CIBSE TM60 - Good Practice in The Design of Homes (2018)

Good practice in the
design of homes
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TM60: 2018
Good practice in the design of homes TM60

(amended March 2018)
ISBN 978-1-912034-27-7
The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

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Good practice in the design of homes
CIBSE TM60: 2018

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© February 2018 The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers London
PDF amended March 2018 to correct error on pie chart (page 36)
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ISBN 978-1-912034-27-7 (book)

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Cover illustration: Schematic cross section of residential apartments with passive

design features (courtesy Hoare Lea)
Note from the publisher

This publication is primarily intended to provide guidance to those responsible
for the design, installation, commissioning, operation and maintenance of
building services. It is not intended to be exhaustive or definitive and it will be
necessary for users of the guidance given to exercise their own professional
judgement when deciding whether to abide by or depart from it.
Foreword
This is the CIBSE’s first significant source of guidance on the design of homes.
We spend 90% of our time indoors and 65% of that at home. As such it is important that we
design homes that are comfortable, safe, resource efficient and support good health and
wellbeing. Homes are not all occupied by engineers, therefore it is essential that building
services installations are easy to understand, control and maintain.
The guidance can be applied to houses, apartments, student accommodation and care
homes, both old and new. Whilst this document is predominately about designing good
residential services it also covers the full project life cycle, from site analysis through to
construction, handover and operation. It highlights the integrated nature of good practice
design, where a multidisciplinary approach is often required. Hence it will be useful to
clients, architects and constructors and, of course, building services engineers.
Integrated design will require greater collaboration and understanding of the impacts of
system selection and various decisions through the design, construction and subsequent
occupation and operation of homes. This technical memorandum, and the reference
documents highlighted within it, help identify the key issues.
In recent years it has been recognised that the quality of modern housing often has not been
as high as it should be, and that performance gaps prevail. It can be made more complicated
by the complex nature of modern building engineering services, including whole-house
ventilation, advanced heating controls and the integration of renewable energy sources. In
many ways, homes are becoming more dependent on advanced technologies working well.
This guidance provides a timely and much needed summary of good practice in the design
of homes.
Ashley Bateson, Chair, CIBSE Homes for the Future Group

Principal authors
Tom Lelyveld (AECOM), Mary Livingstone (AECOM)
AECOM Project Team
David Ross (Project Director), Tom Lelyveld (Project Manager)
AECOM Content Contributors

Lee Barker-Field, Darren Bardsley, Tony Buckingham, Graham Bury, Alison Crompton,
Paul Giles, Carmen Lau, Gary Marshall, Malcolm Orme, Howard Pile, John Trinick, Sam
Underwood, Steve Vaughan, Pratima Washan, Matthew Whitehead
Case Study Contributors

Ashley Bateson (case study 4b), Tom Dollard (case studies 2, 6 and 8), Mark Elton
(case study 1), Tom McNeil (case study 4a, case study 7)
TM60 Steering Committee

Ashley Bateson (Hoare Lea) Chair, Lee Hargreaves Vice Chair, Charlotte Booth, Sam Cox,
Tom Dollard, Mark Elton, Barny Evans, James Johnson, Anastasia Mylona, Marc Primaroh
CIBSE Project Manager

Anastasia Mylona
Acknowledgements
The Institution acknowledges the contribution of the CIBSE Homes for the Future Group
in suggesting this publication and for valuable feedback during its development.
Editor
Ken Butcher
Editorial Manager
Ken Butcher
CIBSE Head of Knowledge

Nicholas Peake
CIBSE Technical Director
Hywel Davies
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Aims 1
1.2 Scope and intended readership 1
1.3 Structure 1
2 Context 1
2.1 Policies, regulations and standards 2
2.1.1 UK policy and regulations 2
2.1.2 Other standards 3
2.1.3 Environmental assessment methodologies 4
2.2 The performance gap 4
2.3 Climate change adaptation 5
3 Appointment, project briefs and design development 7

3.1 Utilising the expertise of the building services engineer 7
3.1.1 Project type 7
3.1.2 Procurement route 8
3.1.3 Terms of appointment 8
3.2 Project briefs 8
3.3 Design development 9

4 Design and compliance tools 12

4.1 Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) 12
4.2 Dynamic simulation modelling 13
4.3 Passive House Planning Package 13
5 Key design considerations 14

5.1 Fitness for purpose 14
5.2 Integrated design 14
5.3 Site planning and passive design 15
5.4 Life cycle performance and costs 16
5.5 Retrofit considerations 17
5.6 Overheating 18
6 System design 22
6.1 Building engineering systems in homes 22
6.2 Space heating 22
6.2.1 System selection 22
6.2.2 System sizing 29
6.2.3 System optimisation 30
6.2.4 Integrated design 32
6.3 Water heating 36
6.4 Ventilation 41
6.5 Cooling 50
6.6 Electricity 54
6.7 Lighting 58
6.8 Renewable power 64
6.9 Water and wastewater 69
6.10 Controls 76
7 Installation, commissioning and handover 77

7.1 Installation and commissioning 77
7.2 Handover 79
References 82
Index 89
1
Good practice in the design of homes
1 Introduction Good practice requires integrated design. ‘Integrated
design’ describes a co-ordinated approach to design where
building services engineers, architects and clients co-
1.1 Aims ordinate their input into the design development from
concept through design to delivery and post occupancy.
This Technical Memorandum (TM) aims to help building The importance of designers taking an integrated approach
services engineers and other professionals working on the to related areas such as site planning, building form, layout
planning, design and construction of homes to: and fabric design is discussed throughout this TM.
—— understand and demonstrate good practice
—— understand the relevant guidance, tools and other 1.3 Structure
resources available
The context for this TM is set out in section 2, which
—— contribute to delivering good practice as part of a
describes relevant policies, regulations and standards, and
wider design team.
potential risks to the delivery of good performance in
practice. Section 3 provides guidance on appointment,
For the purposes of this document, good practice is defined
project briefs and design development and section 5 sets
as the design and delivery of homes that are safe, fit for
out key considerations in the design of building engineering
purpose, resource efficient, low carbon, comfortable,
systems. Section 6 includes the core content of this TM and
healthy, and easy to operate and maintain. Where possible,
provides more detailed guidance for different services
good practice should deliver lower capital and lifecycle
including: space heating, water heating, ventilation,
costs. As well as the current needs of occupants, potential
cooling, electricity, lighting, renewable power, water and
future needs should be taken into account when designing
waste water as well as a section on controls. Tools to aid
homes. Delivering good practice helps to protect both the
design are covered in section 4, and installation, commis
public and the consultant. More information on design
sioning and handover in section 7. Case studies and
quality and environmental criteria are given in CIBSE
references to key sources of additional guidance are
Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a).
interspersed throughout the TM. References to key sources
of additional guidance are given in the text and at the end
1.2 Scope and intended readership of the TM. This TM is intended to be used as a reference
document. As such there is some repetition in core content.
This TM is written mainly for building services engineers Sections 2 to 5 provide an overview of the context within
working on residential projects in the UK. which designers operate and should be read in their
entirety. Section 6 contains the ‘core’ guidance generally
It is intended to be relevant to clients when setting a design intended to be referred to as required, rather than
brief, and subsequently designers, contractors and others in necessarily read in its entirety.
the supply chain. Some of the content will be relevant to
other professionals in the building industry, and to other
countries. It covers both new and existing homes, and aims
to be of relevance to all types of residences. However, non- 2 Context
domestic guidance should also be referred to for certain
types of homes, such as student accommodation, barracks, The energy used in homes accounts for approximately 30%
hotels, prisons and care homes (including nursing homes, of the total energy use and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions
supported living, secure residential care, sheltered in the UK. It has been estimated that the construction
accommodation and extra care). sector can influence around 55% of the UK’s carbon
emissions, with energy use in domestic buildings
The document focuses on good practice in the design of accounting for half of this. This includes the embodied
building engineering services for homes. An overview is carbon associated with the materials and products used.
provided of the considerations building services engineers The majority of household CO2 emissions associated with
should take into account to achieve good practice in the energy use are currently from the use of electricity, followed
delivery of homes, with references to useful sources of more by gas, and then oil (DBEIS, 2016), see Figure 1.
detailed information. Whilst the guidance aims to cover
key issues, it is not comprehensive and other sources of Delivering well-designed and constructed homes has many
information, such as regulatory and statutory requirements, benefits, including:
relevant standards, and manufacturer guidance, should also
be referred to. The references provided in the TM may be —— helping to provide low energy bills and maintenance
superseded by later editions. costs
2 Good practice in the design of homes
Non-residential efficiency, access, electrical and combustion systems,

buildings Industry sanitation and waste. In England and Wales the Building
18% 21% Regulations are supported by Approved Documents (NBS,
2011, 2013a–f, 2015, 2016a–c) that provide formal guidance
on how to meet the functional requirements set out in the
Regulations themselves. In Northern Ireland there are
Technical Booklets (DFPNI, 2012a–f) to perform this role,
and in Scotland there is a Technical Handbook (Scottish
Government, 2017), which sets out guidance on what is
required to meet the overall Standards. In many instances
other compliance routes are possible, as the Approved
Documents are only guidance.
Residential Table 1 shows the elements of building design covered by
30% Transport the Approved Documents and their equivalents.
31%
Building Regulations and Standards and associated
Figure 1 Proportions of total UK energy consumption in 2015 (primary
guidance are subject to regular review. At the time of
energy equivalents (source: DBEIS, 2015) publication an independent review of Building Regulations
for England is being undertaken. Building services
engineers and other users of this guidance should ensure
that they are aware of any changes in relevant regulations,
—— providing healthy homes that are comfortable standards and guidance.
throughout the year, well-lit with good access to
Further guidance is provided in supporting documents
daylight, water efficient, and well ventilated to
including:
maintain good indoor air quality
—— the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
—— providing homes that are relatively simple to
(NBS, 2013a) and the Domestic Ventilation Compliance
understand and operate
Guide (NBS, 2011) for England, Northern Ireland
—— offering reputational and marketing benefits to and Wales
professionals involved in their design —— the equivalents for Scotland (Scottish Government,
—— helping to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and 2015a/b)
mitigate climate change. —— the equivalent non-domestic guides, which apply in
some residential cases, for example in buildings
In recognition of the importance of the above benefits, a with communal systems.
range of policies, standards, and industry guidance exist to
help promote good practice in the design and delivery of Relevant European Directives affecting the design of homes
homes. This TM provides a summary of issues affecting have been implemented through national legislation. The
design quality and provides references to more detailed recast Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (EPBD)
guidance. (Directive 2010/31/EU (EU, 2010a)) requires homes for
construction, sale or rental to have Energy Performance
2.1 Policies, regulations and Certificates, and has been implemented in each country in
the UK. Approved Document L in England, and its
standards equivalents in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales,
require the use of specified versions of the Standard
2.1.1 UK policy and regulations Assessment Procedure (SAP) (BRE, 2012) to model energy
use for the purposes of producing Energy Performance
A range of government policies in the UK specifically seek Certificates and to assess compliance with the requirements
to promote the delivery of sustainable, energy efficient of Part L for new homes; this is discussed further in section
homes. The UK has set a legally binding target to reduce 4.1.
greenhouse gas emissions by 80% from 1990 levels by 2050,
set in the Climate Change Act 2008 (TSO, 2008a). The Until 1 April 2019, EU Regulations have direct effect in
Commission for Climate Change sets five-year carbon UK law. It is anticipated that the requirements of these
budgets that chart a pathway to achieving this reduction. regulations will be transferred into UK law and will
Delivering the target will require improving the energy continue to apply beyond 1 April 2019. Building services
efficiency of buildings and de-carbonising the electricity engineers and other users of this guidance should read
grid over time. references to EU Regulations in that context.
Building Regulations in England, Wales and Northern Other relevant regulations include:
Ireland and Building Standards in Scotland set mandatory —— The Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations
minimum requirements for the design and construction of 1999 (TSO, 1999) and the Water Supply (Water
new and existing buildings. They include standards relating Quality) Regulations 2016 (TSO, 2016) in England
to energy efficiency and CO2 emissions, ventilation, and and Wales, and their equivalents in Northern
water supply and efficiency, which are of particular Ireland (TSO, 2017) and Scotland (TSO, 2014,
relevance to this TM. As well as covering essential safety 2017; Scottish Water, 2014). The Water Regulations
and health aspects of buildings, they also address energy Advisory Scheme (https://www.wras.co.uk)
Context 3
Table 1 Summary of Building Regulations topics
Building Regulations and Standards reference Topic

