UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND SPORT

Module: Environmental Studies Lecture #8

MINERALS
Minerals are inorganic substances that occur naturally in the Earth’s crust, usually as a crystalline solid.
Rocks are a solid combination of one or more minerals found in the earth’s crust. An ore is a rock that
contains a large enough concentration of a particular mineral, making it profitable for mining or
extraction. High-grade ores contain relatively large amounts of particular minerals while low-grade ores
contain lesser amounts.

Metals are minerals e.g., iron, aluminium and copper, which are malleable, lustrous and good conductors
of heat and electricity. Non-metallic minerals lack these characteristics. They are brittle, dull and are
usually insulators e.g., sand, stone, salt and phosphates.

Mineral resources are concentrations of naturally occurring solid, liquid or gaseous material from the
earth’s crust in a form and amount such that extracting and converting it into useful materials or items is
currently or potentially profitable. The supply of a given mineral resource refers to its reserves – these
are identified resources from which the mineral can be extracted profitably at current prices. Reserves
increase when new profitable deposits are found and when higher prices or improved mining technologies
make it profitable to extract deposits that previously were considered too expensive to extract.

EXTRACTION AND REFINING

After a particular mineral deposit is located, the mineral is extracted from the ground by mining. The
method used is dependent on depth of the deposit. Minerals close to the surface are extracted by surface
mining while deeper deposits are extracted by subsurface mining.

Surface mining
Minerals are extracted near the surface. This includes the removal of all the vegetation in the area. In
order to access the mineral, the overburden, which is the soil or rock overlying the deposit, is removed.

Types of surface mining:

 Open pit is where a giant hole, known as a quarry, is dug to remove ores, sand, gravel and stone such
as limestone and marble. Metals such as gold, iron and copper are also mined this way.

 Strip mining is used to extract mineral deposits that lie in horizontal beds close to the earth’s surface.
 Mountaintop removal – This occurs when the top of a mountain is removed to expose coal seams, which
are then removed.

*Overburden refers to soil or rock overlying a useful mineral deposit.

The mineral is processed or refined by concentrating it and removing impurities. The purified mineral is
used to make the product.

Bauxite Mining in Jamaica

Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminium. It is extracted using open-pit mining by removing the topsoil to
expose the underlying bauxite. As the third largest producer of bauxite ore in the world, Jamaica’s total
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bauxite reserves are estimated to be 2 billion tonnes (http://www1.american.edu/TED/bauxite.htm).

Environmental Implications:

Extraction
• Mining involves deforestation which leads to habitat destruction
• Mining disturbs and damages the land and damages ecosystems
• Processing and disposal of minerals pollute the air, soil and water
• Mining increases soil erosion
• Noise Pollution

Processing Minerals
This involves refining – Dissolving the ore in caustic soda to remove impurities.
• If air pollution control devices such as electrostatic precipitators or scrubbers are not installed, many
dangerous gases are emitted during refining.
• Processing and disposal of minerals pollute the air, soil and water. Possible chemical contaminants
include cyanide, lead, mercury and sulphur-based compounds

Solutions
• Install expensive pollution control devices to refineries
• When a mine is abandoned, the land can be reclaimed, or restored to semi-natural conditions
• Safer disposal methods for red mud
• Construct marshes or ponds downstream from mines to prevent toxic compounds from making their
way into nearby streams or lakes.

Subsurface mining

Subsurface mining is used to extract mineral deposits that are buried too deep to be removed by surface
mining. This form of mining is usually used when extracting minerals such as zinc, lead, nickel, tin, gold,
copper, diamonds, phosphate, salt, coal and uranium. These minerals are extracted by either shaft mining
or slope mining.

 Shaft mine – a direct vertical shaft to the vein of the ore. The ore is broken up underground and then
sent up the shaft in buckets.

 Slope mine- a slanting passage that makes it possible to haul the broken ore out of the mine in cars
and not buckets.

Subsurface mining is noted as being less destructive to the environment than surface mining as it is more
of a vertical extraction operation and less of a horizontal one, equating to less deforestation. These
operations, however, are associated with some negative environmental impacts outlined below as well
as it usually costing more, being more difficult to perform and more time consuming than surface mining.

