into the ecumenical
important part of Third World C h r i ~ t i a n i t y ? ~ ~
movement than when we introduce our liturgy to Chile? Indeed they are
So far we have invited these Christians into the ecumenical fellowship
unhappy about our kinds of liturgy. This uneasiness is-in my opinion-
with some (not striking) success. We have convinced ourselves that these
really responsible for the very tenuous relationship between Third World
Christians are theologically not well informed, that they are evangelically
Pentecostals (and other indigenous churches) and thr: historical churches. T h e
Oyarzun, Reminiscemias, 50-52; quoted by Vergara, Protestantismo, 112f.
45 Lalive d’Epinay, Haven of the Masses, 9. 47 Ramirez-Ramirez, “I Could Have Danced.”
46 On the problem of this cultural clash see Lalive d’Epinay, “Chile.” 48 On the function of Pentecostal liturgy see chapter 21, pp. 273-77.
Chile 129
the Chileans of being “anti-methodist.” In studying carefully the Swiss and

theological reasons which are given are mostly based on mutual misunder- German Methodist publications between 1900 and 1910, it has appeared to
standings and secondary rationalizations. me that the vocabulary and the concepts of the Chilean Pentecostals are often
This is not a plea for the introduction of dancing into our Western more Methodist than those of their Methodist opponents.”
liturgies, but I am concerned that we are not really catholic, not really ecu-
menical. A really catholic and ecumenical movement would find ways of A Quest for an Intercultural Theology
bridging this cultural gap. Some Western Christians may be able to join in a
Third World Pentecostal liturgy. All the better for them. But that is not even If, as we have suggested, the Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal and the Meth-
necessary. What is necessary is a free space of tolerance-allowing these other odist Episcopal Church are simply two cultural variations of the same Meth-
Christians to remain true to themselves when they meet us. Without such a odist tradition, then the obvious questions are: First, is it possible, and in fact
space of tolerance-a bridge over the troubled waters of cultural differ- desirable, for the two churches to grow together again? Second, how do
ence-the church will never become catholic and acknowledge the fruit of its culturally incongruous churches discuss theology and come to a common
own missionary work. evaluation of the advantage (or disadvantage) or the desirability (or undesir-
ability) of specific inculturations of Christianity?
T h e Theological Question In an article which was translated by the Base1 M i s ~ i o n , ~two
’ Chilean
researchers have come to a positive evaluation of the cultural form of Chilean
I am not going to answer the question of whether the Chilean Pentecostals
Pentecostalism. From their point of view, the Chilean Pentecostal church and
were “anti-methodist” or not. This is a question I want to leave the Methodists
the Methodist Episcopal church are not “simply variations of the same Meth-
to answer. However, I would like to offer some observations on the basis of
odist tradition’’ (as I have written), but indigenous Chilean Pentecostalism is a
which we can answer that question.
valids2 expression of indigenous popular religion-and the Methodist church
(1) A comparison between the descriptions of the revival in Chile and
is not.
Wesley’s revival, and a comparison of the theological interpretations of these
Since a re-unification of the two churches seems unlikely (although not
revivals, is a very crude approach to our question. It should be clear by now
quite impossible) the question of ecumenical cooperation becomes more im-
that any theological statement and any religious experience is culturally con-
portant.j3 This is also the conviction ofJuan Sepulveda, a Chilean Pentecostal.
ditioned and can therefore not be judged on its own. We have to evaluate both
It is not surprising, he writes, “that both Latin American and world ecumen-
on the basis of their function in a given context. There are theological state-
ism are increasingly . . . thinking about the possibility of a massive incorpora-
ments and religious experiences which fulfill a theologically justifiable func-
tion of Pentecostalism in the ecumenical task.”54He also rejects the notion of
tion in a specific context. There are those which do not fulfill such a purpose.
(2) This would imply that Christianity, including Christian theology and Pentecostalism as a representative of the old order. Because of its character as
Christian religious experiences, is not phenomenologically and conceptually “popular religion,” he suggests, Pentecostalism is not a “survival of tradition.”
the same everywhere and always. In order to see this, one has only to study the Its message has not opposed projects of modernization.
history of mission or church history in general-that is, if one has not already Rather, they have devoted their efforts, from the standpoint of their “new faith,”
learned it from good Old and New Testament theologies. If Christianity is not to promote a new religious experience, which has arisen through the work in
the same everywhere and always, and if, furthermore, different stages of small rural schools and among people who have become enthusiastic about the
church history are today preserved side by side; if, in other words, the movement towards popular religiosity. Neither is Pentecostalism an easy prob-
chronological contemporaries are not cultural contemporaries; then we have lem for social science critics to understand. T h e depth of its religious experience
to come to terms with having “the pasts of Christianity” present in our
churches. If cultures from different countries co-exist in one and the same ’*In particular Ecangelist and Schwerzer Evangelist. See chapter 12, pp. 1 4 4 4 5 .
place; if, in other words, local co-habitants are not cultural co-habitants, then 51 Palma-Villela, “Volksreligion,” 24-32.
52 T h e authors write “the only expression of popular religion,” Palma-Villela,
we have to come to terms with having different cultures present in one place. “Volksreligion,” 25. T h e Chilean Pentecostal Juan Sepulveda (“Struggle”) confirms
That is why we are faced with the quest for an “intercultural theology.” the aspect of “popular religion” which he calls “Pentecostalismo criollo” but his
(3) If such an outspoken Pentecostalist as Oral Roberts49 can become a approach is more analytical and somewhat more critical. More on this in chapters 16
Methodist minister without changing his theology, then it is difficult to accuse (PP. 204-16) and 17 (pp. 218-27).
5Z On Pentecostalism and ecumenism in Chile, see chapters 27 (pp. 367-71) and 27
(pp. 384-87). Handbuch, 02b.08.054d and The Pentecostals, 438ff.
49 Roberts, Oral, The Call; Robinson, Oral; The Pentecostals, 363-65; Chappell, j’ Sepulveda, “Pentecostalism. ”
“Roberts,” 759f.
130 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Chile 131
has not shown any evidence of interest in historical criticism of society. This has All of this makes ecumenical cooperation imperative. The plain fact,
given critics the impression that Pentecostalism is a new instrument of the however, is that up to now we have not had a language which enabled us to
prevailing ideology of domination, thus curtailing people’s possibility of ex- carry out a theological debate with theologians from churches outside of our
pressing their criticism. Social scientists’ opinion of Pentecostalism is shown culture, who use a language of religious experiences from outside of our
among others in the following expressions: opium, domination via religion, analytical tradition.
religious proclamation of social conformism, “refuge of the masses.” To this is
It seems to me that there are only two ways open. Either they learn our
added the evident effort from abroad to guide this religious tendency through the
language and our way of doing theology or we learn their way. The first has
dramatic display of professional preachers of the so-called “electronic c h ~ r c h . ” ’ ~
been tried for almost a hundred years. We call it theological education; defacto
In conclusion, Sepulveda quotes Professor Edenio Valle from Brazil, who it is a process of epistemological brain-washing and cultural imperialism. Even
sees in this type of popular religion a psychological mode of opposition: the many forms of “theologies of liberation” are still structured and built in
our way, although they are directed against the political and economic (but not
T h e individual group that appeals to this code reveals non-acceptance of the
the cultural) power base of Europe and America. As the first way has proved
official codes propounded or imposed by those who exercise power. They show
that the accepted language is considered by them as foreign, therefore alienating dysfunctional in training an indigenous pastorate in Latin America and Africa,
in relation to the individual or collective experiences, particularly those that are we might consider following the second way. This is where the attempts at
suppressed. ‘‘narrative theologies”60 become academically necessary, because they at least
would give theology the possibility of becoming universal. Either theology is
This democratization of language “exercises a protective function. That universal and intercultural or it does not deserve the title of an academic
is to say, the oppressed are able to tell the oppressor their own feelings in such discipline.
a way that the answer given is ~oncealed.”’~ In other words, we have here a
process similar to that expressed in the hymns and spirituals of the oppressed
slaves in the USA (chapter 4, pp. 32-34). Sepulveda sees in the indigeneity of
Chilean Pentecostalism the reason for its extraordinary growth. Its churches
have outnumbered all other Protestant churches by a factor of 300.j’ It had
moved from a persecuted sect to an official church. Some sections of Pente-
costalism have indeed supported the Pinochet regime;j* but others are partici-
pating in prophetic actions “criticizing the authorities in the light of the
promises of ~ ~ d . ~ ~ ~ ~
” Sepulveda, “Pentecostalism,” 81.

56 Valle,
“Psicologia”; Sepulveda, “Pentecostalism,” 88.
57Handbook, of the WCC gives for 1985 the following statistics of member
churches: Lutherans 2000; Methodists 6000; Iglesia Pentecostal de Chile 90,000;
Mision Iglesia Pentecostal 12,000 (Handbook, 264-66). CC, 1988, 11, does not even
mention the Methodists. Barrett estimates for 1980 over 1.8 million Chilean indige-
nous (= Pentecostals) in a population of about 11 million. (Barrett, WChE, 226ff.).
58 “Declaracibn de apoyo a la Junta de Govierno de las iglesias evangelicas” no.
2, in Posicidn Evangilica (Santiago), 1975; Sepulveda, “Struggle,” 312.
59 Sepulveda, “Struggle,” 315. “The majority of the churches that are members
of the ‘Con fraternidad Cristiana de Iglesias,’ an ecumenical organization that has not be integrated in this chapter. It confirms many of my own observations: the
maintained, since 1982, a critical posture toward the military regime, are Pente- religion of the poor in the form of Pentecostalism is self-sufficient and self-sustain-
costals.” Sepulveda, “Struggle,” 31 5, note 10. ing, in contrast to the so-called historical churches (p. 365); it has an ambiguous
More literature on Chilean Pentecostals: Sampedro, Pentecostalismo; Histbria relationship toward indigenous culture and society at large; a younger generation of
del avivamiento; Schick-Talbert, La Iglesia Metodista Pentecostal; Alvarez, Histdria; Pentecostals is well educated and is struggling with a new interpretation of Pente-
Cook, William, “Interview”; Godoy, “Ochenta”; Tennekes, El movimiento; idem, costalism, trying to fill the gap between their experience and their traditional ideol-
‘LMouvementPentecBtiste”; Valencia, E n tierra extratia; Vidal, M. and Ana, El ogy. A mine of information on the social, political, theological, and ecumenical
Pentecostal. T h e important article by Samuel Palma Manriquez, general secretary of development of Chilean Pentecostalism is the periodical Evangelio y Soczedad (Passy
SEPADE (Evangelical Source for Development, Chile) and professor of Sociology at 032, Provincia-Santiago, Casilla 238 Correo 3, Chile).
the University of Santiago de Chile (“Religion of the People and Evangelism”), could 60As an example see chapter 2, pp. 6-15.
A Plea f o r a Theologically Responsible Syncretism 133
In order to understand this situation one can imagine three parties: T h e

first was the “party of the old-time religion.” Those of this party said: “If it
ELEVEN was good enough for father Abraham, it’s good enough for us. We know that
the world is an oasis, that’s how it is written in our holy books. Yahweh has led
us out of Egypt. What the Babylonians say is darkest paganism.”
T h e second was the party of philobabylonian Jews. They said: “Perhaps
once upon a time Yahweh saved us from Egypt, but now he is vanquished. The
temple is destroyed. T h e aristocracy has been led into captivity. We have saved
only a few remnants of our old documents. T h e ten commandments? The
Babylonians have them too and in an up-dated version! Babylon is the victo-
A Plea for a Theologically rious cultural and military power; their science explains the world.”
T h e third party was a minority. It is documented by Ezekiel, some authors
Resjoniible Syncretism of the psalms and above all the priestly code (P). They said: “We do not quarrel
with the Babylonians on the origin and shape of the world. Perhaps they are
right. Only, they should be a little more consistent and a little more critical,
for there is no evidence of a goddess of chaos, as they pretend. T h e water
Christianity is a Syncretism Par Excellence’ which surrounds the world is not a goddess but simply a material substance.
Before we pursue the historical roots of Pentecostalism in Sun and moon are not gods, they are lanterns (oroth). Blood is not the blood
Wesley and in his catholic mentors, a pressing theological of a god as the Babylonians say. All these are biological and physical phenom-
problem has to be addressed. Reading through section I of this ena. Things they are, not gods; and they function according to God’s law. They
book the question might be raised more than once: Is all this are made by him but are not identical with him.” In fact, these insights are the
not just a form of Christian syncretism-the acceptance of basis of our natural sciences, for as long as the moon is a god one cannot walk
shamanistic forms of religion in Korea (chapter 8, pp. 99-105), on him. As long as water is a goddess, one cannot submit it to electrolysis.
the black and African roots in Pentecostalism (chapter 3, pp. These are things, and therefore open to man’s investigation and manipulation.
18-24), the attempts to integrate popular religion in Chilean Whether this approach to nature also has its drawbacks is another question.
Pentecostalism (chapter 10, pp. 117-31), the Africanization of It is clear that the Jews would have disappeared in Babylon if only the two
Christianity in Zaire (chapter 6, pp. 55-58), and in South first parties had existed. We owe it to the third party that the biblical tradition
Africa (chapter 5, pp. 54-80), the excavation of old Mexican could continue. It is an example of a theologically responsible syncretism.
cultural elements in Mexico (chapter 7, pp. 81-98)? And in- We find more such syncretisms in the Bible. T h e temple, for instance, was
deed there is no question that these are forms of syncretism. built according to Canaanitic plans, by Canaanitic craftsmen and architects.
However, so are all forms of Christianity, also and in particular Only where the idol had stood in a Canaanitic temple, there was the ark and
Western Christianity. The question is not “syncretism yes or the tablets of the commandments, the signs of the covenant of God with his
no,” but what kind of syncretism. Already the Bible is an people.
example of theologically responsible syncretism. Remember If we turn to the New Testament we find the same kind of syncretism.
the example of the exile.2The Israelites came to Babylon with Matthew was audacious enough to state that the magis (not kings) found their
the theology of the Yahwist. They brought a nomadic religion way to the cradle of Jesus on the basis of their pagan astrology, while the
which quickly became dysfunctional. Bible-reading scribes in Jerusalem tried to kill little Jesus. Matthew should
perhaps have been glad that he did not have to submit his Gospel to a
theological commission for approval: he would have failed.
‘Cf. the chapter “Syncretism” in Boff’s seminal work Church, Charism and We shall see later that Paul, too, does not shy away from syncretism. His
Power, 92ff. Also the leader of the Musama Christ0 Disco Church in London notices famous 13th chapter in I Corinthians is a collage of contemporary popular
that the question is not “syncretism yes or no,” but what kind of syncretism. See the religious sayings (as one can find out by consulting any critical commentary).
excellent lecture by this African Pentecostal leader at a W C C Conference Uehu- He even manages not to mention Christ in the whole chapter. It becomes
Appiah, “Overview”).
‘Told in detail in Hollenweger, Conflict. Christian only through its inclusion in 1 Corinthians. T h e “popular ring” in
A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism 135
need a deep religious commitment.”‘ No theological discussion can do away

this passage is perhaps the reason why so many couples choose it as a text for
with this fact. Religion is part of humankind. That is why religion has to be
their wedding.
dealt with in the same way as other givennesses of creation, such as trade and
T h e same applies to our modern churches, whether Catholic, Protestant,
commerce, eros and friendship.
or Pentecostal: they are examples of syncretism. For example, since Thomas
Think of the confusion we create in people who have had religious or
Aquinas we have accepted the methodology of a pagan philosopher (Aristotle).
parapsychological experiences. Theologians believe they are competent in
This is particularly true of the evangelicals who say that all statements in the
matters of ecology and economics, in politics and psychology. And it is right
Bible must be harmonizable in order to be true. T h e presupposition that
that they make a contribution in these matters, although greater modesty
logical consistency is a sign of the truth is certainly not a biblical but an
would be appropriate. But it is not right to refuse cooperation in the field
Aristotelian philosophical insight. At our universities and Bible schools we where we should be experts-in the field of religions. This kind of refusal is
function according to the laws of coherence and logic. Otherwise we would not not the fault of the pastors, but of our theological education. There the topic
fit into this culture. However, this becomes fatal if we think that our forms of of lived religion, especially of popular religion, is taboo. But to forbid discus-
thinking are the thing itself. If we forget that there are cultures, e.g., the sion of this sort is to misunderstand Karl Barth, who said that if he wrote his
Chinese, the Hebrew, or the Old Mexican (chapter 7, pp. 81-98), who do not dogmatics again he would do it in dialogue with the great world-religions. Of
operate according to Aristotle, we take our forms of thinking for the truth. In course he would still come to a christologically centered theology, but his
more recent times even some mathematicians and physicists have discovered dialogue partners would include not only Augustine, Luther, and the Bible;
that the laws of logic and coherence, the law of incontradictability, are only but also Buddha, Mohammed, the Indian religions, and the re-emerging
true in a limited way.3 Similarly, we discover in daily life that somebody can popular religions.
be inconsistent but reliable-ask any married man or woman. There are T h e reason why pastors fail in this area is that we cannot articulate our
persons, indeed who are totally consistent-they function like a computer- own religious experiences. It is not true that the clergy is unbelieving. But it
yet they have proved to be unreliable. So it is with the Bible: it, too, is reliable is true that they are the prisoners of a bourgeois-so-called scholarly-cul-
but not consistent. ture, where one can talk in public about everything, even the most intimate
It is also well known that our rites and festivals (Christmas, Easter), and things, but not about one’s own religious experience. This is why people think
even the names of our days (Sunday, Monday, etc.), do not come from the New we are unbelievers. No wonder that religion seeks a place outside the churches,
Testament, but from our Celtic and Germanic forefathers. So too with the that it creates its own organizations everywhere.
form of our sermons, and with our church buildings, which are often built on Those who have religious dreams do not go to the pastor but to the
the foundation of pagan temples. Our Christian rites and festivals carry with psychiatrist or to self-appointed gurus from overseas. Those who yearn for
them a great heritage from our pagan past. Think of our marriage ceremonies religious experience, for direction in their life and for fellowship, go to the
and funerals-they too go back to pagan patterns. The New Testament charismatic prayer groups, to a bible study group or to a Yoga class. They make
Christians did not conduct funerals. They did not dream of such things. “Let a pilgrimage to Taize, to an Indian Ashram, to a Philippine ghost healer or to
the dead bury their dead,” they said. Christ disturbed every single funeral I the German Kirchentag. But they couldn’t care less about the parish around
where he was present by raising the corpses. From this I do not draw the the corner. “Amongst all my patients under the age of forty, there is not one
conclusion that pastors have to resurrect the dead instead of burying them. whose final problem is not a religious one,” says Carl Gustav Jung.’ That was
This kind of Christian adaptation to new situations, this theologically respon- also true for the formerly communist countries. Even before Gorbachev there
sible syncretism, is necessary. We no longer expect the parousia around the were more Christians in the Soviet Union than members of the Communist
corner as the early Christians did. Therefore other forms of witness are Party. And that, after almost a century of communist propaganda. In China
demanded from us. the church has tripled since the missionaries had to leave.
One thing is sure: religion will not die out. The question is only, in whose
Religion is the Business of the Future service will it be? Will it serve the thirst for self-realization, for inner peace of
the modern Westerner? Today Westerners have houses, cars, and clothes in
Twenty years ago we were promised a totally secularized future. T h e
abundance. Now they are seeking inspiration in drugs, in exotic tastes, in
contrary is now the case. We are flooded by one religious wave after the other.
extraordinary images and sounds, in re-birthings into a former existence, in
“We cannot be unbelievers . . . In order to carry through atheism one would
4Lange, Predigen, 83.
3This epistemological problem is discussed in detail in the chapter “The End of 5Jung, “Psychotherapie,” 362.
Natural Science” in ITh 3, 286ff.
136 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism 137
therapies and new and exciting feelings. The one who can “sell” feelings does apply today to medicine, economics, and science). They recognized them
the business. It is no longer a disgrace to lose possessions, but it is a disgrace as things created by God; things are not gods. They realized that all these
not to have tried out the newest fashion in religion. Harvey COX calls this things are part of God’s creation. That is a missiologically important insight.
“spiritual gluttony.”‘ In the past one made journeys to Africa. Today one A missionary who refuses to speak in Chinese, Yoruba, or Telugu is not a
makes trips into transcendence. After the commercialization of sex, we are missionary, but a European propagandist. In other words, there needs to be
now watching the commercialization of religion (chapter 18, pp. 229-33). not only one syncretism but many, depending on the partners with whom we
With religion one can earn a lot of money, and not only in America. T h e speak. After all, we have four Gospels, which emerged in different cultures
clients deliver both capital and raw-material. Today, the data banks of the and situations. These different syncretisms do not have so much a common
electronic church are sold and hired to political organizations and commercial content as a common method, which we will now examine through a concrete
mail-order enterprises. example.
Certainly, the churches do protest against this religious weed, against this
banalization of the Holy, this commercialization of religion-and with reason. The Epistle to the Colossians: An Example of a Theologically
But without success. The pastors are unable to fight against the religious Responsible Syncretism’
multinationals. For in this matter it is true as in everything else: T h e best
critique of the false is the praxis of the true. I quote the hymn in Col. 1 :15-20 without the interpretations and correc-
T h e question is: faced with this religious boom, what should the church tions of the author of Colossians:
do? T h e easiest and financially most profitable way out would be to turn the He is the image (eikon) of the invisible God,
church into a highly organized religious industrial complex, with its super- the first-born (prototokos) of creation
markets in every town. There one could buy according to taste, religious f o r in him everything was created in heaven
experiences, therapies, meditations and-why not?-ecstaticexperiences and and on earth, the visible and the invisible.
short-lived fellowship. Then the functions would be clear, the books well-kept, Through him and f o r him everything is created.
and the status of the church in society unquestioned. This direct capitulation H e is before all-
before religious market forces is of course a theologically irresponsible syncre- everything has in him its coherence.
tism. But equally irresponsible is a stubborn opposition: whosoever wants H e is the head of the body.
religion must buy it in the packaging, in the quality and at the prices which we H e is the beginning (arche), the first-born of the dead:
alone offer. Such a position is only possible where the churches have a f o r in him all the fullness (pleroma) wanted t o live,
monopoly in the religious market. And this time is definitely over. and to reconcile everything through him and f o r him,
More important than the market argument is the biblical. By the isolation- making peace on earth and in heaven.
ist position mentioned, we would forgo our critical and prophetic task for a
This is a quotation from the “New Age Hymnal” of the Church at
theologically responsible syncretism. It is my opinion that we should accept
Colossae. We can understand that this hymn was sung in the Colossian church
the challenge, but in such a way that it remains clear that God is something
in honor of a godhead which is present in the whole cosmos (“he is the head
different from our experience of God, and that transcendence is something
of the body”). For the Colossian Christians this is certainly Christ, although
different from a trip into transcendence.
Christ is never mentioned in the hymn. T h e lack of such reference suggests
T h e models for such a syncretism are the biblical authors; but not that we
that this was once a non-Christian hymn.
must say: In the New Testament there are no funerals, no military chaplains,
T h e hymn is sung by people for whom the world, the body of the cosmos,
no Sunday Schools, no infant baptism, no Christmas trees, no doctrine of the
is torn asunder. T h e streams of harmony are disturbed. T h e cosmos is in
trinity, no church bells, ergo it is all false. Rather, that we must ask: How did
uproar with itself and must be reconciled; even the very existence of the
the biblical authors deal with the religious context of their time?
cosmos is in question. The battle of the natural elements against each other
T h e same is true for our dialogue with medicine, the sciences, the
issues in catastrophies, and threatens to lead to a general collapse of the whole
popular religions and even patriotism. T h e biblical authors only rarely
world. People are the victims of this shaky world; they experience themselves
denied the relative truth of the other world views around them. But they
as prisoners of a nature which is in turmoil.
converted them, and dethroned them from their absolute status (this would
’1 used the commentaries by Schweizer and Lahnemann (see Short Titles List).
6Cox, Turning East, 133. Cf. also ZTh 2 , 158ff.
! A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism
The Colossians sang: The chaos in the cosmos must be overcome. Some-
139
We know the New Age literature of this time. It is full of gripping

thing must happen to this world. Paul answers: Certainly, our world is sick and
complaints on the sorrowful existence of man. One can do nothing about this
must be healed; however, healing does not happen through mysterious cosmic
condition. The famous psalm of the Naasseness-a pagan hymn-complains:
powers, but through people who follow the one who died on a cross; that is,
The soul is like the timid game through reconciled and reconciling people.
ever hunted over the earth by stern death What does Paul do here? H e accepts the syncretism of the Colossians
proving his power ceaselessly in the long chase.
and transforms it into a theologically responsible syncretism. H e socializes
If today in realm of light, then tomorrow sunk in sorrow.
Father, look down and bless this sore afflicted being, their syncretism, changing references to powers into references to people.
as she wanders f a r from home, aimless across the earth and grieving. T h e abstractions of the New Age syncretism are made concrete: Paul deals
Wants to flee the bitter chaos, but she knows not any w a y out. in detail with that which is under the lordship of Christ. Already his
concrete list makes clear that the thrones and lordships, the powers and
T h e people were longing for the salvation of the world, for deliverance
radiations-the laws of economics and technology, but also the rays of the
from the cosmic forces which tortured them. The Colossian Christians re-
stars, of crystals, and so forth-may no longer play the same role which
plied: Our Christ has overcome these powers, pacified the cosmos, killed
they have traditionally played in Colossae. The rule of this Lord over
death. He is arch-principle, he is preserver of the cosmos, regent and prince
everything includes under it the lives of those to whom the epistle is
of its incalculable forces. “Everything finds in him its coherence’’ (Col 1:17).
written. This is why Paul can no longer speak ahistorically. In fact, he must
He is the boss, the head of this cosmic body.
That then is the situation in Colossae. How does the author of the epistle speak even of himself. T h e power of Christ which penetrates the whole
to the Colossians react? For brevity’s sake I call him Paul. What does Paul do world is not a mysterious cosmic power, but the power of the word and life
with this text? of the apostle who fulfills his ministry in the shadow of the cross. And that
First he accepts the mythical and for him foreign language-very differ- ministry entails perspiring and freezing, being hungry and thirsty, being
ent to many of today’s theologians. He tries to answer in the language of the beaten and ridiculed, as he walks the roads of the Roman Empire.
Colossians, and deals with this popular New Age religion in the “hymn book” The theologically responsible syncretism anchors the Colossian New Age
of the Colossians. At the same time, however, he essentially corrects this syncretism not in a myth, but in the fact of the cross. Of course Paul knows
popular religion by his interpretations and changes, as well as through the that the Gospel means also deliverance from cosmic powers. But the mythical
interpretations which he adds at the end of the hymn. Three examples: poetry is replaced by the factual event of the cross.
The Colossians sang: Christ is the head of the cosmic body. Paul corrects
’ not-as
and writes: Certainly, Christ is the head of the body. But “the body” is A Modern Example: Syncretism with the
you think-the world. T h e body is people. T h e body is you, the Colossians. Culture of Economism (Capitalism)
The body is the church (he adds “tes ekklesias”). Through you, you Colos-
The following is based on the work of a lecturer on economics a t the
sians, Christ exercises his headship-an unexpected statement given the small
University of Cambridge, who under my supervision wrote a doctoral disser-
number of Christians in Colossae: they were members of a small sect, and
relatively unimportant in the Roman Empire. tation on the topic: Can economists be converted?’ By conversion she signifies
The Colossians sang: Christ has reconciled cosmos and forces, people and not only a religious experience but, following Lonergan, also a cognitive
powers through his resurrection. Paul adds: Certainly he is the first-born of process.
the dead, and has reconciled us. He reconciled us through “his death in his Jane Collier was disappointed that church leaders she observed discussing
body of flesh” (1:22). This is a massive formulation: the assertion that the economics on television always argued morally instead of tackling the techni-
first-born of all creation, the image of the invisible God, is the very same one cal arguments of economists. They used their language in terms of morality,
who died a lamentable death on a cross at a given time, at a given place. H e is rather than that of the economists. Moral arguments are in this instance
not just a principle, a cosmic power which operates in the world. H e is also an irrelevant because the mechanics of economy (say the economists) are given.
historical person. Whether we like it or not, the Thames flows downwards into the sea-no
argument, whether theological or moral, can change the law of nature which
‘The Psalm ofthe Naassenes is a contemporary hymn “directly suited to perform- governs its flow. The free market, too, functions according to given laws.
ance in the theater.” Translated here by A. S. Worrell from the German version by
Harnack, Lehrbuch, 257: Apocrypha 2, 436. For an English translation of this psalm
Collier, Economism.
see Hippolytus 5.10.2 (Ante-Nicene Futlrers [reprint; Peabody: Hendrickson, 19941).
140 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A Plea for a Theologically Responsible Syncretism
141
During the day she caresfor daily food,
Instead of arguing morally, Mrs. Collier takes on this technical argument, during the night she cares for her chiidren
saying: economics is not a neutral science which informs us on the mechanism and each day is filled with sorrow.
of economy-it uses hidden and open prejudices and value judgments. These That’s why my mother is called sorrow
value judgments Mrs. Collier calls “the culture of economism”; they corre- and my father is called ruuing madness through drunkenness.
spond to the thrones and powers, the cosmic forces of our biblical example. A n d I am called tears and sadness.“
Mrs. Collier proves that these value judgments function only within a secular
faith option. Then she returns to her disappointment with the church leaders,
and suggests that instead of arguing morally, they should call economists to
scientific honesty. One cannot expect economists to be moral, but one can
expect them to be good scholars.
Mrs. Collier follows her own prescription. While remaining strictly within
the framework of economics, she shows how the decisions of the econo-
mists-and in fact all so-called scientific decisions-are always also deter-
mined by faith options. She shows convincingly that the culture of economism
is a system of faith. To hold such a faith, she adds, is the right of economists;
without it, they could not function. Only they should call their faith option a
faith option, and not a given law.
In her chapter on conversion Mrs. Collier shows that there are also other
faith options for economists, namely those options which do not “believe” in
the powers and thrones, and which reckon with the fact that Christ has taken
their power away.
Here we have a theologically responsible syncretism: the gods of capital-
ism and the world view of economy are not a priori denied. She does not say:
your mechanisms and powers are not in the Bible, ergo they do not exist. But
she says:
1. Economics is not-as you say-an objective science but a faith option.
And that this is so is proved by the very instruments which economists use.
2. This world view is open for a theologically responsible syncretism if
you see that these powers and mechanisms do not exist independently, but
belong to the created world, and therefore can be questioned, changed, and
re-ar ranged.
3. We want to show you the consequences of your system. Is it really the
best system? We theologians are not qualified to judge, but we call on your
scholarly integrity to admit that you cannot prove these so-called laws exist
LL’
in nature”; that they are simply your faith. If you put this faith aside for a
moment, you might come to other insights.
A system which depends on producing enormous surpluses on the one
hand and hunger on the other, which depends on the stimulus of a huge arms
industry, this surely cannot be the best system you can develop. A system
which pushes a little girl of twelve to write the following poem cannot be the
best which you can invent:
M y mother is called sorrow.
I n summer she cares f o r water,
in winter she cares for coai lo Quoted in Johanna Linz, “Meine Mutter heisst Sorge,” in Die Weltmission Das
and the whole y e a r through for rice. Wort in der Welt, 1990/5, 4.
I1
THE CATHOLIC ROOT
Any observer of Pentecostalism will see that it is particularly successful in

Catholic cultures. This has its reasons. One of them is that Pentecostalism has
not only oral black but also Catholic roots. To these roots are due its strict
Arminianism (the doctrine of free will'); its belief in two worlds, a supernatu-
ral and a natural; its hierarchical church structure; and its doctrine of two (or
sometimes) three stages in the ordo salutis, the decisive element being a second
(or sometimes a third) religious crisis experience beyond salvation. Wesley
mediated these Catholic elements to Pentecostalism and to the American
Holiness Movement. That is why we now follow the emergence and changes
of the doctrine of perfection in Wesley and its reception in the Holiness
Movement.
Wesley’s Catholic Roots 145
experience different from j~stification.~

Many are the testimonies of those who
claim that perfection in Jacoby’s and Gebhardt’s sense is a second experience
c TWELVE after conversi~n.~
Following reports from the Welsh revival, expectations of experiences of
Spirit baptism became more intensive. Evan Roberts, prominent leader in the
Welsh revival, was hailed as a local preacher of the “Free Methodists.”6 Even
some of the more enthusiastic features of the revival did not trouble the Swiss
and Germans. The first outbreaks of Pentecostalism were therefore greeted
with joy.’ Speaking in tongues in Barratt’s revival in Norway was not criti-
cized; in fact, Barratt was presented as “the leader of our city mission in
Wesley’s Catholic Roots Christiana [Oslo], a man well known to us through the European Conference
of Methodism in Zurich four years ago. He is a sober man.”’ The reports
became more cautious only after the ecstatic outbreaks at Kassel.’ Of Barratt
it is said that he resigned from the Norwegian (Methodist) Conference “be-
Perfectionism in Swiss and German Methodism cause of other pressing commitments.”’0
According to their church order Methodist pastors had at their ordi-
In studying the Swiss and German Pentecostal Move- nation to answer the question “DO you expect to become perfect in love
ment I was struck by the discovery that most of their doc- during your lifetime?” with “Yes.”” When the Pentecostals disrupted some of
trines were not invented by them. They had accepted them the Methodist churches in Switzerland the Methodists wrote: “It is not a
from the German and Swiss Holiness Movement, and this wrongly understood doctrine of sanctification which creates the founda-
Holiness Movement had in turn been heavily influenced by tion for Pentecostalism but a wrong ideal of the church with its false
Methodism. Main sources for this statement are the Meth- subjectivism,”12and “there is a Christian perfection which is attainable in this
odist periodicals from the beginning of our century and
’
Jacoby’s Handbuch des Methodismus. The theological gist of An intensive study of the Methodist literature of the time of Pentecostal-
the Methodist publications is: There is a need for, and in fact ism’s emergence in Germany and Switzerland challenged me to find out what
a possibility of, perfection. That does not exclude error, igno- Wesley had to say on this. Had the Methodists indeed been faithful to Wesley,
rance and a thousand other weaknesses; it does not exclude or had they misunderstood him?
“sin improperly so called, that is an involuntary trans-
gression of a divine law, known or unknown.” But to call this 4Schulz, D i e Bedeutung, 117, 120. SE 12.11.1898, 364. On Smith see below
sin is a mistake. Jacoby, who had a profound influence on chapter 14, note 7, p. 183.
Switzerland and Germany as seminar teacher and editor of ’SE 23.5.1896, 162. Hug, “Haben.” SE 28.5.1898, 172f., 180. SE 23.7.1898,
236f., 30.7.1898, 241f., 6.8.1898, 325f. SE 17.9.1898, 302. 8.10.1898, 325f. SE
their periodicals,2 defends Wesley’s definitions of perfection 5.11.1898, 353. 12.11.1898, 361. 1.11.1898, 369. SE 20.5.1899, 156. SE 22.6.1900,
and sin.3 “The German Sankey,” Ernst Gebhardt, a Method- 172f. 22.6.1900, 173. 22.2.1902, 61. 29.2.1902, 68. 8.3.1902, 76. 15.3.1902, 85.
ist pastor in Zurich from 1874 to 1877, interpreted R. Pearsall 22.3.1902,92.29.3.1902, 100. 5.4.1902, 108.21.5.1904, 169.211.5.1905, 164.
Smith in Zurich’s Tonhalle. He spoke of the necessity of a 14.10.1905, 324. 14.10.1905,327. 21.10.1905, 329f. 21.10.1905, 164. 14.10.1905,324.
14.10.1905, 327. 21.10.1905, 329f 21.10.1905, 334. 24.6.1906, 294. 30.9.1906, 310.
baptism in the Spirit, by which he meant a sanctification 18.3.1905,84C 6.5.1905, 143. 10.6.1906, 180. 5.8.1905,246. 29.7.1905, 328. 6.10.1906,
318. 19.8.1908, 263. 9.9.1905, 286. 13.4.1907, 116. 27.4.1907. 4.5.1907, 141.
‘I do not need to go into details on European Methodism in an EnglishIAmeri- 11.5.1907, 148. 18.5.1907, 157.
can book. See The Pcntecostals, 218-43; more detailed in the German version. T h e 6SE 18.3.1905, 84f.
following is not intended as an overall interpretation of life and work of the giant ’ S E 19.8.1908, 263.
John Wesley. It serves only as a pointer to the Catholic roots in Wesley, the ‘ S E 13.4.1907, 116.
Holiness Movement, and Pentecostalism. Those interested may consider the The Pentecostals, 223.
sources in my Handbuch, 05.28.001, 05.28.002, 05.28.003 and 05.28.004. See also “SE21.9.1907, 301.
Bundy, “European.” “Kirchenordnung, 5 103.3, 101.
2Peter, Geschichte, 233. I’ Wachterstimmen, Jan. 1910, 25.
Wesley, “Plain Account,” WW XI, 396; Jacoby, Handbuch, 265. I3SE 29.10.1910, 697.
146 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide
for the greatest p a r t o f his life as a n eremite in Mexico;”Jean-Baptiste d e
Wesley’s Doctrine of Perfection Renty (161 1-1649), a French Catholic nobleman;’’ a n d othersz1
However, for o u r p u r p o s e Wesley’s doctrine of perfection after his con-
Wesley’s doctrine of sanctification before his conversion was essentially version is more important. I introduce i t by giving a chronological overview
influenced by Lorenzo Scopuli (1 530-1610), a Catholic monk;I4 H e n r y Scou- of Wesley’s doctrine of perfection after his conversion.
gal ( b o r n 1650), a Scottish theologian;” T h o m a s a Kernpis;’(‘ Bishop Jeremy In August 1738 Wesley copied the definition of “full assurance of faith” by a
Taylor (1613-67), Fellow of All Souls College and suspected of being a Swedish Moravian, Arbid Gradin, in Latin and English into his Journal.22 T h i s
crypto- catholic because o f his intimate fellowship with F r a n z a S a n t a Clara;17 definition, to which belongs t h e “deliverance from every fleshly desires a n d a
William L a w (1686-1761), a teacher of perfection who was strongly influenced cessation o f all, even inward sins” he later accepts in his “Plain A c c o u n t . . . ”
b y Jakob Boehme;” G r e g o r Lopez (1 542-96), a catholic Spaniard w h o lived C a . 1738: T h e Character of a Methodist: T h e Methodist
~
is therefore happy in God; yea, always happy . . . Perfect love having now cast
I4 Scupoli, born in Otrento, layman until he was forty, entered the religious order out all fear, he rejoices evermore . . . H e “loves his neighbor as himself’; he loves
of the Theatines, was because of his zeal and influence persecuted and reduced to a every man as his own soul . . . For he is “pure in heart.” Love has purified his
layman (1585). H e wrote I1 combattimento spirituale. His authorship is however heart from envy, malice, wrath, and every unkind temper. It has cleansed him
questioned. T h e Enciclopedia universal ilustrada europeo-americano (Vol. XII, 213 in from pride, whereof “only cometh contention”; . . . There is not a motion in his
an article on Juan de Castafiiza; Barcelona, no date) says that it was wrongly attributed heart but is according to his will. Every thought that arises points to him, and is
to Scopuli. Alamo, “Castafiiza”; Andrei, “Scopuli”; Vezzosi, Scrittori; Steiner, B., “obedience to the law of Christ” . . . but has in all points “a conscience void of
“Untersuchungen”; Lang, “Scopuli”; Mercier, “Scopuli.” T h e combattimento spiri-
offence towards God, and towards man.” Whatever God has forbidden, he
tuale seems to have come to England via the Spanish adaptation by Juan de Castafiiza
(born in Iladiego, died 1598 in Salamanca); Philip I1 made him his chaplain and “censor avoids; whatever God has enjoined, he does. ( W W X I , 371f.)
de theologia entre 10s del Tribunal de la fe” ( E m . univ. XII, 213). Christian perfection is
depicted as intellectualist and voluntarist mysticism. “To be ready for suffering is all, for
God’s intention points to the last.” Many times the will in itself must be sufficient.
Schmidt, Martin,John Wesley I, 48ff. Wesley learned about this from his mother. condition for eternal life means for him perfection in intention. “For surely it is a
” I n his L;fe true religion is seen as “an Union of the Soul with God, a real very different Case, to fall short of our Perfection after our best Endeavors, and to
participation of the Divine Nature, the very image of God drawn upon the Soul, or, stop short of it, by not endeavoring to arrive at it. T h e one practice may carry men
in the Apostle’s phrase, it is Christ formed within me,” 30. “ . . . that his Spirit shall to a high reward in Heaven, and the other cast them with the unprofitable servant
be poured out on all flesh. This is most irreligiously restrained to the extraordinary into outer darkness.” Law, Treatise, 224 (Treatise. . . ,edition 1893,6). Wesley knew
effusion of the Holy Ghost on the Day of Pentecost or to the other miraculous gifts Law’s writings (Journal 14.5.1965, 186, W W I I I , 213).
of the Spirit in those beginnings of Christianity: This is clearly contrary both to the l9 Enciclopedia universal ilustrada europeo-americano, X X X I , 113 (“Lopez”).
promises of the Old Testament and the whole current of the New, and to nothing What fascinated Wesley in this man was his longing for perfection in the love of God.
more than our Savior’s most Divine Prayer wherein he expresses that he was not Schmidt, Martin,John Wesley, I, 253.
interceding for his Disciples only, but for all that should believe on his Name through 2 0 H efounded “des socittts d’artisans pour vivre ensemble comme les premiers
their word” (edition 1733, 105; quoted in Schmidt, Martin,John Wesley, I, 55,49ff. chretiens, en sorte que le gain de leur travail fiit commun et que le surplus du
and note 8 [not in edition 19481). Wesley was introduced to Scougal by his mother. nkcessaire f i t employ6 au soulagement des pauvres” (“de Renty”). Important for
l 6 Betty Kirkham, a clergyman’s daughter, introduced Wesley to Thomas a Wesley was de Renty’s “holy indifference” at the death of his wife: “Madam sa femme
Kem is (Schmidt, Martin, John Wesley, I, 95). fut trks grikvement malade et pensa mourir . . . Monsieur de Renty . . . dit: Je ne peux
‘In his Discourse, Taylor deals primarily with the Anabaptists; later bishop, pas nier que ma nature ne ressente une grande douleur de cette perte, mais mon esprit
translator of the Spanish Jesuit J. E. Nieremberg (Overbeck, “Taylor”). The Diction- est remplis de tant de joie de me voir en ttat de donner et de sacrifier a Dieu une
ary of National Biography, 1885ff., UK, 55.422-29. Brilioth, “Jeremy Taylor.” H e chose qui m’est si chere.” Le Chritien riel ou la Vie du Marpuis de Renty, Cologne,
was called the Shakespeare of English prose. His Rule and Experiences of H o b Living 1701’ 365, according to Schmidt, Martin,John Wesley, I, 213-15, quote 215.
and his Rule . . . Dying belong to the bedrock of English devotional literature. ” E.g., Tauler and Molinos (Schmidt, Martin,John Wesley, I, 753).
According to Taylor, love is the greatest gift which we can give God. T h e apostle calls 22 “Repose in the blood of Christ; a firm confidence in God, a persuasion of his
it “the band of perfection” (Heber,Jeremy Taylor, 4.193, quoted in Schmidt, Martin, favour; the highest tranquillity, serenity, and peace of mind, with a deliverance from
John Wesley, I, 78). Life according to the will of God appears in every detail as the every fleshly desire, and a cessation of all, even inward sin.” (Wesley, “Plain Ac-
“epitome of civil behavior” (Schmidt, Martin, p h n Wesley, I, 79): “Abstain from count,” W ’ W X I , 369f.). “Requies in sanguine Christi; firma fiducia in Deum, et
wanton and dissolute laughter, petulant and uncomely jests, loud talking, jeering, and persuasio de gratia divina; tranquillitas mentis summa, atque serenitas et pax; cum
all such actions which in civil account are called indecencies and incivilities” (Heber, absentia omnis desiderii carnalis, et cessatione peccatorum etiam interiorum. Verbo,
Jeremy Taylor, 4.103, 138). Schmidt “misses the sense of the tragic” (Schmidt, COT quad antea instar maris turbulenti agiatabatur, in summa fuit requie, instar maris
Martin,John Wesley, I, 79). Wesley has read Taylor (Journal 14.5.1763; W W I I I , 212). sereni et tranquilli” (Tagebuch, 37f.; “Plain Account,” W W X I , 369); in WW the last
’* He represented the doctrine of “inner light” (Fleisch, “Law,” 1504). Dictionary sentence is missing.
of National Biography, I885ff., UK, 32.236-40. Hobhouse, Selected. Perfection as a
It does not make a man infallible. None is infallible, while he remains

Wesley explicitly says that he had presented this doctrine already in 1725 in the body.
I-__ more clearly in 1730 when he became “homo unius libri.” Since that time
and .~~ Is it sinless? It is not worthwhile to contend for a term. It is “salvation
he has, so he says, added nothing. (WWXI, 373.) from sin.”
In 1730 he published a sermon on Christian Perfection (WW XI, 374-8) It is “perfect love” (1 John 4:18). This is the essence of it; its proper-
which showed that perfection did not mean being without error. ties, or inseparable fruits, are, rejoicing evermore, praying without
1741, Preface to the Second Hymn Collection ( WWXI, 378-82). Here Wesley ceasing, and in everything giving thanks (1 Thess 5: 16 etc.).
prints some extreme formulations but adds footnotes in which he corrects some It is improvable. It is so far from lying in an indivisible point, from
of the most daring, especially the ones on “holy indifference” which he had taken being incapable of increase, that one perfected in love may grow in
over from de Renty.23 Somebody who has only received remission of sins is grace far swifter than he did before.
nevertheless a child of God. Purification of the heart follows later. No person It is amissible, capable of being lost; of which we have numerous
is known to him who had received in one and the same moment remission of instances. But we were not thoroughly convinced of this, till five or
sins, the abiding witness of the Spirit, a new, clean heart ( WWXI, 380). six years ago.
1742, Preface to the Third H y m n Collection (WW XI, 383-87). This is It is constantly both preceded and followed by a gradual work.
mainly a collection of Scripture passages.
1744. Yune 25th: First Preachers’ Conference (WW XI, 387). Perfection This doctrine of Wesley’s has been heavily criticized by Zinzendorf,2’ by
means the overcoming of all inward sins. Bohler,26and above all, by the German Lutheran theologian and specialist on
1745, A u -p s t 1st: Second Preachers’ Conference (WWXI, 387): T h e major- the German Holiness and Pentecostal Movements, Paul Fleisch. “In Wesley
ity of believers will only be sanctified shortly before death. justification becomes merely a precondition for ~anctification.”’~
1747, June 16th: Fourth Preachers’ Conference (WW XI, 388-91): Here Is Fleisch’s critique correct? His judgment has two primary methodologi-
Wesley shows from Scripture that only a very few of the addressees of Paul’s cal flaws: (1) He works entirely on the basis of the “Plain Account” and
epistles, and Paul himself, had been fully sanctified. But he continues to disregards other writings by Wesley-perhaps these were not available to him.
defend the doctrine of perfection because otherwise the prayers in John When I did my research in Zurich, the University library did not have
17:20-23,24 Eph 3:14 and 1 Thess 5:23 would be “mere mockery of God.” Wesley’s works-such was the ecumenical spirit of the University of Zurich
1759, Thoughts on Christian Perfection (WW XI, 394-407). This is a a t that time. I had to go to the Methodist Bishop’s see where I found an
summary of all that Wesley has said so far on perfection. amazing and extremely complete theological library, not only on Methodistica.
1763, Further Thoughts on Christian Perfection (WW XI, 414-41). In this (2) He worked on the basis of a faulty German translation.
essay he examines whether the enthusiasts of a revival in London in 1762 were
fully sanctified. He argues that very few have received perfection; most fall The “Catholic” and the “Methodist” Wesley
short in joy, kindliness, goodness, faithfulness, humility or temperance.
1777, A Plain Account of Christian Perfection as believed and taught by the The “Catholic” Wesley
Rev. Mr. John Wesley from the year 1725 to the year 1777 (WWXI, 366-446): Everybody conversant with Catholic literature of that time will discover
This booklet contains all the above-mentioned writings and minutes and a Catholic trend in these writings, which is not astonishing since Wesley
summarizes Wesley’s doctrine in ten points ( WWXI, 441f.): was-as we have seen-heavily influenced by Catholic authors, and translated
There is such a thing as perfection; for it is again and again mentioned some of their books for his lay preachers. Walter Klaiber, the present bishop
in Scripture. of the Methodists in Germany, tries to interpret Wesley in a Lutheran sense;
It is not so early as justification; for justified persons are to “go on and no doubt he is successful in many passages. But even he must accept that
unto perfection” (Heb 6: 1). on the crucial difference between the Reformers and the Catholics, namely on
It is not so late as death; for St. Paul speaks of living men that were the doctrine of predestination, Wesley was at least unsure. In his sermon on
perfect (Phil 3:15). “Free Grace” he attacked the doctrine of predestination violently.28 His
It is not absolute. Absolute perfection belongs not to man, nor to
angels, but to God alone. 1.
2 5 ~eisch, Heiligungsbewegung, 43. Klaiber, “Aus Glauben” (quotes 329-31).
26 Fleisch, Heiligungsbewegung, 45.
271bid.,42.
23Above, note 20. 28
Sermon no. 110, WW 3, 544-63. Significantly Wesley did net include this
24Seeabove Henry Scougal, note 15.
150 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Wesley’s Catholic Roots 151
adversary, G e o r g e Whitefield (also a Methodist), says therefore: When Wesley Yea, or the constant use of all means of grace? (Which, nevertheless, is meet,
speaks o f “free grace” he m e a n s i n fact “free will.”29 T h i s is the decisive right, and our bounden duty.)33 Or that I know nothing of myself; that I am, as
alternative: Free will or predestination? I f asked in this way, no d o u b t n o t only touching outward, moral righteousness blameless? O r (to come closer yet) the
t h e majority o f Methodists b u t also Wesley himself would o p t for “free will” having a rational conviction of all the truths of Christianity? Does all this give
against predestination- that is, for the Catholic option.30 me a claim to the holy, heavenly, divine character of a Christian? By no means.
However, taking into consideration Wesley’s other writings, n o t just t h e If the Oracles of God are true, if we are still to abide by “the law and the
testimony;” all these things, though when ennobled by faith in Christ they are
“Plain Account,” we find another side to the f o u n d e r of M e t h o d i s m .
holy and just and good, yet without it are “dung and dross” meet only to be
purged away by “the fire that never shall be quenched”.
The “Methodist” Wesley
This, then, have I learned in the ends of the earth- That I “am fallen short of
In f u r t h e r writings b y Wesley we also find passages which correspond to the glory of God:” T h a t my whole heart is “altogether corrupt and abomina-
t h e “Plain B u t there a r e others. The most striking example is t h e ble;” and, consequently, my whole life; (seeing i t cannot be, that an “evil
famous entry in his Journal of January 24th, 1738- that is before his conver- tree” should “bring forth good fruit:”). That “alienated as I am from the life of
sion. It shows without d o u b t a n understanding of sin which is different from God”, I am “a child of wrath”, [Note at the bottom of the page: “I believe not.”]
t h e one in the “Plain Account.” an heir of hell: T h a t my own works, my own sufferings, my own righteousness,
I went to America, to convert the Indians; but O! who shall convert me? who, are so far from reconciling me to an offended God, so far from making any
what is he that will deliver me from this evil heart of unbelief? . . . I think, verily, atonement for the least of those sins, which “are more in number than the hairs
if the Gospel be true, I am safe: For I not only have given, and do give, all my of my head,” that the most specious of them need an atonement themselves, or
goods to feed the poor; I not only give my body to be burned, drowned, or they cannot abide his righteous judgment; that “having the sentence of death”
whatever God shall appoint for me; but I follow after charity, (though not as I in my heart, and having nothing in or of myself to plead, I have no hope, but that
thought as I ought, yet as I can,) if haply I may attain it (WW I, 74). of being justified freely, “through the redemption that is in Jesus” . . . ( W W X I ,
7677).
I who went to America to convert others, was never converted to God. [Note at
the bottom of the page: “I am not sure of this.”] ( W W I, 75) Are they read in Wesley knew, after as well as before his conversion, that sin is the h u m a n
philosophy? So was I. In ancient and modern tongues? So was I also. Are they condition, irrespective of what one does or does not. B u t alongside o f this
versed in science and divinity? I too have studied it many years. Can they talk u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s i n he also h e l d a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s i n as a concrete
fluently upon spiritual things? T h e very same could I do. Are they plenteous in d e e d , a conscious and voluntary trespassing of a known law of God. H i s
alms? Behold, I gave all my goods to feed the poor. D o they give of their labour doctrine of perfection is i n fact o n l y possible with this second understanding
as well as of their substance? I have laboured more abundantly than they all. Are of sin. Therefore Wesley was always oscillating between the t w o under-
they willing to suffer for their brethren? I have thrown up my friends, reputation,
standings of sin.
ease, country; I have put my life in my hand, wandering into strange lands; I have
given my body to be devoured by the deep, parched up with heat, consumed by
In his book Checks to Antinomianism (1771-79, Wesley’s Swiss assistant
toil and weariness, or whatsoever God should please to bring upon me. ( WWI,76).32 John William Fletcher (also called the “Saint of Methodism”) defended t h e
doctrine of p e r f e ~ t i o n He . ~ ~was the first to write i n English using t h e t e r m
But does all this (be it more or less, it matters not) make me acceptable to God? “baptism of the spirit” for t h e experience o f perfection or s a n c t i f i c a t i ~ n . ~ ~
Does all I ever did or can know, say, give, do, or suffer, justify me in his sight?
33 Here Wesley quotes the Anglican Eucharist liturgy. “Means of Grace”-the
sermon in any of his sermon collections, Klaiber, “Aus Glauben,” 332, note 78. eucharist.
29ALetter to the Rev. Mr. John Wesley. Whitefield, Works IV, 53-73, quote 71. 34French: Guilleaume de la Flechere, 1729-85, born in Nyon at the Lake of
30 See the controversy between Luther and Erasmus and Zwingli and Erasmus Geneva, read theology at Geneva, rejected the doctrine of predestination, and was a
on “Free Will,” ZTh 1, 320f. English: Hollenweger, “Zwingli,” particularly 88f. house teacher in England, where he got to know Methodism. After having received
31 WWIV, 156; Wesley, Letters VII, 102; VII, 322; Sermon no. 83, W W V I , 491; “full assurance of faith” (1757) he became pastor which he remained until his death
WW 111, 308. at Madeley. Besides this he directed the seminary of the Countess Huntington in
32 T h e list in imitation of 2 Cor. 11 is no exaggeration. His American mission Trevacca (1768-71), but had to leave because of the disputes with Whitefield on
was connected to his ascetic ideal the more so as he was afraid of the sea. Witness his Calvin’s predestination. H e never pretended to have reached “perfection in love”
ascetic and disciplined soldiering in his diary (not to be confused with hisJourna4, (Fleisch, “Fletcher”; Scott, “Fletcher”; “Fletcher,” Lexrkon der Schwetz, 3.171;
in which he gave account of every one of his days in detail in shorthand and in secret Wesley, “Short Account”; Nuelsen, Fletcher; Brandt-Bessire, Sources, 63-72; Schulz,
writing from four o’clock in the morning until 9:30 at night. Notice also the strong Die Bedeutung, 118; Dayton, “Roots,” 7f.).
social aspect of his thirst for sanctification. 35 Bundy, “European,” 280.
~
I52 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
Appraisal
It is difficult to bring Wesley’s understanding of sin into line with Paul’s. THIRTEEN
In spite of this Wesley in his time did more for the acceptance of Paul than
many who quoted him correctly but not understandably. Why should we not
interpret Wesley in his historical context as we do with any historical text? We
might then consider the fact that Wesley had to do with a society and a church
of ethical indifference (drunken clergy, people who were in prison because
they could not pay their church taxes), of mysticism and pragmatism. In spite
of his understanding of sin and perfection, which is probably different from
Paul’s, perhaps Wesley was nearer to Paul than his antagonists. These quoted
Pentecostals and Catholics
Paul regularly, but seem not to have grasped the depth of Paul. Perhaps Wesley
proclaimed the Gospel better-because more understandably-than they did.
His offer of pardon and his demand for perfection was socially and indiuidually
Before we continue the story “from the American Holi-
cmcrete. His call to repentance had clear and experiential consequences. T h e
ness Movement to Pentecostalism,” I want to stop and glance
price for this was to give up the Reformers’ simul iustus et peccator (we are
at the Roman Catholic church; for, if Pentecostalism has one
always sinners and justified), and their doctrine of predestination. These
of its roots in Catholic spirituality, and if “there is greater
concepts are, in any case, an enigma for most people. T o see this one has only
relationship between Catholics and Pentecostals than be-
to consult the article on Luther in the Oxford Dictionary of the Christian
tween Catholicism and the historic Protestant churches,”’
Church,36which says more about the English churches than about Luther. T h e
some repercussions of Pentecostalism in the Catholic camp
understanding of unconditional grace taught in the Reformation is probably
are to be expected. This is the case at least in two directions;
for many people a mere theory, or alternatively a heavy load, because it
namely, in the growth of a Catholic Pentecostal or Catholic
identifies people as sinners for the rest of their lives. Perhaps the dialectic
renewal movement, and in several important dialogues be-
understanding of grace and sin in Paul must be simplified and logically
tween Pentecostalism and the Vatican.
streamlined for most people.
That is what the tradition which flowed from the Catholic Wesley into the
A Catholic Pentecostal Movement
American Holiness Movement did, with all its practical positive and negative
results. T h e advantage of this approach has been a socially and individually Already by 1962 there were a few contacts between
active Christianity. T h e disadvantage, perhaps, has been a tendency to forget Catholics and Pentecostals in Holland 2 and in the USA.
that a good conscience is not necessarily proof of perfection. Blaise Pascal, the Some priests had taken part in meetings of the Full Gospel
great French mathematician and theologian who had also experienced a “bap- Business Men’s Fellowship International (a lay organization
tism of the Spirit,” pointedly said: “No one ever does wrong so fully and so within classical Penteco~talism)~ and thereby experienced
happily as when he does it with a clear con~cience.”~’ and accepted Pentecostal ~ p i r i t u a l i t yBut
. ~ the breakthrough
came only in 1966-67, when
several Catholic laymen, all members of the faculty of Dusquesne
University in Pittsburgh were drawn together in a period of
deep prayer and discussion about the vitality of their faith . . .
Not satisfied with a life of ivory-tower scholarship, they con-
cerned themselves with the problems of the renewal of the
36Luther’s “central doctrines were a mirror of his temperament and of his
experiences . . . Man is wholly under the power of evil and can do nothing but sin. ’ Vereb, Interview. Lundgren, “Dialog”; quoted by Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982),
~
Justification is something which is accomplished in man by a kind of legal fiction . . I, 213.

. though in reality he remains as sinful as before.” Cross, “Luther.” On this strange
dictionary see I T h 2, 30f.
2Zeegers. “R. K. Kerk
ThePentecostaIs, 6f., 8,’’ 15,43, 212, 356, 364f., 426, 268, 485.
~~~~.
37 “Jamais on ne fait le ma1 si pleinement et si gaiement que quand on ne le fait
40’Docharty, “Tried.” Schulgen, “Heaven.”
par conscience,” Pascal, Pensies, Frag. 895. The Pentecostals, 328.
154 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecostals and Catholics 155
Cfiurch . . . In recent years they had been involved with the liturgical and uniform, worldly and anti-Christian Super-church, which is foretold in the
ecumenical movements, with civil rights, and with the concerns of world peace.’ Revelation of John.”” On the other hand Catholics have in the past written,
concerning the Pentecostals, mostly polemics based on ignorance.”
Kevin and Dorothy Ranaghan, both university theologians, distinguished All of this is changing quickly, although not everywhere at the same speed.
themselves in this group of Catholic intellectuals. At the end of 1966 they read Classical Pentecostal churches and old-time Catholic specialists on sects can-
the story of the Pentecostal evangelist David Wilkerson,6 who had found not keep up with the changing situation. A reader from Maryland wrote, for
prayer and the gifts of the Spirit to be the most efficacious means of combating instance, to the Pentecostal Evangel, wanting to know how the Catholics can
juvenile drug addiction. Then, they read a report on neo-Pentecostalism receive the Spirit and “still go to confession and still have their idols? . . . Some
within Protestant churches,’ and became curious to get to know this charis- of our people are going to Catholic prayer meetings and this disturbs me. As
matic movement themselves. Through the mediation of the Anglican Rector Christians we need wisdom to discern the spirits in these last days.”“
William Lewis they came into contact with a charismatic prayer group. Soon Classical Pentecostals were “scandalized” that Catholic Pentecostals could
they received the gift of speaking in tongues. From Duquesne the movement smoke and drink and still claim to have had the baptism of the Holy Spirit.
spread to Notre Dame University and throughout the United States. Today Vinson Synan of the Pentecostal Holiness Church says that classical Pente-
the charismatic movement is one of the strongest sectors in the Roman costals will have to make “an agonizing reappraisal” of just what makes a
Catholic church, having spread to Catholic churches around the world. There Pentecostal, in light of the Catholic renewal.l3 Nevertheless one would have
are also reports of a similar development in the Eastern Orthodox churches.* to agree with Mackay, who “foresees a more cordial rapprochement between
In addition to the vast journalistic literature, there are some scholarly the Catholics and Pentecostals than between adherents of mainline denomina-
publications on the Catholic charismatic movement. For a critical under- tions.” Rightly the Presbyterian theologian Rodman Williams indicates that
standing, the essays of Helder CPmara’s former theological research assistant, the significance of official negotiations between Pentecostals and Catholics at
Abdalaziz de Moura; of the Dominican professor of theology Francois-H. the highest Vatican level “can hardly be over-emphasi~ed.”’~
Lepargneur? of the British Dominican Simon Tugwell; of the theologian J. Signs of a change have been apparent for some time, for example in the
Massyngberde Ford; and above all of the American Benedictine Kilian publications of the French Pentecostal~.’~ The current polemics of the Ger-
McDonnell, who has examined the revival and its roots thoroughly, are man and Italian Catholic sect specialists against Pentecostalism, and the
indispensable. McDonnell, de Moura and Lepargneur-unlike Ranaghan and corresponding condemnations of the Catholic church by the Pentecostals, will
O’Connor-do not belong in the narrower sense to the Catholic Pentecostals. soon be obsolete.
Therefore their critical but sympathetic approach and their exact reports are There are of course still remnants of past polemics, as for instance when
particularly important. the most important American Pentecostal periodical reported that the Second
Vatican Council had “produced little worthy of note.”I6 On the other hand, in
Relation Between Catholics and Pentecostals more recent Catholic publications there has been an astonishing openness
As the charismatic renewal movement grew, Catholic and classical Pente- towards the classical Pentecostal movement;” sometimes even unashamed
costals in many cities began meeting regularly for prayer. The official publications
of the classical Pentecostals were not sure how to interpret this new phenome- lo Duncan, M., Recelation. Further literature in The Pentecostals, 436-38. Over-
view in Bittlinger, Papst, 2-9. This type of polemics is not over yet, for instance when
non. That is understandable, as among Pentecostals until recently the Catholic the pope called the Pentecostal sects “rapacious wolves” (see below, note 136), Robeck
church has been seen as foreshadowing “the great whore,’’ “lead[ing] to the had to use all his delicacy, theological, and ecumenical skill to contain the damage
(confidential correspondence in my possession).
’Ranaghan, Catholic Pentecostals, 6. O’Connor, Pentecostal Movement, 105. For instance some Italian Catholic in The Pentecostals, 257f.
Lundgren, Ny pingst. There was an explosion of literature on Catholic Pentecostal- “Evangeletters.”
ism in the late ’60s and early ’70s. Bibliographies: Melton, Bibliography; Lambert, l 3 Torkelson, “Filled.”
Bibliographique; Hollenweger, Pentecost Between Black and White, 127-33; idem, I 4 Harper, “Dialogue.” Renewal, “Dialogue.” Williams, Rodman J., “Break-
Christen, 119-25; idem, N e w Wine, 60-75; and in the Spanish version of The Pente- through.” One in Christ, “Dialogue.”
costals (El Pentecostalismo), 61-66. 1 3 T h e French Pentecostal periodical ExpPriences (Carhais 29N), especially the
Wilkerson, Switchblade. issues no. 2, 1971, and no. 8, 1972 with articles by O’Connor, D u Plessis, Ranaghan
Sherrill, Tongues. and French Pentecostals.
Kovaleski, “Charismen”; Aion, “Dialogue”; Stone, “Orthodox”; Renewal, “Or- l 6 Bolten, “Recent,” 6f.
thodox.” l 7 Chkry, “Sectes”; idem, “Accusent”; Gaeta, “Chili” (1956!); Vergara, Protestan-
9 0 n these in detail in The Pentecostals, 101-7. tismo; idem, “Avance”; Zenetti, Heisse, 304-9. Particularly interesting is the change
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Deuelopments Worldwide Pentecostals and Catholics 157
156
From this it is concluded that charisms are not supernatural. Already the
admiration. Catholics and Pentecostals have a common problem: In an age
Protestant theologian Arnold Bittlinger has proved that there exists no crite-
when all authorities are declining, the authority ofthe clergy also declines. T h e
modern world no longer asks for the Catholic or Pentecostal understanding of rion by which one could distinguish between genuine foreign languages and
God but: Is God alive, and if so what does he do for me? Is there any sense in speaking in tongues. “Speaking in tongues,” he says, “must be considered as
praying and trusting this God? Is the whole business of the church simply a a natural phenomenon, just as dreaming, laughing or weeping.”23 So the
vast and useless enterprise run at public cost, at best a “necessary illusion”? “supernatural” can be seen within an old Catholic tradition as “being precisely
T h e answer the Pentecostal gives to all these questions is that of the man who the fulfillment of our nature.”24 Using functional (and not ontological) cate-
was born blind: “Whether he is a sinner, I do not know; one thing I know, that gories, McDonnell poignantly affirms: “A gift is not a what but a how. A gift
though I was blind, now I see” (John 9:25). is less a new capacity and more the use of an old capacity as a function of
O n this the Dominican Tugwell comments: “People are dissatisfied with Christ’s kingdom. Quite secular activities can be gifts of the Spirit if they are
religion that does no more than preach and moralize; they want the real used as functions of the k i n g d ~ m . ” ~Rightly
’ Josephine Massyngberde Ford
thing.”18 In his analysis of “The Ideology of Pentecostal Conversion,” the asks whether Handel’s Messiah, Bach’s passions, and the books of St. Thomas
Benedictine Kilian McDonnell aptly says that in the Pentecostal movement Aquinas are due to direct inspiration, or to human charismata. Her answer:
the problem of the “unbelieving believer” is not met by referring him to the “An excellent combination of both.”26
“field” of abstract theological assertions in which he is hopelessly lost. He is One of the most articulate of these charismatic Catholic theologians is the
capable neither of denying nor accepting the statements about this “theologi- Dominican Simon Tugwell from Oxford. He has presented several medita-
tions on British Radio, one of them including a recorded segment of singing
ans’ ” God. But-in McDonnell’s view-in the Pentecostal liturgy he can
experience being able to pray once again.” in tongues by three Catholic sisters, which provoked several hundred letters
There is no need to point out that the Pentecostal proof of God is of thanks to the British Broadcasting Company. It was prayerfully and medi-
insufficient, and in certain situations will even lead to the abolition of faith qua tatively prepared in the studio (to the dismay of the technicians who did not
faith.2” To some extent Pentecostals see this themselves (chapter 18, pp. appreciate this “waste” of valuable studio time and technical facilities “just for
229-33). In spite of this the question remains: How does faith experience the meditation”). The actual meditation was then broadcast live.
real presence of Christ? It is worthwhile for Protestants and Catholics to In several publications Tugwell has defended the use of speaking in
meditate on this question. tongues, which appears to him “to mean the production of genuinely
linguistic phenomena, which may or may not be identified by someone
Theological Characteristics present as some definite language, but which do not convey any ordinary
semantic significance to the speaker him~elf.”~’ It is not simply “praying in
One can detect in Catholic Pentecostalism a tendency to accept from the Spirit,” nor is it “God’s kindergarten.” “Prayer that we cannot our-
classical Pentecostals their experience but without its doctrinal articulation. selves fully understand is an essential part of Christian praying: Tongues
For instance, fundamentalism is rejected as being opposed to charisms. “Too is a particularly straightforward embodiment of this principle.” But it
often in the past Christians experiencing baptism in the Holy Spirit have is-from a phenomenological point of view-ambiguous. That applies-says
adopted not only the cultural environment of denominational Pentecostalism Tugwell-to all pneumatic activities. He concludes that the New Testa-
but also the thought categories of the fundamentalist milieu.”21Yet it seems ment does not put pressure on anyone to seek the gift of tongues, but it
necessary for Ranaghan to interpret the charismatic dimension from different encourages those who receive it to use it to grow into fuller and richer
points of view, including that of critical exegesis, if the Pentecostal experience experience of the Christian life as a whole. Thus Tugwell suggests that this
is for the whole church and not the particularity of one sect.22 gift does have a part in the wholeness of Christian life. “This does not in any
way commit us to accepting the Pentecostals’ understanding of it, nor to their
which Damboriena underwent from a merciless critic to a tolerant partner: Dam- kind of religion.”‘*
boriena. “Chile”; idem, “Algunos”; idem, “Fury”; idem, Tongues.
Is Tugwell, Receive, 13.
23 Bittlinger,
“Glossolalie.”
19McDonnell,“Ideology.” See also chapter 21, pp. 269-87 and chapter 26, PP.
356-60. 24 Tugwell, Receiue,18.
2o Tugwell, Receive, 104.
25 McDonnell (with Bittlinger), Problem, 53.
21 Ranaghan, Catholic Pentecostals, 261. McDonnell, “Catholic Pentecostalism,”
26Ford,J. M., Baptism, XII, 51.
27 Tugwell, “Gift,” 137.
41. See also idem, Open.
22 Ranaghan, Catholic Pentecostals, 260. ”Ibid., 137, 13Y.
Tugwell goes on to state that “the Pentecostal doctrine is scripturally one of their outspoken critics than as a “Catholic Pentecostal.” Tugwell
and theologically unwarrantable,” and is for the theologian “cause for himself does not want to be put into that category. On the other hand he is not
alarm.” Yet he maintains that “Pentecostalism does represent a genuine the only one who has misgivings about the term and the concept of the
eagerness for the original, undiluted message of the Gospel which is ‘not “baptism of the Spirit.” It is not surprising therefore that speaking in tongues
in words of persuasive wisdom, but in demonstration of Spirit and power’ is not recognized as the “initial sign,” i.e., as the first and compulsory sign of
(I Cor. 2:4), this too makes a legitimate demand on the theologian’s interest Spirit baptism, by O ’ C ~ n n o rBut
. ~ ~that does not hinder Catholic Pentecostals
and sympathy.” He rejects the notion that the baptism of the Spirit adds from seeing the spiritual and psycho-hygienic value of glossolalia. The usual
anything more to Christian faith. “Anything more than fundamental Chris- dispensing of speaking in tongues as pathological is reje~ted.~’
tianity is actually less than the Gospel.”29 It is recognized that the term “baptism of the Spirit” was coined by the
Tugwell uses categories of medieval mysticism in order to interpret his II classical Pentecostals, who hardly have a theology of the sacrament;36also the
and his fellow Catholics’ spiritual experiences. Mysticism, he says, “is not Catholic roots of Pentecostal spirituality have nowhere-as far as I can ascer-
intrinsically Christian, but it can be made Christian.” He differentiates be- tain-been recognized. A Catholic theology of charisms should speak rather
tween oracles and prophecy, between idols and icons. “An idol is a god, or a of the renewal3’ of the Spirit received in baptism than of initiation into the life
manifestation of god, or an experience of god, or a doctrine of god, that one ~
of the Spirit in Spirit baptism.38 Although Kilian McDonnell knows that
has ‘made a thing of.’ ” But “Christ is larger than his media of communica- among the church fathers there were some who taught “two stages” of
tion.” Prophecy and icon “strip us down before God, peeling off our masks salvation similar to those taught in the classical Pentecostal churches, he
I
and pretenses, our false selves,” while those using oracles and idols always try maintains that for Paul “becoming a Christian and receiving the Spirit occur
to get power over God, showing thereby how right they are.30 together. ”39
Tugwell knows of course that definitions and names (also a kind of idol) The theologians of the Catholic Pentecostal movement have stressed that
are sometimes necessary for our sanity, but they never capture God adequately. Pentecostal spirituality does not hinder Catholic mariological spirituality, but
Only “when we have overcome” (Rev 2: 17) shall we find our full identity, and on the contrary, promotes it.40In the preface to his book on the Spirit, Tugwell
only then will the reality of the experience of God fit its definition. That is has included a prayer to and with Mary.4’ Catholics have rightly seen that the
why Tugwell sees no phenomenological difference between Christian and Pentecostals are-in contrast to their self-interpretation- not typically
non-Christian mysticism, between oracle and prophecy, between idol and Protestant.
icon. The difference does not lie on the level of phenomenology, but on that On the ethics of the Catholic Pentecostals one could at the beginning not
of signification. From outside, both these mysticisms look exactly alike. Only discover any rigorist tendency. Also the political aspects of a Christian spiri-
by the function of mystical experiences, when they create room for freedom, tuality were at first kept alive. “It seems to be decisive,” says a Jesuit observer,
do they become Christian. From this Tugwell draws the conclusion that in a “that people who in the past could not see a Negro without becoming furious,
charismatic community there must be freedom to speak in tongues and to offer can now embrace him.”4Z
extempore prayer, and also freedom to abstain from such kinds of spiritu-
ality without losing face. As among some German Protestant Neo-Pente- Ecumenical Significance of Catholic Pentecostals
costals, Catholic Pentecostals similarly see in community work, journalism, 32 The prayer-meetings of the Catholic Pentecostals shattered the “economic-
and run-of-the-mill management,31 even in music, poetry, and theology, deprivation”-theory that had customarily been set forth as an “explanation”
charisms of the Holy Spirit, approaching the black Pentecostal under- of the older, classical Pentecostalism. It was not the uneducated but the
standing of charisma.33
In fairness it must be added that Tugwell is regarded with suspicion by 34 O’Connor, Pentecostal Movement, 125.
many Catholic Pentecostals, particularly in England. They see him more as 35 Jennings, “Glossolalia.” Samarin, Tongues. O’Connor, Pentecostal Movement, 123.
36 Ranaghan, Catholic Pentecostals, 249 and McDonnell (with Bittlinger), Problem.
37 Caffarel, PentecBtisme, suggests “effusion of the Spirit.” Ford, J. M., “Catholi-
29 Tugwell, “Reflections,” 268, 269, 280. These and similar statements have
provoked a protest from Michael Harper, see his review in Renewal 39, JuneIJuly cism,” suggests “release of the Spirit.”
1972. 8. 38 Clark, ConJirmation. O’Connor, Pentecostal Movement, 132.
39 McDonnell (with Bittlinger), Problem, 36.
3OTugwel1, Receive, 95.
3’ Ranachan. Catholic Pentecostals, 249. McDonnell (with Bittlinger), Problem.
O’Connor, Pentecostal Movement, 59.
32 Ford,-J. M.,Baptism. 41 Tugwell, Receive, 11.
33 See chapter 4, pp. 25-40 and chapter 17, pp. 218-27 ”2’Altrichter,“Katholische.”
L
Pentecostals and Catholics 161
the joy of the ecumenical discovery, the theological differences between the
intellectuals, not the uncritical but the critical exegetes, not frustrated Puri- different Catholic and Protestant churches have not been taken seriously
tans but quite normal Christians who took part in these meetings. There was enough, as Gelpi criticize^.'^
not only speaking in tongues but critical discussion of theological and social T h e Catholics accept the fact that this revival has its roots outside the
problems; not only the singing of hymns but the composition of hymns; not Catholic church. Though O’Connor does not allow any doubts on his Catholic
only praying, but eating, drinking and smoking. It was possible to laugh and orthodoxy, he answers the question of whether the Holy Spirit may conceiv-
weep, to clap hands-and also to leave the room when one did not like this ably be more at work in the classical Pentecostal churches than in that church
style.43T h e Jesuit Sudbrack# therefore sees Pentecostal spirituality in relation yhich generally has been accepted to be the most authentic church, as follows:
to Harvey Cox’s Feast ofFools. Social and political topics are not excluded from “This may be God’s way of demonstrating to members of the Church that He
their meetings: alone is sovereign Lord, and that all institutions and hierarchies on earth, even
Any genuine movement of the Holy Spirit will not stop at re-establishing unity in the Church, are nothing but instruments and ministers . . . We need to have it
in the family or small community or parish. It must move inexorably on towards demonstrated for U S that God’s action transcends the action of the Church.”52
creating freedom and justice in the larger community of the nation and among In contrast to the Protestant marginalization of the Pentecostal revival
nations. Most of the participants [of the Conference at Columbia Feb. 19-23, ninety years ago, and to the occasional social disqualifications of the renewal
19731 had worked actively in concerns of social action.45 movement within Protestant churches today, the Bishops’ Conference of the
Catholic church in the USA has rather friendly relations with Catholic Pen-
Harold E Cohen goes even further in stating: “One finds an interesting tecostalism. T h e bishops say: T h e movement has theologically legitimate
parallel between the charismatic renewal and the statements of the documents reasons for its existence, and rests on a solid biblical basis. There are abuses
of Medellin.”46 T h e review of the Full Gospel Business Men’s Fellowship here and there, but the movement as a whole should not be hindered. “Prudent
International reports the Mexican bishop Sergio Mendez Arceo as having priests” should accompany the groups and help them to maintain the impetus
said: “Only socialism can enable Latin America to achieve true develop- which they have received from the classical Pentecostal churches, without
ment.”47 “The prayer-meeting is not an end in itself, but its point is to build accepting their mistakes. Understandably an observer mockingly criticizes the
~ ~ autumn 1971 experiments in
a mature community of C h r i ~ t i a n s . ”Since bishops for preferring “tamed charismatics” to the revolutionary Berrigans.j3
“ c o m r n ~ n i t i e s ”have
~ ~ been under way which might perhaps not only bridge Yet that might be a shortsighted judgment.
the ecumenical but also the political and social divides. One thing is certain: the Catholic church (at least in Latin America but
There has even been room for red-hot revolutionary talk, which has possibly also elsewhere) has only two choices: Either become a ghetto church
included a condemnation of “free trade,” the revolutionary issues of the Third by holding on to out-dated hierarchical and liturgical structures, or take on
World, the necessity for the “spur of Marxism,” and the inevitable interlinking elements from the popular oral religion of Pentecostalism. T h e latter has of
of economics and ~ p i r i t u a l i t yThese
. ~ ~ are of course important voices, but they course happened in the setting up of “base communities” and in the giving of
do not represent the general feelings of rank-and-file Catholic Pentecostals. responsibility to lay leaders, the so-called “delegados de la palabra de Dios.”
T h e Catholic Pentecostal Movement has developed its own ecumenical That these “base communities” are a genuine Catholic form of Pentecostalism
momentum-an enigma for both classical Pentecostals and Evangelicals. It is is obvious to any,unbiased observer, even if this is not everywhere recognized.
true this was only possible after the Second Vatican Council, but the Catholic But they will also pose a number of problems. As in the case of the communists
Pentecostals have translated its documents into experience at the local level, in the former Democratic Republic of Germany, so the Catholic church, too,
where oikoumene is not only discussed but lived. It is understandable that in will be confronted by a grass-roots base which will claim, “We are the church.”
A centrally-administered, monolithic Catholic church is no longer viable. T h e
Tugwell, Receive, 18 and passim.
13 choice is clear: Either the Vatican will accept that it is a servant to the people
*Sudbrack, “Im Spiegel der Zeit.” On Harvey Cox and Pentecostalism see of God, and that its hierarchy cannot in the long run continue to produce
chapter 1, p. 2. dogmas and moral decrees which people do not understand; or it will run out
” New Coaenant, 3/2, Aug. 1973, 26f.
46 Cohen, “Renovacion.”
of funds and of people. T h e latter would not mean that the Vatican will
17 Arceo, “Antorcha.” disappear, but that it would sink into insignificance, for it cannot defend its
“Introduction, 10.
49 Clark, Building; Connor, “Covenant”; Delespesse, Church. On the influence 51 Gelpi, Piety, 61-97.
on existing convents see Cyprian, N e w Covenant, 2-5; Aymot, N e w Covenant; Reddy, 52
O’Connor, Pentecost in the Catholic Church, 28f.
N e w Covenant. 53 Weber, Karl, “Amerika.”
50 McLeod. “Renew.”
monopoly with the Swiss guard. T h e alternative is a Vatican which is a real Hocken’s hermeneutical approach can be defended as Roman Catholic.
enabler, a ‘)astor pastorum, a spokesman (or perhaps even a spokeswoman)
”
But in the context in which he presents his findings this hermeneutic can also
for the convictions, aspirations and longings of the Catholic people of God. be called Pentecostal, Protestant or Anglican. In fact it reveals a critical edge
in relation to all ecclesiologies, including the Roman Catholic.
Catholic Pentecostals-Ecumenical or Denominational? Thus Peter Hocken sees the uniqueness of the charismatic renewal in the
fact that for the first time since the Reformation, an ecumenical grass-roots
I am sorry that I have to conclude the section on the Catholic renewal movement has emerged which has crossed the frontiers between evangelicals
movement on a somewhat critical note. The renewal movement in the Catholic and Catholics. This indeed is of great significance. The basis of this ecumeni-
church, or “Catholic Pentecostals” as they called themselves at the beginning, cal approach is the fact that Christians have discovered a common experience,
started-like the Pentecostal movement itself-as an ecumenical renewal which is a t the heart of their spirituality-and this in spite of their differing
movement. The prayer meetings were ecumenical, for example, as I have theologies and interpretations of this experience.
demonstrated in chapter 2 (pp. 6 1 5 ) . Important initiatives came from those However, the charismatic movement has developed in other directions.
prayer meetings. But perhaps by 1980 this ecumenical spirit had waned. Having failed to throw the baptism in the Spirit out of their churches alto-
Catholics and Protestants had organized their own denominational prayer gether, denominational theologians are busy on all sides proving that it can be
groups, and some of them had become new Pentecostal churches, as we shall “contained” within the traditions of their denomination. And it is perhaps
see later. right that they try to do so, because it is always easier to accept something new
The Roman Catholic priest Peter Hocken detected this shift at an early by showing that it is in fact not that new. Proof of this process is Kilian
stage in his painstaking research on the beginning of the charismatic renewal McDonnell’s massive three volume collection of one hundred church state-
in England.54In contrast to most writers on the baptism of the Spirit, Hocken ments on the charismatic r e n e ~ a l . ~ ’
has seen in this crisis experience a cognitive element. The fact that people from These signs of acceptance and integration are encouraging. But if this
evangelical to Catholic backgrounds, from conservative to liberal theological work is of the Spirit, as its adherents believe, then it is also of the Spirit that it
persuasion, have undergone an experience which they perceived to be identi- began as an ecumenical movement. A recapturing of this original ecumenical
cal, asks for a new look at our received theologies. spirit might lead us to discover new hermeneutical possibilities for the new
This was certainly the case for the ecumenical Pentecostal pioneer David crises of our day. In other words, the baptism of the Spirit introduces a critical
Du Plessis. Du Plessis correctly saw that Pentecostals are not simply to be and cognitive element into the liberal, evangelical, and Catholic camps. Evan-
understood as the left wing of Protestantism. There are too many Catholic gelicals discover that it is possible to be a committed and Spirit-filled believer
elements in their history and spirituality. Therefore it is foolish-in the without accepting evangelical theological propositions. Critical liberals dis-
opinion of Du Plessis-to exclude either the World Council of Churches or cover that the oral Pentecostal tradition is a potent vehicle for communicating
Rome from the sphere of the Spirit’s v i ~ i t a t i o n . ~ ~ important ecumenical and social insights in a milieu which the liberals can
It is, however, true that neither Pentecostals nor mainline churches are never reach. Catholics discover that it may be possible to be a fully-fledged
equipped to deal with the theological queries which arise from such an Catholic without accepting the infallibility of the Petrine ministry. Protestants
observation. Hocken writes: discover that Roman Catholic priests take Scripture and in fact the Reforma-
While there was a genuine communion in the Spirit between the Spirit-baptized, tion tradition just as seriously as they do.
there was not a common understanding of the movement and of its purpose in In further publications Hocken’’ has developed his thinking by calling for
God’s sight. T h e possibility of a common understanding was dependent on the the avoidance of two extremes: on the one hand, the non-denominational
participants being willing to allow their received theologies, especially their “home church” which breaks with the past and starts anew, and on the other
ecclesiologies, to be challenged and expanded in common fidelity to the grace of a charismatic renewal which leaves everything as it is, does not ask any
baptism in the Spirit and in parallel fidelity to the work of God at the heart of questions but just gives one’s own denomination a few good songs, some warm
each tradition.56
prayer meetings and speaking in tongues. Hocken advocates a third way. The
renewal is a new thing, and it calls for a dual loyalty from its members: loyalty
54 Hocken, Streams.
to one’s denomination and loyalty to the ecumenicity of the Spirit.
5 5 Hocken, Streams, quotes D u Plessis (p. 129 from a tape). Pentecostals “have
denied being Protestants,” they have much in common with Roman Catholics (Elim
Evanael 10 March 1962, 146; Elim Evangel 29 June 1963,402)Hocken, Streams, 146. j7 McDonnell, Presence.
” Hocken, Streams, 178f. 58 Hocken, One Lord; idem, “Charismatic”; idem, “Renewal.”
Cecil M. Robeck comes to very similar conclusions from the Pentecos- of o u r theological melodies, but it changes the rhythm and sometimes the key.
tal side. It does not change the Catholic church, but it lights it up. It does not change
its ministry, but it makes it more credible. It does not change its ecumenical
Our best confessional formulations of the Truth and the praxis of our churches commitment, but it makes it more alive. How far this is an expression of
which we often guard jealously, are in some ways ultimately marred or distorted.
church politics I cannot judge. (This presentation now largely corresponds to
Herein lies the potential for pain . . . Sometimes in dialogue, certain people or
the facts, at least in relation to the charismatic movement in the West.)
groups, blinded by their own apparent success, will assume that they should
argue from a position of “strength” or that they must have the upper hand. They T h u s Schmieder marginalizes the ecumenical and critical beginnings of
may seat themselves at the head of the dialogue table, thereby exhibiting an air charismatic Christianity; for instance the theologically explosive significance
of superiority. They may attempt to manipulate the agenda to serve their own of women, blacks, the poor, and lay people in the inaugural years of classical
exclusivist ecclesiastical interests, oppose the Truth rather than submit to it, Pentecostalism. Coming from Brazil, it is astonishing that Schmieder does not
engage in arrogant or triumphalistic behavior which consummates in a form of consider Paolo Freire, Leonard0 Boff, o r Helder Cimara, with their interpre-
theological imperialism or practical tyranny, or demand changes in the actions tation of Pentecostal popular religion, and their emphasis on an ecumenical
of their dialogue partners before dialogue has even begun. This behavior ignores understanding of the Catholic church. It is astonishing that in her work the
the teachings of Jesus (Luke 14:7-11) who rightfully sits at the head of the table. Holy Spirit speaks eloquently on private and religious experiences, but is
Vulnerability of one dialogue partner without a similar openness and respect by equally eloquently silent on the great problems of oppression, injustice,
the other actually nullifies the dialogue process, sabotages genuine communica- hunger, and discrimination. However, it must be said that her work represents
tion, and dampens any authentic quest for Truth . . . An early revelation of the
the majority of the present-day Catholic renewal movement, in spite of some
dialogue process is that most of us work with relatively exclusive definitions of
critical voices, such as those of Peter Hocken and others.
the Church. We standardize our experiences of God and make them normative.