for stated country/region
England and Wales* Northern Ireland Scotland
A D Section 1 Structural safety
B E Section 2 Fire safety
C C Section 3 Resistance to contaminants and moisture
D B/C Section 3 Toxic substances
E G Section 5 Resistance to sound
F K Section 3 Ventilation
G P Section 3 Sanitation, hot water safety and water efficiency
H J/N Section 3 Drainage and waste disposal
J L Section 3 Heat producing appliances
K Protection from falling
L F Section 6 Conservation of fuel and power
M R Section 4 Access to and use of buildings
N (Wales only, V Glazing safety
K for England)
P — Section 4 Electrical safety
Q — Section 4 Security: dwellings
R — Section 4 High speed electronic communications networks
7 B Section 0 Workmanship and materials
— — Section 7 Sustainability (including labelling)
— H — Stairs, ramps, guarding and protection from impact
* Note that whilst England and Wales have the same referencing system and up to 31 December 2011 had identical Building
Regulations, since 31 December 2011 powers have been devolved to Wales to amend the Building Regulations separately from
England. The websites of each government should be referred to for the latest guidance for each country.
provides further guidance on the interpretation of —— A range of British Standards relating to building
these regulations (WRAS, 2015). services (identified in their relevant topic area in
section 6).
—— Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998
(TSO, 1998). —— Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers
standards and codes (http://www.igem.org.uk).
—— BS 7671+A3: Requirements for Electrical Installations.
IET Wiring Regulations (BSI, 2008/2015). —— Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS)
standards (http://www.microgenerationcertification.
—— Other regulations relating to health and safety, such org) for renewable energy generation technologies.
as the Construction (Design and Management)
Regulations 2015 (TSO, 2015). —— Standards that clients may specify or that may be
required to obtain a warranty in the case of new
The interaction of the different Approved Documents and homes, such as the NHBC Standards 2017 (NHBC,
standards with each other and with other relevant require 2017).
ments should be considered to enable integrated, —— Standards set in environmental assessment
coordinated design and to avoid performance issues or methodologies, discussed in section 2.1.3.
failures. Seeking solely to comply with the minimum
requirements will not deliver good practice design. The The above list is not exhaustive and various other references
client is likely to need to appoint specialists to the design are provided within this TM. Design guidance documents,
team to provide advice on different issues. Integrated which in many cases help designers to interpret the
design is discussed further in section 5.2 and guidance application of regulations and standards, are similarly
specific to different services on the potential conflict caused identified and referenced.
by poor integration of design is provided in section 6.
Standards, regulations and guidance documents may differ
2.1.2 Other standards from each other in terms of approach, may have different
weight in different circumstances and, in some cases, may
In addition to policies and regulatory requirements, a range conflict with each other. It is important for building services
of other standards apply in the UK, including the following: engineers to be aware of this and of the fact that guidance
may become outdated, particularly where new design
—— Harmonised minimum standards for construction approaches are developing (for example, the move towards
products and energy-related products developed by homes with very low heating demands and/or where low
the European Union which have, for example, led temperature systems are used in homes). Building services
to the phasing-out of lower efficiency products such engineers should consider the risk posed to the effective
as higher wattage incandescent light bulbs (EU, operation of the home where such conflicts may occur. For
2010b, 2011). example, discussions would be required with warranty
providers to gain confidence that their requirements are 2.2 The performance gap
deemed to be met where an alternative standard is proposed
than the one recommended; for example, where the Energy performance is dependent on how homes are
deviation could be justified in helping to deliver good designed and constructed, as well as how they are used and
practice in design.
maintained. A ‘performance gap’ occurs when the energy or
carbon performance of buildings ‘as-built’ or ‘in-use’ differs
from design or construction-stage predictions. A significant
2.1.3 Environmental assessment discrepancy between expected and actual performance can
methodologies have reputational risks, will increase consumer energy
bills, and could jeopardise the delivery of national carbon
targets.
In addition to the mandatory requirements of regulations,
a range of voluntary standards have been created by third In predicting the energy consumption of a home in the UK,
party organisations, which can be used to help improve the building services engineers should understand the
sustainability and quality of homes. The main voluntary difference between regulated energy use and total energy
methodologies in use in the UK are, for new-build, the use, and include an estimate of unregulated energy
BRE’s Home Quality Mark and BREEAM UK New consumption when predicting total household energy use:
Construction scheme, and the Passivhaus energy standard.
For refurbishments, the main methodologies are BREEAM —— Regulated energy use: which is calculated for
UK Domestic Refurbishment, the EnerPHit energy compliance applicable regulations or standards,
standard and Energiesprong. These methodogies are sum includes energy used for heating, cooling, domestic
marised in the box below. hot water, fixed lighting, ventilation and associated
with the operation of fans, pumps and controls.
Developers and design teams may choose to adopt such —— Unregulated energy use: comprises energy consumed
voluntary standards for a variety of reasons including client by plugged-in lights and appliances (dishwashers,
or funding requirements; meeting environmental washing machines, audio visual equipment, and
objectives, helping to reduce running costs for residents, even charging of electric cars). In a new home total
and potential marketing benefits to the client. energy consumption can be double the regulated
energy use.
The Code for Sustainable Homes (DCLG, 2010) is a UK Research into the performance gap has shown that it can
Government owned standard for new-build homes that was lead to significantly higher energy use than expected, and
withdrawn in 2015. On legacy projects and in Wales, the that contributing factors can arise across all stages of the
Code for Sustainable Homes may still remain a contractual delivery process. For example, the performance gap can
requirement. increase when:
Principal UK environmental assessment methodologies for homes
The Home Quality Mark (BRE, 2015b) provides a rating system for new homes, including an overall rating and
indicators for the householder for running costs, health and wellbeing and environmental footprint. Categories
of sustainable design addressed include energy use and costs, comfort, water efficiency, materials, ecological
value, resilience to flooding and overheating, security, availability of various types of services, and measures to
address potential performance gap issues (see section 2.2). Compliance is assessed by qualified assessors.
The BREEAM UK New Construction scheme (BRE, 2015a) provides an environmental rating system for new
mixed use buildings and multi-residential buildings such as student housing and care homes. Assessment
categories include energy use, water efficiency, materials, pollution, health and wellbeing, waste, management
and innovation. Compliance is assessed by qualified assessors.
The BREEAM UK Domestic Refurbishment scheme (BRE, 2015a) provides an environmental rating system for
existing homes that addresses similar issues to those of the New Construction scheme. Compliance is assessed
by qualified assessors.
The Passivhaus standard (Passive House Institute, 2015a) provides an energy performance standard primarily
aimed at new homes. It focuses on improving the levels of insulation, installing mechanical ventilation with
heat recovery, and making use of passive solar gain and internal sources of heat gains to reduce space heating
demand. It sets a primary energy target for homes. Compliance is demonstrated through the use of the Passive
House Planning Package tool (PHPP, see section 4.3), and through assessment by the Passive House Institute or
accredited building certifiers.
For refurbished homes, where it is not possible to meet the Passivhaus standard with ‘reasonable effort’, the
EnerPHit standard (Passive House Institute, 2015b) offers a slightly relaxed set of certification criteria alongside
a component-based compliance route. The certification process requires the use of the Passive House Planning
Package tool and an accredited certifier.
EnergieSprong is an approach to fast whole house refurbishment, developed in the Netherlands, that was
introduced into the UK in 2015. Energiesprong involves the wrapping of existing homes in pre-fabricated wall
and roof panels (including integrated solar PV) , the installation of an air or ground source heat pump heating
system and efficient appliances to deliver a ‘near net zero energy home’.
Context 5
Avoiding the performance gap
To help avoid a performance gap, building services engineers

should consider various priorities including:
— ease of use and maintenance, e.g. simple controls, clear
instructions for occupants
— ease of installation and commissioning, e.g. clear, simple
instructions, support for installers and commissioners where
required
— integrated design, e.g. to help facilitate the above priorities,
and to coordinate services with each other, with the building
fabric, and with other elements of building design.
(i.e. reducing or preventing emissions of greenhouse gases)

Figure 2 Absence of seal around a boiler flue (courtesy Pollard Thomas should be a key factor in the design of homes; the design
Edwards Architects) also needs to be adapted to respond to the changes that have
already started to happen. New and existing homes should
be better able to cope with higher summer temperatures,
warmer wetter winters, more extreme weather events, and
—— unplanned changes take place that do not get rising sea levels. Innovate UK (formerly called the
communicated between different members of the Technology Strategy Board) has published three useful
project team reports providing guidance to the challenges these changes
bring, and the potential design strategies to meet these
—— services are poorly designed, installed or commis challenges (Gething, 2010; Gething and Puckett, 2013;
sioned and their in-situ performance differs from Thompson, Cooper and Gething, 2014). Further
tested or anticipated performance information is available on the Innovate UK’s Design for
—— services are poorly integrated with the building Future Climate website (https://connect.innovateuk.org/
fabric (see Figure 2) web/design-for-future-climate).
—— products are substituted during the design, The Innovate UK reports describe three categories of
procurement or construction process impacts:
—— energy modelling assumptions are inaccurate —— those affecting comfort and energy performance
—— systems or products are used that are not well such as the increased risk of overheating in summer
understood (for example new systems that require —— those that affect construction such as risks of
changes in typical design, construction, installation, damage to materials, and
commissioning or operating practice), or
—— those that relate to managing water, such as
—— systems are difficult for occupants to use.
increased risks of flooding and water shortages.
Building services engineers can influence the factors that
Thermal discomfort associated with overheating in
contribute to a performance gap and should work closely
buildings is discussed in more detail in section 5.6, and
with clients and the design team to reduce the gap between
water issues are discussed further in section 6.9.
design intent and in-use performance. By doing so they can
make a significant contribution to the delivery of more
energy efficient housing. The impacts of climate change vary depending on location,
so local conditions should be taken into account. For
The Zero Carbon Hub undertook a project for the example, higher summer temperatures and overheating in
Department of Communities and Local Government homes are likely to be more of an issue in southern regions
investigating the causes of the performance gap in new of the UK.
homes (excluding occupant use), and potential solutions
that industry could implement (Zero Carbon Hub, 2014a/b) UK climate change projections provide useful information
(Note: the Zero Carbon Hub is now defunct but its on temperature changes across the UK. Climate change
publications remain available online). Their reports projection data are given in chapter 2 of CIBSE Guide A
provide more detail on contributing factors to the (CIBSE, 2015a), and are usefully presented in CIBSE’s
performance gap and potential solutions. ProCliPs publication (CIBSE, 2016a), see box ‘Examples of
climate projections’ below.
The performance gap is addressed in more detail in each of
the following sections of this TM. Designers, including building services engineers, should
consider whether their design will be reasonably fit for
purpose both now and in the future and, if not, should
2.3 Climate change adaptation advise clients on reasonable design changes to deliver a
building that will be fit for purpose in the future, or that
Climate change is already having an impact on the built will enable the retrofit of passive and active measures to
environment and the extent of these impacts is projected to manage predicted climate impacts. Building services
increase in the future. Whilst climate change mitigation engineers must understand the potential impacts of climate
Examples of climate projections
The figures below give examples of climate projections for specific locations in the UK. They are taken from Probabilistic climate profiles
(ProCliPs) (CIBSE, 2014b), which aims to help promote the effective use of climate projections in building design.
London
Winter mean daily temperature (°C)
11 °C Very unlikely to be more than