Environmental Impacts of Subsurface Mining – Acid Mine Drainage

Subsurface mining involves the use of equipment deep underground. Acid drainage from these pieces of
equipment contaminate ground water. Additionally, minerals from the disturbed earth may seep into
ground water and other water ways and introduce chemicals hazardous to human health. This is often
referred to as Acid Mine Drainage. It should be noted also that acidic drainage can continue from

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 abandoned mines hence resulting in long term ground water pollution.

In the subsurface mining process, water is periodically pumped out of the mine. After the mining is
completed, however, this pumping of water stops causing water to flood the mine. This water is toxic and
can find its way into way into rivers and streams, altering pH levels and harming aquatic organisms.

A few solutions to Acid Mine Drainage include:

 Sealing off exposed surfaces of the abandoned mine with a non-reactive or impermeable coating
 Backfilling abandoned mines with materials that can neutralize the acid and treat waters that pass
through them
 Adding chemicals to the water in flooded abandoned mines that can stop acid-generating chemical
reactions and produce coatings that will seal off any groundwater migration routes
 Isolating the contaminated waters at depth

Other negative impacts of subsurface mining, which will impact the miners more so than the
environment, include dust pollution, gas leaks from the disturbed earth, underground explosions and
mine collapses.

For additional information based on deep sea mining for oil please see the link to the article below:

Environmental Impacts of the Deep-Water Oil and Gas Industry: A Review to Guide Management
Strategies

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenvs.2016.00058/full

ENERGY
Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work by performing mechanical, physical, chemical or
electrical tasks or to cause a heat transfer between two objects at different temperatures. Several forms
of energy exist and include mechanical, electrical, solar and nuclear. Sources of energy are categorised as
renewable and non-renewable.

Non – Renewable Energy Sources

These are exhaustible and finite, i.e., a specific amount is present, and that amount can be used up.

Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels include oil, natural gas and coal. A fossil fuel is composed of partially decayed remnants of
organisms. Most of the fossil fuels that we use today were formed millions of years ago. Fossil fuels are
non-renewable resources i.e., the Earth has a finite or limited supply of them. Although coal and other
fossil fuels are still being formed by natural processes today, they are formed too slowly to replace the
fossil fuel reserves we are using.

Three hundred million years ago, the climate of much of the Earth was mild and warm and plants grew
throughout the year. Vast swamps were filled with plant species that are now long extinct. As these
ancient swamp plants died, they fell into the swamp where they were covered by water. Their watery
grave prevented the plants from decomposing fully. This is because wood rotting fungi require oxygen
and anaerobic bacteria, that do not require oxygen, do not decompose wood very rapidly. Over time,
more and more dead plants piled up. As a result of periodic changes in sea levels, layers of sediment
(materials deposited by gravity) accumulated covering the plant material. After millions of years, the heat

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and pressure that accompanied the burial converted the plant material into a carbon rich rock called coal,
and the layers of sediment into sedimentary rock.

Oil was formed when large numbers of microscopic aquatic organisms died and settled in the sediments.
As these organisms accumulated, their decomposition depleted the small amount of oxygen that was
present in the sediments. This resultant oxygen deficient environment prevented further decomposition.
Again, over time, the heat and pressures accompanying the burial aided in the conversion of these remains
to the mixture of hydrocarbons known as oil.

Natural gas is composed primarily of the simplest hydrocarbon, methane, and was formed essentially by
the same process as oil except at higher temperatures. Deposits of oil and natural gas are often found
together. The environmental problems associated with the use of oil and natural gas include damage to
the environment where the wells are located, accidental oil spills during transport and storage, and CO2
emissions when the oil and natural gas are burned.

Burning any fossil fuel releases CO2 which contributes to global warming. Coal burning contributes more
air pollution than burning oil or natural gas. It contributes especially to acid deposition.

Nuclear Energy
This is the energy released by nuclear fission or fusion. Fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus into
two smaller fragments accompanied by the release of a large amount of energy. Fusion is the joining of
two lightweight atomic nuclei into a single heavier nucleus, accompanied by the release of a large amount
of energy. Nuclear energy is considered non-renewable because uranium, the ore used primarily in
nuclear reactors is extracted from the earth (http://www.altenergy.org/nonrenewables/nuclear.html).

Uranium ore is the mineral ore used in conventional nuclear power plants. Low-level radioactive wastes
are solids, liquids or gases, which give off small amounts of ionizing radiation. These include glassware,
tools, paper and clothing that have been contaminated by radioactivity.

High-level radioactive wastes are solids, liquids or gases, which initially give off large amounts of ionizing
radiation. It includes wastes produced during nuclear fission e.g., reactor metals, coolant fluids.