We then judge the experiences of others according to those norms . . . Luke T h a t there is also another way of dealing with Catholic Pentecostalism has
recorded that Jesus’ disciples were proud, perhaps even arrogant in the exclu- been demonstrated by the Catholic Sister Mary Hall. I n her Quest for a
sivity of their right to use the name of Jesus. On one occasion they triumphantly Liberated Christian she compares a man, a movement, and a mission. T h e man
declared that they zealously stopped an “outsider” from doing so, thereby is Helder Cimara, the movement Catholic Pentecostalism, and the mission the
“safeguarding” the use of that name. Jesus admonished them (Luke 9:.50).59 Catholic schools in Pakistan where she had worked as a missionary sister. In
dealing with Catholic Pentecostalism, she highlights its liberating but also its
How far Robeck’s advice has been followed in Pentecostal circles will domesticating potential.
occupy us later. For the time being we deal with the renewal movement in the We move now from our overview of the Catholic renewal movement to the
Catholic church, and here it has to be said that the critical-ecumenical function subversive work of the Spirit in another arena, namely that of the official
of this movement has been largely lost. As an example I mention the important Roman Catholic/Pentecostal dialogue.
dissertation by Lucida Schmieder,60 written under the supervision of Profes-
sor Heribert Muhlen in Paderborn. T h e Vatican/Pentecostal Dialogue
Lucida Schmieder is a Benedictine missionary sister. After her studies she
worked in Brazil and later in Germany. S h e traces the tradition of Spirit Neither the secular nor the religious press, nor in fact the many Pentecos-
baptism to the revival movements in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, tal periodicals, have reported one of the most important events in the religious
forwarded by such leaders as Huldreich Zwingli, the anabaptist Balthasar scene of o u r century; that is, the Catholic/Pentecostal dialogue which took
Hubmaier, and the spiritualist Kaspar Schwenckfeld. S h e does not claim place from 1972 onward in four quinquennia. O n e of the reasons for this
historical interaction, but shows parallel structures of thought and experience. silence may be that the Pentecostal participants have been afraid to talk about
T h e n she goes on to discuss Wesley (without mentioning his Catholic roots) it. Sometimes they have even asked that their identity be hidden. T h e Ameri-
and the American and German Holiness movement in detail. For our purposes can Assemblies of G o d put the spanner in wherever it could, and discouraged
the fourth part of her book is most important. Here she tries to present the its own executive members from participation. “Why this refusal to partici-
renewal movement as good Catholic spirituality, from which neither secular pate?” asks Jerry Sandidge. It seems, he writes, to have been due to the
nor ecclesiastical authorities have anything to fear. O n e gets the impression involvement of David D u Plessis. D u Plessis was “still an embarrassment” to
from Lucida Schmieder’s book that this new spirituality does not change any the Assemblies of God.61 “SO the Pentecostal team entered the 1977 Dialogue
j9 Robeck, “DUPlessis.” See also idem, “Growing.” 61 Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 366. Carmichael, William, Letter,
M, Schmieder, Geasttaufi. 30.6.1982. Thomas Zimmerman, General Superintendent of the Assemblies of God,
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecostals and Catholics 167
166
included a broad spectrum of Catholic scholars and charismatic and Pentecos-

session and the second quinquennial series with very little support from the
tal leaders (although not including representatives from the Third World).
leaders of the major classical Pentecostal denominations.”62 D u Plessis tried
T h e resulting talks represent the only dialogue undertaken by the Roman
to put the dialogue on the agenda of the World Pentecostal Conference in
Catholic church with an unofficial m ~ v e r n e n t ~ ~ - a n indeed,
d one represented
whose beginning he had played a leading role. It was turned down.63 T h e
not by its official leaders but by the personal friends of one catalytic leader
Advisory Committee of the World Pentecostal Conference advised its mem-
(David D u Plessis). In a sense this early stage closely resembles the beginning
bers not to participate in the dialogue.64
of the World Council of Churches. I shall always remember how Visser t’Hooft
Nevertheless the dialogue took place. Its reports65and a number of highly
told me that the World Council of Churches was originally a group of friends
scholarly analyses66 are available in print. T h e time has come to tell this story.
(“an old-boys’ network”) who decided to do something about the disunity of
One of the most courageous ecumenists, the Assemblies of God professor of
the churches. That is why the official documents do not tell the real story.
theology Cecil M. Robeck, says:
What happened between the sessions, over the meals, at worship services, in
Not to carry reports of the international Roman Catholic1Pentecostal Dialogue personal conversation, was probably more important for the change of climate
in Pentecostal periodicals may be good Pentecostal politics. But the question than the official proceedings. Bittlinger’s work has been a very important
needs to be asked whether it helps or hinders the kingdom of God. Pentecostals window into this process, because he has the rare gift for documenting such
and Roman Catholics owe it to themselves to learn as much as they can about “unofficial” but nevertheless highly important events.
one another since they both claim to be part of the same Body of Christ. T h e topics discussed were “Baptism in the Spirit,” the relationship
Pentecostals have hardly begun to realize the enormity of change that has taken between “Receiving of the Spirit and Christian Regeneration,” “Spiritual
place among Roman Catholics since Vatican 11. For Pentecostals to continue to Gifts,” “Public Worship,” “Discernment,” and “Prayer and Praise.”
respond to Roman Catholics with descriptions based upon time-worn stereo-
T h e reports clearly show the different theological starting points of the
types or ungracious over-generalizations is to insist upon the continued presence
of specks in Roman Catholic eyes without due consideration to the logs in three parties. At the outset, these differences were diffused by a long historical
Pentecostal eyes. To withhold information which might help to remove both introduction into mysticism. However, David J. D u Plessis told the committee
specks and logs is to participate in the perpetuation of mi~understanding.~~ that the study of mysticism of the past was not of particular value.
One can find very little in ancient writings that was written by those who had
The First Quinquennium, 1972-76 the experience, and we have to rely on secondary information from those who
wrote about the experience of others, yet not knowing what it was all about. . .
T h e Catholic/Pentecostal dialogue was not concerned “with the prob-
The study of mediaeval charismatic phenomena through secondary sources is as
lems of imminent structural union, although of course its object [was] with futile and unrewarding as an attempt by a young man to make love to his
Christians coming closer together in prayer and common witness.”68 After a sweetheart through the efforts of an inter~reter.~’
number of preliminary meetings in which David D u Plessis had an important
hand, the dialogue sessions took place in Zurich (1972), Rome (1973), Cra- Perhaps D u Plessis was also reflecting here on the difficulties with inter-
heim, Germany (1974), Venice (1975) and Rome (1976). T h e participants p r e t e r ~ . ’Although
~ D u Plessis does not do justice with his statement to solid
historical research, he expressed a fundamental insight of a genuine Pentecos-
was personally opposed to the dialogue (Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 331) but tal. It is this: there are things which can only be communicated very incom-
seemed to reconsider his position when Du Plessis gave up his leading role (Sandidge, pletely through propositional language. Religious language-and theological
Dialo ue (1977- 1982) I , 365). language-is more an art than a science. It is not for nothing that our
4 Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 176. departments of theology are in Faculties of Art.
6 3 Ibid., I, 333.
As those who had experienced the Spirit, it was the declared purpose of
6‘Ibid., I, 175. Synan, Letter to Robert McAlister (Oklahoma City, Okla.),
5.1.1977 (copy was sent to Du Plessis). Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 324. participating classical Pentecostals to testify to their experience, sometimes
“The final reports from all three quinquennia are published in Pneuma 1212, with remarkable success; on the other hand, their attempts at scholarly language
Fall 1990. A good overview in McDonnell, “Improbable Conversations,” 20-31, and
idem, “Five Defining Issues,” 110-21. See also the two Catholic dissertations: 69 Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 384. “In retrospect it is amazing that an
Terrance Robert Crowe, Pentecostal Unity, and Lee, Paul D., Ecclesiology; also officialChurch office would agree to meetings with an unofficial group of Christians
Hocken, “Ecumenical Dialogue”; Robeck, “Catholics.” described by one participant as ‘David Du Plessis and his friends”’ (Hocken, “Ex-
66 In particular Bittlinger, Papst; Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982); Robeck,
traordinary,” 204).
“Pentecostals and Ecumenism”; Sandidge, “Dialogue.” ’ Du Plessis, “Background,” 178.
O
67 Robeck, “Specks,” 82.
71 Bittlinger, Papst, 356-57, note 5. Also Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 273.
Point 4 of the report of the first quinquennium, Pneuma 1212, Fall 1990,85.
met oply with mild smiles from the Catholic dialogue partners.j2 (Note that man of Sandidge attended Central Bible College, Springfield, Mis-
this has changed in the meantime. Pentecostals have developed a rigorous souri (the Bible School of the Assemblies of God) where he earned a BA in
scholarly tradition; whether that is to their profit is quite another question.) Bible (1961) and an M.A. in Religious Education (1964). In the spring of 1962
These historical excursions, however, were only preliminaries. The real he served as the photographer for an archaeological expedition to Tell Dothan.
differences appeared when the exegetical methods of biblical studies were dis- He served as minister in several Assemblies of God churches, from 1966-1971
played. For classical Pentecostalism the Acts of the Apostles are the normative in their International Headquarters for the Sunday School and youth depart-
document of the normative church. The Secretariat and some of the charismatic ment. H e earned an M.Ed. in guidance and counseling from the University of
scholars, on the other hand, used the critical tools of biblical sch01arship.j~ Missouri, Columbia, Missouri.
Thus the latter accepted a pluralistic understanding of the church, of the Holy In 1971 he and his wife were approved for foreign missionary service with
Spirit and of theology in general, while the classical Pentecostals regarded the the Assemblies of God. They served the Assemblies of God in Belgium for ten
pneumatology of Luke as the one and only true understanding of the Spirit, years, two of which he acted as Dean of Students at the Continental Bible
under which the other pneumatologies of the Bible had to be subsumed. College, St. Pieters-Leeuw (1972-74), and for eight as founder and director
It is astonishing that the dialogue did not break up at this point, and that of University Action, Leuven (1974-1982) (a kind of ecumenical university
a second quinquennium was arranged, to which only the representatives of the chaplaincy). In 1976 he completed the M.R.Sc. degree from the Catholic
Secretariat and classical Pentecostals would be invited. University of Leuven and in 1977 a special PhB from the Higher Institute of
More important than the reports of the dialogue is the fact that it took Philosophy in L e ~ v e n . ~ ~
place. Classical Pentecostals had always said: Pentecost is an experience, not a He then embarked on a most ambitious program; namely, on a Ph.D.
doctrine. Now the Catholics had had the same experience. What did this say dissertation at Leuven in which he described and analyzed the Catholic/Pen-
about the Roman Catholic church? Originally the Pentecostals had expected tecostal dialogue-especially the second quinquennium. That an Assemblies
the Spirit-filled Catholics to leave the Catholic church and become members of God minister receives the greater part of his education from a Belgian
of a Pentecostal church. T h e Assemblies of God minister David Wilkerson Catholic university is in itself remarkable (although he was not the only one;
had predicted in a vision great persecutions for the Catholic Pentecostals there were a number of Pentecostals studying at Leuven). During his time
which would force them to abandon their church. The assumed options were: there he was introduced by D u Plessis into the Catholic/Pentecostal dialogue and
either they would leave the Catholic church and become a kind of classical was subsequently given access to all confidential documents of the dialogue at
Pentecostal, or the Holy Spirit would leave them.74 the Secretariat in Rome. Du Plessis also allowed him free use of his extensive
Such an “either or” became impossible for the Pentecostals who had taken persona! files (now in the David Du Plessis Center in Pasadena, California).
part in the dialogue. Du Plessis rejected Wilkerson’s vision,75and R. Douglas During the second quinquennium Sandidge read a paper on ‘? I
Pentecostal
Wead, a former Assemblies of God minister, has since described in a disturb- Perspective on Mary,”j9 a remarkable piece of research accomplished in the face
ingly honest way the process of his own ecumenical education in his contact of serious illness and hospitalization for a throat cancer. On the basis of
with Catholic P e n t e c o ~ t a l s . ~ ~ unconfirmed and highly exaggerated press reports on the discussion on Mary
during the dialogue, Sandidge lost his financial support from the Assemblies
The Second Quinquennium (I 977-1982) of God (although not his ministerial credentials). His wife stepped in and
We are given insight into the second quinquennium by a superb work in provided for the family;” he remained undeterred in bringing his work to a
two volumes by Jerry L. Sandidge. Sandidge was an extraordinary man. Born in conclusion. During the years 1985 to 1987 he served as Assistant Professor of
1939 in Tulsa, Oklahoma, his “spiritual roots” went down in a small Pentecos- Church History at the School of Theology and Missions, Oral Roberts
tal church in his home city. The only pastor he had as a child and teenager was university, Tulsa, Oklahoma. Following several years on the faculty at CBN
a man who never finished the sixth grade. In spite of his lack of education and University, Sandidge accepted a pastoral call a t Evangel Temple, Springfield,
training for the ministry, the Rev. Johnny “Pappy” Stubblefield was “a true Missouri, until his untimely death in 1992. I follow closely Sandidge’s work.
The discussion on the second quinquennium centered on such questions
72 Hocken,
“Extraordinary.” as “Speaking in Tongues,” “Faith and Experience,” “Hermeneutics,” “Healing,”
Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 185. A thorough discussion of Pentecostal
73 Sandidge,
hermeneutics in chapter 23, pp. 307-25. 77 Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, V.
74 Wilkerson, Vision; Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 400,419.
’’
Du Plessis, “Persecution”; Martin, R., ‘‘Vision.’’
781bid.,I, 284f.
79 Ibid., 11, 289-35 1 . See also the following notes.
76 Wead, Charismatics.
801bid.,I, iii.
170
It is of course one thing to criticize the Catholic church for its censuring
“The‘ Church as a Worshipping Community,” “Traditions and Tradition,”
of Catholic theologians such as Hans Kung and Leonard0 Boff, and quite
and “Mary.” The venues for the sessions were Rome (1977 and 1979); Venice
another to accept pioneering thought and action from one’s own missionaries
(1980); Vienna, Austria (1981); and Collegeville, Minnesota (1982). Since I
shall deal with hermeneutics and other issues mentioned in later chapters, I and theologians. I suppose however that by now the Assemblies of God regret
will highlight here only three controversial areas: (I) Mary, the mother of their harsh action in relation to Sandidge, and more so in relation to Du
Jesus, (2) the place of women in the ministry, and (3) the Eucharist. Plessis.88
(2) The Place of Women in the Ministry

(1) M a r y
Sandidge was asked to give the paper on Mary from the Pentecostal side. His The Pentecostals, who in certain countries have women among their
first discovery was “a great dearth of material written by Pentecostals about ministers, put this “hard question” to the Catholics: “Why is the ministry of
Mary.”” “In fact it could almost be said that we do not even have a ‘view’ of women in the Roman Catholic church seemingly relegated to such archaic
Mary, unless it would be in negative terms. i.e., those things which we universally practices? Pentecostals believe in a valid ministry for laypersons. How does the
do not believe about her.”82So Sandidge read the Catholic mariological literature Roman Catholic church address the issue of ministry for the ‘grassroots,’ the
and commented upon it from a Pentecostal point of view. He was overwhelmed l a y p e r ~ o n ? Sandidge
”~~ does not record the answer of the Catholics except for
by the wealth of material and by the fact that there seemed to be a pluralistic noting the well-known Catholic theological definitions of ministry. On the
approach to Mary in the Catholic church. “There is room for various theologies other hand he reports on an interesting development in the British Pentecostal
of Mary.”83He then goes on to give the biblical and historical bases of Catholic movement: “an appeal for a religious order of women to be raised up to
Mariology, including the dogma on Immaculate Conception of 1854, clearly minister to those in need,” under the title “Pentecostal Nuns.” This term is
pointing out the differences between Pentecostals and Catholics. T h e press not one of derision, but is rather used positively “to suggest an order of women
release stated: “The topic which was anticipated to be extremely controversial dedicated to the work of the Lord in the same way that today the Anglicans,
ended with deeper consensus than anti~ipated.”’~ This phrasing was perhaps Roman Catholics and Salvation Army have vast numbers of women filled with
unfortunate, in view of the liveliness of discussion on Mary.” the Holy Ghost, dedicated to the vast area of social care.”” Catholic influence?
Certainly Sandidge’s paper indicated the areas of agreement (for instance
the virgin birth), as well as a broad area where more understanding was (3) O n the Eucharisi
possible. Sandidge showed in his paper a great sensitivity for the religious On this subject the Pentecostals put another “hard question” to the
practice on Mary, and gave examples from the Pentecostal side where popular Catholics: “If the eucharist is the heart of worship, in the light of Acts 15:s-11
religion was practiced because of pastoral needs. However the outcome for and 1 Cor 12:12-13 how can Roman Catholics in good conscience exclude
Sandidge was a near catastrophe. The press titled their report: “Pentecostals anyone from the table of the Lord? Where in Scripture do you find justifica-
and Catholics Agree on Mary.”86On the basis of unconfirmed and faulty press tion to use the Lord’s Table (the heart of worship) as a disciplinary tool, i.e.,
reports the executive of the Assemblies of God “asked Sandidge to change the a closed table (cf. I Cor 11:2, 11:28, Mt. 26:25)?”91 The Pentecostals were
topic of his doctoral dissertation for the Catholic University of Leuven” (in disturbed that they were not allowed to take part in the Catholic Eucharist,
spite of the fact that they had previously agreed to it) and to discontinue any but Catholics “whose lives do not conform to the Gospel are admitted to the
involvement in the dialogue with Roman Catholics.” eucharist simply on the basis of their supposed Catholic faith.”92Furthermore
they asked: Is the “mediation of Christ” exclusive to Roman Catholic ecclesi-
” Ibid., 11, 290. ology? Who and what are the “separated brethren?”93
82 Ibid.
83 McDonnell, “Protestants,” 29, quoted by Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) 11,
293. There is also room for an evangelical Mariology in the Protestant churches. See “On Du Plessis see chapter 26, pp. 350-55.
my play M a r y , the Mother ofJesus (written for a Swiss actress) and Hollenweger, “Ave
89 Sandidge, Dialogue (1971-1982) I, 260.
90 Quy, “Nuns”; Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 435. More on women’s
Maria”; idem, “Devotion.”
ministry in the Pentecostal Movement in the chapter on ecclesiology, chapter 20, PP.
’’
Ibid.. I. 236ff. 267f.
‘6 Ibid.; I; 244, 336, 397.
92 Ibid., I, 227.
87 Correspondence between Assemblies of God executives and Sandidge in
Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 340, 397. 93 Ibid., I, 220.
172
Robert McAlister asked the pertinent question: “Why do you call us Pentecostal (a Pentecostal and a Catholic), and in general a broad spectrum of
brethren and refuse to share the Table with us, hypocrite^!"^^ “The Apostle younger Pentecostal leaders and scholars, including representatives from East-
Paul makes it very clear that our burden is not whether our brother or sister ern Europe. David Du Plessis stepped aside to allow for a transfer of leader-
or some other denomination is worthy or not worthy of the Table of the Lord. ship to his younger brother Justus Du Plessis. The topics and places of the
I
He points out that our sole responsibility is examining o ~ r s e l v e s . In
” ~further
~ dialogue were: Riano, Italy (1985): “Communion of the Saints”; Sierra Madre,
I
discussion the Pentecostals confessed to a Zwinglian understanding of the California (1986): “The Holy Spirit and the New Testament Vision of Koi-
Eucharist, rather than a Lutheran However it is doubtful to me whether nonia”; Venice, Italy ( 1987): “Koinonia, Church, and Sacraments”; Emmet-
ten, Switzerland (1988): “Koinonia and Baptism”; and Rome (1989): the
they-or in fact most people who use the term “Zwinglian”-were aware of
writing of the Final Report.
the transubstantiational aspect of Zwingli’s Eucharist (transubstantiation of
Since I have no direct information on the exchanges during these sessions, the
the people into the body of Christ) which has left deep traces in Anglican
discussion which appeared after the dialogue must serve as an overall conclusion.
theology and lit~rgy.~’ It should be noted that the Pentecostal position on this
There is to be a fourth quinquennium under the new chairmanship of Cecil
was not as strong as it looks here, for later in the dialogue they had a heated
M. Robeck, Jr., an Assemblies of God minister and professor of ecumenics and
debate among themselves on the Lord’s Supper. “The Roman Catholic dele-
church history at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena. The official topic is
gation sat quietly while the inner-dialogue was in progress.”98 William Car-
“Evangelism and Mission” but the real issue is the charge of proselytism,’”’
michael came to this conclusion: “It is true (and a sad fact) that there is often
made by Catholics especially against the Latin American Pentecostals (see p.
sharp disagreement within the Pentecostal tradition. We are indeed a ‘mixed
180, “The Style of the Dialogue”). Cecil M. Robeck’s suggestion of Santiago,
bag.’ ”99
Chile as the venue for the dialogue session on proselytism-because the issue
is particularly important for Latin American Catholics and Pentecostals and
The Third (I 985-89) and Fourth Quinquennium because of the deep ecumenical commitment of Chilean Pentecostals (chapter
The onset of the third quinquennium was postponed until 1985, in part 27, pp. 367-71)-was turned down, not by the Pentecostals, but by the
because of the death of Popes Paul VI and John Paul I in rapid succession. The Catholics, who felt this was “not the right moment for such a dialogue.” This
Pentecostal team was reorganized and included this time a number of official is in my opinion an important missed opportunity to get to the heart of the
delegates.’” Also included were two female delegates, a black and a Mexican issues between Pentecostals and Catholics.
y4 McAlister letter to William Carmichael, Rio de Janeiro, 24 November 1980; App ra isa 1 and Discussion
Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 225.
Together with the three final reports of the three quinquennia, Pneuma
y6 Ibid., I, 226. also published a number of reactions from leading Pentecostals and other
97 See on this Hollenweger, “Einfluss.” See also the Jesuit Albert Ziegler (Zruin- theologians.’”2 All of them expressed their appreciation of the report. It is a
gli). According to Ziegler the reason for the reformation was the inflexibility of the miracle that in spite of the fact that at times the dialogue “verged on the
Catholic hierarchy which treated symptoms instead of going to the root cause of the
comic,”1o3the report appeared in the end. One should also not underrate the
plight in the church. H e draws explicit parallels with today’s Catholicism and points
out that the reformation did not start with a controversy on fundamental truths but many technical problems which jeopardized the project. These problems
in the realm of practical Christianity (celibacy of priests, the Bible in the language of included the following: The Pentecostals had to pay their own travel and hotel
the people, changes in the liturgy) and sees in Zwingli’s reformation an “Ecclesial costs, which of course made for a selection of the participants. The Pentecostals
Basic Community” not unlike present-day communities in Latin America. H e de-
scribes Zwingli’s eucharist as ecumenical. There is room for Zwingli’s eucharist in
ternational Church of the Foursquare Gospel, the Church of God (Cleveland), and
the Catholic Church. Ziegler deals with Zwingli’s ecumenical and conciliar under-
the Church of God of Prophecy (Cleveland). Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 382.
standing of the universal church, which he calls “a very topical insight.” T h e ministry
Hocken mentions in addition the Broederschap van Pinkstergemeenten in Holland
of the Pope in its present historical form is not the only possible catholic form of a
Petrine ministry. There are other, more ecumenical and more conciliar forms of and the United Evangelical-Pentecostal Church of Poland. Hocken, “Extraordinary,”
205, note 1 1 .
expressing the unity of the church in the Catholic tradition. Therefore he invites his
101 “Proselytism” is a term which never appears in Pentecostal literature.
Catholic colleagues to read Zwingli ecumenically. T h e same invitation must be
addressed to the reformed and Pentecostal theologians. Io2Pneuma 12/2, Fall 1990, contains responses from David K. Bernard, Fr. Frank
Colborn, Fr. Donald L. Gelpi, S. J., J. L . Hall, Walter J. Hollenweger, David A.
99 Carmichael, William, Letter, 22 Oct. 1980; McAlister, Letter, 30 December
Hubbard, Harold D. Hunter, Leonard Lovett, Jesse Miranda, Fr. Thomas P. Rausch,
1980. Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 232. s.J., Vinson Synan, George Vandervelde, Jakob Zopfi.
Io3 Hocken, “Extraordinary,” 202.
loo Sandidge mentions three denominations that sent official delegates: the In-
~~
174
Anybody knowledgeable about Pentecostalism will have to agree that this

were h s o in constant fear-at least during the first two quinquennia-f being
question is unanswerable for Pentecostals, which of course does not mean that
harassed by their denominational “popes” at home. Finally, because of illness
the Roman Catholic position is the solution to the dilemma.
and other problems the composition of the dialogue group changed all the
In the final report this complex issue was summarized as follows:
time; sometimes nobody except D u Plessis knew who was a member of the
group and who was n0t.lo4 Pentecostals believe that church order demanded by kornonra is not satisfactorily
In the introduction to the final report it is stated that the theme koinonia was expressed in some important aspects of Roman Catholic ecclesiology. Even
chosen because the subject “communion of saints” emerged from the discussion within the context of collegiality, examples which seem to bear this out include
those passages where it is stated that “the episcopal order is the subject of the
on Mary; because of the importance of the concept in other bilateral dialogues;
supreme and full power over the universal Church,” and even more importantly,
and because of the theme’s fruitfulness in reflections about ecclesiastical when it is stated that “the Roman Pontiff has full, supreme, and universal power
self-understanding taking place in many Christian churches and communions. over the Church”, which “he can always exercise. . . freely” (Lumen Gentrum,
On the interpretation of Scripture a significant divergence emerged: 22). On the whole, Pentecostals propose that presbyterial and/or congregational
In Roman Catholicism the interpretation of Scripture goes on daily in the lives ecclesial models express better the mutuality or reciprocity demanded by “kor-
nonra.””’
of the faithful at many levels, such as in the family, in the pulpit, and in the
classroom. T h e whole body of the faithful, who have an anointing that comes That in my opinion is a very tame Pentecostal protest. A Roman pontiff
from the Holy One cannot err in matters of belief (cf. I John 2:20, 27). Roman who has “full, supreme, and universal power over the Church” is in my
Catholics hold that the teaching office of the Church is not above the Word of
opinion probably the greatest hindrance to growth and spirituality in the
God, but serves it, teaching only what has been handed on, listening to it
Catholic church and to ecumenical fellowship with other Christians. This is
devoutly, guarding it scrupulously and explaining it faithfully by divine commis-
realized by many Catholics. They oppose the “full, supreme, and universal
sion and with the help of the Holy Spirit (Dei Verum,
power of the pontiff over the Church,” both in theory and in practice, and
If the Catholics had left it at that one would have to admit that they have they do not cease to be Catholics (in this Hans Kung is not alone). Some
a much more Pentecostal approach to the interpretation of Scripture than the Catholic researchers have told me that only Protestants still believe in the
Pentecostals, for Pentecostals “look with skepticism on any claim that the infallibility of the Pope. One would have wished a more thorough discussion
whole body of the faithful cannot err in matters of belief.”’06 on this great obstacle to ecumenism and on this controversy wzthzn the
This of course has to do with the thorny question of papal infallibility. Catholic church. That does not mean that there is no room for a “Petrine
David Du Plessis had already tried to defuse the issue by stating in a sermon ministry,” but there is no room for a juridicial power for the pontift Perhaps
that God was “using the doctrine of the infallibility of the people to realize Pentecostals did not dare to tackle this point because they know only too well
Vatican Council I1 and also to allow for the charismatic renewal within that they themselves have become very clerical and that some Pentecostal
Catholicism by virtue of Pope John XXIII’s prayer for a new Pentec~st.”’~’ pastors or executives have powers which would make the Pope envious. But
This statement appeared in the press as “Protestant Evangelical Says Papal would that not be a case for mutual repentance?
Infallibility is True.”los It took all of Du Plessis’s wit to set the record Another bone of contention was baptzsm. This issue was included in the
straight. lo9 During the second quinquennium the Catholics put the following final report “because of the difficulty which baptism and the practice of
“hard question” to the Pentecostals: “When Pentecostal ministers exercise baptism have in our dialogue.””* Jakob Zopfi, a Swiss Pentecostal and editor
their authority and speak the truth, submission is expected. Who decides and how of World Pentecost, comments in his evaluation of the dialogue on the sentence
is it decided what truth is in the case? If the answer is ‘the biblical message’, “Pentecostals and Roman Catholics differ in that Roman Catholics understand
who decides among the various interpretations of the biblical text?”’l o baptism to be a ~ a c r a m e n t . ” ”He
~ says: “This one issue makes all the differ-
ence in the world, the difference being that the infant baptism is a dead
baptism, and dead baptism leads to a dead ~ r g a n i z a t i o n . ” ”This
~ is an extraor-
Io4Ibid.,202-3.
lo5FinalReport, point 25, Pneuma 12/2, Fall 1990, 122. dinary statement, for all of a sudden the vital difference between Catholics and
ln61bid.,point 26, 122. Pentecostals is no longer a Pentecostalpropnum but the Baptist understanding
“’DU Plessis newsletter, ‘A Season for Peace and Praise,” 1976-77; Sandidge,
Dialoaue 11977-1982) I, 176 (Sandidge discusses here Du Plessis’ misunderstanding
I l l p a .n t 87 of the final report, Pneuma 12/2, Fall 1990, 135.
of pa-a1 infallibility):
”2Pneuma 12/2, Fall 1990, 126; Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 129.
“Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 176. ’I3FinalReport, Pneuma 1212, Fall 1990, point 41, 125.
“’Ibid., I, 177. “4Z0pfi, “Candid Thoughts,” 182.
“‘Ibid., I, 259.
of baptism (it is doubtful whether Baptists would express it SO harshly). I which address inward piety with little or no concern for concreteness. Any
wonder what Zopfi has to say about the Methodist church or the Chilean discussion about the Incarnation that does not address concrete ways it can be
Pentecostal movement (chapter 10, pp. 117-31), which are far larger than his realized within the blood, guts and tissues of society is meaningless (points
own Swiss Pentecostal Mission and which practice infant baptism? Are they 14-16). What about the sharing of power within the usual elitist ecclesiastical
dead organizations? hierarchy of the church in which major decisions affecting the destiny of many
T h e difference on baptism found its way also into the final report: “For are usually “handed down”? What about the sharing of wealth by the Vatican
all Pentecostals there is no coming to Christ apart from a person’s turning away hierarchy in Third World countries in concrete ways other than “bricks and
mortar”? Who is to caution Pentecostals about their new obsession with build-
from sin in repentance. . . Baptism is withheld until after a person’s conscious
ings, prestige, power and those who have bought the “prosperity” message with
conversion.”’ l 5 Here the question is: What constitutes a conversion (see
its cultural baggage [see chapter 18, pp. 228431 and by the very presuppositions
chapter 19, pp. 246-57)? A turning away from the sin of violence and racism, it embraces indicts Third World persons whose poverty is for the most part
from the sin of greed and lust for power? If that is part of “turning away from cultural? The breaking of bread in Acts 2:42 and the sharing of “all things in
sin,” the Pentecostals would have to withhold baptism from a considerable common” is restricted if it is viewed only in terms of sacramentalism. Both
number of their members. But if it is not part of conversion, what kind of Catholics and Pentecostals alike have the opportunity during this final quarter
conversion is this? Or to take the example of Frank Chikane (chapter 5, pp. of the twentieth century to begin the crucial task of sharing “all things in
48-50): who has turned away from sin and experienced a conscious conver- common” beyond its “sacred institutional walls.” The conditions are ripe all
sion-the Pentecostal torturer, or the tortured Frank Chikane, both, or neither over the world for such engagement.’ l8
of them?
According to Lovett the final report on Koinonia completely omits such
Of course I do not oppose the practice of adult baptism, but, if “conscious
emphases.
conversion” is a pre-condition for baptism, the term “conversion” must either
All of this represents-as I have stated elsewhere-“The Koinonia of the
be so watered down as to make it virtually meaningless or else-and this would
Establishment.””’ This ethos emerged from the one-sided composition of
be the way forward-adult baptism must not be administered on the basis of
a person’s turning away from sin, but on the basis of his or her confession, in both dialogue groups, although unsuccessful attempts were made to secure
hope and faith that Christ begins a new work in him or her. This would render more Third World participation.I2’ Miriam Castiglione, a critical observer of
adult baptism much less substantially different from infant baptism.Il6 the Italian scene, states in another context that ecumenical neo-Pentecostalism
is an attempt to defend Christian ghettoism and to avoid the more difficult
The Style of the Dialogue debate with non-Christians and the issues of this world.121
Sandidge also realized this deficiency, and the fact that it goes beyond the
A very interesting comment comes from Jesse Miranda, District Super- composition of the dialogue group. What is needed, he notes, is the inclusion
intendent of the Pacific Latin American District of the Assemblies of God, of other than Western styles of discussion.’22“The pre-literary element of
who is pleading for an understanding of pluralism within the global village. Pentecostalism needs to be a part of the dialogue.”’23
There is a spiritual revolution going on in Latin America, says Miranda, but
“it has been ignored and remains massively invisible. Increasingly, classical T h e dialogue seemed to be “tilted” in favour of the Roman Catholic approach
Pentecostals are becoming middle-class and leaving their counterparts to theology, i.e., discursive, scientific, and intellectual approaches. There were
searching for new ways and paradigms for a biblical expression of Christian “Pentecostal” elements within the dialogue but little place was given to oral or
narrative theology, testimony, spiritual experience validating truth, and the
unity of koinonia.’4’’ Leonard Lovett, a black Pentecostal, brings the whole
exercise of spiritual gifts as a context for theological exchange.124
debate into focus. T h e final report suffers not by what it states but by “its
glaring omissions.” In particular, it suffers from a lack of Third World
“‘Lovett, “Response,” 169.
participation. “’“The Catholics and the Pentecostals of the West have met (with a few
What an opportunity to have engaged the issues of sharing with regard to power, exceptions) to talk about koinonia.” Hollenweger, “Koinonia,” 156.
poverty and powerlessness. The document tends to dwell too much on issues Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1 982) I, 268, 327. Bittlinger discusses this aspect
Passim and quotes Du Plessis: “The Catholics bring their top scholars, and we should
Invite Negroes and women?” Bittlinger, Papst, 447, note 1 .
”’Final Report, point 47, Pneuma 12/2, Fall 1990, 127. .-- Castiglione, Italia.
‘’I
‘ I 6 Particularly important on this is the Yugoslavian Pentecostal minister Mi- ILLSandidge,Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 268, 327, 323, 326.
roslav Volf; see on him the chapter on ecclesiology, chapter 20, p. 261. Iz3Ibid.,I, 351.
“’Miranda, “A Response,” quote 17 1. lZ41bid.,I, 123.
L
Pentecostals and Catholics 179
(4) A large number of independent Pentecostal congregations having no de-
“Thus such patterns of dialogue could hardly do justice, for example, to nominational affiliation but maintaining high levels of activity in evangel-
the Kimbanguist Church in Africa (chapter 6, pp. 54-80) any more than they ism, missions, and church planting.
can to the P e n t e c o s t a l ~ . ” ’ ~ ~
(5) The many good-sized, middle-class, independent, charismatic/Pentecostal
Indeed this is a fundamental problem in all ecumenical dialogues. I know
congregations which have recently begun forming in North America and
of only two places in the world where a genuine dialogue between the oral and
parts of Europe. (Some figures are as high as 60,000 local churches in the
the literary cultures takes place: T h e first are the meetings of the Society for United States.) Many of these groups, known by Du Plessis, were just
Pentecostal Studies, where a number of highly educated black Pentecostals use emerging into the charismatic renewal scene at the start of the dialogue.
arguments, songs, testimonies, and prayer simultaneously and are respected
by their white counterparts. This is also a meeting place between Trinitarian (6) Those Pentecostal groups and denominations which are largely isolated
and Oneness, between black and white Pentecostals, between men and women, from the rest of the Pentecostal world because of race, theology, or
choice.’29
and between classical Pentecostals and charismatics (including Catholic
charismatics).126 Similar things can be said of the research group which At first D u Plessis approached the first group. As he was largely turned
gathers around Jean-Daniel Pluss and the brothers van der Laan in Europe. down he tried the smaller groups; but he never really touched the large Third
T h e second such “meeting place” is the school for black worker-pastors in World independent Pentecostal movement.13’
Birmingham (chapter 9, pp. 106-16). Finally it must be said that because of the dialogue the climate has changed
This meeting of theological styles must become a priority in future dramatically on both sides. Some of the early antagonists have been won over,
dialogues. It is interesting that the Protestant charismatics very early wanted for instance Alfred Missen from Great Britain,131 and perhaps even Thomas
to “see representatives of Pentecostal Churches not yet represented, for Zimmerman.13’ Ludwig Eisenloffel, a German Pentecostal, has published a
instance the independent African Churches.” This was objected to, with most appreciative review of Bittlinger’s Papst und PJngstler, 133 as has the
rather weak arguments, by both classical and Catholic Pentecostals. T h e latter Catholic Schweizerische Kzrchenzeitung. 134
argued that many of these Christians would be ex-Catholics (as if that were Peter Hocken, in his brilliant review of Sandidge, admonishes his Catholic
an argument). At the close of the first quinquennium it was again suggested co-religionists: “It would seem that many Catholics still readily attribute
that persons from the independent African Pentecostal churches be invited to unworthy motives to Pentecostal missionaries seeing their advent primarily in
the second quinquennium. This was immediately rejected by the South terms of sectarian aggression and sinister Subversion of the Catholic faith.”135
African chairman David D u Plessis, on rather weak grounds: it was thought I do not know whether the Holy Father in Rome listens to Peter Hocken,
that the World Pentecostal Conference would then never become interested in but he should. In the opening address to the Fourth General Conference of
the dia10gue.I~~ the Latin American Episcopate, John Paul I1 gave a somewhat triumphalistic
Sandidge summarizes the problem as follows. In the world Pentecostal speech on the Catholic mission in Latin America.136T h e speech is otherwise
family there are at least six distinct groups: most enlightening because it admits the defucto pluralism and the questioning
( 1 ) There are those classical Pentecostals identified with the Pentecostal of the papal authority in the Catholic church (although all of this is of course
World Conference and strongly associated with the Evangelical wing of
Christianity (in fact a minority within Pentecostals, only 60 million of the 129Sandidge,Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 328f., 325.
whole charismatic/Pentecostal community of over 400 million).’28 I3’Ibid., I, 329.
1 3 * Ibid., I, 374. Hocken, “Extraordinary,” 208, note 21.
(2) The Pentecostal churches belonging to the World Council of Churches. ‘32Sandidge,Dtalogue (1977-1982) I, 33 1, 365.
They are few (chapter 27, pp. 384-87) but they would probably display a ‘33Eisenloffel,“Papst.”
more ecumenical openness than the first group. 13’ Moser, “Dialog.”
135 Hocken mentions in particular the Catholic statement from Mexico bracket-
(3) The numerous indigenous churches in the Third World which are not re- ing together the Assemblies of God and Jehovah’s Witnesses as aggressive sectarian
lated to the Pentecostal World Conference or to North American or Euro- Proselytizers. “It is a violation of ecumenical principles to place together classical
pean Pentecostal missionary societies. Pentecostals and sub-Christian groups such as the Jehovah’s Witnesses. Catholics
should also distinguish between the indigenous Pentecostal movements in Latin
American and those imported from North America. The evidence points to the
‘”Hocken, “Extraordinary,” 21 1. former growing at a faster rate.” Hocken, “Extraordinary,” 212, note 29. See also the
‘26Robeck,“Society.” following.
’”Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 180, 334. 136John Paul 11, “Address.”
‘”The figure of 60 million in Vanelderen, “conference.”
rejected). He also mentions the invasion by the sects in Latin America,

lumping by this term Jehovah’s Witnesses and others together with Pente-
costals. Not differentiating between those with whom his own Secretariat has
been for years in an intensive dialogue and those who have no concern for the
ecumenicity of the church is a regrettable oversight, one which has been
criticized by a number of catholic^'^' and P e n t e c ~ s t a l s . ’ ~ ~
One thing is sure: the new ecumenical climate among Pentecostals, espe-
cially in America, is due in part to this dialogue (more on this in chapter 27,
I11
pp. 371-74).
This is a prayer for Catholics, Protestants, and myself: THE EVANGELICAL ROOT
Prayer of the Mosquito
God,
Sometimes I feel like a mosquito.
I n the morning, when the sun is shining,
I hum uwa.y happily.
But then an urge comes over me:
I must sink my sting into somebody; We now pick up the thread again from chapter 12 (on Wesley) and follow
I must dram blood in order to survive. the traces of Wesley’s doctrine of sanctification through the American Holi-
God, I have not made this sting. ness movement up to the beginning of Pentecostalism.
W h y must I be a mosquito?
I mould prefer to be a f l y ,
who lives on sugar-water
or a butterfly who drinks honey.
W h y must I be a mosquito,
who can only survive by stinging others.
I did not make myself:
You did not ask me whether I wanted to be a mosquito,
neither did my parents.
Dear God, will there also be mosquitoes in the kingdom of God?
What are you going to do with those that haae to sting others?
13’ Cleary, “Misreading,” 7f. Robeck, “Taking Stock.” Cleary’s article appeared
also in Spanish: “El maltrato de la Jerarquia Catolica a 10s Pentecostales.”
I3’Robeck, “Pope.” Overview in McDonnell, “Death,” 14-19.
From the American Holiness Movement to Pentecostalism 183
T h e movement’s best-known representatives were the Oberlin theolo-

gians, so called after their spiritual and organizational center: Oberlin
3 It F O U R T E E N College, Oberlin, Ohio. These spokesmen included: the preacher, systematic
theologian and president of Oberlin College, Charles Grandison Finney
(1792-~376);~ Asa Mahan ( 1857-1889),5 a popular evangelist who attracted
great crowds on both sides of the Atlantic;6 and the couple Robert Pearsall
and Hannah Whitall Smith (1827-1898; 1832-191l),’who were the “stars”
a t the Holiness conference in Oxford (1874) and Brighton (1875).’ T h e
reports of the European theologians and church leaders on Oxford and
Brighton filled the pages of religious periodicals for many weeks. Most of
From the American Holiness these reports were highly enthusiastic; they are a first-class documentation
of the religious climate at these conferences, and of the longing of many
Movement to Pentecostalism for the “Higher Christian Life.” T h u s the Oberlin theologians managed to
win a number of church leaders to their specific understanding of the
higher life-at least until some rumors of Robert Pearsall Smith’s “unsa-
vory” (but never specified) actions and doctrines put an end to his public
“The Higher Christian Life” appearances.
“The Higher Christian Life” is the title of a historically T h e Oberlin theologians stressed the necessity for holiness and sanctifi-
influential book by the Holiness preacher W. E. Boardman cation, sometimes called “second blessing” or “baptism of the Spirit,” but
(1810-1886).’ The term also describes the spirituality and they were also men and women of action. They saw their social and political
religious climate of the Holiness movement in America and pioneering as part of this religious experience. Their causes included, for
Europe in the last century. Until now researchers into early example, the inclusion of black and female students in their educational
Holiness and Pentecostal history have had to journey to institutions, a more democratic and sharing organization of industry (Pearsall
North American and British libraries to find the source Smith was himself a glass manufacturer) and of society (this was modeled at
material for their research. Even then they have often failed Oberlin),’ and a plan for world peace through an international institution
to find what they were looking for, because established librar- similar to the present-day United Nations.
ies have not acquired and catalogued this highly influential Another fruit of the Holiness Movement was the work of the Swiss Henri
religious literature. Now Donald W. Dayton and his friends Dunant (1828-1910), founder of the Red Cross. He shared with the Holiness
have edited facsimiles of some of the more important works2 Movement, not only its eschatological fervor, but also its concrete under-
Their selection is competent and extremely valuable. It will standing of the consequences of sanctification for political action. His Thurs-
help to establish a relationship between perfectionism and day Club in Geneva became one of the first sections of the Swiss YMCA. This
the anti-slavery movement, and perfectionism and the femi- section drafted the earliest confession of the Evangelical Alliance, which in
nist m ~ v e m e n tPerhaps
.~ it will also help to find out whether
and when revivalism lost most of its social and political teeth. 4Finney, Lectures. Documentation in Hundbuch, 02a.02.002, and in Dayton,
ROOIS (see index of names), Schmieder, Geisttuufi, 80-86 and Brandt-Bessire, Sources,
In chapter 12 (pp. 144-52) I argued that Methodism 93-101.
represents a variety of Catholic spirituality. While it is not clear Mahan, Out. Documentation in Handbuch, 02a.02.003, in Dayton, Roots (see
just how far Wesley accepted the ideas of his Catholic mentors, index of names), Schmieder, Geisttuufe, 173-80, and Brandt-Bessire, Sources,
he certainly accepted their plea for a second religious crisis 93-101.
experience subsequent to and different from conversion. This 6Documentation in Hundbuch, 02a.02.004, in Dayton, R O O I S(index of names),
Schmieder, Geasttaufe, 224-27.
experience, in turn, played a major role in the nineteenth 7 Smith, Robert Pearsall and Hannah Whitall, Devotional. Smith, Hannah Whi-
century American Holiness movement. tall, UnseGshness. Documentation in Hundbuch, 02a.02.004, Dayton, Roots (index of
names), Schmieder, Geisttaufe (index of names) and Brandt-Bessire, Sources, 107-1 5.
’Boardman, Higher. ‘Account. Record.
9 Fairchild, Oberlin, vol. 15. On Jean-FrCderic Oberlin (174C1926) see below,
2Dayton, Higher.
Dayton, Defending. ch. 28, p. 398.
From the American Holiness Movement to Pentecostalism 185
184 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide
sall, and Hannah Whitall Smith produced a remarkable response in the

turn became the model for the basis formula of the World Council of Churches.
religious (as well as the secular) press.15 Paul Fleisch, a German Lutheran and
Here again, although this is mostly ignored, we can trace the fruits of this type
prince abbot of the monastery of Loccum near Hanover, produced a number
of holiness in political and ecumenical activities to our time.”
While most leaders of the nineteenth century Holiness movement were of historically very relevant publications on the subject, in spite of the fact that
men and women of action, one powerful thinker, Thomas Cogswell Upham he thoroughly disagreed with the holiness preachers because of the underlying
(1799-1872) must be mentioned for his contribution to Christian thought.” Catholic spirituality of the “higher Christian life.”16 His theological and
His description of his “baptism in the Spirit” was widely known. For him, to historical judgment, however, which saw in the holiness preachers the seman-
be filled with the Spirit, to be sanctified, had cognitive repercussions. He tic, theological, and spiritual forerunners of Pentecostalism, proved in the long
applied sanctification not only to action but also to thinking, and tried-re- run to be true in spite of the sharp counterclaims of many of the adherents of
markable for his day-to disprove Kant. He also published a M a n u a l of Peace the holiness movement, particularly in Germany. T h e connection is now well
that contained: (1) Evils and Remedies of War, (2) Suggestions on the Law of established and competently demonstrated by a Catholic” and two Protestant
Nations, and (3) Considerations of a Congress of Nations.12 researchers.’* T h e shaping of early holiness doctrine into the Pentecostal
Very quickly, however, this side of the message of sanctification was doctrine proper can be followed in detail in the works of T. B. Barratt,” Frank
forgotten. T h e translations of the pioneer Holiness theologians’ works into Bartleman,20Agnes N. 0. LaBerge,21Aimee Semple McPherson,22 Charles E
French and German omitted all the passages that interpreted sanctification or Parham,23A. J. T ~ m l i n s o nand
, ~ ~others.25
the “second blessing” as having repercussions on the fight against slavery, for
a female ministry in the church, and so forth. Frank Bartleman
In his introduction to volume 1 of the series “The Higher Christian Life,” Some Pentecostals who stand at the transition between the holiness and
Dayton rightly stresses that the Pentecostal movement must specially be mentioned. In a brilliant essay26
many of the popular social movements of the nineteenth century cannot be Cecil M . Robeck, Jr. (a Fuller Theological Seminary professor and pastor of
understood without attention to this material. Recent scholarship has revealed the Assemblies of God), traces the editions and re-editions of Bartleman’s
the extent to which the antislavery movement was rooted in antebellum perfec- seminal writings, and notes changes to them (most of them posthumous). He
tionist revivalism, but there are still only hints in the literature to the extent to re-established the original Bartleman, and indeed I was greatly astonished to
which the feminist movement of the nineteenth century was itself carried by the encounter a very different Bartleman from the one presented in the standard
perfectionist currents. I 3
Pentecostal histories. Bartleman was reared by a Catholic father and a Quaker
Dayton and his friends distinguish between the Holiness movement mother. This ecumenical family background shines through his whole life.
proper, “distinguished by its effort to maintain an American variation on the Although one of the first to recognize the Pentecostal revival at Los Angeles,
Methodist doctrine of ‘entire sanctification’ as a ‘second blessing,’ ” and the he was also critical of it because of its lack of humility and its unecumenical,
Keswick movement, “named for summer conventions held in the Lake Dis- almost sectarian, attitude. In particular he criticized Pentecostals (and other
trict town of Keswick in England, which represents a more moderate form of Christians) for their nationalism. A Bartleman tract on World War I reads
the t e a ~ h i n g . ” ’ ~ like the opening chapters of Amos: Belgium was judged “for her Congo
Anybody with only slight knowledge of Reformation theology will under-
stand why the evangelists and missionaries at least of Holiness proper, were 15 For the reaction in Switzerland see Handbuch, 05.28.002 and 05.28.003.
rejected outright by most theologians of the Reformation tradition in Europe. l6 Fleisch, Gemeznschafsbemegung.
l 7 Schmieder, Gezsttaufe.
Something that was “higher” than pure grace could only be a travesty of the lR Dayton, Roots; Brandt-Bessire, Sources.
pure gospel. Nevertheless, the holiness conferences in Oxford (1874) and ”Barratt, Works.
Brighton (1875) and the public meetings of Dwight L. Moody, Robert Pear- 2o Robeck, Wztness.
21 LaBerge, What.
22 McPherson, This.
lo See on the relation between the YMCA and the WCC, Hollenweger, “Con-
23 Parham, Sarah E., Life; Parham, Charles E, Sermons. This volume contains
tent .”
also his British (and American) Israel theories, which might explain his racist position
Upham, Ltfe. Documentation in Handbuch, 02a.02.007, Schmieder, Geastfaufe,
vis-a-vis Seymour (above chapter 3, pp. 20-23).
186-90, and Dayton, Roots (index of names).
24 Tomlinson, Confzct.
Upham, Manual, and idem, “Congress.”
25 Pentecostal Tracts.
l 3 Dayton, “Higher,” viii. See also above note 3.
26 Robeck, “Frank Bartleman.” See also idem, “Bartleman.”
l 4 Dayton, Higher, ix.
186 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide From the American Holiness Movement to Pentecostalism 187
atrocitie~,~’ France for her infidelity and devil worship, Germany for her Ewing Yoakum (1851-1921).31 H e a t one point held the Chair of Mental
materialism and militarism (and) England for her hypocrisy, bullying over Diseases at Gross Medical College in Denver, but gave up his lucrative medical
weaker nations and her overwhelming pride.”28 Russia was judged for her career (he reportedly earned $18,000 a month) to enter a career in “faith healing.”
religious intolerance and despotism. Italy was perceived as slick and diplo- Following a near fatal accident in 1894, he had come to Los Angeles, where he
matic, wanting only to be on the winning side. T h e US would soon be judged was healed through prayer by a holiness pastor. H e began to preach divine healing,
as well for worshipping what he called “the money and had a Pentecostal experience, although he remained somewhat distanced
Bartleman also judged that the United States were not-as they pre-
from the Assemblies of God. Following a vision, he set up what became known
tended-neutral. T o believe English reports without giving equal weight to
as the Pisgah Home Movement. It provided help for the homeless, and for the
German reports was not to be neutral. And the US got their punishment when
poor social outcasts such as alcoholics, drug addicts, and prostitutes. By 191 1
the Lusitania was torpedoed with ammunition that the Americans had pro-
he was supplying 9,000 clean beds and 18,000 meals each month.
vided. T h e First World War was not started for the reasons given by the
politicians, but to defuse internal political issues. War was used largely by
Pacifism
American interests to guarantee economic supremacy. T h e “free” press, he
continued, had been captured by the government. Most Pentecostals were originally pacifists3’ Mention must be made
In the end, what else could one expect from greedy, unrepenting nations, particularly of Arthur Booth-Clibborn, son-in-law of Salvation Army founder
but that their church behaved like a “War Church,” a harlot. Preachers who William Booth. Arthur Booth-Clibborn became an influential Pentecostal
preached military preparedness for wars were, in Bartleman’s opinion, blas- leader at the beginning of our century. His book Blood Against Blood was
phemous. Their “business is to preach, not to murder.”3” highly praised by Pentecostal periodicals.33 Booth-Clibborn states: “ T h e
In matters of economics he rejected communism just as much as capital- Scripture shows us that organized sin [today we would speak of “structural
ism. H e wrote brilliantly about the “wheat gamblers” (the commodity ex- injustice”] is much worse in the sight of God than are sins of the individuals.”
change and trade in futures), the “servant class” in England and the poor in T h e church, to its shame, has compromised itself at times by legitimizing “the
the US. “Will God not curse us for this?” he asked. Added to this is his firm organized slaying of millions in the wars” through an “unholy alliance” with
stand in favor of the “Oneness” or “Jesus only” tradition in Pentecostalism, emperors and government^.^^ Economically, wars result in the increased dis-
which was represented mainly by poor blacks. parity between the rich and the poor: the rich get richer and the poor get
T h u s Bartleman tried to carry the holistic understanding of holiness from poorer until finally “The rich man’s dog gets more meat than the poor man’s
the nineteenth century into the twentieth century Pentecostal movement. No family.”35 T h e capitalists view the war as a commercial enterprise which
wonder that this side of his evangelical conviction is shamefully silenced. One
can be all the more thankful that this side of early holiness/Pentecostal 3 1 Robeck, “Ethics,” (on Yoakum 105), see also his article “Yoakum.”
spirituality is now available to those who want to know the roots of Pentecostal- 32Beaman,Pacifism (see also the excellent review of this book by Murray W.
ism. No doubt American researchers who are familiar with this style of Dempster in Pneuma 11/1, 1989, 59-64). In addition to Beaman what follows is
language will be able to analyze these texts much better than I. In any case, the mainly based on Dempster, “Borders.” The black Pentecostal pioneer C. H. Mason
was tried and persecuted for his pacifist stance. Details in Lovett, “Black Holiness-
ferocious mutilation of early Pentecostal writings by Pentecostal publishers Pentecostals,” in particular 81 and Clemmons, “Mason.”
will perhaps open the eyes of Pentecostals to what happens to texts, for 33 In 191 5, for example, Word and Witness, under the editorship of E. N. Bell, ran
instance to New Testament texts, when they are passed down in a changing repeated ads on behalf of the Gospel Publishing House for Blood Against Blood; in
social context and when their message becomes uncomfortable. Pentecostals one instance calling it “a most striking, realistic and forceful book by Arthur Sydney
should be in a good position to understand this since their own texts have been Booth-Clibborn, an English Pentecostal Evangelist and Elder, who has put into words
the principles burning in the hearts of all the Pentecostal saints on the subject of
changed-without acknowledgment. whether a Christian should go to war or not.” T h e Weekly Ecangel was more explicit
Bartleman is not the only representative of this type of early Pentecostalism, in identifying what the principles were which burned “in the heart of all the
just the best known. Mention should also be made of the controversial Dr. Finis Pentecostal saints” in its promotion of the book: “The Gospel Publishing House is
now in possession of a powerful book Blood Against Blood, written by Arthur Booth-
’’Bartleman did not of course know Simon Kimbangu but his comments fit well
Clibborn, an English Pentecostal brother. . . . We recommend that you purchase it
and become imbued with the spirit of its contents, in a complete opposition and
into what we know from the former Belgium Congo (chapter 6, pp. 61-64).
protest against war and the shedding of blood” (19.6.1915, l), quoted in Dempster,
Bartleman, “Present” and “Danger.” All in Robeck, “Frank Bartleman,” xvi. “Borders,” 28, note 6.
29 Bartleman, “Money,” in Robeck, “Frank Bartleman.”
34 Booth-Clibborn, Arthur, Blood, 87f.; Dempster, “Borders,” 10.
30 Bartleman, “Preparedness,” 115. Robeck, “Frank Bartleman,” xvii.
35 Bartleman, “Last”; Dempster, “Borders,” 13.
i
From the American Holiness Mooemeni t o Pentecostalism 189
188 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Decelopments Worldwide
our nation and shed blood if required. We cannot “fight the good fight of faith”,
provides a way to make a profit. T h e profits come, however, from exploiting as we are instructed by God, unless we believe in fighting4’
the misfortune of others. During a war economy, the prices for munitions,
wheat, and the other staples of life are driven up for profit. And who are the So far the Pentecostals have moved away from their own roots. How is it
beneficiaries of the price hypes? Bartleman lists them: “Wall Street interest, possible that modern American revivalism, with its deep roots in the nine-
Pork Barrel administration, Brewer’s Corporation, Syndicate and Monopoly, teenth-century holiness movement, can be either so ignorant of o r so antago-
Steel Trust and Armor Plate, Powder Trust, etc. without end.”36T h e irony is nistic to many of its own tenets, as for example its stand for equal rights for
that politicians who have enough power to “commandeer a nation” into war women and slaves, and its fight for peace and justice? How is it possible that a
d o nothing about this “handful of exploiter^."^' powerful religious movement which directed its religious energies to the
From the outset of the First World War, the pacifists emphasized that it solution of the structural ills of its time could become so individualistic and
was the American wealthy class that profited financially from the bloody almost blind to its own past? O f course, there are important exceptions to this
historical blindness within the root holiness movement itself, such as Timothy
transaction of human killing. Samuel Booth-Clibborn, for example, recalled
how the rich profited without regard to human suffering when the Allies Smith,”’ Donald W. Melvin Easterday Dieter,# and others.” Also
it has to be said that today this past is being re-discovered in other quarters as
looked to US firms for millions of tons of munitions. “Did these millionaires
well, and revived in a critical context (see on this part IV on the “Critical
‘stand by the president’ by keeping him strictly neutral??? No!!! Not while
Root,” pp. 201-331).
there was a chance of piling up dollars, even though every one of them was
William Faupel gives a provisional answer to our questions.’6 H e points
dripping with the blood and tears of tortured Europe.’’3X
out that around 1900, eschatology was profoundly changed. Originally the
T h i s was official policy of the Assemblies of God. In 1917 the Assemblies
holiness preachers had believed that the rapture would take place after the
of G o d sent a statement to President Woodrow Wilson officially declaring millennium (postmillennialism). T h e y had also believed that their endeavor
itself a pacifist church: “Every branch of the movement, whether in the for holiness would contribute something to the establishment of the kingdom
United States, Canada, Great Britain or Germany . . . ” is pacifist. T h i s is of God on earth, focused in the millennium. When this proved to be unsuc-
astonishing for today’s readers but it is clearly the case. It is possible, however, cessful, and instead of the millennium the Great War and the economic crisis
as Dempster supposes, that the official position adopted by the church may arrived, postmillennialism was replaced by premillennialism, i.e., by the ex-
not have reflected the majority position of the movement.39 Dempster offers pectation of the rapture before the millennium. It was now necessary to prepare
this as an explanation of the denomination’s later abandonment of pacifism.w the believers for the rapture which would save them out of the world before
Compare to this the analysis by Stephen Lloyd Holmes on the Pentecostal everything broke down, and before the Great Tribulation. T h e y would then
movement in the US army. H e quotes Brigadier General Curry: feast with Jesus in the clouds and celebrate the wedding of the lamb until
One of the greatest blessings of baptism with the Holy Spirit for our family has Christ established the millennium and they would be invited to rule with him.
been a new clarity in understanding the Bible. Among them is what I wonder to T h i s is the eschatological doctrine of many Pentecostals and evangelicals
be God’s attitude toward war. At times, the question of whether Christians today. It is also the most potent obstacle to an involvement in the struggle
should be members of the Armed Forces seemed fuzzy to us. Now it is clear. God against structural evils.
intends that Christians do not only make the military a career, but when they go
to war they are to fight better than unbelievers. T h e Christian’s action in combat
should be an inspiration to others . . . [Christians] should be in the front ranks,
in support units, in fighter planes and warships. They should be in positions of
responsibility and leadership, as well as in the fighting ranks. . . . When a nation
goes to war, Christians should go to war, Christians should obey the laws of the
government as God requires . . . Satan has not only confused some Christians,
leading them out of war, he has used rebellion to sap the strength and vitality of
” Curry, “Fight,” quoted in Holmes, Pjingst-, 10-1 1.
Smith, Timoth?; Recicalism.
36 Bartleman, “War,” 83; Dempster, “Borders,” 13. 43 Dayton, Discocering.
37 Bartleman, “War,” 4; Dempster, “Borders,” 13. *Dieter, Holiness.
38 Booth-Clibborn, Samuel, Should, 42; Dempster, “Borders,” 14.
45 For example the collection edited by Runyon, Sancttjication and Liberation, or
39 “Conscription”; Dempster, “Borders,” 23.
Shuman, “Patriotism.”
4o See also Robin, “Chronology.” He shows how the Assemblies of God oscillated
between pacifism and patriotism.
%In his dissertation “Kingdom.” ~~ ~ ~ ~~
L
Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 191
not a new argumentfor heads but a new experiencefor hearts. Fundamentalists and
the neo-orthodox mounted arguments. Pentecostals gave testimony.
b ‘
FIFTEEN Far from being a part of the fundamentalist movement, Pentecostalism
became one of its targets. By 1928 the fundamentalist organization had formed
a sufficiently strong opinion about the Pentecostal movement to adopt the
following resolution:
Be it Resolved, That this convention go on record as unreservedly opposed to
Modern Pentecostalism, including the speaking in unknown tongues, and the
fanatical healing known as general healing in the atonement, and the perpetu-
ation of the miraculous sign-healing of Jesus and His apostles, wherein they
Pentecostalism and claim the only reason the church cannot perform these miracles is because of
unbelief.‘
Evangelicalism T h e Pentecostals had been no major players in the famed Scopes trial
which popularized the fundamentalist/modernist controversy in the mid
1920s and led to Harry Emerson Forsdick’s exclaiming in his famous sermon:
Pentecostalism and Fundamentalism’ “The God of the fundamentalists is one God and the God of liberals another.”
Early Pentecostals, therefore, while they shared most beliefs of the fundamen-
“How are Pentecostalism and Fundamentalism related? talists, were neither offered nor sought affiliation with fundamentalism. By the
In what way are Pentecostals Fundamentalists?” This is the middle 1920s, Pentecostalism and fundamentalism were separate and often
topic of a paper which Russ Spittler, a New Testament hostile movements. G. Campbell Morgan, one of the contributors to The
professor at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, Califor- fundamental^,^ even spoke of the Pentecostal movement as “the last vomit of
nia, and an Assemblies of God pastor, presented at an inter- Satan.”
national conference at the University of Calgary, Canada. Spittler’s view is confirmed by other Pentecostal scholars. William Fau-
His first observation was that, regarded as movements pel, a former Assemblies of God pastor and now a professor at Asbury
within religious history, Pentecostalism preceded Fundamen- Theological College, said in his presidential address to the Society for Pente-
talism. Pentecostalism arose at the turn of the century. Fun- costal Studies (1992): “I concede that I originally also thought that Pente-
damentalism appeared just before the First World War. costalism arose in competition with liberalism. However, as I studied the
Furthermore, Pentecostalism, fundamentalism, and neo- original Pentecostal sources, it slowly began to dawn on me that theological
orthodoxy-in that sequence-can be viewed as unrelated liberalism was not even in the consciousness of the adherents of the initial
reactions to the state of religion at the close of the nineteenth Pentecostal revival. Certainly, it was not the subject of their critique” [note
century. Fundamentalism is an intellectual reaction. Barth that they did criticize it, they knew very little of the liberal critical s ~ h o o l ] . ~
argued, as did fundamentalism, for a recovery of classic “Rather, I have to believe that Pentecostalism arose, in large part, as a critique
Christian beliefs, even if the menu varied. Both fundamen- directed at an emerging fundamentalism which was attaching itself to the Old
talism and neo-orthodoxy proposed an essentially cogni- Princeton T h e o l ~ g y . ” ~
tive rescue of the church from its lassitude.
Pentecostalism on the other hand profoundly distrusted ’“Tenth Annual Convention,” 3-10, quote 9. However, the resolution was
the intellectual enterprise. T h e Pentecostal critique focused “adopted by the ruling of the chair [W. B. Riley] by a majority of four votes.” See
Spittler, “Fundamentalists,” 1 15, note 11.
not so much on diluted theology as upon withered piety. T h e 3 The Fundamentals, 12 vol. 1910-15. The quote by G. Cambell Morgan without
problem, to Pentecostals, lay not in wrong thinking so much as Primary documentation appears in Synan, Holiness-Pentecostal, 144; Spittler, “Fun-
in collapsed feeling. Not the decline of orthodoxy but the decay damentalists,” 110.
of devotion lay at the root of the problem. It was not that the “See chapter 21 of The Pentecostals, 292ff., and passim.
’Faupel, “Whither?” 21. For this interpretation of fundamentalism Faupel
church was liberal, but that it was lifeless. W h a t was needed was refers to Sandeen, Roots, where Sandeen develops the thesis that fundamentalism
arose when “future premillenialists” adopted Princeton theology to support their
’The following is largely based on Spittler, “Fundamentalists,” 103-16. interpretation of Scripture. ~~~~ ~~
192 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide I Pentecostalism and Evungelicalism 193
of the response they were given by these “Calvinists,” and as J. R. Flower

Faupel quotes George Fry: noted, some Pentecostals kept their “fingers crossed” lest they lose this “good
I am convinced that liberalism and Pentecostalism are in fact fraternal twins fortune.” Harold Ockenga did much to alleviate Pentecostal fears, arguing
[having] arisen out of precisely [the same] conditions [and] are derived from the repeatedly that Pentecostals and holiness groups such as the Free Methodists
same sources. For a century Liberalism had preached experience-then Pente- and the Nazarenes should have an equal voice with others who called them-
costalism suddenly produced it! No wonder the Liberal and Neo-Orthodox selves evangelical. For many the issue of Pentecostal participation peaked in
theologians were at a loss when the Pentecostals started talking. How could they April 1944 when Carl McIntire published several articles in his paper, the
condemn the rampant empiricism and subjectivism of Pentecostalism when that
Chrzstzan Beacon, repudiating Pentecostals. “Tongues,” the paper claimed, “is
is precisely the approach they had previously recommended. Pentecostalism is
the logical end of Liberalism.6 one of the great signs of the apostasy.” T h e real gift of tongues had long since
ceased to exist. McIntire announced his willingness to merge his American
Faupel’s conclusion is therefore: T h e historiography of Pentecostal doc- Council of Christian Churches into the NAE, i f t h e National Association of
trine will follow one of two competing visions. Evangelicals would, among other things, “. . . get rid of the . . . tongues
One vision sees the movement as a subgroup of Evangelicalism, sharing its groups.’’
assumptions, its agenda and its mission. This view can only be sustained through Flower wondered aloud whether the NAE had h u r t its chances of repre-
a selective reading of Pentecostal history and through an abandonment of many senting evangelical Christians in the US by including Pentecostals in their
of the initial Pentecostal assumptions . . . The second vision is still emerging, its numbers. But Ockenga reassured him that Pentecostals would participate. As
shape is not yet clear. Certain characteristics, however, are apparent. Those late as 1947 Ockenga was still defending that decision. Flower, with E. S.
holding this view feel that the initial impulse which gave rise to the movement, Williams’ encouragement, had led the Assemblies of God into organization.
must be recovered-not in a naive sense, but in the sense that Paul Ricoeur G. H. Montgomery had urged participation in the NAE, and the Church of
means by “second naivetir.’” God (Cleveland) took its cue from J. H. Walker, Earl P. Paulk, E. L. Simmons,
Pentecostals have of course themselves contributed to the understanding of M. P. Cross, and E. C. Clark. Since the NAE’s founding meeting, these groups
their movement as being a “fundamentalism plus.” For example, J. R. Flower: have been joined by the Christian Church of North America, Church of G o d
We can say like Paul, “I am a fundamentalist, of the strictest sect of the of the Mountain Assembly, Elim Fellowship, Full Pentecostal Association,
fundamentalists am I one.” But that is not enough. Paul was more than a International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, International Church of
Pharisee. T h e Pharisees believed in the resurrection; they believed in angels; Christ, Pentecostal Church of God, and the Pentecostal Evangelical Church,
they believed in the supernatural- but it was all in the past. Paul believed in as Pentecostal member churches.
it-the past and in the present also. We are fundamentalists, but we are more By 1987 the Pentecostals constituted a majority in the NAE. Out of the
than that.x fi~c million mcmbers in the NAE denominations, 3.1 million were Pentecostal.
Probably Vinson Synan is nearer to the truth when he states: “In the Three times Pentecostals have served as presidents, most notably Thomas E
opinion of this writer the breaks with fundamentalism in 1928 and 1943 Zimmerman,’ general superintendent of the Assemblies of God. However,
turned out to be a blessing that freed the rising Pentecostals from the dead no black Pentecostal church and n o Oneness Pentecostal group is a member.
cultural and theological baggage of a discredited movement and opened u p the T h e j ha\ e formed their own national organizations.
way for unparalleled influence and growth in the last half of the twentieth T h i s move has gained respectability for the Pentecostals, as they have
century.”’ T h i s was achieved by an alliance with evangelicalism, a “milder become “a typical middle-class evangelical m ~ v e r n e n t . ” ’But
~ they have also
form of fundamentalism.” lost something. “ T h e ‘evangelicalization’ of Pentecostals has brought them
into dialogue with evangelical Christians, but this interaction has been at the
Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism’o risk of certain distinctives.” T h e y have lost, for example, their pacifist convic-
tion, and have instead appointed military chaplains. “More often than not,
I n spite of early Pentecostal interest in the National Association of Evan-
gelicals (NAE), full participation did not come easily. Pentecostals were chary
“ S o strong was Zimmerman’s loyalty to evangelicalism that he asked for his
Papers not to be put in the archives of his own denomination, the Assemblies of God,
‘Fry, “Perspective,” 182, 192; Faupel, “Whither?” 22. which he served for a quarter century, but in the archive at Wheaton College, which
7Faupel, “Whither?” 29-30. has sometimes been labeled the “Evangelical Vatican.” Spittler, “Fundamentalists,”
Flower, PE, 23f; The Pentecostals, 41. 112. Nothing of this can be found in World Pentecost, “Zimmerman,” 6f.
Synan, “Fundamentalism,” 327. See also his article “Evangelicalism.” ”Horn, “Experience,” 135.
l o The following is largely based on Robeck, “National.” ~~~
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 195
194
they‘identify with the political right and have been hard on those with whom I from academic theology. Karl Barth,17 and Adolf Schlatter18 were not exempt
from this criticism. Accordingly Pentecostal Bible Schools produced a crude
they have disagreed.” T h e role of women in Pentecostal churches has also
suffered from the intensive dialogue with evangelicals. They have accepted rationalism in the form of fundamentalism. Since Aristotelian logic was
such evangelical tenets of faith as “the inerrancy of scripture.’’ And finally accepted unconsciously root and branch, contradictions had to be harmonized
they have accepted from the evangelicals their suspicion of the National or explained away-a fact which obscured the individual profile of biblical
Council of Churches and the World Council of Churches. “Thus Pentecostals writers. They all had to say the same thing in order not to fall into the trap of
have effectively been cut off from meaningful interaction with the conciliar contradiction.
sector of the c h u r ~ h . ” ’ ~ Now it is unquestionable that Aristotle made a great discovery. H e said
In Germany the dialogue did not go so smoothly because of the ill-fated that if of two propositions one is the exact contradiction of the other, one must
and long-drawn-out animosity between the Gnadauer Verband and the Pente- be wrong. T h e trouble with that logic is that it is foreign to the biblical
costals therefore described the Gnadauer firband as “God’s state a t t ~ r n e y . ” ’ ~ testimony. There God can repent, he can change his opinion, for example in
Similar variety can be seen in Pentecostal attitudes towards biblical stud- the book of Jonah. He can say: “Only forty days and Nineveh is destroyed,”
ies. Pentecostals took part in the translation of the New International Version and then decide not to destroy it, much to the chagrin of Jonah. God is-like
of the Bible. In France a Pentecostal collaborated on the project of a new a partner in marriage-not without contradiction, but totally reliable. He is
French Bible translation.” This is not, however, the end of the story. Russ not reliable like a computer, he is reliable like-well-like only himself.
Spittler mentions those members of the Pentecostal tradition who have Furthermore, we know now that truth-even mathematical truth and
adopted an informed exegetical style characteristic of the left wing of evan- truth in natural science-is not necessarily without contradiction. It is even
gelicalism-as found at such schools as Wheaton, Regent, Fuller, and to some possible that some phenomena can be accurately described only by using
extent Dallas, Trinity, and Gordon-Conwell, as well as within many of the different and contradicting paradigms.
biblical faculties of colleges of the classical Pentecostal churches themselves. If it is true of mathematics that one must accept contradictions in order
So wide is classical Pentecostalism today that among its card-carrying to describe the whole truth, how much more true is it of theology? Further-
teachers are those whose method of biblical interpretation would almost more, we know that the observer is part of the things he observes: his or her
precisely align with ideological fundamentalism, along with others who, with point of view, his or her questions, his or her approach is part of the process
no sacrifice of biblical authority-as they would understand the term-have of observation. What things really are, we shall never know. We only know how
made friends with redaction criticism and other modern approaches to the they appear to us or to our instruments of observation.” Some of this was
study of Scripture. That raises the question of the relationships between already evident in Pentecostalism in the ’60s.”
Pentecostalism and academic theology. Del Tarr in a recent analysis of homiletics and communication is well
aware how much Western thought and also Pentecostal theology is affected by
Pentecostalism and Academic Theology these “canons of Western logic” from which America is not exempt. It shows
itself in the homiletical style so typically symbolized by “Three points and a
T h e Past poem.” “Sounding like a debate, preaching in the West has for centuries
There was a time when Pentecostals called modern academic theology a sounded as if the preacher were making a case in court. As if logos were
tragedy, whose fruit is empty churches. T h e decline in the churches is the apologia. Preaching, per se, has meant marshaling an argument in logical
result of our “theologizing to death,” they said. T h e theological intellectuals sequence, coordinating and subordinating points by the canons of logic, all in
had their chance in past centuries and have lost it; they have shown what man a careful appeal to the reasonable hearer.”
accomplishes. “Now there is a theology emerging that is proving what God Quite apart from the fact that the biblical authors would fail miserably
can In this and many similar phrases, Pentecostals distanced themselves i f judged against this yardstick, these “canons of Western logic” “are
l 3 Robeck,
“National,” 636. September 9th, 1992. Hollenweger, “Pentecostalism.” See also Jongeneel, 1992. The
14See The Pentecostals, 218ff., more detailed in the German version. T h e quotes are from van Gijs, Het, 36. Chinn, “Speak?” See The Pentecostals, 291-310,
esp. 293.
Gnadauer Verband is a fellowship of evangelical congregations (within and without
I’ Atter, Cults, 18f.; The Pentecostals, 292.
the established churches) in whose midst German Pentecostalism was born. The last
quote in Miiller-Bohn, “Zungenreden-Weissagung.” Lohmann, “Wie?”; The Pentecostals, 296.
l9 Discussed in detail in I T h 3.
Is Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 20.
l6 The following is based on a lecture given on the occasion of the presentation
”E.g., an article by Russel Evans, a university lecturer from the Elim Churches
of the Festschrift in honor of Walter J. Hollenweger at the University of Utrecht on in England: Evans, “Science”; Handbuch 07.425.008; The Pentecostals, 297f.
~~
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 197
196
academic relevance). For these scholars, Pentecostals have been interesting

ill-equipped to penetrate the cognitive expectations of non-Western countries,
objects of research-not teachers in a global art of communication.
where the majority of missions activity takes place.”2’ Probably they are also
That today we have institutes and specialists in every possible and impos-
not very suitable in the West.
sible theological topic, but not one single library, not one single institute, not
The Swiss Pentecostal Jean-Daniel Pluss presents a similar argument in
one specialized doctoral supervisor in Europe for the hundreds and perhaps
his article on the “liturgical practice” of Pentecostalism. H e comes to the
thousands of young Pentecostal scholars worldwide who are knocking at the
conclusion that “ambiguity and truth are not necessarily diametrically op-
doors of our academic establishments, this is a theological scandal without
posed.”22Others have begun to realize that not all that academic theologians
precedent! It can certainly not be right that we theologians have only to do
produce is drawn from their tobacco pipes, and that we would, for example,
with the past of Christianity. It cannot be right that our dialogue pzrtners are
have no reliable biblical translations and manuscripts without their patient
only philosophy and sociology, psychology and politology. Our partners are
work. also, and in a growing way, the new academics who are beginning to emerge
Correspondingly, academic theologians to this very day have been largely from Pentecostalism.
ignorant of the ever-growing Pentecostal revival. The greatest revival move-
ment of our time is largely ignored by professional theologians, probably The Present
because its strongest side is its oraltheology. Oral theology operates, as we have
seen T h e climate among Pentecostal intellectuals is changing. They are awak-
ening to the question of race; discovering the enormous political and social
not through the book, but through the parable, potential of their own past; and beginning to enter the scholarly dialogue and
not through the thesis, but through the testimony,
the political debate on many issues. This should make us listen. Achte-
not through dissertations, but through dances,
meierZ3andWalter Wink24have shown that our historical-critical exegesis and
not through concepts, but through banquets,
our critical theology are bankrupt. Students learn them only to pass examina-
not through a system of thinking, but through stories and songs,
not through definitions, but through descriptions,
tions, then later find them irrelevant in their practical work. Critical exegesis
not through arguments, but through transformed lives. is not bankrupt because it is wrong, but because it cannot make its insights
fruitful for the normal believer; and this in turn is because it is not tested in
These are exactly the categories which have priority not only in the liturgical and homiletical praxis. Perhaps Pentecostals can help in this di-
biblical records-as Bultmann has shown in his exegetical works-but also in lemma. They learn critical exegesis not to pass examinations but because they
Third World cultures. Through form-criticism, Bultmann and others have want to know; they do not accept everything in critical theology but they test
developed a tool to understand the oral processes of biblical tradition. A it with a view to its u s e f ~ l n e s s Such
. ~ ~ students and fellow-researchers, such
remarkable achievement! But Bultmann did not realize that he was describing teachers and professors are needed.
not only a biblical process but also the communication-process of the most T h e church lost the working class after the Second World War. Later it
important missionary movement of our century. What a fatal intellectual lost the intellectuals (because of positions which were not tenable) and the
oversight! And Pentecostals did not realize that Bultmann’s exegetical work aristocracy. It became more and more a bourgeois or petit-bourgeois club. Now
was much nearer to their lived religion than all that the fundamentalists have it is about to lose this section of society too, because they are demanding
produced. tangible religion-a commodity which Pentecostals and Charismatics can
Until very recently, academic theology did not seem interested in what the deliver.
Spirit is doing today, because the work of the Spirit has been relayed mainly Would it not be healthy for both theological academics and Pentecostals
in oral forms. In order to get to the roots of this movement one has to do field to accept the challenge of a lived religion which does not leave its head together
research, and that not only in Europe and America. No wonder that anthro- with its hat at the church entrance? Would it not be a good thing to interpret
pologists, ethnologists, and sometimes sociologists have been the first to not only the miracles and visions in the Bible but also such things in our daily
discover Pentecostalism (however, mostly without seeing its theological and life-by learning from biblical miracles and visions? All this is in any case
23 Achtemeier, Inspiration.
” Tarr, “Preaching,” 121f. The inner quote is from Wardlaw, Preaching, 12. In
24 Wink, Bible in Human Transformation, discussed in detail in Hollenweger,
this fascinating article Tarr is well aware of the complexity and specificity of Aristo-
telian logic. He also quotes Korzybski, Science, which was published by the Interna- “Exe esis,” and idem, “Theology”
tional Non-Aristotelian Library Publishing Company. ‘An example: Fee, First Corinthians, reviewed by J. L . Karsten in E P T A Bulletin
‘‘Pluss, “Public,” 7. 814, 1989, 183f. See also Zeegwart, “Apocalyptic.” Martin, R. Francis, “Apocalypse.”
198 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Pentecostalism and Evangelicalism 199
needGd for successful dialogue with our own Third World partner churches; church music which is nearer to the people;32participatory services; inclusion
missiology without these aspects becomes a purely Western intellectual game. of charismata which are almost absent in our Western culture; and finally a
T h e question however is, how will the academic establishment react to such ministry to the heavy-laden and weary which is not directed by so-called
suggestions? Will it say: We are ecumenical, but within limits; we are fighting charismatic healers from overseas, but by the community of the local congre-
for the poor, but we do not want to fight together with the Pentecostals; and gation, which cooperates with doctors and psychiatrists, avoiding the ugly
above all, we have our own problems. We must help our own Western churches features of big healing campaigns.33In the process we might discover that it is
to come to grips with the modern world. We cannot be side-tracked by exotic possible to speak in tongues and be a critical scholar, or to be a reputable
studies such as Pentecostalism. researcher who undertakes scholarly work equally well in both literary and oral
Such a response might be a mistake. Neither the Pentecostals nor the categories.
World Council of Churches can solve the crying problems of international There is one who has shown us the way: it is our Lord. His parables are
cooperation and communication. About half of the non-Roman and non- models of content and communication. He could be deep and scholarly, yet
Orthodox churches in the Third World are not members of the World oral. Oral people are not stupid people. They are just oral, as we have shown
Council of Churches,26and the great majority of these are Pentecostal or in the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership (chapter 9, pp.
Pentecostal-like. What does that mean for the ecumenicity of the ecumeni- 106-16). This school has discovered in part how theology can break out of its
cal movement? These churches do not know how to work within an inter- bourgeois and literary ghetto. Who knows, the study of and with Pentecostals
national organization, and that means that their contribution is lost. Only could inspire us in this.
those churches which have been shaped to think, talk and argue as we do, From the Pentecostal side one must ask, now that there is a slow distancing
have a chance to be heard. of Pentecostalism from certain aspects of evangelicalism: Why should Pente-
T h e international Pentecostal organizations are no better-with a few costals restrict their contacts to evangelical^?^^ Do not Catholics and the
exceptions such as the European Pentecostal Theological A~sociation,~’ and conciliar movements need the testimony of Pentecostalism even more, espe-
the Society for Pentecostal Studies,28both small academic minority organi- cially as evangelicals have proved to be some of the most resistant to the
zations. T h e Pentecostal World Conference has certainly not solved the Pentecostal witness?
problem-it has simply placed another international bureaucracy alongside Here is a prayer for my fellow evangelicals and for myself:
those already existing. T h e result is that only about sixty million of the over
Prayer of the Turtle
four hundred million Pentecostals/charismatics/independents are repre-
sented in some way in these Pentecostal World Conferences. T h e majority God,
are entirely ~ n i n t e r e s t e d . ~ ~ sometimes I feel like a turtle.
Yet, “no one can be truly ecumenical without being evangelical, just as no I carry this big shell on m y back.
I t protects me.
one can be truly evangelical without being ecumenical.”3o If that dictum be But it also makes it drflcult for me to meet other people.
true, then we-that is the ecumenical movement, the theological academics, I cannot get through to them and they cannot get through t o me.
the Pentecostal scholars-have to put our resources together; we have to learn But dear God,
how to act and speak internationally in oral categories, in liturgies and songs, I have not chosen t o be a turtle.
in prayers and bible studies (and this does not mean speaking unpolitically); Neither my parents nor y o u did ask me whether I wanted to be a turtle,
nor indeed, whether I wanted to be born or not.
thus might we have a chance. Hans Ruedi Weber from the World Council of
So I am here, just here.
Churches and others have shown the way.31 Sometimes I would prefer to be a flamingo,
It could also be that some of our own problems can be solved in working or a deer, or a swallow, or an eagle, or a mighty roaring lion.
with the Pentecostals; for example, we might discover an oral homiletic; a But I am none o f these.
I am simply a turtle.
A n d so I ask you, 0 God,
“Vanelderen, “WCC,” 1100. be a little patient with me
27 E P T A Bulletin (EPTAZEuropean Pentecostal Theological Association).
when I do not understand y o u
28 Pneuma. Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies.
when I do not understand your children,
29 Vanelderen, “Conference.”
30 Curlee-Curlee, Springtime, iv, quoting John A. Mackay from an unpublished
manuscript (Presbyterian Historical Society, Philadelphia, “Mackay papers”; inter- 32 See chapter 21, pp. 269-87.
view William Rodman). 33 See chapter 18, pp. 233-37.
31
Weber, H.-R., Experiments. See also Vogt, Bihlarbeit. 34 Bridges-Johns, “Adolescence,” 3-1 7.
yust be a little patient when I am slow to understand your love

and your generosity,
your truth and your wisdom.
Please, help me to live the lrfe of a turtle
who feels loved, accepted and useful,
who feels the rays ofyour love through m y shell.
IV
THE CRITICAL ROOT
“Pentecostalism is anti-intellectual, evangelical-fundamentalist and anti-

ecumenical.” These are three characterizations which can no longer be ac-
cepted without qualification. It is true one finds a lot of anti-intellectualism
in Pentecostalism-this has reasons, as C . van der Laan explains in the case of
Gerrit Polman, the founder of Dutch Pentecostalism. “Polman was not equipped
with the tools to develop a theology in which inconsistencies are acceptable
and ended up as a sectarian against his will. Surely this was not his fault alone.
He received no help from the Evangelical colleagues nor from the academic
theologians.”’
But now this has changed, as I will try to demonstrate. A number of
Pentecostals are engaged in a critical reassessment of their own roots. The
trouble is that their publications are not read by Pentecostal leaders (not to
speak of the rank and file), who in general have no idea what a mine of insight
and dedicated scholarship they are missing (however, here, Pentecostals are
not very much different from other churches). In most cases the Pentecostal
periodicals do not report the critical yet deeply spiritual and helpful essays and
dissertations of their own scholars. This is all the more reason for the mainline
theological journals and publishers to take them up: they would be astonished
what a wide market this research could command. However, it is my own
experience that most mainline publishers want easy, sensational or simply
“up-lifting” manuscripts from Pentecostals, not specialized analyses on Pen-
tecostalism and ecumenism, Pentecostalism and social ethics, Pentecostalism
and pacifism, Pentecostalism and feminism, Pentecostalism and critical exe-
gesis, and SO forth. On all these issues Pentecostals have original contributions
to make which are based on grass-roots experiences.
‘ C . van der Laan, Sectarian Agarnrt His Wdl, 306; see chapter 25, pp34.5-47.
202 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide SECTION IV: THE CRITICAL ROOT
203
Jonah? So today the question may be put: can he also come to terms with the
As to the characterization of Pentecostals as Evangelical Fundamental-
power structures of Pentecostalism; with its ideological hard-liners and its
ists,2 it must be said that for a long time Pentecostals tried to present
amazing capacity to forget its history-the“historyofthes1aves whocameout
themselves as a kind of “Evangelicals plus”; that is, Evangelicals plus
fire, dedication, missionary success, speaking in tongues, and gifts of from Egypt,” from the religious rat-race, the money-based power structures
healing. But that will no longer do, especially because of the heavy dispen- and the conformism with this world?
sationalism one finds in evangelicalism, that conflicts with a Pentecostal
hermeneutics which refuses to relegate the gifts of the Spirit to the forma-
tive period of C h r i ~ t i a n i t y .Pentecostalism
~ is thus a denomination sui
generzs: its roots in the black, oral tradition of the American slaves, in the
Catholic tradition of Wesley, in the evangelical tradition of the American
holiness movement (with its far-reaching political, social, and ecumenical
programs), in the critical tradition of both the holiness movement and
critical Western theology, in the ecumenical tradition-all this qualifies it
as a movement which is not just a sub-division of evangelicalism on fire.
This, despite the fact that most Pentecostal denominations’ official state-
ments use out-dated confessional concepts of the turn of the century and
pseudo-rationalist thought patterns of the last century which in no way
express their dynamic and inspiring spirituality, and which are only mag-
nified by a sometimes frightening Pentecostal triumphalism.
Yet, the men and women whom I discuss in this volume deserve to be
taken seriously by both Pentecostals and non-Pentecostals. Most of them
do theology in the context of memories of suffering and defamation, of
being ridiculed and persecuted (sometimes by their own brothers and
sisters in the faith who either do not understand them and are therefore
frightened, or have “gone over” to the right-wing money aristocracy of this
world). They use the standard methods of historical and exegetical re-
search. Because of their specific religious socialization they refuse to drive
a wedge between “the spiritual” and “the material,” and thus take seriously
the praxis of early Pentecostalism (but not its ideology). They try to
articulate a theology which expresses, in a true biblical way, God’s interest
and love in this world without giving up the convictions that God is always
beyond our experiences of God, and that the Spirit of God is not identical
with how we experience Him (or Her). T h e Spirit still has something new
in store for us, of which we have not thought. Unity and diversity in the
Christian church needs an expression which goes beyond the bureaucratic
organizational models and the conceptual patterns of the Western world:
perhaps the God who came to terms with the KGB and the Stasi in the
former communist countries may also come to terms with this Pentecostal
movement. Remember the book of Jonah! God could deal aptly with the
monstrous state of Nineveh, its concentration camps and its secret police;
he could work with the wild sea and with the pagan seamen; but the
question remained open: could he also come to terms with his prophet
2See above, chapter 15, pp. 190-92.

Sheppard, “Dispensationalism. ”
L
Battle Against Unjust Structures 205
were Pentecostals, including the chairperson Rev. Benjamin Alicea.’

This manifesto is an extraordinary document, reflecting a new type of
SIXTEEN political ethics among Hispanic Pentecostals. It criticizes the churches and the
state for its oppressive policy, including Reagan’s economic and foreign policy
in Latin America. It deplores the fact that Hispanic music, theology, liturgy
and language is denied its rightful place in the American religious community,
thus depriving the religious establishment of important Hispanic contribu-
tions. T h e universities and theological seminaries are not excluded from this
criticism because they refuse to hire indigenous Hispanic faculty. Bilingual
education, very important for a multi-cultural society, is rejected. “There has
always been plenty of rhetoric, but very little action or financial and academic
Battle Against Unjust support.” This is a truly Pentecostal document reflecting not only the eco-
nomic plight but more so the cultural and religious marginalization of Hispan-
Structures ics. It highlights forcefully the interplay between the cultural, the spiritual,
and the political.