(90% probability level)
10 °C
Central estimate
｝
9 °C (50% probability level)
8 °C 33% to 67% probability level)
7 °C
Very unlikely to be less than
6 °C
5 °C
Base (1961–90)
4 °C
Low (B1)
Low (B1)
High (A1F1)
High (A1F1)
Low (B1)
Med (A1B)
Med (A1B)
High (A1F1)
Med (A1B)
Base 2020s 2050s 2080s
(1961–90)
Time period and emissions scenario
ProClips Example 1 Summer mean daily maximum temperature (London)
Manchester
3.2
Winter mean daily precipitation (mm)
Very unlikely to be more than

3.0
Central estimate
｝
2.8 (50% probability level)
2.6 33% to 67% probability level)
2.4
Very unlikely to be less than
2.2 (10% probability level)
Base (1961–90)
2.0
Low (B1)
Low (B1)
High (A1F1)
High (A1F1)
Low (B1)
Med (A1B)
Med (A1B)
High (A1F1)
Med (A1B)
Base 2020s 2050s 2080s

(1961–90)
Time period and emissions scenario
ProClips Example 2 Winter mean daily precipitation (Manchester)

Appointment, project briefs and design development 7
change on the homes they are designing and should include

adaptation measures where needed. Building services
engineers should work with the wider design team to
understand and, where appropriate, to implement the
options available to passively reduce cooling demands. For
example, landscaping design such as the retention and
planting of street trees provides local shading to the
environment surrounding homes (see Figure 3). Mechanical
cooling systems should only be specified as a last resort in
homes and building services engineers should question
their inclusion in client briefs as their installation can
increase electrical energy demand and energy costs, and
exacerbate the urban heat island effect.
Figure 3 Modelling the local cooling benefit of street trees in urban

residential areas © AECOM
Key messages — Section 2: Context
• D
elivering efficient, well designed and constructed homes has designers. Building services engineers and their clients must
multiple benefits. This TM can help building services engineers understand and design to avoid the factors contributing to the
understand how to realise these benefits in their projects. performance gap.
• A
range of government policies, standards and regulations in • Designers, including building services engineers, should
the UK and internationally specifically seeks to promote the consider whether their design will be reasonably fit for purpose
delivery of efficient homes and to set minimum standards. both now and in the future and, if not, should advise clients
on reasonable design changes to deliver a building that will be
• A range of voluntary standards is available that can be used fit for the purpose in the future or that will enable the retrofit
to help measure and improve the quality and sustainability of of passive and active measures to manage predicted climate
homes, and which may be required by clients. impacts.
here is a performance gap between the designed performance
• T • Building services engineers must understand the potential
of homes and that realised in practice. The performance gap impacts of climate change on the homes they are designing
impacts the energy costs of new homes, the quality of the and should design for future climate, including adaptation
internal environment, and the reputation of house builders and measures where needed.
3 Appointment, project ideally starting with the initial statement of need and
strategic brief, and moving on to the project brief, concept
briefs and design design and further design development stages.
development
Building services engineers and other design team members
Building services engineers can provide valuable input to should offer good practice advice, even if they are not
help deliver good practice at each stage of the design explicitly required to do so. The earlier that building
process, from conception to handover and post-occupancy services engineers are involved in a project the greater the
evaluation. This section of the TM considers when building positive impact they are likely to have through input into
services engineers are likely to be involved in different project briefs and performance requirements and
types of project. It then provides guidance on project briefs, integrating these requirements into the design. The stage
followed by an overview of the stages of design development of appointment can be affected by the project type, the
and some of the important factors to be considered at each procurement route, and the terms of appointment.
stage.
3.1.1 Project type

3.1 Utilising the expertise of the
building services engineer The type, scale and complexity of the project are key factors
influencing the level of involvement of building services
Building services engineers and other design team members engineers. On large, complicated schemes building services
should provide objective, balanced and informed advice. engineers should seek appointment at an early stage to
This is a key advantage of the appointment of building develop bespoke designs — it is good practice for their
services engineers (and others) over directly involving appointment to be made at RIBA Stage 1. Early appointment
suppliers alone, or others with a vested interest in a helps to deliver integrated designs, avoiding potential risk
particular approach or system. issues and reworking at later stages. Building services
engineers can also provide valuable independent advice to
It is good practice for the expert skills and knowledge of clients on the quality of mechanical, electrical and public
building services engineers to be used to inform, clarify, health installations. Their appointment should also be
and, where appropriate, challenge the brief and client considered for monitoring of the commissioning, testing
requirements. This is likely to be an iterative process, and handover process.
On small schemes building services engineers may have to provide an independent check that the client’s
limited (or no) involvement, but they can play a valuable brief is being delivered as intended.
role in advising on performance targets and requirements
for both design and installation in the brief.
3.1.3 Terms of appointment
In refurbishment schemes, building services engineers can
undertake surveys, inform strategies and asset management The Association for Consultancy and Engineering (ACE)
plans, and advise on suitable services installations and the provide standard terms and conditions for the appointment
phasing of works. For extensive refurbishments, the of consulting engineers (ACE, 2016). Building services
appointment of building services engineers is essential, engineers have an opportunity to expand their roles by
particularly as services are likely to account for a significant providing advice on sustainability. This includes advising
proportion of the overall costs. on issues of quality set out in this TM. It is important for
these issues to be considered prior to appointment so that
the associated work required can be allowed for in the
3.1.2 Procurement route scope, even where the brief may not have made clear what
is needed (see section 3.2 below).
The procurement routes taken by clients will in particular
influence the stages at which building services engineers Where building services engineers are appointed as the
are involved in projects. The two common procurement lead consultant they have a particularly good opportunity
routes are ‘traditional contract’ and ‘design and build’ to influence the quality and sustainability of designs. In all
(d&b) (RIBA, 2013). cases, they should help influence the client and design team
to help ensure that the issues and guidance set out in this
For traditional contracts: TM are taken into account.
—— The client retains more control over the quality of
the building design; but 3.2 Project briefs
—— They can be more exposed to delivery risks such as
cost variations and programme overrun. Delivering good practice design begins at project conception
and the setting of the brief. It is essential that the benefits
—— The building services engineer is typically of delivering good practice be considered as early as
appointed from RIBA Stage 1 or 2 through to Stage possible, ideally prior to the formal project inception. Good
6 or 7 (see section 3.3, Table 4). practice performance requirements should be included in
project briefs at a level of detail appropriate to the particular
For d&b contracts: design stage. In this way the performance requirements
—— The risks of budget and programme overrun are will be communicated to the entire project team from the
passed to the contractor. start of their involvement. Poorly written and communicated
briefs can lead to poor quality design that does not meet the
—— Client performance requirements and standards of client intention and/or the end user needs.
workmanship are generally included in the contract
specifications as part of the main contractor’s Client requirements will include cost, internal environment
obligations. design conditions, and compliance with regulatory
—— It is typical practice for clients to procure design requirements. Priorities will depend in part upon the type
work from a professional design team up to RIBA of client; for example, clients who have an ongoing interest
Stage 3; this then forms part of the requirements in the operation of a building are likely to place more
for the main build contractor who will develop emphasis on reducing operational costs as well as capital
designs through subsequent stages and who costs. Building services engineers should provide a balanced
generally has more control over materials and view that encourages clients to take into account the various
equipment selection than in a traditional procure factors set out in this TM. Regulatory or planning policy
ment contract. requirements, or performance targets specific to the project,
may provide useful levers to promote good practice and
—— The design team will sometimes be novated across sustainable design. However, delivering good practice in
to the contractor to progress the design through to the design of homes may involve exceeding legislative
delivery. requirements, for example to reduce the performance gap
or to avoid overheating.
—— Building services engineers should seek retention
to work with the d&b contractor to undertake
Good briefs and specifications will include prescriptive
performance and quality monitoring. This would
and/or performance-based requirements. Performance-
involve checking others’ design submissions,
based requirements allow more scope for innovation but
installation and commissioning for a proportion of
have higher risks and can lead to compromises on quality
units or for the whole development prior to
due to cost constraints. Clients may have particular reasons
handover. The monitoring of contractor perfor
for setting prescriptive requirements, for example based on
mance will provide benefits in terms of verifying
their experience, or on their knowledge of development
design and construction quality. This work should
constraints and characteristics. Briefs may refer to, or
be allowed for in the tender and the main contractor
require assessment against, voluntary standards such as
should allow time for the coordination required.
those described in section 2.1.2. For refurbishment
—— When the original design engineers have been schemes, requirements commonly include specified SAP
novated to the contractor to complete the detailed ratings as described in section 4.1, and may additionally be
design, the client should appoint a monitoring measure-based, such as specifying thicknesses of insulation.
engineer to review the contractor’s outputs in order Requirements, objectives and targets should be included in
—— Design checks should be made throughout the

Further guidance: Project briefs
process; useful guidance is given in Design Checks
CIBSE Guide F section 2.3 (CIBSE 2012) provides guidance on for HVAC (BSRIA, 2007).
setting and delivering energy efficient briefs, and gives examples
of requirements which should be questioned, such as setting —— Information, including the rationale for design
very narrow ranges of temperature requirements or unnecessarily decisions, should be clearly communicated between
specifying mechanical cooling. Unusual or bespoke requirements
should be clearly highlighted in tender documentation.
design team members and at handovers or changes
of teams when these occur.
—— Additional time and resources are likely to be
needed where systems, products or methods are
tender documentation, which should also identify who is used which are not familiar to those involved in the
responsible for them. delivery and operation of homes (e.g. design teams,
site teams, occupiers) to help deliver good
performance.
Once the brief has been agreed, building services engineers
should work with the wider design team to develop —— Designs should be informed by learning from
strategies that meet its requirements, taking into account objective assessments of as-built and in-use
the key design considerations set out in section 5 of this performance of dwellings or particular systems, and
TM, and the guidance provided in section 6. Performance feedback loops should be created to help ensure
against the brief, design targets and principles needs to be lessons are learnt from each project. This is
monitored to reduce the likelihood of actions being taken discussed further in section 7 of this TM.
which are detrimental to the quality of the design and
which may degrade the as-built performance. The boxed text below signposts documents for further
guidance relevant to design development.
Table 2 below provides an overview of the stages of design