Ocean disposal has the potential to harm the marine environment. International agreements currently
prohibit ocean disposal of radioactive wastes.

Renewable Energy Sources

Renewable energy sources are sources of energy that are replenished by natural processes so that they
can be used indefinitely. They include Direct Solar Energy, Biofuels, Wind Energy, Hydropower, Ocean
Thermal Energy, Geothermal Energy and Tidal Energy.
Solar Energy
The sun provides enough energy in one minute to supply the world’s energy needs for a year. Solar power
is generated in two ways – thermal and photovoltaic.
 Thermal – Converts sunlight into heat and applying it to a steam generator engine to convert it into
electricity.
 Photovoltaic – Photovoltaic cells made from silicon are wired together to create panels. These panels
act as semi-conductors to produce electricity.

Biofuels
These are fuel sources derived from plants and plant and animal wastes. Examples of biofuels include
biodiesel and ethanol. Advantages include:

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  increased availability and reduced dependency on imported oil as crops can be grown in more
areas;
 biofuels are easy to store and transport and can be used to fuel motor vehicles; and
 decreased CO2 emissions.

Concerns include:
 rising food prices affected by the large quantities of food stuff, especially corn, which have been
used to make ethanol fuel for cars;
 loss of forests and habitats to make space for croplands used to produce biofuels;
 loss of soil fertility by monocropping practices; and
 increased use of nitrogen-based fertilizers

Wind Energy
Wind turbines at sea and on land can convert wind into electrical energy. Wind power has low
environmental impact with no carbon dioxide emissions. However, steady winds are needed and if not
sited properly they may kill birds and bats and interfere with the paths of migratory birds.

Hydropower
Hydropower generates electricity by harnessing the energy of moving water. A typical hydropower plant
includes three parts:
 An electrical plant where electricity is produced;
 A dam that can be opened or closed to control water flow; and
 A reservoir where water can be stored.

The water behind the dam flows through an intake and pushes against blades in a turbine, causing them
to turn. The turbine spins a generator to produce electricity. The amount of electricity generated depends
on how far the water drops and how much water moves through the system. Hydropower may be
considered the cheapest method since once the dam is built and the equipment installed there is limited
additional outlay. However, the environmental issues are great. Damming rivers may destroy or disrupt
wildlife or other natural resources. They may disrupt the migratory patterns of fish and hurt fish
populations. They can also cause low dissolved oxygen levels in water which may be harmful to habitats.
(http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/hydropower-profile/)

Ocean Thermal
The oceans absorb significant amounts of solar energy daily. On an average day, 60 million square
kilometres (23 million square miles) of tropical seas absorb an amount of solar radiation equal in heat
content to about 250 billion barrels of oil (http://www.nrel.gov/otec/what.html). Ocean thermal energy
refers to the energy derived from the conversion of solar energy into electrical power by using the ocean’s
natural thermal gradient; i.e. layers of water have different temperatures. As long as the temperature
between the warm surface water and the cold deep water differs by about 20°C (36°F), a significant
amount of power can be produced (http://www.nrel.gov/otec/what.html).

Geothermal
Heat stored in underground rocks and fluid in the earth’s mantle is referred to as geothermal energy. It is
estimated that using just 1% of the heat stored in the first 8 miles of the earth’s crust would provide 250
times more energy than that stored in all the earth’s crude oil and natural gas reserves. (Miller &
Spoolman, 2010)

Tidal
The tide moves an enormous amount of water daily. This movement could be used to generate electricity.
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Although the source is reliable and available, it is expensive to convert into useful energy. The system is
similar to a hydro-electric plant; the ebb and flow of the tide moves a turbine or pushes air through the
turbine to turn it, thereby generating electricity. The limitation is that it can only be used when the tide is
flowing, which would allow for other sources to be used when the tide is not flowing. The good thing is
the timing of the tide is predictable. (http://www.darvill.clara.net/altenerg/tidal.htm)

Status of renewable energy sources in Jamaica

Renewable energy sources accounted for 9% of the energy supplied in Jamaica in 2010. In 2018 this was
increased to approximately 18%. Hon. Daryl Vaz, Minister of Science, Energy and Technology, in
November 2020 indicated that the government is focused on implementing the next phase of renewable
energy projects that will allow Jamaica to move closer to its target of generating 30% of its electricity from
alternative sources by 2030. He also purported that the target of 50% can be achieved by 2037.