1. T h e social issues relevant to the Hispanic community are not seriously

Social Ethics: Making the Truth Visible addressed in the conferences, radio and television programs funded and staffed by
the Mainline Protestants, Conservative Fundamentalists and Establishment Evan-
United States Pentecostals generally have a difficult gelicals. Social issues of particular interest to Hispanics are: undocumented workers,
time imagining that there are Pentecostals in Latin America U.S. foreign policy in Latin America, the impact of multinational corporations in
who value major elements of Liberation Theology, who Latin America, bi-lingual education in America and the adverse impact of Reagan’s
economic policy on Hispanics.
supported the Sandinista government in Nicaragua, who 2. T h e contributions of Hispanic people in the life and ministry of the Church
aided the Socialist President Salvador Allende to rise to in the city are systematically and categorically ignored. National and regional confer-
power in Chile,’ or who hold and value membership in the ences (such as the Riverside Church Conference on the City, Washington ’80 and the
World Council of Churches.* Americans do not have to go to American Festival on Evangelism) exclude significant participation of indigenous
Hispanics in the planning and implementation stages. T h e absence of Hispanic
Latin America to find such conundrums. There are difficult
speakers in regional and national events deprive the Christian community of an
discoveries much nearer to home, among Hispanic Pente- Hispanic perspective.
costals in the United States. On March 13, 1981, at the 3. T h e American religious establishment must assume its share of the respon-
Riverside Church Conference on the Church and the City, sibility for (1) the decay of urban areas and the deplorable conditions under which
the Coalition of Hispanic Leadership disrupted a panel on Hispanics must live in American cities, and (2) the Church’s policy to neglect, desert
or undermine the resources of the Hispanic people. T h e only churches that have
“Liberation Theology” to protest the exclusion of Hispan- remained to service the spiritual needs of the Hispanic people residing in the inner
ics from the conference program. The chant of protest (Basta cities of our country are the indigenous and independent Hispanic churches.
ya! No nos pueden ignorar!) echoed the sentiments of millions 4. Hispanic liturgy and theology have been denied their rightful place in the
of Hispanics3 living in American urban centers whose cry is American religious community. Our music, theology, literature and language have
been rejected. T h e Church has served as an instrument of assimilation instead of
not being heard by the religious establishment. Three of the
human liberation and fulfillment. T h e Church has perpetuated paternalism, division
original five members listed in the “Riverside manifest^"^ and oppression which have aggravated and deprived the American religious estab-
lishment of the contributions of the Hispanic religious experience.
’ Gaxiola-Gaxiola. “Latin American,” in particular, 123. 5 . Theological seminaries and graduate schools of religion have discriminated
‘ Robeck, “Southern,” 103. against Hispanics by refusing to hire indigenous Hispanic faculty, provide supportive
services and allocate financial resources. T h e educational establishment has rejected
3 A “Hispanic” is a US citizen with Latin American roots. See Villafafie’s
comprehensive overview of Hispanic culture and religion in the US (not just Pente- the legitimacy of bi-lingual theological education as a viable and indispensable
costal) in his The Liberating Spirit. ingredient for men and women in the ministry. There has always been plenty of
4 T h e Manifesto stated: “The Coalition of Hispanic Christian Leadership as a rhetoric, but very little action or financial and academic support. Quoted in Villafafie,
-mophetic
- act of conscience charge the American religious establishment with the The Liberating Spirit, 70f., and in Costas, Outside, 115f.
following complaints: Villafaiie, The Liberating Spirit, 69. ~~~ ~ ~ ~~
“a theology on the move,” whose “character has been more experiential than
white American Pentecostals might also be astonished to hear North cognitive, more activist than reflective.” Astonishingly the authors start their
American history told by one of their fellow Pentecostals “from the other missiological reflection with the thesis “that the roots of our conviction about
side,” namely from the side of those victimized, when half of Mexico was the global mission of the church are to be found in Jesus’ proclamation of the
“given” to the United States (1848), “leaving several thousand Spanish and kingdom of God.”l3 This New Testament foundation of mission (laid by one
Mexicans ‘captive strangers in their own land.’ ”6 They might be surprised to of Pentecostalism’s most gifted New Testament scholars) is decisive for the
hear Reis Lopez-Tijerina stating that for him “The struggle for land 7 is not rest of the book.
only a political question; it is also a spiritual mission of justice against the In the following chapter, “Evangelism, Social Concern, and the Kingdom
oppression of Chicanos in the South West by the United States government.”’ of God,”l4 the missiological task is expressed not as one of preaching social
In his protest, Lopez-Tijerina even went so far as to raid the courthouse of concern, but as one of acting as a Christian social witness, thus “making the
Tierra Amarilla. Tijerina is admittedly a controversial person, and many truth visible.”” T h e gospel requires “the validation of a living community that
Pentecostals do not claim him. Nevertheless, says the Hispanic Pentecostal translates proclaimed truth into social practice.”16 Furthermore, Christian
scholar Eldin Villafafie, he “represents that ‘spirit’ of the oppressed among social action itself must aim at “changing the system.”17
Hispanic Pentecostals that see the Gospel’s concern for social justice and
wholistic liberation.”’ One of the purposes of the church’s social action programs is to desacralize the
Villafafie is one of the foremost Hispanic Pentecostal theologians. l o H e is political power of human governments. By maintaining the option of what
professor of Christian Social Ethics a t Gordon-Conwell Theological Semi- Stephen Mott has labeled as the way of “strategic non-cooperation,” the church
can reserve its right to say its “no” to Caesar through organized action-plans; . . .
nary. H e was founder-director (1976-1990) of the Center for Urban Ministe-
the gospel of the kingdom, more than anything else, can undemonize the state
rial Education (CUME) in Boston. He is an ordained minister of the Hispanic
Eastern District of the Assemblies of God, and served as the first president of
with its totalitarian pretensions and demythologize its claim to autonomy. ’’
La Comunidad of Hispanic Scholars of Theology and Religion. H e earned his Only in the third place does the article’s author, Murray W. Dempster,
Ph.D. in Social Ethics from Boston University. In The Liberating Spirit he mention the social programs of the church. Their function is to construct
discusses the pitfalls and promises, the pains and joys of oral theology in “alternative systems of justice.’”’
relation to social ethics. H e manages to engage in dialogue not only with his Elsewhere, the Swiss Jean-Daniel Pliiss asks: “When will the disciples of
own roots but also with the world of learning-theological, sociological, and Jesus hold their conference of disarmament?”20Even in Chile, where the CIA
political. has tried to influence Pentecostalism, the Pentecostals sent an open letter to
Another impressive document of a change in Pentecostal social ethics is a Pinochet expressing their dismay relating to the gap existing between the “sad
volume of essays on “Global Mission in Pentecostal Perspective.”” T h e reality in this country and the official reports on television.””
editors state: “Pentecostal missiological literature has not kept pace with the Finally Kathleen Harder has demonstrated the “expanding politicization
explosive growth of the Pentecostal churches worldwide.”” This task is taken of the World Pentecostal Movement,”” showing that “Pentecostals are be-
up in the book by a number of authors, in a dynamic expansion which produces coming more political, but about different things.”” Based on the American
6The Catholic Church then “ousted the native Mexican clergy and bishops and 13 Fee, “Global,” 7. With the same starting point but with another goal: Suur-
replaced them with French and Spaniards. These were replaced in turn, in the mond, “Christ King.”
twentieth century, by Irish and German Americans. This trend has continued to exist l 4 Dempster, “Evangelism.” See also idem, “Mandate.”
to this date with attempts at redress beginning to appear in the 1960s and early I 5 Dempster, “Evangelism,” 29.
1970s.” “That there are only 400 native-born Hispanic priests-so few in proportion l6 Ibid., 30.
to the Hispanic population-seriously affects the relation of the Hispanics with the “Ibid., 35.
(Catholic) Church in America.” Father Ritilio del Riego in Lucas, Browning, 40; Ibid. As a positive example of such action, Frank Macchia points to Christoph
quoted in Villafaiie, The Liberating Spirit, 47. Blumhardt: “the inseparability of spiritual from bodily existence . . . made Christoph
’In this instance the Kit Carson National Forest in New Mexico which in 1848 a socialist” (Macchia, “Waiting and Hurrying,” n.p.).
was “skillfully and manipulatively extorted by the ‘gringos’.’’ Villafafie, The Liberat- l9 Dempster, “Evangelism,” 12.
-”
ing S irit, 97. LU Pliiss, “European,” 44. Pliiss quotes here a leader of the German Pentecostal
‘Cherrero, Chicano, 36f., quoted in Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 97. movement, C. 0. Voget.
9Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 97. ‘IE P T A Bulletin 5/3, 1986, 119f.
loSee his The Liberating Spirit and “Call.” 22 Harder, “Expanding.”
I’Dempster-Klaus-Petersen, Called. 231bid.,12.
”Ibid., xv.
208 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Battle Against Unjust Structures 209
experience, she expected to find Pentecostals worldwide to be mainly politi- Mark3’ says: “The Catholic Church opts for the poor because it is not a church
cally conservative. “Surprisingly the majority of the respondents, 32 of the of the poor. Pentecostal churches do not opt for the poor because they are
56,24 asserted that there was no such pattern, and most explained that Pente- already a poor people’s church and that is why the poor people are opting for
costals were spread out among the parties.”25 As we have already seen in our them.” Nevertheless, a number of Latin American Pentecostals are seeing the
analysis of black Pentecostals in the USA, Pentecostals of that group have necessity for dealing with structural injustice,31acknowledging that personal
marched and demonstrated for or against certain public policies. In the lower ethics is necessary, but not sufficient. Carmelo E. Alvarez, for example, notes
house of Brazil’s Congress, thirty-five Pentecostals were serving by 1990; that the search for a just life and a just community involves dealing with
nineteen were members of the same Assemblies of God congregation.26 economic and political ~ t r u c t u r e s . ~ ~
T h e most explicit author on this topic is probably the Chilean Pentecostal
Pentecostalism and Theology of Liberation Juan Sepulveda. Along with Dempster Sepulveda sees the Pentecostal church
as a “healing community.” “Healing is not just understood as a medical term
T h e usual picture which is given of Latin American Pentecostalism is this:
but also as a social term. T h e church is an alternative to He
Latin American Pentecostals do marvelous evangelistic and charitable work, compares Pentecostalism and liberation theology at the ecclesial rather than
which constitutes a viable alternative to political and economic structural the propositional T h e two types of church entities he analyzes are the
change. But that is not the whole truth. It is quite true that Pentecostals use Catholic Base Ecclesial Communities and what he calls Criollo Pentecostalism
an individualistic language, and that they concentrate on the personal (not (i.e., autochthonous and indigenous Latin American Pentecostal communities
societal) evils. They fight violence against women, they build schools, they as over against the Pentecostalism which has been imported from the US). In
combat drunkenness, they offer the poor and silenced people a language. It is these new ecclesial experiences he sees affinities and differences. T h e differ-
clear that if this was all they did, they would be highly praised by the national ences lie in the fact that the members of Criollo Pentecostalism have typically
and multinational companies, which respect the good workers Pentecostalism gone through a traumatic conversion experience, which has given them new
produces.27However, there is also another side to the story. meaning and a new community-but has also separated them from society. In
For a number of Pentecostals dialogue with theology of liberation has the Catholic Base Ecclesial Communities, on the other hand, such conversion
become imperative. This is the task to which Douglas Petersen**sets himself. experiences are less dramatic. Criollo Pentecostals see in this world the reign
T o be relevant, theology simply must respond to the questions that the poor are of the “prince of this world.” Base Ecclesial Communities, on the other hand,
asking. The marginalized are not interested in the traditionally scientific/theo- developed in a setting of effervescent hope for change, in particular after
logical ideas, rather, they want to know how God could abandon them so totally Vatican 11. For both, however, salvation is not an immaterial thought but a
in the physical realm. Unless the church is a participant in this question, the concrete reality in the here and now.35Carmelo E. Alvarez rightly detects in
liberationists argue, it has no reason for being. the majority of works analyzing Latin American Pentecostalism (especially the
ones which deal with church growth) a kind of “Manichean reading,” which
Petersen discusses this hermeneutical approach in detail and agrees with
does not see these material, positive elements in the movement.36On the other
it to a great extent, although he has, like Segundo and others, some reserva-
tions on a wholesale acceptance of the Marxist basis.
30 Mariz, Coping, 138.
Some Pentecostal critique has also been directed at the mainly Catholic 31 Special issue of Pastoralra 7/15, December 1985 on “Pentecostalismo y
theology of liberation. This theology is confusing, says Harold D. Hunter, teologia de la liberacion.” Ramon Flores, “Hermit” (an interesting combination of
“because social activists often speak of liberating the poor but seem to have Pentecostal spirituality with social and political ethics).
little appreciation for those (like Pentecostals) who minister to the working 32 Alvarez, Santrdad, reviewed by David Bundy, Pneuma 812, Fall 1986, 187. See
also Alvarez, Pentecostalrsmo, reviewed by Anders Ruuth in Evangelro y Soczedad 18,
class.”29In echoing what Catholics themselves have perceived, Cecilia Loreto July-Sept. 1993, 26-27. See also Bundy’s review in International Reniew o f Mrssrons
831331, Oct. 1994,637-39.
24 Ibid., 17. She interviewed a selected number of Pentecostal participants at the
337.h‘IS IS
‘ based on a paper by Sepulveda, “Reflections.”
Conference of Brighton, England, 1991. 34 Sepulveda, “Liberation.”
251bid.,10. 35 Volf, “Materiality.”
26 Ibid., 19; Marcom, “Fire.” 36Seethe important booklet Algo mas gue opro [Something more than opium]
27 Strobele-Gregor, “Indios.” (eds. Boudewijnse/Droogers/Kamsteeg). Quote in the introduction by Carmelo E.
28 Petersen, “Kingdom,” 47. Ahrez, 1 1 . Julio de Santa Ana also makes a difference between the “rural” and the
29 Harold D. Hunter in a review of Harrell, Oral Roberts, in E P T A Bulletin 512, ‘‘urban” Pentecostals (similar to Sepulveda); the rurals engage in a fight for land (“la
1986, 59-61, quote 60. lucha per la tierra”), the urbans conform more or less to the laws of capitalism if left
~~
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Battle Against Unjust Structures 21 1
210
In returning to this chapter’s main topic, namely an emerging social ethics
hand, the Catholics have learned from the Pentecostals that the absence of a
in Latin America, I want to draw attention to the works of a specialist who has
priest does not mean the end of the church.37
Another difference is found in the two groups’ approach to the Bible. done extensive field research in Central America, and who was won for
For many Pentecostals, the Bible was their first contact with the written Christianity by Pentecostals. His conclusions:42Pentecostals are expecting
word. Some have learned to read by using it; thus, all reality is seen through the return of their Lord. “This understanding of the world corresponds to
the Bible “lens.” In the Base Ecclesial Communities the readers come to their experience, i.e., their earthly fate cannot be changed by them.” Theirs,
the Bible with their daily problems (as, for example, in the method devel- then, is the strategy of survival of the despondent, for example in Guate-
oped by Ernest0 Cardena138and Carlos Masters).39This would seem to be mala. Very different voices, however, emerge from the charismatic renewal.
a fundamental difference. Methodologically the Pentecostals use an exe- Schafer calls it the Neo-Pentecostal money aristocracy in Central America.
getical process, even if it is rustic, and are generally literal and not critical They hold their prayer meetings in exclusive hotels and actively support
in their interpretation. T h e Catholics use an eisegetic process. In practice, police terror and torture. That means in certain cases they are torturing
this means that in Criollo Pentecostalism the Bible is read, interpreted and their own brothers in the faith, the poor Pentecostals. In contrast to these
proclaimed by abstracting the problems, tensions, and questions of real life, brothers, the charismatics have as their own aim freedom for big business
resulting in a “spiritualization” of the biblical message. T h e Base Ecclesial and suppression of social protest through an authoritarian state. All this is
Communities, for their part, seek in the Bible a mirror in which they may biblically camouflaged as the fight of the good against the evil. That “the
see themselves and discover a theological justification for their social evil” can also be their own brothers and sisters in the faith who happen to
struggle, thus “politicizing” the message. be on the other side of the social divide, is a particularly cruel irony of this
Although this impression is partially correct, at least as a tendency (and story. However, the independent and indigenous Pentecostal churches
on the conscious level), a more rigorous analysis shows that Criollo Pente- (those which Sepulveda called Criollo Pentecostals) have discovered that
costalism also reads the Bible from a real life viewpoint. As with the Catholics, they are not helpless victims of a cruel world-law. They know that God
the Bible helps them to understand themselves in their context. Therefore gives them power and hope to change the world. They organize themselves
Sepulveda comes to the conclusion that a dialogue between the two approaches and even accept political mandates. “God demands from us a prophetic
is necessary and helpful. In his opinion Criollo Pentecostalism and Catholic stance. ”43
Base Ecclesial Communities have more in common than is generally acknowl- Dennis Smith, a Presbyterian working in Guatemala, confirms
edged. They are not contradictions but come to the same truth from opposite Schafer’s picture of the charismatic money aristocracy: Some of them
ecclesial, biographical, and social contexts. “were well-connected in local and international politics.” They “embraced
In his treatment of Base Ecclesial Communities, Adoniram Gaxiola cor- New Right politics as a logical extension of their new found gospel.” He
rectly observes that these communities were “intended as a means of stopping pointedly asks:
Protestantism.” But the “result was instead ‘a parallel church, and, in the last What about the businessman who participates in a Full Gospel Businessmen’s
instance, a schismatic church,’ ”40 He is seconded in this by Harvey Cox, who prayer every Tuesday, and attends worship at a Neo-Pentecostal church three or
writes: four times a week? Does his faith affect his business ethics? Will he permit his
T h e intention of the ecclesial machinery in giving life to the Ecclesial Base employees to organize a union? Will he continue to fire and rehire his production
Communities was to re-organize the periphery and to direct it towards a central- workers every six months so that he can avoid paying Social Security benefits?
ized power [, but] this time the mechanism “went hay-wire,’’ and the periphery Will his home continue to be plagued with domestic violence? In a highly
distanced itself still more from the centralized power. T h e base communities polarized society like Guatemala’s, those who have wealth and power and who
rebounded against . . . the vertical structure and dismantled it.41
“Schafer, “ . . . und erlose uns von dem Bosen” See also his “Dualistische.”
Schafer wrote his doctoral dissertation on a related theme under the supervision of
Konrad Raiser, now General Secretary of the World Council of Churches (Schafer,
in peace. Interview by Schippers with Julio de Santa Ana (“Julio”), quote in
Zentralamerika). Will this open the door to a more serious commitment of the WCC
Boudewijnse/Droogers/Kamsteeg, Algo, 56. for the poor Pentecostals?A very different presentation of the situation in Guatemala
37 Eclesiogenesis, 13.
in Wilson, E. A., “Passion and Power,” on Guatemala, 77ff.
38 Cardenal, Love in Practice. 43 Schafer, . . . und erlose uns von dem Bosen” quotes from a Spanish document
“
39 Masters, Coleccidn.
in detail (Declaracion de la consulta de lideres educationales de la Iglesia de Dios:
4o Gaxiola, “Poverty,” 169. Desarrolle de un modelo pastoral Pentecostal frente a la teologia de la liberacion, in
41 Cox, Religibn, 111, quoted in Gaxiola, “Poverty,” 169.
Pastoralia, San Jost, Costa Rica, No. 15, 10/1989, 102f.).
- ~~
To sum up, Braunhart says:

?him to have had their lives transformed by the Spirit of God are faced with a
special responsibility to practice justice, humility and mercy. T h e problems of society are clearly seen. However, the status quo is not ques-
tioned. They try to improve it by involving converted Christians in the political
process. . . . D e facto Honduras has a policy which is geared to the needs of the
And how about those who now hold high public office? Will they be less corrupt
middle and upper-middle classes and consequently neglects the poor. For this
and less abusive of human rights than their predecessors? So far President
policy Neo-Pentecostals take some responsibility. That is why their demands for
Serrano and his closest advisers have shown that they are fond of the trappings
more justice lack teeth. This is underscored by their lack of social ethics.”
of office. Pomp and protocol are practiced religiously. In classic Neo-Pentecostal
style, Serrano and his advisers are very conspicuous consumers of luxury auto- T h e Neo-Pentecostals churches address the problem of insecurity in a society of
mobiles, exclusive clothing and the finest culinary fare. Serrano preaches fiscal crises. They offer stabilizing norm-systems and concrete advice for individuals.
responsibility, but has chosen not to eliminate the huge Presidential discretion- Some, however, are involved in the political arena. . . . Neo-Pentecostal theology
ary fund that has been a major source of corruption in the past. Human rights and spirituality is therefore a religion of success and corresponds to the interests
violations have increased sharply since Serrano assumed office in January 1991. of those who have worked hard and try to defend their newly acquired status.’’
Drug traffickers and human rights violators in the army continue to operate with
impunity.44 T h e neo-Pentecostal churches, in other words, meet the needs of an
emerging middle and upper class-needs which the Catholic church could not
Less critical is Karl Braunhart, who wrote his theological dissertation at meet. Consequently they represent a neo-liberal economic and social system.
the University of Heidelberg on the neo-Pentecostals in Honduras. Although Whether this is sufficient for Honduras is another question. However, the
numerically not very strong, this group is politically infl~ential.~’ According situation in Honduras is not very different, it seems to me, from that of the
to Braunhart one of the neo-Pentecostal churches (“Vida Abundante”) attracts rest of Protestant churches in the world, including the church of Wurttem-
mainly “professionals, well educated specialists of middle and higher ranks. A burg, of which Karl Braunhart is a pastor.
great percentage of church members has one or two university degrees. 40-50 In relation to the dilemma between the poor Pentecostals and the Pente-
engineers, besides lawyers, doctors and architects are members.”46Braunhart costals with money and power, Harvey Cox (who considers himself “a sympa-
gives a detailed picture of these churches; but he is mainly interested in their thetic fellow traveler” of Pentecostalism and has “developed a genuine
social and political positions. He shows that “seen from the point of social and fondness for the movement” knowing “how much the world needs its message
political science they diagnose and describe the problem of the country and its spirit”) nevertheless sees cause for genuine concern. He writes:
~orrectly.”~’ As to the solutions, they prefer neo-liberal measures. Their
structural priorities are “democratization of capital,” participation of workers In America, most white Pentecostals have become terribly comfortable with “this
in enterprise capital, and so on. On the political task of the church Braunhart world.” They started out as a faith that brought hope to the rejects and the losers.
Today some of their most visible representatives have become ostentatiously rich.
reports: “A part of the membership denies that the church has to take sides in
They started out as a rebellion against creeds. Today many of their preachers cling
political matters. She should concentrate on spiritual issues. . . . T h e Neo-
doggedly to such recently invented dogmas as the verbal inerrancy of the Bible. They
Pentecostal Benjamin Villanueva who is also finance minister of Honduras started out teaching that signs and wonders that took place in their congregations
represents this position clearly.”48 were not some kind of spectral fireworks but harbingers of God’s new day. Today
Another part of the membership affirms a strong political involvement and sees some Pentecostals have become so obsessed with the techniques of rapture that
in the lack of such an involvement the weakness of the Protestant churches in they have forgotten the original message. They started out as radical antagonists
Honduras. According to Pastor Peiialba the Catholic Church has loosened its of the status-quo, refusing to fight the bloody wars of this fallen age. Many have
relationship with the powerful and rich. But the Protestants have yet to find a now turned into flag-waving super-patriots, easy marks for the demagogues of
political role in their fight against injustice. Pastor Peiialba includes explicitly the new religious right. They started out as a radically inclusive spiritual
49
his own church in this judgment. fellowship in which race and gender virtually disappeared. That is hardly the
case, at least in most white Pentecostal churches today.
Smith, Dennis, “Coming,” 139.
“According to Braunhart (Heiliger Geist, 39, 41), 37% of Protestants in Hon- But I have not given up hope. In fact what impressed me most about the people
duras are in classical Pentecostal churches. In addition to this, there are 4’/0-5~/0 I met at the Society for Pentecostal Studies was not just their openness to
Neo-Pentecostals (they are the object of his research). dialogue but also their commitment to rescue their own movement from the
46 Ibid., 58.
47 Ibid., 127
”Ibid., 150.
48 Ibid., 143, xxix-xxxii.
j1Ibid., 157.
49 Ibid., 143.
214 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Battle Against Unjust Structures 215
distortions it has suffered, especially in recent years. What I found there was an Both have a specific relationship to truth. Both understand truth as something
expanding company of young Pentecostal leaders who are determined not to which happens. Truth is not something which simply exists but which
barter the power of their remarkable movement for a questionable batch of emerges. Both are therefore in opposition to objectivism and idealism.
currently religious and political slogans.52
The perception that Christianity and Marxism are irreconcilable enemies which
That Dennis Smith’s and Harvey Cox’s concern is shared by not a few can meet only on a battle-ground has enormous destructive potential for the
Pentecostal leaders can be seen from the fact that they published these schol- international community and the future of humanity. This crusader mentality is
ars’ reflections in a Pentecostal periodical. T h e ability for critical self-exami- a betrayal of the gospel for it reduces the Christian faith to a politico-ideological
nation has always been a mark of the Spirit. force. It may also be a distortion of Marxism . . . While in the East, Christian
truth and values are officially opposed, in the West they are often verbally
honored while practically they are ignored or even totally rejected.58
Pentecostalism and Marxism
Peter KuzmiES3from former Yugoslavia, wrote his dissertation on the “Christianity is not the official ideology of the West and capitalism is
Serbo-Croatic Bible translation at the Catholic Faculty of the University of not the economic theory of Biblical faith. Old extreme positions must go:
Zagreb. He has discovered that the topic of Marxism can “generate more heat Christianity should no longer be identified with anti-communism nor
than light,” and agrees with Paul Tillich: Marx’s name “has become so potent should Marxism be reduced to militant a t h e i ~ m . ” ’That
~ does not mean for
a political and semi-religious symbol, divine or demonic, that whatever you KuzmiE that the Christian church must make compromises with the com-
say about him will be used against you by fanatics on both sides.”j4 He is aware munists. H e agrees with Jan Milii: Lochman, a Czech theologian, that “any
that dogmatic Marxism is dead. “Even if the process were reversible by sheer attempts to relate the gospel too closely to an ideology is dangerous for its
use of military power, the people would not take it any longer. Where all of integrity and identity.”60
this will lead is impossible to predict.”” He is well informed on Pentecostals in China and in the former Soviet Union
In Kuzmie’s opinion Marxism is neither monolithic nor is it-as is and points to their strength and growth. As the Marxist specialist Aleksei Trofi-
sometimes said-neutral science. Christians must know that Marxism and movich Moskalenko has also discovered, prayer and glossolalia are a strength of
Christianity are “actually relatives, relatives historically and philosophically at these movements: “Such is the influence of the prayer meetings of the Pente-
odds with each other.” “Nicolai Berdyaev argued that communism and Chris- costals on the consciousness and feelings of believers. It is one of the most
tianity are rival religions, and William Temple explained the similarity of powerful means of religion’s influence. Very often only two or three visits to
Christian and Marxist social ideas by pronouncing the latter a Christian these meetings are quite sufficient for the leaders of the congregation to turn
heresy.”j6 a novice into a religious fanatic, a zealous adherent of the Pentecostal sect.”61
In Eastern Europe Pentecostals have learned to distinguish between “dog- The largest Pentecostal church in Romania (in Timisoara) has an attendance
matic” (rigid, inflexible, bureaucratic, consistently anti-Christian) and “non- of about 5,000, with over 3,000 active members, but it has never had one
dogmatic” (humanist, tolerant, philosophically open for dialogue) Marxists. salaried minister.62In China, the Marxist revolution, which wanted to destroy
We also must differentiate between Marxism where it is in power, where it is the church by separating pastors from their congregations and by confiscating
a marginal or emerging force, and where it is outlawed and thus underground. the church buildings, “has strengthened the Chinese church. It was forced to
Kuzmii: quotes the “excellent Lutheran document ‘Theological Reflection discover New Testament principles of congregational life.”63
Upon the Encounter of the Church with Marxism in Various Cultural Con- Kuzmii: also sees the weakness of Pentecostals in these countries: the
texts’ ””and outlines these similarities and differences in detail. H e agrees generation gap, a lack of concern for larger human and social issues, and a
with Hugo Assman’s comparison of “non-dogmatic Marxism and authentic retreat from the world.
Biblical Christianity” on the functional, although not on the ideological, level. For Pentecostals, however, it is imperative to discover that Marxist
criticism of religion-with all its stereotypes, abuse of science and false
52 Cox,“Reflections,” 34.
Sandidge, “Kuzmif.”
j3
54 Tillich, “Marx,” 906.
’* Kuzmif, “Respond,” 152.
j91bid., 153.
” KuzmiC, “Respond,” 144. This article contains a detailed bibliography of Lochman, Encountering M a r x , 15. KuzmiE, “Respond,” 155.
KuzmiC’s work on Marxism. 61 Moskalenko, Piatidesiatniki; KuzmiE, “Respond,” 156. On the Pentecostals in
j6 Cf. Lyon, Karl M a r x , 11-12; Kuzmif, “Respond,” 147. Russia see The Pentecostals, 267-87 and Fletcher. Soviet.
” “Theological Reflections on the Encounter of the Church with Marxism in bL KuzmiC, “Respond,” 157.
Various Cultural Contexts,” in Mojzes (ed.), Varieties of Christian-Marxist Dialogue, 67. 63 Ibid.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Decelopments Worldwide Battle Against Unjust Structures 217
216
Perhaps I could cr-y, I could moo like mad

prop‘aganda-“is n o t all wrong, a n d we have come t o acknowledge t h a t the rise until all cows know that we are not just units ofproduction,
a n d spread of Western a n d M a r x i s t atheism is proportionately related t o the machines which produce milk
shrinking credibility of t h e institutional Christian church.” He refers explic- until our bosses know that we have a name and ask themselaes:
itly to H r o m a d k a . W h a t does it help to gain the whole world and lose our souls?
M y God, show me a solution.
We must humbly acknowledge that religion was frequently used as a manipulat- You do not want us to be mere units ofproduction.66
ive tool of the powerful and mighty, often serving as an ideological screen to
justify the actions of powerful oppressors to pacify the poor and exploited.
White-washing unjust wars, justifying economic injustices and blatant exploita-
tion, and smoke-screening racial discrimination are only some of the obvious
evils that the church has practiced for ages . . . T h e Pentecostals as “the church
of the working class”-as they have been occasionally labeled-and as a move-
ment of the “whole/full gospel,” are in a unique position to overcome this
criticism and other Marxist prejudices and stereotypes.“
In my c h a p t e r on Italy I have described this working class, which many

t i m e s voted for the communists. For w h o m else could they vote? P e r h a p s for
t h e Democrazia Cristiana w i t h its violence against P e n t e c o s t a l i ~ m ? ~ ~
I finish this c h a p t e r on t h e “Battle Against U n j u s t Structures’’ w i t h a
prayer w i t h a n d for all those who a r e manipulated in t h e present world.
Prayer of the Cow
0 m y God,
Sometimes Ifeel like a cow,
a big, beautiful milk cow.
I must eat to make milk and manure.
I n the past I had a name
and the farmer came in the morning
and scratched me between my horns.
N o w I am only a unit ofproduction
and 1produce milk and manure.
In the past the bull came once a year
now onl?/ the t’eterinary doctor comes.
W h y must I be a cow?
Wh,y can I not be a beautiful hart or an eagle or a butterfly?
Wh,y am I just a unit of production
who is judged according to her profitability?
A n d when I cease to produce I am superfluous.
Could I not be a more human cow?
How can I do that?
Yes, I could do something.
I could produce a n almighty heap o f manure
and submerge the whole country in it.
But is that a solution? 66 When I prayed this prayer in a Swiss village I got into trouble with a Member
I would drown myself: of Parliament (who happened to be the secretary of the Farmers’ Union). H e thought
I was being polemical against Swiss agriculture. However, the workers in the congre-
gation understood that I was not prayingabout Swiss cows but about all the workers,
641bid., 161. all the units of production. On this see Hollenweger, “Efficiency,” in more detail in
65 The Pentecostals, 251-66. T h i s situation has in fact probably now changed, but I T h 2,214-25. See also Tonks, Dectsion-Maktng. I was research assistant to Professor
I have no exact information. Rich, the leading social ethics scholar in Switzerland.
Rethinking the Spirit 219
Pentecostal churches by the confessional declarations and the local pastors.

T h e Eastern Orthodox churches complain bitterly, saying that this is not a
SEVENTEEN doctrine of the Spirit but a device by church authorities to control and domes-
ticate the Spirit in Pentecostal, Catholic, and Protestant churches. Hence the
charge that the West does not have a proper pneumatology. Some Orthodox go
even so far as to say that thefilioque is in the first instance a doctrine about the
pope and his infallibility.
There are a number of Western theologians who have had second thoughts
Rethinking the Spirit on thefiliogue, including some in the Anglican Church, the Catholic author
Yves Congaq2 and a number of Dutch theologian^.^ But even if one operates
within Reformation theology, one must admit that Huldreich Zwingli4 and
John Calvin’ were not prepared to reduce pneumatology to christology, and
A Western or an Eastern Pneumatology recognized the Spirit outside the churches and outside the influence of the
Remarkably Pentecostalism has not developed a pneumatol- Christian gospel. For the Pentecostals the problem can be formulated as follows:
ogy which fits its experience. One would expect Pentecostals and
charismatics to be strong on pneumatology; this is not the case. if an important element of Pentecostal spirituality comes from the black slave religion
and therefore ultimately from their pre-Christian African past;
They are strong on experience of the Spirit, on pneumapraxis, if many elements of pre-Christian African religions have been selectively integrated and
but they are weak on the interpretation of these experiences. transformed in African Pentecostal churches (chapters 6, pp. 54-80 and 5, pp. 41-53);
Generally Pentecostals adhere to a Calvinistic pneuma- if elements of Korean Shamanism reemerge in Korean Pentecostalism(chapter8, pp. 99-105);
tology. It is strictly christological, despite demurrers. T h e if elements of American Indian culture re-emerge in Latin American Pentecostalism
Spirit is allowed no dignity on his (or her) own, but is (chapter 7, pp. 81-98);
if elements of Western middle-class culture become dominant in Western Pentecosral-
constrained by the doctrine of the Jiliogue (although the
ism (chapter 18, pp. 228-45); and
Jiliogue is seldom discussed). Schematically Western under- if all these elements are clearly decisive for the growth and strength of Pentecostalism,
standings of the procession of the Spirit look like this: then we must ask whether these elements might belong to the order of God’s creation,
to the realm of the Creator Spiritus, to the good but confused order of creation and not
Eastern Model Western Model exclusively to the order of the prince of this world.
Father Father -Son
pneumatological way of understanding this would be to see the Holy
Spirit as “ruach Yahwe”-the life-giving, life-sustaining Spirit of God-fol-
lowing the Old and New Testament (for example, Acts 2:17: the Holy Spirit
is poured out on all flesh, not just on Christian or religious flesh). Moltmann
Unfortunately in praxis Western pneumatology looks rather calls this option panentheism (not pantheism), a technical term which means
like this: that God’s Spirit is both person and life-giving power. He (or she, “ruach” is
Father female) is present in all life, not just in Christian life.6
I
Son
However, if such a pneumatology (the details of which I have elaborated
elsewhere)’ were to emerge, this would make a relevant doctrine of the Trinity
I
Spirit * Congar, Crors.
-
3 0. Noordmans, G . J. Hoenderdaal, A. A. van Ruler, discussed in ZTh 3,323ff.

4Literature and discussion o n Zwingli in ZTh 1, 327ff a n d ZTh 3, 157ff.
Thus in the West, what is spiritual is determined exclu- 5 u Ille (Spiritus Sanctus) enim est q u i ubique diffusus omnia sustinet, vegetat e t
sively by christology. In turn, proper christology is determined vivificat in coelo et i n terra,” Calvin, Instrtutto I 13, 14; cf. Krusche, Wrrken, in
in the Catholic church by the curia,’ and in the Protestant and Particular chapter I1 (“Der Heilige Geist und der Kosmos”). Also Moltmann, Creation.
A positive review of Moltmann by William K. Kay in E P T A Bulletwi 6/3, 1987, 107-9.
6 0 n this the work by Daniel L y s is vitally important: Lys, ‘‘Riiach. ”
‘See Vischer, Spirit.Discussion and exact sources in I T h 3, 305-7 Hollenweger, “Creator”; idem, “Creatures”; idem, “L’experience.” Eldin ViIlafafie
220 PENTECOSTALISM: Oragins and Developments Worldwide Rethinking the Spirit 22 1
vitar. Otherwise spirituality might disintegrate into a form of all-embracing also the East Syrian (Assyrian o r ‘Nestorian’) church which rejected the
NewAgereligion(chapter 11,pp. 132-41). Itseemstomethatsuchadoctrine decrees of the Council of Chalcedon in 45 1.7’9
of the Trinity is called for because most Pentecostals d o not have a trinitarian Burgess is well aware of Eastern spirituality. “Because of their belief that
spirituality, b u t rather a kind of Jesus-religion o r God- Father religion. all Christians are prophets who are guided by the Holy Spirit, local congrega-
I also d o not postulate such a trinitarian theology because it is a Christian tions in Eastern Christianity are lay-led.”10 T h e y practice healing through
tradition, but because it is necessary if we are to safeguard a Creator Spiritus prayer or Unction of the Sick” and have a wider range of “gifts of the Spirit”
pneumatology. I n any case, such a theology would have to focus on the than the Pentecostals. H e also sees their weakness. “There seems to be a
following question: What is the relation between the mode of God’s being natural tendency to pass from seeking the truth to defending it against those
which transcends our experience, spirituality, and theology (the Father, God’s who seek it in new ways.’’ H e concludes: “Perhaps a more healthy response for
transcendence); and the modes of God’s being which operates as life giving all people would be to learn from each other.”
ruach Yahwe in all religions, cultures, and perhaps even in parts of nature (the Gerald T. Sheppard observes that Pentecostals can agree with the Eastern
Spirit); and the mode of God’s being which manifested himself in an historical Orthodox criticism of thefiliogue clause as entailing the danger of making the
person, namely Jesus of Nazareth (the Son). Spirit an inferior member of the Trinity, and that Pentecostals would benefit
T h e term “mode of being” of G o d (Seinmeise) is taken from Karl Barth’s from a greater familiarity with the Orthodox tradition and the argumentation
doctrine of the Trinity, and signals an attempt to overcome the restrictions of of the Greek fathers.
the language of the “persons of God,” which in our age and culture can only This, in turn, would lead automatically to a positive appreciation of
be misunderstood.8 Moltmann’s approach to God in Creation,12 and to the insight that “the
Such proposals are not taken entirely out of thin air. Some Pentecostals Spirit- on a cosmic scope-is preparing the way for the new creation.”13
have begun to think in this direction. Stanley M. Burgess states that Take for example, Richard J. Mouw who, after a discussion of Pittinger, can
ask the question whether D. H. Lawrence was directly inspired. Mouw then
even Pentecostals, who are interested in the Spirit experientially, hardly give continues:
the divine Third Person lip service theologically. This should not be surpris-
ing given the strong Christological emphasis of Western christology. Our For me the most interesting questions arise in very different contexts. When
concentration on Christ as savior results from the negative anthropology after thousands of years of hostility between Egyptian and Jew, the leader of the
which has characterized Western theology since Tertullian (ca. 160/ 170-ca. Egyptian people proclaims, to the utter surprise of friend and foe alike “I will
214/220), and Augustine (354-430). Eastern Christianity does not portray go to Jerusalem,” and when the leader steps off the plane to embrace the political
humankind as so badly fallen, and hence does not have a strong Christology. leader of Israel, is that the identifiable work of the Holy Spirit? Is it legitimate
They attempt to stress each member of the Trinity equally. This results in a to identify the cries of revolutionary movements in Southern Africa with
stronger Eastern pneumatology, and also in certain doctrines which are promptings of the Spirit? Can we hear the recognizable voice of the Spirit in
distinct from the West. feminist calls for an end to patriarchal oppression and in the protests of those
who cry out on behalf of the unborn? Note that I am not asking whether i t is
Burgess goes on to discuss thefifiliogue, which modern Pentecostals in the reasonable to assume that the Spirit is somehow at work in such events and
West have adopted without question. H e includes not only the Byzantine movements. I think so. My question is whether the Spirit is identifiably at work
church in his essay (Greek, Russian, Romanian, Bulgarian, Albanian etc.) “but there and whether the Spirit’s mo\ements in the realm beyond that community
in which the name of Jesus is confessed are recognizable and chartable by
Christians. l 4
heads his chapter on “The Holy Spirit and Social Spirituality: A Pneumatological
Paradigm” with a quote from Karl Barth: “At the end of the ‘postscript’ Barth also
told his dream-which he had also occasionally mentioned in conversations-that ’Burgess, “Implications,” 24. See also Dayton, “Issues”; reviewed by J. D. Pliiss
someone, and perhaps a whole age, might be allowed to develop a ‘theology of the in EPTA Bulletin 612, 1987, 4 6 4 8 .
Spirit’, a ‘theology which now I can only envisage from afar, as Moses looked on the I” Burgess, “Implications,” 27.
promised land.’ He was thinking of a theology which, unlike his own, was not written Ibid., 30f.
from the dominant perspective of Christology, but from that of pneumatology.” l 2 Sheppard, “Nicene,” reviewed b!- H. Zeegwaart, EPTA Bulletin 713, 1988,
Busch, Barth, 494, quoted in Villafaiie, The Liberating Spirit, 163. The inner quote 95-98. There is also a note on thefiliogue in Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 183,
is from Barth’s “Nachwort.” note 63.
8Discussed in ZTh 3,325ff. David Gill, in his discussion of Oneness Pentecostal- I 3 Mouw, “Life,” 120. Mouw is a member of the Christian Reformed Church and
ism, even goes so far as to say that “their understanding of Trinity approaches that president of Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, Calif., but his article was
of Karl Barth. Their use of the term modo (Seinsweise, modes of being) . . . reflects published in the leading American Pentecostal scholarly periodical.
this tendency.” Gill, “Oneness,” 109. l 4 Ibid., 120f.
222 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide I Rethinking the Spirit 223
‘Another commentator adds: “A genuine gospel will always be concerned altogether. But such a denial, I would argue, is in fact an exegeting not of the
with human justice rather than with the cultivation of a warm inner-glow.”15 biblical texts but of one’s own experience in this later point in church history
and making that normative.21
I n short, the ministries of all the gifts of the Spirit are given “to engage the
world.”16 In other words, Fee and others want to stress the fact that Pentecostals,
Charismatics, and others have had a valid experience which is important
Baptism of the Spirit: “Subsequent to and Different from for their lives and which they call baptism in the Spirit. B u t they suggest
Conversion” that Pentecostals should not make a dogmatic statement of their subsequent
Another issue which is widely discussed among Pentecostal scholars is the experience.
T h i s leads Roland H. Wessel to the question: “Is it not now time that the
question of the baptism of the Spirit’s subsequence to and difference from
Biblical scholars in the Assemblies of God turn from the patterns of interpre-
salvation and conversion. Classical Pentecostals taught for a long time that a
tation of Pentecostal experiences developed in the 19th century Holiness
person can be saved but not baptized in the Spirit. I n many Pentecostal
Movement in order to wrestle with the pneumatologies of Paul, Luke and
denominations the “initial sign” of the baptism in the Spirit is speaking in
John, and so to interpret them from within the writings of each?”22T o this
tongues. This doctrine has, however, already been questioned by the Chilean
Lederle adds that “only 35% of all members (of Pentecostal churches) have
Pentecostals (who have a strictly Methodist doctrine [chapter 10, pp. 117-31]),
practiced the gift [of tongues] either initially or as an ongoing experience.”23
by the Mulheim Association in Germany,” and by Leonhard Steiner from
In other words: T h e r e are different pneumatologies in Pentecostal practice
Switzerland.” These German-speaking Pentecostals have collapsed Spirit
and in the New Testament which should not prematurely be h a r m ~ n i z e d . ~ ~
baptism into regeneration or baptism in water, as has Brick Bradford, longtime
Perhaps here again Pentecostal scholars are not so far away from modern
general secretary of the Presbyterian Charismatic C o r n r n ~ n i o n For
. ~ ~ Spittler,
Catholic scholars like Kilian McDonnell and George T Montague who, in a
subsequence is a “non-issue”: “ T h e early Pentecostals did not intend to frame
monumental work, show that it is possible to integrate “Baptism in the Holy
a new ordo salutas, an algorithm for piety.”20
Spirit” into a long Catholic tradition of “Christian initiation.” Baptism in the
T h e Pentecostal New Testament scholar Gordon D. Fee suggests “that
Spirit can happen either in a sacramental context or through personal prayer.
there is in fact very little biblical support for the traditional Pentecostal
T h e main thing is that it happens, and that charisms become a normal part in
position,” but he argues further that this is of little real consequence to the
the life of the church.25 I am sure many Pentecostals would sympathize with
doctrine of baptism in the Holy Spirit. H e gives a number of “Historical
Reasons for the Rise of Separate and Subsequent Experience.” We now have
21 Fee, “Baptism,” 88, 96-98.
churches where 22 Wessels, “Distinguished,” 23, note 69. See also Bush, ‘‘Development,” 24-41.
people can be in the church, but evidence little or nothing of the work of the 23 Lederle, “ ‘Initial Evidence.’ ”
24 This is taken seriously in the article by Hurtado (“Spirit”), where he quotes
Spirit in their lives . . . It is precisely out of such a background that one is to
among others E. Schweizer’s article ‘‘nvEOpa” in the Theological Dictionary of the
understand the Pentecostal movement with its deep dissatisfaction with life in
N e w Testament 6.332-455. For Hurtado “Spirit of God does not simply mean
Christ without life in the Spirit and their subsequent experience of a mighty ‘non-physical,’ and does not carry overtones of asceticism in later Christian usage”
baptism in the Spirit. If their timing was off as far as the biblical norm was (804). See also Lederle (Treasures) in which he shows the many understandings and
concerned, their experience itself was not . . . The fact that this experience was interpretations of Spirit Baptism in the Pentecostal/Charismatic movements. An
for them usually a separate experience in the Holy Spirit and subsequent to their interesting and so far unsolved question is the place of Edward Irving in Pentecostal
conversion is in itself probably irrelevant. Given their place in history of the theology. As of late David W. Dorries from Oral Roberts University, Tulsa, Okla., has
church, how else might it have happened? Thus the Pentecostals should probably established on the basis of a careful study of the sources that with his doctrine of
not make a virtue out of a necessity. On the other hand, neither should others Spirit baptism (including the initial sign of speaking in tongues) Edward Irving
precedes the outbreak of Pentecostalism. Dorries concedes that no historical link
deny the validity of such experience on biblical grounds, unless, as some do, they between the Irvingites and the Pentecostals has been established. He also touches on
wish to deny the reality of such an empowering dimension of life in the Spirit Irving’s christology and states to my astonishment “that it has achieved distinction
in Neo-Orthodox circles in our century as a valuable contribution to Reformed
l 5 JeffreyT. Snell adapts here Padilla, Mission, 41. theological discussion” (C 17). That is not exactly the impression I got from reading
l6 Snell, “Beyond the Individual,” 56f. the valuable and striking book by Strachan, Pentecostal Theology. It is true, however,
]‘See The Pentecostals, 236ff. that Strachan considers Irving to be a “Reformed Pentecostal Theologian,” and that
‘‘Lbid., 325, 335. he presents a workable theology for the Pentecostal revival within the Reformed
l 9 Williams, Rodman J., “Baptism,” 43. church. Dorries, “Doctrine.”
2o Spittler, “Suggested,” 43. *’ McDonnell with Montague, Initiation.
Rethinking the Spirit 225
T h e function of speaking in tongues is similar to that of dreaming,

me when sometimes in a moment of vision I wish that Kilian McDonnell and singing or dancing, or even being silent. It is, as Spittler says “a form of
his friends were periti in Rome.
right-hemisphere speech.” Speaking in tongues is non-cognitive, but
meaningful nevertheless.3” It is a means of communicating without gram-
Natural and Supernatural
matical sentences, a kind of atmospheric communication. When a whole
Another controverted issue in Pentecostal pneumatology is whether speaking congregation sings in tongues in many harmonies (without following a set
in tongues is the “initial sign” of baptism of the Spirit. Within and outside of piece of music), Pentecostals are building a “cathedral of sounds,” a “so-
Pentecostalism there is criticism of this doctrine. Many Pentecostal churches have cio-acoustic sanctuary,” which is particularly important for people who
a great proportion of members (and sometimes even some pastors) who have never have no cathedral or have left it. Just as a cathedral is built of ordinary
spoken in tongues. If a third of all members do not speak in tongues,26this leads stones, so glossolalia is made of ordinary sounds. And just as, when put
to enormous pastoral problems. It divides the church into first and second class together in a masterpiece, the stones in a cathedral do not change ontologi-
Christians; and many times the “second class Christians” are the pastor’s most cally but functionally, so speaking in tongues can become a piece of art
faithful co-workers. If he sticks to his doctrinal tenets he is in trouble. If he which, like the cathedral, proclaims: God is here.
does not stick to this doctrinal tenets he is also in trouble. What should he do? In this connection one might consider a comparison between Dadaism
This is perhaps why the Pentecostal scholar Russ Spittler says: “Glosso- and Pentecostalism. I have observed the following points of contact: Dadaism
lalia is a human phenomenon, not limited to Christianity nor even to religious emerged during World War I in Zurich in a multi-lingual and international
behavior . . . T h e belief that distinguishes the movement can only wrongly be milieu of immigrants-similar to Pentecostalism in Los Angeles. Not far
thought of as describing the essence of Pentec~stalism.”~’ from the Cabaret Voltaire, the meeting point of the Dadaists, one finds also
I think that Spittler is right. The notion that glossolalia (or in fact any the first Swiss Pentecostal church.3’ That church grew also in a milieu of
other gift of the Spirit including healing and precognition) is essentially uprooted people. T h e poems of the Dadaists (rendered simultaneously in
“supernatural” is in my view biblically and scientifically untenable. Biblically several languages) appeal directly to the senses. They lack a semantic
it is untenable because the list of charismata in the New Testament includes meaning. T h e vocals and sounds are in themselves the message. Every
so-called extraordinary gifts (healing, prophecy, glossolalia) and so-called listener makes his or her own interpretation, similar to speaking in tongues.
ordinary gifts (management, teaching, giving money to the poor, even being Thus Dadaism (and speaking in tongues) creates a community across
married or unmarried). Paul’s criterion for a charism is not ontological or languages and definitions. It is furthermore no coincidence that after
phenomenological but functional. Pneumatikos, sarkikos, and so forth are not Dadaism and Pentecostalism a new expression of art, Cubism, emerged.
ontological but functional terms. A charism is a natural gift which serves pros
It created multi-perspective images, images which present an object simul-
t o symphe‘ron (for the common good), which operates in an ecclesiological and
taneously from different view points-just as the Dadaistic poem combines
christological context (nobody can say anathema Iesous in the Spirit) and
several languages, or as singing in tongues creates a piece of art simultane-
which is open to judgment by the ecumenical community.28
ously in several languages. Whether there are social parallels between the
Scientzfically, speaking in tongues has been demonstrated to be a human
mentioned expressions of art and Pentecostalism I do not know. However,
ability which may or may not be used in Christian spirituality. It is not
the similarity of the phenomena, and the appearance at the same time and
abnormal, only uncommon in certain cultures. Just as music, normal speech
a t the same place, cannot be an accident. A researcher who understands
and the bread in the Eucharist are common gifts of creation and may be
more about these forms of art might take up this issue. Perhaps the fact that
transformed in the liturgical context, so speaking in tongues is a natural gift
which many human beings may possess. As they live in societies in which Hugo Ball presented a Christmas play without words (only sounds) in the
speaking in tongues is considered eccentric or even insane, they do not have a Cabaret Voltaire would be of significance for this research.
chance to discover this natural ability, just as in a society in which singing or Such an understanding of glossolalia would also open the way for a “more
dancing were stigmatized, few people would dare to discover their gifts in catholic” understanding of sacraments. This is the suggestion of Frank Macchia,
these fields.29The same is true for the gift of healing.
special issue of Discours. Bibliography: Mills, Glossolalta.
30 Spittler, “Suggested,” 52.
26 See above note 23.
*’Spittler, “Glossolalia,” 340. See also chapter 3, p. 22. 31 swiss Pentecostalism is not properly researched. I have gathered a consider-
able a m o u n t of material and a t t e m p t e d a n interpretation in my Handbuch,
See The Pentecostals, 320ff. for details.
28
05.28.025ff. T h e first meetings were at Muhlebachstr. 126 and at Waisenhausgasse
Samarin, Tongues; Williams, Cyril, Tongues (reviewed positively by George C.
29
10 (Handbuch, 05.28.033a).
Batson in E P T A Bulletin 2/4, 1983, 88-91); Christie-Murray, Voices. See also the
226 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Rethinking the Spirit 227
who\wrote his Th.D. thesis on Johann Christoph and Christoph Blumhardt at accepted Weberian understanding of charisma as an extraordinary quality of a
Basel University. For him, glossolalia is a kind of “sacrament.” It “accents the personality. One of the main points of the Pauline theology of charisms is to
free, dramatic, and unpredictable move of the Spirit of God.” It is “a kind of overcome this restrictive concentration on the miraculous or e~traordinary.~’
primary sacrament or kairos event. . . . Tongues are the ‘new signs of the
Volf is seconded in this by the charismatic theologian J. Veenhof, who also
Christian Church’ according to Thomas Barratt,32the ‘root and stem’ out of
does not want to use the terms “natural/supernatural” in connection with the
which all other spiritual gifts grow, according to Edward Irving, and the
~harismata.~~
‘spiritual rest of the new covenant’, according to the Oneness Pentecostal J. L. T h e Spirit of God is-as the charismatic theologian Jean-Claude Schwab
Hall.”33 Thus “Pentecostals have parted significantly from the conservative says-always mediated through human media: through understanding, expe-
Evangelical preoccupation with subjective conversion” and have been led into rience, or emotions.39 T h e consequences for further research and for Pente-
the vicinity of the Lima document (BEM).34 costal educational institutes have been well formulated by Russ Spittler. Such
This new, broader understanding of tongues would also do away with the studies, he says, “ought to be done in a university-related environment,” T h e
dichotomy between the natural and the supernatural. T h e modern Catholic “vanity publishers should be avoided.” We need an “Institute for Pentecostal
understanding of the sacraments does not argue ontologically, but rather asks: Studies.” Such an Institute “would focus on published research, for which
What are they, for the gathered community? Furthermore, the New Testament there is no substitute.” Some Pentecostal graduate schools have forsaken the
does not know the word “hyperphysikos” (supernatural), and it is quite impossi- genius of Pentecostal piety and replicate, not very well, evangelical theological
ble to translate “supernatural” into Hebrew-the concept does not exist. Both education better accomplished elsewhere. In other words, Spittler pleads for
realms of reality-the one which we think we understand (the so-called “natural”) genuine Pentecostal research, education, and theology which seeks its own
and the one which we do not (or not yet) understand (the so-called “super- way, and does not imitate evangelical theology.40
natural”)-are God’s creation and the realm of his reign. He reigns even in sheol,
which some Bible translators render somewhat inexactly as “hell” (Ps 139:8).
This has been clearly seen by the Pentecostal Miroslav Volf, from former
Yugoslavia, who did his doctoral dissertation with Jurgen Moltmann on “Human
Work, Divine Work, and New C r e a t i ~ n . ”By ~ ~“work,” Volf does not mean “work
in the church,” but work in general. “Charisms should not be defined so narrowly
as to include only ecclesial activities.” T h e Spirit of God is active not only in the
fellowship (of the church) but also through the fellowship in the world. T h e
Spirit who is poured out upon all flesh (Acts 2:17ff) also imparts charisms to
all flesh: they are gifts given to the community irrespective of the existing
distinctions or conditions within the community.”36
Very frequently charismatic is taken to mean extraordinary. Ecclesiologicallythis
restricted understanding of charisms can be found in some Pentecostal (or
“charismatic”) churches which identify charismatic with spectacular. A secular-
ized form of this “supernaturalistic reduction” is found in the commonly
32 Cited in McGee, “Early Pentecostal Hermeneutics,” 126; Macchia, “Tongues,”

69.
j3Cited in Dorries, “ ‘Standard Sign,’ ” 49; Macchia, “Tongues,” 69.
” T h e whole passage from Macchia, “Tongues,” 63, 69, 70. See also idem,
“Sighs too Deep for Words.” As to Macchia’s criticism of the so-called Zwinglian
understanding of the sacraments, see chapter 13, p. 172, note 97. Macchia wrote his
dissertation at the University of Basel (“Spirituality and Social Liberation. T h e
Message of the Blumhardts in the Light of Wuerttemberg Pietism”). 37Ibid., 185.
35Volf, “Human Work.” His published dissertation has the title Zukunji der j8J.Veenhof in a review of Suurmond, Ethical, in E P T A Bulletzn 411, 1985,
Arbeit- Arbeit der Z u k u n f . Das Marxsche Verstandnis der Arbeit und seine theologische 16-19. See also Veenhof, “Charisma.”
Wertung [Work in the Spirit. Toward a Theology of Work]. j9 Schwab, “Charismes.”
36 Volf, “Human Work,” 184.
Spittler, “Suggested,” 54-55.
Signs and Wonders 229
I
I
scholars) point out. Texts, and in particular biblical texts, “are specific forms of
human actions.”2 They are “not ‘enacted parables,’ which mean something quite
b
EIGHTEEN different, the overcoming of sin or the like; they are concerned with real poverty,
real d i ~ t r e s s . ” ~
In our time it is mainly the health professions, including alternative
medicine, which deal with the real needs in the realm of medicine. Medical
doctors and alternative healers feel let down by the theologians in this work.
Doctors anyhow have long understood that they are only “treating” the sick
person-that healing comes from somewhere else. “From nature,” say some.
Christians say “from God,” or to be more precise, “from the life-giving ‘Ruach
Signs and Wonders Yahweh,’ ” who is the basis of all life.4
Since Ruach Yahweh does not operate only in Christians but is the basis
of all life, a responsible theologian cannot avoid the critical dialogue with
representatives of medicine, alternative medicine, and the praxis of healing in
This chapter has a threefold purpose. In the first place I pre- or non-Christian cultures.
want to document the necessity and the possibility of a It should be clear to the theologian that the place where wholeness and
therapeutic function of the Christian community. (Things healing may be expected (and not merely discussed) is the Christian commu-
are moving in this area in all churches, even the most ration- nity. Health and sickness are not private; they belong to the realm of public
alist ones.) In the second place I want to document the liturgy with and for those who need help. That is why this chapter aims a t a
critique by Pentecostalism of a hitherto facile and superficial community liturgy involving the “weary and heavy-laden.”
treatment of this topic. This critique will astonish many
readers, since Pentecostals are not known for their critical The Critique by Pentecostals on the Healing Evangelists
analysis of our topic. However, they have considerable expe-
rience in prayer for the sick, and this shows in some of the Pentecostals have always had a praxis of prayer with the sick; their books
more enlightened treatments of the subject. In the third and periodicals are full of healing testimonies. After World War 11, the key
place I shall try to establish some theological guidelines for figure for the emergence of a special kind of Pentecostal healing evangelist is
treating the whole field of medicine, alternative medicine, William Marrion Branham (1909-65).’ He possessed an extraordinary diag-
and prayer for the sick-their interrelatedness and their nostic gift and could identify the illnesses (sometimes even the names) of
differences. persons he had never seen. Unfortunately his healing prognosis was accurate
“Preach, as you go, saying, ‘The kingdom of heaven is at only in rare cases. The excuse of the healing evangelists in such cases has
hand’. Heal the sick, raise the dead, cleanse lepers, cast out always been: The patient did not really believe; for they were convinced that
demons. You received without paying, give without paying.” faith leads automatically to health.
(Matt 10:7f.) That is how Matthew formulates the Great There was immediate criticism from some Pentecostals; for instance, from
Commission, the missionary command of the church. “The Leonhard Steiner. He repeated his critique at a Pentecostal World Conference6
message of the nearness of the Kingdom of God is conceived but was-at that time-ignored and removed from the international scene.
in such realistic terms that the disciples actually bring it in Only when the healing evangelists started to organize their own financial basis
their words. They do not just talk about it.”’ Such an under- was there strong criticism from the Pentecostal churches. The lifestyle of many
standing is uncomfortable for many. Usually we replace it of the healing evangelists (often including luxurious villas, air-conditioned
with the “easier” Great Commission at the end of the Gospel
of Matthew, where it seems that we are “only” expected to ’Theissen, Urchristliche, 37 (English: Miracle, 32).
speak, to teach and to baptize. Ibid., 43 (English: Miracles, 32). Richardson, Miracle, 57.
4Very important on this is the book by Lys, “RGach. ”
That, however, is too simple a way out, as Eduard Schweizer Weaver, Branham; Wilson, D. J., “Branham”; The Pentecostals, 354ff. Chappel,
and Gerd Theissen (both non-Pentecostal New Testament “Healing.” This is an excellent historical survey but it is theologically and medically
uncritical.
’ Schweizer. Matthaus, 156; my translation (English: Matthew, 241). 6Steiner, L., “Healing”; The Pentecostals, 357.
Signs and Wonders 23 1
of these evangelists resembles more the doings of pagan exorcists than it does
dog kennels, highly-priced cars and designer clothes, and sometimes sexual
New Testament exorcism. The battle is won already (Barth)-that is what we
extravagances) made their glory pale. That is the reason why they now look
confess. l 2
for other markets, preferably in European hard-currency countries.
Allan Anderson, from South Africa, also criticizes the “power con-
It seems to me that the charismatic leaders of the European mainline
cept” of these evangelists. “There are not always instant solutions to life’s
churches have learned nothing from the debacles of the past. They continue
~icissitudes.”’~Boasting about their financial and building successes does not
to invite these evangelists-now selling the same product under the new
show the spirit of Jesus. “Recently I read about a charismatic church which
trading label of “The Third Wave”-and this in spite of the severe criticism
boasts it has more square footage than any other church building. So
by American Pentecostals and the Fuller Theological Seminary in P a ~ a d e n a . ~
what?”14 Pentecostals have discovered-contrary to Bruce Barron’j-that
T h e Pentecostal W. MacDonald describes these healing evangelists as
“the faith message [namely the conviction that those who believe will be
follows: Single women, especially widows, are the preferred diet of this species
healed automatically] does not have its origins in the Charismatic renewal.”
of religious wolf. T h e evangelist weeps and melts the heart of the woman. He
It was taken from E. W. Kenyon.16 Some read James 5:13-18 and say: “It may
declares that the kingdom of God is about to go under and his own soul is in
be that James deliberately chose words that are ambiguous to allow breadth
danger unless substantial financial resources are sent to him immediately. We of meaning. Thus, instead of specifically clarifying their meaning to reveal
may compare this behavior to that of Paul, who never collected money to build a promise to the sufferer of physical healing (whether forgiveness or encour-
up his organization. “The greatest threat to the Pentecostal/Charismatic agement or spiritual sustenance or eschatological salvation or any combina-
movement in the last two decades of this century will be the rise and fall of tion), James offers in his words a message that by its very nature and
personal kingdoms, because when they fall, as inevitably they must, the faith presentation brings hope for the future in both areas.” This passage is also
of those who do not have their eyes on Jesus, will fall with them.”’ interesting for the order in which things happen: first healing, then forgive-
Some pretend they will live to the age of 110 and then die of old age (not ness, then confession of sins. For most theologians this is in every respect the
of sickness). Others believe that they will not die at all. They exploit their fans wrong order.
without mercy. If one of them goes bankrupt, they say: “Sorry, you did not This theme is further elaborated by Keith Warrington, Lecturer in New
really believe; this is your own fault.” Others drive out demons by the Testament, Elim Bible College, Cheshire, England. In a rigorous examination
hundreds-they provide plastic buckets into which the patients can vomit the of the meaning of the words in James 5:13-18, comparing the passage with
demons. To this Robeck says: T h e suffering of Paul spoke louder than his texts from religious and secular writers of the first century, he comes to the
miracles.’ conclusion: “Most commentators interpret this passage to refer to physical
Many of these evangelists do not call themselves Pentecostals but-as healing either by medical therapy or supernatural power and there appears to
mentioned-“Third Wavers.” They see the world as a cosmic and moral be no good reason for doubting this possibility. However, it may be that James
duality. There is no room for the natural: everything is either divine or anticipates a wider form of healing, depending on the suffering concerned.”
demonic. They reject historical-critical research in favor of their own experi- Warrington adds, “It is proposed that James avoids a dogmatic route and
ence. “We are successful,” they say, “so why ask questions?”” instead chooses to be deliberately ambiguous to provide the possibility of a
Against this many critical Pentecostals argue: we find that Jesus did not wider benefit to the sufferer. . . . ”17
make a fuss about demons. Robert A. Guelich quotes Theissen in noting that On another level Eldin Villafafie takes up John Wimber’s P o w e r Evangel-
exorcism was not a sign of faith in New Testament times.’’ There is no ism and comments: “The tendency of many, including Wimber, is to see this
spiritual war in Scripture between the faithful and the demons; the exorcism struggle [against demonic powers] too individualistically and not see that
spiritual warfare must correspond with the geography of evil-the sinful and
’Pratt, “Dialogue.” Peter Hocken in E P T A Bulletin 7/3, 1988, 104-8. Smedes,
Ministry (mainly on John Wimber).
Guelich, “Warfare.” Guelich is not a Pentecostal but his essay was published
MacDonald, “Cross.”
in Pneuma.
Farah, “Analysis”; Robeck, “Signs.” See also Lovett, “Positive.”
l 3 Anderson, “African,” 74.
l o Thomas Pratt and Peter Hocken, as in note 7. See also the editorial to Pneuma
l4 Mathai, “Whatever.”
1211, 1990, 1. Bradley, “Miracles,” or the very critical review of Kenneth McAII,
15Barron, Health, 71f.
Healing the Family Tree by Brian Russell-Jones in E P T A Bulletin 3/4, 1984, 140-42.
l6 McConnell, Different. This dissertation, which was submitted to Oral Roberts
In Germany most criticism has come from medical and theological scholars outside
University, is reviewed by D. D. Smeeting in E P T A Bulletrn 8/1, 1989, 34-36. See
Pentecostalism: Albrecht, “Opium”; Engemann, “Paradigma.” also Brandon, Health, reviewed by David Petts, E P T A Bulletrn 8/2, 1989, 93-94.
I ’ That is perhaps not quite true, see Mk. 16:17. The complex topic of exorcism
l7 Warrington, “Observations.” See also already Gee, Trophrmus.
will be treated in a forthcoming volume, see ITh 3, 61-120, and Wink, Engaging.
232 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Signs and Wonders 233
evil structures of society. . . . They must see that the texture of social living cized the “individualistic, self-centered, and, even, narcissistic” tendencies.
makes no easy distinctions between the personal and the Thus prophecy is “trivialized and/or commercialized.” T h e prophecies often
When I was at Wimber’s Vineyard Church in Anaheim (California) in July “borders on the credulous, the absurd, the blasphemous and the exploitative.”
1993 I understood what Villafafie meant. There was not much “power” in the They deal with new revelations and novel and authoritative interpretations of
service, possibly because Wimber was “out of commission,” suffering from the Bible, with who to marry and when to have babies, with material prosperity
serious nose and throat cancer. The text was Romans 7, and I expected the and careers. “All over the world there are prophets who, like Balaam, prostitute
preacher to say something on the rampant racism also among Christians in the gift of prophecy for money and power.” This emphasis totally misses the
that very region. In the same week a Fascist youth group had planned to blow first century function of prophets.21
up the African Methodist Episcopal Church in Los Angeles. Indeed a topic What is astonishing in this short overview is not so much the eccentricities
for Romans 7. But no, the only examples the preacher could think of in his of the money evangelists (who make much of their money by leasing and
forty-five minute sermon were: bigamy, divorce (an increasing problem in selling their data banks), but the decisive, exegetically and theologically clear
American Pentecostalism), and pornography. Not with a word did he mention critique by Pentecostal theologians. All the sadder that, of all people, some
the obscenity of those young people who dressed in SS uniforms, said publicly charismatics with a decent theological education still give a platform to the
that the “down breeding” must stop and that they were starting a race war apostles of “signs and wonders.”
against all Hispanics, Blacks, Asians, and Jews and their fellow travelers. God It is clear that this critique does not solve the problem of the need for a
seems, in the view of these Christians, more interested in what happens in the liturgically and theologically sober healing ministry in our local churches,
bedrooms than in what happens in the boardrooms. Thank God, the following Pentecostal and non-Pentecostal. Here as elsewhere it is true: the best critique
Sunday I enjoyed a real Pentecostal service at West Angeles Church of God in of the false is the praxis of the true. That is why I now turn to what I consider
Christ. “the praxis of the true.”
As to the difficult question of demon possession and sickness, John
Christopher Thomas, Associate Professor of New Testament, Church of God A Community Liturgy for Sick and Healthy People
School of Theology, Cleveland, Tennessee, comes to the following conclusion:
During my studies at the University of Zurich we examined in detail the
In ways somewhat similar to James, Paul is not hesitant to assign the origin of healing stories of Jesus. We analyzed the vocabulary, the structure, and the
certain illnesses to God. Although not always the case, Paul sometimes sees a variations in these stories2’ I was already then astonished that hardly anybody
clear connection between sinful behavior and sickness or death. In only one text dared to apply the practices described in these stories to our time. In a seminar
does Paul identify the Devil as having a hand in illness, but even there, Paul paper on blind Bartimaeus (Mark 10:46-52) I therefore raised the question of
suggests that Satan does not work without the co-operation of God himself. The
the contemporary relevance of these passages. T h e professor-an eminent
precise nature of that co-operation is not altogether clear. Paul and the “Paul of
New Testament scholar-wrote in the margin in red: “Author should concen-
the Pastorals” (if such a distinction needs to be made) can also treat illness as a
“normal” part of Christian existence . . . If the evidence from the Pastorals can trate on exegesis!”
be trusted, it seems that Paul is not opposed to advocating the use of certain “Diseases and their cures have natural causes, and do not depend on the
“medical” remedies in the case of sickness.” actions of evil spirits. This puts an end to the New Testament miracles as
miracles.”23 We are taught that miracle-workers were commonplace in Jesus’
It is only logical that Mark E. Roberts gives the following advice: “Chal- time. Miracle stories were simply intended to illustrate the love and majesty
lenge and reject popular cultural notions of successful leadership that devalue of God; they were a sign of the Kingdom of God.24 T h e same is true in the
the criteria of apostolic servanthood exemplified in Jesus and Paul.” “Turn churches today: Listen to the preachers up and down the country. They tell
from seeking social legitimation as a goal for ministries to attain.”20 us that our sick world is promised God’s protection; that our political, eco-
In his opening address for the 24th Research Conference of the Society nomic, and personal relationships must and can be healed. At best, then, the
for Pentecostal Studies (Wheaton College, Ill., 1984) Roger Stronstad criti-
’’Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 201. Wimber, Power; Wagner, “Vineyard”;

’’ Stronstad, “Diversity,” 18-19.
idem, “Wimber.”
’’Bultmann, Geschichte.
23 Bultmann, “Neues Testament”; quoted in Theissen, Mtracle, 34.
19Thomas,“Deliverance”; idem, “An Angel From Satan.” The best book on 24 Theissen rejects this oversimplification. He writes: “We must firmly reject
exorcism I have found so far is Solomon, Living. See for an extensive discussion ZTh assertions that primitive Christians’ belief in the miraculous represented nothing
3, 61-120 (“Geist und Geister”). unusual in the context of this period.” Theissen, Urchrzstltche, 272 (Engliskhiracle,
2o Roberts, Mark E., “Weakness,” 23-24. 276). Similarly Twelftree, Christ Triumphant.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Signs and Wonders
234 235
swallow foreign food and medicine? Such disrespectful treatment depersonal-

sensational propaganda of contemporary healing evangelists is rejected. If
izes the patient-making him or her feel like a car put into the garage for
healing in the literal sense is mentioned, our preachers refer to doctors and
repair. This approach has led not only in Africa but also in the West to wrong
nurses. diagnosis and to illnesses which have been caused by the medical profession (a
Now this is all true. Only why should these texts not also really mean what
fact long known and noted in medical l i t e r a t ~ r e )We
. ~ ~Europeans also are not
they say? That is, that the proclamation of the gospel, that the community of
ill or healthy in private; it is the whole community, the soma Chrzstou which
Jesus Christ, has something to do with ministry to the sick; that in the
participates in the illness and health of the individual. It is therefore not
Christian church we believe that God is interested not only in our souls but
astonishing that in Europe we find approaches to illness and health similar to
likewise in our bodies? “The variety of possibilities in the pastoral and litur-
those used in Africa. I take the example of an Anglican hospital chaplain. He
gical realm is not exhausted by far (prayer for healing, services for the sick, uses the old Anglican liturgy of “anointing the sick”: before an operation he
anointing the sick, blessing of the sick with laying on of hands, traditional and invites the surgeon, the nurses, the family of the patient, and some parish
therapeutic c ~ u n s e l l i n g ) . ” ~ ~ councilors for a short eucharistic service with laying on of hands and anointing
The Christian Church will exercise this ministry-just as the Christian with oil Uames 5:14).
doctor-knowing that all healing comes from God, whether somebody is One such chaplain told me that he has observed three different results:
healed by an operation, by a reasonable diet, by prayer or by a combination of First, the operation goes well. Everybody-including the surgeon-is pleased,
these different therapies. In all cases healing is not automatic. Neither a and the patient is calm. This is also one reason why the doctors participate
reasonable lifestyle nor prayer nor operations guarantee healing. It is therefore in the liturgy, whether they are committed Christians or not.30They have
important that the topic of illness and health becomes part of our liturgies. “If discovered that the short postponement of the operation is justified be-
a theological system cannot accommodate the reality of Christian healing, then cause it prepares the patient better for surgery. Prayer and operation work
there is something wrong with the theology.”26There are practical beginnings together.
to such a balanced healing liturgy in some of the European and American Secondly, it may also happen that the patient dies during or shortly after
mainline churches (Africa and Asia have never completely forgotten this the operation. But this is not to be considered as a failure, since healing does
dimension of the gospel). But these beginnings have so far not been taken not depend on the faith of the patient, nor on the faith of the minister, nor on
seriously by academic theology, because their implicit ideas of what is “true” the holiness of the other persons participating in the service. It depends solely
are based “on obsolete scientific the~ries.”~’ and wholly on the incalculable mercy of God. Therefore neither doctor nor
For the Christians from the Third World, however, healing in the liturgy pastor are to be blamed for the death of the patient. But it makes sense to
is a matter of course; and these believers now compose the majority of accompany the patient on his last difficult journey. If somebody emigrates to
Christianity. For them, illness is always also an expression of a disturbed Australia we would also say farewell in a proper way, organize a little “liturgy,”
relationship, either to oneself, to other people, to the dead, the ancestors, to a farewell party, and wish him or her a good journey. Why should a Christian
the clan or tribe, or to nature. not be properly sent on his way when he goes on his or her last difficult
Unfortunately, this ethos of healing has been ignored in the exporting journey? The Catholic Church has realized this too: the sacrament which in
of our medical industry to the Third World, with catastrophic conse- the past was called “last anointing” is now called “anointing of the sick,”
quences (as noted by the World Health Organization in Geneva).28If we indicating that the anointing can be either a rite for recovery or a farewell
trample the convictions of our patients because we cannot share them, we ceremony.
can at best treat these patients, but we cannot heal them. Can we imagine The third possibility is for us the most interesting because it makes the
what it means for an African, who understands his illness to be a result of operation unnecessary; that is, the patient is healed without surgery. It is the
a broken relationship, when, in the hour of crisis in sickness, he is separated most interesting case but also the most difficult to explain. And we have no
from friends and family, is touched by foreign people and is obligated to means of knowing whether the first, the second, or the third possibility will
result from our intervention.
25 Fritsche, “Heilung/Heilungen,” 773. The Anglican experience has paved the way for many similar experiences
26 Parsons, Healing, 151. In the avalanche of literature on Christian and alterna- in Protestant churches on both sides of the Atlantic. This praxis of the true-it
tive healing (detailed bibliography in ZTh 3), Parsons’s book is an exceptionally sober
and o en minded approach.
29 Wilson, Michael, Hospital. Sampson, The Neglected Ethics.
‘‘Ibid., 142.
28 Djukanovic-Mach, A l t e r n a t i v e ; Newell, H e a l t h ; Pfleiderer-Bichmann,
301f they are Muslims (which is often the case) they will not take part in the
K r a n kheit. Eucharist, but they will be present.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Signs and Wonders 237
236
with my extrapolations of his exegesis. He is of the opinion that these healing

seems to me-is the best and most credible criticism of the sensational and
stories are “the expression of a human race in its childhood,” therefore not
sometimes damaging practice of certain healing evangelists. T h e challenge has
applicable to an adult (or perhaps even senile) humanity. “Miracles are alien
also been taken up by the World Council of Churches (and that not just by its
Medical Commission). In the Ecumenical Centre in Geneva, liturgies for ill visitors in our world.”32
members of staff have been conducted. They were introduced by the World I suggest that Theissen is wrong on this issue. My experience shows me
Council’s African secretary, the late Hank Crayne. After a long battle he that under the surface of Western culture and science there is not only the
realized that he had to give up his resistance to the application for membership desire but also the faculty for a bodily understanding of these healing stories.
by the Kimbanguist Church from Zaire (chapter 6, pp. 54-80) and in fact In Switzerland and Germany the liturgies for such services (sometimes even
he learned from them a more biblical approach to illness-his own illness. involving Catholics and Protestants together) are usually prepared by a team
Reconciliation with the Kimbanguists was in itself a healing story; and the of church members including people from the very margin of the parish,
introduction of healing services in the World Council’s headquarters in usually people from the medical profession or alternative practitioners. Thus
Geneva is probably the last thing one would expect from an international the liturgy becomes for them the place par excellence where the protest against
church bureaucracy. This story has not been picked up by the religious or the negation of life in our society is celebrated and demonstrated, where the
secular press, but it could become an example for dealing with problems of purely mechanical understanding of health and sickness is overcome not just
tension and illness in many areas of our working life, including the headquarters in theory but also in practice.
of churches.
T h e World Council of Churches and the Deutsches Institut fur ar- “All Nations Were Deceived by Your P h a ~ r n a k e i a ” ~ ~
ztliche Mission at the University of Tiibingen have for many years empha-
The title for this section is a quotation from Rev 18:23. This is the seer
sized the need for a wholistic approach to health, a “primary health care.”
John’s verdict on commerce and conduct in the city of Babylon. “Pharmakeia”
They have dealt in detail with the contribution of “non-white indigenous
means “medicine,” but also “witchcraft,” “sorcery,” and the like. T h e trans-
churches” to this topic, and researched the consequences both in Third
lation “sorcery” in our Bibles does not show the ambiguity of the original text.
World and European c h ~ r c h e s . ~In’ the course of discussions on this
chapter with Cecil M . Robeck, Jr., a Pentecostal scholar teaching a t Fuller
I do not want to give the impression that today’s medicine is a form of sorcery;
Theological Seminary, Pasadena, he recommended that I underline the but two observations show us that our health industry is in serious crisis. T h e
sacramental and corporate character of these services as over against the first observation results from conversations with doctors with whom one has
show business performances of television evangelists. Indeed, the former to sympathize-in spite of their high income and their high social status. A
usually take place in a eucharistic context (as in the Zwinglian churches in doctor in Germany explained to me that a consultant needs a high income to
Switzerland). T h u s people are realizing that sacraments are not about compensate for his professional and human frustration. Doctors have become
hocus-pocus but about the real presence of Christ among his people. Many technicians. They have become the servants of their rich patients, the insur-
Christians (and non-Christians) have said to me, if only Christ were walk- ance companies, the state bureaucracy, the pharmaceutical industry, victims of
ing down the aisles of the church, I would throw myself at his feet and ask medical propaganda, and medical lawyers. Patients expect them to heal all
him to put his hands on me. It is my duty and my privilege as a Verbi Divini
Minister of the Swiss Reformed Church to say to them: Christ is realiter 32 Theissen, Urchristliche, 297 (English: Miracle, 302); see also pp. 285, 295
present in His word and sacrament, in prayer and anointing; this is the (English: 289. 300).
I I ,
33 This section deals critically with Western medicine. I d o not want to be aligned
common testimony of all Christian churches including the Pentecostal and with Ivan Illich’s verdict on the medical profession (Illich, Limits). I know Illich and
Zwinglian churches (see chapter 13, p. 172, note 97). Let people call me a I am sure that he exaggerates in order to make himself heard (see R. H u b e r in a
sacramentalist, if by this is meant the generally acknowledged belief that review of Illich’s book in Kaltenbrunner, Pillenpest, 164-67, and the discussion
in anointing the sick and heavy-laden, Christ is present in His word and in between Hans Schaefer and Ivan Illich in Medizin stat? Gesundheit). A personal note
the prayer of His people, in the partaking of wine and bread. is therefore necessary. Doctors have always treated me well. Contrary to those
accusations in the literature, the doctors who treated me have always talked to me and
The healing stories of the New Testament “demonstrate in symbolic explained the cause of my illness. In most cases they considered their therapy as
actions a radical protest against the negations of human existence which is not “supporting actions,” once they had explained to me how I had to change my
rooted in our experience.” Theissen, who wrote this, probably would not agree life-style. I am convinced that at least once a doctor saved me from a serious stomach
ulcer by explaining the origin of an ulcer and my wrong reaction to the pain. It took
31 See the periodical Contact of the World Council of Churches; McGilvray,
him some time which he could not charge to my sickness insurance. The only
Gesundheit; idem, “Verwaltung”; and Grundmann, “Heilung.” question is whether he can d o this with all his patients and not go bankrppt.
238 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Signs and Wonders 239
in my opinion unscientific to pretend that nothing can happen outside of our

their illnesses; however, they cannot. They must, however, maintain the fiction structures of plausibility. Such dogmatics must take heed of the research of
that they can, which leads to dangerous passivity in the patient. T h e pressures the World Health Organization and other experts who tell us that our medical
from the pharmaceutical industry are indicated in the enormous publicity services are only suited to a minority of the world’s population, that they may
budget, which in the USA in 1958-59 already amounted to three times more be inefficient or even damaging in other and that even in our own
than the running costs of all their eighty-five medical schools taken together.34 cultures they are slowly but surely becoming too expensive. If dogmatic
Worse, however, is the fact that the doctor does not know for what he medical professionals deny the alternatives they become-according to their
should heal a patient. Only to send him back into the production process? own understanding of science-unscientific.
Neither the doctor nor the patient knows for what they should be healed. A Neither medicine nor chemistry can explain how it was possible for Harry
leading German medical professor, Hans Schaefer, criticizes our present Edwards to heal a patient in a London hospital telepathically, without even
medical situation. H e calls it an “inhumane medicine” (Medizin ohne telling the patient. We do not know how the Brazilian healer Ze Arigo used an
Mensch1ichkeit)-the price which we pay for progress. As examples he men- ordinary knife to cut a small tumor from the arm of the doctor Henry Pharish
tions the medical dissertations heaping up as scrap-paper, the competition without pain and without causing an infection.# We do not know how the
between medical academics; the many instances of planting catheters in veins Philippino ghost-healers effect their operation^.^'
and electrodes in the brain, of puncturing arteries and even the heart purely I do not want to enter into the polemics of the authenticity of such
for research purposes.35 phenomena. As in all such areas, some may be charlatans, but some are
Psychosomatic medicine is, in spite of a few important successes, no way genuine. Stelter has shown with all due accuracy how resistant our so-
out. Either this branch of medicine works according to scientific rules-but called scientific establishment is when it comes to acknowledging facts
how can we measure and quantify relationships between “body and souI”?-or which are outside our plausibility structures. He mentions the American,
else it presupposes a valid model of what makes a human being human, on Dr. Nolen, who has acknowledged that he totally altered facts, claiming
which there is no agreement at the present time. Such a model cannot be that the ends justified the means.46 A long chapter could be written on the
elaborated on the basis of empirical research. “Since humans have not made reasons for such falsifications “in the interest of science.” John Hasted,
themselves and have also not observed their making they know nothing about Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of London, has tried
the relationships between psyche and soma.”36 What they believe they know to explain the mechanisms responsible for the rejection by scientists of the
are convictions, “faith statements,” dogmas, and metaphysics. And such state- results of experiments which contradict their ruling dogma.47Truth is very
ments are not-as in exact sciences-falsifiable or verifiable. They rest on the difficult to establish, especially when it threatens the privileges of ruling
self-understanding of man-his faith.37 opinion makers.
T h e second observation relates to the catastrophic failure of Western However, the Philippino healers are not unique. On May 31st, 1947,
medicine in the Third World. It has overstepped its limits when it has stated Mirin Dajo put a sword through his breast in the presence of a number of
that “that which cannot be does not exist.” For example, the verified and medical experts at the University Hospital of Zurich. T h e spectators expected
recognized cases of healing in Lourdes should make medical science more a trick. But when they saw what had happened they asked for Mirin Dajo to
cautious.38 Statements outside their competence have been issued by medical be x-rayed. T h e sword was clearly visible. After twenty minutes the sword was
professionals in many countries, for instance in Brazil (where Zi:Arigo was taken out. Only a small scar was left.48
twice condemned in spite of his recognized h e a l i n g ~ ) ,and~ ~ also in the
Philippines,40 Switzerland, and Germany;41although not in England.42 It is
34
Rappleye, “Medicine,” quoted in Schaefer, Medizin, 277. ”Ranger, “Medical”; Wilson, Michael, “Materialism”; Goba, “Role”; NXU-
35
Schaefer, Medizin, 1 1 1, 140. See also Muschg, “Arzt.” malo, “Pastoral”; Hoerschelmann, Chrrstlrche Gurus; Becken, Theologre; Lartey,
36 Schaefer, Medizin, 156.
Pastoral Counseling; Mostert, “Men”; Edwards, ‘Ylttitudes”; Farrand, “Choice”;
37 Ibid., 161. Buhrmann, “Aspects”; Booyens, “Ethnological.”
38 Eagle, Alternative, 25. Stelter, Psi-Heilung, 224. 4-1 Stelter, Psi-Herlung, 119ff. (lit).
39 Puharich, Arigo. Stelter, Psi-Heilung, 119ff.
45 Ibid., 147ff. and Sherman, Wonderhealers. Naegeli-Osjord, Logurgre; Chap-
4.0 Stelter, Psi-Heilung, 172. mann, Operatronen.
41 Aktenzeichen 1 Str. 389/77, quoted in Der Stern Nr. 47, 10.11.1977 and in 46 Stelter, Psi-Hetlung, 305.
Gerlach, “Magische,” 74. 47 Hasted, Metal-Benders.
42At least 5,000 healers work in England in 1,500 hospitals. See also Daily 48 Stelter, Psi- Heilung, 145. Walker, B., “Physical,” 193.
Telegraph, London, 26.9.1985. Eagle, Alternative, 7.
240 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Deuelopments Worldwide Signs and Wonders 24 1
Finally, let m e quote an example from South Africa. Dr. G. L. Johnson I n his pioneering book on the miracle stories of early Christianity, Gerd
from Durban, South Africa, knew the leader of the Church of the N a ~ a r i t e s , ~ ~ Theissen does not seem to be far off the mark when he writes: “Superstition
Shembe. When she visited him in Ekupakameni with a group of Englishmen, (Aberglaube) is the faith which is rejected in a society . . . Faith (Glaube) is the
superstition accepted in a society. Where the line has to be drawn is decided
a Negro came with the message that a girl had been bitten by a poisonous snake by the ruling opinion makers.” T h u s Christianity was rejected as “supersti-
and that she was dying. The group went to the injured girl. She was still alive but tion” or even “atheism” in the first centuries of its e ~ i s t e n c e . ’ ~
the arm was swollen. In the shadow of a holy tree Shembe prayed to his God, went
We know, however, that many present-day illnesses are caused by our
to the girl, put his foot on the injured arm. To the great astonishment of all those
medical institutions. In Berlin 22% of patients in one survey suffered the
present the girl shook and got up. One could see how the swelling was disappear-
side-effects of medical treatment.j7 For the USA, figures as high as 30% have
ing. At the same time the snake, which had been caught, coiled up and died.”
been quoted, and similar statistics may be found for England.j8 We must
Here, therefore examine the alternatives to the methodologies and technologies of
the medical establishment.
common sense strikes (or what we hold for it) and reason protests because that
which cannot be should not be. Before we accept that our world-view is chal-
lenged we suspect bluff and fraud. “Fraud”-that is what the secretary general Non-Christian and Non-Medical Healing
of the French Academy of Science thought, when the first record-player was I t is urgent that we develop a better understanding and a more discrimi-
demonstrated to a circle of scientists. He thought it was a trick by a ventriloquist. nating approach to non-Christian and non-medical healing practices. What
He threw himself at the man, held his throat in order to demask him-but to the are these practices? Kofi Appiah-Kubi reports:
astonishment of all the machine continued to talk.”