3.3 Design development development and some of the important factors to be
considered by building services engineers at each stage and
The design of building services systems is an iterative indicates the relevant sections of this TM for further
process, and earlier stage design assumptions and information. It follows the RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA,
calculations must be revisited and checked as the design 2013) and draws upon content from BSRIA BG6/2014
progresses. Following sound calculation procedures, (BSRIA, 2014) and CIBSE Guides B (CIBSE, 2016b/c) and
implementing a good quality plan, and ensuring those F (CIBSE, 2012). The content is of most relevance to new
involved in the design process are appropriately trained homes. Similar steps would apply to retrofit projects,
and informed are vital to help deliver systems that are well- though probably in a simplified form depending on the
designed. scale of the retrofit.
Site opportunities and constraints should be assessed at an Value engineering and maintaining design quality
early stage to help deliver integrated design and avoid
missed opportunities and potential design issues. It is Building design is co-operative and involves input from
important to be aware of the point at which certain parties including: the client, architect, buildings services
parameters of the design will be fixed; for example, storey engineer, planning authority, contractor, and end user.
heights and the design of the facade are fixed when detailed Where decisions are taken to change the design without
planning permission is being granted. review input from the building services engineer and wider
design team there is a risk of consequential impacts on:
The implications on the design of services of decisions that
fall outside the primary responsibility of building services
engineers should be understood. For example, the choice of
floor/ceiling depths and room layouts will impact on the
space available for routing of building services, the Further guidance: Design development
efficiency of systems, and the subsequent accessibility and • CIBSE Guide A sections 0.3 and 5 (CIBSE, 2016b) provide
usability by the homeowner. Building services engineers guidance relating to design development.
should be consulted by the client and members of the wider • BS EN ISO 9000 (BSI, 2015) and BS 7000-3 (BSI, 1994)
design team when such decisions are considered. Integrated provide standards for quality management and for design
design and other key design considerations are discussed in management systems for services respectively.
sections 5 and 6 of this TM. • BSRIA’s Design Checks for HVAC (BSRIA, 2007b) provides
guidance on checking of building services designs.
Throughout the iterative development and delivery of the • CIBSE Guides A, B and F (CIBSE, 2015a, 2016b/c, 2012)
design, proposed changes should be assessed against design provide guidance on the design process.
parameters, objectives, targets and the ability to achieve • BSRIA BG6/2014: A Design Framework for Building Services
relevant regulations and standards, especially during the (BSRIA 2014b) provides a framework covering the staging of
value engineering processes (see below). In particular: key building services design activities matched to the RIBA
Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA, 2013), including pro formas and
definitions of models and drawings required for each design
—— Building services engineers should be involved in stage.
the creation of the performance specification (see
• BSRIA BG6/2014 also gives guidance on levels of design
section 3.2) and then later in the design process precision and confidence at each stage, and on design review
through working collaboratively with the wider processes.
design.
compliance with the brief, regulatory requirements, design Clients should involve the building services engineer in the
quality, and on the future occupants. A critical part stage of value engineering process. This will help ensure cost
the design process is at ‘value engineering’ where specified efficiency decisions are taken (as far as is reasonably
equipment can be substituted for lower cost (and in most possible) in the full knowledge of any consequential
cases lower performance) alternatives. impacts.
Key messages — Section 3: Appointment, project briefs and design development
• Building services engineers should be engaged early in the • On 'design and build' contracts, engineers should be retained
design process. Early appointment helps to deliver integrated to monitor contractor performance and verify design and
designs, avoiding potential compliance and performance issues construction quality.
and rework at later stages.
• Building services engineers and the wider design team should
• Good practice design begins with the setting of the brief. be aware of the key considerations for environmental design
Performance requirements should be considered as early as to be taken into account at each stage of the design process.
possible, ideally prior to the formal project inception. Building services engineers should provide objective, balanced
and informed advice.
• B
uilding services engineers should inform, clarify, and, where • Building services engineers should be alert and involved when
appropriate, challenge the brief and scope of work, to support design decisions are being fixed. The impacts of other design
the inclusion of sustainability and performance targets, and to team members’ decisions on the building services design (and
avoid the inclusion of requirements which conflict with good vice versa) should be well understood.
practice considerations.
• C
lients should involve the building services engineer in the
• Performance against the brief, design targets and principles value engineering process. This will help ensure cost efficiency
should be monitored throughout the design and construction decisions are taken (as far as is reasonably possible) in the full
process to handover and then reviewed post occupancy. knowledge of any consequential impacts.
Table 2 Stages of design development
RIBA RIBA core objectives Main activities and deliverables for Some key considerations Action
stage building services
• Business case • Strategic advice including on • Legislative and planning

0: Strategic Definition
• Strategic brief proposed strategic goals requirements
• Other core project requirements • Clients’ functional requirements

• Integrating fabric, services and
human factors
Review objectives and strategy, check proposals against design parameters

• Energy and environmental
objectives, criteria, targets
• Thermal comfort
• P
roject objectives: quality objectives • Appraisal of physical data, planning
1: Preparation and Brief
and project outcomes, sustainability and environmental issues • Design parameters (temperatures,
aspirations, project budget, other energy targets, budget, space,
parameters and constraints electrical loads, structural loadings,
acoustics, vibration etc.)
• Initial project brief
• See sections 3 to 5 of this TM
• Feasibility studies
• Site information review
• Outline proposals • Analysis of broad environmental • Site constraints

• Outline specifications impacts • Layout and massing
• Preliminary cost information • Negotiate incoming services • Built form, arrangement on site
• Project strategies • Prepare concept design model, • Prioritise passive design and fabric
sketch drawings and schematics efficiency, then services and low and
• I n accordance with design
programme • Provide input into sample SAP zero carbon (lzc) technologies
models • Daylight strategy
2: Concept Design
• Final project brief

• Services strategies
• Control strategy
• Strategy for preventing overheating
• Water management strategy
• Review design integration, check for
robustness and conflicts
• Initial energy assessments
• Experience of as-built/in-use
performance
• See sections 5 and 6 of this TM

Table continues
Table 2 Stages of design development — continued
RIBA RIBA core objectives Main activities and deliverables for Some key considerations Action
stage building services
• U
pdated and coordinated proposals, • Plant location and for communal • C
heck that system and system
outline specifications, cost servicing: main plant room sizes components comply with design
information, project strategies, in fixed, risers located, distribution parameters before completing
3: Developed Design
accordance with design programme routes identified, zoning agreed calculations, drawings, schedules
• Schematic engineering: sizing risers, and specifications
confirming spatial requirements for • R
evise design parameters based on
services including approximate duct improved information including
sizing, electrical containment and experience of as-built/in-use
numbers of pipes performance
• Prepare developed design model, • See section 5 of this TM
schematics and design drawings • S
ee design integration issues set out
• T
echnical design in accordance with • Detailed design calculations in section 6 of this TM, e.g. impact
Design checks and iteration

design responsibility matrix, project of glazing design on energy end-uses
• Prepare technical design mode,
strategies and design programme drawings and builders work • S
ee system selection and
• I ncludes specialist subcontractor information optimisation issues set out in
design and specifications section 6 of this TM
• Update technical design model with
detailed spatial coordination of
objects
4: Technical Design
• Prepare coordinated working

drawings
• Prepare further information for
construction; if appropriate, review
information from others
(contractor’s design portion,
technical submissions from
specialists) and update design model
for procured equipment
• Provide input into ‘Design Stage’
SAP models
• Provide input into other models as
needed
• Offsite manufacturing • Prepare installation model, • E
nsure construction follows design
drawings, manufacturers’ drawings intent
Checks of construction versus design

• Onsite construction
and builders’ work details • S
ervices installation should be
• I n accordance with construction
programme • Review information from carefully planned to co-ordinate
subcontractors and specialists between trades
5: Construction
• R
esolution of design queries arising
from site • Prepare as-built drawings and • I nstallation should be sequenced to
models as necessary minimise risk of damage to fabric
• Contribute to log book and prior installed services
• Prepare pre-handover defects • L
essons learnt should be fed back to
schedule design process for subsequent work
• Carry out commissioning of services • See section 7 of this TM
• Provide input into ‘As Built’ SAP
models
• Handover of building • Review and update list of defects • S
ystems should be checked, tested
6: Handover and Close Out
• Conclusion of building contract from post-completion audit and commissioned to operate

• Handover including guidance efficiently and effectively by
provision competent personnel
• R
ecords and checklists to be
completed
• S
imple and clear guidance should be
provided to occupants
• See section 7 of this TM
• I n-use services in accordance with • Post-completion audit • Lessons
learnt should be fed back to
7: In Use
schedule of services • Possible performance monitoring design process for subsequent work
and evaluation • See section 7 of this TM
4 Design and compliance which requires fewer user inputs than the full version of
SAP. The methodology is implemented in several
tools commercially available tools that are approved by govern
ment for their use for compliance purposes.
A range of tools exist that can be used to aid the design
process. Two important types are discussed below: SAP is intended to be a compliance tool rather than a
modelling tools and design guides. Section 6 discusses the design tool and whilst it can be used to help develop energy
methods and tools used for sizing different system types and carbon strategies it should not be relied upon for design
(i.e. steady state calculations or dynamic modelling for purposes. It provides a basis of comparison between
heating; dynamic modelling for cooling; and following the different homes but cannot reliably predict a specific
guidance in Approved Document F (NBS, 2013c) and home’s energy demand (due to, for example, standardised
equivalents for ventilation). Further guidance on modelling occupancy and temperature set point assumptions; only
is given in CIBSE AM11 (CIBSE, 2015b), including covering regulated energy uses, i.e. heating, domestic hot
guidance on: modelling methods (used to inform different water, cooling, fans, pumps, controls and fixed lighting;
aspects of design); the differences between compliance including default values for some parameters; and
versus design modelling; limitations of modelling; and limitations in representing as-built performance of
quality assurance. Where designs are more complex, or systems). As with any model, it is important that the limits
particular risk factors have been identified, more modelling of the calculation process are understood and explained to
will generally be required, and this should be allowed for in clients; this is discussed further in section 2 of CIBSE
project budgeting. AM11 (CIBSE, 2015b). SAP assessments must be
undertaken by registered assessors.
Care should be taken when choosing appropriate calculation
procedures and selecting sources of performance data. For new homes, initial SAP assessments, which may be
CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) explains that whilst ‘black based on a representative sample of units and initial
box’ models are useful, their accuracy is limited by the assumptions on design parameters, are typically undertaken
simplifications involved in the models — for example at pre-planning to support planning applications. Design
design, occupancy and climate data that differ from reality. Stage SAP assessments are required for submission to
It advises that models which include each system Building Control before they can authorise work
component in detail are required to study the interaction of commencing on site; at this stage Predicted Energy
plant and controls. Assessments (draft Energy Performance Certificates) can
be produced. As-Built SAP assessments are required at
CIBSE Guide A also recognises that it is often necessary to dwelling completion, which must take into account any
use manufacturers’ data as a source of performance data. In changes made to specifications since the Design Stage SAP
this case, building services engineers should understand assessments, including the results of air permeability
the conditions under which the measurements were made testing, and which allow finalised Energy Performance
(which may mean that figures for different products are not Certificates to be produced. Outputs from the As-Built SAP
directly comparable) and that data presented in catalogues assessments must be submitted to Building Control as part
may be for a range of products rather than a single item. of the documentation required before they can issue final
Heat pumps are a good example where there are many ways completion certificates. Building services engineers are
of measuring efficiency (the Domestic Building Services required to provide evidence on building services to support
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) provides more information). SAP assessments of new homes.
For existing homes, RdSAP assessments are undertaken to

4.1 Standard Assessment produce Energy Performance Certificates, which are
Procedure (SAP) required for sale or rental of homes. These are based on a
short non-invasive survey of the home and more
The Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) (BRE, 2012) is assumptions are made than for the assessment of new
the UK’s national calculation methodology, which is used homes and, like SAP, RdSAP cannot reliably predict a
to assess and compare the energy performance of dwellings, specific home’s energy demand. It is not advisable to use
to demonstrate compliance with the relevant regulations RdSAP as the sole basis for complex whole-house retrofit
and standards for new homes and to produce Energy decisions; RdSAP calculations should not be used to choose
Performance Certificates for both new and existing homes a retrofit strategy or to accurately determine the effect of
as required by the Energy Performance of Buildings the strategy on actual energy demand, or the post-retrofit
Directive (EU, 2010a) as implemented in the various risk of overheating or the effect on indoor moisture levels.
jurisdictions of the UK (TSO, 2008b/c, 2012a). More detailed surveys and dynamic thermal modelling are
recommended.
It is a quasi-steady state monthly calculation methodology,
based on standard occupancy and usage assumptions. As Appendix P of the SAP includes a check on the risk of
explained in CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a), quasi-steady overheating in new homes, which must be reported to
state models calculate monthly energy balances based on Building Control in England and Wales as part of the
averaged internal and external temperatures by applying compliance process. However, because predicting
transmis sion, ventilation, solar and internal heat flows. overheating requires the accurate modelling of dynamic
The values are corrected to account for the ability of the thermal processes, SAP cannot realistically predict
fabric to absorb or release heat. In order for products to overheating risk. More robust checks using dynamic
contribute to a design which complies with the energy and thermal modelling are necessary to ascertain the risk of a
carbon targets set in Part L of the Building Regulations, design overheating. CIBSE has developed a standardised
they need to be included in the SAP. For existing homes, a design methodology for the assessment of overheating risk
version of SAP called Reduced Data SAP (RdSAP) is used, in homes using dynamic thermal modelling (CIBSE, 2017),
Design and compliance tools 13
Figure 4 Greenwatt Way low

energy housing development
(left) and dsm model (right)
© AECOM
which is available for download free of charge from the time requirements and the risk of user errors, and it is
CIBSE website. Guidance on principal causes of overheating important that model users are competent and able to
and mitigation measures is provided in section 5.6. interpret the results.
4.2 Dynamic simulation modelling