ADDITIONAL READING:

http://solarbuzzjamaica.com/solar-is-dirt-cheap-and-about-to-get-even-more-powerful/

https://jis.gov.jm/govt-executing-next-tranche-of-renewable-energy-projects/

https://www.jpsco.com/jps-home/exploring-renewables/

CONSERVATION
Energy conservation is moderating or eliminating wasteful or unnecessary energy-consuming activities,
for example, turning off lights when not in use. Energy efficiency is using technology to accomplish a
particular task with less energy, for example, switching incandescent bulbs to LED lights

WASTE MANAGEMENT
Waste is any material that has no direct value to producers and must be disposed of. Millions of tonnes
of waste are produced each year. Much of it is harmful to humans, plants and animals. Dispensing of this
waste in an environmentally safe manner is becoming increasingly difficult and expensive.

Characteristics:
 Can be solid, liquid or gaseous.
 Arises from a wide variety of sources including use and generation of energy, extraction of raw (virgin)
materials; industrial processes; transport and agriculture. Also arises from construction; selling of goods
or products, using products and waste disposal.

Solid waste
Any unwanted or discarded material that is not a liquid or a gas. Based on the 2013 waste characterisation
survey conducted by the National Solid Waste Management Authority it is estimated that 1 kg of waste is
generated per person per day in Jamaica. The amount is expected to increase by approximately 6% with
each year resulting in an estimated 1.59 kg of waste generated per person per day in 2021. Other more
conservative estimates have this figure increasing to 1.5 kg by 2030.

Established in 2002, the National Solid Waste Management Authority (NSWMA) has the sole jurisdiction
for solid waste management in the country. Collection and disposal of solid waste is organized around
wastesheds. Wastesheds are all the areas in a region from which waste is collected and hauled to a
common disposal site. There are four wastesheds comprising a total of eight dumpsites around the island.
The wastesheds are Northeastern (Portland, St. Mary and St. Ann), Riverton (Clarendon, St. Catherine,
Kingston, St. Andrew, St. Thomas), Retirement (Trelawny, St. James, Hanover, Westmoreland) and West

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Kirkvine (St. Elizabeth, Manchester).

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These dump sites within the above wastesheds, along with their location and sizes, are as follows:

Riverton (St Catherine) 43.50 ha

Church Corner (St Thomas) 1.21 ha
Martin’s Hill (Manchester) 7.82 ha
Myersville (St. Elizabeth) 3.70 ha
Retirement (St. James) 10.96 ha
Tobolski (St. Ann) 4.94 ha
Hadden (St. Ann) 3.88 ha
Doctors Wood (Portland) size not available

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https://publications.iadb.org/publications/english/document/Solid-Waste-Management-in-the-
Caribbean-Proceedings-from-the-Caribbean-Solid-Waste-Conference.pdf

The NSWMA operates through four (4) regional offices which service different parishes across the island
as follows:

Metropolitan Parks and Markets (MPM) Waste Management Limited servicing Kingston, St. Andrew
and St. Thomas

Western Parks and Markets (WPM) Waste Management Limited servicing Trelawny, Hanover, St. James
and Westmoreland

Southern Parks and Markets (SPM) Waste Management Limited servicing Clarendon, Manchester and
St. Elizabeth

Northeastern Parks and Markets (NEPM) Waste Management Limited servicing St. Ann, St. Mary and
Portland

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The following table indicates the percent by volume of the different classes of waste generated in the four
(4) major regions in the stated year.

Table Showing Composition of Household Waste Collected in Four Major Regions across Jamaica

Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Percentage (%) Percentage (%)

Generated Generated Generated Generated
Waste Fraction MPM (2013) WPM (2014) SPM (2015) NEPM (2015)
Compostable 62.22 55 54.5 54.9
Paper 9.27 17 15.5 11.7
Plastic 12.2 18 15.1 14.6
Metal/ Tin 2.28 2 3.4 5.9
Cardboard 5.46 2 2.6 4.8
Glass 2.81 3 4.8 3
Textile 5.09 4 3.9 4.2
Wood/Board 0.53 0 0 0.9
Hazardous 0 0 0 0
E-Waste 0.04 0 0.1 0
Other 0 0 0 0
TOTAL 100 100 100 100
Adapted from source: http://www.nswma.gov.jm/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/NSWMA-Waste-
Characterization-Studies-2015.pdf

Types of solid waste

Municipal solid waste consists of solid materials discarded by homes, offices, retail stores, restaurants,
schools, hospitals and other commercial and institutional facilities. It accounts for only a small portion of
all solid waste produced.