In 1962, the regional sports organizer in the Eastern Region of Ghana had a very
When in 1893 the young Berlin surgeon, Carl Ludwig Schleich, wanted to present grave motor accident. He was admitted to the Military Hospital in Accra, the
at a medical congress the method of local anesthesia which he had developed, he was then most up-to-date and best-equipped hospital in Ghana. After some weeks
thrown out by the medical pundits of his time. In 1910 at a congress of German of observation and treatment, the specialists decided to amputate one arm and
neurologists and psychiatrists a discussion on psychoanalysis was announced. one leg. The man’s family was consulted, but after several meetings and discus-
Professor Wilhelm Weygandt hammered his fist on the table and exclaimed: sions they decided to remove him against medical advice and try the services of
“This is not a topic for a scholarly meeting. This is a topic for the police.”52 the traditional bone-setters. After some months of treatment, he regained the
use of his limbs. He returned to his job as the regional sports organizer without
W h y d o scholars react with mockery or fury when something new is difficulty; he was still at his post at the time of the survey.j9
presented to them? T h i s would be itself a topic for psycho-analysis. O n e
suggested answer: “ T h e younger scholars usually have to accept the opinions T h e author of this report is a lecturer and research fellow at the University
of their teachers and colleagues if they want to get on in their career^."'^ T h i s of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana. At the time of writing he was
is, of course, in flagrant contradiction to the declared ethos of science. working on his doctorate in Public Health at Columbia University. His ap-
Another suggestion: “It is likely that psychological forces are at work here praisal cannot be lightly set aside. H e has a high opinion of the know-how of
against which man is helpless as long as h e does not see through them.”j4 African healers, Christian and non-Christian:
T h i s is the case not only in natural science b u t also in theology, both The priest-healers are expert doctors, and they administer medicine. They have
evangelical and liberal. Altogether, these factors may account for the fact a wide knowledge of the properties of many roots, barks, herbs and leaves. At the
that many discoveries in o u r century have been made not by t h e established same time they seek to interpret the mysteries of life, convey the messages of the
experts b u t by scholarly outsiders.” gods, give guidance in the daily lives of the people, settle disputes, uncover the
past, explain the present, and foretell the future.60
49 On this church see Schlosser, Eingeborenenkirchen, 219-91. Oosthuizen, The-
ology. 5 6 ~ eissen,
h‘ Urchristliche, 230 (my translation; English: Miracle, 232). The quote
50
Stelter, Psi- Heilung, 24. Bozzano, Uebersinnliche. Cf. Mk 16:18. goes on “ . . . those parts of society in the Roman Empire which were convinced that
51
PauweWBergier, Aufbruch. Stelter, 1. Chrisfianity was an eccentric superstition.”
j 2 Stelter, Psi- Heilung, 9-10. 3 1 Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, Nr. 249, 26.10.1977, 30, quoted in Gerlach,
j3 Naegeli-Osjord, Besessenheit, 56. “Magische.” 64.

j4 Stelter, Psi- Heilung, 12. ”Eagle,
~- Alternative, 10.
j5 Rhine, ‘‘Introduction,’’ 12. Naegeli-Osjord, Besessenheit, 56. Cf. also Lyttle- ” Appiah-Kubi, M a n Cures, 58f.
ton, “Knowledge.” 601bid., 39.
Signs and Wonders 243
salem (built by pagan craftsmen and according to pagan plans) to the astrolo-
This is why a missiological congress held in Harare, Zimbabwe, in 1985 gers at the cradle of Jesus (at least according to Matthew) to the generous use
stated, concerning traditional African medicine: “The Church recognizes of hellenistic christological titles in Paul.
increasingly the contribution of traditional African medicine for the Christian Pentecostals might also be interested to learn that the famous Pentecostal
understanding of healing.”61 missionary to Zaire, William Frederick Padwick Burton (1886-1971) was
Kofi Appiah-Kubi considers Western medicine too expensive. One hos-
saved several times from death by using the method of dowsing in order to
pital alone (Korle Bu Hospital, the teaching hospital of the Ghana Medical
find water wells. Dowsing is usually associated, by Pentecostals, with demon-
School) accounts for fifty per cent of the national drug bill. “Is this the most
ism or at least with non-Christian religions-a fact which explains the silence
efficient way to distribute the money available?”62he asks. However, he also
of Pentecostal literature on this important aspect of Burton’s missionary
sees the disadvantages of the healers-mainly their lack of hygiene. But, he
continues, it is time to incorporate “faith healing” into our national health
But not all Pentecostals today share these fears. Out of his understanding
services, since it is accepted by a great percentage of the population. One
of the Spirit’s working in the world, along with his positive interpretation of
should allow the traditional healers to dispense certain basic drugs and medicines.
Young nurses and doctors should be apprenticed to the traditional healers. Hispanic culture, the Pentecostal scholar Eldin Villafafie can appreciate the
work of the curandera or curandero (traditional healers in Latin A m e r i ~ a ) . ~ ’
We can no longer exist with the lazy belief that more police will stop crime, more In the chapter on syncretism the question was asked: What do we learn
school buildings and teachers will make children more brilliant, and more from these biblical examples for our own dealing with non-Christian and
hospitals and doctors will make society healthier. Constructive methods of
non-medical healing practices? Which of them can and should be included
bridging the gap between rich and poor, urban and rural, and educated and
uneducated groups are an essential step toward achieving reasonable compre-
in our liturgy?‘What happens to non-Christian healers who become Chris-
hensive health care services.63 tians? Should they forswear the gifts which they have been given by the
Creator Spiritus and adapt to our cultural brand of medical practice? Such
T h e relative success of alternative medical approaches can no longer be questions cannot be answered in detail here. A thorough examination of the
denied. For the Christian the question here is: how do we understand, inter- whole complex of Spirit and spirits would have to be conducted before
pret, and evaluate these alternative practices? Many times when I posed this some guidelines could be established.66 However, a few theological guide-
question, I found that Pentecostals were afraid of the roots of alternative lines seem to be clear.
medicine in non-Christian religions. This fear is strange, since it does not also
apply to our own medical praxis, which also has roots outside of Christianity, Conclusion
which sometimes uses very dangerous drugs and practices, and which often
creates long-lasting medically-induced dependencies and deficiencies. No A Christian theology of healing must start with creation. God has made
such questions are asked in relation to our Aristotelian theological methods humans (not only Christian humans) so wonderfully that they have in them-
(chapter 15, pp. 194-96 and chapter 11, pp. 132-41); our rites and organiza- selves gifts of healing. T h e Bible tells us that we live because God breathed his
tional patterns; and our values borrowed from society at large, which are Spirit into us. If he takes his Spirit away we die. It is therefore not astonishing
sometimes anything but Christian. Unlike today’s Christians, the authors of that this Spirit of God liberates forces of healing in Christians and non-Chris-
the Bible were not afraid to adapt and change religious and cultural material tians alike.
from their non-Jewish and non-Christian context-from the temple in Jeru- This is not an attempt to make everybody Christian. I am merely taking
seriously the biblical testimony that all of us live through God’s Spirit. This
6’ Becken, “Begegnung,” 294. Also idem, “Kirche.” See also his Theologie; idem, is also the reason why non-Christians are able to become Christians: they
“Heilungen”; Klocker, Gesundheit; Becken, Glaube; idem, “Heilen”; the ecumenical recognize something in the gospel which has found an echo in their tradition
collection A u f d e r Suche (with reports from many parts of the world and a commission and life. It is the reason why rites and customs, thoughts and insights from
report of the Christian Medical Commission of the WCC). Shorter, Jesus; Stigl-
meyer, “Medizinmann”; Hilton, “Future”; Adegoke/Hollenweger, “Praxis.” pre-Christian times have found a place in our Christian tradition-not only
Sai, “Planning,” quoted in Appiah-Kubi, M a n Cures, 143. in the Third World, but also in Europe and America.
Appiah-Kubi, 148. He continues: “TOO often in the rush to resolve urgent
problems, important values are lost sight of. In an age where paper is more important “On Burton see Cartwright, ‘‘Burton.’’ My information is based on oral com-
than person, when money is more important than man, when number is more important munication from Desmond Cartwright.
than name, perhaps the greatest contribution of Akan culture is its emphasis on the ‘j Villafafie, The Liberatrng S p i n t , 113.
value of the name, the man, the person. It is hoped that this may change our concept This is done in detail in I T h 3.
of development and give it a human face.”
244 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Signs and Wonders
245
However, not all of these rites have a place in Christian faith. Manipulat- answer to all o u r questions. Some of o u r questions are stupid, and some of our
ing o u r neighbors, for example, or the attempt to explain all suffering logi- questions are unanswerable, even by Christ. He does not answer all o u r
cally-for these there is no room in the Christian gospel. What is foreign to questions- but he helps us to live with unanswered questions. H e himself died
with an unanswered question on his lips: “My God, my God, why hast thou ~-
the gospel is the attempt to make somebody Christian in our way, according to
our understanding. If this is true, then a few things which we call “orthodox” forsaken me?”@
in theology and medicine have to be questioned. M y observation so far has
been that the doctors are readier to accept this questioning than the theologi-
ans. Why this is so I cannot explain.
Finally o n e would like to ask: are there not specifically Christian elements
in healing? Yes, there are: Christian healing is rooted in the belief of God’s
sovereignty. It is in fact very rare that G o d allows us to look into his notebook.
From this I draw five practical insights:
1. A causal connection between the sin of a patient (or the sin of his ances-
tors) and his or her illness is expressis verbis rejected by the gospel. Of
course the Bible knows that there might be a connection. After all, if we
persist in poisoning our food, our air and our water, then it is not surpris-
ing that we become sick. But-and this is the difference-it is not necessar-
ily those who sin who become sick. It is often the innocent who are
affected.
2. The Christian knows that there are healthy sinners and sick saints. Faith
does not automatically lead to health, nor is unbelief automatically the
cause of illness. Many healers are themselves ill. Christians believe in God
in sickness and in health.
3. It is not true that faith is always a condition for healing. There are many
healing stories in the New Testament where faith plays no role. This has
also been my own experience.
4. In their healing ministry Christians must avoid all propaganda, and must
not trumpet their successes. They must not confuse success with blessing
and failure with curse.
5. The place where Christian healing can and should be expected is in the
worshipping local community, not in a virtuoso healer. Christian healers
should be integrated into our liturgy, even if they are not ordained. Heal-
ing seems to be a charisma which appears more often in lay-people, espe-
cially in women. It is necessary to show them the “craft” of anointing, so
that they can deal adequately with the “energies” and emotions which
emerge.67
I n conclusion: what is Christian in our liturgies for the sick is the insight 68 My own development in relation to services of anointing is documented in The
that prayer is not the infallible last resort which certainly works when all else Pentecostals, 353-76; idem, “Heilt die Kranken” (also in French: Hokhma, Revue de
fails. O f course there are such cases in o u r experiences- people who have been riflerion thkologique 42, 1989 65-89; and in Perspectives missionaires 20, 1990, 49-61.
given u p by the doctors are healed. But it is not true to say that Jesus is the See a h , idem, “Healing through Prayer” (in Danish, Prueste Foreningens Blud 1990,
3, 657-63). In the meantime, many churches in Switzerland and Germany have
published liturgies and little manuals on the topic. Cf also Heinzer, Mzt Kranken
67 Practical indications in Hollenweger, “Heilt die Kranken.” beten. This chapter is a summary of Hollenweger, I T h 3, 21-59.
Soteriology: Who Is Saved? 247
Soteriology: The Theory of Salvation

P T I:, It N I N E T E E N For the Pentecostal believer, the fundamental experience necessary to
salvation is conversion, or regeneration. In numerous hymns and choruses the
Pentecostal sings of “the miraculous transformation which takes place in the
soul and life of the sinner in the moment in which he repents and declares his
sincere faith in Christ Jesus as his Savior.”’
At the end of the gospel meeting, when the Pentecostal preacher makes
the call to sinners to turn to Jesus, the angels look down from heaven with rapt
attention. Their harps are silent and they fold their wings in awe, for “they
Soteriology: Who Is Saved? have never felt what moves a poor sinner whom Jesus leads home.”*
The Finnish Pentecostal preacher Hokkanen finds it difficult to describe
the process of regeneration, and yet he knows that something real happens.
The godless life comes to an end. Someone no longer dances, no longer drinks,
In speaking of Pentecostal soteriology one must distin- now loves God’s word and God’s people. “If you are not reborn, open your
guish between expressed soteriology and lived soteriology-the heart to Jesus the King of sorrows, and the miracle of grace will take place in
two are not the same. When a black worker pastor in Bir- you too- you will be reborn to a living hope.”3
mingham says: “Hallelujah, I am saved,” he means that he The conditions for regeneration have been fulfilled on God’s side in Jesus.
has literally been saved (like “sozein” in the New Testa- “It is received quite freely through grace alone; yet for a man to accept it
ment). H e owes his physical, psychological, cultural, and requires a conscious and free decision of his will . . . Regeneration does not
spiritual existence to the saving power of this Jesus Christ take place gradually, but in a m ~ m e n t . ” ~
and his saving community. Without Jesus, he would be It is clear from these statements that the Reformation doctrine of election
lost-literally dead. Nobody would care for him, and he is replaced here by the Catholic doctrine of “free will of man”-a point to
might well be crushed in the machinery of the modern city. which I shall return later.
But when an insurance agent in Holland who has been The International Church of the Foursquare Gospel declares: “We be-
converted in a charismatic prayer group says: “Hallelujah, I lieve that the change which takes place in the heart and life a t conversion is a
am saved,” he means something very different. He would not very real one; that the sinner is born again in such a glorious and transforming
be dead without Christ-he could still live on. But he has
manner that old things are passed away and all things are become new.”’
found a direction and a religious meaning for his life; some-
The older Pentecostal churches know, however, that the experience of
times also a spiritual family and a shift in priorities; which is
conversion was more dramatic in early days. Today their children become
certainly not to be despised. But it is very different from
the salvation experience of the black worker pastor in Christians in a milder manner, without being able to point to a definite emotional
Birmingham. crisis taking place at a definite time. Some of the very best saints of the church
This is why “salvation” means different things to differ-
ent Pentecostals. However, this intercultural understanding Asambleas de Dios (Dominican Republic), Reglamento. This chapter started as
of salvation is very new in theology, and has not yet reached a contribution to a symposium on “Salvation Today” at the Interuniversity Institute
for Missiological and Ecumenical Research, Utrecht, Holland, Fall 1992; published:
the official declarations of Pentecostalism. Perhaps the fact Hollenweger, “Salvation.”
that the new Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic M o v e - 2Pf;ngstjubel,no. 205, verse 2; The Pentecostals, 315.
ments (which is otherwise a fairly representative Pentecostal 3Hokkanen, Olerko; quoted by Schmidt, Wolfgang, Finnland, 21 1; The Pente-
lexicon) has no entries on “salvation” or on “sanctification” costals, 316.
is an indication of this present uncertainty. 4Pejsti, Zasady, chapter 11; The Pentecostals, 316.
5 Declaration of Faith compiled by A. S. McPherson. The crucial text for Pente-
In the following I will first present the theoretical state- costals is 2 Cor. 5: 17, but the Authorized Version follows the false reading of Marcion,
ments on salvation in Pentecostal literature; secondly, I will which introduced the word ‘‘all’’ into the Pauline text: “The old has passed away,
deal with the experience of salvation; and finally, I will try to behold all things have become new.” Paul wrote: “The old passed away, it has become
bring the two together. new.” The Pentecostals. 3 16.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Soteriology: Who Is Saved? 249
248
bear testimony to this quiet type of conversion experience, which results from a With regard to the condition of man before conversion, Pentecostal
lengthy period of Christian training. . . On the other hand there are thousands6 doctrine strictly follows the Western orthodox doctrine of “the utter depravity
in modern society who are unreachable except by means of a crisis experience. of human nature” (as opposed to the Eastern orthodox doctrine, which does
not see man as utterly depraved). Also, most Pentecostals believe that it is
J. E. Campbell, from the Pentecostal Holiness Church, accuses the Refor- possible to fall back from the state of grace after conversion,16 although some
mation churches of neglecting the preaching of conversion and of not believing believe in the “eternal security” of the converted. All agree that “however
in the supernatural new birth.7 “We believe that the church lost something vital
great a sin may be committed by a person before he receives the Lord Christ,
when she began to neglect that old landmark, the altar, where people may come
if he believes in him and accepts him, the sin is forgiven.”I7
together and ‘pray through’ until empowered and unified.”’ Added to these
Sins committed after conversion fall into the wide field of Pentecostal
complaints there are numerous lamentations at the “largely unbelieving clergy.”’
pastoral care. There is disagreement about what to think of children of God
Is it not a well known fact that the vast majority of the theologians who preach who sin. In the view of the Congregaglo Cristl do Brasil,
in the pulpits of the established church have experienced neither conversion nor
regeneration, still less biblical sanctification and endowment by the Holy Spirit. sins committed after the Lord has been received should be judged by the church
. . . However, in the Pentecostal meetings the word of God is . . . a power such always in accordance with the word of God, with the exception of mortal sin,
that every person who receives it is made new and set free from all the constraints which in accordance with the word of God is unforgivable. One of the mortal
that weighed upon him, all vices and sins, all fetters and lusts. . . . l o sins is committed when there is resistance to the work of the Holy Spirit (Matt.
I?.??\ 18
1L:J.L)
In practice things are not.so simple. Even in the Pentecostal movement

there is no exact knowing who is really saved. Of course bitter attacks have T h e existential problem of sins committed by the converted led the
been made on Bishop James A. Pike because he will not limit salvation to Holiness and Pentecostal movements to add a second stage to regeneration or
people “who happen to have heard the news and heard it well.”ll On the other conversion. This is the experience of sanctification, through which sins are
hand, it is asserted that “innocent children,” who have been neither converted finally rooted out. Ultimately salvation depends on this final overcoming of
nor born again, will take part in the rapture.’* There are also Pentecostal sin: only those who overcome sin will inherit the kingdom of God. The result
groups who declare the conversion which normally takes place in the Pente- is that in spite of the formal affirmation of the doctrine of justification by faith,
costal movement to be invalid, because in their view confessions of sins are the doctrine of justification is emptied of meaning and reduced to a prelimi-
necessary for a valid conversion. Some say that this must take place before the nary stage for beginners. Rockle expresses this view in a critique of Hutten’s
pastor, others before the person who has been offended, and others again famous book on Sects and Free Churches by writing: “Hutten’s basic error is
before both.13 that he speaks of grace without conditions, and the Bible knows of no such
“All endeavors in prayer and singing, in weeping and fasting, and all other thing. The doctrine of grace without conditions is Satan’s master-stroke, with
devotional practices are worthless in the eyes of God if sins are not confessed which he has already deceived millions of people and led them to damna-
with godly repentance and contrition, and the past restored to purity.”14 tio n .” I 9
Others even demand confession not only of remembered sins, but also of This view has led to a long, unresolved discussion on the context and
forgotten sins, a practice made possible by the aid of prophetic messages.” status of sanctification. What is sanctification, and is it a condition for
salvation?
6Campbell, Pentecostal, 122, 132; The Pentecostals, 317. No outsider can imagine the anguish undergone by earnest Pentecostals
’Campbell, Pentecostal, 60; The Pentecostals, 3 17. who struggle to live a holy life. In their worship they sing the hymns of total
‘Wyatt, Birth, 1Off.; The Pentecostals, 317. victory.
’Hutten, Seher, 529; The Pentecostals, 317. On the “unbelieving pastors,” see
chapter 1 1 , p. 135. Troubles almost ‘whelm the soul;
”Hermann Lauster, in: Die Wahrheit 15/4, April 1962; M D 23, 1962, 108; The Griefs like bellows o’er me roll;
Pentecostals, 3 18.
11
James A. Pike, Christian Century, 77/51, 21.12.1961, 1496ff.; P E 2444,
12.3.1961, 3. The Pentecostals, 318. On Lauster see Handbuch, 07.823, 001. Apostolic Church, Fundamentals, 3; Conn, Evangel, 13.
12W‘illiams,
’ Ernest S., “Your Questions.” ”
.. CongregaCZo CristZ do Brasil. Estatutos. Art. 27: The Pentecostals, 319.
18 CongregaGiio Cristii do Brasil; Estatutos, Art. 27: Mark the catholic influence
l 3 Church of God in Christ, Year Book, 88f.; quoted in Moore, Everett LeRoy,
Handbook, 178ff. in this formulation!
l4 Widmer, Kampf: Cf. also Drollinger, Offener, 17; The Pentecostals, 318. Rockle, “Biblische,” 3; The Pentecostals, 3 19. On Rockle see Handbuch,
The Pentecostals, 142ff., 319. 08.200.001.
250 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Denelopments Worldwide Soteriology: Who Is Saved?
25 1
Tempters seek to lure astray, The reduction of sin to what can be experienced emotionally and subjec-
Storms obscure the light of day;
But in Christ I can be bold,
tively has two consequences: (1) sin that is experienced as such (that is, as willful
I ’ v e an anchor that shall hold.20 and conscious) is taken more seriously than in the Reformation churches; but
(2) unconscious sins (the neglect of social and ethical responsibility; the
On the basis of the Bible, their pastors promise them the “total and condemnation of other Christians through ignorance or mental inertia) may
complete sanctification of the sons and daughters of God.”21But their every- be committed with a good conscience. “No one ever does wrong so fully and
day lives bring numerous sins. What can be done? The answers given by so happily as when he does it with a clear conscience’’ (Pascal).
Pentecostals vary, and the same group or the same pastor can hardly ever be This understanding of salvation was not invented by Pentecostals. It goes
tied down to any one of the possible answers. Sometimes they follow John: back through the Holiness Movement and Wesley to Catholic spirituality, as
T h e biblical norm is: Do not sin! (1 John 2:l) For this we were redeemed and the following story will show: A young man was condemned to death for
born again. But supposing that you are a young child and make a slip and sin, embezzlement. Those present took pity on the young man, who had fallen into
what then? Come to Jesus and tell Him that you have sinned, confess your sin to evil ways. The King gave $900 from the treasury to make good the debt, the
Him, and then He will forgive you them, for He intercedes for you.22 Queen gave $90, the young Crown Prince gave $5, and the people in the public
gallery passed the hat round and collected another $4.90. But since the
But at the same time they affirm: condemned owed $1000 in all, the judge said: “It is no use, the man must be
When many people say that we are not delivered from our sins, the devil has the hanged.” In despair the man went through his pockets and, to the acclaim of
last word, for then the trick the devil tried to play in paradise has succeeded. those in the court, produced the last vital dime from his trouser pocket.
This makes the devil more powerful than God. But these are thoughts that This example illustrates the understanding of salvation in the Pentecostal
border on blasphemy. Redemption consists of the total removal of the conse- movement (but also in some Reformation churches). Admittedly, the last dime
quences of the fall.23 is a very small contribution compared to the large donation from the King and
Occasional objections are made to this doctrine of sanctification. For the Crown Prince, but this last dime is the one that saves. Without this last
example, it is pointed out that it is incorrect to apply the expression “sancti- dime, without this minimum of sanctification for which God looks, there is no
fied” to Christians who have received a “second experience” after conversion. redemption.
Paul uses the term “sanctified” for all Christians. One could also add: even Anyone knowledgeable of the history of spirituality will recognize this
such Christians, as for example the Corinthians, whom we would hardly pattern of salvation. Ultimately it does away with God’s grace given
consider sanctified, he calls unconditionally.
That is why all the newer Pentecostal movements go back to the original Let me contrast this story with the experience of salvation by Martin
teaching. “If the Lord has purified us and set us free from sin, then the source Luther, who is for me not the final word in this matter, but needs to be quoted
from which all the hateful sins appeared in the past is now empty . . . and now here because he is often misunderstood by Pentecostals. Luther had learned
the heart cannot sin, because there is no longer any sin in it, so that sin can no from Gabriel Biel (1410-95): If man does his uttermost (fucere p o d in se est),
longer come forth from it” (1 John 3:6,9 and 5: N).~’ God will forgive him. This was meant to be a pastoral counsel to those
The inevitable problems which arise from this doctrine are solved by Christians who were tormented in their conscience by their shortcomings. But
taking a leaf from Wesley: only “the voluntary transgression of a known law”26 this minimal request was turned into a whip in the hands of a conscientious
is sin. Unintentional or forced acts, or those which spring from good inten- thinker like Martin Luther. In studying Gabriel Biel’s writing he had to ask
tions or ignorance, are not sin. himself continually: When am I really doing my uttermost? Who can give me
the assurance that the fear of hell (uttritio), which drives me into the confes-
2o Martin, W. C., Hymns; The Pentecostals, 325. sional, is this uttermost p o d in me est? Is not the repentance of the heart
21 Confession of Faith of the “Bruderschaft: Der Konig kommt!”; The Pente- (contritio), which flees out of love to the arms of God, this uttermost which
costals, 325. God justly requires of us-rather than the fear of damnation? But precisely
22 Kruger, “Ein”; The Pentecostals, 325. this minimum, this contritio of heart, was impossible for Luther to achieve.
23 Regehly, “Sehend”; The Pentecostals, 325f.
24Full Salvation Union, Manual, n.p. 1964; quoted in Moore, Everett LeRoy, Even though as a young monk he had sat with wide open mouth and nose,
Handbook, 298f.; The Pentecostals, 327. smacking his lips out of devotion2’ when he heard that every renewal of the
25 Krige, Paar, 19; The Pentecostals, 327.
26 WWXI, 396. For a full discussion see Handbuch, 05.28.004a, and chapter 12, ” Scheel, no. 281 (“Kleine Antwort,” Fall, 1533; WA XXXVIII: 148f.): “Wir
pp. 146-52. jungen Miinche sassen und sperreten maul und nasan auff, schmatzten auch fur
252 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Soteriology: Who Is Saved? 253
Immediately he tested his discovery on similar genitives in the Bible, and

monk’s vow had the same virtue as the first decision for a life as a monk, he
found that the Hebrew word “justice” (zedaga) did not mean the mechanical,
now became convinced on the basis of Biel’s soteriology that he could not flee
Latin concept, but God’s personal, sovereign justice-his free, unconditional
from hell through his life as a monk.28 Reading the Bible did not ease his
justice. This is the reason why the same word can sometimes be translated in
conscience. He recognized that “there was no corner in his soul that was not
the Bible as “mercy.”32
full of the most bitter bitterness.”” “0my sin, sin, sin, sin!” he complained
in a letter to Staupitz. He was made desperate by the incomprehensible phrase
The Praxis of Salvation: Experience
in Psalm 31: “In thy justice deliver me (in iustitia tua libera me),” which for a
Latin understanding of justice (Luther read daily in the Latin psalter) ap- In this section I want to remind us of the salvation experience of Pente-
peared to him to be gross nonsense. Justice-this could mean for him only the costals. Let us take the Chilean peasant. He is torn from his traditional
Latin distributive; that is, the punishing justice of God, which distributes to extended family and locked into the processes of industrial work and still, after
everyone according to his merits. For a realistic, self-examining man such as years, ill a t ease in the life of the modern city. But he finds help from the
Luther, this meant deserved punishment, not liberation. Pentecostals. Without this help he often falls victim to drunkenness, hopes to
His troubles were not eased by reading the New Testament. Even in Paul’s win large sums of money by gambling, or tries to forget his misery in the arms
epistle to the Romans (1 :17) he found this punishing justice of God, so that of prostitutes. Often the only people to have any concern for him are the street
he was greatly tempted to curse God. singers of the Iglesia Pentecostal. They visit the shanty towns and sing to the
So I was raging with a wounded and perturbed conscience; in great thirst I accompaniment of guitar and mandolin:
knocked again at Paul’s door in order to find out what he really meant by this Rolled away, rolled away, rolled away
passage, until after days and nights of thinking I observed more exactly the All the burdens of my sins rolled away,
context [ronnerio t.erborum]. “ T h e justice of God is revealed in the Gospel” and I remember when my burdens rolled awa,y,
“The just shall live by faith.”3o That I feared would never leave night or day;
Jesus showed to me the loss,
In the same manner he examined Psalm 3 1: 1: So I leji them at the cross.33
Praise God, when I understood the context (rer) and saw that “justice of God” At first he may laugh with the rest of the bystanders, but then he is
meant “justice that justifies us through the given justice in Christ Jesus,” then
convinced by the faces of these Pentecostals: in the midst of the filth of the
I understood the grammar and I began to enjoy the Psalter.3’
city they are already in heaven. Through curiosity and boredom he walks along
That is, Luther discovered that the genitive “justice of God” meant the with them. He hears a preacher who like himself has to struggle for daily bread
justice which God gives us, and not a justice which he demands of us. for his family. He says to himself, “This is one of us,” and after attending a
number of services he joins the Pentecostals. He is now no longer at the mercy
andacht gegen solcher trastlicher rede von unser heiligen Miincherey. U n d ist also of uncertainty, hunger, unemployment, drunkenness, boredom, and home-
diese meinung bey den Miinchen gemein gewest.” lessness, because he has once again become part of a “family,” because he has
”Scheel, Dokumente, no 397 (Sermon on John 3:16, June 29, 1538; WA XLVII, “brothers” and “sisters” who help him and give his life moral direction. They
90: “Ich will der hellan entlauffen mit meiner Muncherej und Orden”).
’’WA I, 558 (“Resolutiones disputationum de indulgentiarum virtute,” 1 5 18:
may not teach him to write, but they teach him to read and underline the
important passages in the Bible. He learns to read not only the Bible but also
“Nec est ullus angulus in ea non repletus amaritudine amarissima.”
3” WA LIV, 186 (Introduction to vol. I of the Opera Latina, 1545): “Furebam ita the newspapers, and sends his children to school. And because he no longer
saeve et perturbata conscientia, pulsabam tamen importunus eo loco Paulum, arden- throws his money away, he may be able to send one of his sons to study at the
tissime sitiens scrie, quid S. Paulus vellet. Donec miserente Deo meditabundus dies university. Because industrialists have found out that Pentecostals are loyal
et noctes connexionem verborum attenderem, nempe: Iustitia Dei revelatur in illo,
and careful workers, they ask Pentecostal pastors for advice when they want to
sicut scriptu est: Iustus ex fide vivit, ibi iustitiam Dei coepi intelligere eam, qua iustus
dono Dei vivit.” For the Reformed tradition see I T h 1,299-328 (on the ver?- different hire more people. So, the pastor recommends him and he has a stable job. All
and social consequences of salvation), also I T h 3, 157-59 (on the salvation of this he owes to the Savior who has rolled away the burden of his sin-who has
“pagans,” in particular Muslims). Hollenweger, “Zwinglis” (on the very considerable led him out of the prison of sin, indifference, and hopelessness; and to the
influence of Zwingli on Anglican theologies, liturgies, and Bible translations).
31Scheel, no. 449 (“Tischreden,” V, no. 5247, between September 2 and 17,
1520): “Gott lob, da ich die res verstunde und wiste, das iustitia Dei hiess iustitia, qua 32 cZ54 V, 155. O n Luther see also Volf, “Materiality,” in particular, 449-54.
nos iust8ficatper donatam iustitiam Christilhesu, da verstunde ich die grammatica, und 33 A “chorus” which has been carried by oral tradition throughout the world.
schmeckt mir erst der Psalter.” Steele, “Burdens” (has a slightly different version).
254 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Soteriology: Who Is Saved? 25s
Holy Spirit who has not just to be believed in, but whom one can experience (certainly no big computerized hospital) nor a healing ministry in its liturgy
in all sorts of marvelous healings, visions, and utterances in unlearned tongues can survive only with subsidies from America and Europe. Sozein, salvation,
(chapter 10, pp. 117-3 1). means for Africans salvation for soul and body: Africans do not separate the
Or take the Indian woman who is to be baptized in Pachuco. There she Therefore-as in the healing ministry of Jesus-these churches deal
stands at the microphone for the first time in her life, in front of two thousand also with the bodies of their “clients.” In a survey of the reasons for conversion
people. She has been asked to give her testimony in Spanish, which is a foreign we found that in the Third World-but perhaps not only there-people
language for her. There she stands-her face wrinkled, her back bent, over- usually become converted either because of a healing (of themselves or of a
whelmed by the many people, unable to speak. But then she begins to sing of friend or family member), because of a dream or vision, or because they have
her liberation. Every note is wrong, but the congregation helps her, prays for a friend who is a Christian. We have found not one single instance where
her, sings with her, and explodes in a great chorus of praise when she finally somebody was saved on the basis of arguments, nor on the basis of a sermon,
arrives at the end of her song. This again is an experience of becoming human, nor certainly on the basis of a hell-fire sermon. T h e sermon seems to have
of becoming a person-it is an experience of liberation. other functions: to those who have already experienced salvation, it gives a
John Davis,34 one of my former post-graduate students, told his fellow language and provides a narrative community in which they can articulate
researchers about a mission by thirty Californian business men to Thailand. their newly-found freedom.
They arrived by jumbo jet and distributed tracts on which John 3:16 was What does this all mean for Europe? Salvation essentially means a shift in
printed in Thai. Now, every Thai will gladly accept what a foreigner gives him. priorities, a new community and a new direction; this, at least, has certainly
He is far too polite to refuse. And if the foreigner asks him, “DO you want to been my own e ~ p e r i e n c e . ~ ~
give your life to the Lord Jesus Christ?” he will of course say, “Yes.” One does
not say “no” to a foreign guest. After their two week evangelistic campaign, Towards a New Soteriology
the Americans held a great farewell meeting at which they said that they had While the fear of eternal damnation might be present in certain sectors of
converted more people in two weeks than the missionaries had in ten years. Pentecostalism, in general it plays a role only in theoretical discussion, where
That hurt my doctoral student greatly, for he was the director of an the question is sometimes asked: Will those who have not accepted Christ
Evangelical Theological College in Thailand. So he told his fellow researchers personally be condemned to eternal damnation? As long as this is a purely
what a Buddhist Thai understands when he reads John 3:16 in Thai. First theoretical question, it is easily answered. But as soon as one has a Muslim in
there is the question of God. Whether there is a god or no god, who can know the family (as is the case in many African churches), then it becomes much
that? But anyhow foreigners believe in a god, so let it be conceded. But a God who more difficult. T h e same applies to Europe. As soon as a pastor gets a Muslim
loves, furthermore a God who loves the world, and a God who has a son, that is son-in-law, the question is dealt with much more cautiously.
either great nonsense or even a blasphemy. And a God who promises life Moreover, although eternal damnation for the unsaved is sometimes a
eternal-no thank you! That would be like a Protestant offering a Catholic (theoretical) motivation for mission, it cannot sustain mission work.
eternal purgatory if he converted to Protestantism. Life eternal is the last thing a What one seldom finds in Pentecostal soteriological literature is a discus-
Buddhist wants. He wants to get out of this continuous circle of reincarnations; sion of the reasons for eternal damnation. For here some discoveries are to be
he wants to be freed from the power of karma. So in this context salvation made. Who goes to hell in the New Testament? Not the unbelievers (this is the
means not “life eternal” but the end, the breaking out of this eternal circle. case in only one or two passages, one of which is the inauthentic ending of the
Other cultures experience and interpret salvation in positive ways appro-
Gospel of Mark), but the rich (the parable of the rich man and Lazarus), the
priate to their own traditions. For example, in Africa salvation now often merciless (the parable of the goats and sheep, where those saved are “unbeliev-
entails acceptance of traditional healing practices as gifts of the Holy Spirit, ers” in the cognitive sense and those who are condemneh to utter darkness
rather than their proscription as the work of demons (as under many mission- where there is howling and gnashing of teeth are firm b e l i w ) , the cowards,
aries in the past). For many African Independent Pentecostal churches the and so forth (Rev. 213).
Holy Spirit is already present in their pre-Christian healing praxis, as in other Furthermore in Pentecostal theology-at least according to the Chilean
aspects of their culture. The old healing practices are taken up, purified, Pentecostal Juan Sepulveda-
liturgized, and criticized in the light of biblical healing records. A church in
Africa which has neither a small medical station with a midwife or a nurse
35 Anderson, “African”; idem, M o y a ; The Pentecostals, 149-75. Chapters 5 (pp.
41-53) and 6 (pp. 54-80).
34 See Davis, John R., Contextualized. 36 See on this van der Laan, P., “Hollenweger.”
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Soteriology: Who Is Saved?
256 257
the idea of “perdition” takes on more significance: the world is “perdition” in experientially-aware soteriology would have consequences for christology: j t
the sense that life before conversion is a life that is lost, it is an unsustainable would relativize the theoretically believed but practically not really experi-
way of living; i t is to lack a “livable life.” In short “world of perdition” refers to enced doctrine of satisfaction: For “Jesus did not live in order to die, as some
a place where life and the individual “are lost,” where identity is impossible and theories of reconciliation fixated on the cross seem to say. H e died as he
the fall is visible; a world of loneliness, of hate, of sadness, of fear, of shame, of lived.”42 T h a t too is charismatic theology!
envy, of neglect, of moral degradati~n.~’
T h i s is why Miroslav Volf sees theologies of liberation and Pentecostal

theologies not as “prime examples of radically opposing theologies,” b u t as
containing certain commonalities. I n his article o n the “Materiality o f
Salvation,” Volf argues “that in o n e crucial respect they agree and that
precisely in this respect they differ most radically from classical Protestant-
ism: both liberation and Pentecostal theology emphasize the materiality of
salvation.’’ It is therefore “of ecumenical importance for liberation and
Pentecostal theology to recognize each other as feudingf a m i l y members.”38
T h i s seems, in fact, to be happening, at least from the Pentecostal side. For
example, Lidia Susana Vaccaro d e Petrella has noted t h e increasing atten-
tion some Latin American Pentecostals have paid “to denouncing corrup-
tion and sin, not only t h e sin of individuals . . . b u t also the sin embodied
in power structure^.^'^^
Volf summarizes his findings by stating:
A responsible contemporary theology of salvation needs to integrate the distinc-

tive soteriological characteristics of all three traditions discussed-the personal-
spiritual aspect of salvation emphasized in classical Protestantism, the
individual-physical aspect emphasized by Pentecostalist~,~~ the socioeconomic
aspect emphasized by liberation theologians-while also developing the ecologi-
cal aspect of sa~vation.~’
T h e integration of these three aspects does not happen through simple

addition, but by showing how each of these areas of salvation is a different
aspect of one and the same “full Gospel.”
T h i s is why I believe that the time has come for Pentecostalism to deal
with its soteriology against the background of its own experience- both the
experience of being freed from fear (fear of life and fear of death) and the
experience of liberation and of becoming a human person-and to harness the
potential of critical traditions which are also present in Pentecostalism, and which
are today coming more and more to the forefront. Such a critically developed,
3iSepulveda, “Pentecostalism,” 83.

38 Volf,
“Materiality,” 447, 449.
39 De Petrella, “Tension,” 35, quoted in Volf, “Materiality,” 463.
40 The first tradition is exemplified by Volf in a careful interpretation of Luther;
for the material aspect in the second tradition Volf refers to healing.
41 Volf, “Materiality,” 667; using material of his doctoral supervisor Jiirgen
Moltmann, he adds a fourth aspect, that of ecology: Moltmann, Creation, 250. 42 Suurmond, Word and Spirit at Play, 51.
Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church? 259
These converts have brought not only an enthusiasm to many staid and estab-
lished Assemblies of God churches but also their middle- and upper-middle-
3‘ TWENTY class status, which has legitimated greater openness to the range of the “gifts of
the spirit.” Due largely to this influx from mainline churches, confirmed mem-
bership in Assemblies of God congregations jumped from 646,000 in 1970 to
over one million in 1980. Perhaps the greatest factor in Assemblies of God
growth has been the fact that the charismatic movement has never been fully
accepted in mainline denominations and has been rejected by most fundamen-
talists. The movement reached its height during the 1970s as charismatic renewal
groups formed in every major Protestant denomination, in Roman Catholic and
Orthodox churches and among Jewish ~ o n v e r t sThis
. ~ movement seemed to lose
E cclesio1o n : momentum during the 1980s, reducing the pool of readily available recruits.
After years of steady growth, the Assemblies of God reached a plateau, with
Who Belongs to the Church? membership figures for 1988 and 1989 actually declining slightly. This plateau
can be attributed to several interrelated factors. Besides the waning of the
charismatic movement in general, the Assemblies of God felt the impact of new
charismatic ministries and the effect of the televangelism scandals. Independent
charismatic groups such as the newer Maranatha fellowship^,^ Word-Faith
Charisma and Institution Churches,’ and Vineyard Ministried promise fewer institutional restrictions.
In the writing-years ago-of the first volume of The Unfettered by older Pentecostal history and traditions, these new sects attract
experience-hungry charismatics who long for fresh spiritual encounters and who
Pentecostals, I noted that Pentecostalism must deal with the often mistrust institutional church ties. As for the Swaggart,’ and Bakker’
tension between charisma and institution.’ Since that time, scandals, although the denomination was commended for its handling of these
Pentecostals themselves have begun to discuss this topic. One situations, the publicity accentuated how far the Assemblies of God had moved
of those involved in the discussion is Margaret M. Poloma.’ In from its earliest restorationist vision. Unbridled wealth, sex scandals and com-
an article in The Christian Century she discusses the well- petitive bids for power make great television drama but don’t attract moralistic
known sex scandals of Assemblies of God television evangelists: Christians.”
“ T h e public thus became aware of the Assemblies of God not
A greater problem confronting the Assemblies of God-one that may underlie
because of its rapid growth, but because of the misdeeds of its the aforementioned issues-is sociological: the tension between the charisma
televangelists.” O f course, this is an unfortunate critique, for that initiated and renewed the Assemblies of God, and the rise of a bureaucratic
mainline churches take the easy way out if they discuss an organization that necessarily undergirds the successful denomination. Cha-
important movement on the basis only of the extravagances risma--elusive, fragile, affective rather than rational-is particularly difficult to
of some individuals (even if they are prominent). Poloma maintain in a modern and secular society”;
continues: “As sociologist Peter Berger noted some years ago,
that is, a t least, if charisma is understood to have the spontaneous and
religious experiences, whatever else they are, are institution-
selective meaning given it by the early Pentecostals, and also by Max Weber
ally dangerous. T h e Assemblies of God learned this lesson
(chapter 17, pp. 224-27).
early in its history.” Recently, they have been confronted
with this same lesson again in the conflict with the “Signs Just as other once-charismatic religious movements have followed the path of
and Wonders” movement (chapter 18, pp. 2 2 8 4 5 ) . over-institutionalization and over-regulation, which in turn has discouraged
On what basis does Poloma make these assertions? In a much of the original charisma, the Assemblies of God suffer of the chilling
effects of routinization. . . . The institutional mechanisms that demand credentials
survey, she found that of 1,275 Assemblies of God adherents
from 16 different congregations, only 30 percent were raised
Rausch, Messianic; Juster, “Messianic”; idem, “Union.”
in the Assemblies; an additional 10 percent were converts from
4McGee, “Maranatha.”
other Pentecostal “sects.” 5 Lovett, “Positive.”
Wagner, “Vineyard.”
’The Pentecostals, 33ff., 424ff. ’Stout, LLSwaggart.’’
‘Burgess, “Bakker.”
2Poloma, Crossroads. In the following I quote widely from her article “Charisma.”
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church? 26 1
260
over calling and encourage large bureaucratic congregations rather than small In conclusion one can say: Pentecostals have to wrestle in all countries
charismatic ones are easing the prophetic daughters out of the ordained ministry with institutional problems similar to those faced by other churches. What is
[we will return to this point later]. Paradoxically, the institution that developed new is that they are becoming aware of the problem. IS it unrealistic to think
Out of charisma and has been strengthened by fresh outbursts seeks to tame and that they could perhaps come forward with a form of organization that gives
domesticate the spirit. It remains to be seen whether-and how much- charisma way to charisma in the Pauline sense, and does not, for example, exclude
will rule over bureaucratic forms and regulations, or whether organizational women from leading positions? As to the place of women, one must accept that
concerns will stifle the Spirit.’ even many Presbyterian churches are “more charismatic” than most Pentecos-
As I have already mentioned, this argumentation holds water only if we tal churches.
understand charisma in a “Weberian,” and not a Pauline, sense, for it can be
argued according to Paul’s usage of charisma that the proisthameno (Rom. Baptism
12:s)-themanagerial organizer-may also be gifted by the Spirit, and should For many Pentecostal churches today adult baptism has become a more
be measured not only against his so-called efficiency but much more against important issue than the gifts and life in the Spirit. This, in spite of the fact
his ministry and service to the whole church of God. that adult baptism was not even mentioned in the first “declaration of faith”
A similar development is discussed among Swedish Pentecostals. As long of Pentecostalism, and in spite of the fact that for instance in Germany the
as Lewi Pethrus was the unchallenged leader of Swedish Pentecostalism, the Protestant church has baptized (not re-baptized!) more adults than the whole
official ideology was that of a strict congregationalism. No organization higher German Pentecostal movement.13
than the congregation was tolerated. “The ideology of non-organization had Cecil M. Robeck and Jerry L. Sandidge, both of them Assemblies of
the function as a denominational standard.”” It gave Pethrus an unchallenge- God ministers, have examined this question in detail: “Fr. Donald Gelpi
able power over the whole movement through his Filadelfia church in Stock- has noted that ‘the most serious doctrinal differences dividing Catholic
holm. But when Pethrus resigned from his pastorship in Stockholm “he charismatics and Protestant Pentecostals lie in the area of sacramental
pushed the idea of both the autonomy and hegemony of the [local] church into t h e ~ l o g y . ’Undoubtedly,
’~ this observation could be applied equally to Roman
the background” and organized a whole string of national institutions-above Catholics and Pentecostals in general. What may not be so obvious is that
all, publishing companies, periodicals and joint companies, including “The one aspect of ‘sacbamental’ theology, baptism, has led to more intense
Lewi Pethrus Foundation for Philanthropic Activity.”” Bertil Carlsson, a debate and dividdd more Pentecostal churches than any other issue the
well-known Swedish Pentecostal, has untiringly unveiled this process.’2 movement has fa ed.”” T h e authors then go on to discuss the different
’Poloma, “Charisma.”
1
modes and interpretations of baptism within Pentecostalism. They men-
tion immersion and sprinkling, infant baptism and adult baptism. Some
I’D. Bundy in his review of Struble, Samfundsfia, E P T A Bulletin 3/1, 1984,
12-16, quote 4. Lindberg, “Swedish.” demand rebaptism if the mode was in their view not correct or if it took
‘I Lindberg, “Swedish.” place before conversion. Some dip the candidate only once, others thrice.
Carlsson. “Pinastvackelsen aller Pingstrorelsen?” Veckotidning Nr. 51.52 1973. The condemnation of infant baptism is not equally strong in all Pentecostal
Idem, “Objektiva fakta ar into S A farliga,” Dagen 11.1.1973. Idem, “Yrkesfordelnin- churches. As in the case of “Spirit-baptism” Pentecostalism displays a rich,
gen bland beslutsfattarna inom pingstrorelsn,” Dagen 28.3.1972. Sjogreen, “Ping-
strorelsens organisationsfromer.” Carlsson, “Svenska Pingstrorelsen en folkrorelse I
pluralistic approach to the praxis, mode, and interpretation of baptism, and
blickpunkten,” Dagen 30.9.1977. Idem, “Svensk Pingstmission” 60 ar, Dagen, to the baptismal formula as well.’6 It is also not clear among Pentecostals
30.11.1973. Idem, “ ‘Trafikregler’ for de kristna forsamlingarna,” Dagen 5/2/1988. whether baptism is an ordinance or a sacrament, and it is furthermore not clear
Idem, “Vad lor Pingstrorelsen I centrale kristna fragor?” Dagen 5.2.1988. Idem, “Mot whether baptism is necessary for salvation or not. Readers who deny this
90-talets utmangingar ma medomdjikeet,” Dagen 17.7.1990. Idem, Munniskan, um-
hallet och Gud, Grunddrag I Lewi Pethrus kristendomsuppfatning (see the review on this
last book by David Bundy in Pneuma 12/1, 1990,69-70). I 3 “Confession of the Apostolic Faith,” Apostolic Faith, Los Angeles, Sept.
This is part of an ongoing debate in Swedish Pentecostalism. Carlsson has 1906, see The Pentecostals, 513. O n adult baptism in the German Protestant
summarized his arguments and facts in English in Organization. This is a basic document. churches (Evangelische Kirche in Deutschland) see Berg, “So viele waren,” 15:
T h e books on Pethrus are not yet closed. His life was clouded by controversies and “67,645 people joined the Protestant Church in 1991, 22,914 through adult
jealousies with other important leaders (for the controversy with Lidman, see chapter baptism. 16,169 who had left the church once returned alone in the churches in
28, pp. 395-97). H e actively stopped his colleague Tornberg from being elected to West Germany.”
the national parliament. “He could tolerate no competition to his leadership and l4 Gelpi, “Ecumenical,” 180, quoted by Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 505.
forced talented individuals such as Sven Lidman (journalist) and A. P. Franklin l5 Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 505.
(missiologist) to work outside the movement.” Bundy, “Pethrus,” Dictionary, 71 1 f. l 6 The Pentecostals, 31-32, 390-95.
262 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church? 263
pluralism may argue with their own fellow-Pentecostals, and with Sandidge For instance, Nelson notes” that since the sinner must first repent and
and Robeck, whose closely-argued and richly-documented essay I need not believe, “this excludes children (infants) who are too young to repent and
repeat. believe, and invalidates ‘baptism’ of those who were not regenerated when they
Most important is the authors’ theological conclusion: submitted to the ordinance.” However, that is not what I read in the Scripture.
I mention only two passages. Peter says to the inquirers in Acts 2:38: “Repent,
What most Pentecostals fail to take as seriously as the witness to an individual’s and be baptized everyone of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness
identification with Christ in this act is the testimony it contains to the identifi-
of sins (eis aphesin ton hamartion hymon).” T h e r e is n o question that they need
cation with Christian koinonia, to corporate identification, the relationship
forgiveness of sin before their baptism, and that baptism is only a public sign
between the person being baptized and all others who have been baptized and
who share in their identification with Christ. l 7 of what has already happened. Baptism is “for the forgiveness of sins,”
whether we like it or not. Even stronger is Mark 2. Here a paralytic is brought
I n other words, baptism is an ecumenical sacrament. It expresses identi- before Jesus. T h e evangelist Mark says: “And when Jesus saw their faith [that
fication with the whole church of God. is, the faith of the four who brought him], he said to the paralytic: ‘My son,
If baptism “is to bear witness to that koinonia with God in Christ through your sins are forgiven.’ ” Fortunately Mark did not have to send his gospel for
the Spirit, then it cannot be done in isolation. It is meant to be undertaken approval to any church, Pentecostal or not; for this passage means that sins are
within the context of the community of faith. Private baptism undermines forgiven in this instance on the basis of the faith of others; in other words, of
baptism’s community nature.”18 the koinonia.
It is furthermore seen in terms of anamnesis: “the Risen Lord is present Sandidge and Robeck argue in a similar way. “One theological document
through the Holy Spirit who comes to indwell the new believer. Baptism then suggests that the baptism of infants may be considered a baptism of ‘corporate
becomes sacramental by bringing reality to the presence of the one who died faith,’ and believers’ baptism of ‘personal confession.’ ”22 No wonder that
and was resurrected. . . . ” T h e koinonia of baptismal identification means the these Pentecostal authors then recommend the ecumenical Baptism, Eucharist
“church as a whole”- including those previously baptized. “ T h e implications and Ministry.
of this are both social and ethical. At each baptism the question must be asked T h e y then discuss very intelligently the pastoral problems, for instance
again: Do we accept them as our brothers and sisters? Are we willing to be when somebody who has been baptized as an infant demands to be baptized
responsible for them? Are we also willing to recognize that they now have a as a believer. T h e y quote the Catholic priest Francis MacNutt: “Rather than
responsibility to/for us?”19 deny their sacramental baptism as infants, h e told them they could ‘enact’ the
T h i s may place the issue of the legitimacy of believers’ and infant baptism conversion that many of them had truly experienced. . . . ” MacNutt immersed
in a new light. T h e biblical data seem generally to favor believers’ baptism, each person three times
regardless of age. calling the person’s name and saying, “I renew your baptism in the name of the
However, the question must be raised regarding at what point in what way such Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.” . . . If Roman Catholics can
baptism becomes efficacious. Within much Pentecostal theology, the faith of the accept the baptism of persons immersed in the name of the Trinity by a
one seeking healing is often understood to be essential to a person’s healing, but Pentecostal minister, is it too much to anticipate that Pentecostals might also
the person who is sick may not be able to exercise the “necessary” faith. It may accept the reaffirmation of sacramental baptism received as an infant through a
be exercised, however, by the community of faith on behalf of the sick or injured rite of renewal by immersion, whether by a Roman Catholic priest or a Pente-
person, and the community of faith anticipates that its faith will be effectual . . . ; costal pastor?23
for those who view baptism non-sacramentally and who practice believers’ ( I wonder what my Swiss Pentecostal friends would say to this.) Sandidge
baptism, there is no clear and efficacious role for the faith of the koinonia, of other then goes on to recommend an ecumenical discussion of the issue within
believers, to be exercised on behalf of the baptismal candidate.20
Pentecostalism, since Pentecostals already have a wide variety of praxis and
interpretation of baptism.24
Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 525f.
Ibid., 527.
~~
I91bid., 528. That is why the Dominican, Prof. LeGrand, from the Insitut 21 Nelson, P. C., Doctrines, 65, quoted by Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 528f. (Nelson
Catholique in Paris asked (at the Vatican/Pentecostal Dialogue Session in Brixen, was originally a Baptist, Handbuch, 08.021.001).
Italy, July 1995): “You say that the Catholic infant baptism is no baptism. Yet you ’* Ford, John, “Findings,” note 13, manuscript 21, quoted by Robeck, “Ecclesi-
want to celebrate the Lord’s Supper with us. How come that you celebrate the ology,” 529.
eucharist with non-baptized people?” 23 McNutt, “Solution,” 61, quoted by Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 53 1.
*’Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” 528. 2 4 0 n a similar topic see van der Laan in chapter 25, pp. 345-47.
264 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church?
265
cal analysis-a reconciliatory ecclesiology which is badly needed in all ecu-

Who Belongs to the Church? menical relationships, but in particular between the Orthodox and other
As one might expect, Pentecostals from former Yugoslavia take the lead Christians. Important also is his definition of sin: “ T h e real sinner is not the
in addressing the question of what exactly constitutes a “church.” Miroslav outcast but the one who casts the other o u t . . . Sin is not so much a defilement
Volf takes a position much more sober than that expressed by the groups but a certain form of purity: the exclusion of the other from one’s heart and
around John Wimbeq2’ and by Kopfermann and the neo-Pentecostals and one’s world.”
charismatics in general. Volf says: Volf is not alone in this approach. T h e Hispanic Pentecostal scholar
Eldin Villafafie also sets t h e ecclesial demarcation lines very differently
A church is a community of people who congregate in order to call on, to testify
and to confess Christ the liberator. . . . They do not need to be characterized by from earlier Pentecostals. Because t h e church is a liberated community, h e
a certain grade of personal or social holiness in order to be called the church. says, “It is committed to reconciliation. Because it has an ethic of libera-
The church . . . lives solely on the sanctifying presence of Christ, who promised, tion, it plays a major role in bringing about a new, reconciled national
to be wherever people congregate in His name. . . . The Church is therefore not church a n d
a club of the perfected but a community of people who confess to be sinners and As to the abandonment of the earlier lines of demarcation in practice, I
pray: debita dimitte (forgive us our sins). Any group which gathers around the invite any reader to go to a long-established Pentecostal church and see for
one Christ, around God in his salvific devotion to men (Zuwendung zum Men- himself o r herself what has changed in the last twenty years in the areas of
schen), who celebrate in him their liberator and Lord, who is open to all people dress, cosmetics, life-style and even sexual ethics, including an increasing rate
and where all people have the same dignity, such a group is a church because of divorce in Pentecostalism. T h i s latter issue, however, creates problems. If
Christ has promised to be present among them.26
the divorcee is powerful and/or rich, nothing happens,31or sometimes his or
Although I am not prepared to deny ecclesiological quality to those Christian her earlier marriage is annulled (as in the Catholic church). If he or she is an
communities which reject sacraments and ordinances, I am of the opinion that ordinary member, church discipline is rarely applied. But if he or she is an
the sacraments above all display the essentially ecclesial character of Christian ordinary pastor with not much power or money, that person gets into real
life, because nobody can give himself or herself the sacraments (although they trouble.32 Another indication of the changing situation is an article of the
must be accepted in p e r ~ o n ) . ~ ’ British Assemblies of G o d on “Cohabitation and the Church,” in which
What is interesting in this ecclesiology (which was published in one of the cohabitation is not icondemned as “unbiblical.”33 O n e more is the fact that in
leading German theological periodicals and which was expressly classed under
“free-church perspectives”) is the influence of the orthodox context from
which Volf comes. Even more striking is the blatant difference between Volf’s
t
the Dutch charism tic movement homosexual pastors are actively engaged, and
that the American omosexual and lesbian Pentecostals publish a p e r i ~ d i c a l . ~ ~
T h a t British Assemblies of G o d pastors celebrate more marriages and funerals
formulation and earlier Pentecostal ecclesiologies, in which clear lines of than weddings3’ further points to the process of denominationalization.
demarcation were drawn based on criteria of personal and social holiness.2s For the Third World one may consult Allan Anderson, who points out an
T h i s earlier ecclesiological ideology has in fact, for a long time, been out of use interesting interaction between Pentecostalism and the African background in
both in the West and in the T h i r d World. T h i s is however, to my knowledge, South African Pentecostalism. Only about half of those interviewed had ever
the first time that an ecclesiology has been published by a leading Pentecostal spoken in tongues but many had offered sacrifices to ancestors, and a few
scholar who has given u p earlier ecclesiologies. Perhaps the turmoil and actively reverenced ancestors. Almost all consulted diviners, a few practiced
suffering in Yugoslavia sharpen the theological mind. At any rate, he “sensed polygamy, and a few drank beer and smoked. A majority had a clear preference
an unexpressed expectation to explain why he, as a Croat still had friends in for Nelson Mandela as political leader for South Africa.36
Serbia and did not talk with disgust about the backwardness of Byzantine-Or-
thodox culture.” In his “Theological Reflections in the Wake of ‘Ethnic 30 Villafafie, The
Liberating Spirit, 105, quoting Costas, “Social,” 224.
31See the story of Aimee Semple McPherson, The Pentecostals, 488.
Cleansing,’ ”29 Volf gives a moving example of reconciliation and sharp politi-
32 Eisenloffel, Wenn (being the tragedy of Eisenloffel’s divorce and the treatment
he got from the German Pentecostals).
25 Wagner,“Wimber,” see also note 6. 33 Hudson-Warrington, “Cohabitation,” 63-73.
26 Volf,
“Kirche,” 64, 66. 34 Pentecostal Coalition: Newsletter o f the Pentecostal Coalition f o r Human Rights,
271bid.,68, note 65. Supporting Black, Hispanic, Women’s and G a y Liberation, Howard University, Wash-
28 The Pentecostals, the chapter on Ethics (“Religion is what you must not do”) ington, DC.
399-412, and 413ff. 35 Kay, “Characteristics.”
29 Volf, “Exclusion and Embrace,” 232f., 241. Cf. also idem, “Vision,” 195-205. 36 Among the questions which Anderson asked his Pentecostal sample, one finds:
Ecclesiology: Who Belongs to the Church?
The fact that most of our interviewees had a clear understanding of the
T h i s just shows how much t h e African context has influenced the lines Spirit and were opposed to the practice of the ancestor cult by Christians, tends
of demarcation in t h e church, just as in Europe and America society at large to negate the view of earlier researchers that the ancestor cult has found new
has also influenced Pentecostals. Perhaps in Africa t h e reverence of ancestors expression in the emphasis on pneumatological beliefs and manifestations in
needs some explanation. For Catholics this is perhaps not so strange as for African Pentecostalism. These views were mostly based on European theological
Protestants, since Catholics reverence their saints and have a much more presuppositions that could not really be substantiated by empirical research. The
complete ritual for dealing with ancestors. F o r Western Protestants this is fact that the Holy Spirit has taken over some (or all) of the functions of the
only a problem as long as they d o not realize that we too have a relationship ancestor does not mean that he has thereby become an ancestor. It means rather
that the doctrine of the Holy Spirit has become relevant in this very important
to o u r ancestors; only, we give it a different name. Since t h e Protestant
African context, in that the Spirit has become the Counselor and Guide as
churches have cut off every formal relation with t h e ancestors, they return
portrayed in Scriptures. Far from being a resurgence of traditional ancestor
in o u r dreams (as with t h e Africans), where they enter the domain of spirit possession, once we have separated the forms of the Spirit phenomena
psychiatric analysis. Perhaps we then call it father-complex o r mother-com- from their meaning, the revelations of Holy Spirit in African Pentecostalism
plex or super-ego. O n e can justly ask t h e question whether o r not the point to a realistic encounter and confrontation between the new Christian faith
Protestant churches should leave all this to psychiatry. O n the other hand, and the old traditional beliefs. Christianity thereby attains an authentically
we have to develop a critical relationship to o u r ancestors (to tradition, to African character, realistically penetrating the old and creating the new.38
father- and mother-complexes), otherwise we become t h e slaves o f the past.
O n polygamy, perhaps the following will help clarify the issue: “Only the
T h e same would apply to Africans, b u t in their case, it seems to m e that
males are denied the ordinances, the women are allowed all ordinances and
this process is already in full swing.
offices even if they are a third o r a fourth wife.”39
I have been unable to come to a clear understanding of what is going on in
From the important Assemblees d e Dieu in Borkina Faso4’ and Togo (West
Africa in relation to ancestor spirits. Perhaps a European theologian is unable
Africa) we learn that American Assemblies of God missionaries in these areas
to find categories for this kind of spirituality, as was already my impression
originally demanded from their polygamistic converts that they divorce all of their
when discussing the “presence” of Simon Kimbangu in the Kimbanguist wives but one. Consequently, converts kept the youngest wife, and the remaining
Church.37 Allan Anderson also gives several perspectives on this problem. In women had no other choice but prostitution. Now that the Assernblees d e Dieu
a recent article he tries to interpret ancestors in a pneumatological context: have become ent, the converts are no longer forced to divorce their
no unsure together with all their wives and take part in the
Yes
Baptism by immersion 98% 1O/O no further polygamistic marriage is allowed.41
Does your church have speaking in tongues 81.3% 14.9% 3.7%
Have you spoken in tongues? 51.5% 48.5% Women
To whom do church members offer sacrifices?
to God 0% In volume I of the Pentecostals I have already documented the important
to ancestors 80% role of women in the Pentecostal church.42 In most countries women were
to both the ancestors and to God 20% essential at the beginning of Pentecostalism; examples may be found in France,43
Do church members reverence ancestors? 3.6% 96.4% Switzerland, the USAM (including American his panic^),^^ S ~ a n d i n a v i a , ~ ~
Do church members consult diviners? 3.6% 95‘/o 1.4%
Do church members practice polygamy? 0.7% 99.3%
Do church members drink (African) beer? 2.2% 97.8% 38 Anderson, “Ancestor,” 38f.
Who would you like to be president of a 39Mann, “Polygamy,” quoted in Aigbe, “People,” 175, 179, note 20.
new South Africa? wBarrett, WChE, 732: “Assemblees de Dieu en Haute-Volta: 80,000.” For Togo,
44.9% see ibid., 670.
Nelson Mandela
3 1.2% 4’ Communication by Dr. Del Tarr, former missionary of the Assemblies of God
E W. de Klerk
the PAC leader 2.2% in West Africa and now president of the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary,
2.9% Sprin field, Missouri.
another person
18.5% 4’The Pentecostals, 486ff.
undecided/refused to answer 43 Pfister, Soixante.
+I Lawless, Peculiar.
Source: Anderson, Bazalwane, 129ff.Anderson also gives figures broken down between 45 Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 131, in particular on Mama Leo, 96.
Pentecostal mission churches and independent Pentecostal churches. There are some Hoaas-Tegnander, Kvinnen. Review, D. Bundy in E P T A Bulletin 514, 1986,
variations in this but the tendency is the same everywhere. 139-42.
37Seechapter 6, pp. 64-66,77-80.
Great Britain,47the Black Churches in Britain,48 Chile,” Holland,” and other

places. R. M. Riss gives a detailed and competent overview of women ministers
in the U S A at the beginning of Penteco~talism.~’ Today the issue is contro- L, 1 B YTWENTY ONE
r
versial in spite of the important role of women in the past. Generally they are
barred from leadership roles, and often they are not allowed (officially) to
celebrate the eucharist, o r to baptize o r receive converts into church member-
ship.j2 Edith L. Blumhofer gives some embarrassing details o n this. She
observes how important women have been in the Assemblies of God, but also
how stubbornly the male leaders (especially E. N. Bells3 and Ernest S. Wil-
liams”) have objected to accepting them as equals. T h e y filled in the gaps left
by men, and were considered “second best” in God’s eyes.” Music and Liturgy:
Several reasons have been suggested for this. T h e most plausible to me is
offered by Cecil M. Robeck: “As evangelical values have been adopted by How to Worsh$ in Public?
Pentecostals, the role of women in ministry has ~ u f f e r e d . ” ’Whether
~ this will
change with Pentecostals’ rediscovery of the important role of women at the
beginning of their movement is difficult to say. O n the basis of many inter-
views, David G. Roebuck is rather p e s s i m i ~ t i c Nevertheless,
.~~ many things In the following chapter I draw on my personal experi-
have changed in recent years in Pentecostalism, and recent biblical research o n ence in Pentecostal churches (and to a limited extent in
the roles of women among the early Christians has produced some revela- charismatic groups). I believe that there are some important
t i o n ~I.n~the
~ end, Pentecostals who want to be biblical in all respects might lessons to be learned from certain musical and liturgical
have to revise their attitudes here too. traditions in Pentecostalism; but I also believe that it is
generally neither desirable nor possible to transplant these
experiences directly into another social and cultural context.
Whqt is important to recognize, however, is that the original
~~
impdtus of all church liturgy and music wasfor a n d with the
47 Cartwright, “Daughters.”
48 Foster, Black Women.
49 Slootweg,“Mujeres”; Tamez, “Mujer” (a very critical and well-documented
f
peop ofGod(and not just the liturgical and musical experts).
T h i s applies as much to mainline churches with their litur-
gical traditions as to Pentecostal churches which have out-
essay on women in the Pauline corpus by a Pentecostal); see also Tamez, Contratoda
grown their original cultural context.
(quoting Conzelman’s commentary on I Corinthians). Esparza, “Question.” Bridges-
Johns, “Women.”
Graf, “Vrouw.” A Genuine Oral Liturgy’
Riss, “Women” (very competent article with rich bibliography).
j2 Roebuck, “Brothers,” in particular F, 12. Cf. also Best, “Loosing the Women”; Pentecostal liturgy-is this not a contradiction in terms? How
Lozano, “Crossroads.” Pneuma, 17/1, 1995 is dedicated to the topic of “women in can a spontaneous and sometimes enthusiastic understanding
Pentecostalism” with some enlightening documentation. of worship produce a liturgy? T h i s question only shows how
s3 Warner, “Bell.”
far our understanding of liturgy has departed from the New
54 Robeck, “Williams.”
jsBlumhofer, Assemblies, in particular, 26.
Testament understanding of what is a proper order of worship.
j6 Robeck, “National,” 635. For, if spontaneity and enthusiasm are essentially a-liturgical,
”Roebuck, “Brothers,” F 16-19. how then d o we explain that the first Christians-who could
58
Especially important because of her precise and competent exegetical analysis obviously be a rather enthusiastic crowd-very early on pro-
is the Austrian professor of theology Susanne Heine. See her Women, in particular duced a kind of liturgical tradition? It is true that the early
p. 40,where she shows that the name Iounias (Rom 16:7 “fellow prisoners and of
note among the apostles”) is pure fantasy by the editors of the Greek text. The liturgies were not printed-how could the illiterate slave in
oldest manuscripts have Iounia, “noted among the apostles.” Only in the 13th
century was this female apostle “transformed” into a man by giving her a name ’Some of the material in this section has been published in my article
which appears nowhere in Greek literature (Iounias). Susanne Heine gives many “Significance.” J. W. Shepperd approaches the topic more conventionally in his
more such examples and backs them u p with solid scholarship. article “Worship.”
Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public?
270 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide 27 1
knees in order to thank God for the dance he had given them. Above in the
Corinth follow a printed liturgy? (Slaves made up the majority in the Corinthian left-hand gallery sat 50 to 100 gray-bloused ciclistus. These are the bicycle-
church, but there were other classes involved in the church at Corinth-it was evangelists, who cycle every Sunday into the surrounding villages to preach,
truly heterogeneous.)2 Nor were those earliest liturgies even always written out sing, and heal the sick. This evening they will return and the congregation will
in the first place-but that did not prevent the first Christians from having some greet them with a loud “Gloria a Dios!” They will draw behind them a queue
order in their worship. Printed prayer books and agendas are not the only form of curious people, many of whom will be converted right in the service.
of ordering a service-nor perhaps even the best one. The first Christians had “DO you also dance?” they asked me. This was the test-question. They
what I would call an “oral liturgy”; that is, a liturgy which could be memorized wanted to know whether I despised them or not. Some American missionaries
by the congregation. Their liturgy was continually “in the making.” It was a had told them that dancing was not of the Spirit. “I would like to,” I answered
liturgy which was shaped and reshaped by the people of God according to sincerely, “but I do not know your dances.” They were satisfied with this
principles laid down by tradition (1 Cor 12 and 14). answer. Their own preachers do not dance either; their duty is not to dance,
One might expect an oral liturgy among oral people. Oral people are not but to interpret the dances.
necessarily people who do not read and write3-although the illiterates surely From this description it is clear that the most important element of an oral
belong to them; they are people whose main medium of expression is the oral worship is the active participation of every member in the congregation, even
form-story, proverb, parable, joke, dance, song (chapter 2, pp. 6-15, sec- if this amounts to several thousand people: dancing, singing, pilgrimages,
tion I, pp. 19-141)-in short, all the forms in which (as form-criticism has praying individually and collectively, playing all kinds of instruments (from
shown us) were framed the elementary, original source material of the Bible. the hand-harmonica to triangle and drum; from the saxophone to the violin),
Today the fact that not only illiterates, but also people from middle-class and appreciating or judging the sermon with inspiring shouts or critical
backgrounds and highly trained intellectuals find the “oral order” more remarks and questions.
satisfying than the written one is demonstrated by the great attracting power In the structure of the Pentecostal liturgy one might find most of the
of the charismatic movement within the mainline churches. elements of historical liturgies: Invocation, Kyrie, Confession of Faith, Gloria,
Pentecostal worship has been described many times, but no description Eucharistic Canon, and Benediction. Yet these parts are hardly ever named,
replaces personal acquaintance with the Pentecostal service. T h e following and for most observers are not recognizable as such, since the elements
example from personal experience in Chile4 is not of course representative of according to whichithe different parts of the service are structured are not the
all Pentecostal churches, but may serve as an introduction to Pentecostal
worship.
I was asked to sit in front of the congregation in the red plush seat reserved
1
rubrics and the nig ‘cs,’ but the so-called choruses, that is, short spontaneous
songs, known by hea t by the whole congregation. Some of the key choruses6
indicate the transition from one part to another.
for honored guests. An ocean of faces floated before my eyes, 2,000 to 3,000 Key choruses vary from one congregation to another, yet everyone in the
faithful, some shod with sandals made from car-tires rather than shoes. As soon congregation understands these signals. During the time of participation by
as the trumpet blew the first melody, those faces, creased with the lines of age-long the whole congregation if someone sings a song of praise in the Kyrie part, or
oppression, came to life. In a circle the people danced slowly the dances of gives a prophecy in the Invocation part, he or she will be corrected by the
their Indian ancestors. Those who did not dance stood reverently and clapped pastor, or by an elder, or, if the person persists, by immediate and spontaneous
their hands in slow rhythm. A woman prophesied in a deep, soulful voice. All singing by the whole congregation. Most Pentecostals are not aware of the
of a sudden there was silence! The whole congregation fell down on their liturgical function of these choruses, yet they are clearly observable. T h e
Pentecostals thus demonstrate that the alternative to a written liturgy is not
*See on this Hollenweger, Conflict and I T h 1. chaos, but a flexible oral tradition, which allows for variations within the
3For a discussion on this cf. Hoggart, Uses.
framework of the whole liturgical structure, similar to the possibilities in a jam
4Examples in Pope, Millhands; Meyer, “Brasilien”; Calley, God’s People;
Maurer, “PentecBtisme”; Lalive d’Epinay, Haven of the Masses. For a Catholic de- session of jazz musicians-another black heritage.
scription, see Zenetti, Heisse, also my PJingstkirchen, 301-6, and the highly interesting
liturgiological reflections of de Moura, Importrincia das Igrejas Pentecostais, and ”‘Rubric” is that which is printed in red in the liturgical books (what the priest
“Pentecostalismo” (English summary in The Pentecostals, 105ff.). Ample literature in reads). “Nigrics” would then be that which is printed in black (for the congregation).
my Pfingstkirchen, 396-466. Passim in The Pentecostals, in chapter 2 (pp. 6-15), and 6 This seems to be an old tradition as the Calvinistic liturgy also contains the
in the conclusion of this book (chapter 28, pp. 398-400). Also Hollenweger, “Litur- so-called “chants spontanks.” But they are today only called spontaneous, as they are
gies.” On Pentecostal dance in Chile see Robeck, “Taking Stock,” in particular 50. sung from the book. Place, tune, and words are prefixed in the liturgy. Nonetheless,
On dance and liturgy with professional dancers see Leinberger/Hollenweger/Bub- they are beautiful and could easily be sung spontaneously.
mann, Getanztes Leben.
272 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 213
Speaking in tongues can play a similar “democratizing” role, because it preaching. Yet, while recognizing this fact it still remains true that there are
allows prayer in non-rational meditative language. This is an important prayer special occasions where an appointed order is necessary for a well-conducted
experience for the rationally unskilled as well as for the intellectually over-bur- service. And if this is so, why be content with forms that are crude or badly
dened academic. As the apostle Paul said, “He who speaks in a tongue edifies prepared?Jesus in the Scripture portion known as the Lord’s Prayer instructed
the disciples: “When you pray, say. . .” The prophet Hosea once said to his
himself’ (1 Cor. 14:4).
countrymen: “Take with you words, and turn to the Lord, and say to Him. . .”
Jean-Jacques Suurmond has written a fascinating book on this topic.
(Hos. 14:2). There need be no morbid fear of lifeless ritual. As long as the
Suurmond is a Dutch Reformed pastor who was for a long time a Pentecostal spiritual vitality of the church is maintained the use of necessary forms will never
pastor, and is in contact with the Dutch charismatic renewal. Suurmond uses become merely formal.
the well-known Dutch tradition of the homo Iudens, seeing in the “uselessness”
(for instance of glossolalia) its usefulness and political significance. As such, it T h e other possibility would be the development, using all the know-how
is “justification brought to life.” This is important in a neurotic civilization of Pentecostal oral culture, of a really post-literary liturgy, where the main
such as ours, says Suurmond, which is obsessed with utility and a desire to medium of communication would be not the written word but the proverb,
perform and to dominate (no one is more obsessed with order than the not the doctrinal proposition but the parable, not the statement but the story,
neurotic). Salvation, he says, lies in the church at play. “A real game consists not the Gregorian hymn but the chorus. This liturgy could be adapted to
in the creative integration of order (word, rules) on the one hand and the non-proletarian cultures, but its main mission would be in the Third World
spontaneous contribution of dynamic enthusiasm of all participants on the and among the subcultures of the younger generation in the West.
other.”’ Thus the minister is not “the star” of the play but a religious producer. The charismatic movement in the mainline churches also has two options. In
emphasizing the personal aspect of Christianity it can develop into a spiritual
The Future of Pentecostal Liturgy revival movement for higher social classes, which would lead to worship services
refreshing and equipping the individual but relatively unaware of corporate
If one considers the future of Pentecostal worship, there are two possibili- sins and potentials. The other possibility is that the charismatic renewal might
ties open. On the one hand, classical Pentecostalism can adapt itself to the develop its charismatic worship-followingthe Pauline rather than the Lucan
mainline churches, adopting a fundamentalistic theology and a written liturgy. pneumatology”-to include among the charismata not just those common to
This process was until recently in full swing for most of the European and classical Pentecostalism, but also charismata in the social, political, and artistic
North American Pentecostal churches. Oral liturgy can become as fixed and fields-the charismata of those people who are not generally considered to be
dull as written liturgy, when it becomes dominated by a few individuals and is fitting members of liturgical commissions, and are not commonly found
no longer the open-ended expectant experience of the whole congregation. within the worshipping congregation. This would be a healthy ecumenical
Donald Gee (1891-1966), a British Pentecostal leader, says that the result of complement to the classical Pentecostal understanding of worship.
this “is to produce meetings so stereotyped that, for all their boasted freedom,
they become more barren than the very liturgical services they deprecate-and The Social Implications of an Oral Liturgy
with less aesthetic appeal.”’ One can therefore observe an increasing produc-
tion of liturgical forms and agendas within the white Pentecostal community. By confining liturgy to written liturgy-albeit read orally in church, but
So the Assemblies of God (USA) have published a three-volume Minis- read from a book in written language-we have excluded in our historical
ter’s Manual’ with agendas for burials in general, for burials of devout Chris- churches the majority of the people of this world; namely, the oral people. (No
tians, children, church or civic leaders, for non-Christians, for the installation wonder that the Pentecostals said at the Full Assembly of the World Council
of pastors and associate pastors, for baptism and children’s dedication. In the of Churches at Uppsala [ 19681: “These people are religiously underdeveloped.
foreword they state: They read prayers! [laughter]””) Thus we have not only sanctioned the
separation of the world into haves and have-nots, whites and non-whites, but
It hardly needs to be said that set forms of devotion are uncongenial to those who also excluded from worship oral people! One looks in vain for the theological
practice a simple mode of worship and who stress spiritual liberty in prayer and
justification of such an atrocity.
Look, however, at Pentecostals in the Third World: If the inarticulatepeon
Suurmond, Word and Spirit a t Play, 59
Gee, “Lead”; The Pentecostals, 385-89. in Latin America realizes that he or she has something to say, if the despised
9 ‘
Pickthorn, Manual. But see the violent protest of the Italian Pentecostal against
written liturgies (Bracco, Potenza; quoted and discussed in the excellent doctoral lo Schweizer, “Spirit,” see The Phtecostals, 335-41 (detailed discussion).
dissertation by the late Miriam Castiglione, Aspetti). l1 Ramirez-Ramirez, “I Could Have Danced”; de Melo, “Participation.”
Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 275
words, images and music. The professor of homiletics would stand side by side
Indian of Mexico begins to sing and make music with the instruments of his with the author of a scenario, the liturgiologist beside the producer, the system-
persecuted ancestors, if the Chilean begins to dance the dances of his forefa- atic theologian next to the choreographer and the ballerina (all of them being
thers, if the member of the Guru churches in India12begins to use the drama concerned with synthesis, “bringing together,” only through different media).
and dance of her pagan forefathers, which for centuries have been categorized This is commonly rejected as being utopian. But how can we know before we
as heathen and primitive, if these people realize that what they have is good have tried it?”
enough for the worship of God, that God accepts “the thank offerings of their
lips”-this seems to me to possess a more revolutionary quality than does the I have tried it with astonishing results, and will report on this in the next
imitation of Western revolutionary theories, which makes those imitating into section.
puppets of a foreign (albeit a so-called revolutionary) ideology. T h e German theologian Will Adam tackles the same problem from an
I want to elaborate on this by commenting on the Faith and Order exegetical basis. Adam remarks” that the alliterative epigram of the section
Consultation on “Worship in a Secular Age,”13 beginning with the essay by on worship in Uppsala (“Worship for a Christian is not a problem, but a
Raymundo Panikkar. He has put his deliberations under a motto from Sata- privilege”) avoids the real problem. He says: “Certainly worship today is not
patha Brahmana: “Worship, above all, is t r u t h f ~ l n e s s . ” ’He
~ says: “Only an unquestioned matter. But it never has been.”20From his profound knowl-
worship can prevent secularization from becoming inhuman, and only secu- edge of modern exegetical research Adam reveals the attitude of Jesus to
larization can save worship from being meaningle~s.”’~ “Probably one of the worship as relevant for us today. By dealing with publicans, prostitutes, and
reasons (effect or cause, I leave it open) of the deep crisis of the United Nations sinners Jesus not only broke political and social taboos of his time, but violated
Organization is that it could not or knew not how to develop a really common that which was considered at that time to be the will of God-in order to do the
and thus universal and meaningful liturgy, cult, worship.”16 Panikkar sees in will of God. In inviting culturally impure people to his communion-meals he
worship the place where those things which are logically contradictory-the determined what he considered to be worship.
earthly and the heavenly, transcendence and immanence, human and divine, Similarly, in the Corinthian Eucharist Paul was criticizing not the cultic
rubrics and nigrics,” the principle of Martha and that of Mary-are not unworthiness of the Corinthians, but the fact that the rich did not wait for the
dialectically balanced but are experienced together in a form of art (Panikkar is poor (1 Cor 11:33); that is, he criticized a liturgically camouflaged social
an Indian). (Note that even in the West, theology and liturgiology are taught misbehavior. That in the communion of the first Christians the barriers
in Faculties of Art, which means that liturgy [and theology, for that matter] is
between rich and poor, men and women were overcome-not logically, nor on
not only a scholarly but also an artistic faculty.)
the basis of a social theory, but in the actual event of worship-made this
T h e place where this art is forged is not in the philosophical academy, nor
worship one of their most powerful instruments of mission. Here, in their
in the theological faculty, but in the dialogical togetherness of Christians:
celebration, in their salvific communion, they anticipated something which
theologians and artists, beggars and businessmen, doctors and hippies, mathe-
the world did and does not know. No one can imagine what a dynamic power
maticians and singers. T h e task of liturgy is to make this dialogue possible,
and to enable the voice of the Spirit to be heard in these contradictions, would flow from such a worship today into our fragmented world.
relating them to the tradition of the church. It is true that such a dialogue It could also happen that such a missionary worship would destroy some
would demand a different theological education for priests and pastors, an aspects of our current ecclesiology-the very thing which happened to the
education first Christians. T h e success of their missionary outreach among the Greeks
forced the first Christians to change their self-understanding (Acts 11). Today,
in which artistic intuition has the same right as critical exegesis. Practical
too, worship services which take seriously the liturgical conscientization of the
theology would be matched with training for preaching in the open air. The
sociological analysis would be paralleled by the spontaneous improvisation in
people of God lead to a serious shaking of our ecclesiological concepts. In
many ad hoc ecumenical worship services-sometimes with strong Pentecos-
l2Hoerschelmann, Christliche Gerus.
tal overtones-the artificial barriers of denominations are pushed aside in
l 3 Reportin Studia Liturgica 7/2-3, 1970. I quote from the off-print edition: VOS, order to anticipate the overcoming of the real barriers of race, social status,
Worship. and education.
14 u
Satyam eva upaciita,” Satapatha Brahmana II.2,2,20. Panikkar, “Seculariza-
tion,” in Vos, Worship, 28.
l5 Panikkar, “Secularization,” in Vos, Worship, 28.
l8 Hollenweger, “Spiel.”
l6 Ibid., in Vos, Worship, 53.
l9 Adam, “Outdated,” in Vos, Worship, 96-1 19. The German original version
l7 According to Panikkar both must be changed fundamentally. Panikkar, “Secu-
duplicated “Veraltete.” Quotations English, 97, German, 1.
larization,” in Vos, Worship, 56-70. *‘Adam, “Veraltete,” 24 in the German text (not in the English).
276 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Music und Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 277
I experienced this dramatically when I organized an anointing service in so. I do not believe it because I am convinced by many experiences in several
the cathedral of Berne with students from the University. T h e students knew countries that our historical churches too can discover the charismatic dimen-
what everybody in Berne knows-that the drug addicts and prostitutes con- sion of worship, including some of the aspects of Pentecostal churches but not
gregate around the cathedral. Therefore they invited them to the anointing confined to those.22 In the following section I shall discuss some of the
service. When people were invited to come forward to be anointed, these experiences which have convinced me of this.
prostitutes and drug addicts came in great crowds. For once they were not
being told off, but some young students wanted to be tender with them, to Pentecostal Music: Problem and Promise23
anoint them and to give them a word of blessing. (That such a service has to The following section approaches the neglected issue of Pentecostal/
follow strict liturgical rules and must be well-prepared is another matter, charismatic singing and music, and discusses the contribution of this music to
which I discussed in chapter 18). Many of these non-church-goers wept,
the non-Pentecostal churches, along with its problems and promises. Since my
others sat in amazement, ringed by three students who were anointing people
cultural and musical background is thoroughly European, I am above all
for the first time in their lives. Also for the first time, these “sinners” realized
discussing the issues which arise in this context. T h e Americas have a different
what a Christian liturgy can be: an anticipation of liberation.
and more flexible approach to church music.2”
In order to understand this properly one has to realize what usually
happens in this cathedral. Famous preachers preach here. T h e aristocracy It has long been a concern of mine that we in the Hymn Society would come to
of Berne comes down from their suburbs by taxi and jump-without grips with what is happening in the Pentecostal movements. We tend to look a t
looking right or left-into the church, where they hear a tremendous their songs and to judge them purely in the way we would judge a traditional
sermon on the solidarity of Jesus with sinners and prostitutes. After an hymn, and whereas surely some of the criteria apply there must be reasons why
a huge number of our fellow Christians take u p a kind of song that we normally
elaborate organ postlude they jump into a taxi again and go home to their
would not touch.
Sunday lunch.
No wonder that the sacristan of the cathedral-he wears a beautiful These are the words of Alan Luff, the secretary of the Hymn Society, a
uniform in the colors of the republic of Berne, black and red-told me after renowned church musician in the British scene. Among other things he was
our service: “Professor, you have violated the dignity of this cathedral!” responsible for all the music for the wedding of the Duke and Duchess of York.
Unfortunately that’s how it often is: when that about which we talk in our I can put his statement more bluntly: indeed mainline churches have a problem
sermons is put into (liturgical) action, we violate the dignity of the church-not on their hands, the problem being that what they consider as rather cheap and
only in Reformed but also in middle-class Pentecostal churches. inferior musical noises is very popular among many Chri~tians.~’
At the end of his article Adam asks the question: “What kind of worship I do not believe that the way forward in matters of church music is to
do the Christians owe to the world, for which worship is as important as daily accept the Pentecostal songs as they are. On the other hand, Pentecostal
bread?” His answer: a worship in which that which we talk about is done, and spirituality represents a tradition which is becoming increasingly important;
in which the postulate of the general priesthood of all believers is not merely namely, the tradition of black music. Pentecostalism was born-as we have
declared but lived (as with my students, none of whom were ordained). This seen-in the context of black slave religion in the United States. That is where
is-if I have understood Adam rightly-part of his appeal for an extension of its musical roots lie-although much of these roots have been obscured in the
the hermeneutical reflection to include not just the sermon but the whole of process of upward social mobility in white Pentecostalism, not least under the
worship. Protestant and Catholic theologians*’ are asking today for a liturgy influence of our criticism of early Pentecostalism. Black music is the music of an
where things are done in common by the whole congregation. This kind of oppressed people who-by the very medium of their music and stories-were
liturgy would more closely approximate the patristic Eucharist and the liturgy
of the Reformers. Only how do we achieve a liturgy-a worship-in common? 22 Examples below and in Hollenweger, Kirche, in Simpfendorfer, Oflene Kirche,
It is hardly possible for us to take refuge in the spontaneous worship of the and passim in the three volumes of ITh.
Chilean Pentecostals. 23 This section started as a lecture for the British Hymn Society, published under
Yet are the alternatives to the liturgical dance of the Chileans, to the the title “Music.”
24 See Alford, “Music,” with detailed historical discussion and an extensive
glossolalic prayer and the improvised singing of the whole congregation, our
bibliography which was not fully available to me.
Pre-printed, pre-worded and pre-thought liturgical agendas? I do not believe 23 There is a special issue of The Hymn, Hymn Society of America (Minneapo-
lis), on Pentecostal and charismatic mdsic and singing (38/1, Jan. 1987). See also The
21 Klauser, Western Lzturgy. See on this The Pentecostals, 387f. Pentecostals, 464-67.
saved from cultural and physical extinction.26It is the music of an oral people: I tell this story to highlight the enormous difficulty many people have with
spirituals and choruses are spread orally. classical music, both church and secular. Even if they are not forbidden by
T h e tradition of the ballad or the song with a chorus is therefore very religious taboos to enter into this world of music, there are cultural and social
important in Pentecostalism. It is also common to many strands of European taboos which bar them from it. Musical taste is formed by education and
folk music. T h e chorus allows the audience to join in a song and to take the custom; thus when children are fed with the trivialities of modern light music
chorus home. One is reminded of the tradition of the great German oratorios, they may simply not recognize as music the sequences of harmonies and
with their chorales which could be sung by the congregation; or the tradition melodies of classical music. Such sequences can sound like a foreign language
of some English promenade concerts, where the audience is invited to sing to them-the language of those who have the leisure and the money to indulge
certain parts with the orchestra and choir. in such luxurious and unnecessary pastimes.