4.3 Passive House Planning
Dynamic simulation modelling (dsm) tools are the most Package
rigorous method of assessing domestic energy demand.
Compared to steady state models, they are better suited to
more complex or novel designs and where non-linear The Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) is a
behaviour needs to be represented, see Figure 4. For spreadsheet-based steady state model, which is used to
example, they may be used where it is important to consider demonstrate compliance with the Passivhaus standard and
dynamic internal heat gains, and when assessing the EnerPHit standards (see section 2.1.3), and to inform
overheating risks in homes. The Greater London Authority the design process. It is based on similar principles to SAP
encourages developers to undertake dynamic modelling to (and therefore has similar limitations when compared to
assess overheating risks (GLA, 2014). Comprehensive dsms) but includes different assumptions and data input
steady state daylight assessments are often undertaken conventions for various parameters. The use of PHPP is
using the geometry built to carry out dynamic simulation currently not a substitute for the use of SAP, which is still
modelling. Computational fluid dynamics (cfd) modelling needed to demonstrate Building Regulations compliance
can be used for ventilation analysis, pollutant assessment, and to produce Energy Performance Certificates.
and external wind impact analysis.
Whilst dsm tools are currently relatively rarely used for PHPP assessments should be undertaken by accredited
domestic buildings, particularly on smaller scale develop building certifiers and the tool should be used early in the
ments, they can be very useful. dsm tools should be used as design process as well as for final compliance checking.
early in the design process as possible so that they inform PHPP includes an overheating assessment which is similar
early design decisions that will be difficult to alter later. to that in SAP but encourages the use of actual data for
internal gains from occupancy, lighting and appliances
dsm tools require more inputs and require much more instead of assumptions based on floor area. As with SAP the
highly skilled users than steady state models. This increases PHPP should not be used as the primary basis for
overheating risk assessment.
Key messages — Section 4: Design and compliance tools
• A range of tools exist which can be used to aid the design • Appendix P of SAP includes a check on the risk of overheating
process. These include modelling tools such as SAP, DSM and in new homes. However SAP cannot realistically predict
PHPP, and design guides. overheating risk. More robust checks using dynamic thermal
modelling (DSM) are necessary to ascertain the risk of a design
• The assumptions behind, and limitations of, different tools overheating.
should be well understood so that they can be applied • DSM tools are better suited to more complex designs where
appropriately. It is important that users of design tools are non-linear behaviour needs to be represented, and can provide
competent and have this understanding. more accurate results. DSM tools are currently relatively rarely
used for domestic buildings, however they can be very useful
• SAP and RdSAP are intended as compliance tools rather than in improving understanding of building performance. For
design tools and whilst they can be used to help develop example, they may be used where it is important to consider
energy and carbon strategies they should not be relied on for dynamic internal heat gains and, importantly, to assess the risk
design purposes. of overheating.
5 Key design considerations take into account various requirements and constraints
such as regulations and standards, safety, fire, acoustics,
security and life cycle performance and costs. This will
5.1 Fitness for purpose require building services engineers to follow an iterative
design process and to work closely with other members of
the design team (including appointed specialists) and with
The delivery of homes that are fit for their purpose (i.e.
others involved in the delivery of new homes or retrofit of
meet user needs, regulations, planning targets and the
existing homes to help to ensure the impacts of potential
client requirements described in project brief) is integral to
design decisions and changes are understood and assessed
good practice in the design of homes. Building services
in a well-coordinated way. It will be useful to explain within
design has a key role in contributing to this aim. Building
each individual design strategy how its different elements
designs should be assessed in terms of their deliverability
relate to and complement other strategies (for example,
and their likely performance in practice. Risks to delivering
how the heating strategy relates to the fabric or ventilation
buildings and services that are fit for purpose should be
strategy and vice versa).
assessed as early as possible and tracked throughout the
design process. Designers must be competent, and have the
necessary skills and resources. Chapter 3 of CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE, 2012) describes some
of the key integration issues for building services and
As well as considering the current needs of occupants, should be referred to for more information, see Figure 6.
potential future needs should be taken into account when Examples include ensuring that sufficient suitable space is
designing homes. This includes, for example, considering provided for building services and that services do not
the flexibility of building services replacements, and the compromise the insulation or the air barrier. Guidance
adaptability of homes for the needs of different future particularly relevant to different services is given in section
occupants. For example, the number and type of occupants 6 of this TM.
may change, resulting in different performance require
ments. Many of the relevant factors, such as those set out in section
5.3 below, should be considered from the outset of concept
Guidance on project briefs and targets is given in section 3 design, but integration issues should be taken into account
and more specific guidance on designing building services throughout the whole design and delivery process. As the
that are fit for their purposes is given in section 6. The need ability to influence certain decisions decreases as the design
for quality assurance plans and processes to help deliver progresses, it is important that building services engineers
buildings that are fit for purpose is discussed in section 6.1. are appointed at an early stage, have regular input, and are
themselves well integrated into the design team and
consulted when changes are made by other design team
5.2 Integrated design members that may impact on building services.
Design strategies for individual building services should be Some issues, such as product substitution, occur later in the
integrated with the building fabric design and the design of design process so it is important that building services
other services and requirements relating to safety, fire, engineers continue to be involved in the later stages of
acoustics and security, see Figure 5. Design should consider design and delivery, and that any handovers between stages
life cycle performance and costs and occupant needs and are well planned and clear design drawings provided. The
how occupants are likely to use their homes, taking into RIBA Plan of Work 2013 (RIBA, 2013) identifies sustain
account the interactions between different factors and ability checkpoints. The stages at which building services
interfaces between different elements. They should also engineers should be involved are discussed in this TM,
Controls /constraints
Initial cost Fire safety Security Regulations Climate change

Whole life cost Noise/vibration Environment
Water/waste
Functional A healthy,
requirement comfortable, safe
Input (client needs) Building design process and productive Output
environment for
Site parameters building users
Geometry/ Envelope/façade/ HVAC/lighting/

aesthetics build system/structure other systems
Figure 5 An illustration of
integrated design (source: CIBSE
Delivery/design mechanism Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a))
Key design considerations 15
Building services engineers should work with architects

Building envelope
(including landscape architects) and other design team
Building services • Size members to implement passive design measures. This will
e.g. automatic
• Fuels • Built form involve considering factors such as:
• Type of systems • Shape
• Size of systems • Materials —— orientation, layout and window design to make use
controls
• Plant controls • Ventilation of available natural light and to optimise useful
• Plant efficiency • Location solar gain
• Operating regime • Orientation etc.
etc.
e.g. —— the use of appropriate solar control strategies to
e.g. user window avoid overheating in the summer
controls controls
—— designing windows as an integral part of the
Human factors ventilation strategy
• Comfort requirements
• Occupancy regimes —— the impact of built form on thermal performance
• Management and
maintenance
—— the impact of spatial designs on services’
• Activity
• Access to controls etc. Climate
performance and the space available for them
•The external —— the use of thermal mass, which when designed
factor
carefully and in combination with other measures,
Figure 6 Factors that will influence energy consumption and must be such as secure night-time ventilation, can help to
considered in an integrated way during the design process (source: reduce peak summertime temperatures and retain
CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE, 2012), based on Jones et al., 1997)
heat in the winter, and
particularly in section 3. It is also important that specialists —— achieving good levels of fabric insulation and air-
are appointed and consulted as necessary (for example to tightness.
cover air quality, fire engineering, acoustics, security,
vertical transportation, it and other topics covered by the Using passive design can be important for achieving design
Building Regulations (and set out in section 2.1) as targets. When integrated well it can make homes and their
required). Building services engineers should work with services simpler to deliver, operate and maintain. An
manufacturers and installers to help deliver integrated illustration of how fabric and services issues may interact,
designs. It is important that design services from specialists, including examples of where passive measures at the
manufacturers, suppliers and subcontractors are procured building level can help to reduce the demands on
in a timely way to allow a coordinated design process. mechanical services is shown in Figure 8. The NHBC
Foundation’s publication Designing Homes for the 21st
Century (NHBC Foundation, 2013) also provides guidance.
5.3 Site planning and passive More guidance specific to different services is given in
design section 6 of this TM.
‘Passive design’ describes the utilisation of building

location, orientation, design, materials, local climatic Railway
conditions and non (or minimal) energy using services to noise
Possible ground
reduce requirements for energy within the home whilst contamination
maintaining comfortable climatic conditions (by supplying
heat, cooling and fresh air) throughout the year.
As noted in section 5.2, it is important for site opportunities

and constraints to be considered at an early stage of the Possible location for
design to better realise the opportunities offered from energy centre
passive design. Building services engineers should take
into account the findings and recommendations from
studies carried out as part of the planning process covering
issues such as air quality, wind, sunlight/daylight, acoustics, Prevailing
ground conditions and availability of space. The constraints winds
and opportunities provided by existing buildings should be
considered. The capacity of existing infrastructure should
be reviewed as early as possible in the design process.
Figure 7 illustrates relevant factors to be included in an High
assessment of site opportunities and constraints. angle
sun
The overall design approach taken should prioritise site
planning and fabric design to take advantage of useful Low
angle
natural light, ventilation and solar gains to reduce energy sun
demand. Design should acknowledge that a site does not
exist in isolation but should work within its wider
surroundings, which may present opportunities or
constraints. Figure 7 Examples of site opportunities and constraints
5.4 Life cycle performance and of environmental impact. Life cycle performance is
important in the ongoing sustainability and quality of
costs homes, but may be challenged during value engineering by
financial considerations that focus on capital expenditure.
When selecting systems and optimising designs the life
cycle performance and costs of services should be considered
as well as the initial installed performance and capital costs. CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) notes that life cycle costs
This is important because design decisions have ongoing should be considered from appointment and brief
consequences for occupants of homes (i.e. operational, development stages, as the scope to influence life cycle cost
maintenance, disposal and replacement costs) and in terms savings decreases as the design process progresses.
Select issues on the x and y axes to see examples of how they interact
Simpler block designs Consider positioning Design windows to Minimising air Designers should
with reduced thermal main living spaces that provide useful winter infiltration helps to consider the effect of
bridging junctions can require more heating on solar gains, e.g. through reduce heat loss and thermal mass on
reduce heat loss and the south façade to specifying suitable therefore heat heating system
Heating
therefore heat benefit from useful window sizes and demands. Details where response times and
demands. solar gains during the g-values. Couple glazing services penetrate the communicate the
heating season. with shading to avoid building envelope preferred control
summer overheating. should be carefully strategy to home
designed and installed. owners.
Shallow plans and Design for daylighting Increasing glazing area Avoid compromising
careful layout design and view of sky with will increase daylight airtightness with careful
can help maximise shading where required and reduce demand for design. Avoid recessed
Electric lighting and daylight
daylight penetration. to limit solar gains (e.g. electric lighting. light fittings.
Locate rooms with on south façade). Glazing area must be
lower demand for considered alongside
daylight, such as need for privacy, risk of
bedrooms, bathrooms overheating, and
and WCs on northern available useful wall
facades. area in small homes.
Light transmittances
(g-values) of windows
should be selected
based on solar access
and availability of
Services issues
summer shading.
Shallow plans with the Air drawn from north Provide sufficient Achieve designed levels Consider effect of
ability for cross- façade is generally suitable secure of airtightness. If not, thermal mass on
ventilation can support cooler than air from openable windows. adjustments to response of building to
a natural ventilation south façade. Provide correct level of ventilation strategy may external conditions.
Ventilation
strategy. trickle ventilation be needed. Ensure ventilation