Non-municipal solid waste includes waste from industry, agriculture and mining. It is produced in
substantially larger amounts than municipal solid waste.

Hazardous and toxic materials may be present in waste.

 Includes any discarded material containing substances known to be fatal to humans or animals in low
doses. e.g., cyanide

 Includes toxic waste polychlorinated byphenols (PCB’s) used to produce insulators in electrical units

Carcinogenic waste causes cancer of the chest and abdominal lining. e.g., asbestos

Mutagenic waste causes mutations; e.g., cadmium used in pigments and batteries

Teratogenic waste causes foetal abnormalities in humans and other organisms; e.g., mercury

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Reasons for increases in the volume of waste:

1. Increased consumption of raw materials

2. Increased manufacture, transport, sale and use of a wide variety of products
3. Built in obsolescence – products such as toys, electrical and sporting goods designed not to last very
long
4. Increase in the amount of packaging
5. Increase in the demand for convenience products i.e., disposable consumer goods e.g., pens, razors

Composition of waste has changed considerably. There has been a decrease in the proportion of
biodegradable waste and an increase in the proportion of inorganic non-biodegradable waste such as
plastics, metals, alloys and chemicals.

WASTE DISPOSAL METHODS

Inappropriate Waste Disposal Methods

Open dumps are considered to be unsanitary. Methane gas is released into the air as microorganisms
decompose solid waste. This poses a fire hazard. Liquid from these dumps may contaminate the ground
water.

Open burning releases toxic fumes close to the ground. Toxic ash may contaminate air, soil and
groundwater.

Incineration

Advantages
1. Volume of solid waste reduced by up to 90%
2. Less need for landfills
3. Low potential for water pollution
4. Concentrates hazardous substances into ash for burial
5. Process produces heat which if properly channelled, can produce steam to warm buildings or generate
electricity.
6. Modern controls reduce air pollution
7. Some facilities recover and sell metals

Disadvantages
1. Expensive to build
2. Costs more than short-distance hauling to landfills
3. Difficult to site because of opposition by citizens
4. Some air pollution, and carbon dioxide emissions
5. Older or poorly managed facilities can release large amounts of air pollution
6. Output approach that encourages waste production
7. Can compete with recycling for burnable materials such as newspaper

More Appropriate Waste Disposal Methods

Landfills – Solid waste is placed in a hole, compacted and covered with a thin layer of soil every day. This
reduces the danger of fires and the amount of odour.

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Advantages
It is convenient, initial costs are low, basic requirements are land for the site and transport arrangements.
Idea that waste will degrade and decompose hence more space will become available. However, when
too much waste is being produced, very little oxygen gets to the bottom and the waste does not
decompose. This is considered the best method for hazardous waste disposal by on site burial schemes.

Disadvantages
1. Suitable land near urban areas becoming scarce and expensive/has to compete with other land uses
2. Cost of transportation to site increasing
3. Produces hazardous gases, solids, liquids from buried waste. Rain percolating down through the site
may drain out as leachate contaminating soil, local ground and surface water supplies.
4. Build-up of combustible gases such as methane may result in frequent rubbish fires.
5. Act as a significant producer of the greenhouse gas methane which contributes to global warming.

Sanitary landfills
Modern landfills (sanitary) have improved designs to regulate and control pollution, odours, litter, insects
and rodents. They have a clay/plastic liner at bottom of landfill to prevent leaching and methane is vented
to prevent fire.

Advantages
1. No open burning
2. Little odour
3. Low groundwater pollution if sited properly
4. Can be built quickly
5. Low operating costs
6. Can handle large amounts of waste
7. Filled land can be used for other purposes
8. No shortage of landfill space in many areas

Disadvantages
1. Noise and traffic
2. Dust
3. Air pollution from toxic gases and trucks
4. Releases greenhouse gases (methane and carbon dioxide) unless they are collected
5. Slow decomposition of waste
6. Output approach that encourages waste production
7. Eventually leaks and can contaminate groundwater

WASTE MANAGEMENT

The three goals involved in waste management include:

 Reduce (Source Reduction) – is the most preferred approach to waste management. Industries design
and manufacture products to decrease the amount of solid waste or hazardous waste that would be
generated with/ after use of the items. Consumers may also refrain from purchasing items that they
do not need to avoid waste.