There have been attempts to learn from this musical tradition. I think of I was fortunate, because my musical context was the folk hymns which I
the music published by the monks from Taizk.*’ This music moves in the learned at home and in school, and the Pentecostal hymns, with their echo of
“folk” direction, but avoids both the cheap and superficial scoring and the the black slave music. This background provided a bridge to classical and also
trivial and sometimes pompous wording of both the Pentecostal choruses modern music, for example Tippett’sA Child of Our Time, Arthur Honegger’s
and the proms. The music of the Taizk monks blends the Reformation King David, and the like. Most people raised in separation from classical
musicality with ad hoc scoring and singability. That is why their liturgical musical forms, however, remain prisoners of the simple and sometimes trivial
pieces can be accompanied by all kinds of instruments, from the guitar to the harmonies and rhythms of everyday music. This is a dangerous situation for
trombone, the saxophone and the drum-and in any combination. This of the church, because it strengthens another parallel development which sepa-
course is another important feature of modern Pentecostal music: it does not rates the producers and the consumers of theology.
have a fixed score in the classical sense, just a pattern of melodies, rhythms, In theological language, as in classical music, a level of abstraction has
and harmonies, which can be varied by various configurations of instruments been developed which is not accessible to ordinary people-very often not
and singers, ad lib. even to the clergy. In the liturgy a mastery of English is expected which is also
In the following I first want to describe my own personal introduction into not accessible to many people. In other words: certain cultural preconditions
this field, so that it becomes clear against which experiential background I am have to be fulfilled before people are allowed to praise God together with the
arguing. Secondly, I want to sketch briefly the musical and social context in “cognoscenti.” No wonder that many emigrate from our churches, to produce
which Britain operates. Thirdly, and most importantly, I want to offer a few their own self-made music, theology, and worship-if they do not decide to
suggestions for a way forward for that church music; one which takes seriously leave the church altogether.
its theological mission of reconciliation.
I am not a trained musician. T h e little I know I have picked up by playing The British Context
the recorder and later the French horn in an orchestra. My most formative Britain is the most musical country I know. T h e reason for this is probably
musical experience, however, was the study of the scores of the great masters. the musical tradition of the Church of England, the Methodist Church, and
As a boy, I discovered some parts of Beethoven’s First Symphony in a loft. lately the black Pentecostal churches (chapter 9, pp. 106-16). Britain has also
Having been brought up as a Pentecostal, I had never been allowed to go to an astounding tradition of secular music. Radio Three, the many music
concerts, first because it was too expensive, and secondly because it was competitions, the huge number of very competent amateur musical societies,
considered to be too worldly. Time wasted studying the music of a worldly and the contributions of schools and universities (although the latter is now
musician was also, of course, considered a sin. So I waited for my parents to under threat), all add to this musical culture.
go to bed, then lit a candle and studied that great work (the second movement But that is only one side of the story. T h e other side is the fact that what
in particular). All alone in the night, I tried to reconstruct the score with the is good music, also good church music, is decided by those who have privilege
help of the parts I had found, trying to imagine how it would sound. How and power in church and society. Their taste and their judgment can be
could anybody write something so beautiful, so simple and so deep? Only very challenged only by their peers, and not by musical outsiders, even if these
much later-when I had the freedom to do so-did I buy a full score and get outsiders are the overwhelming majority of the population. The number of
the opportunity to hear the symphony played by an orchestra. People following these opinion-makers in church music is very small in-
deed-a tiny minority in society at large. But since the majority is considered
26 See Cone, Spirituals and the Blues, and my article “Spirituals.” incompetent, the only thing left to the majority, which has no power and no
27 Berthier, TaizP. say in these matters, is to demonstrate their dissent by absenting themselves
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 28 1
280
from our music and our liturgies. T h e quality programs of Radio Three are I am praying.” “The best place to pray is the [water] closet.” They never talk
listened to by a minority. Our church music touches a very small minority. T h e to anybody about religion. It is taboo. Yet they let the researcher tape their
majority of our people listen to other music. accounts of visions, answers to prayer in war and peace, and anger at the years
At the larger level of liturgy as a whole, my judgment is based on an lost in the war. They expressed their criticism at the misuse of God’s name by
analysis of the religion of fifty workers in the Birmingham area, carried out by the military:
one of my doctoral students.28 He interviewed each of these men from a You take the Falkland Islands. Our lot blessing our boys going out there and their
working class area for between one and three hours. T h e researcher was an priests blessing their men, instead of as the Bible says . . . It’s stupid! You’re
American, Roger Edrington. H e had the gift of listening. That is why many going out to kill each other and you don’t even own an ounce of the land and you
of the interviewees told him what they had so far told nobody else-not even don’t own nothing here. Most of the people at home, they’ve got nothing. They
their own wives. They were astonished that somebody was actually interested haven’t even got control over their rent. They’ve got nothing and they’re going
out to massacre each other. And their priest on the dock blessing them, you know.
in their ideas and their lives.
Fellows carrying the picture of the Virgin Mary on his gun. Poor old Ar-
Now this research was on belief and unbelief, but it is relevant as I want gentinian, he’s dead now, you know. Okay, he might have had a belief, but is that
to approach our topic from a theological point of view. Anyone familiar with belief going to keep your family? It’s not. So as far as beliefs are concerned, I’m
the religious scene in Europe would expect the usual results from this research: afraid it’s a no-no with me. Never convince me.
mistrust of church and clergy, arguments from science and science fiction
against Christian beliefs. All this is contained in the research, but not as Lostness: “Our opinion don’t count for much. We don’t have any opinion
prominently as one would expect. What comes through as more important and any more, we just live from day to day.” “Anyhow, if the government cannot
with unambiguous clarity is the genuine modesty, honesty, and lostness of save us, God can [sic] neither.” It appears that not only do they not talk about
these men. These are three great words which need some explanation. religion among themselves, but “they don’t have any opinion any more.”
Modesty is shown in the way the men confess their ignorance on vital People whose language and whose songs do not count lose the will and the
ability to communicate and to sing-except in those places where it still
issues of their lives. They neither know what they believe nor what they
matters: perhaps in the family and the pub.
disbelieve. They are almost equally critical of atheistic slogans as of the tenets
What are we to conclude from testimonies like these? I believe that the
of the Christian faith. And if they have some convictions or some knowledge
church is the community which creates, tests, and inspires language (including
they phrase them in very cautious language. Very little propaganda, much pain
musical language) about the meaning of life and death. But this church is
in grappling with the issue, and many times a resigned confession: “I would
absent in much of British working-class culture, and is replaced by nothing.
say that I was a Christian and an agnostic.” They term themselves a “not-sure
Because the workers interviewed had never been asked to contribute anything
religious Christian,” a “don’t-know believer.” Sometimes a mild criticism of
to the church-the church had only talked at them and wanted to “educate”
the official voices of religion comes through: “It’s all right for these blokes to
them-it would have been a strange thought to them that they are actually vital
write books, but they don’t tell you, they don’t put it plain enough for you to for the survival of the church, for its ministry of reconciliation in its liturgy,
understand. I don’t think they know theirselves [sic].” in its message, in its music. Their experiences count for nothing. And so the
T o many of them God is-as one told the researcher-like that “captain cultural divide in Britain is mirrored in the church: the ever-speaking and
in the Gurkha rifles” who “carried me across the paddy fields and the Japs ever-proclaiming and ever-performing church, and the almost-silenced work-
were shelling over him and he was ill himself. H e was rotten with dysentery. ers. T h e cultural elements which could build a bridge over the abyss of the
I’ve never seen him since and I don’t know his name, but I think of him.” Many two cultures are almost absent in the church. These elements are: prayer in
of them have had religious experiences which have made a deep impression on which they can join (whether sung or spoken); faith which is expressed with
them. But they cannot articulate their experiences. They do not know the their hands; dialogue in small groups where they can join in.
name of the one who saved them “but they think of him.” There are of course flourishing working-class congregations in Eng-
Honesty comes through in the way both believers and unbelievers among land-one hundred and twenty of them in the Birmingham area alone, about
those interviewed volunteered their experiences of prayer-and this in spite eight hundred in the UK. But they are black. In spite of slavery and repression,
of the fact that with the exception of four, none of them had gone to church the blacks are not silenced. They have created their own vigorous language of
since the age of ten (except for the obligatory christenings, weddings, and faith, filling some of the abandoned Anglican churches with their resounding
funerals). But their prayer is a very private prayer. “Don’t tell the Missus that songs, their inspiring dances, their electrifying rhythms. I believe that if there
28 Edrington, Everyday.
is ever to be a revival in our churches-both musical and spiritual-we have mean we must sing only the cheap and superficial tunes to which the people
to learn from these black churches. are accustomed; for this is in many cases the easy way out which the charis-
It is part of our ministry as the church to help people who have been matic movement has chosen. It would mean giving up our work as musical
carried through the paddy fields of life’s danger to get to know the name of educators. But most of all it means-theologically and musically-using
the one who carried them through. In order to do this we must dig deep into popular vocabulary, popular culture, as a starting point, as the main medium
our memories. We must do this together with others who were also carried of communication, in ways which are recognizable to the great majority of
through the shell-fire, questioning them, comparing our memories, visions, people. It means further trying to express that which we have to say in the
and songs. This search for the names is called theology. The celebration of this grammar and the vocabulary of the people.
search is called church music. It therefore has a vital place in our ministry of Let me give just one example. I am not the only one experimenting with
reconciliation. this kind of liturgy, but the experiments in which I have been involved are the
ones I know best. I wrote a little oratorio or musical calledJonah--A Child of
The Way Forward Our Time, for which a young German musician, Fritz Baltruweit, wrote the
What follows is based on experiences in many seminars with clergy and music. It tells the story of Jonah-but with a difference. First, the historical-
musicians in Switzerland, Germany, England, and France; and with musical critical exegesis is not ignored. It shows in a dramatic and narrative form that
development in the churches in Poland, Czechoslovakia, and East Germany, the historical Jonah is a man about whom we only know his name. T h e book
and above all the German Kirchentag, which has virtually become a singing of Jonah is not about the historical Jonah but it is a Jewish satire which tries
Kirchentag (without losing its political and theological teeth). In all these to open the eyes of the author’s contemporaries to their own chauvinistic,
contexts, theological insights are put into music-either spontaneously, as in narrow views. It wants to show them that their God cares for all the nations,
the black churches, or with the help of musicians who put themselves at the even for their enemy, the mighty city of Nineveh. Jonah of course does not like
service of the people of God. Of course much of this music is evanescent, but this: he does not like to make a fool of himself. So-in his narrowness-he
once in a while something lasting emerges. That, however, is not this music’s becomes a child of our time.
most important feature. T h e most important thing is that it helps people learn The main play is set “within a play,” a staging of the premiere of ‘Jonah’
to express themselves in the middle of hot theological and political arguments in the first century, at the church of Sinope on the Black Sea, which is the
(for politics is not excluded, for example, from the Kirchentag; in fact, it has church of the evangelist Luke.29This is appropriate, since Luke reacts to the
become compulsory for all leading politicians to come and listen at the Kirchen- problems of his church in the way he selects and shapes his material: to stresses
tag, even if they are not invited to speak!). between rich and poor as many civil servants and high financiers had joined
T h e insights which I have gained from these experiences apply equally to his third-generation church (hence the story of Zacchaeus); relations with the
theology as to liturgy and church music, and they are these: military, as Roman officers wanted to be baptized (hence the story of Cor-
1. Let us start with the gifts of thepeople! If we discover prayer experiences nelius); racial tensions as blacks became members (hence the story of the
of the kind described by the workers from Birmingham, this is the starting eunuch); and the changing role of women, as many had become prominent in
point for our theology. If we have only a saxophone or a drum or a guitar
among the people we want to celebrate with, let us consider this a challenge 29 For text and music of the musical see Hollenweger, Jona. On the exegetical
for making really good music with them, but on the drum and the saxophone, hypothesis about Luke, see Schmithals, Lukas; another application in Hollenweger,
Wagnis. The Metanoia Verlag has published many of my plays, oratorios, cantatas,
in the language and with the musical vocabulary they know and understand etc. which I wrote for such evangelisms with and for the unchurched, particularly in
and at the level of their musical skill. Arthur Honegger once complained to Switzerland and Germany. Among them are: 3ungermesse (The Disciples’ Mass);
Stravinsky that for the premitre of his K i n g David he had only a small brass Mirjam, Mutter Jesu (Miryam, the Mother of Jesus); Michal: Die Frauen meines
band in a Swiss village. Stravinsky told him: every fool can write music for a Mannes (Michal: T h e Wives of My Husband); Comer (the wife of Hosea); Fontana,
die Brunnenfrau und der siebte Mann (Fontana, the fountain-woman and the seventh
full symphony orchestra. But to write within the restrictions of a mediocre
man, John 4);Ostertanz der Frauen (Easter: Dance of women); Veni Creator Spiritus
brass band and to write a masterpiece, that is real art. And out of this came (Pentecost liturgy); Requiem f u r Bonhoeffer; Hiob im Kreuzfeuer der Religionen Uob in
Honegger’s Le roi David. Let us therefore start with the musical culture of the cross-fire of religions); Oratorio 3urg Rathgeb (a famous painter and peasants’
those we want to win, with their folk songs, with the elements of light music leader of the sixteenth century); Ruth, die Auslunderin (Ruth, the foreigner); Der
they know. Kommissar auf biblischer Spurensuche (a detective superintendent examines a number
of biblical persons); Christmas Oratorio, etc. Some of them exist also in English
2. This does not mean that we just imitate or repeat “popular religion” translation (typescript) since I tried them out with students and others in Birming-
and “popular music.” For that would be a betrayal of the gospel. It does not ham (also available from Metanoia Verlag, Kindhausen, Switzerland).
Musrc and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public? 285
T h e response was overwhelming. Fifty children, seventy singers in the

his church- especially when the men were in prison (hence the prevalence of
choir, a dozen speakers and soloists, two violinists, two viola players, two cello
women in his Gospel accounts). Redaction criticism has shown U S these
players, one pianist, two flautists, one oboist, two trumpeters, two trombon-
relationships between social, political, and theological controversies in Luke’s
ists, an excellent classical recorder quartet, and a jazz drummer offered their
church, as reflected in his writings.
By placing the premiere of Jonah in Luke’s church, I can show the help. T h i s is not exactly a classical ensemble-so I had to rewrite all the
problems the early church had with the Old Testament. I can also describe choruses (which were to be sung with the audience), the solos, and the canons
their world outlook: T h e y lived at a time when the gods had lost their power for this score, taking into consideration the level of skill of the musicians and
to anonymous entities (which still bore divine names)-to laws of the universe singers (which was very uneven). Some were just beginners, others were
which nobody could control, not even the state. T h e sky was no longer the accomplished musicians. For example, the string players were very weak. T h e y
expression of eternal harmony, but it was full of demons, uncontrollable rays, could not count the bars when they had to be silent. Also they could not enter
poison and animosity towards the people. T h e y felt caught, imprisoned, lost. at the right pitch when it was their turn. T h e y came in a third too high or too
T o such a people Jonah says: “Only forty days and Nineveh is destroyed.” low, which was usually all right for the first chord but produced disaster later
And modern singers and speakers realize-without any abstract exegetical on. T h e jazz drummer could not read music. Some of the singers could not
explanation- that they sing and talk not only about the end of the first century keep time.
but about themselves, about their own lives today. T h e y know that this earth But, amazingly, after just one rehearsal with the choir and one other
will be destroyed if things go on as they are. And to give articulation to this rehearsal with choir and instrumentalists, they were able to play and sing the
fear, the children-the children of Sinope and the children of Birming- piece. I asked the string section to sit near me so I could give them their entry
ham-assemble on the stage and sing the “Children’s Doomsday Song,” in exactly and sing to them the pitch of their first note. Being musical children
which they protest about the inheritance we are going to leave with them. they immediately picked u p the right pitch and corrected their mistakes by
So audience and choir ask Jonah and themselves: “What have you done intuition. T h u s the cellist, who was smaller than his big instrument, even
now, Jonah?” T h e message of the musical comes as a surprise. Because the played a solo. Think how proud his mother was! T h e jazz drummer I led with
people repent, God repents. He is sorry and changes his decision. T h i s is not eyes and baton-always a bar before he actually had to enter.
in line with what our church audiences think, nor what the workers from O f course this performance had many flaws from a musical point of view,
Birmingham think. T h a t God could say that he feels sorry for the great and but it brought together over one hundred and fifty people in a musical/theo-
sinful city of Nineveh “with over one hundred and twenty thousand people logical event. It made them think together. It gave them a voice. It made them
who d o not know the difference between right and left and many cattle too,” sing not just their own songs and words, but music and words which they could
such a G o d with a human heart is foreign to them, yet it is he who is the father recognize as their own because they had participated in the making. It made
of our Lord Jesus Christ. the silenced speak and the songless sing. Of course with such an arrangement
If I present such a message in a lecture o r a sermon, it may be difficult to there is n o need to put an announcement in the newspapers. We had one
understand. But if people sing and act it, if they are allowed to change the hundred and fifty public relations agents. So the church was filled as never
words to make it more understandable, then they wrestle with the issue. Here before. More than this, the congregation and the singers quickly learned the
the fact that English is not my mother tongue becomes an advantage. I can songs by heart. T h e y took them home. They became part of their theological
always say: Please change it, English is a foreign language to me. P u t your own and musical memory, of their daily talk.
words into the script-even if you change my theological and musical inten- Behind this experience lies the conviction that that which makes people
tions. What you decide has priority. think and learn has priority over a flawless performance. Is it not strange that
I presented these ideas to clergy and lay people in a public lecture at the a Swiss theologian writes a score for this performance in an Anglican church-in
University of Birmingham. Afterwards one of the vicars asked me: Couldn’t spite of all the man!- church musicians around who are much better qualified
we d o what you have been talking about? We want to perform a kind of a than he? But alas, many of these “professionals” d o not want to d o this kind
festival for the nine hundredth anniversary of our church in Northfield. What of thing. T h e y fear for their musical reputations. T h e y stick to their ideas,
would you suggest? I said tell m e what musicians, singers, speakers you have their standards, instead of taking what is there and using it to create an
in your congregation, in your schools and in your wider community. It does opportunity for musical and theological exploration.
not matter whether they are committed Christians or not, or not Christians at Space forbids me to go into the details of many similar experiences, or to
all. It does not matter either whether they are trained musicians and singers discuss the methodology and the craftsmanship which is required from an
or not. All that matters is that they want to d o something together, using the enabler and co-ordinator of such an‘ experience. Probably the most important
gifts they have. is that of giving a strong input at the beginning, in both emotion and content,
286 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Music and Liturgy: How to Worship in Public?
287
but then letting the people take over and change whatever they like in the I f r y on the highest tree and I sing and sing and sing.
course of the experience, according to their understanding. Most clergy opt And people say: I f only that bird would stop his noise.
And young people put on their walkman and listen to the sound of the drum.
for the opposite approach. At the beginning they are all for a non-directive And sometimes it seems to me that I sing for nothing.
method, with the result that people get off to a very slow start. But then, when W h y am I a singing bird?
things begin to move, they want to control the theological, ethical and liturgi- Why am I not a flamingo, or an eagle or a mighty roaring lion, only a singing
cal development, with the result that people lose heart. bird?
T h a t it pays to trust our lay people was demonstrated at a Liverpool I did not make myselJ
And you, Holy Spirit, you did not ask me whether I wanted to be a singing bird.
diocesan conference for lay people. T h e Liverpool Echo (21.6.88) reported: M y parents did not ask me either
There was a Swiss professor, telling some 200-plus Church of England people whether I wanted t o be a singing bird or whether I wanted to be at all.
That’s why I am what I am, an ugly bird, who can only sing.
from all over the Liverpool diocese, that they were suddenly going to turn into And now y o u tell me:
singers, actors, and dancers. And perform in front of an audience. Can you What would the world be without your song?
imagine it? Funny thing is, though, that’s just what happened. People discovered You tell me: You are more important than all the walkmen of the world.
talents they didn’t know they had . . . Oh yeah? You could see the doubt on Sing, singing bird, y o u make the world a better place.
people’s faces. Let’s face it you don’t associate C of E worthies with those sorts Yes, Holy Spirit, I want to sing
of “goings-on.” They’re just not the type. . . Don’t you believe it. . . The result f o r those who listen and for those who don’t listen. -- -_
was a weekend of total magic, leaving a kaleidoscope of memories. There were Holy Spirit, could y o u not tell those people to p u t their walkmen aside
and listen t o my song. That would be nice.
three St. Peters, on stage at different times, all with different accents, including
broad Scouse. There was even a female St. James, who shook her stick angrily at
everyone.
If people find out that we are really interested in their elementary theol-
ogy, in their rudimentary gifts and music, if they realize that we love them as
they are, miracles happen. T h e n they are also prepared to work with us and
even to learn from us. T h i s does not require less theological and musical skill.
O n the contrary it will stretch us to the limits. But it is also very rewarding
because it places church musicians where they belong: in the middle of the
praying, doubting, cursing, celebrating, dancing, repenting, weeping, and
laughing people of God.
Music is just as necessary for the ministry in the church as theology. It is
not an adornment, a decoration which we may take or leave. As Pentecostals
always knew, “Music unites people; music transmits social values; music
denounces injustice; music influences human behavior; music can tranquilize
and put to sleep or can awaken and be a challenge for the ~ t r u g g l e . ” ~But
’ if
this is true, then we must find a way to develop it with and in the people of
God-in Europe as in America and the Third World-and even with those
who d o not know the names of the one who carries them through the shell-fire
of life.
I S this perhaps a legitimate translation of my own Pentecostal experiences
into a different ecclesial and cultural context?
Prayer of the Singing Bird

Holy Spirit,
Sometimes I feel like a singing bird.
30 Rosas, “Musica,” quoted in Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 11

Mission: What Kind of Missionaries? 289
2000 there will be more missionaries from the Third World than Western
missionaries.’
:TWENTY TWO T h e r e are now more Christians in the Third World than in the West.
Extraordinarily, this raises some questions. Why are the descendants of black
slaves in the Caribbean and in the United States, Christians? Why are the
blacks of South Africa Christians, and not Marxist o r Muslim? Certainly not
because of the example of their overwhelmingly Christian white slave masters.
Or, to take another example, why were there more Christians in the Soviet
Union than members of the Communist Party, even after seventy years of
official state propaganda, and that before the revivrement by Mikhael G ~ r b a c h e v ? ~
Miss ion: T h e success of Christianity, and of Pentecostalism in p a r t i c h w y the
year 2000 85-90 percent of the Christians in the Third World will be Pente-
What Kind of Missionaries?1 costal/Charismatic),6 also raises many questions. What does it mean that our
Western form of Christianity and of Pentecostalism is by now a minority form,
and that these other Christians, these other Pentecostals, are different-very
different- from us? What does that mean for our own European/American
T h e following chapter is written from the perspective of understanding of Christianity, theology, education, politics, medicine, and so
a European who has for many years been involved in the forth?
education of theologians from all over the world, among I often think of the story John Mbiti told’ about one of the first Africans
them many T h i r d World and many Pentecostal scholars. to gain a doctorate of theology in Germany. It had taken him nine and a half
T h i s experience is the source of my examples. T h e chapter years from the time he left home, and had involved his learning from scratch
is also written by an educator who at the end of his academic three ancient and two modern European languages. When he returned home,
career is dissatisfied with the general trend of mission edu- Mbiti continues, great festivities were organized by his people to celebrate the
cation in Europe and in the United States, including his own achievements of their native son. T h e r e were dancing and eating-great
endeavors. jubilation all around. Suddenly there was a shriek. A woman had fallen to the
ground. T h e great theologian said she had to be taken to hospital, but the
Introducing the Topic people pointed out that she was possessed by a spirit, and the chief insisted
that a religious leader must be able to perform an exorcism. But when he
In terms of numbers, the modern missionary movement looked up his precious volumes of Bultmann they gave him no help-the
is a success story. Missionariesfrom the Third World‘ are spirits about which the New Testament speaks have all been demythologized.
increasing at a decadal growth rate of 248%, that is, from 2,951 T h e people are astonished: “What is the use of studying in Europe? Before
missionariesfrom the Third World in 1972 to 35,924 in 1988. you went you could heal people; now you can’t!’’
162,360 missionaries from the Third World are projected for Mbiti insists that his story is entirely fictional. But it is not fantasy, “for
the year 2000. “What is established is that the Two-Thirds these are the realities of our time.” T h e question behind his story remains:
World missions movement is growing at a rate which is five
times the growth rate of Western mission^."^ I n the year ‘Ibid., 246.
Religious statistics in the Soviet Union are notoriously difficult to determine,
but see Barrett, WChE, 689ff. And Beeson, Discretion.
‘Some of the material in this chapter was part of my farewell lecture at the 6Pate, “Pentecostal Missions from the Two-Thirds World,” 250. On statistics,
University of Birmingham, published as “Mission.” see chapter 4, note 52, p. 34 and the following:
’Missionariesfrom the Third World are defined as follows: 54,000 new members every day, 19 million new members a year, 332 million
1. Their agency is led and administered by indigenous, non-Western leaders. affiliated church members worldwide, 66 percent membership in the Third World,
2. They go across significant cultural and/or geographical boundaries, or they majority of the world’s megachurches, 34 billions (1988; 37 billions 1990) annually
are supported across significant cultural or geographic boundaries.
donated to Christian causes, 2/3 of all global evangelization plans.
3. Their primary funding is from non-Western indigenous sources. Barrett, “20th”; Dictionary, 810-29; and Barrett, “Signs.”
Pate, “Pentecostal Missions from the Two-Thirds World,” 244. ’In his 1974 article “Impotence.”
Pate, “Pentecostal Missions from the Two-Thirds World,” 243.
290 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mission: What Kind of Missionaries? 29 1
“How can an African be introduced into a western, critical understanding of medical faculty);27 from worship and theology in a communist country, to
the reality of our time without being made useless in his home context?” business ethics (or the lack of it) in the USA; from non-Christian religions, to
This was the question with which I went to Birmingham University. I was the churches in China;28 from a critical reading of Fynn’s Mister God, this is
promised that I could experiment with a new type of theology, an intercultural Anna,29 to Forster’s A Passage to India; from biographies of missionaries,
type, that does not transform vital and spontaneous Christians into detached ecumenical leaders,30and Pentecostal pioneers, to an analysis of the fears and
intellectuals. And, I am glad to say, the promise was kept. The only limits of faiths of Birmingham worker^;^' from an interpretation of tkeS-ongs of
my work were not the limits of institutions and organizations, but my own Zambia,32to the stories of independent churches in India,33Africa, and Latin
limits-the limits of my ignorance, of my inertia, of my lack of perception. America; and from a study of the liturgies of the Orthodox churches, to an
And what discoveries we made! Ninety-nine postgraduates of all ages came analysis of worship, preaching style, and the role of women in British black
(the eldest of them over seventy, the youngest in their early twenties);’ many churches. Much of this research has been published. As the established
pastors, teachers, church leaders, even a trade union leader; college and theological publishers did not want to take the risk of publishing this innova-
university teachers from such countries as Korea, Kenya, the former East tive theology, the late Professor Margull (Hamburg), Professor Friedli (a
Germany, Ghana, the Caribbean? West Africa, Mexico,” Malaysia, Argen- Dominican from Fribourg University, Switzerland) and I founded the trilin-
tina, Australia, India, Indonesia,” Thailand,12 Switzerland, Romania, Ireland, gual series, W u d i e s in the Intercultural History of Christianity,” which has
Holland, Britain,13 and the United States; men and women; Catholic nuns, been very successfully marketed for the last twenty years through an interna-
priests,14 and lay people; Baptists, Methodists,” Presbyterians, Lutherans, tional publishing company in Germany, France, and the United States.
and Anglicans,I6 even Eastern Orthodox, Seventh Day Adventi~ts,’~ Pente- As one can imagine, the research undertaken by my students opened my
costals,” and members of African independent churches and of black British eyes to the problems and promises of the worldwide oikoumene, the universal
churches.’’ church. Coming from a small country like Switzerland, I received an educa-
Their topics ranged from a study of the culture of economism (the “state tion in global theology, liturgy, economics, and educational theories, from my
religion of Britain”)20 to voodooism (the folk religion of Haiti);21 from re- student researchers.
search into the gospel of prosperity in Argentinian Pentecostalism,” to the It became necessary to institutionalize some of this work, for example in
ecumenical promise of Dutch Penteco~talism;~~ from intercultural pastoral the Centre for Black and White Christian Partnership in Birmingham; in the
care in Ghana,24 to shamanism in Korea;25 from a theological reading of Centre for New Religious Movements, also in Birmingham; and in Springdale
Diirrenmatt,26to a rigorous and highly technical debate on gene manipulation College, an American school that gives American pastors the opportunity to
in the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom (with the help of Birmingham’s break out of their own American monoculture. But all this is now history, and
I prefer to address the question: “Quo Vadis? What about the future of mission
‘Rose, Sent. The following is a selection of published research; see review in and the mission of the future?”
Hollenweger, “Intercultural.” A more detailed list in Jongeneel, 1992, 359-66.
Lewis, Moravian. Before I do this I would like to add a personal note. When I came to
lo Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mexican. Birmingham it was thought necessary to give me a secretary whose mother tongue
‘I Haire, Character; Prior, Indonesian; Haire, ‘%Animism.” was English. The one appointed was not very attracted to mission studies.
l 2 Davis, John R., Contextualized.
Coming from South Africa, she had seen some of the more ugly sides of mission
l 3 Thurman, N e w ; Hall, Mary, Quest.
l4 Kinne, People ’s.
history. She filled that post for eighteen years with friendliness, dedication,
Kamu, Samoan. and competence. In the course of her work she made several discoveries:
I‘ Binyon, Concepts. 1. She soon reaIized the human quality, the determination, the integrity,
l7 Graham, Roy E., White. and the intellectual potential of the postgraduate mission researchers, many
Faupel, “Kingdom”; idem, “Durham.” of whom became her friends.
I9 Mazibuko, Education; MacRobert, Racism; idem, Black Pentecostalism; idem,
“Black Roots”; Gerloff, Plea; idem, “Education.”
2o Collier, Economism. “ O’Mahony, Question; idem, Swords.
21 Mulrain, Theology. ’’Hood, Mission.
22 Saracco, Argentine. 29 Tonks, Decision-Making.
23 van der Laan, C., Sectarian Against His Will. van der Laan, P., Question. 30 Jackson, Eleanor M., Tape; Morse, Koyama.
24 Lartey, Pastoral Counseling. 31 Edrington, Everyday.
25 Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism (see also bibl.). 32 Castle, Hymns; idem, “Blue-Pririts.”
26 Weber, Emil, Friedrich Diirrenmatt. 33 Raj, Christian Folk Religion.
292 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Dezelopments Worldwide Mission: What Kind o f Missionaries? 293
2. She realized too that mission studies are not about increasing the tions on Pentecostalism. Where can the many hundred Pentecostal/Charis-
power base of the church or of the missionary society, but about a self-critical matic/Independent scholars earn their doctorates so that they do not repeat
process that goes to the heart of the matter, asking: “What is the gospel in a the experience which Mbiti mentioned? In America the situation is somewhat
given context?” better; but still, it is irresponsible to have institutes dedicated to studying all
3. She also discovered that the history of the English language and the thinkable and unthinkable topics but not one for researching the most vigorous
history of Jesus of Nazareth have many parallels. English was-so to (and perhaps also the most dangerous) Christian revival move-& our
speak-invented in England. Today more people speak English who are not time. Perhaps in the future the Pentecostals themselves will remedy this
English. But they also change it. T h e Americans, Irish, Indians, Germans, all situation, but clearly such research is best done in proper academic surround-
speak English their own way. And what is English, proper English, can no ings, on an ecumenical and intercultural basis.
longer be determined in a normative way by the English. Some of the T h e study of oral cultures is particularly important for theology, because
oral culture is the majority culture in the world (not just in the Third World).
non-English speakers (like the Irish or the Indians, or the Americans) have
Our universities are children of our European tradition: they have served us
become experts in their own way of using the English language. Some of the
well and have made important contributions to world cultures. But if the
greatest English writers are not English, but Irish, Indian, or American. And
university does not want to be just a place where local (Western) cultures and
so it is with Jesus of Nazareth. Jesus of Nazareth no longer belongs to the
insights are reflected and discussed, then we have to consider our relationship
Christians alone. Many marxist, agnostic, Hindu, and Muslim followers of
to oral theology, oral medicine, oral education, and so forth.
Jesus write and think about him. Jesus has been liberated from domination
Let me give you an example. If somebody should hand in the Gospel of
by Christians. He is a truly universal figure. Some of the best interpreters of
Mark as a piece of theological research, it would be turned down by any
Jesus call themselves non-chri~tians.~’And much of what the non-English
Western examiner, including myself. We would say:
do to the English language, much of what the non-Christians do to the image
of Jesus, does not meet with the approval of either the English or the 1 . This is not scholarly but anecdotal.
Christians. But that is inevitable, and who knows whether this is not a way of 2. Mark has borrowed the title “euangelion” from his surrounding culture
showing us that there is more to English than the English know, that there is without indicating that he is using this word in a different way.
more to Jesus of Nazareth than the Christians realize.
This brings me straight to the heart of this chapter. If mission and mission 3. Although Mark uses a hidden hermeneutical key, he never spells it out
studies are to have a future, they must be rigorously ecumenical. Ecumenical clearly.
means that we have not just to cooperate with all Christians, but also to listen 4. Mark uses sources and never acknowledges them.
to non-Christians’ interpretations and criticisms. This is important if we are
5 . Finally-most unfortunately-Mark offers no conclusion, which led a
to deal constructively with the issues facing us; namely, the search for a just
later copyist to add a conclusion, which in t u r n produced only confusion.
world order, the threat of nuclear war, the ecological crisis, the global drug
mafia, and widespread starvation with its devastating migration problems. All Now, my question is this: Is it not extraordinary that one of the most
this needs understanding on a global scale. And since war and greed start in important theological and literary works ever written, a piece of seminal
the hearts and heads of people, there is no world peace without peace between research, can at the present time not be recognized as such due to the
the religions, and between religious and agnostic people.35 limitations of our university culture? Has a university first to be loyal to the
cultural tradition of the native tribe in which it operates, or is it-as I always
The Academic Task of Pentecostal Studies thought it should be-interested in original, seminal, pioneering research?
I can give another example from our century. Karl Barth’s Commentary on
Given the enormous political, social, cultural, and religious weight of the
Romans is one of the most important pieces of theological writing in our
oral Pentecostal culture, the level of academic research on this topic is laugh-
century. Although he was given about twenty honorary doctorates, Barth
able. In Europe, for instance, we have not one specialized university chair, not never earned a doctoral degree from any university! When he wrote Romans
one specialized institute, not one library holding more than random collec- he was a country pastor in Safenwil, wrestling with unemployment and
organizing a trade union. He never submitted his research to a university
34 See for example Machovet, Marxist, or Birmingham’s extra-mural professor
because he knew that it would be turned down. I have asked many New
in New Testament Studies, Michael Goulder (chapter 9, pp. 109-10, 113).
35 See on this the preamble of the UNESCO convention and in detail Friedli,
Testament scholars and they have confirmed to me that Barth’s Commentary
Frieden. on Romans never had a chance of being recognized by a university. NOW, is it
294 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mission: What Kind of Missionaries? 295
not interesting that we are not able to recognize research which is this vital and Christian theology has always been both oral and literary. T h e gospels
decisive? belong to the oral genre; the epistles to the literary genre. Academic theology
This, of course, is not a purely theological phenomenon. It is only-as is so far has not developed sophisticated oral theologies. I have been experiment-
many times the case-specially highlighted in theology. It is true also in ing with this form at the German Kirchentag-with an astonishing result.
medicine, and in physics. Einstein was never recognized in Switzerland; he Some English students and pastors attending the Kirchentag in Germany
was considered to be an eccentric. Many of the pioneering medical discoveries confessed to me that although they knew only a little German they understood
were-and still are-ridiculed by the academic establishment (see chapter 18, the Bonhoeffer or the Bible study because it was given in an oral
pp. 237-43). form-with music, choreography, and audience participation. Language is
Since I myself belong to this establishment, it concerns me. Why can we about more than cognitive information; it is also about creating a framework
not recognize that work which is dealing with the problems of the future? Why of trust, of acknowledging one’s own and others’ view of reality.
do we find it so much easier to accept the repetition of the truths of the past? We theologians have failed our churches badly in this. How would one
What a topic for a missiologist! otherwise explain the fact that a conservative man like the Bishop of Durham
I have mentioned the Gospel of Mark. This is an example of oral theology. can upset the whole of the United Kingdom by saying things that every
Oral theology is based not on an Aristotelian framework of logic, but on the student of theology knows after the first year? T h e answer is that we have not
cohesion of the tradition in a community. It operates like a computer: The communicated our insights in the proper oral form. We have kept them secret
people are the microchips. Different people have different stories or sayings by hiding them in literary language. So people still do not know that a critical
in their memory data bank. T h e whole memory can be called upon only when reading of the Bible does not harm religion but makes it more mature, more
the community comes together, when the microchips are connected. This adult, and also more truthful.
dynamic can be observed for example among South American Indians, or in So here too we need missionaries. A missionary in this context is a
African churches. Mark has recorded the community memory of his church theologian who is “bilingual.” He knows the literary conceptual language of
and put it into a theological framework, without destroying the traditional oral the minority and the oral language of the majority. Mission studies are bridge
elements. studies between orality and literacy.
All of this points up the need for Pentecostal studies. There are hundreds,
perhaps thousands, of young Pentecostal intellectuals who are looking for a Practical Implications
place to study for their doctoral degree. Just to make them good Protestant
The tasks of the future are enormous. In the field of university education
scholars is not good enough; they have to be allowed to liberate their Pente-
(in theology and in other disciplines, such as psychology, history, music,
costal oral competence from the enslaving Pentecostal ideology, and see its
medicine, and economics) we must break out of the monocultural methodol-
truly worldwide significance. Pentecostal research is not an easy research into
ogy and topics of the past. Political, economic, and religious development can
the enthusiasm of unenlightened people. A supervisor of Pentecostal studies
no longer be measured solely against the yardstick of Western tradition. It may
is ill-equipped if he knows only Ronald Knox’s book on enthusiasm. He has
to know how to discover, translate, and handle the individual oral elements and well be that democracy can find other forms than the parliamentary forms of
he must-like Mark-help his researchers to put these elements into a theo- the West. It may well be that effective economic development in the Third
logical framework that does not destroy the beauty and precision of the oral World will require a return to so-called intermediate technology, in a man-
raw material. power-intensive but low-capital economy. It may even mean that the West will
At a time when secular historians have begun to take seriously oral have to reintroduce or help to reintroduce the machinery of the thirties, the
tradition and oral history, it could be argued that a methodological study of old mechanical sewing machines, the horse- or cattle-drawn agricultural ma-
oral theology might be indicated, especially in relation to Africa, certain chinery. High-tech development is one reason for the disastrous dependence
regions in Latin America, and also our own post-literary culture. Oral theol- of Third World economies on Western capital and know-how. As for the
ogy is not a primitive theology; it is a very sophisticated form of thinking, techniques of education itself-many of the sophisticated oral techniques of
evaluating, analyzing-as can be seen, for example, in the documents of the the Third World could and should be developed. This would also mean for the
old Mexican oral culture. And it has produced, for example, technological World Council of Churches that even more than before, it must develop
miracles at which we can only marvel. Neither does oral theology mean international forms of cooperation that are not biased towards Western bu-
theology which cannot be written down; but if it is written down, it follows reaucratic and parliamentary ways of communication. Beginnings are being
other rules than the written essay. T h e technique resembles much more a good
television play than a book. 36 Hollenweger, Requiem.
296 PENTECOSTALISM. Origins and Developments Worldwide Mission: What Kind o f Missionaries? 297
made, but they demand great sacrifice and patience from all concerned, for T h e clergy-laity dichotomy present in WCC-affiliated churches becomes a focal
this level of change will not happen in one day. point of discussion and debate. The consequences of hierarchical ministerial
In the field of mission organization there are some encouraging signs. Some structures was an elite clergy separated from their parishioners. In July 1976 the
old mission societies have reorganized their executive committees to give their TEF Committee met in San Jose, Costa Rica, in a Consultation on Ministrywith
the Poor in Latin America. They saw new believers in Pentecostal churches
partner churches equal-and sometimes even greater-say in the decision-
incorporated into the community of “ministers.” Every member seemed to feel
making process. Mention should be made of CEEVA (the former Paris Mis- a responsibility as a debtor to God and the world and thus felt called to be a
sion), the Council for World Mission3’ (the former mission arm of the United “missionary.” T h e new believer was encouraged to preach, not based on prepa-
Reformed Church in Britain) and the Base1 Mission in Switzerland. These are ration, but zeal, and no one was excluded . . . The local church was the “school”
small but important beginnings. T h e task, however, of communicating this I in which the Pentecostal pastor was formed. These basic forms of leadership
power-shift to the donors has not yet been solved. Giving money does not emergence and ministry participation were observed by the Consultation to
automatically make one competent to decide “how this money should be reflect theologically and structurally the key components of “excellence in
spent”: this insight has not yet filtered through. Mission executives-and even ministry” that TEF was so valiantly trying to foster.38
I
more so the public relations specialists of development agencies-fear, rightly, Finally, it is very important that some Third World theologians help us in
that giving up their old marketing strategy would mean a drastic reduction in the West to develop our congregational life and our theology. These Third World
income. They can no longer say, “Every penny you give goes directly to the theologians should not only be recruited for service to their own so-called
Third World,” because this is either patently untrue or foolish. ethnic minorities, i.e., Chinese for the Chinese in California, Caribbeans for
Let me give an example. Some high-powered mission executives (in a the Caribbeans in England, Africans for the Africans in France. Western
country which, out of Christian concern, I shall not name) once invited me for congregations and the Western faculties of theology should include repre-
a frank talk on these issues. Each one of them introduced himself by saying, sentatives of another type of Christianity. When an Indian baptizes a little
“My name is XY; I represent the mission of such-and-such a church. My Swiss girl, when a Caribbean celebrates a white English marriage, when a
budget is twenty million (or five million).” When I had ended my talk they German congregation receives communion from the black hands of an Afri-
said, “We know only too well that our so-called projects in the Third World can, this does more to help us see and overcome our monoculturism than many
help neither the churches nor the societies there. T h e educational, medical and learned articles. After all, we still send Europeans and Americans into all the
media infrastructures introduced by our societies do not fit the context. In world to teach the gospel-even if these missionaries have sometimes only a
many cases they favour an already privileged elite. We should heve programs flimsy knowledge of local culture and languages. So why should we not have
that cost much less, are nearer to the people and can be administered by them. the experience from the other side, and accept pastors and teachers who have
But then, what are we going to do with the millions that we have to spend each to wrestle with the culture and language of Switzerland, France, or Germany?
year?” When a Swiss publican somewhere in the mountains discovers that the
My answer was: 1) You use part of your millions for telling your constitu- Indian smoking a pipe in his pub is a pastor he will ask, “Aha, a Muslim pastor
ency the truth. 2) You use part of your millions to find the projects that really or a Hindu pastor?” “No,” replies the Indian, Swiss Reformed pastor from
help the people. That costs money. Do not say to your donors: “Every single a little village nearby.” For a moment the publican is speechless. This man is
penny that you give goes directly to the needy.” That is blatant nonsense. Tell an Indian all right; his hands are brown, so is his face. Yet he speaks a Swiss
them that to bring the money to where it is needed is a very costly process. 3) mountain dialect, as flawlessly as a Christian from Switzerland. On top of this
If you begin to tell your sponsors the truth, you might get less money. So be he pretends to be a Swiss Reformed pastor. How strange! T h e Indian contin-
it. Other agencies might even spring up who will go back to the old PR pattern ues, “I have just presided over the marriage of the couple who are celebrating
and take some of the millions that you got. So be it. It is better to have a little their wedding in your pub.” T h e publican asks, “But why are you not a
less money for long-term profitable investment than too much money for Muslim? Why are you a Christian?” And he adds, “Are Indian Christians
prestige projects. different from Swiss Christians?” This evinces a more evangelistic and inter-
Another encouraging example is discussed in the basic volume on Global cultural dialogue than my lectures at the university. It helps the publican to
Mission in Pentecostal Perspective, Reporting on the third mandate of the understand what mission can mean today, namely the celebration of that
Theological Education Fund ( T E F ) of the World Council of Churches wonderful worldwide sharing of insights, resources, cultures and spiritualities.
(1970-77), Byron D. Klaus and Loren 0 . Triplett say: But if he reads the above sentence in a mission magazine-if indeed he reads
’’Hollander, Council. 38 Klaus-Triplett, “National,” 233; Leinemann-Perrin, Relevant, 190-93.

Mission: What Kind of Missionaries? 299
a permanent factor. They must work themselves out of a job. Mission work
mission magazines-he has no idea of what it means. That is the difference has been centered too long on the mission station rather than on the local
- _ _ oral and literary theology. T h e credibility and indeed the meaning of
hetween
~
church. Too many missionaries have been sent. And in Hodge’s opinion all
oral theology depend on the presence of the witness. My printed message in this amounts to a lack of faith.43
this book, on the other hand, travels independently from my own person, and
is therefore (I fear) less credible. T h e book proved to be the most significant work on missions strategy and
T h e mission of the future costs not only patience but also money. It costs theology that the Pentecostal movement had produced. [Hodges] asserted that
money to bring a Ghanaian to England, an Indian to Switzerland, a Caribbean “the faith which Pentecostal people have in the ability of the Holy Spirit to give
spiritual gifts and supernatural abilities to the common people . . . has raised u p
to Germany. It costs money to train him and her, to look after their children,
a host of lay preachers and leaders of unusual spiritual ability-not unlike the
to overcome the many difficulties of a cultural clash. But remember the
rugged fishermen who first followed the Lord.”44
mission executives who asked me, “What shall we do with the many millions?”
Here is a fruitful field. T h e application of Hodges’s teachings, and in particular his insertion of
It could even be that the non-theological disciplines (if indeed there can Allen into Pentecostal practice and conviction, “played a major role in the
be such)-schools and hospitals, police and state administration-begin to spectacular spread of Pentecostalism overseas, particularly in Latin Ameri~a.”~’
understand that we too need expertise from outside, not just from the USA or His statements were meant in the first instance as a criticism of the
from Germany. We need people who have another approach to medicine, to mainline mission societies at a time when Pentecostals were poor and could
education, to administration, to the police, and who are ready to share these not rival them. In the meantime Pentecostal churches in the West have become
insights with us and to help us develop our own institutions for the future. rich. Now whilst the original missiology and mission praxis is still upheld,
For we Europeans and Americans have a future only if we radically change there are grave departures here and there from this strategy. That is why for
our “culture of economism” (which we have exported into the Third World, instance R u b h Zavala Hidalgo describes how the Assemblies of God mission-
with catastrophic results). Maybe there is still time for repentance in our aries formed a national leadership dependent on their (the missionaries’) funds
churches and schools, in our administrations and universities, in our busi- and detached from the values and needs of the local culture. His book is a
nesses and hospitals. “Maybe that God then sees our works, that we turn from “devastating critique of the missionaries [in Peru] who retained orthodoxy by
our evil way; and God may repent of the evil, that he has said that he would isolating the mission churches from their larger cultural
do unto us’’ (Jonah 3:9). Maybe. This leads me to the problem of Pentecostal mission. A most interesting
discussion of the problem of Pentecostal mission comes from a number of
Pentecostal Missiology: Promise and Problem younger Pentecostal scholars. They say:
How does Pentecostal missiology fare in this ecumenical discussion? First O u r almost reflex affirmation of the indigenous church must not keep us
let me mention the promise: Pentecostal mission has, after a somewhat shaky from concerted reflection upon whether or not we are allowing authentic
start,39 resolutely taken the line of Roland Allen’s Missionary Methods: St. indigenous processes to emerge from each culture by the Spirit’s direction.
Paul’s or Ours?” It is astonishing that this high Anglican missionary to China T h e church of Jesus Christ, which we can expect to emerge in a culturally
appropriate form in any culture, can easily be localized if it becomes overly
“unwittingly exerted a profound influence on Pentecostal mission through his
dependent on another potentially localizing institution, i.e., education, par-
writings.”“ So deep was his influence that he shaped not only the thinking of ticularly as a formal s t r ~ c t u r e . ~ ’
Pentecostal missiology but also the activities of Pentecostal mission. This can
best be demonstrated in the life and work of Melvin H ~ d g e s , ~a *leading Pentecostals who value the development of national leadership must also nurture
Y
and encourage representative theologians from the two-thirds world. Russell P.
ness of many of the mission churches in the Third World? His answer: Because Spittler suggests that a way be found to identify in non-Western emerging
missionaries have treated people
.~ like irresponsible children. They mistook the nations, those who will become the Pentecostal theologians of the twenty-first
scaffolding for the building. Missionaries, says Hodges, are not intended to be
43 Hodges, Indigenous, 6-24. Other publications on the subject are: Pomerville,
Third; McClung, Aeusa; McGee, Gospel. Some of these books are discussed in
39 Early Pentecostals believed that “speaking in tongues” was xenolalia which
Hdenweger, ‘‘Intercultural.”
would enable the recipients for mission work. In detail McGee, “Missions”; Y+McGee, “Missions,” 62 1
McClung, “Missiology.”
45 Ibid.
O n Allen’s influence see also Klaus-Triplett, “National,” 266.
%Hidalgo, Peru, reviewed by David Bundy in Pneuma 13/1, Spring 1991,94-96.
41 McGee, “Missions,” 620.
47 Klaus-Triplett, “National,” 235.
42 McGee, “Hodges.” Also Smeeton, “Missiology.”
300 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Mission: What Kind of Missionaries? 301
century, potentially expressing the first truly indigenous Pentecostal theology. and for much less money than their Western counterparts . . . No amount of denial
He reflects that the first native theology of Pentecostals may come from south on the part of Western missionaries and missionary leaders will change that
of the equator, be in Spanish, and have no footnotes.48
“ T h e greatest need in mission today is not to find more laborers for the
T h e emergence of a truly non-Western theology is at the same time a harvest, as important as that is. T h e greatest need is for effective management
threat and a promise, and will be discussed later. of the global missionary task.” T h i s means more global cooperation, and above
T h e topic is approached from another angle by Larry D. Pate. H e looks at all an intercultural education.
the missionariesfrom the T h i r d World.49Although 85 to 90% of the Christians In the future, it may be possible for missionaries from any part of the world to
in the T h i r d World will be Pentecostal/Charismatic/Independentin the year gain higher level training in or near the country and culture of their calling. The
2000, only 41% of the missionaries and agencies from the T h i r d World will training faculty may be representative of many parts of the world, and the
be Pentecostal/Charismatic. T h i s gives cause for serious self-examination. training may be offered in more than one international language. It may become
Pate identifies a number of factors which have led to this imbalance. as common to see representatives of many cultures undergoing training in one
T h e first is a f a u l t y missionary ecclesiology. So determined about evangel- place in much the same way as it is common in many universities today.53
ism have the Pentecostal missionaries been
In other words, Pate sees mission education in future as radically inter-
that there was an unspoken but clear message to indigenous church leaders: “You cultural, and perhaps also ecumenical.
evangelize your people and we will be the missionaries.” This is perhaps the However, this is not just-as a European reader might perhaps think-a
single greatest reason cross-cultural ministry was so slow in catching on among technical and managerial argument. A new generation of Pentecostal mission
Western related Pentecostal/Charismatic denominations in the two-thirds w ~ r l d . ~ ”
scholars will discover that the Holy Spirit was already present before the
T h e second reason is what Pate calls “Missionary ‘People Blindness.’ ” Pentecostal missionary or any other missionary arrived on the mission field,
Most Pentecostal/Charismatic missionaries that the Holy Spirit also works through the Celestial Church in Anglophone
West Africa, the Kimbanguist Church in Francophone Africa, and the inde-
received inadequate training concerning the realities and implications of culture
pendent churches in Indonesia, Korea, Latin America, and the Caribbean.
before going to the field. They often did not recognize that the greatest barriers
to the gospel (other than sin) were cultural, not geographic . . . Though there Most of these churches have had initial contacts with Pentecostal missionaries,
were some obvious differences, they did not seem so terribly important. The but then they became independent, financially and theologically. T h e y have
assumption therefore prevailed that the gospel could spread rapidly throughout produced their own theologies, liturgies, and ethics.
the country if the indigenous Christians could simply be trained to evangelize But here tensions arise between the Pentecostal churches in the Third
“their people.” That has not happened often enough. The gospel might often World and Pentecostal mission headquarters in Europe and America. I men-
spread among one people group, but many surrounding groups would remain tion just an example.
51
virtually untouched. In the statistical section of the Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic
Mocements, the truly amazing growth of the worldwide movement is dis-
T h e third related reason Pate gives is a “Monocultural Training System.”
cussed. Within less than a century, Pentecostals are in the process of out-grow-
In sum, there is insufficient attention given to the role of culture as a barrier
ing all other Protestant churches taken together.j4 B u t in the historical and
to the gospel.
Pate discusses the issue at length and comes to the conclusion: theological sections of the same dictionary (as in the body of Pentecostal
theological work as a whole) one finds very little material from the numerical
The fact that the rise of the missionary movement in the two-thirds world does and spiritual center of Pentecostalism, that is, from outside the Western world.
threaten traditional forms of missions structures must be faced squarelr in the Had the traditions of this majority Pentecostalism been included, a picture of
Western church. Twenty-five years ago few Westerners would buy a Japanese
a genuine and growing Third World movement would have emerged, with all
car. Today, too few are available for the demand. As it came to be accepted that
its theological contradictions, social pains, and political compromises. “Pente-
Japanese automobiles offer greater value for money, people switched to Japanese cars
by the millions. In a parallel manner, it is now becoming recognized that many costals are multi-cultural, but we have not yet learned how to act like it without
missionary roles can be performed as welI or better bjI non-Western missionaries, hurting one another.””
48 Ibid. 237, quoting Spittler, “Implicit.” 52 Ibid., 254f., emphasis mine.

49 For definition of a missionaryfrom the Third World, see note 2. j3 Ibid., 255, 257.
Pate, “Pentecostal Missions from the Two-Thirds World,” 25 1. j4 Above, note 6.
’‘ Ibid. 55 Robeck, “Taking Stock,” 45.

Misston: What Kznd of Misstonarm?
a remarkable critique of the “gospel of prosperity” by the black Pentecostal

In other words, Pentecostal missiology must now address this question: HOW
theologian L. Lovett.62
do we cope theologically with the bewildering pluralism within Pentecostalism
In his refreshingly polemical missiology (The Thzrd Force in Mzsszon), Paul
worldwide? So far the theological contributions of Third World Pentecostalism
A. Pomerville also takes up some of these issues. As far as I know this book is,
have largely been ignored. Apart from human pride and weakness, from which
for instance, the first appreciative American Pentecostal treatment of the
Pentecostalism is not exempt, there are several practical reasons for this failure.
African Independent Churches (but see chapter 6, pp. 56-57). Pomerville,
To begin with, many documents are not in English. Secondly, they are difficult
however, does not deal with the fact that the general approach to these
to get hold of Thirdly, more often than not the theology of Third World churches
churches among Pentecostal missionaries was, and sometimes still is, one of
is not contained in their confessions of faith (if in fact they have written such
hostility or indifference. T h e pioneers who first drew attention to these
a document, and not just “received” one from missionaries) but in their songs,
contextualizing Holy Ghost theologians in the Third World were not the
prayers, liturgies, and testimonies; that is, in their oral theologies. A type of
Pentecostal missiologists and historians but the conciliar theologians who
research is required which can deal with these forms of theological documen-
recognized God’s Spirit at work in places where no missionaries were in
tation (which, as I have suggested, are nearer to biblical forms of theology than
control. T h e discussion will become the more interesting once Pomerville
to Western theologizing). Often the o’vert meaning of such documents hides
begins to debate his findings with his Pentecostal missionary colleagues in
the hidden but true meaning. An uninformed Western theologian might take
South Africa, West Africa, India, Korea, and Latin America.63
the overt meaning for the true meaning. Pentecostals, however, know that they
Pomerville sees one of the great deficiencies of Western theology as its
have to dig for the hidden but real meaning-a kind of research which calls
tendency (both in Fundamentalistic and in other forms) towards what he calls
for considerable competence in interpreting language and culture.
“Protestant Scholasticism.” It is a joy to watch a Pentecostal scholar taking his
One way of solving the dilemma for Pentecostal research would be to
insights on the dynamics of the Spirit into cognitive academic dimensions-with
acknowledge the diversity and the unity of spiritualities, theologies, and
far-reaching consequences. Pomerville says farewell to so-called academic
liturgies which we find already in the biblical witness, following such evangeli-
objectivity. Instead he makes clear that a scholar has to state his point of
cal researchers as James Dunn on the biblical material and Charles Kraft from
departure, the biographical and cultural Sztz rm Leben of his arguments. This
Fuller Theological Seminary on the missiological material.56
is more scholarly, he says, than claiming absolute, universal truth for a theol-
We have seen that there are beginnings of such thinking; for example, H.
ogy worked out in Western categories, then wreaking havoc in Third World
V. Synan, in the Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements, states
contexts by applying that theology as if it represented “the” truth. Since I have
that “the breaks of Pentecostalism with Fundamentalism turned out to be a
already discussed the issue of “natural/supernatural,” I do not have to treat
bles~ing.”~’ This dictionary also contains a farewell to the old theory of verbal
his claim for “supernatural mission.” T h e God of the Bible (and the God of
inspiration and inerran~y.’~ Instead one speaks now of the reliability and
oral Africa) is the God of nature and of “super-nature” (chapter 17, pp.
authority of Scripture. Whether one is prepared to accept the conclusion that
224-27).
not all “inerrant statements” are also reliable and not all “reliable statements”
What I did not find in Pentecostal missiology were statements on the
are necessarily inerrant, I do not know. Every marriage partner, however,
eternal lostness of non-Christians.64 Pentecostal scholars seem to shy away
should know this by experience (chapter 15, p. 195). Further evidence of
from this highly explosive issue, except in some popular essays.65Just how
re-thinking may be found elsewhere in the same source; for example, in the
difficult this topic becomes as soon as one has “non-saved” friends was
discussion on the Virgin Birth by a Catholic charismatic author Josephine
demonstrated to me at the Evangelism Congress in Berlin 1967. In one of the
M. Ford (the New Testament makes no explicit connection between the
large discussion groups the eternal lostness of non-Christians was the topic.
divinity of Jesus and his virginal c~nception);’~ in the growing acknowl-
A converted Jew rose to his feet and said: ‘!All my relatives, all my friends were
edgment of pluralism within Pentecostalism in an article by D. A. Reed
exterminated in concentration camps. They were Jews. Are you going to tell
defending Oneness Pentecostalism;60in an article on black theology;6’ and in
62 Lovett, “Positive.”
56Dunn, Unity, see note 43 and Kraft, Culture. From the Pentecostal side: 63 In his criticism of Sundkler, Oosthuizen, myself and others, one often gets the
Agosto, “Diversity.”
impression that Pomerville judges them from today’s hindsight. Sundkler’s Bantu
” Synan, “Fundamentalism,” see also Spittler, above in chapter 15, pp. 190-92.
Prophets was at the time a breakthrough in spite of its weaknesses. Whoever moves
58Arrington,E L., “Hermeneutics.” into new ground is bound to tread on a few mines.
59 Ford, J. M., “Mary.”
64 I have dealt with this question in detail in Hollenweger, Evangeltsm, 55-75.
MJReed, “Oneness.”
65 E.g., Zopfi, “Sind.”
61 Lovett, “Black Holiness-Pentecostals,” and idem, “Black Theology.”
304 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Misston: What Kind o f Mtsstonartes? 305
us give all for him . . . We are the rich minority in the world. We may be able to
m e that they are lost for ever?” T h e reaction of the meeting was the only one
forget about that or consider it unimportant. The question is, can the 93 forget?
possible-silence. What else could one d o in such a situation? However, the
incident was not reported in the congress report.66 It is also my experience It is against this background of reality that R e n t Padilla, then Associate
that as soon as a Pentecostal pastor has a Muslim (or perhaps a Mormon) General Secretary for Latin America of the International Fellowship of Evan-
son-in-law, the whole discussion takes o n another shape. gelical Students, Buenos Aires, criticized the American “church growth”
Another example comes from the Evangelism Conference in Lausanne in school. H e said: “There is n o place for statistics on ‘how many souls die
the summer of 1974, where over 2,000 participants from almost 150 countries without Christ every minute’ if they d o not take into account how many of
met to celebrate, discuss, and commit themselves to the evangelization of the those who die, die victims of hunger.” But today, this question is not asked.
world. I n his opening address Billy Graham stated that “evangelism and the O n the contrary, “the Gospel is truncated in order to make it easy for all men
salvation of souls is the vital mission of the church . . . Thus, while we may to become Christians.” So from the very outset we lay the basis for an
discuss social and political problems, our priority for discussion here is the unfaithful church. As a black teacher at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena
salvation of (where the church growth school is located) once told me: “Church Growth
I n the foyer was a clock which counted the souls lost every second, every is a way out for the churches to go on sinning under a respectable name. Not all
minute. Speakers referred to this clock by saying, for instance: “Since the that grows is the church. Cancer grows too.” (See chapter 26, p. 364.)
beginning of this conference so many souls have died without salvation. T h e y But that is not all. Padilla looked for the root cause of what he considered
are eternally lost.” T h i s was not, however, the approach of some of the main to be unbiblical theology, and found it in the cultural imprisonment of much
speakers. “I refuse to drive a major wedge between a primary task, namely the American and European theology to Descartes.
proclamation of the Gospel, and a secondary (at best) or even an optional (at
worst) task of the church,” said Renk Padilla6’ from Buenos Aires. Michael Rene Descartes’s formula “I think, therefore I am” failed to take into account
Green from England, added: “What God has joined together we are not at that man is not a mind, but a mind-body (a psychosomatic being), living and
acting in the world, and that the “subjective” and “objective” aspects of reality
liberty to put asunder.”69
are therefore inseparable in knowledge. The failure resulted in the split of reality
Samuel Escobar, then General Secretary of the Inter-Varsity Christian into two levels: the upper level of the “subjective” (feelings and religion) and the
Fellowship of Canada, began his paper o n “Evangelism” with a story by lower level of the “objective” (facts and science). This split is behind much of
Clifford Christians: modern thinking in the fields of science, philosophy and theology.71
Imagine that all the population of the world were condensed to the size of one While the speeches of Padilla’s opponents, the Americans McGavran and
village of 100 people. In this village 67 of the 100 people would be poor; the other
Lindsell, “were greeted with stony silence,”72 Padilla received the warmest
33 would be in varying degrees well off. Of the total population, only seven
would be North Americans. The other 93 people would watch the seven North applause of any speaker at the Congress. T h i s is all the more astonishing as
Americans spend one half of all the money, eat one seventh of all the food, and Padilla and Escobar flatly contradicted Billy Graham’s opening address.
use one half of all the bathtubs. These seven people would have ten times more What was Billy Graham’s reaction to this outspoken criticism? T h e story
doctors than the other 93. Meanwhile the seven would continue to get more and goes that he took Padilla’s paper, went immediately to his hotel room, read and
more and the 93 less and less.” studied it together with his wife, prayed about it and came to the conclusion
that it was a genuinely biblical paper. So Bruce Kaye was inspired to write:
But that is not the whole story. T h e wealthy seven of which-he contin- “ T h e fact that Billy Graham said publicly that he was in substantial agreement
ued-we are part, continually try to evangelize the other 93. with RenC Padilla’s paper, and thought it to be one of the outstanding papers
We tell them about Jesus and they watch us throw away more food than they can of the congress, is a sign and an assurance of a new humility.”73
ever hope to eat. We are busy building beautiful church buildings, and they Padilla concluded:
scrounge to find shelter for their families. We have money in the bank and they
do not have enough to buy food for their children. All the while we tell them that If the church is really one, then there is no place for the assumption that one
our Master was the Servant of men, the Savior who gave his all for us and bids section of the church has the monopoly on the interpretation of the Gospel and
the definition of the Christian mission. T h e problem is that one version of
culture-Christianity, with an inadequate theological foundation and conditioned
66 Henry-Mooneyham, One Tusk.
Graham, Billy, “Lausanne,” 31f.
67
68 Padilla, “Evangelism,” 144. ’’ Padilla, “Evangelism,” 132f., note 9.
69 Green, “Evangelism,” 175. 72 Kaye, “Tomorrow”; idem, “Challenge.”
’O Escobar, “Evangelism,” 303; from Christians/Schipper/Smedes, Who, 125. 73 Ibid.
by “fierce pragmatism”-the kind of pragmatism that in the political sphere has

produced Watergate-should be regarded as the official position and the meas-
ure of orthodoxy around the world.74
3 ‘ (TWENTY THREE
Now that things seem to be moving in the evangelical camp, Pentecostals
are also beginning to reconsider their position. Many Pentecostals were at
Lausanne. It is possible that in the end, at the meeting point between problem
and promise, something new-a genuine Pentecostal theology-will emerge,
different from our Western-based (Catholic, Protestant, evangelical and Pen-
tecostal) theologies and missiologies. This seems especially likely to happen if Hermeneutics:
the question of the hermeneutic principle, the basis from which Scripture is
interpreted, becomes a focus of reflection. This will be the topic of our next WXo Intoprets Su$ture Correctb?
chapter.
Who interprets Scripture correctly? Most Pentecostal

believers would answer: every believer does, because Scrip-
ture is clear in itself. That was-as we know-also the posi-
tion of the Reformers, until they discovered that believers
were coming to answers different from their own. Thus
confessions of faith were introduced; in the Reformation
churches, and in Pentecostal churches. But such confessions
have not solved the problem for Pentecostal Bible read-
ers-they still come to very different conclusions among
themselves (as is clear to any reader who has followed the
argument of this book so far). There are many different
“Pentecostal” positions on the church, on the Spirit, on
ethics, on politics, on glossolalia, and even on the Baptism of
the Spirit-the heart of Pentecostal spirituality.
Why is it that bonafide believers come to different conclu-
sions on the meaning of Scripture? Furthermore, what do we
do if the Scriptures say different things in different places;
for example, on the Spirit, on the church, on christology, and
so on? And what about those important issues where the
Scripture is silent; for instance, on all the activities of “civil
religion” (burials, weddings, and so forth), not to speak of
many important ethical questions of our modern time?
These questions have led a number of Pentecostal schol-
ars to open the debate on hermeneutics, an overview of
which I want to give in the following chapter.
Why Hermeneutics?
74Padilla,“Evangelism,” 140.The conference volume by J. D. Douglas is a mine
of important reflections and new thinking in the evangelical camp, unfortunately all All people can understand the Bible; how is it that they
too often ignored by evangelicals and their opponents. See also, Stott, “Twenty come to different conclusions? Is it because I (or my group)
Years,” 50-55.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Hermeneuttcs: Who Interprets Scripture Correcth? 309
308
understand better and more deeply what the text says, and others are dull, cultures in Africa whose patterns of thinking are probably closer to that of the
disobedient, or simply inaccurate? That is too easy a way out; we can no longer biblical authors than are ours.’
say “The Bible says,” and then quote a verse of Scripture. We have to account More importantly, we ask: why is it that only Christian fringe groups take
for the principle of our selectivity. For example: seriously the historical precedent of “having all things in common” set by the
Why do some Pentecostals take literally the command by Jesus in the early Christians, which was after all an important fruit of the first Pentecost?2
Gospel of John to wash each others feet, and others do not? And why is it that even fewer Christians (whether Catholic, Pentecostal,
Why are black (and some white) Pentecostals uneasy about Paul’s obvious Protestant, or evangelical) live according to the Sermon on the Mount-in-
hesitation to attack the institution of slavery, while some of these same people cluding those who take this sermon to be the actual words of Jesus?
take literally his condemnation of homosexuality-and still others have founded It is not only the Pentecostal who “tends to exegete his e ~ p e r i e n c e ” ; ~
a Pentecostal association for homosexuals? historical-critical exegetes also do this, as I have argued elsewhere.’ What
Why do most (not all) Pentecostals reject infant baptism because it is not remains to be done in this situation is to recognize this, and to be aware of
in the New Testament, yet appoint army chaplains, organize Bible schools, one’s own bias and limitation.
celebrate December 25th as the birthday of their Lord, and do extended youth The necessity for this sort of hermeneutical reflection became even clearer
work-none of which is mentioned in the New Testament? to me when I tutored Pamela Binyon, an English High School teacher. She
Why do Pentecostals and charismatics teach so many different doctrines had studied theology in Oxford and taught religion in an English Girls’ High
on the baptism in the Spirit? School. Religion is a compulsory subject in English schools; thus lessons are
My own conclusion from all of this is that we must plead for a theologi- taught in a “scholarly” and “objective” way-neither as worship nor as
cally responsible syncretism. That Christianity (both today and in the New evangelism. And since religion is a topic like any other, in which information,
Testament) is a syncretism p a r excellence seems to be irrefutable (chapter 11, facts in their interrelatedness, and models of interpretation are discussed and
pp. 132-44).One has only to think of the temple which was planned according examined a t the final examination, both Catholic and Protestant interpreta-
to Canaanite models and built by Canaanite craftsmen; or of the magi who tions of the Gospel must be considered.
found their way (at least according to Matthew) to the cradle of Jesus on the Ms. Binyon belongs to the Church of England, and she had to present the
basis of their pagan astrology, while the Bible-reading scribes in Jerusalem different streams in her church as well, from liberal to evangelical. T h e
tried to kill little Jesus. Any responsible (including evangelical and Pentecos- important minorities in Britain such as the Methodists, the Baptists, the
tal) exegesis has to reckon with the fact that without this syncretism the Bible Presbyterians, and the Catholics were also considered. And finally there were
could never have been written. So the question arises: What is a theologically significant Muslim, Buddhist, and Hindu minorities to be accounted for, not
responsible syncretism, as over against a theologically irresponsible syncre- to forget the many who do not know where they belong religiously and have
tism? T h e signposts for answering this question are the biblical authors rather flimsy religious convictions.
who-with skill, responsibility and competence-decided to use or not to use Binyon also belongs to the evangelical wing of the Church of England. To
certain religious or cultural rites, thought-patterns, and even moral precepts her, theological studies at Oxford looked like an intellectual game which
(think of Paul’s Huustufeln, household codes) from their surrounding world. by-passed the most important issue, the personal decision in her life. None-
So if today some bury their lords in their churches, if we act as religious theless, she continued her studies in order to become a teacher. She tried to
celebrants at patriotic celebrations (such as Remembrance Day or the swear- shape her lessons in such a way that her students a t least considered seriously
ing-in of a new president), or if we accept the thought-patterns of Aristotelian
logic in our theology (after all, Aristotle was a pagan philosopher), we have to ‘On semitic thought patterns and language see e.g., Moore, Rich D., “Canon,”
have reasons for these choices. I do not want to be misunderstood: there might including a discussion of dabar and yadu. Also Johns/Bridges-Johns, “Yielding,”
109-34, in particular: “We have found the rationalism o f twentieth-century evangeli-
be perfectly legitimate reasons for these forms of syncretism. But those cal Christianity to be an inadequate vehicle for passing on a faith which honors the
reasons must be demonstrated, not just taken for granted. T h e issue becomes active presence of the Holy Spirit in the contemporary world” ( 1 10) or a quote from
urgent when churches from other cultures in which Aristotle is not predomi- Down (“Contours”): “When the only ‘language game’ in town is rationalism it is not
nant begin to articulate their Pentecostal theology, or when they integrate into hard to understand why an experiential, relational, emotional and moral faith would
choose not to plaq by the rules” (Johns/Bridges-Johns, “Yielding,” 1 lo), or also a
their theologies and liturgies their patriotism, their ancestors and their nation- discussion o f y a d a on p. 128.
alism (or their revolutionary and anti-patriotic ideas), as well as their “non- ’Gee, “End”; The Pentecostals, 212.
Aristotelian” logic. Examples are plentiful in the churches in China, in Korea Fee, “Precedent,” 120. Also Anderson, Gordon L., “Hermeneutics,” 1.5.
(chapter 8, pp. 99-105 and 20, pp. 264-67) and in semitic or pre-literary 4Hollenweger, “Exegesis.”
310 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correctly? 311
the gospel as an important signpost for their lives. Some of her students language, including biblical language, is provisional. That is why the Bible
understood and accepted this, to the extent that they became Anglican nuns. speaks of God in languages which differ according to author, time, and context.
T h e process of choosing a topic for her research was a difficult one. She There are, however, yardsticks which measure the relative truth of lan-
always said that she was looking for a language which her students could guage. T h e specialized language of a pastry-cook is not completely, but
understand; I pointed her to the books of Emil Brunner. But Brunner was not relatively, unsuitable for describing the Himalayas. In fact, some “technical”
convincing for her. One day she said to me: “I give up. I am either too stupid languages are only accessible to specialists, but are otherwise unusable. Somt
or unable to write a decent theological dissertation.” languages even tend to change their point of reference in the middle of a \
I asked her once again: “What do you want to find out? As a teacher you sentence; these are confused languages, which do not give a clear image.
know that the most important thing in teaching is to have a precise goal.” Then Pamela Binyon’s work was published in 1977 in the “Studies in the
she began to speak. She had an extraordinarily expressive face on which many Intercultural History of Chri~tianity.”~ After she had finished her work, I
years of hard intellectual and physical work had left its traces. Her sentences asked her to talk to my other candidates who were wrestling with their
were always of astonishing clarity and lucidity. She gave the following answer: dissertations just as she had wrestled. She said: “Whether my little book is of
“First: I have not studied properly. That is a disadvantage today. T h e critical any scholarly value I do not know. For me, however, it was important. It
tools of modern theology are necessary for my work. Second: I was converted showed me the relative significance of my own evangelical language and also
in the Students’ Mission in Oxford; however, I cannot teach my conversion-I the significance (and the limitations) of other languages. Furthermore I learned
must teach the whole field of experience and thinking in Christianity. Third: the art of translation from one language into another. It is no longer necessary
Two years ago I was at a charismatic conference. What I heard and saw there for me to consider somebody as an inferior Christian because he does not
has convinced me that I must risk a move into a less doctrinaire position. How understand (or perhaps because in my opinion he wrongly understands) the
does one do this? I do not want to become a victim of the opposite position; biblical or the evangelical language. T h e wrong language is that language
that of the many Christians who do not really know what they believe, nor what which thinks it has the monopoly in explaining God’s mysteries. There are
they disbelieve.” wrong languages. But these are not the languages which say something wrong
This was, of course, more than a scholarly program. But Pamela Binyon but languages which think they have a monopoly on truth.’’
found her way. She had been trained in the English philosophy of language-a This is certainly not all that Pamela Binyon has to say on the subject. I
capital which she could now draw from. She examined the language in which cannot enter into a detailed and extensive epistemological discussion of the
the prophets of the Old Testament, the evangelist Luke, the apostle Paul, the co-determination of language by culture, biography, religion, politics and
Catholic Pentecostals, a famous neurosurgeon (William Sargent), and an social context (in the Bible and in present-day language). Most helpful for me
equally famous Swiss psychoanalyst (Carl Gustav Jung) described phenomena personally were the discussions with mathematicians and physicists who deal
which are typically considered, within the faith, to be manifestations of the exactly with this kind of problem, and who have long overcome the old
Spirit or of spirits. ideology of “objectivism” without falling into a new subjectivism. They
For our topic, the most important comparison was the one between the discuss in detail for which parameter, under which condition, a statement is
neurosurgeon, the psychologist, and the biblical authors. Binyon started with true or false, verifiable or falsifiable.6
the assumption that they described the same phenomena; just as a geologist, a
photographer, or a mountaineer describes the Himalayas differently, so they The Problem Recognized
described religious experiences in different languages. Furthermore, it mat-
tered whether they described the Himalayas from the foot of the mountain, I want to return now to hermeneutics among Pentecostals, for Pente-
from another mountain, or from an airplane. Always the Himalayas appear in costals themselves have recognized the problem.’ Gordon Anderson for in-
a different way; and yet it is the same mountain range. Conversions and Stance states that Pentecostals do not conduct penetrating discussions on how
religious experiences such as healing or Spirit-Baptism appeared to the neuro- biblical principles translate into behavior.
surgeon as bio- or electro-chemical functions of the nervous system; to the That might be a partial answer to the puzzling question of why the Pentecostal
biblical authors as signs of God’s love; to the psychologist as processes through world had been virtually comatose prior to the public disclosures of the sexual
which somebody can understand repressed feelings and memories in his
subconscious and integrate them into his whole person. inyo yon, Concepts.
Which one is the correct language? The question has no answer. There is no 6Discussed at length in my ITh 3.
language which describes the Himalayas “objectively,” that is to say simulta- ’See also Stronstad, “Trends”; EPTA Bulletin, 7/3, 1988, 116f.; Johnston,
neously, from all points of view and in the language of all observers. All human “Hermeneutics.”
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correctly? 313
312
American executive committee of t h e International G r e e k N e w T e s t a m e n t

misconduct of a major Pentecostal minister who was guilty, not only of sexual
immorality, but by any Christian measure, other serious breaches of biblical Project, co- chairing its patristic section.
principles as well . . . Why is it that the Pentecostal church, along with its many As a teacher, Fee is known for his contagious enthusiasm and passionate love for
positive features, is also such a fertile field for a bumper crop of poor or heretical Scripture. He also has a reputation for insisting on conscientious and careful
theology, embarrassing personalities, outrageous visions and revelations, pre- scholarship. . . . Within Pentecostal circles Fee is both admired and denounced.
posterous fundraising schemes, financial impropriety, and, in some cases, scan- T o some, Fee epitomizes the heretofore oxymoron “a Pentecostal scholar.” His
dalous moral failure? A good deal of the answer lies in the fact that many careful regard for “the text” and his skills as a New Testament exegete render
Pentecostals have an inadequate means by which they establish biblical principle him a voice to be reckoned with; moreover, his zeal behind the pulpit and his
and apply it to the moral issues of everyday life.’ passion for the Pentecostal message of the Spirit’s presence in this age authen-
Richard D. Israel goes a s t e p further: “A Pentecostal ideology is n o ticate him as one deeply committed to the Pentecostal experience. Yet, to others,
Fee’s hermeneutic challenges the traditional Pentecostal hermeneutic (which
hermeneutic a t all; i t is the obliteration of t h e horizon of the text by the
Fee labels “pragmatic” . . .) and is regarded as an implicit threat to the Pente-
interpreter.” U s i n g H a b e r m a s a n d o t h e r specialists on communication h e says:
costal doctrine that tongues are the “initial physical evidence” of the Spirit
If one cannot establish comprehensibility, there can be no mutual language and baptism.12
no conversation. If you cannot redeem the truth claim, there will be no shared
knowledge and understanding. If the sincerity is left unredeemed, trust and F u r t h e r m o r e , Fee teaches regularly overseas, which points n o t only to a
understanding is not established. Finally, unless all the first three claims are d e e p c o m m i t m e n t to mission b u t also t o an intercultural understanding o f
satisfied, there cannot be legitimation. There will be no shared values and no theology.
interpersonal relationship.’ A t t h e second annual meeting o f t h e Society for Pentecostal S t u d i e s in
Oklahoma City (1972), Fee shook his audience b y mercilessly exposing t h e
Whatever else this means, it reveals a n uneasiness with t h e present state deficiencies o f Pentecostal hermeneutics:
o f Pentecostal hermeneutics.
M a r k D. McLean adds: Two observations should be made about hermeneutics within the traditional
Pentecostal movement. First, their attitude toward Scripture regularly has in-
A strict adherence to traditional evangelical/fundamentalist hermeneutical cluded a general disregard for scientific exegesis and carefully thought-out
principles leads to a position which, in its most positive forms, suggests the hermeneutics. In fact, hermeneutics has simply not been a Pentecostal thing.
distinctives of the twentieth century Pentecostal movement are perhaps nice, but Scripture is the Word of God and is to be obeyed. In place of scientific herme-
not necessary; important but not vital to the life of the Church in the twentieth neutics there developed a kind of pragmatic hermeneutics-obey what should
century. In its more negative forms, it leads to a total rejection of Pentecostal be taken literally; spiritualize, allegorize, or devotionalize the rest. Pentecostals
phenomena.” of course, are not alone in this. Furthermore, gifted men tend to apply the
hermeneutics with inspired commonsense.13 Therefore, although exegetical
On t h e issue of creation he says: aberrations abound in Pentecostal pulpits and sometimes in their pamphlets, the
From a Pentecostal perspective, what can be more natural than the God who mainstream of traditional American Pentecostalism has treated Scripture in very
created all things, manipulating the stuff of creation in ways that do not violate much the same way as have other forms of American f ~ n d a r n e n t a l i s m ’or~
that creation, but are in harmony with the realities of creation which our evangelicalism. T h e differences have been over what is to be literally obeyed.
sophisticated scientific study, as great and as valuable as it is, has not yet Secondly, it is probably fair-and important-to note that in general the Pente-
discerned, let alone understood. 11 costals’ experience has preceded their hermeneutics. In a sense, the Pentecostal
tends to exegete his experience.”
O n e of t h e first w h o p u t hermeneutics on the Pentecostal agenda was
Gordon D. Fee ( b o r n 1934). He is a remarkable Pentecostal: ordained i n 1959 Fee continues, “In defense of the Pentecostal, i t should be observed that
as minister o f the Assemblies o f God, a graduate from Seattle Pacific College although he has tended to arrive a t the biblical norm b y way o f his experience,
a n d o f the University o f S o u t h e r n California (Ph.D. 1966), professor o f N e w h e is not alone in establishing norm on the basis o f historical precedent rather
T e s t a m e n t a t Regent College, Vancouver, B.C., he n o w also serves on t h e
Alexander, “Fee.” See also Fee, “Baptism.”
13 Perhaps
“inspired commonsense” is a new and interesting gift of the Spirit.
‘Anderson, Gordon L., “Changing,” 3.
’Israel, “Pentecostalism,” A 9, A 32. 14And I might add as many highly trained pastors in Europe, see below, pp.
lo McLean, “Hermeneutic,” 37. See also idem, “Gap.”
322-23.
McLean, “Hermeneutic,” 45. Fee, “Precedent,” 121f.
314 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correctly? 315
than on the explicit teaching of the Scripture.”16 After discussing hermeneu- learned from the Catholics that the originally Protestant critical method can
tics in Catholic, Baptist, and other churches he comes to the crucial question: also be used in another framework, in this case in the Catholic framework. So
How is the Book of Acts the Word of God? . . . If the primitive church is why not in the Pentecostal framework? This is in fact what most Pentecostal
normative, which expression of it is normative?17 . . . Jerusalem? Antioch? exegetes state: that they use the same tools for exegesis as any other scholar.”
Philippi? Corinth? That is, why do not all the churches sell their possessions and Did the Pentecostal dialogue-partners in the Vatican/Pentecostal dialogue not
have all things in common? Or further, is it at all legitimate to take descriptive know what is taught in their own Bible colleges? How else could one explain
elements as normative? If so, how does one distinguish those which are from that they paralleled the German critical methodology with the Old Antiochian
those which are not? For example, must we follow the pattern of Acts 1:26 and exegesis, “that was emphatically rejected by the Council of Ephesus ( A D
select leaders by lot?
43 l)”?The Catholics answered: Critical methodology is not specifically Ger-
“It is of interest that the Assemblies of God sees baptism by immersion man, nor Catholic, but they added a very pastoral note: “Roman Catholics
as ‘commanded by Scriptures’ but makes no statement on the frequency of the went through the same stage Pentecostals are now passing and they asked the
Lord’s Supper.”18 Or, he adds, “to use Jesus’ cleansing of the temple to justify same questions. Catholics, therefore, understand the Pentecostal concerns on
one’s so-called righteous indignation-usually a euphemism for selfish an- this hermeneutical Gerald T. Sheppard expressed the Pentecostal
ger-is to abuse the principle of the norm of a biblical precedent.”” situation like this: “ . . . the best Pentecostal practice of interpreting Scripture
Before we now turn to the guidelines for a Pentecostal hermeneutics, let is not fundamentalistic but dependent on a spiritually informed discernment
us take a brief look at Pentecostals’ criticism of the hermeneutics of others. and intuition. It is a form of interpretation open to ordinary people with an
extraordinary b 0 0 k . ” ~ ~
Criticism of Non-Pentecostal Hermeneutics On the other hand they clearly detect the faults in some devotional books,
for example, on John’s Revelation: “In order to arrive at a correct under-
It is to be expected that Pentecostals would criticize a rigid dispensation- standing of Revelation 204-6 one must realize that John was influenced by
alism (which states that the gifts of the Spirit ceased with the completion of both the biblical and extra-biblical books mentioned.” Far from intending to
the biblical canon); this is too well-known to need documentation. Only, it is give a blueprint for the future, John was a proper prophet in that he prophesied
strange that in all other matters Pentecostals still use a dispensational approach against the evil of his time-for instance, against a Caesar who claimed to be
which fits neither their experience nor their understanding of the Bible.’” Less Dominus et Deus. In today’s Pentecostalism Revelation “became increasingly
known are their arguments with the Catholics, documented by Sandidge:
an object of dogmatic speculation” which is not its intention.” Thomas
They confronted their Catholic dialogue partners in the Vatican/Pentecostal Ruchelka also states that the prophetic passages in the Old Testament have “to
dialogue with a “pneumatic exegesis” or “spiritual criticism,” in opposition to
be first understood in the historical sense before prophetidchristological
critical exegesis (in spite of the fact that the former methodology seems to be
conclusions are drawn.”26And R. E Martin says clearly that Revelation is
highly criticized by their own Pentecostal scholars).21 Yet they could have ~
tual exegesis” see below, pp. 321-22. On “soul marriages” (an “identification of one’s
l6 Ibid.,122. sexual desires with the promptings of the Holy Spirit”) see McLean, “Hermeneutic,”
l7O n this very issue see the important works by Schweizer (Order) and Dulles 51, note 6. On Wilkerson’s Vision (against mainly the Catholic Church) see Robeck,
(Models). “Authority.” Anderson, Gordon L., “Hermeneutics,” 6f. Anderson takes issue with
l8 Fee, “Precedent,” 123 and 123, note 13.
Arrington, E L. (“Hermeneutics,” 382) and Ervin (“Option,” 16,23). H e finds their
l9 Ibid., 129.
work “confusing” and “elitist” because they say that there are certain things in the
2o Sheppard, “Dispensationalism.” Sheppard finds it unfortunate to “wed a Bible which Pentecostals understand better than others.
Pentecostal ecclesiology to a dispensational eschatology. I am concerned to describe 22Fee, “Precedent,” 124. See also his First Corinthians, for instance, on the
the attempt by Pentecostals to find acceptance and legitimation from the dispensa- possibility that 1 Cor 14:34-35 is an inauthentic gloss is carefully considered and
tionalist-fundamentalist. I hope to show both that Pentecostals were not originally affirmed, although other opinions are clearly stated (183). “Fee incorporates the best
dispensationalist-fundamentalist and that efforts secondarily to embrace such views of Barrett and Conzelmann, with whom he more often agrees than not.” Reviewed
have raised new problems . . . ” (5). There is no “pre-tribulation rapture among the by John L. Karsten in E P T A Bulletin 8/4, 1989, 183-84. Anderson, Gordon L.,
doctrinal statements of the Church of God in Christ, Memphis” (10). Sheppard “Hermeneutics,” 1, 8, 11. Arrington, R. L., “Hermeneutics,” in particular, 387.
shows how the doctrine of the pre-tribulation rapture emerged slowly in the Assem- 23 Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 204f, see also 207.
blies of God and how they suddenly accepted what they earlier had rejected (1 1). His 24 Sheppard, “Tradition,” 19, quoted in Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 209.
conclusion: “They would be wiser to look for eschatology and ecclesiology of the 25 Zeegwaart, “Apocalyptic,” 23.
black and hispanic churches” (33).
*’Sandidge, Dialogue (1977- 1982) I, 185, 209, 386f. For criticism on the “spiri-
26Liebi, Erfullte Prophetie, critical review by Thomas R. Ruchelka in E P T A
Bulletin 912, 3, 1989, 74-76.
Hermeneutics: W h o Interprets Scripture Correctly? 317
3 16 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide
The fact that the Psalms are poetry, that the prophets are primarily a collection
neither a cryptically coded prediction of all future history nor an imaginative of spoken oracles, that Ecclesiastes and Job are Jewish wisdom literature, that
flight from the harsh realities being faced by those to whom it was addressed. It Daniel and Revelation are apocalyptic, that the epistles are letters, and that Acts
is rather a symbolic interpretation of history deriving from the experience of the is historical narrative must be a primary consideration in interpretation in order
author’s time and laying down the ultimate principles of Christian existence for to avoid the non-contextual, “promise-box” approach to Scripture. For instance,
all time as these came to the author of the “revelation of Jesus Christ.” the epistles must be taken seriously as letters, not treated primarily as theological
treatises . . . They are not systematic treatises on theology.29
John uses terminology which was intelligible to his readers (but not
necessarily to us). Coming to Acts he first criticizes “the monumental works of Dibelius and
H a e n ~ h e n . ” ~“They
’ tend to treat Acts first as theology and only secondarily
This is prophetic teaching on the ultimate meaning of what John’s audience was
suffering . . . Those who have insisted that the text must refer to realities in this as history. I demur. Theology there is aplenty, and theology is most likely a
world are correct: this is a word of prophecy for the disinherited. Those who see part of Luke’s intent; but it is cast as history, and the first principle of
the application of this and other teachings of Revelation to their own time are hermeneutic is to take that literary genre seriously, . . . even if one disregards
also correct, and there have been people who have so understood the text in its historical value.”3’
27
nearly every century. But as Fee continues, he concedes that Acts is a Tendenzschrift, a narrative
with a “broader intent.” For instance, the story of the conversion of Cornelius
A similar situation is described in the dissertation of Peter Kuzmii: on the “serves his broader interest not simply to ‘represent a principle . . . of higher
Serbo-Croatian Bible translation.2x T h i s is an astonishing piece of research historical truth’ (so Dibelius), nor simply to illustrate Christian conversion in
and impressive in its scholarly breadth, with notes from English, French, general or the baptism in the Holy Spirit in particular (so the Pentecostals).