(where required) for Detailing where services strategy enables the
ventilation system type. penetrate the building night time ventilation of
envelope should be thermal mass.
carefully designed and
installed.
Locate bedrooms to Orientate to reduce Reducing glazing areas Improved airtightness Consider effect of
north of building. solar gains where they will help reduce solar will lead to reduced thermal mass on
Consideration of which are likely to contribute gains but should be demand for heat in the overheating in different
rooms are located on to overheating balanced against other winter but conversely parts of the home.
which side of the problems. Provide daylight, ventilation and can increase the risk of Thermal mass reduces
building can help shading for southerly useful winter gains. overheating leading to the risk of overheating
Overheating
potential overheating orientated windows. Glazing below the increased demand for in rooms that are in use
problems during the working plane will ventilation in the in the day and can be
day/night. Inclusion of increase solar gains and summer months. ventilated at night.
shutters, blinds or the risk of overheating
Thermal mass should be
overhangs will help with limited increases to
avoided in bedrooms
control unwanted solar useful daylight and
exposed to daytime
gains. associated reduction in
temperature gains and
electric heating.
which cannot be
ventilated at night due
to security concerns.
Internal layout Orientation Glazing Airtightness Thermal mass
Fabric issues
Figure 8 Illustration of how fabric and services issues may interact and showing where passive measures at the building level may help to reduce
the demands on the mechanical services
Assessments should involve the client and other design Further guidance: Life cycle performance and costs
team members. New or revised life cycle assessments will
be needed as designs change and if major retrofits or • BS ISO 15686-5 (BSI, 2008e) provides a standard for life
replacements take place after handover. cycle costing. Other standards in the series cover service life
planning.
Building services engineers and wider design teams should • BCIS’s Standardized Method of Life Cycle Costing for
consider factors such as: reliability and durability; Construction Procurement (BCIS, 2008) provides supporting
guidance on life cycle costing.
availability of consumable items and replacement parts;
maintenance requirements; and flexibility of switching to • G
uidance is also given in BSRIA BG5/2008 (BSRIA, 2008b) and
different types of system at a later stage (for example, BG52/2013 (BSRIA, 2013).
changing the heating source). Due to the longer timescales • CIBSE TM56 (CIBSE, 2014d) provides guidance to help
involved in life cycle performance assessments, consider building services engineers understand resource efficiency
ation should be given to longer term future changes such and identify opportunities to improve it, for example through
the use of recycled materials.
as: predicted climate change; the decarbonisation of the
national electricity grid; degradations in performance; and
changing user needs over time. The resource efficiency of
services including their embodied carbon impact — i.e. the
Detailed building surveys should be undertaken to gather
carbon associated with extraction of materials, manufacture,
key information including details of the existing building
transportation, installation and end of life — should be
fabric and services and occupant requirements. Where
factored into the design process. Other environmental and
available, information on existing energy and water usage
social impacts should also be considered when sourcing
and costs should be gathered. Estimates of the energy and
products and materials; guidance is given in several of the
water saving and comfort benefits of different options
environmental assessment methodologies discussed in
should be made. Building services engineers should provide
section 2.1.3.
impartial advice on product selection.
Feedback and lessons learnt from monitoring studies can Where retrofit projects involve a large number of homes, it
help to inform assessments of performance of systems in is important that the condition of the stock is understood
practice and the implementation of solutions to address and that data are gathered on energy attributes to inform
potential issues and improve the good quality delivery of the retrofit programme. Where relevant, retrofit plans
good design. Recent relevant studies include Innovate UK’s should be included in asset management and business
Building Performance Evaluation and Retrofit for the Future plans. Building services engineers and other consultants
programmes (Innovate UK, 2014, 2016). can help to identify building typologies, and to assess issues
and suitable approaches for retrofit. There is often
significant variation within groups of homes, which may
5.5 Retrofit considerations appear to be of the same typology, and layouts should be
carefully checked to inform designs and to help avoid
The retrofit of existing buildings has considerable potential
contractors needing to improvise on site.
to improve the quality of homes for occupants. It can result
in substantial efficiency savings and comfort improvements,
Information on potential risks involved in retrofit projects
more reliable systems, reduced utility bills and reduced
should be gathered. There may be increased risks of certain
maintenance costs.
health and safety issues in existing homes, for example
associated with working with live existing systems that
However, there are challenges that should be taken into may have been installed to earlier, less stringent standards,
account when retrofitting homes. These include: and potential exposure to asbestos and hazardous
—— setting design criteria suited to the particular substances. Care will be needed in handling and disposing
project of waste and relevant regulations should be followed.
Potential impacts on occupants including disruption to the
—— revisions to the fire control strategy, space and use and occupation of their homes and the operation of
access limitations existing services should be planned for and minimised
—— structural constraints where possible. For example, undertaking detailed and
precise surveys can help to reduce disruption through early
—— complexities associated with interfacing with identification and mitigation of potential issues and risk
existing systems or components that are being and potentially allowing off-site construction which may
retained. reduce time required on site.
The impacts on and interactions with the existing building Building services engineers should inform the client about
fabric should be carefully considered, particularly in older the benefits and life cycle costs of different options. In some
buildings and buildings that are listed or in conservation cases, a retrofit of the entire system may be preferable to a
areas. Guidance is available in CIBSE’s Guide to building staged replacement on a component by component basis;
services in historic buildings (CIBSE, 2002a). Historic England this will depend on individual circumstances including the
and the Sustainable Traditional Buildings Alliance provide condition of existing components and their residual life
guidance for historic and traditionally constructed expectancy. The sequencing of retrofit plans should be
buildings (May and Griffiths, 2015; STBA, 2015). Lessons carefully considered, with forward-planning to help ensure
should be learnt from assess ment and monitoring of that improvements made are appropriate in the longer term
previous retrofit projects, for example Innovate UK’s and to coordinate retrofit measures with other planned
Retrofit for the Future programme (Innovate UK, 2014). works where possible. For example, replacing services prior
Specific challenges and considerations for existing homes to a fabric retrofit without due consideration may mean
for different services are discussed in section 6. that services end up being over-sized.
Case study 1 — Retrofit considerations: Clapham Retrofit, London Borough of Lambeth
The Clapham Retrofit project involved the deep retrofit of a understanding of the building and allow a more detailed design
170-year old Grade II listed Victorian townhouse. The four-storey and specification.
semi-detached masonry house became the first listed building
in England to meet the Association for Environment Conscious As well as carefully specified roof, floor and wall insulation and
Building’s (AECB) Silver Performance Standard (AECB, 2016). The secondary glazing, a new ventilation system was installed to help
retrofit design objectives were to: respond to the increased airtightness of the property (air leakage
was reduced from 9.6 ach to 1.8 ach @ 50 Pa). LED lighting, solar
• sensitively restore the structure and fabric of the house thermal panels, and Stelrad radical radiators were also installed.
respecting original features
During installation, workmanship and airtightness detailing were
• open up the dark lower ground floor into a light-filled stepped monitored and wireless sensors were fitted. Occupants benefit
courtyard from decreased energy bills: estimates suggested the space heating
demand would reduce by more than 75%, and this was borne
• thermally upgrade the house following English Heritage
out by measured actual gas energy use which was less than the
retrofitting best practice
predicted energy demand. The project was chosen as residential
• create a comfortable home fit for the future. project of the year in CIBSE’s 2016 Building Performance Awards.
The condition of the building’s fabric was investigated, as were Building services engineer and mechanical/electrical engineer: Alan
key elements of historic significance and the existing thermal Clarke
performance. As best practice, before design proposals were Building owner and occupier: Simon and Veronica van Heyningen
developed, measuring and monitoring expert ArchiMetrics carried Project manager, quantity surveyor and architect: Arboreal Architecture
out airtightness and thermographic surveys, U-value measurements Contractor: Noble & Taylor
and interstitial moisture monitoring to deepen the project team’s Structural engineer: The Morton Partnership
Images courtesy of Arboreal
5.6 Overheating inception it is recommended that an individual is identified

who will take responsibility for coordinating an overheating
Thermal comfort should always be a key consideration in strategy and ensuring it is delivered and revisited as needed
the planning and design of homes. Many homes in the UK when design changes are proposed. Teams should take into
are already experiencing summertime overheating. As account overheating considerations in their designs,
discussed in section 2.3 of this TM, the risks of summer applying suitable design principles. SAP and the Building
overheating will increase in the future as the climate Regulatory compliance checks are not adequate for
continues to change. It is important to take into account establishing the risk of overheating in homes. Teams should
location-specific factors, which may include the ‘urban understand when further assessment such as dynamic
heat island effect’ (see box ‘What is the urban heat island modelling should be undertaken to inform the design.
effect?’ below.) CIBSE has developed a standardised design methodology
for the assessment of overheating risk in homes (CIBSE,
Building services engineers should have a good 2017) using dynamic thermal analysis, which is available
understanding of risk factors related to overheating in for download from the CIBSE website.
homes and should specifically review and identify all
potential sources of unwanted heat gains. The principal causes of overheating and possible mitigation
measures are shown in Table 3 below. Figure 10 provides
Figure 9 illustrates some of factors that can contribute to examples of shading solutions to control solar gain to
overheating in homes; other factors are shown below in homes. Section 6 also provides good practice guidance for
Table 3 and discussed in the following sections of this TM. different services. The Zero Carbon Hub’s evidence review
for overheating in homes covers different overheating
Building services engineers should work with the design solutions and their relative scales of cost and applicability
team to reduce the risk of overheating in homes. At project in different situations (Zero Carbon Hub, 2016a). Further
Cumulative effects
1 Site context 2 External 3 Solar gains 4 Internal gains 5 Building design
temperature
External pollution, noise Double-glazed windows Electrical appliances, Modern homes have
and excessive noise may On a warm, still day with a low-e coating occupant activities such increased levels of
prevent occupants from when external prevent heat from as cooking, and building insulation and airtightness,
opening their windows. temperatures are high, escaping. Houses with services, e.g. boiler and resulting in more heat
Surrounding hard fresh air may not provide unshaded west-facing hot water storage, all being retained within the
surfaces will absorb heat enough of a cooling glass will suffer from have the potential to homes. This means any
and release this during effect to address higher levels of solar radiate heat that may built-up heat in the homes
the night. overheating. gain in the warmer contribute significantly will have to be actively
part of the day. to the increasing removed.
internal temperatures.
Figure 9 Illustration of cumulative factors which can contribute to overheating in homes. Note: whilst this shows some factors, others can also apply
(source: NHBC Foundation (2012); courtesy of NHBC Foundation)
a
1 2 3 4 5
Horizontal Fixed vertical Fixed vertical Fixed louvre

Fixed horizontal
projection projection screen system
louvre
6 7 8 9 10
Vertical Retractable Projecting Vertical roller

Pivoted non-retractable louvred awning or blind
non-retractable woven mesh blind sun blind
louvre
11 12 13 14 15
Venetian Fabric roller Fabric Venetion blind

blind Vertical louvred blind curtain in double
retractable blind window
Figure 10 Examples of window shading devices to control excessive solar gain (source: SLL Lighting Guide 10
(SLL, 2014))
guidance is given in CIBSE TM36, TM37 and TM52