 Reuse products – using a product more than once, either for the same purpose or for an alternate
purpose e.g., refillable glass bottles.

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 Recycle products – collect and reprocess many materials found in solid waste into new products of the
same or different type.

Both reusing and recycling items may lower the need to produce new items from scratch. With this
decreased demand, the “reduce” strategy is thus facilitated. All three strategies will indeed decrease the
volume of waste required to be disposed of.

Benefits of recycling

 Conserves resources for future generations by reducing demand. Recycling one tonne of aluminium
saves four tonnes of bauxite (aluminium ore) and 700 kg of petroleum coke which has to be extracted
from the ground.

 Reduces energy consumption and emissions of many greenhouse gases. Recycling plastic bottles can
save 50% to 60% of the energy needed to make new bottles; similarly making new steel from scrap
results in an estimated 75% of energy savings.

 Recycling results in the reduction of pollution from extraction industries, production processes and
waste disposal. Recycling one tonne of aluminium reduces aluminium fluoride emissions into the air by
35 kg. It has been estimated that by doubling aluminium recovery worldwide, one million tonnes of air
pollutants would be eliminated annually.

 Creates jobs in recycling, repairing and renovating industries.

 Recycling may result in reduced waste disposal costs and the need for new waste disposal sites. This
is important as land space for landfills is scarce.

 Reduces pollution. Discarded paper, glass, etc. produces an unsightly litter problem which requires
expensive collection and cleaning.

 Participation in recycling helps to raise our awareness of the environment. This means that we have
an increasing awareness of, and responsibility towards, waste production.

Special Case of Plastics

 There are many different types of plastic

 46 different plastics are commonly used e.g. A plastic ketchup bottle may have up to six layers of
different plastics bonded together

 ~ 2.5% plastics are recycled

 Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), the plastic used in soda bottles, is recycled more than any other
plastic. High-density polyethylene (HDPE) is another form of plastic usually used in plastic bottles, milk
jugs, shampoo bottles, bleach bottles, cutting boards, and piping. Both types are currently collected
for recycling in Jamaica.

 Polystyrene (one form of Styrofoam) is an example of a plastic with great recycling potential.

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Composting
Another useful waste management method is composting. This may be considered a form of natural
recycling. Composting involves the conversion of organic wastes such as kitchen waste, grass clippings,
branches, and leaves into soil conditioners. This material once broken down by decomposers will also add
nutrients to the soil, beneficial humus that helps to hold moisture in the soil and even as a natural
pesticide. Compost may be used in gardens, landscaping, horticulture and agriculture.

LEGISLATION
The National Solid Waste Management Authority was established under the National Solid Waste
Management Act (2001) as a statutory body to manage the collection, treatment and disposal of solid
waste islandwide.

Under the National Solid Waste Management Act there are penalties associated with littering, breaking
bottles and erecting displays on structures without permission.

Additional Reading

https://www.pioj.gov.jm/product/sustainable-solid-waste-management-and-the-green-
economy/

TUTORIAL QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish between the environmental impacts of surface and subsurface mining.

2. a) How were fossil fuels formed?

b) Why are they considered non-renewable?
c) Differentiate between renewable energy sources and non-renewable energy sources giving
examples in your answer.

3. Discuss the environmental impacts of:

a) extraction;
b) processing;
c) transport; and
d) the use of fossil fuels.

4. Discuss the relevance of named renewable energy sources to the Caribbean region.

5. a) What is waste?
b) Differentiate between municipal and non-municipal waste.

6. a) Describe the different methods of solid waste disposal – incineration, open dumps and landfills.
b) Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each solid waste disposal method described in a)
above?

7. Discuss, giving examples for each case, the three Rs of waste management.

8. a) Discuss how recycling may reduce the negative impact of overpopulation / urbanization on the
environment.
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 b) Discuss other benefits (economic / social) of recycling in Jamaica.

Originally Compiled By: Raymond Martin

First Revision Done By: Nikki Bramwell, Raymond Martin and Damian Nesbeth

Second Revision Done By: Nadia Watson-Spence and Christine O’Sullivan, May 2012

Third Revision Done By: Raymond Martin, December 2014

Fourth Revision Done By: Nikki Bramwell, August 2021

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