Russian, German, Serbian, Croatian, and Latin sources. Kuzmii: offers a Rather, Cornelius serves for Luke as the first-fruits of the Gentile mission.”32
critique of the activities of the British and Foreign Bible Society in his country.
H e now comes to his main thesis: In order to have normative value,
T h e Society’s involvement in the Serbo-Croatian translation historical precedent must be related to intent,
illustrates the problems and weaknesses of a centralized bureaucratic system that is, if it can be shown that the purpose of a given narrative is to establish
which ignores the advice of its agents and fails to recognize the complicated precedent, then such precedent should be regarded as normative. For example,
social, cultural and historical context of the Balkans; and it demonstrates the
if i t could be demonstrated on exegetical grounds that Luke’s intent in Acts
strengths of such a system as it became willing to subsidize scholarly activity and
1:15-26 was to give the church a precedent for selecting its leaders, then such a
publishing by leading Serbian and Croatian literary figures. selection process should be followed by later Christians. But if the establishing
O n e thing becomes clear in KuzmiE’s critique: a Bible translation is not of precedent was not the intent of the narrative, then its value as a precedent for
later Christians should be treated according to the specific principles of the next
just a translation; it is also a social, political, and theological statement. I n fact,
section of this paper.33
everybody who has tried to translate passages from the Bible will testify to this.
Therefore, hermeneutics is inevitable for every Pentecostal, even (or even H e then goes on the distinguish between primary and secondary levels of
more) if he or she uses a translation. doctrinal statement. T h e first describes the principle, the second its applications.
T h e second is not unimportant, but is not on the same level as the first, and
Elements of a Pentecostal Hermeneutics might sometimes yield other applications today than are described in the text.
As far as I can see, Gordon D. Fee was the first to tackle the problem of
Pentecostal hermeneutics in any substantive way. Among his “General Prin-
ciples of Interpretation” h e mentions first: 29 Fee, “Precedent,” 124.
30 Dibelius, Studies; Haenchen, Acts.
It should be an axiom of biblical hermeneutics that the interpreter must take into 3 1 Fee, “Precedent ,” 125 .
account the literary genre of the passage he is interpreting, along with the 32 Ibid.
questions of text, grammar, philology, and history. Such a principle would 33 Ibid., 126. These “Specific Principles for the Use of Historical Precedent”
appear to be self-evident, yet it is seldom applied to the New Testament. . . The State among others: “The use of historical precedent as an analogy by which to
point is that not every biblical statement is the Word of God in the same way. establish a norm is never valid in itself. . . . Whether we can reproduce the manner
of exegesis which the New Testament authors applied to the Old Testament is a moot
Point. . . . For a biblical precedent to justify a present action, the principle of the
Martin, R. Francis, “Apocalypse.”
27 action must be taught elsewhere, where i t is the primary intent so to teach” (Fee,
KuzmiE, Vuk-Danicicevo, reviewed by David Bundy in EPTA Bulletin 411, “Precedent,” 128f.).
1985,7-10.
318 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correctly? 319
O n the basis of his hermeneutical reflections, Fee comes to the conclusion E L. Arrington, whom Anderson finds “confusing,” tries to get away
that the Pentecostal doctrine of tongues as “the initial evidence” is an over- from the “coherence syndrome” by quoting James D. G. Dunn:
statement of Luke’s intent. “To insist that it is the only valid sign seems to
The common error . . . is to treat the New Testament (and even the Bible) as a
place too much weight on the historical precedent of three (perhaps four) homogeneous whole, from any part of which texts can be drawn on a chosen
instances in That does of course not undo the value and importance subject and fitted into a framework and system which is often basically extrabib-
of speaking in tongues, but it places it in a different theological framework. lical . . . To avoid this error, which Dunn rightly notes,40the interpreter must
One can imagine the storm of protest which this observation has make an effort to search out the particular theological concerns of the individual
produced among Pentecostals-not so much because of Fee’s hermeneuti- ~riter.~‘
cal method, as because of its application to apie‘ce de resistance of Pentecostal
self-identification (in spite of all which has been said earlier in chapter 17, Arrington nevertheless comes, of course, to different conclusions from
pp. 222-24). However, in order to remain faithful to their commitment to Dunn and Fee. H e sees in Luke (with Stronstad4*) “a theological framework
a scholarly exegetical method, Pentecostals have had to deal with Fee’s from the whole of the Lukan corpus and offers that framework to the interpreter
hermeneutical argument. as a template with which to interpret the historical narrative of Luke-Acts,’’
One of Fee’s outspoken critics is Gordon L. Anderson.35 Anderson’s basically a similar approach to Fee but opting for a “Pentecostal framework”
presupposition seems to be: of Luke and thus vindicating the usual Pentecostal interpretation.
Kilian McDonnell criticizes: “E L. Arrington claims both a special Pen-
The correct view is to recognize that the work of theology is that of systematizing tecostal tradition and a unique Pentecostal hermeneutic.” McDonnell “sup-
the objective meanings of individual verses into a coherent whole. In this method ports the first but sincerely doubts the second, because it sequesters the
the original meanings are gotten through the historical-grammatical method,
charisma and the Spirit. Some years ago this same question was discussed in
grounded in the assumption that they have fixed and objective meanings. The
Europe outside of Pentecostal circles.”43
system is constructed by the theologian, but without claiming that any particular
verse means what is revealed as a composite from a synthesis of the whole of Finally some very different approaches are found in the Dutch Pentecostal
Scripture. One must first do biblical theology and then systematic . . . A good movement. There myth as an adequate category of theological synthesis and
Pentecostal argues for the uniformity of language and logic.36. . . Pentecostals expression of “coherence” is re-discovered.#
reject the pluralism that ensues when the language and logic of the Bible are As far as I can see the hermeneutical approach of Louis Dalliere, a French
taken to be culture specific. charismatic of the 1930s (chapter 25, pp. 338-42) has not been discussed
among the Pentecostals. Yet, it could be important for them. In dialogue with
T h e Bible does not have a variety of meanings, only a variety of applica- T Fallot, Dalliere accepts the “law of intermediaries,” which allows him to
t i o n ~ . ~T’o this Anderson adds that for him the narrative has no less value than avoid a fundamentalist reading of Scripture and to avoid a rupture between
the propositional (a position which in my opinion he seems wrongly to science (including psychology and sociology) and religious life. “All aspects of
attribute to Fee). T h e Bible is also “a true record” in its narratives. “The knowledge, when applied critically to the biblical text, make the text human,
document is valuable for the facts it records.”38 social, real, and able to be responded to in life and worship.”45
In one way Mark McLean agrees with Anderson: “We will assert that
Others look for help among their fellow Pentecostals in the Third World:
the mode of God’s presence in and among his people is the same today as
it was in biblical times,” hence the value of biblical narratives. In another We need the doctrinal leadership of the Third World leaders, scholars, and
sense, it seems to me, he disagrees with Anderson by stating that we must pastors who not only grapple with American and European exported doctrinal
t u r n away “from the nostalgic longing (evidenced in much of orthodoxy)
for an ontologically distinct era in which God spoke audibly and acted 40Dunn,Baptism, 39.
Arrington, E L., “Hermeneutics,” 387.
concretely in history.”39
’* Stronstad, Luke, 75-76. See also idem, “Experiential,” and idem, “Trends”;
E P T A Bulletin 7/3, 1988, 116f.
3’Ibid., 131. 43Kilian McDonnell in a review of the Dictionary and Arrington’s entry on
35 Anderson, Gordon. L., “Hermeneutics,” 8. “Hermeneutics” (376-89) in Pneuma 13/1, 1991, 83-85, quote 83. For a Pentecostal
36 One is reminded of the old mediaeval dispute on the universdia in a new form: critique of this so-called Pentecostal hermeneutics see above Gordon L. Anderson,
nomen est omen. note 21.
37 Anderson,Gordon. L., “Hermeneutics,” 11. J. L. Karsten in a review of Willis (ed.), Kingdom in E P T A Bulletin 912, 3,
381bid.,15. 1990,79-83, Zeegwaart, “ ‘Myth’ ” (discussion with Hollenweger, ZTh 2).
39 McLean, “Hermeneutic,” 49f. ‘5 Bundy, “Making,” 47; Dalliere, “Fonction,” 254f.; Fallot, Comment.
Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correct(y? 32 1
oikoumene. It does not mean that the biblical authors did not have something
heresies (areas such as extreme faith and prosperity, kingdom now, new age etc.)
clear in mind when they wrote. But can we always grasp it?
but also address life and death issues from their own regions . . . I wonder if it
is seriously believed by North American and European P e n t e c ~ s t a l s . ~ ~
The strength of Pentecostal hermeneutics is in fact that it takes into
consideration the hermeneutes and his experience. That is how one could
“I dream of a time when our politicians, scientists, psychologists, economists, interpret the insistence on “pneumatic exegesis.” “Pneumatic exegesis” is wt
teachers, and others will search for common ground with Pentecostal-charis- a kind of intuition. It can simply mean that the Pentecostal interpreter has a
matic theologians and church leaders in pooling and mobilizing our resources greater Einverstundnis5* with the text than others because of his cultural and
for the struggle,” for liberation needs all the resources available.47
spiritual background. That is certainly true for certain passages, and untrue
How such a hermeneutic would look from the underside is documented for others, where for instance Catholic and Orthodox Christians have a greater
by Eldin Villafafie: empathy; which is why we need each other. This was dramatically shown to
me in the teaching process at the Centre for Black and White Christian
The witness of Scripture is clear that while the Gospel is for all, the rich and
Partnership in Birmingham (chapter 9, pp. 106-16). The New Testament
powerful (including the religious “powers-that-be”) because of their grasping or
teacher analyzed miracle stories and healing texts according to the well-known
dependence (“idolatry”) on their financial or religious advantage, hear it as “bad
news.” This is part of the meaning of the “hermeneutical advantage of the critical method. The Pentecostal students busily took notes. There was no
objection from them. Why should they not learn how these texts had been
shaped in a long oral process? That is their daily experience. But all of a sudden
I do not want to enter into this hot intra-Pentecostal debate. T h e main one of them asked the teacher: “Have you ever experienced a healing?” T h e
thing for me is that it is taking place. I want only to add a few questions, to lecturer was dumb-founded. He repeated the results of his research on redac-
highlight what I consider the strength of Pentecostal hermeneutics, and then tion criticism and form criticism. But the student was not to be put off: “Have
to offer my own lifelong experience in interpreting the Bible with small groups you ever experienced a healing?” “No,” the teacher said. “But we have , . . ,”
and before crowds of many thousands at the German Kirchentag. said the students and began to tell their stories. T h e teacher was introduced
First the questions: Some Pentecostals ask for coherence49in theological into a world quite unknown to him. T h e continuation of the story is too
statements. If by “coherence” is meant a logical coherence in the sense of personal to be printed in this book but it shows that the experiential horizon
Aristotelian logic, those who ask for this do not have the Bible on their side, of the interpreter can help or hinder biblical exegesis.
for the God of the Bible can change his mind (Jonah!); he can repent. H e is Or to take another example which Pentecostals will perhaps not like. For
the same all the time, he is true and utterly reliable, but he does not fit our many centuries it was written in the Greek manuscripts that there was a female
logical categories. So what does coherence mean? Furthermore, why should apostle among the early apostles. This is also confirmed by the church fa-
Pentecostals reject a pluralistic approach to the Bible’” when the Pentecostal thers:’” Yet the commentaries which I consulted said, in effect: “Yes, that is
movement itself is a shining example of “unity and diversity”? What is meant what is written in the text, but it must be a mistake. There could not have been
by “objective meaning”? This concept has been given up by most scientists in a female apostle.” T h e text was therefore read as Iounias (a man’s name) rather
the so-called hard core of science, in physics and mathematics. T h e observer, than Iounia (a woman’s name-the original reading). The text was “objec-
it is admitted, is part of the observed. We do not know what is; we only know tively” there for anybody to read for many centuries. But it could not be “taken
how we perceive it.’’ So while God is an objective reality (if such an almost
in” by male commentators because it was contrary to experience and convic-
blasphemous sentence is allowed) we know him (or her), only in part, as he or
tion. When the feminists, on the other hand, read the Bible, they discovered
she is revealed to us. This means for hermeneutics that no system is ever final,
the female contribution; they asked different questions, and got different
only a contribution to the continuing process of knowledge in the whole
answers. This is not a plea for subjectivism: the text is there for everybody to
read. Any male exegete, once he has been enlightened by the feminist exegetes,
46 McClung, “Interdependence.”
can check it for himself. But it needed the specific question which came from
47 Lovett,“Liberation,” 169. Lovett is a black Pentecostal, Ph.D. in Social Ethics
at Emory University, founding-president of the Charles Mason Theological Semi- a specific female experiential, social, and cultural background to bring this
nary, the first fully accredited Pentecostal seminary in the U.S., now pastor of the
Church at the Crossroads, Los Angeles. 52 Anderson, Gordon. L., “Hermeneutics,” 15, quoting Fuchs, Horizons, 343f.
48 Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 106. Similarly Moore, Rich D., “Approach”: “There is a vital place for emotion as well as
49 “Coherence” is also a key-word for Johnston, “Hermeneutics,” 62, also for reason, for imagination as well as logic” (qupted in Arrington, E L., “Hermeneutics,”
Ervin “Option,” 12. 388).
jd Dunn, Unity.
53 See above chapter 20 (p. 268), especially note 37 and Heine, Women.
j 1This is discussed in detail in my ITh 3 , especially in part IV.
Hermeneutrcs: Who Interprets Scrtpture Correctly? 323
/
to communicate in this way (which is probably, in turn, because their teachers
insight to light. I am sure that it is on this level, by asking hitherto suppressed
do not know either).”
questions, that Pentecostals can make a contribution to hermeneutics. How
I can put it much more bluntly. We theologians learn Greek, Latin, and
this happened in my own life is the topic of the next section.
Hebrew. We are drilled in all the methods of critical exegesis and critical
thinking. In form-criticism we learn to distinguish between myth and history,
Hermeneutics as I Lived It
between parable and allegory, between the literary structure of the gospels and
This is the testimony of my own hermeneutical pilgrimage: I was a biography of Jesus. We learn in redaction-criticism that biblical texts are the
raised in the experiential and oral spirituality of Pentecostalism. But I was theological product of authors who are responsible to and sometimes in
trained in the most rigid methods of historical-critical exegesis. Among my conflict with a narrative community. Yet in our churches almost nothing of
teachers were Hans Conzelmann, Eduard Schweizer, Gerhard Ebeling and this is made fruitful for the people of God. While we are trained in the details
Karl Barth. I knew Rudolf Bultmann and Ernst Kasemann personally. I of critical theology, our church members still discuss whether or not Adam
have great respect for the spirituality and integrity of these men. What they and Eve, Noah and Methuselah, were historical persons. They still discuss
said was extremely helpful as long as it was critical and historical. What can whether or not God could have created the universe in seven days. They still
a Pentecostal say when he is shown that some of his presuppositions were read the gospels as straightforward biographies.
based on wrong translations or on very late biblical manuscripts, and not If I as a theologian would pretend that the Kleine Nachtmusik (by Mozart)
on the best available ones? What can he say when he is shown that the is written by the Beatles and Winnie the Pooh by Shakespeare, I would be
process of handing down an oral culture follows certain rules, which he considered ignorant, although I am not a literary or music historian. But if
recognizes only too well from his own experience in the oral culture of similar things and worse are said about the Bible-if genres, times, and authors
Pentecostalism? are mixed up with each other-then this is called “faith.” This has nothing to
But when it came to what the Americans call “the New Hermeneutic~,”’~ do with faith. It is just ignorance.
I could only react with a mild smile. It looked to me like the worst of This situation is the focus of Eugen Drewermann’s work. He uses a
Pentecostal exegesis (not of the text but of the exegete), with the remarkable parable and says: “If a nomadic tribe leaves an oasis it has two possibilities to
difference that a Pentecostal lay preacher who uses a biblical text in order to
secure its water supply. The first is: It takes water provisions on its journey.
give significance to his daily sorrows and joys in the factory or in the family at
Only these provisions will soon be used up. One cannot live on this water a
least speaks of real experiences in a given social field, while the New Herme-
whole life long. The second: They dig wells. They bring fresh water from the
neutics seemed to be speaking of an inner world of the individual, while
depths to the surface.” Drewermann compares the historical-critical research
denying that this was a kind of Christian psychology.
with the water provisions which we carry. “Here they go, the caravans, through
When I began to teach pastors in further education classes (Catholic,
the desert of scholarship and do not even realize that their water bags are
Lutheran, and Presbyterian) I was amazed at how little they had absorbed from
empty and that they are condemned to death. To distract themselves on the
their university education.
way they discuss who has the nicer water bags or the older camels (or more
Having been exposed to a critical reading of Scripture in their seminary educa- modern, or more evangelical, or more catholic).”
tion, it is difficult for pastors to return to a pre-critical reading of the text. But Then Drewermann presents his psychological interpretation. We do not
once the pastor enters his or her first parish the tools of historical criticism need bags full of water, he says, but we must dig deep into the depths of our
remain a closely guarded secret. Very little that the pastor learned about how to
souls. There we might find wells of fresh ~ a t e r . ’ ~
read and interpret Scripture is passed on to the laity . . . For various reasons
pastors apparently either cannot or will not lay their exegesis on the table for the
Drewermann’s critique is justified. He is also not the only one who sees
congregation.” the crisis.” The question is only whether his program can fulfill its promises.
Digging into the depths of our souls might produce water. Many a Pentecostal
This is why Walter Wink considers historical-critical exegesis to be “bank-
r ~ p t ” : ’not
~ because it is not true, but because it cannot convey its insights to 57 Conservatives do not fare better; see Achtemeier, Inspiration: “Since no auto-
where they are badly needed, and because future pastors are not taught how graph [of the Bible] is known to have survived, it would appear that the conservatives
have not only an impregnable position-ne cannot prove an error in something one
54 What was called at that time existentiale Interpretation, mainly based on
does not possess-but also a highly dubious one. Of what use is an inerrant Scripture
Heidegger and other existentialist philosophers. which is unavailable?”(52).
58 Drewermann, Tiefenpsychologie, I, ’ 14f.
55 Stroup, Promise, 28.
59 Ebeling, Studium, 23; Stuhlrnacher, Neuen Testaments.
56 See chapter 15 (pp. 197-99) and Wink, Bible in Human Transformation.
324 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Deoelopments Worldmide Hermeneutics: Who Interprets Scripture Correctly? 325
has found this for instance in prayer. But we might also hit a cesspool, or an they are not my texts. This story was first told by a certain Jesus of Nazareth
oil-well. That is, something useful but not fit for drinking. T h e depths of our who had to lose his life because he told stories which upset the rqligious and
souls also contain some ugly things: it is good that this stuff comes out, but it political leaders of his time.” They said: “Nonetheless they are goo$-stories.”
is not necessarily the pure water of God’s revelation. To distinguish between Certainly they are. That explains why I concentrate on biblical texts. What else
the two is only possible if we can in fact still recognize the difference between could we take? Mark Twain, Shakespeare, the Koran? It is my professional
clean well-water and chlorinated water; and the taste for good water is given duty to read some of these other texts, but none of them shows the quality of
to us in the Bible. biblical texts. And that is invariably recognized by those who act them, and by
I am not against diving into our own depths. But we should not do it those who put them to music and choreography. Some of their reactions have
uncritically. There are sources e x t r a nos, outside of us. That is why we need put me to shame. These people realize first and foremost that this is something
map readers-navigators who help us to find our way through the desert. It special, when the biblical texts are not used as proof-texts for my ideology but
seems to me that Drewermann does not know much about nomads. No nomad as texts which are our common vis-a-vis. Whether these people become Chris-
would go all alone into the desert and dig a hole: he would die. He operates tians or not is not my responsibility, but the responsibility of the Spirit of God.
within the tribe and within a tradition where there are memories of waterholes Perhaps it is not even desirable that they become members of a church. The
and oases. Likewise, no Christian can be a Christian all alone with his Bible. churches might destroy their emerging faith. On the other hand, the churches
We need “the tribe,” the whole universal church in this case, to help us to find might repent their ghetto existence and welcome those who try to become
our way through the desert. Christians in a different way. Thus they will discover aspects of the gospel
That the business of navigation and map reading has been made boring which they have ignored so far. Here too, even in hermeneutics, I come back
or incomprehensible is no reason to give it up. What is the alternative? The to my main topic, and that is: how do we become evangelists, and not just
alternative is what I call “narrative exegesis.” This is not bibliodrama. The propagandists, of biblical ideas and concepts?
bibliodrama asks the question: What do I hear, feel and understand in this So the answer to the question of this chapter is: no one person interprets
text? This might be a legitimate exercise in some cases, but it is not what a Scripture correctly on his own. It is only in conflict, debate, and agreement
theologian is called upon to do. Narrative exegesis asks the question: who has with the whole people of God, and also with non-Christian readers that we
written this text, for whom and why? For the biblical texts have not been can get a glimpse of what Scripture means.60
written for us but for the addressees indicated in these biblical texts. In
studying these testimonies of past wanderings through the desert we will
discover their extraordinary quality.
That is why I never start Bible studies with an indication that this is the
Word of God. I am convinced that it is, both in its linguistic beauty and in its
ideas-in this I am more fundamentalistic than the fundamentalists. But why
not let listeners discover that for themselves?
This experience is even more powerful when non-church people are asked
to take an active part in the production of a narrative exegesis such as those I
have been involved in producing. The script is based strictly on historical-
critical research, but the exegesis is not presented in the dry form of a lecture.
The different layers of Scripture, the social, cultural, and religious context,
the conflicts among the narrative community are made visible through music,
dance, and drama. With non-Christian dancers and musicians, with folk music
groups and male choirs, with brass bands and gymnastic societies, with
professional and lay actors (most of them not church-goers), we have produced
liturgies, Eucharists, evangelistic campaigns, and biblical and religious musi-
cals. It is amazing how these people, especially the dancers and actors, react to
biblical texts. Some Marxist dancers and musicians in the former German
Democratic Republic, with whom I produced a play on “the prodigal son,” 60An example of this approach is given in chapter 21, pp. 202-86, where the
asked me: “Why is it that your texts are so different from the ones we are scripts are mentioned in detail (note 29). See also Hollenweger, “Narrative Exegese”;
usually given? Do you have more of them?” “Yes, I have,” I answered, “but Korthaus, “Sprechende Bibel” (on an experience at Fuller Theological Seminary).
a
Historiography: Who Tells the Pentecostal Story Correctly? 327
This leads us to the second historical controversy: “What is a tenable

definition of Pentecostalism?” I consider this question unanswerable for the
TWENTY FOUR time being; the definition I gave earlier seems to be inadeququatetlsw: “All the
groups who profess at least two religious crisis experiences (1. baptism or
rebirth; 2. The baptism of the Spirit), the second being subsequent to and
different from the first one and the second usually, but not always, being
associated with speaking in tongue^."^ Kilian McDonnell suggests an alterna-
tive definition: “Those Christians who stress the power and presence of the
Holy Spirit and the Gifts of the Spirit directed toward the proclamation that
Jesus Christ is Lord to the glory of God the Father.”4 Finally, from inside the
Historiography: Who Tells the Pentecostal movement comes a third definition: “All Pentecostals agree on the
presence and demonstration of the charismata in the modern church, but
Pentecostal Story Correctly? beyond this common agreement there is much diversity as in all the other
branches of Chri~tianity.”~
It seems to me that before we can define Pentecostalism we have to know
more about it as a worldwide movement: its convictions, history, liturgies, and
Controversies social practices. Unfortunately the historiographical situation is not as good
Two controversies dominate Pentecostal historiography. as one would wish it to be. We have very few scholarly histories and descrip-
The first is: who is at the root of the modern Pentecostal tions of Pentecostal churches. There are some good denominational histories
movement? Is it William Joseph Seymour, the black ecu- in the USA,6 one (historically out-dated) from Germany, some histories from
menist and pioneer from Los Angeles, or is it Charles Fox Scandinavia,’ a beginning of a history in France and Portugal,* and works on
Parham, the “inventor” of the doctrine of tongues as the Pentecostalism in Belgium,’ Holland,” and Great Britain.” But we are not
initial, outward sign of the Baptism of the Spirit? This
controversy has been described in detail in chapter 3 (pp. In The Pentecostals, xxi.
4McDonnell (with Bittlinger), Problem, quoted by Villafaiie, The Liberating
20-23). It is not just a historical but also a theological con- Spirit, 85, and Synan, “Pentecostalism,” 32. Synan’s paper is an excellent overview
troversy, for it decides what one considers to be the heart of of the different variations in Pentecostalism.
Pentecostalism. T h e fact that most printed Pentecostal Villafafie, The Liberating Spirit, 12 1, quoting from the draft of Synan’s “Pente-
declarations of faith contain the “initial evidence” doctrine costalism” (presented at the consultation on Confessing the Apostolic Faith from the
speaks for the second answer. On the other hand, the fact that Perspective of Pentecostal Churches, Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, Calif.,
October 22-24, 1986), 2 (unpubl.). I did not find this quote in the printed version of
in many Third World Pentecostal churches (and as of late Synan’s paper (note 4); Villafafie summarizes Synan.
also in many Western Pentecostal churches) speaking in 6Good overview in Wacker, “Bibliography.” Histories include: Kendrick, Prom-
tongues does not seem that prominent,’ and that many Pen- ise Fulfilled (see Burgess, L‘Kendrick,’’5 16);Menzies, Anointed to Serve (see Spittler,
tecostals have never spoken in tongues, speaks for the first “Menzies,” 602); Brumback, Suddenly (see Wilson, D. J., “Brumback,” 100); Blum-
answer. And in fact the weight among Pentecostals does seem hofer, Assemblies; Poloma, Crossroads. An important history on Hispanic Pentecostals
in the U.S. comes from de Leon, Silent. One of the best sources for the U.S. is Everett
to be shifting slowly to the first answer. This is not without Le Roy Moore’s Handbook of Pentecostal Denominations in the US.(unfortunately
difficulty, for the first answer begs the question: “what then unpubl.).
is the characteristic of Pentecostalism”? One must remem- ’ Fleisch, Pjingstbewegung; Strand/Strem/Ski, Urkristendommen; Bloch-Hoell,
ber that “arguments about one’s true history are usually Pinsebevegelsen; Schmidt, Wolfgang, Finnland; Sundstedt, Pingstvackelsen.
struggles between forms of legitimacy.”2 8 Stotts, PentecBtisme; Pfister, Soixante; idem, “Culture”; Dudley, “Portugal,”
49-63.
’Bundy, “Belgium”; idem, “Rietdijk”; idem, “Renewal”; Brandt-Bessire,
“L’implantation,” 5-23.
l o van der Laan, C. and P., Pinksteren (for more literature by the brothers van der
‘See chapter 10 (pp. 117-31 on Chile); chapter 17 (pp. 218-27); chapter 5 (PP. Laan see Short Titles List). Wumkes, Pinksterbeweging, 1917.
11 Kay, Inside; Massey, Sound. This is an extraordinarily careful historical re-
41-53 on South Africa).
Wacker, “Bibliography,” 75. search based on hitherto unknown sources, unfortunately unpublished. Extracts:
328 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Historiography: Who Tells the Pentecostal Story Correctly? 329
well-served with histories from Eastern Europe,12 and there are no histories
o f t h e important B r a ~ i l i a n and ~ to speak of the rest
’ ~ Chilean r n ~ v e m e n t s , ’not 1 can take stock, look a t the whole picture, and try to define what it is we are
looking at. T h e purpose of the footnotes in this chapter (as incomplete as they are)
of Latin America.” is to help future researchers find the more scholarly and more accurate disserta-
T h e r e are only glimpses from Africa,I6 Asia,” and Australia,18 and even tions and books (the popular books are well-known enough) in these areas.
such an important country as Italy” has still to wait for its history of Pente- I believe that there is something unifying in the Pentecostal movement,
costalism. I expect a newer generation of Pentecostal scholars to produce but it is probably not on the level of doctrine. I t is a way of doing theology:
monographs not just on their own Pentecostal denomination b u t o n the whole
I experience-related, open to oral forms, ecumenical (by virtue of its many
I
of Pentecostalism in their respective countries.20 Once this work is done, we worldwide forms), and expressing itself in categories of pneumatology.
Pentecostalism is in a position similar to that of the early church, around
-
the year 100 AD. At that time there was barely a unifying confession of faith.
“Flirtation with Elim” and in the popular (poorly footnoted) Another Springtime.
Different confessions for baptism were in use. However, the Lord’s Prayer, a
More on Gee in Ross, Gee, and idem, “Sectarian” and Bundy, “Gee” and in The
Pentecostals, 208-13. Further: Kay, “1930s”; idem, “War Years”; Hocken, “Layman”; body of hymns, and above all an emerging corpus of canonical writings (the
idem, “Polhill”; idem, Streams; Cartwright, Evangelists (on Jeffreys); idem, “Jef- Gospels, the Pauline epistles) served as a bond between the different expressions
freys”; Gerloff, Plea; Worsfold, Great Britain. of Christianity. Perhaps something similar could happen in Pentecostalism.
l 2 Sandru, “Rumanien”; idem, Doctrinele (reviewed by Bundy: “What one finds
here is one of the first attempts by a Pentecostal theologian to wrestle seriously with
the classical Christian heritage of East and West, early and modern, patristic and Research Reviews, Bibliographies, etc.
Romanian Orthodox, Charismatic and Reformed Evangelical. It is quite a remarkable
achievement.” Bundy, E P T A Bulletin 9/3+4, 1989,76-79, quote 79; also in Pneuma
The source situation is rather good. T h a t is why a consortium has been
12/1, 1990, 56-57). Bundy, “Roumanian” (Bundy speaks of a “deep and sincere founded towards the task of photocopying all available Pentecostal periodicals
appreciation for and loyalty to the government,” 21). On the former USSR see The worldwide, and offering this collection to university libraries and Pentecostal
Pentecostals, 267-87; Ceuta, “Romania.” colleges.2* I t is an important step forward, but it is not clear whether this
l 3 Novaes, 0s; Rolim, Pentecostais. See also The Pentecostals (75ff.) for older
ambitious program will come to fruition.
literature.
I 4 Lalive d’Epinay, Haven of the Masses. Martin, David, Tongues. These and most T h e r e are a number of good bibliographies (but mostly on American and
other literature on Pentecostals in Latin America is not historical but sociological. Western literature)22 and a few limited research reviews.23 T h e r e are the
But see in this book chapters 7 (pp. 81-98) and 10 (pp. 117-31). research conferences which Jean-Daniel Pliiss has organized in Europe24 and
l 5 Westmeier, Reconciling (on Bogota); Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mexican; Saracco, A r -
the research conferences of the Society for Pentecostal Studies (SPS)25 which
gentine; Gill, Contextualised; Flora, Colombia; Huamhn, Primera; Hidalgo, Peru;
Dominguez, Pioneros; PerCz-Torres, Puerto Rico.
l6 See the respective chapters in my Handbuch. The Pentecostals, 11 1-75 (lit.); descriptions of Pentecostal churches for certain countries (e.g., Nigeria). This type-
Turner, Independent Church; Mitchell-Turner, Bib1iograph.y (basic) and follow-up by script has-as far as I can see-only been used by me. See also his Brief History of
the same authors inJournal ofRelzgion in Africa 1, 1968, 173-210. Turner, “Nigeria”; American Pentecostal Movements (unpub.).
Oshun, “Perspective.” Chapters 5 (pp. 41-53) and 6 (pp. 54-80) in this volume. 21 Pentecostal Research and Preservation Consortium. Founding meeting March
Important is the Centre for N e w Religious Movements, founded by H. W. Turner at 2-3, 1992 at Krattigen, Switzerland. Present were Vinson Synan, Bill Jernigan, Paul
the Selly Oak Colleges, Birmingham. It has files on every country and on most Chappell, Jim Zeigler, William Faupel, Ken Gill, David Bundy (all USA), Walter
independent churches throughout the world. Hollenweger, Jean-Daniel Pluss (both Switzerland), Cornelius van der Laan (Hol-
The respective chapters in my Handbuch. Hoerschelmann, Christliche Gurus; land), Desmond Cartwright (Britain), and Bertil Carlsson (Sweden).
Yoo, Korean Pentecostalism (chapter 8, pp. 99-105 in this book lit.); Raj, Christian 22 Jones, C. E., Perfectionist; idem, Holiness; idem, Pentecostal. (Bundy: ‘ 1 s it is,
Folk-Religion; Bergunder, “Die siidindische Pfingstbewegung.” the volume perpetuates the myth that U.S. Pentecostalism is the major focus of the
Chant, ‘Australien”; idem, Heart; Worsfold, N e w Zealand; Smith, Denis and Pentecostal movements, giving the false impression that nothing has been happening
Gwen, River. in Pentecostal circles in Europe, Africa, Mexico, South or Central America . . . or
l9 Traettino, Pentecostale; Tortorelli, I Pentecostali; Castiglione, Movimento; other Third World countries,” Bundy in a review of Jones, Pentecostal, in E P T A
Schiavone, I Pentecostali; Moscato, “Alcuni”; Lucente, M o v i m e n t o ; Cito, Bulletin 4/ 1, 1985, 5-6.) Mills, Charismatic; Wacker, “Bibliography,” note 2.
Movimento; Bonanno, Aspetti. Most of these are unpublished dissertations at the 23 Hollenweger, “Ein Forschungsbericht.” This is the first and as far as I know still
University of Bari; they are discussed in the Spanish edition of The Pentecostals the only international polyglot research review. It is of course out-dated and inadequate.
( E l Pentecostalismo, 233ff.) For earlier research see The Pentecostals, 25 1-66. A Idem, “Priorities”; idem, “Europe”; idem, ‘After”; The Pentecostals, 497ff; Spittler,
new publication by Rochat, Regime (reviewed by David Bundy in Pneuma 1411, “SUg ested”; Bundy, “Scholarly”; Hocken with Cartwright, “European,” 267-78.
Spring 1992, 94-95). Bundy, “Perspectives.” See also the important volume Conference.
”One of the most careful overviews of international Pentecostalism was “ T h e conference papers of the SPS are available from SPS, Pneuma, Gaithers-
the typescript by Du Plessis, Brief History. It contains very extensive lists and burg, Md.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Historiography: Who Tells the Pentecostal Stor Correctly?
330 7 33 1
aspect. A complete history of each country wo amounted to a very
regularly produce important papers on limited subjects. Finally, there are boring and less useful book.
three scholarly periodicals26 which no university library and no Pentecostal
Equally, this volume is not a complete overview of the problems and
college can afford to be without. promises of Pentecostalism, but rather an articulation of the state of the debate
A word might be said on my own research. My own Handbuch der at the present, as I see it. Others will have to take u p the torch.
Pfingstbewegung was an almost foolhardy attempt at describing the worldwide
In the future we need good archives, a network of international scholars,
Pentecostal movement.27 That it has not been superseded, as David Bundy scholarly conferences, and historical (not just s o c i ~ l o g i c a l ~
monographs
~) on
says,28 is astonishing. It is now out-dated and badly needs an institute or a specific countries. It looks as if this is going to happen. However, why should
group of scholars to produce something better. So far, however, this has not it not be a task for the World Pentecostal Conference?
happened. In a limited sense, the Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic
Movements29 took u p this task. Since its publication this Dictionary has been
my constant companion. It is critical and ecumenical, both in its scope and the
wide range of its contributors from many different churches. It also represents
(probably for the first time) a kind of inner-Pentecostal ecumenicity, by
including for instance the Oneness and black Pentecostals. T h e articles on the
US are precise and well written, those on Europe are short but extremely
valuable, battling valiantly with sources in many different languages (and
succeeding, primarily due to the input of David Bundy and Peter Hocken).
T h e articles on biblical books are conservative but acceptable; those on ecu-
menical topics are of an astonishingly wide horizon. Not surprisingly, the
articles by Catholics and on Catholic issues breathe a completely new spirit of
understanding.
Compared to the Handbuch the first volume of The P e n t e c o ~ t a l is
s ~even
~
more patchy. This was rightly pointed out by reviewers, although I was fully
aware, in the writing, of the ommission of certain stories which are included
in my Handbuch but had to be excluded from The Pentecostals to avoid giving
a complete history of Pentecostalism in each country; instead, I concentrated
on some of Pentecostalism’s characteristics, using examples to highlight each
~~
26 Pneuma. The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1979ff. (Gaithers-
burg, Md.). E P T A Bulletin, 1981ff. (Elim Bible College, Nantwich, England).Journal
of Pentecostal Theology (Sheffield Academic Press, 1992ff.).
”For a description of the Handbuch see The Pentecostals, xvi, 497-98.
Bundy, “Scholarly.”
29A most interesting review of the Dictionary by Kilian McDonnell may be
found in Pneuma 13/1, 1991, 83-85.
30 Some reactions to the German version of The Pentecostals are included in The
Pentecostals, 499-502. The English version was received well on the whole, but
Pentecostals did not know what to think of it. British Pentecostals did not like it,
perhaps because I had given too much prominence to Donald Gee, or perhaps because
I had relied too heavily on Bryan Wilson’s Sects. Wacker, “Bibliography,” 65, men-
tions “numerous factual mistakes,” but on request he was not able to mention one. 1
am, of course, sure that there are “many factual mistakes,” both in that volume and
in this one. In such a complex work, this is inevitable. Zopfi had started a critical
series on The Pentecostals (The Pentecostals, SOO), but he was stopped from continuing
the series probably by his colleagues for reasons unknown to me. Later he used the they 31 polemical
book as propaganda with Catholic priests. Now it is used in most Pentecostal colleges
were less
I was also guilty ofthan thetoo
giving theological ones.
much prominence to sociological works because
(see back cover of the third edition of The Pentecostals).
Ecumenical Beginnings 335
baptism, his father “pledged little Jonathan to become at some time a preacher
of the Gospel.” Jonathan Paul wrote later about his (infant) baptism:
TWENTY FIVE My father had five sons. It is only me whom he had pledged by God’s providence
to become a pastor. And I am the only one that in fact became a pastor of all the
five sons. I can therefore not deny that the words uttered at my baptism were of
prophetic significance.2
The significance of this experience might be one reason why all his life
Paul defended infant baptism3-while not denying the possibility of believer’s
baptism-and why his Mulheim Association of Christian Fellowship4 (a
Ecumen ica 1 Beginnings federation of Pentecostal communities partly of a free-church character, partly
within the existing established Lutheran and Reformed churches) practices
both infant and believer’s baptism up to the present day.
These churches, although the oldest Pentecostal organization in Ger-
In this chapter I want to establish the fact that Pente- many, have been consistently ignored by most Pentecostal authors writing in
costalism started in most places as an ecumenical renewal English,’ with Michael Harper even calling them “a very small group and
movement in the mainline churches, not unlike the charis- barely Pentecostal.”‘ This is all the more reason to bring to light the leader
matic movement in the ’60s and the so-called “third wave” and pioneer of this group. Paul became a conscious Christian through the
in the ’80s. That this renewal movement developed later in sermons of his father.7 Then, in Stettin’s gymnasium, he discovered the
most places into Pentecostal free churches is an important richness of German literature. In 1872 he passed his matriculation examina-
indication of what is likely to happen to the charismatic tion and went to the university. H e would have preferred to study medicine,
movement, unless we learn from the mistakes of the past on but in obedience to his father’s pledge, he took up the study of theology at
both sides. This matter is obviously of concern only if one Greifswald and Leipzig. There, he passed his second theological examination
considers the fragmentation of Pentecostalism into so many with a thesis on “The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit” (written in Latin!).
churches and organizations to be undesirable and inconsis- Although a successful pastor and youth worker, Paul was constantly searching
tent with the proper functioning of the kingdom of God. for a deeper spiritual life. One day, when performing a child funeral, Paul read
Since the early 1910s a charismatic movement has existed from the Lutheran liturgy, “Like as a father pitieth his children, so the Lord
in Europe within the traditional churches. In many cases it was pitieth them that fear him.” When he came to the passage, “ . . . unto such as
the starting point of “classical Pentecostal churches,” but in keep his covenant and his testimonies,” his conscience awoke and asked him:
some cases it existed and exists alongside Pentecostal churches. “You, pastor, when will you begin to keep his covenants?”’
Obviously I have to be highly selective, presenting only On June 17, 1890 Paul underwent an experience of sanctification, associ-
a few of the more outstanding of these ecumenical charis- ated with a vision, which led him among other things to abstain from smoking.
matic theologians. He did not regard smoking as a sin in itself, but he wanted to devote the money
saved to the church’s mission. His biographer, the Lutheran pastor Ernst
Giese, says that Paul’s experience of sanctification
Jonathan A. A. B. Paul (1853-1931)’
. . . is by no means of a mystical or ecstatic nature. If the account is read closely,
Jonathan Paul was a Lutheran pastor in Germany. His it can clearly be seen that it is dictated not by an extraordinary mental impulse,
father was Diaconus at the church of St. Stephen in Garth an
der Oder. His mother came from a doctor’s family. At his ‘Paul, “Krone.”
3 Paul, Taufe; idem, Die Taufe.
‘Some of the material in this chapter has been published in Hollenweger, ‘On this see The Pentecosrals, 218-43.
‘‘ ‘Touching.’ ” There is a scholarly and reliable biography by Giese (Pastor). See 5 Carmichael, “Pentecost”; Nikoloff, “Awakening”; but not Gee, Pentecostal and
also Bundy, “Paul”; The Pentecostals, 23 1-41 and passim (index of names); Handbuch astonishingly nor Robeck, “Ecclesiology,” in particular, 5 10.
08.097; Hocken, “Mulheim”; More in the German version of The Pentecostals 6M. Harper, Renewal 41 (0ct.-Nov. 1972) 10.
(Enthusiastisches Chrisrentum, 2 0 1 4 3 ) . Jonathan Paul was not the only Lutheran ’Krust, Funfzag.
pastor in the German Pentecostal Movement who remained a Lutheran infant 8Paul. “Krone.”
baptizing pastor to the end of his life (see e.g., K. Ecke, in Hundbuch, 07.390).
336 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecumenical Beginnings 337
or any exalted emotion, but by a perfectly sober self-criticism, which was the This is confirmed by comments in his translation of the New Testament,
basis of this decisive crisis experience. Therefore Paul never regarded himself as the so-called Mulheim Testament.I6
a mystic or ecstatic.’ From the very beginning Jonathan Paul and his colleague^'^ rejected the
doctrine of the “initial evidence.” Already in the first issue of his magazine
Paul thought that, according to Scripture, this experience of sanctifica- Pfingstgrusse he wrote: “It is not our view that only those who have spoken in
tion-also known as the baptism of the Spirit-ught to occur suddenly. But tongues have received the Holy Spirit.”18 Speaking in tongues was to be
he was unwilling to assert that those who had not experienced this sudden desired as a gift of the Spirit (and in fact Paul himself practiced speaking in
baptism of the Spirit did not possess the gift of the Holy Spirit.” On various tongues frequently), but-in contrast with the teaching of many other Pente-
occasions Paul testified about his own experience, and he laid particular stress costals-it was not considered to be the sign that the baptism of the Spirit had
on one point: “I would like to express the wish that . . . what I have said should been received. l 9 Paul also considered speaking in tongues a natural human gift,
not be understood as a doctrine but as what it is, a testimony of what the death which the Holy Spirit could use if He wished.20 This has been the doctrine of
and resurrection of Jesus have brought me.”” But for him one thing was the Mulheim Association until this day.21
certain: “One who is reborn not only desires to do the will of God, but is also Since 1968, ecumenical contacts have been established between the Miil-
able to do it.’712 heim Association, the World Council of Churches, and other (Catholic and
In accordance with that part of the early Pentecostal movement which had
Protestant) churches in Germany.22 In spite of this recent ecumenical spirit
strong ties with the holiness movement, Paul’s understanding of regeneration the Mulheim Association has been from its beginning the target of more harsh
and Spirit-baptism (sometimes the two terms are identical) had a strong attacks than any other Pentecostal church in the world. In the Berlin Declara-
connotation of sanctification. Yet Paul’s teaching of sanctification has not been tion (1909) it was stated that the spirit in Pentecostalism is “not from above
properly understood, either by his opponent^'^ or by his friends. Admittedly but from below.”23 None of the newly emerging congregations from the
the respunsibility for this lies to some extent with the obscure and contradic- charismatic movement in Germany has even considered joining the Mulheim
tory nature of his accounts, which is the result of the different pastoral Association. Ecumenicity and sober theological work does not pay! What is
situations in which they were offered. valued in our world is aggressive, market-oriented religion!
Paul’s doctrine of sanctification is expressed in a laborious and inflated
In summary, the pioneering ministry of Paul and his colleagues is important
style in his voluminous writings. If one attempts to reduce it to a clear formula, for the following reasons: They practiced spiritual gifts, including speaking in
however, it turns out to be a Wesleyan doctrine of perfe~tion.’~ This can be tongues, within a loose federation which contained “Pentecostal free churches”
seen clearly from his concept of sin: and associations within the established ch~rches;‘~ they did not teach a baptism
Only culpable failings are sin, not blameless ones . . . Where there is disobedi- of the Spirit with speaking in tongues as the initial sign, but believed in growing into
ence, there is sin; and where there is obedience, there is no sin, but human deeper experiences of the Spirit; and they did not discard theological scholarship.
short-sightedness and limitation . . . Consequently, a pure heart is a heart In fact, they were the first (1914) and so far the only Pentecostals to produce
purified of disobedience (Heb. 8:lO). We see from this that what matters is not
the extent of the knowledge one possesses, but obedience. . . Thus what matters
“Das Neue Testament in der Sprache der Gegenwart, 1914, 19687.
is that according to one’s knowledge one is obedient to the Spirit of God and 17 E.g., the Reformed pastor C. A. Voget (Handbuch 08.543), the Lutheran pastor
allows oneself to be led by him.” R. Lettau (Handbuch, 07.843) and Karl Ecke (see note 24).
“Paul, “Sollen.” See also Krust, “Geistesbewegung.”
‘Giese. Pastor. 27. l 9 Paul, “Beantwortung”; cf. KampJ; 2f and 6f.
lo Paul; Krafr. 2o Quoted in Fleisch, Pfingstbewegung, 79f.; cf. Lettau, “Briefmappe”; Paul,
Quoted in Fleisch, Gemeinschafsbewegung, 127. “Verhaltnis.”
Paul, Kraft, 41, quoted by Giese, Pastor, 51. (I could not find this passage in 21 Krust, Glauben.
the third edition of Paul’s book). 22 Krust, “Churches”; idem, “Miilheimer”; idem, “Pfingstbewegung”; idem,
l 3 Pastor Thimme. A u f d e r Warte (192&21), quoted in Fleisch, Pfingsrbewegung
I ”
“Mulheim-Ruhr”; idem, “Okumenische”; idem, “Uppsala”; idem, “Heilige Geist”;
273; cf. Paul, “Antwort.” Rottmann, “Miilheim-Ruhr”; Steiner, L., “Oekumenische”; Lemke, “Begegnung”;
l4 “In the view I hold 1 am in the fullest sense a follower of John Wesley; I have The Pentecostals, 42-44,
been conscious of being in full agreement with the substance of Stockmayer’s 23 Hocken, “Berlin,” discussed in detail in the German version of The Pente-
doctrine in his tract und S i d e , even though I have used other expressions, in costals.
accordance with my own understanding of Scripture” (quote in Giese, Pastor, 223). 24 Already in 1911 (!)Karl Ecke, a Lutheran charismatic pastor, began publishing
On Otto Stockmayer see Handbuch, 10.879 and 05.28.047. the results of his research on Kaspar Schwenckfeld. For sources see Short Titles List
Paul, “Herz,” 19f. under Karl Ecke.
Theology in Paris (19 15-192I), receiving his theological formation from

a translation of the New T e ~ t a m e n t . ~Furthermore,
’ they rejected the doctrine
figures such as Eugtne d e Faye, Maurice Goguel and especially Wilfrid
of the verbal inspiration of the Bible as unchristian.26 O n the other hand, they
M ~ n o dH. e~spent
~ one year of this period in the military.
saw clearly that theological learning is of only relative importance.
During 1921, h e received his baccalauriat en thiologie, began serious
studies in philosophy, and married Marie-Caroline Boegner, daughter of
Louis Dallikre (1887-1976)
Pastor Alfred Boegner (later the president of the French Reformed Church).
A very old and highly indigenous charismatic movement exists in France Boegner’s other daughter had married Gabriel Marcel, an important French
(after all, the tradition of the Camisards has never been completely forgotten”) philosopher. T h e relationship with his brother-in-law appears to have been
and in French-speaking Switzerland.28 Pentecostalism has always had some rather influential in the development of Dallitre’s thought- Marcel intro-
friends and supporters within the French Reformed Church. Already in the duced Dalliere to the philosophy of the American William E. Hocking.34 I n
thirties the Swiss Reformed minister Fritz de Rougemont had opened his 1922 Dallitre spent the academic year studying at Harvard with Hocking. H e
church to Pentecostal preachers such as Douglas Scott and Donald Gee. returned to Paris for the year 1923-1924 where he finished a licentiate in
O n e of the leading charismatic pastors within the Reformed Church of theology3j and began to prepare for doctoral studies (which he never finished).
France was Louis Dallitre.29H e I As pastor in Charmes-sur-RhBne h e read widely, and seems at one point to
have experienced a crisis of ~ p i r i t u a l i t yFor
. ~ ~ one year (1932-1933) he taught
has been a historiographical enigma. Although he was actively involved id the
at Montpellier, where h e also invited Donald Gee to meet the faculty. How-
beginnings of the Pentecostal movement in two countries [France and Belgium],
ever, his appointment was not renewed, primarily because of his growing
because he did not “come out” of the Reformed Church he was removed
sympathy with Penteco~talism.~’
from Pentecostal historiography (both written and oral) and his participation
minimized. 30 The British Pentecostal evangelist Douglas Scott, who had been greatly aided
and defended by Dalliere, soon found it impossible to work with him. Here the
H i s biography is most interesting. socio-economic factors became important. Scott, the uneducated musician
It was in Chicago on 4 July 1887 that he was born, the son of an English Anglican turned e~angelist,~’ had most influence among the lower middle class and lower
mother and a French Catholic father. The father was employed there by a French classes. Most of his converts were from among the alienated and disaffected
bank. After the family’s return to France, Dalliere was baptized as an Anglican Roman Catholic population. The Protestant Church remained middle class.
in 1901 in Nice. There was apparently little family religious involvement until Neither side was able to work with the other for long. However, a “charismatic”
1907 when the death of a younger sibling brought the family into contact with tradition was maintained within the protestant churches of France . . . The
the Reformed Church and Dalliere into Sunday Scho01.~’Shortly thereafter, in tragedy is that the two expressions of the movement, the one with a sophisticated
1910, he had an initial conversion e ~ p e r i e n c e . ~ ~ intellectual analysis and the other based on the function of therapeutic narratives
and on eschatological expectations, could not find grounds for mutual apprecia-
I n 1915, he experienced a second conversion. Part of that experience was tion as well as c o ~ p e r a t i o n . ~ ~
a sense of call to the pastoral ministry; thus, he studied at the Faculty of
With the French Reformed Church, too, relations were uneasy, although
Dalliere remained pastor to the end of his life in Charmes-sur-RhBne. T h e
”Note 16.
bone of contention was baptism: Dalliere argued for both forms of baptism,
26 Krust, Glauben, 117, 120; C. 0.Voget, Pfingstbotschaf, 1921,20lff., quoted in
Krust. Funfzip. 237ff.; Gericke, Christliche, 16.
_ I v
which now is accepted by the French Reformed Church and to some extent
”Gagg, Kirche; Poujol, Civenne. also by the Reformed Church in francophone Switzerland. At the time.
28 On this see the German version of The Pentecostals (Enthusiastisches Christen-
tum, 279-80), and Handbuch, 08.212.
33 Bundy, “Making,” 42; idem, “Apologist,” 89.
29 The following is based on the sources, given in the footnotes and on excellent
”Marcel, “W. E. Hocking.”
articles by Bundy, “Making”; idem, “Louis Dalliere”; appeared in an extended form
35 Dalliere’s thesis for the licentiate was: Peut-on dimontrer que I’apGtre Pierre est
under the title “Apologist”; idem, “Belgium”; idem, “Renewal”; idem, “L’emer-
molt a Rome? Sujet d’un livre ricent de H . Lietzmann. On the basis of this work,
gence.” Bundy’s writings contain detailed and commented bibliographies. See also Dallitre published “Mort.”
Dalliere, D ’aplomb. Lovsky, Louis DalliPre; and Robert, “Dalliere” (based on unpub-
36 Bundy publishes a telling text by Dalliere in French: Bundy, “Making,” 43;
lished official and private notes). Hocken, “Dallitre.”
idem, “Apologist,” 89.
30 See as an example Stotts, PentecGtisme. The quote from Bundy, ‘%pologist,” 85
37 Bundy, “Apologist,” 94. Thoorens, L’Union, 36-37.
and similarly Bundy, “Louis Dallitre,” 60.
38 On Scott see Hocken, ”Scott” and Stotts, PentecGtisme.
31 Dalliire discussed the influence of his mother on his spiritual development in “Toi.”
39 Bundy, “Making,” 59.
32 The quote from Bundy, “Apologist,” 88. Similarly in Bundy, “Making,” 42.
340 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Ecumenical Beginnings 341
Ardeche (where the Prayer Union is strongest) Pentecostalism has not created any
however, this did not seem possible. Dalliere gave u p publication and served
quietly as a country pastor4’ until his death. divisions, writes Henri S ~ h a e r e rT. h~i~s is probably exaggerated, for one can
find in the yearbook of the French Assemblees d e Dieu some assemblies in this
Dalliere’s vision for the Pentecostal movement is that it be a revival within the very region. Nevertheless, these came much later, and were not splits from the
Church, that it be theologically orthodox, mission-oriented and ecumenical. He Prayer Union. The relation between the Prayer Union and the classical
was fighting against two tendencies, that of the French Protestant Churches to
Pentecostals is described by Jean Paul Lienhard as follows: In spite of the
draw theological and ecclesiologicalboundaries which would exclude the revival,
and that of the English band leader turned evangelist, Douglas Scott, who obvious similarity of the Prayer Union to the classical Pentecostal churches
wanted to establish a new denomination on the English and American models. (which came into being ten years later!) the Prayer Union has little contact
with those churches and in fact with other evangelical circle^.'^ Louis Dallikre
Dalliere was, as Bundy confirms, one of the first really charismatic confirms this, writing:
theologian^.^' T h e Union de Prie‘re, which he founded and which exists to this
day, is a cross between the new charismatic organizations and the Catholic or My ministry and my thinking have been certainly enriched by the Pentecostal
movement. The Prayer Union is open to certain teachings of the Pentecostals.
ecumenical “charismatic c ~ m m u n i t i e s . ”T~h~e participants sign a “cqmmit-
In this respect there is rapprochement. But there is no real dialogue. For these
ment card” which contains twelve points. These include:
brethren I am more of a “black sheep.” In their opinion I should have left the
In the morning of every day I will give my first thought to God by speaking a Reformed Church and joined them. Because I have not done this, I am a
short prayer, reciting a Bible verse or a stanza from a hymn. compromiser, an unfaithful, I am wrong.47
Every day I will have my quiet time. . . Yet the Prayer Union has built u p a charismatic movement within the
In remembrance of Jesus I will take part in the Lord’s Supper whenever there Reformed churches of France which is resolutely determined to serve the
is an opportunity. whole church, and which rejects all attempts at sectarian isolation. T h e
possibility is not excluded that the Prayer Union, having fulfilled its purpose,
I will give ten percent of my income for the work of the Lord. might be dissolved.48
Every day I will pray for the revival of my church and for the coming of the T h e “Charter” of the Prayer Union is one of the most interesting theo-
Kingdom of God . . . 43 logical documents one can find in the Pentecostal and charismatic movement.
It tries to combine the dynamics of a kind of non-monastic “Pentecostal
I t was not expected that all participants would fulfill all the requirements. religious order” with the breadth and generosity of the Reformation-based
O n the back of the card is written: “In order to use this card properly, one concept of faith. Here is an example:
chooses at the beginning only one or two resolutions which one wants to carry
out. One writes the number of the resolution and the date on the back of the It is well possible that the number of the saved ones at the last judgment is greater
card, signs and carries out this pledge faithfully.” than the number of the people who have been converted and have consecrated their
T h i s movement has not led, as one might think, to the formation of new lives to Christ. And the reverse is possible also: that among those who consider
themselves to be converted there might be hypocrites who will be rejected at the last
sects. O n the contrary, ecumenical relations very soon were taken u p with
judgment. Despite these provisos we believe that the church is normally composed
other Protestant churches, with Orthodox churches* (rare in Pentecostal
of “living stones,” i.e., of those people who have met Jesus, who have been gripped
circles!), and recently also with the Catholic churches.
by him (that being the reality of baptism) and who serve him with all their heart
I n the thirties this Prayer Union invited Pentecostals such as Douglas R. within the church (that being the meaning of the eucharist) ( 1 Peter 2:S).49
Scott, George Jeffreys, and Donald Gee to their conferences. In the region of
In a most instructive chapter on the Jewish people, the Charter describes
Bundy, “Apologist,” 110;idem, “Louis Dalliere,” 78. “the conversion of the Jewish people, prophetically foretold in the Scriptures”
’’Bundy, “Louis Dallikre,” 69.Bundy, “Apologist,” 102. as “a general subject for the intercession of the Prayer Union,”” an insight
42 Hocken, “Communities.”
43 Schaerer-Richemond, Retour. Speeches given August 24, 1969, in the Re- 45 Schaerer-Richemond, Retour, 8.
formed Church of Charmes (mimeographed), 4.See also Roux, Disunion.
+ + I nhis report to the Reformed Regional Synod of Tournon of November 10, 46 Lienhard, Aspect, 78.
1958, L. Dallikre said: “I was in complete concordance with the Greek fathers, and 47 Letter of L. Dalliere to J. P. Lienhard (quoted in Lienhard, Aspect, 78).
48 Schaerer-Richemond, Retour, 17.
above all with Gregory from Nyssa, for whom the whole mystical life is inspired and
49 Charte, pars. 5-7.
indissolubly tied to the sacramental life . . . ” (Dalliere, “L’Eglise,” quoted by
j0 Ibid., par. 25.
Lienhard, Aspect, 77).
which the authors of this document gained when studying again Romans
9-1 1 during the persecution of the Jews under the German occupation.j‘ Alexander A. Boddy (1854-1930)60
This has had far-reaching consequences-obviously under the influence of Another of these ecumenical pioneers of Pentecostalism is the Anglican
Karl Barth, who seems also to have influenced their understanding of rector Alexander Boddy, who remained in the service of his church until the
baptism.j2 But a mission to the Jews is radically rejected, “because the goal end of his life, baptized infants, and was a t the same time the unchallenged
assigned here to prayer is not that some Jews might be converted (which pioneer of early British Pentecostalism.
has always happened), but that all that which is from God in Judaism might Boddy was originally a lawyer. H e traveled widely in the world (including
be integrated at once into the body of Christ.”j3 “One can expect that God Russia), wrote many travel books, and was made a fellow of the Royal Geo-
will raise among the Jews themselves apostles who will speak of Christ to graphical Society (England) and of the Imperial Geographical Society (Russia).
their brothers.”j4 The Keswick movement6’ and the Welsh revival62influenced him greatly.
On the “visible unity of the body of Christ” the Charter has this to say: He studied theology at Durham University and was ordained by Bishop J. B.
T h e Prayer Union prays that within the Catholic church more and more Lightfoot, the famous New Testament scholar. After his ordination, he was
people might become faithful disciples of Christ, a fact which will overcome the sent to a run-down parish, the miners’ village of Sunderland (near Durham),
tremendous difficulties between Rome and the other two branches of Christianity.” where the previous priest had been a drunkard. Boddy built up that parish by
hard work, street preaching, and taking active part in helping the striking
The Prayer Union is not against culture and education.j6 Yet on the miners.
subject of money it is rather critical: “This idol has to be struck down in order In 1907 he traveled to Oslo and invited T. B. Barratt63 to his parish.
that Christ might reign,”57 a program which, it is suggested, may be carried Before long, Boddy had experienced the baptism of the Spirit, and his
out by means of generous financial giving (about which every member decides parish became the focal point of emerging Pentecostalism in Britain, if not
individually). The spiritual gifts which are known in the Pentecostal move- in Europe. His wife was healed of asthma and herself exercised the gift of
ment are practiced but “these experiences are in no case a condition for healing. Among those who received the baptism of the Spirit when she laid
becoming a member of the Prayer Union. The members who do not feel called hands on them were Gerrit R. Polman from Holland (see below, pp.
to exercise these gifts are fully free in this respect.”58 345-47), the Bradford plumber Smith Wigglesworth (who prophesied later
It is clear that these French charismatic Protestants have made an original to David D u Plessis that he would become an instrument of Pentecostal
theological, ecumenical, and politicals9 contribution, which combines ecu- ecumenicityM). Stanley Frodsham6j was also baptized in the Spirit in
menical breadth and biblical discipline within the framework of a Pentecostal Sunderland, and Jonathan Paul (see above, pp. 334-38) received an impor-
spirituality. Without exaggerating, one can say that the charismatic movement tant impetus from his visit to Sunderland.
in France not only came thirty years before American neo-Pentecostalism, but Boddy provided a link between the different Pentecostal groups through
pioneered a “theology on living and thinking charismata” which seems to have his paper Confidence, his Whitsuntide Conventions in Sunderland, and
overcome some of the weakness of classical and neo-Pentecostalism. the Pentecostal M i s s i o n a r y Union,66 which he founded together with Cecil
Schaerer-Richemond, Retour, 12; Charte, par. 45. 6o T h e sources for this section are: van der Laan, C., “Portret”; Bundy, “Boddy”;
j2Schaerer-Richemond, Retour, 12. Cartwright, “Boddy”; Blumhofer, “Boddy”; Kay, “Boddy”; Robinson, Clerg-ymen;
53 Charte, pars. 25-29. That is not quite what Bundy writes about the “conver- The Pentecostals, 184f.
sion of Jews” on the basis of Dalliere’s article “L’anti-judaisme.” Bundy, “Making,” 61 Bundy, “Keswick.”
46f. On this topic see also ExpPrience (22/85, 1992), a French Pentecostal periodical. The Pentecostals, 17684; Jones, C. E., “Welsh.”
54 Charte, par. 30.
63 Bundy, “Barratt.”
55 Ibid., par. 37.
@Warner, “Wigglesworth” (without mentioning his prophecy to Du Plessis!),
561bid., par. 111, and Dalliere’s report to the Synod of Tournon (see note M ) , but Hywel-Davies, Baptized, discusses the prophecy extensively, 152ff. Hywel-
auote in Lienhard. Asbect. 77.
I _ .
Davies is a British Pentecostal, staff member of Kensington Temple, London, and a
” Charte, par. 110. distinguished radio broadcaster with the BBC. His Wigglesworth biography is popu-
j8 Ibid., par. 104. See also Dallitre, “Mouvement”; Bundy, “Apologist,” 99;
lar but well-researched.
idem, “LouisDalliere,” 65. 65 Warner, “Frodsham” (Frodsham was one of the first Pentecostal “historians,”
59 The fact that they reject a mission to the Jews means that they accept them as editor of the P E ; he left the Assemblies of God in 1949).
equal partners, and this acceptance is in itself a highly political testimony. It means 66 Hocken, “Union.” A rich archive (many handwritten letters) and complete
of course that they were part and parcel of that company of Christians in France who accounts of the Pentecostal Missionary Union are lodged at the Assemblies of God
risked their lives in hiding the Jews from the Germans. Bible College in Mattersey, near Duncaster, England.
344 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldmide Ecumenical Beginnings 345
P0lhi11.~~ Polhill, a former missionary to Tibet, had been one of the “Cam- In conclusion, one can say that Boddy’s and Polhill’s ecumenical vision
bridge Seven,” and was squire of Howbury Hall near Cambridge-a man of did not fail because of theological dtfferences, but because of cultural and class
means, culture, and lineage. differences, which were then rationalized with half-baked theological argu-
Boddy did not introduce Pentecostal practices into his regularly sched- ments. It is in general much more difficult to overcome psychological and
uled Anglican services. Rather, he added separate prayer and teaching sessions cultural barriers than theological ones.
on the subject of the Pentecostal experience. From these meetings the message
was carried across Britain, often in the homes of his or Polhill’s acquaintances. Gerrit Roelof Polman ( 186&1932)73
After the First World War the emerging Assemblies of God and other “The purpose of the Pentecostal revival is not to build up a church, but
Pentecostal groupings grew apart from Boddy and Polhi11.68T h e reasons for to build up all churches.”74 This remained Gerrit R. Polman’s conviction all
the failure of Boddy’s original ecumenical vision are (in my opinion) the his life, although he failed as an ecumenist.
following: We are well served by an excellent dissertation on Polman by Cornelis van
1. Boddy was an aristocrat, Polhill belonged to the landed gentry. Many der Laan. Van der Laan is a first-generation Dutch Pentecostal, an ordained
of the early Pentecostals were either self-taught lower middle class (such as
pastor, leader, and teacher in his native Pentecostal church. He presents a
Donald Gee, whose son became an Anglican vicar, and the brothers Jeffreys),
meticulously researched and closely argued biography of the founder of Dutch
or rough but highly gifted men such as Smith Wigglesworth. What openings
Pentecostalism, placing Pentecostalism in the context of social, political, and
were there for these men, who felt a vocation into the ministry (and for whom
ecclesial history. In this book, he does not gloss over the deficiencies of the
university studies were unavailable)? At first they were sent to the mission
movement and its founder, but treats them with tact and frankness.
fields (Salter,69Burton70), but there was no financial basis in the Pentecostal
In his researches Van der Laan searched for and found an amazing array
Missionary Union to support their development. T h e Church of England
of sources on Pentecostalism in public records, private collections, the testi-
was (and still is) totally unable to accommodate such highly gifted, but
monies of eye-witnesses, church periodicals, and in early Pentecostal publica-
uneducated people among their ministers, although the church badly needs
tions, not only in his native Holland but also in Germany, Switzerland,
their ministry. Most churches with a university-trained ministry suffer the
England, the United States, and Sweden. This clearly demonstrates that
same problem, and Pentecostal churches in future times will likely not be
excluded. T h e problem is similar to that of the buoyant black churches and Pentecostalism was in its formative years a close international community.
their leaders in Britain, which none of the established churches so far can On the basis of hitherto unknown documents, van der Laan discovered
accommodate (not even the established Pentecostal churches!); and yet it is that Polman was declared a t his birth to be “onecht,” a “not-genuine” or
exactly this kind of minister which they need (chapter 9, pp. 106-16). illegitimate child, because his mother was his father’s stepdaughter. Van der
Similarly, the only avenue open to these men in Boddy’s time was to found Laan documents the struggle for survival by the Polman family in the small
their own churches-an option the exercise of which spelled the end of rural community of Westenholte, and the early influences on Polman of the
Boddy’s ecumenical vision. Salvation Army and John Alexander Dowie.” In so doing, he brings to light
2 . Boddy was a patriot. He supported the British war ideology in Confi- many details on these revival movements which are not generally known. He
dence. “While Polhill was ending the prayer meetings at Sion College with the describes how Polman saw Pentecostalism as an ecumenical revival movement
national anthem other Pentecostal pioneers were suffering indignities as which was not called to build up its own church organization but to build up
conscientious objectors.”” Polhill even objected to praying for the people on all the churches, including the ones that attacked him and his work. Van der
both sides during the war. T h e abyss between the early British Pentecostals Laan was helped in this by one of the most lucid historians of early Pente-
and Boddy is clearly documented by David Allen, Lecturer a t the Assemblies costalism, the Frisian pastor Dr. W u m k e ~ whose, ~ ~ works are practically
of God College, M a t t e r ~ e y . ~ ~
spicy article against political naivete in the British Assemblies of God. The article
67 Hocken,
“Polhill.” analyzes today’s situation in Great Britain and shows how the Pentecostals lost their
Hocken, “Layman”: Although he had in earlier days generously financed early political teeth (e.g., pacificism). Among others, he quotes Dietrich Bonhoeffer
Pentecostal causes, “he left E 96,000 in his will, with bequests to a number of and Edward Irving.
73 Sources include: van der Laan, C., Sectartan Against Hzs Wtll; idem, “Theology.”
Christian bodies, none o f them Pentecostal” (137, The Times, April 26, 1938, 10d).
’4 van der Laan, C., “Theology,” 23, quoting from Spade Regen 1213, June 1919,37.
69 Cartwright, “Salter.”
75 The Pentecostals, 11620; Handbuch, 02a.02.047; Blumhofer, “Dowie.”
’O Cartwright, ”Burton.”
76 Wumkes, Ptnksterbernegtng, 1917. A first-class historical and theological analy-
71 Hocken, “Layman,” 134; Gee, Wind and Flame, 101f.
’*Hocken, “Layman,” 135, and above ail, Allen, D., “Ostrich,” 50-62; this is a sis by one of its fairest critics.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecumenical Beginnings 347
346
unknown outside Holland. Van der Laan used Wumkes’s large collection of Can the early ecumenical spirit of Dutch Pentecostalism be recaptured?
letters (having to learn Frisian in order to understand them). This is no easy task. Van der Laan discusses the conditions which would make
Van der Laan calls Polman a failed ecumenist, “a sectarian against his such a thing possible. In the first instance conflict must be recognized as a
will.” Certainly Polman was an ecumenist born before his time. H e was a necessary context for innovative theology.
“go-between” for the Germans and the British during the First World War. This requires an ecclesiology in which pluriformity becomes a hallmark of the
Unlike many of the German and British Pentecostal leaders he was also a church, a dynamic pluriformity that allows room for conflict and change. It calls
pacifist. For him the strident nationalism depicted in the pages of for a theology that refuses to make its own position normative; a theology that
Confidence ( t h e leading British Pentecostal periodical a t that time) partakes in an intercultural learning process. A true Pentecostal/Charismatic
and Pfingstgrusse (the corresponding German periodical) was a denial of theology should welcome conflicts as being essential for the continuous work of
Christ’s work of reconciliation. Consequently he visited German prisoners the Spirit. Conflicts provide the context in which the charismata operate.”
of war in England and British prisoners of war in Germany. H e refrained This is not an appeal for an “anything-goes” attitude. It is a theology
from writing a declaration of faith because he felt such a document would which takes Paul seriously: our knowledge, including theological and bib-
raise unnecessary walls between the churches: Water baptism-that bone lical knowledge, is provisional (1 Cor 13:8). It is a theology where the
of contention for Pentecostals in many ecumenical discussions (see chapter heart pleads with the head and the head informs the heart-in fact, a
20, pp. 261-63)-was considered by Polman to be of minor importance, but “body-of-Christ” theology which promises to rekindle in Dutch Pente-
was administered by immersion upon request.77 Polman gladly confessed costalism that early ecumenical spirit.*l Indeed, we need to develop
that Pentecostalism was born in the crucible of the black slaves’ suffering categories of thinking and acting ecumenically which allow us to bring the
in the United States, and rejected the fashionable claims that Pentecostal- different theological and spiritual approaches in the worldwide Church
ism was simply a development of the American white Holiness move- into contact and conflict.**
ment-I know of no other early Pentecostal leader who puts himself so T h e promising ecumenical start of Dutch Pentecostalism failed “because
squarely and fairly on the side of the “onecht” (“not-genuine”) black on the one side the Pentecostals did have the right heart for the matter, but
citizens of America. But then he knew that in God’s eyes the despised lacked the means to develop an adequate corresponding theology,83while on
children of Israel were the people of God, the despised early Christian the other side the churches possessed the means, but lacked the necessary
slaves were his church, the down-trodden descendants of America’s slaves ecumenical heart.”*4
were the founders of the most vital 20th century denomination, and he
himself, the illegitimate son, had been made legitimate. Other Ecumenical Pentecostals
So why did Polman fail as an ecumenist? Van der Laan summarizes his
dilemma succinctly: T h e four Pentecostal pioneers mentioned have not been alone. I hope
that some day Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., will publish his research on early and
Polman’s ecumenical heart collided with his fundamentalistic Evangelical head.
His Spirit baptism had generated a loving attitude towards all fellow Christians,
present Pentecostal ecumenicity. For the time being I can give only a short
but he was unable to fully assimilate this ecumenical experience into his thinking. overview based on his seminal research, in which he points out that early
. . . Surely this was not his fault alone. H e received no help from his Evangelical Pentecostals “were hopeful that this revival would bring about worldwide
colleagues nor from the academic theologian^.^^ Christian unity.”**
They were either too busy condemning the fledgling ecumenical move- van der Laan, C., Sectarian Against His Will, 306f.
ment, or they simply ignored it.79 ” It is not by accident that one of the best and the earliest ecumenical documents
on Pentecostalism was produced in Holland (Nederlands Hervormde Kerk, D e Kerk,
j7 van der Laan, C., “Theology,” 24. Wumkes, “De Pinksterbeweging,” 1916, see The Pentecostals, 433ff.).
267. 82 Dayton, “Expansion.”
der Laan, C., Sectarian Against His Will, 305.
78 van 83By this van der Laan does not mean a rationalist/evangelical (or rational-
This has also been observed by Bill Menzies. Early Pentecostals were largely
j9
ist/critical) theology but ”a theology in which inconsistencies are acceptable,” van
ignored by the liberals. “Fundamentalists, on the other hand, bitterly opposed the der Laan, C., Sectarian Against His Will, 306. This topic needs expansion. T h e
Movement and charged adherents with theological heresy. . . . Even as they were question is: How can we build a new type of coherence which is not based on logical
losing their war with the Modernists, Fundamentalists regarded Pentecostals an consistencies?
84 van der Laan, C., Sectarian Against His Will, 327.
equal threat to Orthodox Christianity.” Menzies, Anoinred to Serve, 179-81, summa-
rized by Faupel, “Whither?” 22. 85For this section I have been drawing heavily on an unpublished paper by
348 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Ecumenical Beginnings 349
One of the least expected among these early Pentecostal ecumenists is Robeck concludes:
Charles Parham (chapter 3, pp. 20-23), the founder of the Apostolic Faith It is clear that most of these early Pentecostals believed in the invisible and visible
Movement in the midwest. Parham thought of himself as “an apostle of unity,” churches, and that the true unity of Christians was accomplished by the work of
and wrote: the Cross. Some were more generous than others in their identification of
Unity is not to be accomplished by organization or non-organization. Unity by Christians with whom they had doctrinal differences. As time went on, though,
organization has been tried for 1900 years and failed. Unity by non-organization more and more Pentecostal denominations were founded and questions of
has been tried for several years and resulted in anarchy, or gathered in small Pentecostal organizations as well as visible alignment with the larger Church
‘‘cliques’’ with an unwritten creed and regulations which are often fraught with became increasingly significant.”
error and fanaticism. . . . We expect to see the time, when baptized by the Holy T h e ecumenical work of Donald Gee has already been mentioned in the
Ghost into one Body, the gloriously redeemed Church without spot or wrinkle,
first volume of The Pentecostals. Robeck traces Gee’s commitment to unity
having the same mind, judgment, and speaking the same things.86
within the Pentecostal movement and unity within the larger church in great
Likewise W. E CarothersX7wrote: “The restoration of Pentecost means detail. “The dream of creating one worldwide denomination out of the Pen-
ultimately the restoration of Christian unity.”88 tecostal Movement can be dismissed as hopeless. If it were ever achieved we
T h e black ecumenist William J. Seymour has already been mentioned may be almost certain it would no longer be Pentecostal.”y6His clear support
(chapter 3, pp. 18-20). However, “he differed from Parham and Carothers for of ecumenism in the editorials of Pentecosty7 “outraged” British and especially
he believed that doctrinal unity was as essential as spiritual unity.”” American Pentecostals, “and in the strongest terms possible Gee was advised
Robeck also mentions Thomas Ball Barratt from Norway. Barratt noted to cancel any commitments” [to the World Council of C h ~ r c h e s ] . ’T~h e most
the transdenominational character of the NorwegianPentecostal revival, which ardent spokesman of this anti-ecumenism” was Thomas E Zimmerman,’”’
included Roman and Greek Catholics, and which, he said, “ . . . must be the then newly elected president of the National Association of Evangelicals and
very Revival Christ had in His mind when He prayed that all His disciples mzght general superintendent of the American Assemblies of God. Gee did not give
be one.”” Yet Barratt acknowledged there would continue to be disputes over up, and reminded the Pentecostals that “the complete answer to modernism is
doctrines, the significance of the sacraments, and questions regarding church not fundamentalism, but Pentecost in all its fullness.”’”’ He also observed, as
organizational structure. H e vowed that those within Pentecostalism would has been stated many times, that the bitterest opponents of the Pentecostal
not seek to undermine other evangelical denominations, but would actively movement have been the fundamentalists.
promote their welfare, attempting to live out Jesus’ prayer of John 17. “We are
therefore to be found in all denominations, as well as among Christians who
do not belong to any denomination,”” Barratt wrote.
T h e subject of ecumenism was addressed too by William H. Durham”
and Frank Bartleman.93 Bartleman argued that what had occurred at Azusa
Street was the beginning of the “final outpouring . . . A heterogeneous body
was thrown together, ‘baptized in one Spirit.’ ’lY4
~~
Robeck, “Perspectives,” 4. See also McDonnell (with Bittlinger), “Problem,” 29; ” Robeck, “Perspectives,” 14.
Krust, “Churches” 343; Cronje, “Influence,” 115. 9h Gee, “Possible.”
86Parham, Charles E, Voice, 65, 64f. ” A much less complete analysis of Gee’s ecumenical commitment in The
’’
Robeck, “Carothers.” Pentecostals, 208-1 3. Robeck (“Perspectives”) has 24 (15-39) carefully footnoted
88 Carothers, Baptism, 25. pages on Gee.
R9 Robeck, “Perspectives,” 8. As further witnesses Robeck mentions J. M. Pike, 98 Ross, “Sectarian,” 99. Twelve of the famous editorials by Gee in Pentecost have
the medical doctors Amelia and Lilian Yeomans, and William Hamner Piper. Idem, been ublished separately in book form as Gee, All rozth One Accord.
“Pike”; idem, “Yeomans”; Blumhofer, “Piper.” 9 r “In a sense Zimmerman was also ecumenical, but verl choosy and political
90Barratt, Zn the Days, 145; emphasis his. about Qith u h o m to be ecumenical,” Robeck, in a conversation, Ju1) 1993.
91 Ibid., 223. ”Burgess, “Zimmerman.” After his death a rift between Zimmerman and the
92 Riss, “Durham.” Assemblies of God became apparent. N o Assemblies of God representative was
y3 Robeck, “Bartleman.” allowed to speak at Zimmerman’s funeral. His papers were lodged not in the Assem-
94 Bartleman, “Earthquake,” 38. “Earthquake” was a tract which he had written blies of God archives but at Wheaton College.
in April, 1906. lo’ Gee, “New Delhi.”
An Ecumenical Follow-Up 351
bringing to the churches. Wigglesworth went on to specify that all this would
not happen until after his own death. Wigglesworth died in 1947; by 1957 Du
h
P
’a T W E N T Y S I X Plessis was becoming the best known Pentecostal ecumenist worldwide.
Who was David Du Plessis? H e grew up in one of the most conservative
Pentecostal churches, the South African Apostolic Faith C h ~ r c hIn . ~England
I met a black Christian from one of the South African Independent Pentecostal
churches’ whose father played an important role in D u Plessis’s youth and had
been influential in Du Plessis becoming a Christian. Du Plessis rose very
quickly in the denomination and ended up as general secretary from 1936 until
1947. In 1947 he resigned to concentrate on his global ministry, which started
An Ecumenical Follow-Up with the first World Pentecostal Conference (1947, Zurich), and continued as
Du Plessis acted as unpaid general secretary of the World Pentecostal Confer-
ences (1949, Paris; 1952, London; 1955, Stockholm; 1958, Toronto).
In between conferences Du Plessis tried to bring Pentecostal churches
worldwide together, but with little success.6 In 1955 he joined the American
David J. D u Plessis Assemblies of God (having in the meantime become an American citizen),
Probably the most important prophecy in the history of and from 1956 to 1959 he worked with Gordon Lindsay’s Voice of Healing
the Pentecostal movement is connected with David J. DU ’
Fell0 wship.
Plessis (1905-1987)’ It was given in December 1936 by It is not entirely clear what had activated Wigglesworth’s long dormant
Smith Wigglesworth (1859-1947),’ an extraordinary English prophecy in D u Plessis, especially as Du Plessis shared the general Pentecostal
Pentecostal evangelist who could hardly read or write. While belief of that time, namely that the mainline churches-and in particular the
in South Africa Wigglesworth laid his hands on D u Plessis’ Roman Catholic Church and the World Council of Churches-were hope-
shoulders, pushed him against the wall and began to lessly lost. Perhaps his long convalescence after a serious car accident matured
prophesy: in him the decision to share with these churches his convictions, and to start
the process of forgiveness with groups for whom he (as “God’s state attorney,”
You have been in “Jerusalem” long enough . . . I will send you as he once put it) had previously had nothing but contempt. What is certainly
to the uttermost parts of the earth . . . You will bring the
known is that Du Plessis at one point visited the World Council of Churches
message of Pentecost to all churches . . . You will travel more
than most evangelists do . . . God is going to revive the offices in New York, uninvited and unannounced.8
churches in the last days and through them turn the world Hearing some hard words for Latin American Pentecostals from John Mackay,
upside down. . . .3 president of Princeton Seminary, D u Plessis wrote to Mackay, and the two
Then Wigglesworth began to tell him details Of visions he became friends. Mackay was D u Plessis’s gate into organized ecumenism. As
had been seeing that morning and which God had told him to president of the International Missionary Council, Mackay brought D u Plessis
share with Du Plessis. It was all too fantastic: according to to the 1952 meeting at Willingen, Germany, and had him address the 210
delegates. Probably because of D u Plessis’s interviews with more than half of
Wigglesworth’s visions even the Pentecostal movement would the global ecclesiastical representatives, most of whom had never seen a rational
pale into insignificance compared with the revival God was Pentecostal, he there earned the title “Mr. Pentecost.” At Willingen, W. A.
An Ecumenical Follow- f f p 353
352 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Woridwide
Holy Spirit is also in the unbelievers, and that they too have charismata,
Evanston, Illinois. By 1959 D u Plessis was giving lectures at major theological
although they might perhaps not understand or use them correctly-an
centers- Princeton, Yale, Union, Colgate, Bossey, and others. H e was received
extraordinary statement for a Pentecostal.’*
by three Roman Catholic pontifs-John XXIII, Paul VI, and John Paul II.9
In time Du Plessis knew most of the ecclesiastical leaders in the Pentecos-
Du Plessis was also instrumental in strengthening the charismatic renewal tal, Roman Catholic, and Protestant churches. Although he had never received
in the historic churches (chapter 26, pp. 362-66) and was the driving force an academic theological education, his narrative style, his honesty, his large
behind the Vatican/Pentecostal dialogue (chapter 13, pp. 165-180). heart, his burning love for all Christians (and non-Christians), and his wit won
Two incidents may serve as examples of his “Pentecostal style” in dealing him many friends-but he also gained enemies among his Pentecostal con-
with ecclesiastical dignitaries and scholars. One happened at the Uppsala Full stituency. Thus he was unsuccessful in presenting the Vatican/Pentecostal
Assembly of the World Council of Churches (1968). He traveled to Uppsala dialogue to the World Pentecostal Conference (chapter 13, pp. 165-SO), and
with the Benedictine Kilian McDonnell (the other main inspirer of the once complained that he was not even allowed to say “Hallelujah” in this
Vatican/Pentecostal dialogue). McDonnell asked Du Plessis: “HOW do we get Pentecostal gathering.
into this meeting?” Du Plessis answered: “The Lord will provide.” When they T h e leaders of the Assemblies of God were embarrassed by D u Plessis’ work
came to the conference site I met these two friends. Du Plessis smiled and said among ecumenical leaders, and, in 1962, presented an ultimatum to D u Plessis.
to McDonnell: “You see, the Lord provides.” Du Plessis had asked for press H e must either cease his ecumenical ministry or lose his ministry credentials
status at the conference but-since he was not expected-was denied a press- with the Assemblies of God. Naturally, given his new understanding of the
card. What else could I do then but go to my colleague in charge and protest? nature of the Pentecostal Movement, it was impossible for him to agree to the
“Du Plessis,” he said and raised his eyebrows, “isn’t that the man who was demand of the Assemblies leadership and he was expelled as a minister. For D u
disfellowshipped from the Assemblies of God?” “Yes, he is,” said I, “and do Plessis this expulsion meant more than just the loss of his ministry-credentials.
you know why?” “Of course not, it does not interest me,” answered the From now on it would be almost impossible for him to work with the official
colleague. “But it should interest you,” I continued. “He was disfellowshipped Pentecostal structures. Ironically, it was as if the Pentecostal leaders were wish-
ing to place themselves outside of the new Pentecost that D u Plessis was
because of his endeavors to create contacts between Pentecostals and the World
discovering. D u Plessis did not miss the irony that it was the evangelical
Council of Churches. Are you going to punish him for trying to make our work
churches which had previously proved the most resistant to the “baptism of the
understood in Pentecostal circles?” That obviously did the trick, and D u Holy Spirit” who were now successfully urging the Pentecostal churches to
Plessis got his press-card. reject the development of this same experience in the more ecumenical of the
Many times Du Plessis was asked his opinion on Barth, Bultmann, and historic churches. l 3
other theologians whose works he had never read. But he was a teacher with a
difference. In Germany he was asked by a disciple of Bultmann, “What is your As an insider of the Assemblies of God, Russ Spittler describes this
program?” Du Plessis replied, “To demythologise the Scriptures.” Curious at incident more precisely. He concentrates on the fact that
such a reply, his questioner asked, “How will you do this?,” to which D u the North American Pentecostal establishment luxuriated in its postwar accep-
Plessis responded, “It’s very simple, we Pentecostals take the things in the tance among Evangelicals. In 1961 Thomas E Zimmerman, who in 1959 had
Bible that you say are myths and we make them happen today so that they are become general superintendent of the Assemblies of God, was returned for a
dernythologised!” lo second year to the post of elected president of the National Association of
Obviously this answer does not solve the problem of myths in the Bible, Evangelicals. It was an era that completed the evangelicalization of Pentec~stalism.’~
and Pentecostal scholars nowadays have much more sophisticated analytical
It was impossible for Zimmerman to remain president of the National
tools to deal with myths in Scripture.” Nevertheless D u Plessis hit the nail on Association of Evangelicals and to tolerate one of the most outspoken ecu-
the head when he pointed out that “the things in the Bible” are not supernatu- menists among the Assemblies of God. From 1962 until 1980, when Du Plessis
ral and extraordinary. They are part and parcel of a Christian’s life, cum grano was reinstated as an ordained minister, Du Plessis served as an uncredentialed and
salis, of course. Thus many times he quoted Acts 2:17, where it is said that the unofficial Pentecostal ambassador-at-large. When Du Plessis was showered
Holy Spirit is poured out on all flesh. From this Du Plessis concluded that the
Spittler, “DuPlessis,” 252. More details in Curlee-Curlee, Springtime, Iff. This

’’ The Pentecostals, 343. D u Plessis in Wogen, Jesus, 223-50. However, the
mediation of charismatic spirituality to the churches by the South African D u Plessis
is an excellent study on Mackay and D u Plessis based on original archive research. also has its drawbacks; see Suurmond, Word and Spirit a t Piay, 16.
See also Curlee-Curlee, “Bridging the Gap.” l 3 Robinson, “David D u Plessis,” 149.
lo Robinson, “David D u Plessis,” 152. l4 Spittler, “Du Plessis,” 252.
l1 See chapter 23, note 44, p. 319.
354 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide An Ecumenical Follow- U p 355
with honors from the ecclesiastical and secular establishment towards the end Robeck is a theologically-trained historian who specializes in Patristics
of his life,” it became necessary for the Pentecostal establishment to claim him and Pentecostalism-a most interesting and necessary combination. His ecu-
again as a minister of the Assemblies of God-of course without any discus- menical heart is best documented by the following quote:
sion or apology.
The Corinthians quarreled, drank to excess, visited temple prostitutes, held
God’s ways are astonishing. Two of the most influential Pentecostal
secret knowledge over others, monopolized the Lord’s table for personal
ecumenists have come from the conservative Apostolic Faith Church of South
gain, advocated immoral behavior, abused God’s gracious endowments, and
Africa: Frank Chikane (chapter 5, pp. 49-50) and David J. D u Plessis. These even denied the reality of the resurrection from the dead. Even so, Paul did
two were not the only ones, however, who had to pay dearly for their ecumeni- not call them “Not-Christians.’’ Rather, he addressed them as “the church of
cal commitment; Daniel Brandt-Bessire16 was another. However, things are God in Corinth . . . sanctified in Christ Jesus and called to be saints” together
changing rapidly-as we shall see in chapter 27. with all others who called on the name of the Lord Jesus Christ ( 1 Cor 1:2).