What is the urban heat island effect?
(CIBSE, 2005a, 2006a, 2013a), and NHBC NF44 (NHBC
Foundation, 2012). These measures should be balanced The ‘urban heat island effect’ is an affect whereby atmospheric
against other factors, as discussed further in the following and surface impacts can lead to temperatures in urban areas
sections of this TM (for example, in section 6.4 on being around 5 to 10 °C warmer than in surrounding countryside
areas. Causes of the urban heat island effect include heat
ventilation and section 6.7 on lighting). rejection from air conditioning plant and other equipment in
buildings and re-radiation of solar gains from thermally massive
dark road surfaces and buildings.
Building services engineers should work with the wider
design team to understand and, where appropriate, to The urban heat island effect leads, in particular, to elevated
external night-time temperatures as the heat absorbed in
implement the options available to passively reduce cooling materials during the day is released at night, which reduces the
demands. Mechanical cooling systems should only be potential for heat release from buildings. CIBSE TM49 (CIBSE,
specified in homes as a last resort, and building services 2014c) provides guidance and weather data for taking into
engineers should question their inclusion in client briefs, account the urban heat island effect when designing buildings
as their installation can increase electrical energy demand in London. However, overheating is a nationwide issue affecting
the residential sector, which impacts on homes outside of urban
and energy costs and exacerbate the urban heat island locations.
effect.
Case study 2 — Overheating: anonymous development, London
Post-occupancy monitoring was undertaken on a large urban insufficient ventilation, lack of MVHR summer bypass function, and
redevelopment site in inner London, in an area which experienced heat losses from the communal heating system distribution pipes
the urban heat island effect. The development was built in the into communal corridors (dissipating into the adjoining flats).
2000s and consisted of mid-rise social housing apartments
with individual MVHR units and a communal heating system. Residents were given feedback on the findings of the monitoring
Monitoring was undertaken from late 2012 to early 2014, with the and on their use and maintenance of their ventilation systems.
aim of understanding energy and services performance, occupant The monitoring and feedback strengthened relationships between
experiences, and whether overheating was occurring. Temperature the residents and the developer, and provided the understanding
and humidity sensors were installed in bathrooms, bedrooms and opportunity needed to improve design approaches on future
and living rooms of three flats. Carbon dioxide sensors were developments. For example, the communal heating system was
additionally installed in living rooms, and external temperature and found to be oversized as the design was not adjusted appropriately
relative humidity were monitored along with electricity, heat and as the site design changed, and design approaches were changed
water usage and appliance monitoring. Occupant surveys were to help avoid this issue in the future. As good practice, improved
also undertaken. standards are to be adopted for pipework insulation, and
installation, commissioning and handover practices are being
improved. The importance of taking account of maintenance
Overheating was assessed monthly using CIBSE fixed temperature procedures in the design process was also highlighted and a
thresholds. All of the three monitored flats experienced periods greater emphasis on this is proposed by the developer for future
of overheating during the summer, exceeding the thresholds projects.
in all of the monitored rooms during July and (except for one
bedroom) also during August. Several factors were identified as Case study source: Monitoring Overheating: Housing Association Case
possibly contributing to this, including: large glazing proportions, Studies (Zero Carbon Hub, 2015b)
Table 3 Examples of overheating causes and mitigation measures
Design issue Principal causes of overheating Potential mitigation measures
Building location, orientation and • Single aspect dwellings that do not allow • Develop internal plans that can enable cross-flow
construction type crossflow ventilation. ventilation.
• Noisy locations (e.g. near busy roads, stations or • Develop a ventilation strategy that minimises
town centres) where opening windows to acoustic nuisance if windows are opened.
dissipate heat gains causes a noise or pollution • Position window openings and ventilation inlets
nuisance for the occupants. away from external surfaces that are hot in the
• City developments where the urban heat island summer.
effect is likely to result in increased external • Utilise external landscaping and external water
temperatures particularly at night. features to provide localised shade and
• Lack of, or inappropriate use of thermal mass. transpirative cooling.
• Reduce albedo on rooftops and facades exposed to
significant solar gain.
• Increase the thermal mass of the building in main
living areas (but not bedrooms), and develop
appropriate night-cooling strategies.
• Position bedrooms to avoid unwanted heat gains,
i.e. on north side of building.
Glazing and orientation • R

ooms and circulation spaces with significant • Reduce large areas of glazing that could
areas of unshaded glazing (large areas of south, significantly contribute to solar gains.
east or west facing windows are a particular • R
educe the g-values of glazing, optimising the
problem). reduction of excessive heat gains in summer
against the loss of useful heat gains in winter.
Table continues
Table 3 Examples of overheating causes and mitigation measures — continued
Design issue Principal causes of overheating Potential mitigation measures
Glazing and orientation • A

high proportion of full height windows • P
rovide shading to windows that will experience
(continued) (including a proportion of low level glazing solar gain that is likely to cause overheating.
installed below the working plane). Low level • Install
external shading devices (in preference to
glazing has no beneficial impact on daylight internal blinds).
levels at the working plane but increases solar
• C
heck that openable windows have sufficient free
heat gain to the home).
area to allow adequate background ventilation.
• P
rovide feedback to the architect on the impacts
of proposed glazing configurations on the
contribution to overheating risk.
• S
pecify horizontal rather than vertical windows to
achieve daylight levels and avoid the specification
of low level glazing below the working plane.
Occupancy densities • Spaces with high occupancy. • I f rooms will have high occupancy check that
• S
paces with a lot of equipment or poorly higher ventilation rates are achievable.
controlled equipment which remains on during • Specify controls that are easy to access and use.
the day.
Building engineering services • H

eat gains from pipes, cylinders and heat • P
ipes, cylinders and heat interface units should be
interface units (hius). well insulated.
• H
eat gains from lighting and other electrical • Specify lighting with low heat output.
equipment. • m
vhrt and (where applicable) air handling plant
• mvhrt systems without summer bypass. should have summer bypass option.
• I f the summer bypass is manual rather than
automatic provide end users with information
explaining how and when to use the bypass
function.
Corridors and common areas • Heat gains from communal heating distribution • Design heating distribution layouts that limit the
in corridors, risers and utility cupboards. amount of heating pipes in corridors and other
common areas.
• Reduce heating distribution temperatures (see
section 6.2).
• Ensure heating pipes and heat interface units
(hius) are well insulated.
• S
elect pipe supports that are thermally isolated
from the building to minimise conduction to the
structure.
• Adequately ventilate corridors, ceiling voids and
hiu cupboards.
• P
refer vertical over horizontal distribution of
heating pipework to reduce pipe lengths in
communal areas.
Operational issues • P
oorly controlled communal heating systems • P
rovide heating systems with controls that are
(there is particular risk arising from continuous simple to understand so that occupants and
operation of heating systems at high flow building managers can adjust programmes and
temperatures). set-points.
• Windows, and patio doors which: • B
linds, where provided, should be simple to
—— d
o not offer occupant control over the operate (guidance should be included in the
ventilation area or do not have sufficient Home User Guide).
opening area • A
void conflicts that can occur between blinds and
—— c ompromise security when opened or have opening windows.
restrictors and/or security constraints on • E
nsure windows and patio doors are fit for
opening purpose both in terms of ease of use and in
—— a re heavy and so difficult for the elderly and/ provision of the required rate of ventilation.
or infirm to operate.
• A
ll of which can result in lower ventilation rates
than predicted.
• Occupants not utilising blinds/ shading.
• O
ccupants not using or understanding the
summer bypass facility on mvhr systems.
Key messages — Section 5: Key design considerations
• B
uildings must be fit for purpose over their lifetime. Building • T
he retrofit of homes involves specific challenges which may
designs should be assessed in terms of their deliverability and include space and access limitations; weight constraints;
their likely performance in practice. Risks should be tracked complexities associated with interfacing with existing systems
throughout the design process. or components which are being retained; impacts on fire
control strategies, and impacts on interactions with the
• Site opportunities and constraints should be considered as part existing building fabric.
of the concept design.
• For retrofit projects, it is important that the condition
• D
esign strategies for individual building services should be of the existing buildings and potential risks are well
integrated with the building fabric design, other services, understood through the use of detailed surveys. This includes
occupant needs and likely behaviours. This will require building understanding the variations between properties which
services engineers to consider the interaction of servicing may appear to be of a similar archetype but have important
strategies at an early stage, to then follow an iterative design differences in practice.
process and throughout the project to work closely with other
• The planning and sequencing of retrofit measures needs
members of the design team.
careful consideration.
• At project inception it is recommended that an individual is • Thermal comfort should always be a key consideration.
identified who will take responsibility for coordinating an Engineers should aim to have a good understanding of risk
overheating strategy and ensuring it is delivered and revisited factors related to overheating in homes, and should review
as needed when design changes are proposed. their designs against the risk criteria detailed in CIBSE TM59
Design methodology for the assessment of overheating in
• B
uilding services engineers should work with the wider design homes, should apply suitable design principles, and should
team to implement passive design measures which reduce understand when detailed assessments and mitigating
requirements for energy within the home whilst maintaining measures are required.
comfortable conditions throughout the year.
• B
uilding services engineers should work with the wider design
• Life cycle performance and costs of services should be team to understand and, where appropriate, to implement
considered, alongside the initial installed performance and the options available to passively reduce cooling demands.
capital costs, when selecting systems and optimising designs. Mechanical cooling systems should only be specified in
homes as a last resort, and building services engineers should
• Feedback and lessons learnt from monitoring studies should question their inclusion in client briefs, as their installation
be used to inform the design of systems to avoid poor can increase electrical energy demand and energy costs and
performance. exacerbate the urban heat island effect.
6 System design passive design to reduce the need for mechanical and
electrical systems, reducing costs and energy demands.
6.1 Building engineering systems This TM is not intended to be comprehensive and

in homes additional guidance and relevant statutory requirements
must also be referred to and followed as appropriate. Some
This TM covers the provision of space heating, hot water, useful sources of further information are referred to within
ventilation, cooling, electrical services, lighting, on-site the individual sub-sections.
renewable electricity generation, and water and wastewater
in new and existing homes. The following sub-sections
describe the most common system types for each service, 6.2 Space heating
and provide guidance on key issues and on approaches to
deliver good practice design. Guidance is organised so as to Space heating systems in homes should be well designed,
follow key steps in design process: installed and commissioned, and be simple, safe and
affordable to operate. They should help to deliver
—— System selection: system options, and factors to
comfortable internal environments for occupants. The
consider when selecting systems for projects.
consequences of poor practice in the design, installation,
—— System optimisation: good practice guidance for commissioning and operation of heating systems can
optimising system design. include increased energy bills, impacts on occupant health,
increased risks of summer overheating and consequential
—— Integrated design: potential integration issues and
impacts on airtightness and fabric performance. For
guidance on how to address them.
example, under-heating in homes can lead to increased
risks of cold-related illnesses and of condensation, which
Controls, being generally applicable to all systems, are can damage the building fabric.
covered in a dedicated sub-section (section 6.10). Tools to
aid design are covered in section 4, and commissioning and
handover guidance is provided in section 7. 6.2.1 System selection
It is essential to provide systems that are well-designed,