One agent of this change is Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., an Assemblies of God He did not require change before he recognized them as Christians. So how
professor at Fuller Theological Seminary, Pasadena, California. Robeck com- could I do less?17
bines a burning ecumenical heart with a thorough knowledge of internal
church policy; he follows the ecclesiastical code of conduct by informing his Four Phases of Ecumenical Development
superiors in detail about, and securing their agreement on, every important
step of his ecumenical journey. One can detect four phases in the ecumenical development of Pentecostalism:
Robeck is the son of an Assemblies of God minister. He was ordained in Fzrst Phase: Pentecostalism begins as an ecumenical renewal move-
1973 in the Assemblies of God. H e was trained at San Jose City College (1967), ment, breaking through racial and denominational barriers (chapter 25, pp.
at Bethany Bible College (1970), and at Fuller Theological Seminary (M.Div. 334-49. It sees in the experience of the Holy Spirit the one important
1973, Ph.D. 1985). H e has acted in various administrative and academic force which sweeps away all denominational, racial, educational, and social
positions mainly at Fuller and is now Professor of Church History and divides.
Ecumenics at Fuller. He is presently co-chairing the Vatican/Pentecostal Second Phase: This ecumenical movement then develops into locally
dialogue. H e is also a member of numerous ecumenical bodies, among others organized congregations heavily influenced by evangelicalism; by defending
of the Working Group (formerly Commission) on Faith and Order of the themselves against severe attacks from the evangelicals, Pentecostals perhaps
National Council of Churches (1985fE) and of the World Council of Churches. accept much of the thought categories of their antagonists.
He acted for many years as editor of Pneuma, the journal of the Society for Third Phase: National and international Pentecostal denominations are
Pentecostal Studies. organized. Catechisms, Bible colleges, extensive building programs, success-
His wife is a trained nurse with major administrative responsibility. In a ful media policies, pension funds for the pastors, centralized church bureauc-
telling article she describes what she must do when somebody steps into the racies, aggressive fund-raising programs and so forth, were all established.
hospital, uninvited, to pray for a patient. “As the patient’s advocate, I must Pentecostalism is no longer an ecumenical renewal movement but becomes
protest their right to privacy and redirect this unrequested visitor.” visible as a group of highly clericalized new denominations.
Fourth Phase: Pentecostals begin to return to their ecumenical root by
l 5 Complete list in Spittler, “DUPlessis,” 253. starting a dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church and organized ecumen-
I6Daniel Brandt-Bessire, a Swiss Pentecostal, was ordained in the Assemblies ism (as discussed in chapter 27, pp. 367-88). This, however, leads in certain
de Dieu de Belgique in 1976 but had to withdraw because of the antagonism of the cases to splits from the denominations. T h e separated groups start the process
Assemblies of God USA missionaries to his ecumenical commitment. The benefici- again at phase 1 .
aries of this were the Swiss Reformed churches who appointed him as pastor in a
holiday resort. Bundy in his review on Daniel Brandt-Bessire, Aux sources de la
In general a phase takes a generation (25 years). What is important for our
spiritualite‘ pentec6tiste in Pneuma 9/2, Fall 1987, 204. Many European Pentecostals topic is the fact that the older classical Pentecostal denominations are now
so far hardly know how to deal with some of their most gifted and highly educated somewhere between phases 3 and 4, while the charismatic renewal in the
young theologians. Another case is Dr. Jean-Daniel Pliiss, a graduate from Louvain mainline churches has to be placed between phases 1 and 2. Whether the
for whom there does not seem any place in the Swiss Pentecostal movement. The charismatic renewal can skip phases 2 and 3 is in my opinion uncertain. All
Reformed Church made him president of one of their richest congregation in Zurich.
See also the adventurous journey of Jerry L. Sandidge (chapter 13, pp. 168-71). indicators point in the direction of new Pentecostal churches, although this is
There are, however, important exceptions: Holland (see chapter 25, pp. 345-47) and
England, where the Swiss Pentecostal theologian Dr. S. Schatzmann was made l 7 T h e section on Robeck is based on private notes. The quotes are from Robeck,
president of the Elim Bible College. Patsy, “Ecumenical Ministry in the Hospital,” 9, and Robeck, “Growing,” 7.
356 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide A n Ecumenical Follow-Up 357
officially denied and although the new organizations take on new names ecumenical appeals into practice. Furthermore, the charismatic renewal cre-
(“third wave,” “charismatic center,” “Christian center,” and so on).’’ ates ecumenical facts which might force us theologians to rethink some of our
denominational theologies.
Kilian McDonnell Kilian McDonnell published his collection in 1980, at the end of phase 1
of the charismatic renewal. During this phase Arnold Bittlinge~-,~~ Simon
Due to Kilian McDonnell’s fundamental work,19 we are well informed on T ~ g w e l land
, ~ ~Kilian McDonnell were considered the forward-pointing sign-
the reaction of the churches to the charismatic renewal.20 McDonnell has posts of ecumenism. My impression today is, however, that these early pioneering
collected, translated, and interpreted one hundred documents-mainly from approaches have largely been forgotten in favour of either a conservative
the churches in Europe, North and South America. The documents represent catholic or a narrow evangelical approach. This is certainly true of the majority
all denominations, from the classical Pentecostal to the Protestant and Roman of European charismatics, although perhaps the situation in the Church of
Catholic Churches. Some of the most interesting documents come from England is somewhat different.2s
unexpected sources, for example the statement by the Protestant Churches in I
former East Germany,” or the document from the Mekane Yesu Church in Because of its importance for our subject one of the first of Kilian
McDonnell’s publications must be mentioned. In Charismatic Renewal and the
Ethiopia (the only document which reviews the position of the main denomi-
Churches, McDonnell dealt with the many theories of the causes and motiva-
nations in other continents systematically and ecumenically before it comes to
tions behind the charismatic movement. Probably the majority of researchers
its own judgment).22Some churches have resources within their own tradition
in this field have described glossolalia and the charismatic communities in
for dealing with the renewal, like the Roman Catholic Church, the Methodist
terms of pathology and subnormality. McDonnell quotes with approval Wil-
Church, the Czech Brethren and-amazingly-the Presbyterian Church
liam Samarin,26 who suggests a scholarly investigation of the psychological
(USA) (the latter drawing heavily on modern scholarship). Other churches,
profile of those researchers who show a bias against the glossolalics. Why is it,
like some American Baptists and the Missouri Lutherans, find it difficult or
impossible to accommodate the renewal within their tradition. So it is criti- McDonnell asks rightly, that much of the research on this topic gets away with
cized and rejected as theologia gloraae, as un-Lutheran, or un-Baptist. This is rather flimsy empirical evidence, provided that the researcher confirms the
probably a fair judgment, since there are important trends in Pentecostalism popular belief that charismatics are highly emotional, disturbed, suggestible
and in charismatism which deviate from the tradition of the Reformation. But people? In fact E. and J. Hilgard2’ have shown that normal subjects are more
perhaps-horribile dictu for an ordained minister of the Swiss Reformed easily hypnotized than those who border on the neurotic, so-if the allegations
Churches-the reformation of the 16th century is not the last word on of hypnosis and of suggestion in charismatics is true, this could certainly not
Christianity. The Roman Catholic Churches in Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, and be used as evidence against the normality of the people attending these
Brazil also criticize the renewal because it introduces “Protestant ideas’’ into meetings. McDonnell further states that much of this research is done without
the Roman Catholic Church, as if this were an argument in our present ever checking the findings against a control group. The fact that this research
ecumenical era. is widely quoted does not alter the grave methodological weakness of its “one
It is obvious that the creation of ecumenical links at the grass roots shot” design.*’
level (especially between evangelicals and Catholics, see chapter 2, pp. Some of these researchers, however, score better than others. Kilian
10-11) is both an embarrassment and a source of rejoicing for church McDonnell considers the German book on glossolalia by Eddison Mosi-
leaders and ecumenists. Ecumenists and church leaders become afraid of mann, written in 1911 (which most modern researchers ignore),29 and the
their own (verbal) courage when a t last the people of God put their
23 On Bittlinger see The Pentecostals, 245ff. Also Failing, “Neue.” As far as I can
l 8 On
the history and the extensive literature of the Charismatic Renewal see the see these ecumenical pioneers have been marginalized, left the movement and lost
excellent article by Hocken, “Movement” (with a precise write-up of the history and interest, or were simply silenced.
denominational service organizations). Reimer, H.-D., Wenn der Geist in der Kirche ”On Tugwell, see chapter 13 (pp. 157-59).
wirken. 25 Elbert, “England”; Hunt, “Wimberites.”
l9 On McDonnell, see Robeck, “McDonnell.” 26 William Samarin in a review of Kildahl’s The Psychology o f Speaking in
2o Some information on the early Charismatic Renewal (“Pentecost Outside
Tongues, in Sisters Today, 44 (August-September 1972), 44; quoted by McDonnell in
Pentecost”) in The Pentecostals, 3-20. Charismatic Renewal, 147.
*’McDonnell, Presence 11, 453-83. This document was reviewed (in its original 27 Hilgard-Hilgard, Hypnotic, 295, 331, 349, 374. Quoted in McDonnell, Char-
ismatic Renewal, 80.
German version) by David Bundy in E P T A Bulletin 3/3, 1984, 92-96; Kirch-
28 McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 150.
ner/Planer-Friedrich/Sens/Ziemer, Charismatische.
*‘McDonnell, Presence 11, 150-82. 29 Ibid., 87f.; Mosimann, Das Zungenreden; The Pentecostals, 227f.
An Ecumenical Follow-Up 359
Anderson is probably correct in his reading of these factors as associated
unpublished dissertation by the Pentecostal psychiatrist Vivier from South with Pentecostalism. His material shows that personal stress and religious
Africa,30 among the most reliable research works on glossolalia. On the other influences in childhood have been constituent factors in most of the lives of
hand he severely criticizes Cutten’s widely-quoted work3’ and even more John early Pentecostal leaders. But does this prove anything? The majority of
P. Kildahl’s Psychology of Speaking in Tongues, and rightly so. McDonnell says people suffer stress, and many are religiously influenced at some time in their
the overall judgment on Kildahl’s research must be negative: “There is an lives. The question is: are these factors causal or coincidental?
appended bibliography [to Kildahl’s book] but there is no indication in the What of our observation that the charismatic renewal does not fit the
text that the author is acquainted with the content of the research there picture of the socially deprived? Anderson responds: T h e charismatic renewal
r e p ~ r t e d . ” ~This
’ observation every careful reader of Kildahl’s book will find is the answer to real or imagined deprivation of respect and prestige.37 Of
confirmed. course, this sort of influence can be used as an explanation for the founding of
McDonnell also deals with the different deprivation theories. These claim any social institution, from a university to a political party. No doubt someone
that people become charismatic because they lack money, status, prestige, or a will explain that the Gothic cathedrals of the Middle Ages were the product
combination of these. With the emergence of the renewal movement in the of frustration, imagined or real, and that Brahms’s Requiem is the outcome of
upper middle-class this theory was shattered, so a new theory had to be a continuous stream of frustration (which is perhaps true). But does this really
created. This time it was to be “affective d e p r i ~ a t i o n ”on~ ~
which McDonnell explain anything? Many people suffer frustration, but not all write a master-
comments: One wonders, whether this is not a universal condition, piece or build a cathedral. Where is the person who thinks that he or she
something which is constant in all human beings. Who among us thinks that he receives all the recognition she/he deserves?
or she receives the love deserved? Where are the persons who have attained a Two questions are not discussed in McDonnell’s book on theorists of the
kind of parity between the expected love and love received? Since affective renewal. The first is: On the basis of what criteria do we judge a person to be
deprivation . . . is considered a factor in the rise and growth of the (charismatic) psychologically and medically normal? As far as I know there are no objective
community, is one not explaining a variable (the charismatic community) by a standards-only statistics-upon which to base such a judgment. This is increas-
constant (affective deprivation)? In social science a constant cannot be used to ingly recognized by medical researchers: the lack of criteria for establishing
explain a variable.34 “normality” is felt not only in the psychiatric but also in the purely medical field.
T h e second question is: What is the ecclesiological and charismatic func-
Another researcher who uses a constant in order to explain a variable is
tion of people who are considered neurotic? Could it not be that they have
Robert M. A n d e r ~ o n . ~Anderson
’ has provided a competent and important
important charismata to contribute to a world and a church which believes
Social History of the Early Twentieth Century Pentecostal Movement.36 T h e
itself to be fairly healthy, but is more endangered by the “disease” of normality
mistake which he makes, however is to conclude, from the emergence of
than it knows? Is God not also a God of the neurotics? Does he not use them
Pentecostalism in a deprived social milieu that social deprivation provides the
in their neurotic states? One should not forget that some of the greatest
reasons for its emergence. He realizes the trap and asks: Why did all similarly
thinkers and musicians (such as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Robert Schu-
deprived people not become Pentecostals? Why did some (and probably the
mann), and some of the great prophets (such as Hosea and Ezekiel) were-in
majority) seek relief in crime, delinquency, violence, heavy drinking, drug
the modern clinical sense-psychologically disturbed.
addiction, gambling, prostitution, and sexual promiscuity? (To which list one
Kilian McDonnell does not stop at taking facile sociological explanations
could also add: political utopianism, fascism, and escapist music.) Anderson is
to pieces. What is even more important in his analysis is his disagreement even
not able to give a sociological answer to this question. Instead he introduces
at this early stage with much that is written by those within the charismatic
two psychological factors. He says that socio-economic deprivation leads to
renewal. For him, “a charism is a fully human activity and is not under the
the making of a Pentecostal only if two further individual factors come into
control of some force outside the person.” “All charismatic activity is, in the
play; namely, personal stress and a religious disposition.
first instance, ambiguous. T h e ambiguity is removed by a discerning process
(1 Cor 12:30, 14:5, 29) which is essentially a community function though
j0 Vivier, Glossolalia, and idem, “Glossolalic”; McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal,
certain individuals may play a more pronounced role in such a process.”38
9G93 and passim. The Pentecostals, 342f.
3‘ Cutten, Speaking; McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 88f.
32 McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 134. 37 Anderson, Robert Mapes, VIsion o f the Disinherited, 229.
33 Ibid., 25. 38 McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 6f. Karl Braunhart, for instance, did not
34 Ibid., 26. observe trance among the tongue-speaking Neo-Pentecostals in Honduras (Braun-
35 Anderson, Robert Mapes, Vision of the Disinherited. hart, Heiliger Geist), 66, 72.
j6This is the title of Anderson’s Ph.D. dissertation.
360 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide An Ecumenical Follow- Up 361
“There is theologically no reason why a certain ability cannot be both a necessary to seek an “independent ministry-evangelism,” and some to demit the
‘natural’ ability and a gift of the Spirit.”39 H e even goes so far as to describe ministry of the United Presbyterian Church.45
glossolalia using the psychological term “learned behavior.” But “this does not I n case of conflict, stated the report, the Church should remember its
militate against it being a gift of the Spirit.”40 Westminster Confession of Faith, Chapter XX, on “Christian Liberty and
It is not true that what can be described in psychological terms is therefore not Liberty of Conscience.”
a true exercise of a charism, not of the Holy Spirit. This supposition would
We plead for that tolerance, good will, and Christ-centered love which is a t the
relegate the Spirit to some Platonic ideal world as it would presuppose that the
heart of the thirteenth chapter of First Corinthians. . . . It is evident to your
Spirit operates in a psychological void. On the contrary, only what can be
committee that the silence of the Book of Confessions on any matters of faith or
described in psychological terms is a true charism, even though the religious
41
practice does not prohibit the introduction of such beliefs and practices into the
meaning and content is not adequately accounted for in psychological terms.
life of a congregation so long as such beliefs and practices are not destructive to
I n short a charism “is less a what and more a Charisms are not the external peace and order which Christ has established in the Church.46
defined phenomenologically but in relation to their function in church and I n an extensive exegetical section the report deals with the different
society. interpretations of the Spirit in Scripture. T h e writers state, however (together
T h a t understanding of a fully human charism, of a gift of the Spirit within
with some classical Pentecostals4’), that the term “baptism of the Spirit”
the context of the presence of the Spirit in all creation, demands a pneuma- seems to be a sectarian over-interpretation. “We d o not find warrant in the
tology which comes near to what is described in chapter 17 (“Rethinking the New Testament for a doctrine of two Spirit-baptisms as normal for the
Spirit”). “Such a theology is essentially cosmic and developmental in its Christian life.”48 It seems to m e that the Assemblies of G o d New Testament
preoc~upation.”~~
scholar Gordon Fee is more helpful on this topic by stating that the two
Spirit-baptisms (one for salvation, the other for endowment with the Holy
The United Presbyterian Church, USA and the Charismatic
Spirit) has n o exegetical foundation (in spite of all that his fellow Pentecostals
Renewal
say) but that this does not prevent people in specific cultural and social
O n e of the best reports on the charismatic renewal (called in the report contexts from experiencing two o r more Spirit-baptisms and that these experi-
“neo-Pentecostalism”) was prepared in 1970 by the United Presbyterian ences might even be fundamental for their lives.49 Certainly this was my own
Church USA. In the following I quote from this report.44 experience. Without the experience of Spirit-baptism I would never have
become a pastor nor a theologian, but a banker (of course some think this might
The committee is grateful to observe the rapid breaking down of barriers that
have separated Protestant denominations from our brethren in the Roman have been better). But my own experience does not make m e assume that all
Catholic and Greek Orthodox Churches. Similarly, we are glad to note the Christians have to follow this ordo safutis-that this second Spirit-baptism is
beginning of a breakdown of the barriers that have deprived us of fellowship with necessary for all Christians.
Pentecostal denominations . . . In the United Presbyterian Church the number O n the other hand, the writers of the report under discussion see n o
of clergy and laity involved in charismatic experiences is comparatively small, evidence for t h e belief that the gifts of the Spirit ceased with the death o f
although your committee finds that in some areas these numbers are growing the apostles.50 “ T h e practice of glossolalia should be neither despised nor
significantly. This involvement in such experiences has sometimes led to dissen- forbidden; o n the other hand i t should not be emphasized n o r made
sion within our Church. Occasionally where pastors have been involved, the normative for the Christian e ~ p e r i e n c e . ” ’T~ h e report quotes modern Prot-
pastoral relationship has been terminated. As a result, many have found it estant scholars (Karl Barth, Emil Brunner, Paul Tillich) in order to make
clear that the Spirit is not just a christological cognitive category, but also a
39 McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 84.
creative force i n the world and in the church. In an exhaustive section o n
401bid., 154.
I’ Ibid., 155.
”See chapter 13 (pp. 218-27). 45 h.lcDonnell, Presence I, 223.
43 McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal, 156, more lit. by McDonnell in the Short %Ibid.,
.- I, 224.
Titles List. 41 See above chapters 17 (pp. 222-24) and 23 (pp. 313-14).
McDonnell, Presence I, 221-82; Minutes of the f 8 2 n d General Assembly, 48 McDonnell, Presence I, 229, 270.
14-98, “It was the most thorough [report] ever done by a major denomination” 49Seeabove G. Fee in chapter 23 (pp. 313-14).
(Synan, Explosion, 168). On the dramatic story of the genesis of this report see j0 McDonnell, Presence I, 230.
Curlee-Curlee, Springtime. ” Ibid.

362 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide An Ecumenical Follow-Up 363
psychological interpretations of the charismatic renewal, the report comes to Certainly in the seventies it was true. At that time he and many others
the conclusion that this type of spirituality (including speaking in tongues) is (including myself) hoped that the charismatic renewal would become an
not a sign of a disturbed personality. It is not the result (or the cause) for ecumenical grassroots movement. Perhaps that potential still exists. However,
neurotic breakdowns, high emotional tensions and the like. Although these Peter Hocken, writing ten years later, was more cautious: “It is falsifying the
notions are very popular, there is hardly any evidence to support them in nature of this grace when Catholic charismatic renewal, Lutheran charismatic
empirical research.’* renewal, or any other denominational renewal is regarded as a distinct move-
T h e report states that “if a psychologically sick individual experiences a ment, rather than as a part of one worldwide transdenominational outpouring
charismatic gift, it neither validates nor invalidates the gift.” G o d is also a G o d of the Spirit of God.”” Others have observed that the charismatic renewal had
of the n e ~ r o t i c . ’“A
~ person may be emotionally disturbed: this however does run out of steam by the late 1970s. Richard Quebedeaux attempted “to
not prove his religious experience to be i m a g i n a r ~ . ”I~n ~other words, the document how a young maiden was embraced by the religious status quo and
report follows more o r less the lines drafted by Kilian McDonnell (chapter 26, given the kiss of death.”58
pp. 356-60). I n a brief section it tackles the problem of exorcism and evil Perhaps Quebedeaux exaggerates. But it is obvious that after a promising
spirits, and even has a good word to say for psychic research (parapsychology), start, which included both the ecumenical and the critical root of Pentecostal-
which is “often a creditable, dignified pursuit, conducted by persons of ism, the charismatic renewal is now in a dilemma-or at least at a turning
integrity and re~ponsibility.”’~ point. It can take one of the following directions:
I n its practical guidelines the report asks for tolerance and the dissemina- 1. It can develop a dual loyalty: loyalty to one’s denomination and loyalty to
tion of more precise information on h e charismatic renewal, from both the ecumenical community. This is a difficult and unstable situation and I
practitioners and non-practitioners. T h i s wish remains unfulfilled to this day, doubt whether the majority will follow this line. An important example of
in my opinion. I have seldom read such a well-informed, balanced, theologi- a group which has taken this option is the charismatic renewal in the Pres-
cally and psychologically sober report, written with a pastoral heart for those byterian Church of Ghana, which has existed since the thirties, not as an
who disagree, and seeking to preserve the United Presbyterian Church as a import from Europe but as an indigenous m ~ v e m e n t . ’ ~
home for practitioners of different spiritualities. However, I doubt that the
2. It can become a conservative force within a given denomination. This is
report stopped the “draining” of the charismatics to independent and Pente-
certainly the case in most European churches, and may even remain the
costal churches. case if-as seems to be more likely-the renewal there does not develop
more along the lines of numbers 3 and 4.
The Protestant Charismatic Renewal, Ecumenical or What?
3. Charismatics can leave their denominations and join some of the existing
I n 1978 Kilian McDonnell wrote: “ T h e Charismatic Renewal is the single Pentecostal churches. This has certainly been the case throughout the
most potent force o n the ecumenical scene today. And it is here to stay. Both USA.60
it and its ecumenical significance are permanent elements in the life of the
Roman Catholic I wonder whether he would write that today? 4. Charismatics may found their own Pentecostal churches, and continue the
process which was sketched above (p. 355) with phase 2. This seems to be
the trend in Europe and in the USA.6*
52 Alland, “Possession”; Boisen, “Economic”; Gerlach-Hine, “Non-pathologi-
cal”; idem, “Factors”; Gerrard/Gerrard, Scrabble Creek. (These Jewish researchers
compared a snake-handling Pentecostal church with a conventional denomination 57 Hocken, “Movement,” 159.
58
as a control group. There is very little difference between the two groups with Quebedeaux, Thc New Charismatics 11,239, reviewed by Donald D. Smeeton
regard to mental health “but whatever differences there are seem to indicate the in EPTA Bulletin 213, 1983, 62-66.
59
serpent-handlers are a little more ‘normal’ than members of the conventional Hocken, One Lord, reviewed by Vinson Synan in Pneuma 1012, Fall 1988,
denominations,” quoted in McDonnell, Presence I, 240.) Lapsley-Simpson, “TO- 162f.; Omenyo, “Ghana.”
60
ken”; idem, “Song of the Self’; McDonnell, “Holy Spirit and Pentecostalism”; Sometimes in connection with the New Order of the Latter Rain. Holdcroft,
idem, “Catholic Pentecostalism”; Pattison, “Speaking”; idem, “Effects”; idem, “Order”; Riss, “1948,” 3 2 4 5 (especially 45); Poloma, “Empirical” (she reports that
“Behavioral”; Vivier, Glossolalia; Wood, Culture. See also chapters 13 (pp. 157-58) the Assemblies are “reaping” the benefits of the charismatic movement, Poloma,
and 17 (pp. 218-27). “Empirical,” 75, note 1). See also chapter 20 (pp. 258-61). Similarly Hocken,
53 McDonnell, Presence I, 239. “Charismatic Movement in the U. S.,” 191-214, esp. 212.
61
54 Ibid. Hocken speaks of an “explosion of nondenominational charismatic assem-
55 Ibid., I, 245. blies.” Hocken, “Movement,” 141; idem, “Independent.” For Europe see below,
56 McDonnell, Ecumenism, 113. notes 63fC
An Ecumenical Follow- U p 365
I suggest that this difference can be seen most clearly in the life and work
T h e last development is the least desirable, but obviously the most in of William Joseph Seymour (chapter 3, pp. 18-24), the founder of the Pente-
vogue; it is a shame that this fragmentation of the Christian witness is traded costal/charismatic movements. For Seymour the Holy Spirit showed himself
under the label of “church growth.” I n the German language the travesty of in speaking in tongues and perhaps also in other manifestations such as
this label is even more glaring: “church growth” is translated as “building u p “falling down in the service” (that which is often today called the “Toronto
the community” (GerneindeauJbau) while in actual fact it entails the destruc- Ble~sing”).~’ However, his decisive criterion for identifying the presence and
tion of flourishing communities.62 Ingrid Reimer reports for instance from working of the Holy Spirit at Azusa street was that racism and the idea of the
Germany that she is aware of over 200 new congregations; these separatist and master-race had been overcome.
individualistic congregations, usually centered around one or two leaders, are T h e use of the spirituality of the black and Third World Christians as a
growing like mushrooms not only in Germany, but in S ~ i t z e r l a n d Eng-
,~~ religious “product,” for the promotion of church growth, is unbiblical. It is
land,64 and (in a different form) in the USA.65Moreover, it is not known in bad enough that we exploit these Christians politically and economically;
Europe that the “church growth” ideology is controversial even at Fuller ~
religious exploitation is even worse. For these T h i r d World Christians and the
Theological Seminary, where the “church growth” institute is located, and this black charismatics, these manifestations- their songs and dances-were their
at the level of students and staff. (More on this in chapter 22, p. 305.) only means for saving their culture from destruction through colonialists,
I
I n relation to the growth of the “third wave,” Roswith Gerloff says: missionaries, and political powers. T h e y are an expression of their inner revolt
When Reinhard Bonnke makes ten thousand people speak in tongues in half a and hope. When Mahalia Jackson would sing at a black meeting in Chicago
minute or when he stages miracle after miracle in his services, then religion is before ten thousand people “Go down, Moses, way down in Egyptland. Tell old
marketed like a new shampoo or a disco song. That is neither renewal of the Pharaoh, let my people go,” she was expressing both a political a n d a religious
church nor of society. I have been asked many times how such meetings compare hope. S h e was testifying that t h e Pharaohs of this world-the businessmen,
on the one hand with the services of my black friends and on the other hand with the generals, and the politicians-do not have the last word. All too often,
the mass psychosis of a Reichsparteitag, a Nazi meeting of the Third Reich.
however, such expressions in a white service are reduced to novel samplings
T h e representatives of the “third wave” have reacted with loud protest of black folklore. When a congregation in Chile spontaneously breaks out
against this comparison;66 however, rather than criticizing here it would be singing in tongues, it is an attempt of these whom we have silenced to find a
better to examine and answer this question of a theologian who has devoted new language. T h e y are testifying that G o d has not forgotten them. What
the greater part of her life to researching the inter-racial dynamics of charis- function, however, has this expression in a white congregation, where speak-
matic spirituality. Rather than protesting against Roswith Gerloff, it would be ing in tongues is manipulated from the platform? T h a t is the question on
better to reflect on the dzfference between the modern psycho-boom and the which we need more clarification.
work of the Holy Spirit. T h u s the “church growth” of splintering new Congregations is “almost
always the expression of a failed process of communication between the
62 The most spectacular (but by no means the only) case was Wolfram Kopfer- historic churches and the charismatic groups.”68 Neither side has yet learned
mann, Hamburg, who envisages the foundation of 5,000 new congregations by his to come to terms with different styles of spirituality. Another problem is the
Anskar Church. It does not seem that he will achieve even 10% of this. Hummel, difference between the USA and Europe. In most European countries there
“Kopfermann.” Birnstein, Geist, reviewed by J. D. Pliiss in EPTA Bulletin 6/4, 1987, are two main denominations: a Catholic and a Protestant. T h e country is
131-33.
63 Reimer, I., “Neue Gemeindebildungen,” 245-52. See also the excellent article divided up into parishes. There is n o space for new organizations except within
by Hempelmann, “Glaubens-Gemeinde.” Sturm, “Stadtmission.” The ideology was the framework of the historically established churches which have-among
provided in a dozen books by Christian A. Schwarz, e.g., under the pretentious title their ecclesiastical duties- important functions as guarantors of “civil relig-
Die Dritte Reformation (“The Third Reformation”). An excellent overview by Hem- ion” (a very important functionfir society, also in the USA), and as sources of
pelmann, “German Protestantism.” Schmid, “Die Dritte Welle,” and idem, “Chris-
tliches.” See also “Die Propheten kommen,” 5 1-52. diakonia and social work. (In Germany, for instance, many great hospitals and
“Here the new congregations are often connected with the “House Churches.”
Kay, “Interactions”; Birkey, The House Church; Walker, Andrew, Restoring, reviewed 67 On the newest discovery of the charismatic spirituality, the so-called Toronto
by William
reviewed byKay in EPTAPliiss
Jean-Daniel Bulletin 7/3, 1988,
in EPTA 108-110;
Bulletin Davies,
5/3, 1986, 114;William
Munden, R.,“Encoun-
Rocking, Blessing (including, e.g., falling down, laughing, crying during the worship service),
see Baumert, “Phenomena.” See also Oropeza, Laugh; Hempelmann, ‘‘Toronto,”
tering;” EPTA Bulletin 4/ 1, 1985, 27f.; Thurman, N e w ; O’Sullivan, “Ichthus Fel- 33-43 (bib.); Meiz, “Toronto”; The Guardian 30.1, 1995. Overview in Foller, Cha-
lowship.” risma68und Unterscheiduns.
Schafer, “WO der Geist des Herrn ist,” 4.
-0
65 Macchia, “Confused Situation,” see also note 61.
66 Gerloff, “Afrikanische Diaspora,” 198.
social institutions are run by the two main churches.) Furthermore, in most
countries the churches provide religious instruction in the schools (pupils who
do not want to take advantage of this can in most cases opt out). Where the X T W E N T Y SEVEN
relations between free churches and the established churches are good, there
is always a possibility for the free churches to work together with the estab-
lished churches. Such relationships exist for instance with Methodist and
Salvation Army groups. But where new charismatic movements deny that the
established churches are charismatic (albeit in a different way from them),
where they understand charismata more as a “what” and not as a “how,” where
they judge their presence or absence according to phenomenological-religious
criteria (and not, as Kilian McDonnell and many Pentecostal authors quoted Dialogue with Organized
in this volume suggest, according to their function in church and society),
there the conflict is programmed. Ecumen ism
Thus as the established churches fall back into the old cliches against the
charismatics, criticizing their religious manipulations and separatist maneuvers,
the charismatics call the established churches dead and unfaithful to the Bible.
The Catholic Church is in general better placed to contain these renewals, Latin America
since it has more practice in dealing with revivals within the church. However, “Without a doubt, Pentecostals in Latin America have
if the charismatic renewal develops in the direction of new Pentecostal de- played the single most significant prophetic role among the
nominations-as if we had not already enough Pentecostal denominations-it worldwide Pentecostal Movement with respect to the formal
will lose its momentum and its influence in society and on individuals. It will
ecumenical movement,” said Cecil M. Robeck a t the Confer-
become just another group of Christians. If the charismatics are intent on
ence on Pentecostal and Charismatic Research in Europe
leaving the historical churches, why do they not at least join one of the existing
(Kappel, Switzerland, 1991). “They have led and continue
Pentecostal churches?
to lead the way in membership and cooperation with the
To deny the historical churches charismatic qualities reveals a very
World Council of Churches, and with regional ecumenical
narrow and unbiblical understanding of charismata. Are not the ecumeni-
organizations such as the Consejo Latinoamericano de Igle-
cal, inter-racial meeting described in chapter 2 (pp. 6-1 S), the anointing
services described in chapter 18 (pp. 233-37), and the musical evangelism sias (CLAI), the Latin American Council of Churches. No-
with believers and non-believers described in chapter 21 (pp. 282-86) where else in the world is this ecumenical commitment by
genuinely charismatic? All these activities describe charismatic and Pente- Pentecostals quite so free as it is in Latin America.” And the
costal activities in a different cultural and organizational context. Are they Chilean Pentecostals back this up by stating: “Therefore it is
disqualified because the “incarnation” of the charismata is different from not surprising that both Latin American and world ecumen-
that experienced in the charismatic renewal? ism are increasingly focusing their attention on this issue and
So what happens to the ecumenical vision which inspired the early thinking about the possibility of a massive incorporation of
charismatic movement and which is still supported by such ecumenists as Pentecosta Iism in the ecumenical task.”’
Peter Hocken and Kilian McDonnell? Is it fading away, or is the ecumenical The Latin American Council of Churches consists of
torch being handed back to the classical Pentecostal churches? That question some hundred-plus denominations, including many Pentecos-
will be examined in our next chapter. tal churches, such as the Iglesia Cristiana de Cuba, the Iglesia
1
Cecil M. Robeck in his extraordinary paper “Pentecostals and Ecumenism.”
Robeck and Manuel Gaxiola-Gaxiola also edited a whole issue of Pneuma (13/2,1991)
on Latin American Pentecostalism. See also on CLAI: Sepulveda, “3a Asamblea”
(interview with Felipe Adolf). T h e quote by Sepulveda in Sepulveda, “Pentecostal-
ism,” 80, emphasis mine. See also MD 58/4, 1.4, 1995, 120-21: “Oekumenismus im
Wandel. Wachsende Pfingstbewegung verandert die okumenische Bewegung in
Lateinamerika.” WCC, Consultation.
368 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism
369
Pentecostal de Chile, the Mision Iglesia Pentecostal de Chile, the Union Evangelica peace, and joy in the Holy Spirit,” and the ability to follow, from the perspec-
Pentecostal Venezolana, and the Asociacion de la Iglesia de Dios of Argentina. tive of the poor, the way of the Spirit’s fellowship toward “the ecumenical
The Council was most successful in enlisting those Pentecostal churches “which movement and the mission of the Church.”’
have the fewest external In a paper given at the North American Academy of Ecumenists (1991)6
Eugene Stockwell, a well-known World Council of Churches figure, was Donald Dayton, an expert of Pentecostal/ecumenical relationship in Latin
present at an all-Latin American Pentecostal encounter (Encuentro Pentecostal America, vividly describes the fears and difficulties which block further
Latinoamericana; EPLA I, 1988, Salvador, Bahia). He reported that there was a dialogue, and is rather harsh with organized ecumenism. He describes the
“good deal of negative feeling about North American dominance and about North subtle disdaining of “Pentecostal Christianity” and related movements in the
American missionary and European immigrant dominance.” In particular the supposedly more mature and tolerant ecumenical circles. He is surprised at
Assemblies of God came under heavy criticism. Perhaps it is felt that the Assem- the extent to which both Protestants and Catholics attempt to interpret
blies of God are too “evangelicalized” or “tied too closely with conservative Pentecostalism in Latin America in the categories of the “problem of the
sects”-and testifies to having a whole shelf of books by Protestants, Catho-
political thinking.” Stockwell came away convinced that further exclusion of
Pentecostalism from World Council of Churches circles, whether by neglect lics, and secular journalists on topics like the “irruption of the sects” and “the
problem of the sects,” lumping together “marginal Christian movements” like
or by design, was to the detriment of the ecumenical movement at large. He notes:
the Unification Church (Moonies) with Pentecostalism.
Latin American Pentecostals have a feeling that the historic churches and the During a sabbatical in Geneva Dayton describes having been astonished
ecumenical movement in general, look down on them, exclude them, give them to hear, at a meeting of the Commission of World Mission and Evangelism,
little importance. They know that some Pentecostal churches are members of the cavalier and flat rejection of a proposal which had recommended that one
the World Council of Churches and of the Latin American Council of Churches
plenary session at the Canberra Full Assembly of the World Council of
but that does not suffice to dispel their feeling. I believe they are right in this
Churches (1991) be devoted to exploring the missiological significance of
feeling of exclusion. There is much evidence that the historic churches and the
ecumenical movement, including I believe in the World Council of Churches, Pentecostalism. It is obviously one thing to title such a meeting “Signs of the
care little about them.3 Spirit”7 and another thing to read these signs, especially if they appear “not
in the official context.”
At a second meeting of Latin American Pentecostals in Buenos Aires “Ecumenical” has become in many circles an “invective,” and in others a
(EPLA 11, 1989) an action and study program was set up, among other things party label which describes the work of those already committed to each other,
“to investigate and explore the historical origins of our Pentecostal faith, . . . and which carries the connotation of “enlightenment” (subtly denigrating
to review the theological heritage which Pentecostals received from Western those who do not see the world through the “party’s” glasses). Indeed, the
Protestantism in general, which has been characterized by confronting social movement is becoming institutionalized. Probably the greatest challenge to
problems in the light of individual ethics, . . . to take into consideration the this institutionalization is posed by Pentecostalism and the questions it raises-in
growing demand for a Christian formation, . . . to go deeply into the experi- particular its complex, informal, and “polycephalous” oral style of organiza-
ence of ‘ecumenism of the Spirit,’ . . . [and] to examine the mass effects of tion. (In Argentina there are for instance over a thousand separate Pentecostal
televangelism and radio broadcasting, which in many ways mutilates a great bodies [“juridical persons”] registered with the government). Dayton also
part of the richness of community experience and personal t e ~ t i m o n y . ”T~h e describes having observed many times, in a variety of ecumenical contexts,
topics and breadth of the papers presented is impressive. fierce infighting over the application of grid and quota systems which carry
At a third meeting in Santiago, Chile (EPLA 111, 1990) the topic was to with them the pretention of having the whole world wrapped up, but which
be “Pentecostalism y Liberation" (chapter 16, pp. 208-16). It called for a leave no room for new or missing partners in ecumenical dialogue.
renewed search for “the good and perfect will of God, the promise of justice, One further indication of the current state of affairs is the important file
in the archives of the World Council of Churches in Geneva on “failed
Sinclair, “Solidarity,” 83, in Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 28. For negotiations” with Pentecostals. It would be a real contribution if a young
earlier Pentecostal/ecumenical relationships in Latin America see The Pentecostals, scholar could take this topic as the theme for a doctoral dissertation.
99-107.
Stockwell in an unpublished internal paper: “Pentecostal Consultation,”
quoted in Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 31f. Robeck gives a complete list ’Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 35.
ofthe participants, uses the Spanish minutes, and is aware of all the papers presented. 6Dayton, “Turning.” Since I base my information on the draft of this lecture, I
4From the minutes of the 1988 and 1989 consultation ( S i ahora vivimos, 2) am nor allowed to quote verbatim.
quoted in Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 33f. ’Kinnamon, Signs.
Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 371
mission on Faith and Order of the National Council of Churches of Christ,
On the other hand, there are the untiring work of Marta Palma, a Chilean USA. T h e highest ranking ecclesiastical leader at this consultation was Jesse
Pentecostal who occupies the Latin American and Caribbean desk concerned Miranda, an Hispanic superintendent of the American Assemblies of God. H e
with human rights in the World Council of Churches;8 the nudgings of the “drew on his identity as a classical Pentecostal and a Hispanic”-there are now
already-mentioned Eugene Stockwell, an old hand in ecumenism;’ the sym- between 25 and 30 million Hispanics in the US-
pathy of Emilio Castro, a Methodist from Uruguay and a former General
to talk about the intersection and interaction of cultures: “I am a Christian who
Secretary of the World Council;” the writings of Juan Sepulveda, an ecumeni- sees the church, now and in eternity, as a multi-racial, multikultural, multi-doc-
cal Pentecostal from Chile;” and the analyses of Carmelo E. Alvarez.12 trinal community-a beautiful tapestry, a colourful mosaic.” . . . With Synan, he
Psychological and institutional obstacles are responsible for the fact that emphasized the diversity within the Pentecostal movement in both theology and
the Latin American experience (not just the Pentecostal) is profoundly mar- culture. He was more hopeful about the “new bread” of Pentecostal scholars who
ginalized in the life of the World Council of Churches, despite the two past are providing “more viable and adequate” theological statements. l 4
General Secretaries who have come from this region (Philip Potter from the
Caribbean and the already-mentioned Emilio Castro). Out of 900 or so dele- North America
gates a t the Full Assembly of the World Council at Canberra, only twenty
For twenty years official historiography presented the American Assem-
represented Latin America, mainly because the largest blocks of Christians in
blies of God as a strictly anti-ecumenical church. This history-whether by
Latin America (Roman Catholics, Pentecostals, and other Pentecostal-like
ignorance or by opportunism-does not correspond to the facts. Far into the
evangelicals) are not formally linked to the World Council of Churches. ’60s the Assemblies of God worked intensively in several committees of the
Dayton recalls the protest of a Lutheran woman from Latin America that there National Council of Churches in Christ. They even had an office in “Baby-
was only one Latin American Lutheran on the Central Committee and that lon,” the headquarters of the NCCC in New York. Only in the ’70s did they
this was unacceptable because Lutherans make up two-thirds of Latin Ameri- sever their relationships with the ecumenical agencies, mainly under pressure
can Christians. She quickly corrected herself to say two-thirds of those from the fundamentalists. We owe this rather sensational discovery to the
belonging to member churches of the World Council of Churches (in fact a research of Cecil M. Robeck. H e writes:
tiny minority of Latin American Christianity).
This situation will not change unless there are strong and clear decisions One can only wonder, because in the end, Assemblies of God leaders, for
taken and priorities set. Dayton believes-as I have proposed for a long whatever reason, found it more expedient to break with old friendships, embrace
time13-that things will not change unless a desk is established with the the agenda of an old enemy, capitulate to questions of a new set of “friends,” and
compromise what appears to be a basic Pentecostal distinctive with the enact-
explicit assignment to create workable relationships with Latin American ment of a Bylaw which limits with whom Pentecostals can talk or work, than they
Pentecostals. did to act without guile. T h e earliest Pentecostals including the Assemblies of
In Dayton’s opinion the discussion is still too Eurocentric. Even if, for God believed that their way was the answer to Jesus’ prayer in John 17:21.15
example, Lutherans and Roman Catholics are able to agree on “justification,”
this has no impact on the Latin American context, where a majority of In this connection we have also to mention the Pentecostal Fellowship of
Protestants do not stand in the line of Luther and do not, for the most part, take North America (1948)“j This fellowship grew out of the relationships devel-
their identity from this Protestant tradition (see chapter 12, pp. 146-52). oped among the Pentecostal members of the National Association of Evangeli-
Other indications show that Latin Americans take the lead in ecumeni- cals. It was a limited fellowship, since it included no Hispanic, Afro-American,
cal/Pentecostal relationships, for instance at a consultation “Toward the or Oneness Pentecostals.
Common Expression of the Apostolic Faith Today,” organized by the Com- T h e Oneness Pentecostals have also organized the “Apostolic World
Christian Fellowship,” a loose fellowship of Oneness Pentecostal denominations
‘Palma, Marta, “Conciliar Movement.”
’Eugene Stockwell, see above note 3. “Jeffrey Gros, FSC (Director of the Commission on Faith and Order of the
lo Castro, “PentecostaIism.” National Council of Churches of Christ in the USA), “Confessing,” 12-13, emphasis
I’ Sepulveda, “Pentecostalism,” where he argues that a fuller understanding of mine.
Pentecostalism is essential for ecumenism. ”Robeck, “Ecumenical Cooperation” (from the ms, p. 46). See also idem,
Alvarez, “Latin.” See also his Santidad (reviewed by David Bundy in Pneuma “Mission”; idem, “Unity” (forthcoming); and Cole, “Ecumenical Tensions.”
812, Fall 1986, 186-88, above chapter 16, p. 209); idem, People, A helpful report and l6 Warner, “Pentecostal Fellowship.” “Dwindling interest and attendance in
biblio raphy by Wilson, E. A., “Potential.” recent years prompted the Pentecostal Fellowship of North America participants to
“See my article “Verheissung,” in particular 286f., but see a l s e a s of late-wcc, change the meetings from rally to leadership type and was open by invitation” (704).
Consultation.
Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 373
acceptance has included changes which are viewed by some Pentecostals
(1970). T h e role Pentecostals have played in the National Association of precisely, as ‘compromises,’ ” for example, o n pacifismz4 and o n the “tradi-
n 1962 a smaller counterpart of
Evangelicals has already been d o ~ u m e n t e d . ’I ~ tionally. . . wide ranging opportunity t(r women in ministry.” T h i s latter
the National Association of Evangelicals was founded in LOSAngeles, Califor- characteristic, well established in early Pentecostalism, has been eroded in
nia; it is an association for Afro-American evangelicals and Pentecostals.’* recent years.” As a true disciple of D u Plessis, Robeck mentions a t the end of
T h e r e have also been several dialogues pursued over the year, including his paper the need for “forgiveness of past hurts.” He also knows that
an evangelical/Roman Catholic dialogue and an Assemblies of God/Roman
early Pentecostals tended to be more open to doctrinal diversity than they are
Catholic dialogue. M o r e decisive has probably been the inclusion of a number
today. Lilian B. Yeomans, MD, noted that “the Church in all her divisions
of Pentecostals in the Commission on Faith and Order of the National Council recognizes the Holy Spirit as indispensable to her life and genuine growth . . .
of Churches of Christ, USA. Participants included Cecil M. Robeck, Jerry L. Dtflering theologies haze nothing t o do with it, nor differing Church nomenclature.
Sandidge, Harold D. Hunter, Edith Blumhofer, and David Daniels.” It seems The need confessed by all churches is greater spirituality.”z6
that the impetus for this ecumenical beginning came not only from the
Pentecostals, b u t also from a Catholic, namely Jeff Gros.’O T h e papers of the I t is amazing that such a statement was expressed in the Faith and Order
Commission of all places. However, if coherence is not to be achieved through
consultation were published in Pneuma” and in One in Christ (23:l-2, 1987).
theology, we must ask: through what, then, is it to be a ~ h i e v e d ? ‘ ~
The consultation brought together about seventy-five conciliar Protestants, Jerry Sandidge hit the nail on the head when he concluded:
Orthodox and Roman Catholics, as well as a number of Pentecostals for a period
of candid and fruitful discussion. It resulted in a desire by those involved in the Pentecostals need “bridge people” who will step into the ecumenical arena with
consultation to continue discussion between Pentecostals and members of the their gloves on, confronting all the issues of the conciliar movement. Those same
National Council of Churches of Christ, USA.” people, then, must enter the “sweat box” of their own tradition to explain that
it is good to be in the ring. Somehow, leadership in the classical Pentecostal
Besides the important paper by Jeffrey Gros, in which he quotes the denominations must be shown, enticed, encouraged-in some way convinced-into
amazing statement by the Assemblies of God superintendent Jesse Miranda, seeing the value and necessity of participation in the ecumenical family . . . The
one should mention Claire Randall (General Secretary of the National Council conciliar movement needs to nudge the Pentecostals into expressing a greater
concern for threatening world issues, aching social problems, women, poor, and
of Churches of Christ, USA, 1974-84). Randall asserted that the Oneness
economically and culturally marginalized peoples; discussion of areas of com-
Pentecostals can sharpen the questions raised in the Faith and Order Commis- mon witness, possibilities for the mutual recognition of ministry, and the sharing
sion in relation to its understanding of the trinitarian d ~ c t r i n e . ’S~h e also
touched o n their contribution to the understanding of folk religion and the 24 See chapter 14, pp. 187-89.
black Pentecostal experience. Robeck addressed “fear as a key issue” in ecu- 2j Robeck, “Implications,” in particular 69, 70, 71, 75. There is a most interest-
menism. H e gently but critically pointed to weaknesses in American Pente- ing follow-up paper by Robeck (“Apostolicity”), in which he probes the different
costalism, especially in their endeavor to please the evangelicals. “ T h e price of “apostolic traditions” (Oneness and others) within Pentecostalism as to their ecu-
menical relevance. The issue of the erosion of female ministry in Pentecostalism was
also addressed by Barbara Brown Zikmund (United Church of Christ), quoted in
”See above, chapter 15, pp. 192-94. Gros, “Confessing,” (note 20), 13.
National Black Evangelical
- Association; Robeck, “Pentecostals and Ecumen- 26 Note 2.
ism,” 9 (not in Dictionary). ”This was picked up already in 1985 by Jakob Zopfi: “We are very happy that
l9 Robeck mentions: Dr. Edith Blumhofer (Assemblies of God), David Daniels liberal theologials (sic) are baptized in the Holy Spirit. But what does it help to talk
(Church of God in Christ), Dr. Harold Hunter (Church of God of Prophecy), Dr. if they go on in their liberal understanding of the Bible? And praise God again, when
Donald W. Dayton (Wesleyan Church), Stephen Land (Church of God), Dr. Jerry pastors of the state church are baptized in the Holy Spirit! But if they stay in their
L. Sandidge (Assemblies of God), Dr. Vinson Synan (Pentecostal Holiness Church) State church ecclesiology-what should we speak about? Of course, we could speak
Robeck. “Pentecostals and Ecumenism,” 19, note 54. with many, many people of this whole world. We are not against that. But when the
*’Gros, “Confessing.” Holy Spirit, who wants to lead in all truth, does not have more success, does anybody
21 Besides J. Gros’s paper (note 20), the following papers were published: Rusch, in this world believe that our talks will be more fruitful? I am not talking about
“Theology” (Rusch is the Ecumenical officer for the Lutheran Church in America nonessential Bible understanding. Ecclesiology is of vital importance to me.” Zopfi,
and presented a fairly traditional protestant interpretation of the filioyue); Synan, “Now What?” and “Answer.” Leaving aside Zopfi’s Helvetian English one might
“Pentecostalism”; Claire Randall (see below, note 23); Cecil M. Robeck (see below compare this with the chapter on Pentecostal ecclesiology in this volume (chapter 20,
note 25); Everett Wilson (see above, note 12); Jerry L. Sandidge (see below note 28); PP. 264-67). Nevertheless, the question of coherence and identity of an ecumenical
Carmelo E. Alvarez (see above note 12); Horgan, “Consultation.” movement which is not mainly theologically defined has to be addressed in the final
22 Robeck, “Pentecostalism and Ecumenism” (note I), 17f. chapter.
23 Randall, “Importance,” 56.
374 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 375
of theological insights . . . The Pentecostal misunderstanding

28 of the ecumenical Other churches and church clusters (such as the International Ministerial
movement as a super world-church needs to be corrected. Council of Britain3’) are members of the British Council of Churches.
Some of these mainly black church clusters are small, but together they
Europe and Africa represent an impressive pioneering move in European Pentecostalism. Some
In Europe the ecumenical impetus will come either from the Pentecostals of them express themselves in fundamentalistic language. However, they are
in Eastern Europe (who already under the Communist regime studied at in a process of
universities and established relationships with non-Pentecostal churches) or distancing themselves slowly from this unsavory white heritage. People who fight in
from the black Pentecostal churches in Britain, or both. I d o not have up-to- their own existence against racism or (like the black woman) against sexism, who
date information o n Eastern Europe, but o n the black British scene we are well refuse to be separated in social classes, who act and propagate self-help programmes,
informed by Roswith Gerloff. From among this group, the Shilo United who take a stand for their youth and who (as in Britain) become ecumenical partners
Church of Christ Apostolic (Worldwide) was the first Pentecostal church to in the struggle for social justice, have little in common with a fundamentalism, who
be received into membership of the European Council of Churches (1984). wants to preserve the status quo.If at all, it is a “liturgical fundamentalism” (James
T h i s episcopal church with both trinitarian and oneness elements is an inter- Barr) which preserves the beauty of the biblical word and a theology which returns
to biblical “fundamentals” and refuses to be determined by foreign thought categories.
esting new blend of Christianity. It is a member of the British Council of
Churches and has worldwide relationships (among others, with the Old Holy T h e ecumenical significance of these “black churches” in Britain (and
Catholic elsewhere) consists in recognizing the fact that the Holy Spirit helps people
T h e second church to enter the European Council of Churches was the “to survive on a technically manipulated and exploited earth.”
Council of African a n d Afro- Caribbean C h u r c h e s from Britain ( 1990).30
(23) Cherubim and Seraphim (IMOLE)
Sandidge, “Consultation Summary.” (24) Christ the Resurrection Church
29 Oral communication by _Jean
. Fischer, Conference of European Churches, May (38) Eternal Sacred Order New Temple (CS) Church
25, 1993. Gerloff 11, no. 151. (39) Evangelic Church of Christ
30 Information from Jean Fischer, Conference of European Churches, letter May (75) New Church of God
24, 1993. Below a list of the member churches of the Council of African and
Afro-Caribbean churches (068) (numbers relate to Gerloff’s list). The document The Council has links with France, USA, Netherlands, Germany, Ghana, and
which the Council submitted to the Conference of European Churches has a different Nigeria. It is also a member of the British Council of Churches and of the Free
list from Gerloff’s. As the names are sometimes interchangeable I cannot sort out the Church Federation Council. Gerloff, no. 068.
problem. The document lists 18 churches, 40 congregations, 12,000 members, 120 31 The member churches of the International Ministerial Council of Great
ministers, 300 local and lay preachers and 2,500 children and young people as Britain (107) are:
affiliated to their council.
002 African Methodist Episcopal Church
004 (African) Pentecostal Revival Church of Jesus Christ 004 (African) Pentecostal Revival Church of Jesus Christ (Streatham)
006 Aladura International Church (UK and Overseas) 020 Bethel Apostolic Church
029 Celestial Church of Christ 035 Church of God and True Holiness
030 (Cherubim and Seraphim) Holy Church of Christ 039 (038?) Church of God Fellowship in Great Britain
031 Cherubim and Seraphim Society 057 Church of Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Faith
033 Christ Apostolic Church (UK) 069 Divine Prayer Society 1944 (The Church of the Family of God and of
062 Church of the Lord (Brotherhood) Jesus Christ)
065 Church of the Universal Prayer Fellowship 075 Emmanuel International Revival Church (Calvary Healing Temple)
069 Divine Prayer Society 1944 086 Faith Apostolic Church = Universal Evangelical Church
080 Eternal Sacred Order of the Morning Star and St. Michael Star 093 (5) Divine Healing Pentecostal Church of Christ (UK and Ghana)
Foundation of Life Mount Zion 101 Holy Tabernacle of Christ Jesus
093 (1) Christ Healing Church = All Saints Born Again Christ Healing Church 129 (2) Pentecostal Church of God
(2) Christ the King Pentecostal Church 151 Shilo United Church of Christ Apostolic (World-Wide)
(8) Holy Mount Zion Revival Church 175 (36) Elim Pentecostal Church ( B l )
095 Hackney Pentecostal Apostolic Church Walworth Methodist Church.
122 Musama Disco Christo Church
146 Seventh Church of Melchizedec The International Ministerial Council of Great Britain (107) is a member of the
175 (8) All Saints (Aladura) Church of Christ British Council of Churches (Gerloff, 107).
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 377
376
Pentecostals keep to themselves, and find it difficult enough to keep peace
The “Black-out” of ways of biblical interpretations different from the Western
approach has robbed the language of the church of a communicative power. Only among themselves. This will change only once they follow the example of their
churches which offer experience instead of dogma, living testimonies instead of black, Latin, and North American brothers and sisters.
consistent arguments, sisterhood and brotherhood instead of rational proofs, As for Africa, at the Full Assembly of the World Council of Churches in
32
songs instead of books, are able to rediscover the biblical message. Nairobi a number of African Pentecostal churches became members of the
World C ~ u n c i l . ~
T’h e intensive ecumenical debate in South Africa has already
It is no accident that the black churches in Europe have been the first to been discussed (chapter 5, pp. 41-53).
take up the ecumenical challenge, although they have done it in their own way,
and so will create much headache for the conciliar church bureaucrats. But Consultation in Bossey (1980)
who knows, perhaps they will force the mainline churches to develop ecumeni-
cal incarnations which are nearer to the people. Every expert knows that the O n August 31st, 1979 Philip Potter, then General Secretary of the World
average Christian in Europe couldn’t care less about the ecumenical move- Council of Churches, wrote a letter to all member churches asking them for
ment, although their leaders make big pronouncements at the international help in identifying the issues in relation to the charismatic renewal.36 T h e
level. It is different, however, in the black churches. Their members care about reaction was overwhelming. Philip Potter did not
ecumenical cooperation. It seems that they-like the Kimbanguists (chapter remember in the history of the World Council of Churches any letter coming
6, pp. 54&80)-consider ecumenical fellowship not as a luxury in which one from the General Secretary which was so generously and copiously responded
indulges when one has nothing more important to do, but as the very essence of t+-and that is saying something. There were nearly 70 official replies and with
ecclesiology. That this concern has social and cultural roots is clear. those replies were many documents taken out of synods and General Assemblies
Why is it that these black churches have developed such ecumenical of churches and personal experiences e~pressed.~’
activity? One of the reasons is their understanding of the church: they operate
This response encouraged the World Council to hold a consultation on
in fellowship with other churches, including those which Pentecostals con-
Pentecostalism/Independentism/Charismatism in Bossey, Switzerland
sider to be liberal. After all, it was neither the evangelicals nor the Pentecostals
(“Consultation on the Signzficance of the Charismatic Renewalfor the Churches”).
in Britain who opened the door to a university education to these black
Suffice it to quote a few significant examples from the vast material: “The
Pentecostals (chapter 9, pp. 106-16), but the so-called “liberals.” Working
Kimbanguist church, in whose midst there are permanent charismatic mani-
together with them has corrected, for these black churches, many a cliche
festations, although not yet having made an official declaration on this subject,
about Protestant and Catholic mainline churches. Black Pentecostals have
wishes to participate and provide a living witness of its experience in this
gotten to know theologians like Roswith Gerloff as well as the teachers at the
matter. ”38
University and the Selly Oak Colleges, and even a Roman Catholic bishop-
“The history of the Salvation Army, and particularly its very rapid
Dr. Patrick Kalilombe, the former director of the Centre for Black and White
expansion from a small London mission to a world movement in twenty years,
Christian Partnership. Recently (1994) Gerloff introduced at the University
is only intelligible as a work of the Holy Spirit. For this reason, the Salvation
of Leeds BA and MA degree programs on “black Religion and black Christi-
Army could itself be called a charismatic movement and its early meetings
anity in Great Britain.” This personal cooperation has made ecumenicity
resembled . . . charismatic meetings of today.”39
visible and concrete to the black churches.
One encouraging sign among other European Pentecostals was an important “More important than liturgical movements and innovation in worship is
the transition from a structure of worship dominated by the single voice of the
meeting at Gunten, Switzerland, featuring representatives from the World Coun-
pastor to one which is charismatic and ~ongregational.”~”
cil of Churches, the Pentecostal European C ~ n f e r e n c e ,and
~ ~ several national
Pentecostal organizations. There have also been some contacts between Pente-
35 For a full list of Pentecostal member churches of the World Council of
costals and evangelicals (mainly in Britain and Scandinavia). T h e Fediration
Churches see below, pp. 386-87. I have no up-to-date information on Asia.
protestante de France has two Pentecostal member organizations, namely the 36 In Bossey, 39. Bossey is a highly important collection of material on Pente-
Pentecostal Gipsy mission (Mission PvangPligue tzigane de France, 30,000) and the costalism/Charismatism/Indepentism and the World Council.
Church of God (Eglzse de Dzeu, 1000).34But by and large white European 37 Potter, “Charismatic Renewal,” 74.
38 Bossey, 42.
39 Ibid.
32 Gerloff, “Schwarze Kirchen.”
33 40 Evangelical Churches of Westphalia, Germany; Bossey, 43. Similarly the
The Pentecostals, 442-5 1; Hocken with Cartwright, “European,” 268-78, esp. 278. United Church of North India; Bossey, 49, and the Church of the Czech Brethren
34 As of late see Gerloff and van Beek, Report. On France, see Bauberot/Willaim,
Czechoslovakia; Bossey, 49.
“Federation.”
L
The renewal in the highlands of New Guinea, “while it may be expressed From Germany: “What brings young people into these groups is not
in charismatic language, in fact is deeply dependent on traditional responses convincing arguments but the fact that they feel themselves emotionally
in animistic religion and is a superb illustration of the cultural relativism of attracted to it,”” and the observation that in Protestant theology “there is no
spirit type response^."^' In this connection, “Is it not important to build a systematic reflection on piety and the religious life.”j2
bridge to forms of group ecstasy already there in local cultures rather than This random choice from documents from all over the world shows how
culturally alienating people by the use of stereotyped imported different Pentecostal/charismatic phenomena are viewed by the member
This last point was taken up by Chung Hyun Kyung at the Full Assembly of churches of the World Council. Some state categorically that they are already
Canberra (1991).43 “chari~matic,”~~ others want to learn from the charismatic movement, others
The United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel reflected on the see its divisive influence, and others again see in their own pre-Christian
charismatic experiences in Britain, concluding that these charismatic groups culture the Spirit of God a t work already, which has to be discovered, cleansed,
are “divisive in the sense that the unity they proclaim ‘across denominational and integrated into a Christian framework of priorities.
barriers’ is a unity of the like-minded.”# Philip Potter’s first remark on this material was his astonishment. “I
In Ghana, “Many of the newer churches which have burst out of this didn’t realize how vast the phenomenon of the Charismatic Renewal was and
situation are headed by men of little education who have gifts of leadership the vastness of the literat~re.”’~ U p to this day this kind of lack of awareness
which they could not exercise within the older T h e Pentecostal is widespread, both within and outside the World Council. In the end, Potter,
experience in Ghana is not only a reaction “against the Western forms of a Methodist, took the line that charismatic concerns have been central to all
liturgy but also against the older churches’ bureaucratic organization and Christian churches, from the Orthodox and the Catholic to Wesley and be-
conservativi~m.”~~ “The older churches are growing at between 30 and 4S0/o, yond. The charismatic renewal thus “confirms the goal of the ecumenical
the Pentecostal churches seem to be growing nearly 70% over the same movement.”5s It “provides a link between the churches of the Reformation,
peri~d.”~’ the Roman Catholic Church, the conservative Evangelicals,” and the Ortho-
From Canada, this assessment of the charismatic movement: “This is the do^.'^ This can also be seen in the fact that both [Charismatics and Ecu-
largest grassroots ecumenical movement in 800 years . . . T h e World Council menists] are criticized on the same ground-that of authority. The churches
of Churches has brought together Catholic and Protestant traditions, but it regard both the World Council and the charismatic/Pentecostal movement as
has not been a grassroots movement, nor does it have the potential of becoming not sufficiently under their authority.” “The whole ecumenical movement has
one as long as it is based mainly on “Therefore the question been in fact a Charismatic Renewal.”58Theologically this is of course true: one
must be raised: What can the ecumenical movement learn from the charismatic would like to see a bit more of this kind of response.
movement? Characteristics of the latter must be examined: spontaneous; In response to Potter’s opening speech, the consultation developed a new style
lay-oriented; dynamic; worship- and mission-oriented; trans-den~minational.”~~ of working and thinking together, a style which had already begun at Bangkoks9
From Ghana again: “It seems to me that while the charismatics pay more
attention to the physical needs of the people, the non-charismatics are more j‘ EKiD (Federation of Protestant Churches in Germany); Bossey, 63.
j2 EKiD: Bossev. 64.
concerned with the spiritual needs of the people, such as salvation and
j3 Above: notes 38 and 39.
Christian growth.”” j4 Potter, “Charismatic Renewal,” 75.
”Ibid., 79.
41 UnitedTheological College; Bossey, 49. j6 Ibid.
42 Pacific
Conference of Churches; Bossey, 45. ”Ibid., 81.
43 See below, pp. 383-84 and the chapter on “Syncretism,” chapter 11, pp. j8 Ibid.
132-4 1 . j9The conference volume of Bangkok appeared only in German (Potter, Das
44 United Society for the Propagation of the Gospel, UK; Bossey, 5 1. Hero. Bangkok was a “wild” but creative conference. It did not, however, solve the
” Bible Reading Association, Ghana; Bossey, 52. problem of combining creativity with analysis. This was better solved in Bossey and
46 Bible Reading Association, Ghana; Bossey, 53. in later WCC conferences. Bangkok produced a wide range of international reactions
47Bible Reading Association, Ghana; Bossey, 53. Cf. also above, ch. 26, “The in many languages (see Hollenweger, “Reviews Bangkok”). I tried to give an a p e r y
Protestant Charismatic Renewal: Ecumenical or What?”; on Ghana, see note 59, p. of Bangkok in “Goes to Bangkok,” and in a novel (only printed in German as Glaube).
363. English publishers were not interested in this theological novel. Parts of it appeared
48 Hope Reformed Church, Canada; Bossey, 56f. In several periodicals (see bibliography in Jongeneel (ed.), 1992,311-70, in particular
49 Hope Reformed Church, Canada; Bossey, 56f. nos. 73.31, 74.03, 75.14, 76.18, 76.20). Chapter 2 of this volume is the concluding
Ghana Baptist Convention; Bossey, 62. chapter of the novel on Mr. Chips. In German Mr. Chips is called “Professor Unrat.”
380 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Dezelopments Worldwide Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 38 1
and had been continued at the Full Assemblies of Nairobi, Vancouver, and churches, and Asian Pentecostal churches (member and non-member churches
Canberra. This “style” had much to do with the composition of the consult- of the World Council of Churches) can be more adequately r e p r e ~ e n t e d . ~ ~
ation: Participants came from many different backgrounds. There were well- In response to the report of the consultation, the Sub-Unit on Renewal and
known theologians‘” and members of the World Council’s working group on Congregational Life submitted a statement to the Central Committee, in
Renewal and Congregational Life (people usually described as ecumenical which the “unusually large number of responses to the letter of the General
church bureaucrats). Present were in addition a nuclear physicisdchairman Secretary” was noted. It recommended that the Central Committee “pay atten-
of the cabinet of the chef spiritual of the Kimbanguist church,61the General tion to the report from the Consultation, comment on it, and pass it on through
Secretary of the African Israel Nineveh Church from Kenya,” and a black the General Secretary, to the member churches, together with its own com-
choir from the Church of God in Christ63 (England) with their pastor (a ments . . . It is the intention of the sub-unit to continue the study and the
driving instructor by profession and a student at the Centre for Black and consultative process.”68This statement was unanimously accepted by the Central
White Christian Partnership in Birmingham“). One of the worship services Committee of the World Council in August 1980. What has resulted?
was led by the Senior Apostle of the Cherubim and Seraphim Society from My impression is that hardly anybody in Geneva has noticed the report
Birmingham6’ according to the liturgy of his church, which is identical, word and its accompanying papers, some of which were of very high quality. It seems
for word, with the old Anglo-Catholic liturgy-except that he celebrated it the World Council went into a kind of hibernation on this issue. Impulses to
without reference to a printed liturgy and with all the dramatic panache and deal with the issues surrounding the renewal certainly had not come from the
deeply-felt reverence of an African who actually knew and experienced that General Secretariat, nor from the Sub-Unit on Renewal and Congregational
he was praying in the presence of “angels and archangels, the cherubim and Life. T h e bureaucracy was occupied with other things. However, new im-
seraphim and all the company of heaven.” Prophecies and speaking in tongues pulses had come from different quarters, as we have seen above.09 In the end,
fitted easily into this age-old liturgy. this had some marginal repercussions on the World Council.
How does one lead such a diverse group of people in a study and consultation In a sense the Brighton Conference on World Evangelization (1991),
process? Philip Potter solved this problem by describing his own thoughts, organized by the International Charismatic Consultation on World Evangeli-
joys, comments, and criticism when reading through the thick file of responses zation, took up the Bossey concerns. That is, at the margin of the Brighton
to his initial letter. By personalizing his theological analysis, he made it Conference a number of PentecostaVcharismatic and ecumenical theologians
possible for everybody-the academics and the “worker pastors”-to follow treated some of the issues raised at Bossey. This attention started with a
his critical analysis. T h e consultation became itself not only an observation pneumatological paper by Jurgen M ~ l t m a n n , ~to’ which Miroslav Volf 71 and
and study of the charismatic renewal, but a cognitive charismatic/Pentecostal others reacted. Then the issue of an “African Independent Church Pneuma-
process. That this transformation did not militate against critical thinking is t010gy”~*was treated in detail. Others addressed the topic of women in
seen from the “Report of the Consultation.”“ Among a number of interesting ministry,i3 “Charismatic Churches and Apartheid in South Africa,”” “Pente-
theological prognostications, the consultation’s most important “Hope for the costalism and Liberation Theology: Two Manifestations of the Work of the
Future” was this: Holy Spirit for the Renewal of the Church,”” and the historical controversy
In order to bring the main Charismatic Renewal of the Third World into proper on whether Pentecostalism/charismatism started with the black ecumenist
focus, we also hope that in future consultations Latin American Pentecostal Seymour or with the white racist Parham.” Finally, a new challenge was the
churches, North American Black Pentecostal churches, African Independent
6‘Ibid., 211.
A German professor (Prof. Beyerhaus of Tubingen) thought he recognized himself in “Ibid., 230.
this description, wrongly, because Chips/Unrat is a composite fictional personality. 69 See chapter 27, pp. 369-74, and chapter 13, pp. 165-80.
Bittlinger, “Opportunity”; Dunn, “Models”; Hocken, “Survey”; McDonnell, ’“Moltmann, “Life”; see chapter 17, pp. 218-22.
“Reactions,” plus reports from Africa, New Guinea, Europe, Latin America, North ’’ Volf, “Rhythm.”
America, etc. 72 Daneel, “African.” See chapter 5, pp. 51-53.
61 Bena Silu. j 3 Bridges-Johns, “Women.” See chapter 20, pp. 267-68.
See below, p. 386. 5-1 Poewe-Hexham/Hexham, “Apartheid.” Responses by Nico Horn and Wy-
63 Jones, C. E., “Church of God in Christ,” and Gerloff, Plea 11, no. 042. nand-J. de Kock in the same volume. See chapter 5, pp. 41-52.
64PastorAlvin Blake, Luton, UK. / 5 Sepulveda, “Liberation.” O n this important paper by Sepulveda see also
65
John Adegoke. T h e Cherubim and Seraphim Church belongs to the same family chapter 16, p. 209. Also Cook, Guillermo, “Church.”
as the “Church of the Lord” (below, p. 386). Gerloff, Plea 11, no. 032. 76 Robeck, “Origins.” Contra Robeck: Goff, “History.” On the whole contro-
Bossey, 201-12. versy see chapters 3 (pp. 20-24) and 24 (pp. 326-29).
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Dezelopments Worldwide Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism 383
382
He also commented on the contribution by a Korean Presbyterian profes-

consideration of non-Christian religions as falling within the sphere of the
sor, Chung Hyun Kyung.
Spirit’s activity. This challenge was taken up by Jean-Jacques Suurmond.
Suurmond does recognize gifts of the Spirit as being at work in non-Christian At points, I found her to be genuinely prophetic. At other times, I was very
religions, and states: “Had Pentecostalism not quickly been infiltrated by uncomfortable. I worried that she had passed outside the bounds of orthodoxy
fundamentalist views, there might have been a charismatic renewal of the as, for example, when she “summoned” various spirits of Han, spirits of those
who had been touched by anger, resentment, bitterness and grief.
religion~.’~’’
It seems to me that this subject of ancestor spirits will need further
Pentecostals at the Full Assembly of Canberra (1991) discussion by Pentecostals, Independents, and non-Pentecostals. Certainly the
I
The late Jerry L. Sandidge, a pioneer in Pentecostal ecumenism, states question is a major one, and not only for Third World Christians. Anyone
bluntly: “There should be some contact between the Pentecostal side of the knowing the Protestant, Catholic, and Pentecostal churches in the Third
[Vatican/Pentecostal] Dialogue and the World Council of Churches.”’* Cer- World knows that there is widespread belief in the presence of ancestor spirits
tainly, there should, but how is it going to happen? One harbinger of such among Third World Christians, and that this belief has almost never been
properly addressed by missionary theology, including Pentecostal and charismatic
contact was the attendance by a number of Pentecostals of the Full Assembly
theology. In the West we would describe these spirits in psychological categories
of the World Council at Canberra. Included among them was the indefatigable
(some of the most important problems in the West are not dealt with by priests
Cecil M. Robeck. H e was an “accredited visitor,” and states that he met with
and pastors but by psychiatrists). What is the ontological difference if the grand-
interest and was very well treated. Besides Robeck there were eight official
mothers and grandfathers who appear in Western or Third World dreams are
delegates from Pentecostal member churches, plus an assortment of advisors,
called spirits, or father- or mother-complexes? Those very churches whose
stewards, and staff; in all, sixteen people out of 4,500.79
old cathedrals are full of tombs, who are not ashamed to have the “Stars and
Robeck noted, among other things, the “horse-trading” which goes on at
Stripes,” the “Union Jack” or even the “Swastika” (as far as I know these are
election time, probably not very different from what is going on in the
not Christian but pre-Christian symbols) prominently displayed, shout out when
Christian churches, including the Pentecostal ones. He was also aware of the
a Korean woman confirms the presence of her ancestors in an ecumenical
fact that for instance the Orthodox do not recognize women in the ordained meeting. The fact that this issue has produced so much dissension and discus-
ministry. Therefore other groups were required to send more women to meet sion shows that it aggravates a weak spot in Western theology. Just to label such
the Assembly’s quota. H e was impressed as well by the statement of an Iraqi beliefs “psychological” or “superstitious” does not solve the problem.
Christian about the allied bombing of his country (but it did not change his Robeck states that he could identify at certain points with the Korean
overall judgment of the Gulf war). minjung concerns. “But the summons of departed spirits to come to the
More centrally, Robeck was uneasy about the limits of pluralism. T h e Assembly, if that is what was really intended, seemed to me to be more akin to
presence of Jews, Muslim, Buddhists, Hindus, and Sikhs raised problems for the liturgies of Spiritism or was more rooted in ancestor worship than it was
some people-although it did not bother Robeck himself. Increasingly, he in the classical expression of Christianity.””
finds such people in his own neighborhood. “I must come to terms with that
. . . I want to affirm what I see in other religions that contributes to the dignity In spite of this by no means minor question, I thought that her point was well
of humanity and to world peace.” He was aware that much of what we call taken by many . . . Indeed, it is possible that her intent was not so much to
summon spirits as it was to enable her audience to identify with a theology from
“theological” is in fact “cultural” and that many Christians “had not dealt with
the perspective of suffering and oppression. I believe that were there greater
national guilt for the destruction of peoples. . . in the name of mission.” They evangelical and/or Pentecostal participation in such a gathering, more signifi-
saw the “reaffirmation of culture and in some cases the reaffirmation of cant headway, that is, headway with more genuine Gospel integrity might have
non-Christian religions as a way of solving their guilt.” been forthcoming in that discussion. As it was, it was left almost totally to the
Orthodox to raise up the centrality of Jesus Christ.
“Pinnock. “Evangelism.” See also chapter 28, p. 399. Quote from Suurmond,
~ ~~~
Word and Spirit at Play, 208. All in all Robeck came away with the conviction that the Assembly of the
Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1 982) I, 446. An earlier attempt by the WCC World Council is “an honest and legitimate attempt to demonstrate a form or
staff member Davies, Rex, Loca~sts (reviewed by Donald D. Smeeton, EPTA
Bulletin 2/1. 1993, 5-6 [“the major Pentecostal churches are almost completely “Robeck, “Canberra”, 1993, 112. On the ancestors see above chapter 20, pp.
ignored,” 51). 266-67 and the chapter on syncretism (chapter 1 1 , pp. 132-41). See also, idem,
j9 Robeck, “Canberra”, 1993, 1 1 1, 112, 116. See also Dayton, “Layer”; idem,
“World Council.”
“Limits.”
I
I Dialogue with Organized Ecumenism
then not even all the churches represented in the Pentecostal World Confer-
385
expression of visible Christian unity, as well as an incredibly valuable instruc- ence belong to Penteco~talism.~~ If-as a way out-a church is asked whether
tional forum for the churches which participate.” For Robeck the time to stand it is Pentecostal or not, then the answer will depend very much on the context
back and criticize is over. The World Council needs the Pentecostals. The of the question: there are situations where it is to the disadvantage of a church
Pentecostals need the World Council. to call herself Pentecostal (because “Pentecostal” can mean a specific Western
Perhaps some issues would be dealt with more realistically if African and brand of Pentecostalism with which that church does not want to identify, or
other Third World Pentecostals were to be included in the coming dialogue. for social or prestige reasons).
It might become visible that some of our Western theological positions are not Secondly, the “world confessional families” (Reformed, Lutheran, Angli-
as biblical as we believe them to be. can, Roman Catholic, Orthodox, Baptist, Methodist, etc.) have been developed
It would also, in my opinion, be important to develop a style of discussion in Europe and America, based solely on theological categories derived from
in which worship and prayer is as important as cognitive analysis. I believe that written confessions. The theologies of the Third World churches, on the other
the World Council has tried this out on several occasions, not least in Can- hand, are very often to be found not in their confessions but in their liturgies
berra. But the link between “praying and worshipping together” and “think- (as in New Testament times)-in their hymns, histories, and testimonies. This
ing and discussing together” has not been achieved. As in most churches, is clearly seen by Villafaiie: “The ‘culto’ is the clearest reflection of the
thinking and praying in the World Council appear divorced. theology of the community of faith . . . Our theology . . . is not a lineal,
Furthermore, I do not see why the World Council should appear only as horizontal, written reflection.”86
a kind of global parliament. This has no attraction and little communicative More adequate categories must be developed if we are to group the
value. Why not learn from the pope, who in spite of his authoritarian ideology, world churches in a truly representational way: the Western confessional
attracts many people by the fact that he celebrates masses, blesses marriages, divisions are inadequate. There is a world of difference between a Roman
and baptizes children. The World Council could organize anointing services Catholic in Germany and one in Flores (Indonesia); or between a member
of the kind described in chapter 18 (pp. 233-37), common baptismal services, of the British Pentecostal Elim Church8’ and a Mexican8* or Arab Pente-
and other liturgies in which some of the “bodily” elements” of Pentecostalism costal; or between a Dutch Lutheran and a Lutheran from Indonesia.@’ On
(and other churches) are made visible. T h e people and the money are there; the other hand there is more common ground between German Catholics
so why not do it? and German Protestants, and between American Pentecostals and Ameri-
can mainline churches, than between these bodies and many of their co-re-
Pentecostal Member Churches of the World Council of Churches” ligionists in other parts of the world.
Nobody seems to know exactly how many Pentecostal churches are mem- Furthermore, it is doubtful whether the theological categories as for-
bers of the World Council of Churches. There are several reasons for this. mulated in the official documents of the churches play a significant role in
First, there is no universally accepted definition of a Pentecostal church. If the life and spirituality of ordinary church members, or even of pastors and
one applies the criteria which I set out in chapter 3 (p. 18), on “The Oral Black priests. This also applies to the Roman Catholic church, which is-from a
Root” (including the Confession of Faith of the first Pentecostal church, the global point of view-much more pluralistic than its leaders would like it
“Apostolic Faith” in Los Angeless3), then a great number of the Third World to be.
churches belong to Pentecostalism. If, however, one takes as a guideline the
full evangelical confessional framework of the American Assemblies of
81 Seeabove the remark of the Ghana Baptist Convention, footnote 49. X5 For instance some German Pentecostals (The Pentecostals, 231ff.). A German
” O n the early history see Sandidge, Dialogue (1977-1982) I, 13ff. and The n a s t h e first Pentecostal to address a Full Assembly of t h e W C C ( K r u s t ,
Pentecostals, 438ff. “Churches”). T h e Chilean Pentecostals (chapter 10, pp. 117-31) and others would
83 Text in The Pentecostals, 513 (no “initial sign,” no N-ater baptism, no doctrine also not qualif?.
on scriptural inspiration, etc.). But see the attempts at defining Pentecostalism by 86 Villafafie ( T h e Liberating S p i n t , 124) quoting Costas, Protestantzsmo, vii. Vil-
Kilian McDonnell and Vinson Synan in chapter 24, p. 327. Also Robeck: “Seymour lafafie rightly refers to my colleague, the Swiss liturgiologist J.-J. von Allmen ( E l
moved away from a theology of tongues as the initial physical evidence of baptism in Culto) and Cullman ( L a Fi).
the Spirit. In point of fact, Seymour ultimately repudiated the ‘initial evidence’ 87 Prior, Indoneszan. For “Elim,” The Pentecostals, 197ff.
teaching as providing ‘an open door for witches and spiritualists and free loveism’ ” Gill, Contextualrsed. Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Mextcan.
(Robeck, “Azusa,” 36). 89 Some Indonesian churches have joined the Lutheran World Federation for
84 The Pentecostals, 29ff. However, this evangelical/Pentecostal framework is now reasons of convenience.
becoming shaky, as is clear from the discussions in this book.
In the following list, I have included a dozen churches which clearly show by the so-called Orebro Baptists (Sweden), a Baptist Church with a
Pentecostal characteristics, according to my definition of “Pentecostal” in The specifically Pentecostal ~ p i r i t u a l i t yIt
. ~is
~ the only member church of
Pentecostals (pp. xxi-xxii): the WCC in the People’s Republic of the Congo.
Pentecostal Member Churches o f the World Council o f Churchesgo *Iglesia de Dios (Argentina)
*African Church of the Holy Spirit (Kenya) 40,000 adherents (Handbook, 257). Independent, founded by Pente-
20,000 members (Handbook, 44); 5,400 members (Barrett, WChE, 435). costal missionaries from Sweden and the USA.
“The pioneer of the community in the Kakamega district of Kenya
Iglesia de Missiones Pentecostales Libres en Chile
was Mr. Chilson who taught fellow human beings to pray and to
No statistics in the WCC, nor in Barrett, WChE. Whatever the
confess their sins. They were baptized by him in the Holy Spirit by the
statistics, the three Pentecostal member churches of the WCC in
laying on of hands. Converts spoke in tongues” (Handbook, 44; Hand-
Chile have about 50 times more members than the other member
buch, 01.17.017 lit.).
church (Lutheran).
African Israel Church, Nineveh (Kenya)
Iglesia Pentecostal de Chile
350,000 members (Handbook, 45); 100,000 members ( C C 1988, 7);
90,000 members (Handbook, 265; C C 1988, 11; Barrett, WChE, 229).
76,000 adherents (Barrett, WChE, 435). Ex Pentecostal Assemblies of
This was one of the first Pentecostal churches to join the WCC (The
Canada” (Handbook, 45; Barrett, WChE, 435). They practice “infant
Pentecostals, 438-41, Handbuch, 02b.08.052).
baptism and the baptism of adults by the Spirit. Baptism with water
is not practiced’’ (Handbook, 45; Handbuch, 01.17.019). *Igrtya Evangiiica Pentecostal de Angola
3,000 adherents (Barrett, WChE, 144); 13,600 members (Handbook,
Church o f the Lord Aladura (Nigeria)92
31). Ex Assembleias de Deus.
1,103,340 members (Handbook, 51); 750,000 members ( C C 1988, 7)
(Barrett, WChE, 531). “The Church is one of the first three Pentecostal International Evangelical Church (USA)
churches in Nigeria which have brought considerable revival among 168,000 members; covers USA, Brazil, Italy, Nigeria (CC, 1988, 12;
African Christians” (Handbook, 51; Handbuch, 01.28.018). Handbook, 223f., The Pentecostals, 254, 438). “John McTernan,
founder of the International Evangelical Church was the first secre-
Eglise deJisus-Christ sur la Terre par le Prophite Simon Kimbangu (Zaire) tary of the Pentecostal core committee of the Roman Catholic/Pente-
See chapter 6 (pp. 54-80). “It remains the deep desire and longing of costal Dialogue. T h e Roman Catholic chairman of the Dialogue,
the Church that the charismatic element break through again and Kilian McDonnell, took McTernan to Geneva to discuss with WCC
again” (Handbook, 69). According to the statistics of the WCC (CC leaders the possibility of the International Evangelical Church becom-
1988, 8; Handbook, 69) this church has 5,000,000 members, while all ing a member. This is a direct and positive development from the early
the other member churches of the WCC in Zaire together have only years of the Dialogue.” Jerry L. Sandidge, Roman Catholac/Pentecos-
1,360,000. Even if one doubts the accuracy of these statistics, this is tal Dialogue I, 43.
by far the biggest member church of the WCC in Zaire.
Misidn Iglesia Pentecostal (Chile)
Eglise Evange‘lique du Congo 12,000 members (CC 1988, 11; Handbook, 267f., Barrett, WChE, 229;
110,461 members (Handbook, 37); 101,000 members (CC 1988, 7). Handbuch, 02b.08.061).
“Because of its charismatic approach and revivalist enthusiasm, the
use of African musical instruments and dynamic evangelistic cam- Union of Evangelical Christians/Baptists of USSR94
paigns, this church has a distinct impact on society.” It was founded 547,000 members (Handbook, 183), 1,014,000 members (CC 1988,
lo). “In 1945, the Pentecostals joined” (Handbook, 183).
9” Sources are mainly Handbook and CC, 1988 An asterisk (”)means “associated
member.” I was greatly helped in establishing this list by two staff members of the
-
WCC: Hubert van Beek of the General Secretariat and Mr. Beffa from the library. I
want to thank them although the result perhaps does not please them in all respects. 93 See the literature in Handbuch, 01.19.001,05.27.005,and statistics by Hocken
91 Kydd, “Canada.” with Cartwright, “European,” 273.
92 Turner, Independent Church (on the “Church of the Lord”). 94 The Pentecostals, 267ff.
Appropriately this ecumenical section ends with the
Prayer of the Frog 3 “ TWENTY EIGHT

Sometimes, Ifeel like a frog,
happy in the waterpond- until I run out of air and creep on land.
Happy in the fresh air, until m y skin hurts in the glaring sun
and I plunge back into the water.
0 God,
W h y didyou make me a n in-between creature, neitherfish nor fowl?
Wh-y am I not aflamingo, or an eagle or a mighty roaring lion?
Just a frog?
You did not ask me whether I wanted to be a frog,
Conclusion:
nor whether I wanted to be at all,
nor did m.y parents ask me.
Problem and Promise
So, I am, what I am, an in-between being.
When I a m with the feminists they call me “macho”
because I want to pray “Our Father.”
When I am with the men they call me a &minist Problem: The Victims
because I believe that we should not suppress what is female in us.
When I am with the pacifists they call me a war-monger Ex-Pentecostals Anonymous
because I do not believe that the abolishment of the Swiss Army serves world
peace. In order to focus on theproblem of Pentecostalism I want
When I am with the military they call me a pacifist to remind Pentecostal and non-Pentecostal readers of the
because I find it a scandal how we treat the conscientious objectors. many ex-Pentecostals. Pentecostalism-like other religions
When I am with the Christaans, the,y say I a m not a Christian and ideologies-also has its victims. These victims usually
because I find many of their convictions superfluous. d o not write books and articles, so they are difficult to
When I am with the non-Christians they say I am a Christian
because I believe in Jesus Christ document.’ O n e finds them as students of theology at uni-
When I am with the progressives they say I am conservative versities and colleges (where they prepare for the ministry in
because I do not know how to re-organize world trade justly. mainline churches). One finds them also at pastors’ confer-
When I am with the rich people they say I am a leftist ences. Because of my publications they make themselves
because I expect them to share their riches. known to me. It is a fact that the mainline churches have
When I am with the Catholics they say that I am a Protestant profited greatly from these former Pentecostals. I n general
because I do not believe in the infallibility of the pope.
When I a m with the Protestants they say I a m a Catholic
they abandon Pentecostal theology but try to safeguard their
because I like the Catholic liturgy. Pentecostal experience. However, since most Protestant the-
When I am with the Ecumenists they say that I am a Pentecostal ologies have little room for Pentecostal experience, they are
because I would like to see more of the Spirit in the ecumenical movement. sometimes torn between their experience and their theology.
When I a m with the Pentecostals they say I am an ecumenist Perhaps this book will help them to resolve this dilemma.
because I am convinced that they need the ecumenical movement. Others have digested their Pentecostal experience and
When I a m with the critical exegetes they call me “pious”
because God sometimes speaks to me in Scripture. matured in the struggle to sort out their lives and their ideol-
When I am with the uncritical Bible readers they say that I do not believe i n the Bible ogy, and they acquire a healthy suspicion of one hundred per
because I do not accept their facile interpretations. cent and total claims by any brand of religion or ideology,
0 God, y o u alone know what I am. Christian or otherwise. It is astonishing how many ministers and
Help me to believe that this is enough. leading lay people who have “fled” Pentecostalism for the historic
You made me an in-between being so that I can be an evangelist. churches play an important role in their new religious environ-
But God, it is a tough job. ment. O f course for some Pentecostals these ex-Pentecostals
Sometimes I am confused and terrrfied.
Strengthen m y f a i t h so that I am
a cheerful in-between creature, a happy frog. ‘Exceptions: Robinson, Spoke; Babcox, Search.
Conclusion: Problem and Promise 391
mother.” Since he was unsuccessful, he wrote to my doctoral supervisor

are now non-persons. They are nearly always blotted out from the Pentecostal warning him of this ex-Pentecostal who was still unrepentant and not fully
memory and historiography. This is understandable because, as the Pentecostals healed of his heresy. My supervisor showed me the letter and smiled: “What
see the situation, these are people who have tasted the best and the highest, but does he think? Does he really believe that I am unable to supervise your
are now content to feed on crumbs. dissertation critically?” Much later I met this man again. He was now already
Certain neo-Pentecostal churches also practice such “blotting out” of approaching his eighties. Again he tried to convince me of the error of my ways
ex-members; for instance, the “Biblische Glaubensgemeinde” (Stuttgart), and, as the one and vital proof of his utter condemnation, he told me that as a
probably the biggest Pentecostal church in Germany. “Persons who criticize young man he had been in love with the daughter of one of the Pentecostal
the church and leave are disciplined according to 1 Cor 5:llff. They are leaders, a respected man in society since he was an important high school
excommunicated from the body of Christ (!), even if they inform the Pente- teacher. “DO you know what this man said to his daughter?” He said: “My dear
costal leaders that they do not want to leave the body of Christ but only this daughter, you are not going to marry one of these despised lay preachers when
particular congregation. T h e ‘Biblische Glaubensgemeinde’ risks such to give you can marry any one of the respected men in our community.” Having
the impression that it speaks for the whole body of Christ in Stuttgart.”’ played his last trump-card he expected me to accept his arguments. Of course
Many carry all their lives the scars of the wounds received from their I was not convinced, but I said nothing. I understood. The Pentecostal
former friends. Pentecostalism is a high-tension religion and is not for every- antagonist had had his self-esteem shattered, and therefore he regarded Pen-
body. These victims say: “I was once a hundred per cent Christian. It proved tecostalism as anathema.
to be a failure. So I prefer to give it up altogether.” There are more such people A different story is the novel Portofino by Frank Schaefer. Schaefer’s
around than one might think. For these ex-Pentecostals, there is no question father (Francis Schaefer) was a missionary of a fundamentalist American
of accepting the “lukewarm Christianity” of those churches they have known Presbyterian Church (probably the Presbyterian Church of Christ and Cove-
only from the descriptions of disappointed critics. If they cannot be Christians nant United States of America) to the idolatrous Catholics and the nominal
on fire, Christians with a clear witness, Christians with no compromises (all Presbyterians of Switzerland. In this novel, his son now describes the miseries
of this meaning “Pentecostal Christians”) it is better to leave the faith alto- and joys of this missionary family and seems to transfer his ill-feelings against
gether. I feel profoundly sorry for these ex-Pentecostals. Since for them his father onto the country of the missionary’s calling. He calls Switzerland a
Christianity means per definitionem a “high voltage religion,” the ordinary “clockwork state run by chronographic fascists.” I doubt whether any member
Protestant churches hold no attraction for them. In general they do not even of this missionary family had any deep knowledge of Swiss culture, language,
consider catholicism. Forms of Christianity other than the ones they know are or religion. It is clear that they were singularly unfit to help Swiss churches to
believed to be bad or distorted copies of the real. overcome their shortcomings and to bring to life their Swiss Reformation
Thus at an academic conference an otherwise normal anthropologist or tradition, or their Catholic tradition for that matter.
sociologist (seldom a theologian) can suddenly burst forth in an emotional More to the point is Schaefer’s portrait of the missionary son’s parents.
explosion which is-seen from a purely academic standpoint-inexpli~able.~ The father had frequent and ugly rows with the mother which were thinly
I have learned to recognize in such cases old wounds which are beginning to papered over by an embarrassingly “Christian” and “evangelical” witness.
bleed again. T h e injured parties cannot come to terms with what they have They were absolutely sure that “the others” were not converted and therefore
been told is “lukewarm ordinary Christianity,” because they have been pro- ripe for eternal perdition. And yet the father was deeply miserable. T h e
grammed for an all-or-nothing religion. Since “all” is no longer available to mother sought comfort in the arms of a fellow missionary and the boy (clearly,
them, they opt for “nothing.” the author as well) could not square the Christian missionary rhetoric with the
Few have become outright antagonists of Pentecostalism. Once, one of the harsh reality of his family. So he took refuge in lies. I do not think that this is
most outspoken critics of German Pentecostalism and a staunch defender of a typical evangelical, nor a typical Pentecostal family. Nevertheless the novel
the ill-fated “Berlin d e ~ l a r a t i o n ”(in
~ which Pentecostalism was essentially shows-through clearly autobiographical detail-what damage can be done
declared to be inspired from below) asked me to forswear in public all Pente- by people who confuse their religious ideology with the gospel. And this is
costal connections. “How can I?”I asked him. “In spite of all its shortcomings, true even if the author claims that “this is a work of fiction.”
I became a Christian through Pentecostalism. One does not forswear one’s Some ex-Pentecostals have become famous singers, movie stars, or writ-
ers, for the same gifts which make a good Pentecostal pastor also make a good
Hempelrnann, “Glaubens-Gemeinde,” 140. As to the other examples, I do not entertainer or communicator (just as the reverse is also quite common: jazz
think it is fair to give names and places of such incidents, although I easily could. musicians, singers, and actors who become Pentecostal pastors). Usually these
‘Poewe, “Introduction,” 1-29, esp. 15. artists hide their Pentecostal past, but to those properly sensitized, it shines
4Hocken, “Berlin.”
392 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Conclusion: Problem and Promise 393
t h r o u g h i n their works o f art. I want to present two writers o f t h i s ilk here, now, and dance before his King. H e watched young Ella Mae Washington, the
namely James Baldwin, a Black American, a n d S v e n L i d m a n , a famous Swed- seventeen-year-old granddaughter of Praying Mother Washington, as she began
to dance. And then Elisha danced.
ish author.
At one moment, head thrown back, eyes closed, sweat standing on his brow, he
James Baldwin sat at the piano, singing and playing; and then, like a great, black cat in trouble
in the jungle, he stiffened and trembled, and cried out. “Jesus, Jesus, oh Lord
Consider the following description o f a Pentecostal service. Admiration
Jesus!’’ H e struck on the piano one last, wild note, and threw u p his hands, palms
a n d c o n t e m p t are b o t h very apparent. A writer does not invent s u c h stories. upward, stretched wide apart. T h e tambourines raced to fill the vacuum left by
They are deeply engraved on his memory. his silent piano, and his cry drew answering cries. Then he was on his feet,
T h e Sunday morning service began when Brother Elisha sat down at the piano turning, blind, his face congested, contorted with this rage, and the muscles
and raised a song. This moment and this music had been with John, so it seemed, leaping and swelling in his long, dark neck. It seemed that he could not breathe,
since he had first drawn breath. I t seemed that there had never been a time when that his body could not contain this passion, that he would be, before their eyes,
he had not known this moment of waiting while the packed church paused-the dispersed into the waiting air. His hands, rigid to the very finger-tips, moved
sisters in white, heads raised, the brothers in blue, heads back; the white caps of outward and back against his hips, his sightless eyes looked upward, and he
the women seeming to glow in the charged air like crowns, the kinky, gleaming began to dance. Then his hands closed into fists, and his head snapped down-
heads of the men seeming to be lifted up-and the rustling and the whispering ward, his sweat loosening the grease that slicked down his hair; and the rhythm
ceased and the children were quiet; perhaps someone coughed, or the sound of of all the others quickened to match Elisha’s rhythm; his thighs moved terribly
a car horn, or a curse from the streets came in; then Elisha hit the keys, beginning against the cloth of his suit, his heels beat on the floor, and his fists moved beside
at once to sing, and everybody joined him, clapping their hands, and rising, and his body as though he were beating his own drum. And so, for a while, in the
beating the tambourines. center of the dancers, head down, fists beating, on, on, unbearably, until it
seemed the walls of the church would fall for very sound; and then, in a moment,
T h e song might be: “Down at the cross where my Savior died!” Or: “Jesus, I’ll with a cry, head up, arms high in the air, sweat pouring from his forehead, and
never forget how you set me free!” Or: “Lord, hold my hand while I run this all his body dancing as though it would never stop. Sometimes he did not stop
race!” They sang with all the strength that was in them, and clapped their hands until he fell-until he dropped like some animal felled by a hammer-moaning,
for joy. There had never been a time when John had not sat watching the saints on his face. And then a great moaning filled the church.
rejoice with terror in his heart, and wonder. Their singing caused him to believe
in the presence of the Lord; indeed, it was no longer a question of belief, because We owe this description of a Pentecostal worship in t h e “Temple o f t h e
they made that presence real. H e did not feel it himself, the joy they felt, yet he F i r e Baptized” to James Baldwin’s novel Go Tell It On the Mountain.’ In this
could not doubt that it was, for them, the very bread of life-could not doubt it, story Baldwin describes a p a r t of his own biography. As a son of a black
that is, until it was too late to doubt. Something happened to their faces and their minister a n d himself a junior pastor he knew by experience t h e beauty a n d the
voices, the rhythm of their bodies, and to the air they breathed; it was as though
weakness of t h e black Pentecostal church. However, he left the c h u r c h very
wherever they might be became the upper room, and the Holy Ghost were riding
soon, because he could not answer t h e question: W h y does m y mother “come
on the air. His father’s face, always awful, became more awful now; his father’s
daily anger was transformed into prophetic wrath. His mother, her eyes raised here, night after night, calling o u t t o a God w h o cared nothing for them-if,
to heaven, hands arched before her, moving, made real for John that patience, above this flaking ceiling, there was any God a t all?” He was in revolt against
that endurance, that long suffering, which he had read of in the Bible and found his father, w h o m a d e sin responsible for all the evils of t h e black people, for
so hard to imagine. unemployment and sickness, for hatred in t h e harassed black families. “It was
sin,” his father preached,
O n Sunday mornings the women all seemed patient, all the men seemed mighty.
While John watched, the Power struck someone, a man or woman; they cried out, that drove the son of the morning out of Heaven, sin that drove Adam out of
a long, wordless crying, and, arms outstretched like wings, they began the Shout. Eden, sin that caused Cain to slay his brother, sin that built the tower of Babel,
Someone moved a chair a little to give them room, the rhythm paused, the sin that caused the fire to fall on Sodom-sin, from the very foundations of the
singing stopped, only the pounding feet and the clapping hands were heard; then
another cry, another dancer; then the tambourines began again, and the voices 5 Baldwin, Go, 14-16. T h e r e are several Pentecostal churches in the USA
rose again, and the music swept on again, like fire, or flood, or judgment. T h e n with this name; cf. F i r e Baptized Holiness C h u r c h (Wesleyan) (Hundbuch,
the church seemed to swell with the Power it held, and, like a planet rocking in 02a.02.025; 02a.02.110a; Synan, “Fire-Baptized,’’ 309); Fire-Baptized Holiness
space, the temple rocked with the Power of God. John watched, watched the Church of God of the Americas (Hundbuch, 02a.02.088; Synan, “Fire-Baptized”);
faces, and the weightless bodies, and listened to the timeless cries. One day, SO Fire-Baptized Holiness Church; Pentecostal Fire-Baptized Holiness Church ( H a n d -
everyone said, this Power would possess him; he would sing and cry as they did buch, 02a.02.107; Stout, “Fire-Baptized,’’ 309).
394 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Conclusion: Problem and Promise 395
world, living and breathing in the heart of man, that causes women to bring forth According to Baldwin, what has to be done could be the destruction of a
their children in agony and darkness, bows down the backs of men with terrible church which has lost its vocation. T h i s church has too long taken sides with
labor, keeps the empty belly empty, keeps the table bare, sends our children, the mighty ones, too long has she told black history in white, too long has she
dressed in rags, out into the whore-houses and dance halls of the world!6 destroyed the spontaneity and musicality of the black people.
Is Baldwin right? O r can his prophecy awaken us to a new ecumenicity, in
T h a t is why Baldwin puts the following words into the mouth of one of the which black and white learn from each other?
leading figures in the novel: “I’m going to have my baby and I’m going to bring
him u p to be a man. And I ain’t going to read to him out of no Bibles and I ain’t Sven Lidman
going to take him to hear n o preaching. If he don’t drink nothing but moonshine
all his natural days h e be a better man than his Daddy,”’ who was a preacher. We find quite a different story in Sven Lidman. H e explores another
Baldwin describes himself as “one of those people who have always been feature of Pentecostalism, the radical retreat into one’s own soul, the will of
outside it [the church], even though one tried to work o n it.”* T h i s did not uncompromising openness, the confession of all vice in public, sometimes
hinder the World Council of Churches from inviting him to speak at the grotesquely exaggerated. Lidman, later a famous Swedish writer, was born in
Fourth Full Assembly in Uppsala (1968), where he gave-hors programme-his 1882. After studying law, h e published a number of erotic novels between 1904
testimony as a former Pentecostal preacher who still sees in the gospel a power and 1913.” In 1917 he became a Christian.
to change the world and to redeem the races, but has got the impression that The Swedish State Church had no attraction for him. He almost became a
this gospel has been forsaken by all the churches: catholic, although he belonged to a family of Lutheran pastors. If a Catholic
I watched what the Christian church did to my father, who was in the pulpit all priest had visited him he would have been prepared to convert to the Catholic
the years of his life. I watched the kind of poverty, the kind of hopeless poverty, church in Sweden. But no priest came. And so he became a member of the
which was not an act of God, but an act of the State, against which he and his Pentecostal church in Sweden. He wrote: ‘‘I understood that there is another way
children struggled, I watched above all, and this is crucial, the ways in which than the Catholic church, namely the way of radical pietism. In the first case the
white power can destroy black minds, and what black people are now fighting human soul becomes a spouse of God. In the second case he or she enters a
against, precisely that.’ marriage of conscience-a much steeper and more dangerous way.””
After reminding his audience of the passion history of his own ancestors, As a Pentecostal pastor h e edited the Swedish Pentecostal periodical
he mentioned the Black Power leader Stokely Carmichael, considered by the Evangelii Harold (1922-1948) and published Augustine’s confession^."'^ E.
press as a very dangerous, radical black fanatic racist. Briem and L. Stampe find his published sermons f a ~ c i n a t i n g . ’ ~
I t is clear that such a strong personality would create conflicts with the
But everyone overlooks the fact that Stokely Carmichael began his life as a popular Pentecostal leader Lewi Pethrus. l 5 In 1948Lidman was excommunicated
Christian and for many, many years, unnoticed by the world’s press, was march- from the Filadelfia Church in Stockholm. Pethrus and Lidman accused each other
ing up and down the highways in my country, in the deep south, spent many
of un::piritual behaviour, authoritarianism, and commercialization of the revival.
years being beaten over the head and thrown in jail, singing “We Shall Over-
Lidman became a member of the “Free Pentecostal Church Ostermalm.”
come,” and meaning it and believing it, doing day by day and hour by hour
precisely what the Christian Church is supposed to do, to walk from door to door,
to feed the hungry, to speak to those who are oppressed, to try to open the gates l 1 Paisphae (1904). Primavera (1905). Kallorna (1906). Elden och alteret (1907).
of prisons for all those who are imprisoned. And a day came, inevitably, when Imperia (drama, no date). Harskare (1908). Stensborg (1910). Thure GabrielSilverstiil
(no date). Kopman och krigare (1911). Carl Silverstiihls upplefversen (1912). Tre
this young man grew weary of petitioning a heedless population and said in
draktens burn (1913). (Lidman’s works are not included in the bibliography).
effect, what all revolutionaries have always said, I petitioned you and petitioned ”According to Braun, Schweden, 105.
you, and you can petition for a long, long time, but the moment comes when the l 3 Works of this time: Bruggan hiller (1913). Personligfrri’lsning (1924). Bethle-
petitioner is no longer a petitioner but has become a beggar. And at that moment hemsstjarnen och biglampen ( 1926). Forgangelsens traler ochffrihetens siiner (1928).
one concludes, you will not do it, you cannot do it, it is not in you to do it, and Manniskan och tidsandan (1932). Ocoligt var mitt hjarta tills defickfind I dig. En sjals
therefore I must do it.” “ografi I dikter (1933). Pa” resan genom liret (1934). Cuds eviga nu (1935). Blodsarc
(1937). Var inte fdrskrackt! (1939). Utvald av Gud (1940). Gladjebudbarare (1941).
Frin Coventry till Bethlehem (1942). Ingen lurar Gud (1945). Fjaril och vilddjur (1947).
61bid., 121, 165. 14Briem,
’Ibid., 135.
’ “Pingstrorelsen.” See also other articles by this excellent scholar on
Swedish Pentecostalism in the same lexicon: “Barratt”; “Glossolali”; “Lewi
‘Baldwin, “Racism,” 371. Pethrus.” Stampe, “Pinsebevegelsen.”
‘Ibid., 374. l 5 See above chapter 20, p. 260.
lo Ibid., 373.
Conclusion: Problem and Promise 397
heroism” which one finds also in the Pentecostal pastor’s “passionate rejection
R. Braun, obviously a Catholic author, deals with Lidman in detail in his of all lukewarmness and ambition in his thoughtful humanism.”22
critical book on Swedish literature. According to Braun “radical pietism” Lidman’s development certainly shows one of the paths open to Pente-
offered too narrow a space for the writer and poet Lidman-he could not live costalism. T h e “radical pietist” withdraws from the injustice of the world and
there for long. “Perhaps I am only a small singing bird,” Lidman wrote in his the lameness of the churches into the innermost chamber of his own memo-
farewell letter to the Filadelfia Church, “who feels that the atmosphere is ries, even if this means a Christian’s journey into the cesspit. It focuses on his
slowly but surely poisoned and who flees in order to save his life and his own soul, on his own purification and sanctification. If Pentecostalism chooses
this way, it would not mean that it has to follow the genius of Lidman with all
After his polemics against Pethrus, his radical passion. It could tame this process liturgically and rationally, as is
Lidman’s literary production changed. He wrote his memoirs. These are not the the case in many traditional churches. One has only to think of the confessions
idyllic memories of an old man but rather a return to the position which he had of sin in our liturgies.
left a quarter of a century before. The memoirs did not deal with sermons and T h e other possibility is the way which is shown by some authors in this
devotion. What mattered now, he said, was to bring into focus his own innermost book. Which way will Pentecostalism go? Will it become a religion of the soul;
being. He took as his example Thomas Mann. The one who does not deal with will it celebrate one’s own innermost being; or will it develop a passion for the
himself is lost. But he did not want to present this position as a flight into his kingdom of God in which the personal and the social are seen in their
own self (not unlike a number of secular authors of his time). Much more 17 he
complementarity?
tried to reconcile his literary work with his former existence as a preacher.
T h e three volumes of memoirs” were a tremendous sensation in Sweden. I f This Movement Be of the Spirit. . .
They reached editions of 60,000 and more, which is considerable in a popula-
T h e problem and promise of Pentecostalism are two sides of the same
tion of seven million. T h e enormous excitement which these memoirs pro- coin. Both are rooted in its identity and in its history. It would be bad advice
duced can be seen in the reviews and discussions which filled the Swedish to recommend to Pentecostals that they become Presbyterians, Baptists, Meth-
newspapers for many months. odists, or Catholics of a sort. They must discover instead what it means to be
T h e new and sensational thing in Lidman’s memoirs is “his sexual auto-
genuinely Pentecostal. Genuine Pentecostalism is distinguished by faithful-
biography in which he goes much further than the already extreme rebels of ness to its roots. For if this movement be of the Spirit-which I believe with
the North. This man of seventy-two goes further than any of them.” The all my soul-then it is also of the Spirit that:
author is gripped by a burning desire for honesty, and runs amok in his
determination to go to the very depths of his own soul.”This “honest, simple, it began with a black ecumenist, in the black, oral Afro-American
naked description” of himself, this “journey of a Christian into the cesspool” culture, with all that implies;
is a detailed description of his sexual experiences, reaching back to his earliest it integrated important elements of Catholic spirituality;
childhood and leaving out n o taboo, even the description of something ap- it was inspired by the social and political interpretation of holiness
proaching the action of Noah’s sons, when his father was lying dead. “In developed in the American Holiness Movement;
Lidman’s memoirs a man who sees himself as an important author and a it developed-from its very beginning-critical elements in relation
leading Christian puts his understanding of sovereign freedom and Christian to dispensationalism, inspiration of Scripture, hermeneutics, social
confession into practice, for the first time a t least in Sweden,” a position which and political issues, and modern theological scholarship.
Braun utterly condemns.20 It began as an ecumenical renewal movement. With Dale T. Irvin we
On the other hand Meyer’s Handbook on literature points out the “par- observe: “I believe we have yet to realize the ecumenical implications
ticular value” of these utterly honest but subjective autobiographical works,” of Seymour’s theology.”23
and Elovson sees a certain coherence in Lidman’s development. T h e common
element in Lidman’s life is his “lyrical aestheticism,” “the Roman, mord All these things are part and parcel of the Pentecostal heritage. Take them
away, and what is left of the work of the Spirit in Pentecostalism?
I6Braun, Schweden, 105.
It is no accident that Pentecostalism has been marked not only by Wesley
”Ibid., 106. and Seymour but also-indirectly, via the holiness evangelists of Oberlin
Gossan I grottan (1950). Logan och lindansaren (1952). Mandoms moda (1954).
”Braun, Schweden, 106.
’O Ibid., 108.
‘’Werin-Elovson, “Lidman.”
” Irvin, “One Bond,” 53.
21 Meyers Handbuch uber Literatur, 552.
PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Conclusion: Problem and Promise 399
398
charismatic renewal could draw inspiration from its inter-cultural and ecu-
College (chapter 14, pp. 182-85)-by the Alsatian pastor Jean-Frkdkric Ober-
menical roots for the benefit of inter-religious dialogue. And this indeed seems
lin (1740-1826) from W a l d e r ~ b a c h whose
, ~ ~ parishioners emigrated to Ohio,
to be a way out of the narrow, defensive, fundamentalistic position of many
where they founded the city of Oberlin with its college. T h e connection
Christians. Pentecostal roots lie in the soil of oral, narrative, bodily, and
between Oberlin, the Holiness Movement, and early Pentecostalism is obvi-
therefore biographical theology. This kind of inductive theology is not ade-
ous. Oberlin was a pietist, a Lutheran pastor, a medical doctor, friend of the
quate to defend orthodoxy, but it is adequate for mission, testimony, and
French Revolution (he was president of the local Jacobine Club), builder of
streets and bridges, initiator of home-industry, and reformer of schools in the dialogue. Because a movement which understands itself from the third article
spirit of Jan Amos Komenius. His spirituality included both ecumenical (“I believe in the Holy Spirit”) is essentially tolerant and open to new, so far
openness and political and social action as a matter of course. He would show unknown moves of the Spirit, such a return to the ecumenical roots of this
his pupils a picture which-seen from the left-showed a bird. But if one movement could be a decisive contribution to a world conference on Religion
looked at it from the right, one saw a rose. He called it “reconciliation.” He and Peace, and to a global ethos of love.25
wanted to instill to his pupils the principle that what we see and conceive No doubt such a move would make Pentecostalism/charismatism even
depends on the point of view from which we approach the world, politics, more suspect to some evangelicals; however it would make clear that this
theology, and the Bible-and that it is part and parcel of holiness to look a t the segment of the church is not just “evangelicalism on fire” or a defender of
world also from the point of view of “the other” in order to understand his (or orthodoxy, but a pioneer in new areas of the workings of the Spirit, as is clearly
her) views. All this has been transmitted to the American Holiness Movement seen in the work of David D u Plessis and other Pentecostal ecumenists.
and from there to Pentecostalism. When, therefore, the Assemblies of God at What Bod0 Leinberger says here is probably true. However, it would have
their General Council of 1995 supported their anti-ecumenical decision by to be supplemented with a rigorous trinitarian reflection of the kind discussed
citing their “historic position,” they betrayed not only their own pioneers but in chapter 17 (pp. 219-20)-not in the interest of orthodoxy, but in the interest
also those of the Holiness Movement on whose foundation they stand. of faithfulness. Thus it could become visible that to be faithful and true is not
always the same as being theologically orthodox; and in fact that in certain
Promise cases orthodoxy is a hindrance to faithfulness, as the history of Pentecostals
and their antagonists shows clearly. T h e contribution of the Oneness Pente-
Since Pentecostalism is now at a turning point, it can release its potential costals could easily fit into such a trinitarian reflection, and thus perhaps solve
in several areas. For example, it can help the sleepy theological faculties and the controversy between Oneness and Trinitarian Pentecostalism.
theological colleges (particularly in Europe) once again to become places where T h e place where these insights and experiences can be tested, applied and
religion is not only discussed but lived and analyzed; where thinking and worked through is the World Council of Churches. Neither the World Council nor
praying are complementary; where oral theological scholarship and homiletics the Pentecostals can work out a global system of communication and coopera-
is discovered and tested; where the prison of propositional theology (and tion alone. Together they might have a chance. T h e Pentecostal example,
liturgy!) and of Western theological jargon is broken up; where ecumenicity is
finance, skill, institutional and personal network, and man- and woman-power
not the hobby horse of a few experts but part and parcel of theological thinking
constitute a formidable force, which could really make a difference. So, why
and ecclesiastical practice, where biblical pluralism is not doctrinally domes-
not invest time, money, and persons in the World Council of Churches and
ticated but recognized as one of the most important gifts of biblical tradition, bring it to life again?
and where therefore several different spiritualities are not only accepted but
Perhaps mainline churches will reach the conclusion that they could learn
tried and tested; where Pentecostalism/charismatism/independentism is seen
something from the Pentecostals. But, just as it would be a pity for Pentecostals
not as an embarrassment but as an invitation to study them seriously; and
to imitate the mainline churches, so it would be a pity for the mainline
where the “problem of the sects” is seen not just in others but also in one’s
churches to imitate Pentecostalism. Presbyterians and Catholics, Methodists
own exclusivity, at the same time recognizing the psychological need for
and Anglicans may wish to discern the Holy Spirit in their own context and in
sectarian structures in specific psychological and cultural situations.
their own tradition, for instance in the common Christian conviction that the
A new and dangerous thought was recently expressed by Bod0 Leinber-
church is not synonymous with priests and bishops but that the church
ger, a German protestant pastor, in his report to his superiors on the charis-
consists of the interplay between different charismata.
matic renewal in Germany. In his report, he expresses the wish that the
25 Certainly, such thinking may also be found in the Pentecostal/charismatic
24 Sources and biographies (also on his visionary experiences) in Zwink, “Ober-
literature (e.g., chapter 27, note 77, p. 382).
lin,” 720-23.
Charismata of oral culture are present in all churches, but in most of them
they are suppressed. What is the reason for this, if not fear and unbelief? In
all churches there are testimonies, in all there is healing and there are other
gifts. Why not recognize these and integrate them into the life of the church?
How do these gifts find their rightful place; how do we articulate and live the
conviction of the Reformation churches, for instance, that we are saved by
grace alone and not by correct thinking? This does not devalue hard critical
thinking, but it puts it in its relative place. Catholic and Anglican Churches
could articulate and live their conviction that the church (or at least their
denominations) appears in culturally and socially diverse liturgical forms and
theological expressions and that the unity of the church can and should also Short Titles List
be expressed in forms other than the ones which we have developed in the
Mediterranean propositional tradition. All this is also part of the mainline
churches’ tradition.
If Pentecostals and Catholics, independents and Anglicans, Methodists T h e following literature list is by no means a complete
and charismatics, Presbyterians and “non-white indigenous churches” dig bibliography of Pentecostalism. It is merely an indication of
deep enough into their own traditions, they might discover some considerable the books and articles cited (not of all those used) in the
common ground (both of content and of form) for a global system of coopera- present work. For research reviews and bibliographies see
tion and communication. This, it seems to me, is as necessary for the world Part Three of my Hundbuch (05-1 l), my Die Pfingstkirchen,
and the church as is our daily bread. 317-466 and chapter 24 (pp. 326-31) of this volume.
The Prayer of the Ostrich

Abrams, Fire
0 God,
Abrams, Minnie. The Baptism of the Holy Ghost and Fare,
Sometimes I f e e l like an ostrich,
Kegdaon, Poona, India, ca. 1907.
a bird with wings-yet he can only run Abrams, “Mukti”
a bird with wings-yet he has only the memory offlying. .- “The Baptism of the Holy Spirit at Mukti.” Indian Witness
A n d so I run over the hot sand and spread m y wings, 26.4.1906; The Missionary Review of the World 19/8, August 1906,
y e t only a poor hop is the result. 619-20.
I am a Christian with the memory o f the early Christians, Achtemeier, Inspiration
when in one day the gospel emerged in a foreign culture, Achtemeier, Paul J. The Inspiration o f Scripture. Problems and
when in one day that which was considered essential, faded away, Proposals. Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1980.
when in one day f o r the sake of a foreign officer’s salvation, Account
your servant crossed the frontiers of what he considered to be the Account of the Convention for the Promotion of Scriptural Holiness
limits o f the Gospel, Held a t Oxford, August 29 to September 7, 1874; reprint in: The
when in one day more of the Gospel was discovered than we could hope Higher Christian Life, vol. 2.
in a hundred years. Adam, “Outdated”; German: “Veraltete”
W h y must I be an ostrich, the laughing stock o f the world? Adam, Will. “Outdated and Modern Forms of Worship.” In
I did not make mysew You did not ask me whether I wanted to Wiebe Vos (ed.), Worship and Secularization, Bussum, Holland:
be an ostrich, nor whether I wanted to be at all, nor Paul Brand, 1970,96-119.
did m y parents ask me. German: “Veraltete und moderne Gottesdienstformen.” Faith and
So, I am a bird and I cannot fly. Order Paper 69:31, Geneva: WCC, September 1969 dupl. original
A n d y e t I see other birds taking to the sky. version of the above.
Adegoke/Hollenweger, “Praxis”
So I bury m y head in the sand, in the Bible, in the tradition, in scholarship.
Adegoke, John, and Walter J. Hollenweger. “Markus 9: 17-27:
Today I pray just f o r one thing, one little thing,
Heilung-Theorie und Praxis.” Predigtstudien 111/2, Stuttgart:
0 God, Kreuz Verlag 1981, 225-31.
Help me at least not to hinder the other birds fromflying.
Help me not t o think that because we cannot f l y , other birds shouldn’t either.
Help me to rejoice in the sight of those who fry higher than I can ever dream.
S h o r t Titles List 403
.4nderson, “Ancestor”
Agosto, “Diversity” .- “African Pentecostalism and the Ancestor Cult: Confrontation and
Agosto, Efrain. “Diversity in Leadership: Paul’s Commendations in Their Compromise.” Missionalia 21 / 1, April 1993, 26-39.
Greco-Roman Context.” SPS 1994. Anderson, Bazalwane
Ahlstrom, History .- Bazalwane, African Pentecostals in South Afrrca. Pretoria: University of South
Ahlstrom. S. C. Relinious History of the American People. New Haven and London:
~~ Africa, 1992.
Yale University Press, 1972. i\nderson, Moya
Ahn, Kirche -. Moya: the Holy Spirit in an African Context. Pretoria: University of South
Ahn, Byung-Mu. Draussen vor dem Tor. Kirche und Minjung in Korea. Gottingen: Africa, 1991.
Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1986. .4nderson, Gordon L., “Changing”
Aigbe, “People” Anderson, Gordon L . “The Changing Nature of the Moral Crisis of American
Aigbe, Sunday. “Pentecostal Mission and Tribal Groups People.” In Called, 165-79. Christianity.” SPS 1990, V.
Aion, “Dialogue” Anderson, Gordon L., “Hermeneutics”
Aion, BiannualJournal of S t . Symeon ‘s Fellowship, July 1972,4: “Our Dialogue.” -. “Pentecostal Hermeneutics.” SPS 1992, BB.
Alamo, “Castafiiza” Anderson, Robert Mapes, Social
Alamo, Mateo. “Juan de Castafiiza.” Drctionnuire de SpirttualrtP, Paris 1953, 11, 277. Anderson, Robert Mapes. A Social History o f the Early Twentieth Century Pentecostal
Albrecht, “Opium” Movement. Ph.D. Columbia University, 1969, Xerox copy.
Albrecht, Horst. “Opium auf dem Bildschirm. Telekirchen in den USA-Botschaft, Erfolg, .4nderson, Robert Mapes, Vision of the Disinherited
gesellschaftliche Wirkungen.” Wege zum Menschen 41/2, Febr./March 1989, 103-14. -. Vision of the Disinherited. The Making ofAmerican Pentecostalism. Oxford
Alexander, “Fee” University Press, 1979.
Alexander, Patrick H. “Fee, Gordon Donald.” Dictionary, 305. Andrei, “Scopuli”
Alford, “Music” Andrei, Francisco. “Scopuli.” Enciclopedia cattolica. Vatican 1953, X V I , 203f.
Alford, D. L. “Pentecostal and Charismatic Music,” Dictionary, 688-95. A4ndresen,“Literaturmisjon”
Alland, “Possession” Andresen, Kiss. “Literaturmisjon.” In Kire Juul (ed.), Ti1jordens ender, 189-92.
Alland, Alexander. “Possession in a Revivalistic Negro Church.” Journal for the Apostolic Church, Fundamentals
Scientific Study ofReligion 1, 1961, 204-13. Apostolic Church. Fundamentals being “things most surely believed. ” A brief statement of
Allen, D., “Ostrich” fundamental truths contained in the Scriptures and believed and taught by the Apostolic
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Alvarez, Historia .4rrington, E L., “Hermeneutics”
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Index of Authors and Subjects
J
Abernathy, Rev., 25 Anderson, Axel, 88

Abrams, Minnie, 120 Anderson, GordonL., 309, 311, 315,
Achtemeier, Paul J., 197, 323 318f., 321
Adam, Will, 275f. Anderson, Jerry, 73
Adegoke, Joh., 11-14,242,378 Anderson, Robert Mapes, 35, 44f., 47,
African Church of the Holy Spirit 358f.
(Kenya), 386 Andrei, Francisco, 146
African Israel Church (Nineveh) Andresen, Kiss, 56
(Kenya), 380,386 Anglo-Israel Theories, 21
African Methodist Episcopal Church Anskar Church (Hamburg), 364
(UK), 375 Apostolic Church (UK), 249
(African) Pentecostal Revival Church of Apostolic Faith (Baxter), 21
Jesus Christ (UK), 374f. Apostolic Faith (Los Angeles), 19, 261,
Agosto, Efrain, 302 384
Ahlstrom, S. E., 28 Apostolic Faith (Portland, Oregon), 11
Aigbe, Sunday, 267 Apostolic Faith (Topeka, Kansas), 348
Aladura, 52, 75 Apostolic Faith Mission (or Church)
Aladura International Church (UK and (South Africa), 42f., 48f., 351, 354
Overseas), 374 Apostolic World Christian Fellowship,
Alamo, Mateo, 146 371
Albert I (King of Belgium), 62 Appenzeller, H., 100
Albrecht, Horst, 230 Appiah-Kubi, Kofi, 241f.
Alexander, Patrick H., 313 Aragon, Hilarion, 92
Alford, D. L. 277 Arceo, Sergio Mendez, 160
Alland, Alexander, 362 Arigo, Ze, 238f.
Allen, David, 344 Aristotle, 134, 195f., 242, 308
Allen, Roland, 298f. Arms, Godsil, 123
Allende, Salvador, 204 Arrington, French L., 302, 315, 319, 321
Allmen, J.-J. von, 385 Asbury Theological College, 5, 191
All Saints (Aladura) Church of Christ Asambleas de Dios (Dominican
(UK), 374 Republic), 247
Altrichter, M., 159 Asch, Susan, 55, 57C, 69-61,63f., 66,
Alvarez, Carmelo A,, 209, 370, 372 68,78-80
Amerlinck y Assereto, Maria Josefina, Assembltes de Dieu de Belgique, 169,
87-89,91,93f. 354
Amos, Barbary A,, 40 Assembltes de Dieu (Borkina Faso &
Anderson, Allan, 51-53, 231, 255, Togo) (formerly: en Haute-Volta), 267
266f. AssemblCes de Dieu (France), 341
482 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Index of Authors and Subjects 483
Assemblees de Dieu (Zaire), 56 Beaman, Jay, 2 15 Bolamba, B a r d Ewololiya, 63 Butler, Anthea, 39

Assembltes de Deus (Angola), 387 Becken, Hans-Jurgen, 3,239,242 Boltonl, C. A., 155
Assemblies of God (Chile), 125 Beek, Hubert van, 376, 386 Bonanno, Maria Pia, 328 Cabaret Volaire (Zurich), 225
Assemblies of God (UK), 55f., 265, 344f. Beeson, Trevor, 289 Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 19, 27, 39, 68, 283, Caffarel, Herni, 159
Assemblies of God (South Africa), 52 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 9,278 295,345 Calley, Malcolm, 270
Assemblies of God (USA), 5, 22f., 31, Beffa (librarian WCC, Geneva), 386 Bonnke, Reinhard, 364 Calvin, Joh., 123, 219
40,45, 55, 62, 165f., 168-72, 176, Beguin, Willy, 57 Booth-Clibborn, Arthur Sydney, 187 Cimara, Helder, 51, 154, 165
185f., 188, 191, 193,207, 259f., 268, Bell, Eudorus, N., 187, 268 Booth-Clibborn, Samuel, 188 “Cambridge Seven,” 344
272,314,345,349,351-54,363,368, Benjamin, Alicea, 205 Booth, William, 187 Campbell, Buell, 120, 123
371f., 384,398 Benz, Ernst, 27f. Booyens, J. H., 239 Campbell, Joseph E., 248
Assemblies of God Bible College, Berdyaev, Nicolai, 214 Berresen, Inger Marie, 56 Caneel, M. L., 52,381
Mattersey (UK), 343f. Berg, Stefan, 261 Botha, Louis, 41 Cardenal, Ernesto, 210
Assemblies of God Theological Berger, Peter, 258 Boudewijnse, Barbara, 209f. Carlsson, Bertil, 260
Seminary (Springfield, Mississippi), Bergier, J., 240 Bozzano, Ernesto, 240 Carmichael, Chr., 56, 335
267 Bergson, 103 Bracco, Roberto, 272 Carmichael, Stokely, 39 (see also
Assmann, Hugo, 214 Bergunder, Michael Bradford, Brick, 222 Malcolm X)
Associacion Iglesias de Dios (Argentina), Berinyuu, Abraham A., 73 Bradley, James E., 230 Carmichael, William, 165, 172
368 Berlin Declaration, 337, 39e Brahms, Joh., 359 Carothers, Warren Fay, 22,348
Association of African Spiritual Bernal, Ignacio, 87 Brandon, Andrew, 23 1 Cartwright, Desmond W., 243,268,
Churches, 53 Bernard, David K., 173 Brandt-Bessire, Daniel, 151, 183, 185, 328f., 343f., 316
Athenagoras, 9 Berthier, Jacques, 278 327,354 Casebow, H. J., 57f.
Atter, Gordon, 195 Bertsche, James, 60, 68, 71 Branham, William Marrion, 229 Castaniza, Juan de, 144
Augustine, 83, 135, 220, 395 Best, Falton O., 268 B r a d para Cristo, 55 Castle, Brian, 291
Ayandele, E. A., 76 Bethel Apostolic Church (UK), 375 Braun, Robert, 395f. Castro, Emilio, 370
Aymot, 160 Beyerhaus, Peter, 380 Braunhart, Karl, 212f., 359 Castiglione, Miriam, 177,272, 328
Beyers, Nauda, 5 1 Brazier, Arthur M., 25f. Catholic Apostolic Church (Zion,
Babcox, Neil, 389 Bhengu, Nicholas, 42 Bridges-Johns, Cheryl, 199, 268, 309, Illinois and South Africa), 42
Bach, Joh. Seb., 9, 157 Bible Study and Prayer Group of the 38 1 Celestial Church of Christ (UK and
Baer, Hans A., 28f. Presbyterian Church (Ghana), 378 Briem, Efraim, 395 Ghana), 301,374
Bakker, James Orsen, 259 Biblische Glaubensgemeinde Brilioth, Ingve, 146 Center for Urban Ministerial Education
Balandier, Georges, 36,64 (Stuttgart), 390 Bristol, 123 (CUME), Boston, 206
Baldwin, James, 392-95 Bichmann, W., 273 British Council of Churches, 375 Centre for Black and White Christian
Ball, Huggo, 225 Biel, Gabriel, 25 1 British Israel Theory, 185 Partnership, Birmingham, UK, 75,
Baltruweit, Fritz, 283 Biermann, Benno M., 85-87 Broederschap van Pinkstergemeenten 106-16, 178,291,321,376, 378
Bamba (dissident Kimbangist), 78f. Binyon, Pamela, 290,309-1 1 (Holland), 173 Centre for New Religious Movements,
Banda-Mwaka, J., 67 Birkey, U., 364 Brooks, Andrk David, 19 Birmingham, UK, 328
Barclay, Wade Crawford, 118 Bilstein, Uwe, 364 Brown, John Pairman, 9 Chalux, 62
Birdly, Johannes, 56 Bittlinger, Arndol, 155, 157-59, 166f., Bruderschaft: Der Konig kommt!, 250 Chan, Simon K. H., 4
Barr, James, 375 177,179,327,347,357,380 Brumback, Carl, 327 Chant, Barry, 328
Barratt, Thomas B., 120, 145, 185, 226, Bixler, E, 120 Brunner, Emil, 310,361 Chapman, George, 239
343,348,395 Blake, Alwin, 380 Buana-Kibongi, D., 59 Chappell, Paul G., 128, 229,329
Barrett, C. K., 315 Bloch-Hoell, Nils, 120, 327 Bubmann, Peter, 270 Chardin, Teilhard de, 9
Barrett, David B., 1, 27, 34, 55f., 87, Blomquist, Axel, 56 Buck, J., 46 Charismatic Renewal in the United
103, 130,267, 289, 386f. Blumhardt, Joh. Christoph., 207,225f. Buddha, 9, 100, 102, 135,254,309,382 Presbyterian Church, USA, 306-62
Barrington-Ward, Simon, 77 Blumhofer, Edith, 268, 327, 343, 345, Buhrmann, Vera, 239 Charles V., Emperor, 86
Barron, Bruce, 231 348,372 Bultmann, R., 196,233, 322, 352 Chassard, Paul-Eric, 57
Barth, Karl, 4, 74, 79, 111, 135, 195, Boardman, William Edward, 182 Bundy, David D., 144, 151,209,260, Cherubim and Seraphim Society, U K
220,231,293,322,342,352,361 Boddy, Alexander A,, 30,343-45 267,299,316,319,327-30,334, (several), 374f., 378
Bartleman, Frank, 30, 185f., 187f., 348 Boegner, Alfred, 339 338-40,342f., 351,354,356 ChCry, H.-Ch., 155
Bastide, Roger, 77 Boegner, Marie-Caroline, 339 Bunyan, 9 Chiang Kai Shek, 37
Batson, George C., 224 Boehme, Jakob, 146 Burgess, Stanley M., 220f., 259, 327, 349 Chikane, Frank, 48-52, 176, 354
Bauberot, Jean, 376 Boff, Leonardo, 132, 165, 171 Burton, William, 42, 56, 243, 344 Chinn, J. J., 195
Baumert, Norbert, 365 Boisen, Anton T., 362 Busch, Eberhard, 220 Chips, Mr., 615,379,281
Bazola, E., 54,60 Boka, Simon, 63 Bush, Timothy, 223 Cho, Yonggi, 100
Choffat, I?, 59f., 64 Cole, David, 371 Davis, John R., 254, 290 Edwards, Harry, 239
Choi, Syn-Duk, 105 Collier, Jane, 139f., 290 Dayton, Donald W., 151, 182-85, 189, Eglise de Dieu (France), 376
Chome, Jules, 58 Communaute Assemblees de Dieu a 347,369f., 372,382 Eglise de Dieu (Zaire), 55
Christian and Missionary Alliance 1”Est du Zaire, 55 Delattre, Shirley, 7, 10 Eglise Evangelique du Congo, 386
(Chile), 125f. Communaute Assemblees de Dieu au Dempster, Murray W., 44, 187, 206f., Eglise de Jesus-Christ sur la terre
Christian, Clifford, 304 Zaire, 55 209 d’apres le prophete Simon
Christ Apostolic Church (UK), 374 Communaute Evangelique de PentecBte Desanti, Dominique, 59, 63, 70, 77 Kimbangu (EJCSK) see Kimbangu,
Christ Healing Church = All Saints au Shabe, 55 Descartes, Rent., 305 Kimbangists
Born Again Christ Healing Church Communaute PentecBtiste au Zaire, 55 Dialungana, K. S., 57, 65, 67 Einstein, Albert, 9, 294
(UK), 374 Communaute des Eglises de Grace au Diangienda, Kontimas (alias Joseph), 57, Eisenloffel, Ludwig, 179, 265
Christ the King Pentecostal Church Zaire, 55 63f., 66-70 Elbert, Paul, 357
(UK), 374 Cone, James, 19, 33, 278 Diata, Norbert, 60 Elim Bible College (Nantwich, UK),
Christ the Resurrection Church (UK), Conference of European Churches Dibelius, Martin, 317 231,330,354
375 (CEC), 374 Dickson, Kwesi, 73f. Elim Pentecostal Churches (UK), 195,
Christian Church of North America, 193 Confraternidad Christiana de Iglesias Dieter, Melvin Easterday, 189 328,385
Christie-Murray, David, 35, 224 (Chile), 130 Divine Prayer Society 1944 (UK), 374 Elim Fellowship (USA), 19
Chung, Hyun Kyung, 102f., 378,383 Congar, Yves, 2 19 Divine Prayer Society 1944 (The Elovson, Harold, 396f.
Church of God (Cleveland), 55, 173, CongregaqPo Christ2 do Brasil, 249 Church of the Family of God and of Elphicks, Robert, 123
193,372 Conn, Charles, 22, 249 Jesus Christ) (UK), 374 Emmanuel International Revival Church
Church of God School of Theology, 232 Consejo Latinoamericano de Iglesias Divine Healing Pentecostal Church of (Calvary Healing Temple) (UK), 375
Church of God and True Holiness (CLAI), 367f. Christ (UK and Ghana), 374 Enauts, 62
(UK), 375 Eontinental Bible College, St. Djukanovic, J., 234 Encuentro Pentecostal Latinoamericano
Church of God Fellowship in Great Pieters-Leew (Belgium), 169 Dominguez, Roberto, 328 (EPLA), 368
Britain, 375 Conzelmann, Hans, 268,315,322 Dorries, David W., 223, 226 Engemann, Wilfried, 230
Church of God in Christ (UK), 378 Zook, Guillermo, 130, 381 Douglas, J. D., 306 Erasmus, 150
Church of God in Christ (USA), 29, Zopplestone, Merayne, 150 Doutreloux, A., 57 Ervin, Howard, 315, 320
232,248,314, 372 Zorum, Fred T., 19 Dowie, John Alexander, 22, 345 Escobar, Samuel, 304f.
Church of Jesus Christ of the Apostolic Zostas, Orlando, 205, 385 Down, M. B., 309 Esparza, Gabriella, 268
Faith, (UK), 375 Zouncil of African and Afro-Caribbean Drewermann, Eugen, 323f. Espinuso, Arnulfo, 88f.
Church of the Living God (USA), 28 Churches for Britain, 374 Drollinger, Christian, 248 Esquivel, Prudencio, 90
Church of the Lord, Aladura (Nigeria & Zountess Huntington in Trevacca, 151 Droogers, Andre, 209 Eternal Sacred Order of the Morning
UK), 374,380,386 Zox, Harvey, 136,160,210,213f. Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt, 29 Star and St. Michael Star
Church of the Nazarites (South Africa), Zrayne, Hank, 236 Dudley, Roland Q, 327 Foundation of Life Mount Zion
239 :rompton, D., 46 Dufoneny, P., 60 (UK), 374
Church of God of Prophecy (USA), Jross, E L., 152 Dugan, George, 29 Eternal Sacred Order New Temple (CS)
173.372 Zross, M. P., 193 Duke and Duchess of York, 277 Church (UK), 375
Church of the Foursquare Gospel Irouch, Archie R., 88 Dulles, Avery, 3 14 European Pentecostal Theological
(USA), 173 Zrowe, Terrene Robert, 166 Dunant, Henri, 183 Association (EPTA), 198
Church of God of the Mountain Zubism, 225 Duncanl, Mildred, 155 Evan, Roberts, 145
Assembly (USA), 193 hnningham, &. C., 31 Dunn, James D. G., 302,319f., 380 Evangelic Church of Christ (UK), 375
Church of the Universal Prayer Zurlee, Mary Ruth, 198, 352, 360 Du Plessis, David J., 22, 155, 162, Evans, Russel, 195
Fellowship (UK), 374 krlee, Robert R., 198, 352, 360 165-69, 171, 173f., 177-79,328f.,
Cito, Carmelo, 328 Zurry, Brigadier General Jerry, 188f. 343,35655,373,399 Failing, Wolf-Eckhart, 357
Clark, E. C., 193 ktten, George B., 358 Du Plessis, Justus, 173 Faith Apostolic Church - Universal
Clark Stephen, 159 Du Pree, Sherry Sherod, 19 Evangelical Church (UK), 375
Cleary, Edward, 180 Iadaism, 225 Durham, William H., 19, 290, 348 Fairchild, James A., 183
Clemmons, Ithiel, 19, 28, 40, 45, 185 )ajo, Mirin, 239 Diirrenmatt, Friedrich, 290 Fallot, Tommy, 319
Central Bible College (Springfield, )alliere, Louis, 319, 33842 Dvorak, A,, 32 Farah, Charles, 230
Missouri), 169 )amboriena, Prudencio, 156 Faran, A,, 112
Coalition of Hispanic Christian baniels, David, 19, 372 Eagle, Robert, 238, 241 Farrand, Dorothy, 238
Leadership (USA), 204 )ante, A,, 9 Earhardt, Byron H., 105 Fashole-Luke, Edward, 73f., 76
Cohen, Harold E, 160 )arwin, 9 Ebeling, Gerhard, 322f. Faupel, D. William, 1, 5, 19, 189, 191f.,
Cohn, Ruth, 112, 114 )avies, Rex, 382 Ecke, Karl, 334,337 290,329
Colgron, P. Frank, 173 bavies, William R., 364 Edrington, Roger, 280,291 Faye, Eugene de, 339
486 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worldwide Index ofAuthors and Subjects 487
Feci, Damaso, 59 Full Gospel Business Men Fellowship Haar, Ter, 114 Hokkanen, Lari, 247
Fee, Gordon D., l97,207,22f., 309, International (FGBMFI), 153, 160, Habermas, 312 Holdcroft, Thomas, 363
312-18,361 21 1 Haenchen, Ernst, 317 Hollander, Jet den, 296
Fehderau, H. W., 62, 71 Full Gospel Central Church (Seoul), 104 Haire, I. James, 290 Holmes, Stephen Lloyd, 188
Filder, R. O., 42, 54 Full Pentecostal Assemblies USA, 193 Hall, J. L., 226 Holy Mount Zion Revival Church
Filadelfia Church (Mexico), 88 Full Salvation Union (USA), 250 Hall, Mary, 165, 290 (UK), 374
Filadelfia Church (Stockholm), 260, Fwakwanza, Victor, 97 Hammerskjold, Dag, 9 Holy Tabernacle of Christ Jesus (UK),
395f. Handel, 157 375
jiliogue, 218-22, 372 Gaeta, Arturo, 155 Hanft, Walter, 32 Honegger, Arthur, 279,282
Felipe, Adolf, 367 Gagg, Robert, 338 Harder, Kathleen, 207 Hood, George, 291
Finney, Charles G., 183 Gandhi, M., 9 Harnack, A. von, 138 Hoover, W. C., 117-25
Fire-Baptized Holiness Church (USA), Garibay, K., 83 Harper, Michael, 30, 155, 158, 335 Horgan, Thaddeus, 372
393 Gaxiola, Adoniram, 210 Harrell, David E., Jr., 208 Horn, J. Nico, 41,44f., 48f., Slf., 193,
Fire-Baptized Holiness Church of God Gaxiola-Gaxiola, Manuel, 40, 81f., 87, Harris, Robert L., 29 381
of the Americas, 393 98,204,290,368 Harris, Thoro, 32 Hornbostel, Erich M. von, 29, 32
Fire-Baptized Holiness Church Gebhardt, Ernst, 144f. Hasted, John, 239 Hoskyns, C., 60
(Wesleyan), 393 Gee, Donald, 51, 56, 231, 272, 309, 328, Hastings, Adrian, 75 House Churches, 364
Fischer, Jean, 374 3 3 0 , 3 3 5 , 3 3 8 4 344,349 Hayes, Stephen, 41 The House of the Lord (USA), 27
Fisher, Miles Mark, 32f. Gelpi, Donald, 161, 173, 261 Haywood, Thomas Garfield, 32 House of Praxer of All People, 27
Fleisch, Paul, 146, 149, 151, 185, 327, Gericke, P., 382 Heber, R., 146 Huaman, P. Santiago, 328
336f. Gerlach, Hildegard, 238, 241 Hegel, 4, 83 Hubbard, David A,, 173
Fletcher, G., 120 Gerlach, Luther P., 34-37, 262 Heidegger, Martin, 322 Huber, R., 237
Fletcher, John William (= Guilleaume Gerrard, Nathan L., 262 Heimer, H. E., 69 Hudson, Neil, 265
de la Flechkre), 151 Gerloff, Roswith I. H., 19f., 28, 108f., Heine, Susanne, 268, 321 Huerto, Victoriano, 82
Fletcher, William C., 215 116,290,328,364,374-76,380 Heinzer, Ruedi, 245 Hummel, Reinhard, 364
Flora, Cornelia Butler, 328 Giese, Ernst, 334-38 Hellberg, Mr. & Mrs., 7-1 1 Hunt, Stephen, 357
Flores, Ramon, 209 Gijs, Jan van, 195 Hempelmann, Reinhard, 364f., 390 Hunter, H. D., 22, 173, 208, 372
Flower, Joseph James Roswell, 192f. Gilis, Charles Andre, 60, 62 Henry, C. E, 304 Hurtado, L. W., 223
Flynn, Thomas, 10 Gill, Kenneth, 220,328f., 385 Hernandez, Maria Antoinietta, 95 gutten, Kurt, 248f.
Foller, Oskar, 365 Giraud, J., 56 Hernandez, Venancio, 89-91,93f. iywel-Davies, Jack, 343
Forbes, James, 3 Glaubens-Gemeinde (Stuttgart), 364 Herskovits, Melville J., 29
Ford, John, 263 Gnadauer Verband (Germany), 194 Heuberger, Marianne, 39 chthus Christian Fellowship, 364
Ford, Josephine Massyngbaerde, 15, foba, Bonganjalo, 239 Hexham, Irving, 53, 381 glesia Christiana de Cuba, 367
157-59,302 fodoy, Danlie, 130 Hezmalhalch, Thomas, 41 glesia Christiana Independiente
Forsdick, Harry Emerson, 191 Soff, James R., 19-23, 381 Hickney Pentecostal Apostolic Church Pentecostis (Mexico), 87-95
Forster (“A Passage to India”), 291 Soguel, Maurice, 339 (UK), 374 glesia de Dios (Argentina), 387
Foster, Elaine, 109, 268 3oodman, Felicitas D., 81 Hidalgo, Ruben Zavalo, 299, 328 glesia de Dios (Guatemala), 21 1
Fox, George, 9 3older, Morris E., 31 Hilgard, Ernest R., and Josephine, 357 glesia Metodista Pentecostal (Chile),
Francis of Assisi, 9 3orbachey 135,289 Hilton, D., 242 118, 124f., 130
Franklin, A. P., 260 3ospel Publishing House (Springfield, Hilton, James, 6 glesia de Missiones Pentecostales
Free Church Federation Council (UK), Missouri), 187 Hine, Virginia, 34f., 362 Libres en Chile, 387
375 3oulder, Michael, 109, 292 Hitler, A,, 94 glesia Pentecostal de Chile, 130, 368,
Free Pentecostal Church Ostermalm 3raf, Annemarie, 268 Hippolytus, 138 387
(Sweden), 395 3raham, Billy, 29, 304f. Hoaas, Ole-Georg, 267 greja Evangelica Pentecostal de Angola,
Freire, Paola, 83, 115, 165 3raham, Roy E., 290 Hobhouse, Stephen, 147 387
Freud, S., 9 ;ray, Richard, 75f. Hocken, Peter, 20, 162f., 166f., 173, Ilich, Ivan, 115, 237
Friedli, Richard, 291f. 3rason, James Huntley, 105 178f., 230,328f., 334,337-39,343f., nternational Church of Christ (USA),
Fritsche, U., 234 heen, Michael, 304 356,363,366,376,380,387,390 ’ 193
Frodsham, Stanley H., 56, 120f., 343 hegory of Nyssa, 340 Hocking, William E., 339 nternational Church of the Foursquare
Fry, George, 192 Xngoire, Pedro, 94 Hodges, Melvin, 298f. Gospel (USA), 193,247
Fuchs, E., 321 hos, Jeffrey, 37 1f. Hodgson, E., 56 nternational Evangelical Church
Fuller Theological Seminary (Pasadena, h n d m a n n , Christopher, 236 Hoendendall, G. J., 219 (USA), 387
Calif.), 5, 22, 100, 173, 185, 191, 194, helich, R. A., 230f. Hoerschelmann, Werner, 239,274,328 nternational Ministerial Council of
221,230,236,305,325,327, 354,364 herrero, Andres, 206 Hoggart, Richard, 270 Britain. 375
Index of Authors and Subjects 489
Irvin, Dale T., 4, 19, 397 Kierkegaard, S., 83, 359 Lartey, Emmanuel Y., 239, 290 Lundgren, Ivar, 153f.
Irvine, Cecilia, 62 Kildahl, John P., 357f. Lascari, B. Guadelupe, and Josefina, 91 Luntadila, Jean-Claude, 57,60,63f., 70
Irving, Edward, 223, 345 Kim, Byong-Suh, 105 Las Casas, Bartolome, 85-87 Luther, Martin, 4, 13, 79, 83, 123, 135,
Israel, Richard D., 312 Kimbangu, Simon (also Kimbanguist Lasserre, Jean, 57, 66 149f., 152,214,251-53,256,370,
Italiaander, 68 Church and Eglise de Jesus-Christ Lauchli, Samuel, 32 Luthuli,
385,387,398
Albert, 9
sur la terre d’apres le prophete Lauster, Hermann, 248
Jackson, Eleanor M., 291 Simon Kimbangu), 8,24,36,47, 52, Law, William, 146f. Luzolo, K. P., 57
Jackeson, George Pullen, 32 54-80, 178, 186,236,266,301,376, Lawless, Elaine J., 267 Lyon, David, 214
Jackson, Mahalia, 365 380,386 Lawrence, D. H., 221 Lys, Daniel, 219,299
Jackson, Samuel, 29 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 13, 25, 28, 31, Lederle, Henry, 223 Lyttleton, R. A., 240
Jacoby, L. S., 144f. 40,51 Lee, Jae Bu, 104f.
Jeffreys, George, 340 Kinnamon, Michael, 369 Lee, Paul D., 166
Jeffreys, Brothers, 328 Mabwake, Gabriel, 56
Kinne, Warren, H., 290 LeGrand, Herve, 262 Macchia, Frank, 4,40, 207, 225f., 364
Jehu-Appiah, Jerisdan H., 132 Kirchner, Hubert, 256 Lehmann, Walter, 85
Jennings, George J., 35, 159 MacDonald, W., 230
Kirkham, Betty, 146 Leinberger, Bodo, 270, 398f.
Jerrigan, Bill, 329 MacGaffey, W., 65, 67
Klaiber, Walter, 149f. Leinemann-Perrin, Chr., 297
John XXIII, 9, 174, 352 Mach, E. P., 234
Klaus, Byron D., 206, 29699 Lemke, Ch., 382
John Paul I, 172 Machovec, Milan, 292
Klauser, Theodor, 276 Leon, Victor de, 327 Mackay, John A., 3, 154, 198, 351f.
John Paul 11, 179,352 Klerk, E W. de, 266 Leon-Portilla, Miguel, 83f.
John of Patmos, 9 MacRoberts, I., 19,28, 39,43,47, 290
Klocker, Michael, 242 Lepargneur, Franqois-H., 154 Maempa, John T., 39
Johns, Jackie David, 309 Knox, Roland, 294 Lerrigo, P. H. J., 93
Johnson, G. L., 239 Koch, Joh. H. E., 33 Mahan, Asa, 183
Le Salut en Jesus-Christ par le Temoin Mahlangu, Elias, 42
Johnson, James Weldon, 32 Kock, Wynand de, 53, 381 Simon Kimbangu, Eglise Congolaise,
Johnston, G. L., 311, 320 ‘Malcolm X, 35 (see Carmichael Stokely)
Komenius, Jan Amos, 398 78
Jones, Charles Edwin, 25, 28, 119, 329, Maldonado, Oscar, 87
Kopfermann, Wolfram, 264, 364 Letaba, Elias, 42
380 Mama Leo, 267
Korthaus, Estella, 325 Lettau, R., 337
Jones, 0.T., 28 Korzybski, Alfred, 191 Mamiya, Lawrence, H., 29
Lewis, A. Kingsley O’R, 290 Mandela, Nelson, 265
Jongeneel, Jan A. B., 195,290, 379 Kosolokele, Charles, 60 Lewis, William, 154 Mandombe, Mikala, 73
Judd, W. H., 31 Koyama, Kosuke, 291 Ley, Margrit, 29 Mani, 209, 267
Jung, Carl Gustav, 135, 310 Kovaleski, Eugraph, 154 Lidman, Sven, 260, 392,395-97 Mann, Pamela, S., 267
Kraft, Charles, 302 Liebi, Roger, 3 15 Mann, Thomas, 396
Kalilombe, Patrick A,, 75, 376 Krehbiel, H. E., 32 Lienhard, Jean Paul, 3 3 9 4 1
Kaltenbrunner, Gerd-Klaus, 237 Manriquez, Samuel Palma, 130
Krige, A. V., 250 Lietzmann, H., 339
Kamphausen, Erhard, 41f. Mao Tse Tung, 37
Kriiger, C., 250 Lightfoot, J. B., 343 Maranatha Fellowship, 259
Kamu, Lalomilo, 209 Krusche, Werner, 219 Lincoln, C. Eric, 29, 34 Marcel, Gabriel, 339
Kamsteeg, Frans, 290 Krust, Christian, 57, 335, 337f., 348, 385 Lindberg, Alf, 260 Marcom, John, 208
Kang, Wi Jo, 127 Kuhn, Thomas, 112 Linden, Ian, 76 Mariz, Cecilia Loreta, 209
Kant, I., 4, 184 Kiing, Hans, 171, 175 Lindsay, Gordon, 42,351 Margull, Jochen, 291
Karsten, J. L., 197, 315, 319 KuzmiE, Peter, 4, 214f., 316 Lindsell, H., 305 Marti, Jose Maria Pou y, 85
Kasemann, Ernst, 322 Kydd, R. A. N., 386 Linz, Johanna, 141 Martin, David, 120, 328
Kay, William K., 219, 265, 327f., 343,
Lochman, Jan Milic, 215 Martin, Marie-Louise, 56-61, 63-68,
364 LaBerge, Agnes, N. O., 185 Lohmann, E., 195
Kaye, Bruce, 340 70-73
Lahnemann, Joh., 137 Lonergan, B., 139
Keller, Helen, 94 Laidlow, Nellie (or Elena), 121-23 Martin, R. Francis, 168, 197, 315f.
Lopez, Gregor, 146f. Martin, W. C., 250
Kelsey, Morton T., 35 Lake, John Graham, 41f. Lopez-Rjerina, Reis, 206
Kendall, R. Elliot, 75 Lalive d’Epinay, Christian, 18, 120, 122, Martinez, Andres Ornelas, 88f.
Louw, J. J., 41, 48 Marx, Karl, 9, 49, 67, 160,214-16, 226,
Kendrick, Klaude, 20, 327 126,270,328 Lovell, John, 32
Kensington Temple (London), 343 289,292
Lambert, 154 Lovett, Leonard, 19, 28f., 31,40,43,
Kennedy, N. I., 100 Masembo, I., 57
Land, Stephen, 37 173, 176f., l85,230,259,302f., 320
Kenyon, E. W., 231 Lang, H., 146 Mason, Charles Harrison, 28, 68, 187,
Lovsky, E, 338 320
Kern Adolf, 32 Lange, Ernst, 135 Lozano, Emmanuel Agredano, 268
Kerr, Cecil, 10 Massey, Richard, 327
Lanternari, Vittorio, 93 Lucas, Isidro, 206
Kessler, Jean Baptiste August, Jr., 118-24 Lapoorta, Japie, 4, 19,48, 50, 52 Masson, J., 68
Lucente, Giulio, 328 Masters, Carloes, 210
Keswick Movement, 184, 343 Lapsely, James N., 403 Luff, Alan, 277 Mathai, Samuel, 23 1
490 PENTECOSTALISM: Origins and Developments Worfdmide Index o f Authors and Subjects 49 1
Maurer, D., 270 Mooneyham, W. Stanley, 304 Niemoller, Martin, 94 Paul VI, 172
Mazibuko, Bongani, 107,290 Moore, Everett LeRoy, 248, 250,327 Nieremberg, J. E., 146 Paulk, Earl P., 193
Mbiti, John, 289 Moore, Rich D., 309,321 Nieto, Raymundo, 88 Pauwels, L., 240
McAlister, Robert, 166, 172 Moorhead, M. W., 56 Nietzsche, E, 359 Pearce, Joan, 5, 2946
McAII, Kenneth, 230 Moran, Tulio, 121 Nikoloff, Nicholas, 335 Pejsti, 0. N. I., 247
McCarthy, Jerome, 10 Morel, 61 Nkosi, Sydney Sibusiso, 351 Pemberton, Eric E., 109
McClung, Grant, Jr., 299 Morgan, G. Campbell, 191 Nolen, 239 Peiiafiel, Antonio, 84
McConnell, D. R., 23 1 Moscato, Antonia, 328 Noordmans, O., 219 Peiialba, 212
McDonnell, Kilian, 154, 156f., 159, 163, Morse, Merril P., 291 Novaes, Regina, 328 Pentacostal Assemblies of Canada, 386
170,180,223f., 319,327,347,352, Moser, Tilbert, 179 Nuelsen, John L., 151 Pentecostal Assemblies of the World
35662,366,380,384 Mosimann, Eddison, 357 Nsenkoto, Franqois Xavier, 6 (USA), 25,31
McGavran, 336 Moskalenko, Aleksei Trofimovich, 215 Ntontolo, 57 Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches of
McGee, Gary B., 226,259,298f. Mostert, J. P., 239 Nxumalo, 239 North America, 39
McGilvray, James, 236 Moura, Abdalazis de, 154, 270 Pentecostal
USA), 193,375
Church of God (UK &
McIntire, Carl, 193 Mouw, Richard J., 221 Oberlin, Jean-FrCdCric, 183, 397f.
McLean, Mark, 312,315, 318 Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 9,323 Ockenga, Harold, 193 Pentecostal European Conference, 376
McLeod, George, 160 Miihlen, Heribert, 164 O'Connor, Edward D., 153-55, 159,161 Pentecostal Evangelical Church (USA),
McNutt, Francis, 294 Muknan, Martin-Joseph, 56 O'Docharty, L., 153 193
McPherson, Aime Semple, 44, 185,247, Mulheim Association (Germany), 222, Odum, Howard, 32 Pentecostal Fellowship of North
265 334f., 337 O'Mahony, Patrick J., 291 America, 30, 39, 104, 198, 229, 271,
McTernan, John, 382,387 Muller-Bohn, Jost, 194 Omoyajowo, Akin, 75 385
Melchanthon, 4 Miiller, Karl-Ferdinand, 87 Omenyo, Cephas, 363 Pentecostal Fire-Baptized Holiness
Melo, Manuel de, 55, 69f., 273 Mullins, Mark R., 100, 104f. Oneness tradition, 186, 193, 220,226, Church (USA), 393
Melton, J. Merton, 154 Mulrain, George M., 290 302,37lf., 374 Pentecostal Holiness Church (USA),
Menzies, William M., 327, 346 Munden, Alan, 304 Oosthuizen, G. C., 240, 303 248,372
Mercier, J., 146 Murillo, Gerardo, 96 Orchard, R. K., 81 'entecostal Missionary Union (UK), 343
Merwe Burger, I. van der, 41-43 Muslama Disco Christ0 Church (UK & Orebro Baptists (Sweden), 386 'entecostal Research and Preservation
Merz, Andreas, 365 Ghana), 132,374 Orlien, Osvald, 56 Consortium, 329
Messianic Jews, 259 Muschg, Adolf, 238 Oropeza, B. J., 365 'erez-Torres, Ruben, 328
Meyer (Handbuch der Literatur), 396 Mushete, Ngindu, 76 Orsini, 46 'erry, George M., 29
Meyer, Harding, 270 M'Vuendy, Franqois, 66 O'Sullivan, Anthony, 364 'eter, L., 144
Mills, Watson E., 35,225, 329 Mvilu, Mari, 58 Ortega, 83 'etersen, Douglas, 206, 208
Miranda, Jesse, 37, 173, 176, 372 Mwene-Batende, G., 57 Oshun, C. O., 54,328 'ethrus, Lewi, 260, 395f.
Mision Iglesia Pentecostal de Chile, 130, Osborn, T. L., 94 'Ctillon, 63f.
368,387 Naegeli-Osjord, Hans, 239f. Osobo, S. O., 34 'etrella, Lidia Susanna Vacaro de, 256
Missen, Alfred, 179 Nanga, Philip, 57 Ossa, Manuel, 117 'etts, David, 231
Mission ivangelique tzigane de France, Napoleon, 7 Overbeck, Jeremy, 146 'fister, Raymond, 267, 327
376 National Association of Evangelicals Oyarzun, Arturo, 126 'fleiderer, Beatrix, 234
Mitchell, R. C., 34, 57, 328 (USA), 191-93,349,353,371f. 'harish, Henry, 239
Mitscherlich, A. and M., 37, 74 National Black Evangelical Association Padilla, Reni, 222, 304-6 'hilip I1 (King of Spain), 146
Mobutu, 68,78 (USA), 372 Palma, Irma, 117 'ickthorn, W. E., 272
Mofekeng, Kenosi, 53 National Council of Christian Churches Palma, Marta, 370 'eipkorn, A. C., 53
Mohammed, 135 (USA), 371f. Palma, Samuel, 129 'ipe, James A,, 248, 348
Mojzes, Paul, 214 Neely, 123 Panniker, Raymundo, 274 'innock, Clark H., 428
Molinos, 147 Nelson, Douglas J., 19,48 Parham, Charles E, 19-23,43f., 46, 185, 'inochet, 207
Moller, R. P., 43, 48f. Nelson, J. Robert, 81 348 iper, William Hamner, 348
Moltmann, Jurgen, 4,219,226,256,381 Nelson, P. C., 263 Parham, Sarah, 185 isgah Movement, 187
Monod, Wilfried, 339 Nestorius, 221 Parrat, John, 73 ittinger, 221
Montague, George T., 223 New Church of God (UK), 375 Parsons, Stephen, 234 laner, Friedrich, 356
Montanus, 59 Newell, Kennedy W., 234 Pascal, Blake, 52, 83 liiss, Jean-Daniel, 178, 196,207, 221,
Monroe (doctrine), 82 New Order of the Latter Rain, 363 Pate, Larry D., 288, 300f. 324,329,354,364
Montgomery, G. H., 193 Nfinangani and Nzungu, 54,58f. Patterson, J. O., 29 obee, John, 73
Montiel, Victoriano, 92 Ngindu, 62 hb
IP
Pattison.
Paul, Mansell,
Jonathan, 362
33638,343 oewe, Karla, 46, 53, 381, 390
Moody, D. L., 184 Niederberger, O., 57,68 olhill, Cecil, 328, 344f.
Roberts, Evan, 145 Scheel, Otto, 251f. Sjogreen, Holger, 260

Polman, Gerrit Roelof, 201,343, 3 4 5 4 7
Roberts, Mark E., 232 Schiavone, Saverio, 328 Ski, Martin, 327
Poloma, Margret M., 258, 260, 327, 363 I
Roberts, Oral, 94, 109, 128f., 208,231, Schick, Alice, 130 Slootweg, Hanneke, 268
Pomerville, Paul A,, 303
233 Schipper, 210, 304 Srnedes, Lewis B., 230,304
Pope, Liston, 318
Robin, Roger, 188 Schlatter, Adolf, 195 Srneeting, Donald D., 231,263, 298, 382
Potter, Philip, 82, 370, 377, 379f.
Robinson (Methodist Missionary to Schleich, Carl Ludwig, 240 Smith, Dennis, 211f., 214, 328
Poujol, Pierre, 338
Chile), 122f. Schlosser, Katesa, 240 Smith, Florence, 118
Pratt, Thomas, 230
Robinson, Martin, 41, 350-53 Schmidt, Martin, 146f. Smith, Gwen, 328
Prior, John Mansford, 385
Robinson, Wayne, A., 128,389 Schmidt, Wolfgang, 247, 327 Smith, Oswald J., 7
Puharich, A,, 238
Rochat, Giorgio, 328 Schmieder, Lucida, 164f., 183-85 Smith, R. Pearsall, 144f.
Pyun, Chon-ha, 101f.
Rockle, Christian, 249 Schulgen, E J., 153 Smith, R. Pearsall and Hannah Whitall,
Roebuck, David G., 268 Schulz, Walter, 145, 151 183. 185
Quebedeaux, Richard, 363
Rolim, Francisco, 328 Schumann, Robert, 359 Smith,’Timothy, 189
Quy, Douglas, 171
Rosas, Carlos, 286 Schwab, Jeran-Claude, 227 Snell, Jeffrey T, 222
Rose, William Ernest, 290 Schwarz, Chr. A., 364 Society for Pentecostal Studies, 5, 178,
Raiser, Konrad, 3, 21 1
Schweizer, Eduard, 119, 137, 223,228, 198,232,313,329
Raj, P. Solomon, 29, 328 Ross, R. M., 349
Rossi, 6 1 273, 314.322 Socrates, 9
Ramabai, Pandita, 120
Rottmann, H., 337 Schwenckfeld, Kaspar, 337 Solivan, Samuel, 39f.
Ramirez-Ramirez, Alfredo, 127,273
Rougemeont, Fritz de, 338 Scopuli, Lorenzo, 146 Solomon, Robert M., 232
Ramirez, Raymundo, 88-90,92
Roux, Hebert, 340 Scott, Douglas, 338-40 Soustelle, Jacques, 83
Ranaghan, Kevin & Dorothy, 154, 156,
Roux, P. L. le, 49 Scott, P., 151 South African Council of Churches, 49
158f.
Ruchelka, Thomas R., 315 Scougal, Henry, 146, 148 Speer, 118
Randall, Claire, 372
Ruler, A. A. van, 219 Senupta, Padmini, 120 Spencer, Jon Michael, 32
Ranger, Terence, 239
Runyon, Theodore, 189 Sens, Matthias, 316 Spittler, Russel, 22, 35, 191, 193f., 222,
Rappleye, W. C.
Rusch, William G., 372 Sepulveda, Juan, 4, 86, 129f., 209, 255f., 224f., 227,299f., 302,350-54
Rausch, David A., 259
Russell, Jones, Brian, 230 368,370,381 Stampe, Laurida, 395
Rausch, Thomas P., 173
Rutenborn, Giinter, 32 Serrano (Guatemala), 212 Staupitz, 253
Rathgeb, Jiirg, 283
Ruuth, Anders, 209 Setiloane, Gabriel, 75, 77 Steady, Filomena Chioma, 76
Raymaekers, Paul, 58,6345,67f., 78
Ryckmans, A., 57,61 Seventh Church of Melchizedec (UK), Steele, Minnie A,, 253
Reagan, Ronald, 205
374 Steiner, B., 146
Reddy, Sister Mary, 160
Saayman, Willem, 4 Seymour, William J., 4f., 18-20, 226, 30, Steiner, Leonhard, 56f., 222, 229, 237
Reed, David A,, 25, 39, 302
Sai, E. T., 242 39, 43,47f., 185, 348, 360, 365, 384, Stelter, Alfred, 238f.
Regehly, P., 250
Salter, James, 344 393 Stenholm, Gustav, 56
Reimer, Hans-Dieter, 356
Samarin, William J., 35, 224, 357 Shakespeare, William, 146, 323, 325 Stibbe, Mark W. G., 4
Reimer, Ingrid, 364
Sampedro, N., 130 Shembe, 239 Sitglmayer, E., 242
Renty, Jean-Baptiste de, 147
Sampson, Christian, 235 Sheppard, Gerald T, 202, 221, 314f. Stockmayer, Otto, 336
Rhine, J. B., 240
Sampson, Rogers, 122 Sheppard, J. W., 269 Stockwell, Eugene, 368, 370
Rice, 121-23
Sandeen, Ernest R., 191 Sherman, M., 274 Stone, Derek, 154
Rich, Arthur, 217
Sandidge, Jerry L., 4, 153, 165-72, 174, Sherrill, John L., 154 Stott, John, 306
Richardson, A., 229
177-79, 194,214,261-63,314f., Shilo United Church of Christ jtotts, G. R., 327, 338f.
Richemond, Rene de, 3 4 M 2
372-74,382,384,387 Apostolic (Worldwide) (UK), 374f stout, B. Maurice, 3, 259, 393
Ricoeur, Paul, 192
Sandinista government, 204 Shorter, Aylward, 242 jtrachan, C. Gordon, 223
Riego, Ritilio del, 206
Sandru, Trandafir, 328 Shuller, Robert, 100 strand, Egil, 327
Rietdijk, Joh., 327
Sankey, Ira, 144 Shuman, Joel, 189 Itransky, Tom, 73
Riley, W. B., 191
Santa Ana, Julio de, 86 Silu, Bena, 380 jtrobele-Gregor, Juliana, 208
Riss, Richard, 268, 348, 363
Simmonds, Martin, 109 strgm, Erling, 327
Rivera, Jose “Efrain,” 94 Saracco, Jose Norberto, 290, 328
Sargent, William, 310 Simmons, E. L., 193 jtronstad, Roger, 31 1,319, 232f.
Robeck, Cecil M., Jr., 1, 3-5, 19, 23,
Simmons, Menno, 9 jtroup, George W., 322
39f.,44,49f., 59f., 87, 104, 125, 155, Saron Church (Mexico), 88
Simpfendorfer, Werner, 277 itruble, Rohde, 260
164, 166, 173, 178, 180, 187-87, 192, Schaefer, Francis, 391
Simpson, John, 362 tubblefield,
trydom, J., 42
Johnny “Pappy,” 168
194,204,230,236,26143,268,270, jchaefer, Frank, 391
Sinclair, John H., 368
301,315,335, 34749,354-56, jchaefer, Hans, 238
Ichaerer, Henri, 3 4 M 2 Sinda, Martial, 62, 67 tuhlmacher, Peter, 323
36749,371-73,381-84 Singer, Merrill, 20
Robeck, Patsy, 355 $chafer, Heinrich, 211, 365 tuntz, 120-24
jchatzmann, Sigfried, 354 Singleton, Michael, 77 turm, Klaus, 364
Robert, Daniel, 338
Sudbrack, Josef, 160 Tutu, Desmond, 49,76f. Walker, Benjamin, 239 Wing, J. van, 60, 62
Suh, David Kwang, 105 Twain, Mark, 325 Walker, J. H., 193, 219 Wogen,
Wink, Walter,
Norris74,
I., 253
197, 230, 322
Sundkler, Bengt, 42, 75, 303 Twelftree, G., 233 Walworth Methodist Church (UK), 375
Sundstedt, Arthur, 327 Wardlaw, Don M., 196 Wood, William W., 362
Suurmond, Jean-Jacques, 227,257,272, Unamuno, 83 Warner, Wayne E., 41,268,343, 350, Woodlawn Organization, 26
353,382 United Evangelical-Pentecostal Church 365,371 Word-Faith Churches, 259
Swaggart, Jimmy Lee, 259 of Poland, 173 Warrington, Keith, 231 World Council of Churches, 3f., 6, 28,
Swantz, Marja Liisa, 76 Union de Pritre (France), 3 4 W 2 Washington, Booker T., 32 35, 56f., 68-70, 77, 79f., 82f., 127,
Synan, Harold Vinson, 19, 39, 154, 166, Union Evangklica Pentecostal Washington, E D., 28 130, 132, 162, 167, 178, 184, 194,
173, 191f., 302, 327, 329, 363, 372, Venezolana, 368 Washington, Joseph R., 34 198, 21 1, 236, 242f., 296f., 337,
384 Union of Evangelical Watt, Peter, 52 349, 351f., 354, 367-70, 377-87,
Christians/Baptists of USSR, 387 Watts, Isaac, 9 394,399
Talbert, Dean Healland, 130 University Action (Louvain), 169 Wead, R. Douglas, 168 World Health Organization, 234, 239
Tamez, Elsa, 268 Unrat, Professor, 379 Weaver, C. Douglas, 229 World Pentecostal Conference, 166, 178,
Tarr, Del, 195f., 267 Upham, Thomas C., 184 Webb, Pauline, 111 331,351,353
Tasie, Godwin, 75f. Upper Room Mission (USA, South Weber, Emil, 290 Worrell, A. S., 138
Tauler, 147 Africa), 42 Weber, Hans-Ruedi, 62, 198 Worsfold, James E., 328
Taylor, Jeremy, 146 Ustorf, Werner, 57-63, 78f. Weber, Karl, 161 Wumkes, C. A., 327,345f.
Taylor, William, 118f. Weber, Max, 259f. Wyatt, Thomas, 248
Tegnander, Oddbar, 267 Valencio, Eduardo, 130 Werin, Algot, 397
Temple, William, 2 14 Valle, Edenio, 130 Wesley, John, 2, 118, 126, 128, 144-52, Yimknez, E, 86
Tenneke, Hans, 130 Vandervelde, George, 173 181f., 250f., 330, 372
Tertullian, 59, 220 Vanelderen, Marlin, 178, 198 Wessels, G. R. 42,48 Yeomans, Amelia, 348, 373
Theissen, Gerd, 228-30, 233, 236f., 241 van der Laan, Cornelius, 19f., 178,201, Wessels, Roland H., 223 k'eomans, Lilian Barbara, 348, 373
Theological Education Fund (TEF), 263,290,327,329,343,345-47 Westmeier, Karl-Wilhelm, 328 Yi, Yong-do, 101
269,297 van der Laan, Paul, 178,255,290,327 Wet, Christiaan Rudolph de, 41, 45, 48 (oakum, Finis Erwing, 187
Thimme, 336 Veenhof, J., 227 Wyegandt, Wilhelm, 240 k'oo, Boo-Woong, 99-105,290,328
Third Wave, 230, 364 Vereb, 153 Whitefield, George, 150 k'ork, R. L., 9
Thomas Aquinas, 83, 157 Vergara, Ignacio, 120, 125f., 155 Widmer, Johannes, 248 r'owani, Albert, 60
Thomas iKempis, 141 Vernaud, J., 56 Wieser, Thomas, 28, 73
Thomas, John Christopher, 232 Vezzosi, A. E, 146 Wigglesworth, Smith, 343, 350f. Cairian Evangelistic Mission, 55f.
Thompson, T. Jack, 106 Vidal, M. and Ana, 130 Wikisi, Raymond, 60 Canuso, Hermengilde, 87
Thoorens, Jean, 339 Vida Abundante (Guatemala), 212 Wilkerson, David, 154, 168, 315 Ceegers, J., 153
Thoroughgood, Mr., 10 Villafafie, Eldin, 100,204-6,219-21, Wilkinson, John, 107, 116 !eegwart, Huibert, 197, 221, 315, 319
Thurman, Joyce, 290,364 321f., 243,265,267, 286,327, 330, Willaim, Jean-Paul, 376 'eigler, James R., 41, 329
Tiirsot, J., 29 385 Willems, Emilio, 120 !enetti, Lotha, 27, 155, 270
Tillich, Paul, 214, 361 Villanueva, Benjamin, 212 Williams, Cyril C., 35, 224 !iegler, Albert, 172
Tippett, Michael, 12, 32, 279 Villela, Hugo, 129 Williams, Ernest S., 248, 268 :iemer, Christoph, 356
Tinney, James, 19 Vineyard Ministries, 232, 259 Williams, Rodman, 154, 222 likmund, Barbara Brown, 373
Tomlin, Carol, 109 Vischer, Lukas, 218 Willis, Wendell, 3 19 :immerman, Thomas Fletcher, 165,
Tomlinson, A. J., 22, 85 Visser t'Hooft, W., 351 Wilson, Bryon, 330 179,349,352
Tonks, Harold, 217,291 Vivier-van Eetveldt, L. M., 35, 358, 362 Wilson, Dwight J., 100, 229, 327 hzendorf, Count Nikolaus von, 149
Torkelson, Willmar, 155 Vogt, Theophil, 11If., 198 Wilson, Elizabeth A. Galley, 56 :ionist Churches (South Africa), 41,
Tornberg, 260 Voice of Healing Fellowship, 35 1 Wilson, Everett A,, 32, 211, 370, 372 51-53
Toro, Victor Pavez, 121 Volf, Miroslav, 31, 176, 209, 226,253, Wilson, E. E. (Meth. missionary to iopfi, Jakob, 173, 175f., 303, 330, 373
Toronto Blessing, 365 256,264f., 381 Chile), 119 iwingli, Huldreich, 123, 150, 172, 219,
Tortorelli, Domenico Gentile, 328 Voliva (Zion City), 21 Wilson, Michael 235, 239 226,236
Traettino, Giovanni, 328 Vongbock, Kim, 108 Wimber, John, 23&32,264 ,wink, Eberhard, 398
Triplett, Loren O., 296-99 Vos, Wiebe, 274f.
Tschuy, Theo, 88f., 91f., 94
Tiibinger Offensive Stadtmission Wacker, Grant, 327,329f.
(TOS), 364 Wagner, C. Peter, 232, 259, 264
Tugwell, Simon, 154, 156-59,357 Wainwright, Geoffrey, 65, 79
Turner, Harold W., 57, 75, 328 Walker, Andrew, 364

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Origins and

vV! TER 1, HOLI YWEG

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

All these are included in my prayers which accompany

I. THE BLACK ORAL ROOT

4. A Kite Flies Against the Wind: Black Power and

54 The Epistle to the Colossians: An Example of a

V. THE ECUMENICAL ROOT

Little did I know when I started Pentecostal research

Faupel, “Whither?” 9-27, quote, 10. See also Robeck, “Where?”1.

Street. T h e oral participatory style was not restricted to Pentecostals or to

A Black Pentecostal Evangelist: Arthur Brazier3

‘This chapter started as a chapter in my Pentecost Between Black and White. It

prohibited racially mixed meetings. It would therefore be unfair to blame the

different tone in ch. 3, p. 23 and ch. 15, pp. 193f.

practice an oral theology as an alternative or complement to a rational and

It is therefore not surprising that white South African Pentecostals reject

C. de Wet, a Pentecostal missiologist from South Africa, tries to explain

me sick at my stomach is to see white people imitating unintelligent, ,-rude

Horn, “Apostolic Leadership.”

’*On this in detail 17% 3.

Brazilian Pentecostal church B r a d para Cristo6 was admitted to the World

followed by capital punishment. However the Belgian King, Albert I,

“prophet”63and “example”@; as the one through whom “the people of the

the World Council of Churches. In the view of the Kimbanguists, a Zayrian

outsider the Kimbanguists presented the image of an orthodox Protestant

‘22 ?Cuix oc nell’n tlaca? Peiiafiel, Cantares Mexicunos, 1Ov; Leon-Portilla, A z t e c

steadily. In 1941 Ornelas disassociated himself from foreign missionaries. In

(”) no information, no religion, 8 other denominations and religions

Outlook Korea: llie Oral Shamanist

5 6 0 n e remembers the protest against Chung, Hyun Kyung at Canberra (see

which they have to learn in order to pass examinations, but as an important

‘ T h i s chapter started as a lecture at the World Methodist Historical Society in

and away ahead of the Methodist Episcopal Church in education, culture,

the Chileans of being “anti-methodist.” In studying carefully the Swiss and

” Sepulveda, “Pentecostalism,” 81.

In order to understand this situation one can imagine three parties: T h e

need a deep religious commitment.”‘ No theological discussion can do away

We know the New Age literature of this time. It is full of gripping

Any observer of Pentecostalism will see that it is particularly successful in

experience different from j~stification.~

It does not make a man infallible. None is infallible, while he remains

Justification is something which is accomplished in man by a kind of legal fiction . . I, 213.

included a broad spectrum of Catholic scholars and charismatic and Pentecos-

(2) The Place of Women in the Ministry

Anybody knowledgeable about Pentecostalism will have to agree that this

rejected). He also mentions the invasion by the sects in Latin America,

T h e movement’s best-known representatives were the Oberlin theolo-

sall, and Hannah Whitall Smith produced a remarkable response in the

of the response they were given by these “Calvinists,” and as J. R. Flower

academic relevance). For these scholars, Pentecostals have been interesting

yust be a little patient when I am slow to understand your love

“Pentecostalism is anti-intellectual, evangelical-fundamentalist and anti-

2See above, chapter 15, pp. 190-92.

were Pentecostals, including the chairperson Rev. Benjamin Alicea.’

1. T h e social issues relevant to the Hispanic community are not seriously

To sum up, Braunhart says:

Perhaps I could cr-y, I could moo like mad

In my c h a p t e r on Italy I have described this working class, which many

Prayer of the Cow