installed, and commissioned, simple to operate, and fit for 6.2.1.1 System types
purpose. Recently systems have become available which,
compared to older systems, may be more complex and less A range of options are available for heat generators,
familiar to designers, installers, commissioners and distributors, emitters, and thermal or hot water storage.
occupiers. Often such systems offer potential efficiency This guide focuses on those most commonly used in homes
benefits, but can also provide challenges for the delivery of in the UK. The types included are shown in Table 4 below.
good design and consequently additional care is needed. Secondary heating is not covered in this guide. Hot water
The guidance also emphasises the importance of prioritising systems are covered in section 6.3.
System design 23
Table 4 Summary of system types
System type Schematic Description
(a) Generation
Gas, oil and liquefied Boilers can use a range of fuel types including gas, oil, lpg and (less
petroleum gas (lpg) commonly) electricity. Their energy use and running costs are mainly
boiler determined by their seasonal efficiency.
A key design choice is whether to specify a regular boiler with a
storage cylinder, or a combination boiler providing instantaneous
domestic hot water. This is discussed in section 6.3.1.
The choice of fuel type is highly dependent upon the availability of
mains gas. Mains gas is cheaper, more convenient, and has lower
associated carbon emissions than oil or lpg. Where mains gas is not
available, oil (usually in the form of kerosene, class C2 for domestic
boilers), or lpg may be used or other options, such as those set out
below. Oil and lpg boilers will require tanks for fuel storage.
There are multiple standards and codes of practice relating to
domestic boilers. UK safety legislation must be followed. BS 6891
(BSI, 2005b) applies to gas installations, BS 5482 (BSI, 2005a) to lpg
installations, and BS 5410 (BSI, 2014b) to oil boilers. Other useful
sources of information are the Institution of Gas Engineers and
Managers (IGEM, 2015) and the Gas Safe Register (HSE, 2015).
Further references are provided in CIBSE Guide B (CIBSE, 2016c)
and the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013f).
The design of gaseous piped services is not a focus of this TM;
guidance can be found in CIBSE Guide G chapter 8 (CIBSE, 2014a)
and the Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002).
Ground source heat Heat pumps use low grade heat to provide space heating, and can also
pump (ground to provide water heating, which is usually supplemented by a back-up
water) source such as electric immersion heating (the back-up source and
water storage may be integral to the heat pump unit). In the UK, the
most common domestic heat pump systems use heat from the air or
from the ground (see Figure 11 at foot of table) in combination with a
water distribution system for space heating and water storage for hot
water. They are suited to lower distribution temperatures so systems
commonly include underfloor heating or low temperature radiators.
As they use low grade heat, heat pumps have longer response times
than boilers and so need to run for longer periods to achieve the same
internal temperature. Heat pumps can be used with air distribution
systems.
GSHP Well designed and delivered heat pump systems can offer significant
carbon savings compared to other off-gas-grid heat sources such as
oil boilers, lpg boilers or direct electric heating. They should also
offer carbon savings compared to gas boilers if well designed,
delivered and operated. They consume energy (typically electricity)
but can produce around three or more times the amount of energy
they consume for space heating, with lower overall efficiencies
achieved for water heating due to the increased temperatures
required. Ground source heat pumps tend to have higher efficiencies
than air source heat pumps, as the ground has a higher specific heat
capacity than air and varies less with outside temperature, but they
Air source heat pump
typically also have higher capital costs. Ground source heat pumps
(air to water)
usually use closed pipe loop systems buried in the ground with a
circulating fluid to gather heat. Open loop systems collect and
discharge water, but these are less common and may need
Environment Agency permits. Many heat pumps can also provide
cooling in reverse operation mode. Cooling systems are discussed in
section 6.5.
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013) lists
useful sources of guidance for heat pump design and provides
recommended supply water temperatures for heat pumps with
different emitter types systems. CIBSE TM51 (CIBSE, 2013b)
provides guidance specifically for ground source heat pumps, and the
Environment Agency has published guidance on environmental good
practice (Environment Agency, 2010). BSRIA’s Illustrated Guide to
Renewable Technologies (BSRIA 2008a) provides more information
including design considerations. The Microgeneration Certification
Scheme (http://www.microgenerationcertification.org), BS ISO 13612
(BSI, 2014b) and BS EN 15450 (BSI, 2007b) provide standards for
system design.
Table continues
Table 4 Summary of system types — continued
Electric panel, Direct acting electric heaters convert electricity into heat at the point
convector or radiant of use. They are very responsive, controllable, and involve little
heaters disruption to install. However, they are more carbon intensive than,
for example, gas boiler systems. Requirements are given in the
Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013f). BS EN
50559 (BSI, 2015e) provides a standard for electric room heating.
TEHVA’s DOM 8: Guide to the design of electric space heating systems
(TEHVA, 2006) provides design guidance.
Electric storage Electric storage heaters are charged overnight on an off-peak

heaters electricity tariff and store heat in a dense thermal core, which is
released during the daytime. Due to their weight, they are usually
floor-standing. Various types are available, ranging from old, large
volume storage heaters, which may still be found in existing homes,
to modern, slim-line options. Some types are fan-assisted. Traditional
storage heaters are less controllable and responsive than many other
systems. Some combination types include direct acting electric panels
to provide a top-up heating device, increasing responsiveness but also
energy costs.
Guidance is given in CIBSE Guide A section 5.8.1.5 (CIBSE, 2015a)
and in TEHVA’s DOM 8: Guide to the design of electric space heating
systems (TEHVA, 2006). Requirements are given in the Domestic
Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013f). BS EN 50559 (BSI,
2015e) provides a standard for electric room heating.
Biomass boiler Biomass boilers use wood pellets or chips to produce low-carbon
heat. They are generally less flexible and less responsive than gas/
liquid boilers. Requirements for plant space, air quality, fuel storage,
supply, handling and delivery; for thermal storage; and for operation
and maintenance should be considered at an early stage.
Guidance is given by HETAS (https://www.hetas.co.uk), including in
their official solid fuel appliance guides. Requirements are given in
the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013f). The
Microgeneration Certification Scheme (http://www.
microgenerationcertification.org), BS EN 14785 (BSI, 2006f), BS EN
12809 (BSI, 2001) and BS EN 303-5 (BSI, 2006f) provide standards.
Table continues
System design 25
Communal Generally, the first choice for the heating system type will be between
generation centralised and decentralised distribution. This choice will be
HIU
(including chp) influenced by factors including: the density and diversity of demand;
availability of space; system efficiency; planning policy; the
availability of existing heat networks; plans for the building’s future
operation; client preferences; and other factors listed in section
6.2.1.2. Communal generation should be considered where existing
HIU
communal heating sources are available and/or where the
development is of a scale to make it viable.
Communal heating systems can be provided within individual
multi-residential buildings or may be larger scale heat networks
serving multiple buildings. They provide flexibility in terms of
HIU
current and future generation sources, which can include a wide
range of types, offering energy and carbon savings, for example chp
or biomass. They typically utilise gas boilers as a back-up heating
source and to meet peak demands, and include thermal storage to
Thermal balance out peaks and allow the primary heating source to provide a
storage greater proportion of the heat. chp engines generate electricity as
Low-carbon centralised well as heat, and their feasibility largely depends on the scale and
plant (in building or remote)
profile of local heat and electricity demands (electricity can be
exported to the grid but this is dependent on the local infrastructure
capacity and utility company agreement, and will be of lower
financial value than if the electricity is used on site). For communal
systems, it is particularly important to assess the overall efficiency of
the system, including distribution losses, which can be significant.
Larger density schemes offer economies of scale. As the development
density reduces, heat losses from the distribution network will rise as
a proportion of total heat delivered, increasing operational costs and
reducing viability
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013f) gives
reasonable minimum proportions of the annual heat supply that
should be provided by chp, heat pumps or biofuel boilers, where
specified, for them to be effective. Guidance on the assessment and
delivery of community heating and chp is provided in CIBSE/ADE’s
Code of Practice CP1: Heat networks (CIBSE/ADE, 2015) and AM12
(CIBSE, 2013a). Community heating schemes should meet the
metering requirements of the EU Energy Efficiency Directive (EU,
2012).
(b) Distribution
Wet distribution Individual wet (hydronic) systems are the most common type of
system: individual space heating distribution in homes in the UK, and can be used with
dwellings a wide range of generation sources and heat emitters. Space heating
systems designed to incorporate lower temperature distribution
networks can deliver improved system efficiency, if designed well. BS
EN 12828 (BSI, 2012b) provides a standard for the design of
water-based heating systems.
Boiler
Table continues
Electricity Electricity is used as the distribution system where electric heating

appliances are used. Electricity offers versatility as it can be
converted to heat at different temperatures as required at different
locations and as a range of technologies can be used, but it has high
energy costs, primary energy use and CO2 emissions — though the
latter are expected to reduce over time as the electricity grid
decarbonises. Additional electricity infrastructure will usually be
required, with associated costs.
RCD
consumer
unit
Supply and extract system

Air feat. supply heater Warm air heating is not commonly used in UK homes due to the
large ductwork requirements and potentially high energy
consumption of fans, particularly in dwellings with higher heating
demands. It is sometimes used in new very low energy/Passivhaus
homes, where space heating demands are so low that a central heating
system can be ‘designed-out’. In such situations, one alternative is a
small temperature-controlled electric heater located in the supply
duct of the mvhr system. Heating via the air is also sometimes used
in new homes with heat pumps. Where warm air heating systems are
integrated with ventilation systems, volume flows are required that
are higher than those needed for ventilation purposes alone.
(c) Emitters
Radiators Radiators are the most common type of emitter used in UK homes.
(standard/large) They use convection and radiation to output heat. They are available
in a variety of shapes, sizes and output ranges, with larger radiators
required when specified with lower temperature distribution systems.
Underfloor heating Underfloor heating uses the surface of the floor as a heat emitter. It
can be used with wet distribution systems where pipes are installed
under the surface, or with embedded electric heating elements. It is
best suited to well-insulated buildings where it can be used as the
only emitter. However, it can be used in combination with radiators,
on a separate circuit, as secondary heating. Underfloor heating
enables low flow and return temperatures to be specified, improving
generation plant performance, but it requires the prior consideration
of floor construction, available space, floor finishes, and ease of
maintenance and replacement.
The Domestic Building Services Panel’s Underfloor Heating: Design
and Installation Guide (DBSP, 2012) and BSRIA’s BG4/2011:
Underfloor heating and cooling (Brown, 2011) provide design guidance.
Standards for underfloor heating are provided in BS EN 1264. BS EN
1264-2 (BSI, 2008b) gives calculation procedures for systems with
pipes embedded in floor screed or below the screed. Requirements are
given in the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS,
2013f).
Table continues
System design 27
Fan coil units Fan coil units are not commonly used in UK homes. One type
transfers heat from a wet distribution system to the air, other types
use a refrigerant. Fan coil units use forced air circulation and produce
high heat outputs from small units that may be mounted on the
ceiling or floor. They can be used to provide cooling. More
information is given in CIBSE TM43 (CIBSE, 2008). Fan coil units
are very responsive but if poorly designed or installed can be noisy,
lead to temperature stratification and draughts, and be difficult to
closely control.
(d) Thermal storage
Thermal storage Thermal storage can reduce peak loads, leading to reduced plant
Hot water to
dwelling(s) sizing. They can be used to benefit from off-peak energy tariffs. They
can also facilitate the use of renewable or low carbon heat sources.
Large purpose-designed thermal stores may be used in communal
Hot water flow heating systems. See section 6.3 for more guidance on hot water
from heat source storage.
Mains cold
water (via
pressure
vessel) Return water
to heat source
should work with the client and wider design team to

consider:
—— Availability of infrastructure: the system choice will
be influenced by the availability of supply
infrastructure, such as mains gas or existing district
heat mains. It will also be influenced by the costs
associated with upgrading local gas or electricity
supply infrastructure.
—— System output: will the system be able to provide
sufficient heat to deliver the indoor temperatures
required by the client within specified response
times taking into account fabric design, the level of
airtightness of the home, ventilation provision,
occupancy patterns, and, where known, occupant
characteristics? For example, heat pumps are
Figure 11 Air source heat pumps supplying individual dwellings (image unlikely to be able to provide sufficient heat within
courtesy of Geothermal International)
required response times to meet occupant needs in
older, poorly insulated properties.
Requirements for other heating systems and references to
supporting information are given in the Domestic Building —— Size of the system: over-sized systems lead to energy,
Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) and equivalents carbon and money being wasted. For well-insulated
(Scottish Government, 2015a; DFPNI, 2012). Manufacturers’ homes, it can be difficult to source small regular
guidance should be referred to and the guidance in the boilers which match the space heating demand, as
Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) should be boilers are commonly manufactured for the needs
followed. Assessments of the performance of particular of the retrofit market. Similarly, combination
system types based on in-use monitoring can provide useful boilers, sized for the instantaneous hot water
information on good practice design and on practices that demand, are likely to be oversized for the space
may result in poorly performing systems. Examples include heating demand of modern new-build homes in
the Energy Saving Trust’s field trial reports, which have which case they will not operate at their optimum
been undertaken for a range of technologies including heat design efficiency. It can be difficult to find heat
pumps, condensing boilers and heating controls and which interface units (hius) that can match lower heating
are available on the Energy Saving Trust’s website (http:// demands, and oversized hius can lead to unwanted
www.energysavingtrust.org.uk). heat losses. In very well-insulated homes, such as
those built to Passivhaus or similar standards,
central heating plant may not be needed. In this
6.2.1.2 System selection criteria case heating may only be needed for pre-heating
the home prior to occupancy. Guidance on system
Prior to selecting a heating system, it is good practice for sizing is given in section 6.2.2.
building services engineers to evaluate passive design
strategies that would help to reduce heating demands and —— Impact on energy requirements, carbon emissions and
system sizes (see section 5.3 for more information on energy bills: including the contribution to the carbon
passive design). When advising on which heating system to targets for new dwellings in Approved Document L
select for a particular project, building services engineers in England and Wales (NBS, 2016a/b) (and
equivalents for Scotland (Scottish Government, phases of the network, when the initial loads are
2017) and Northern Ireland (DFPNI, 2012)). These likely to require significantly smaller generation
should similarly be factors in choosing the fuel plant than the final built-out network.
source for the heating system. Choice of fuel source
—— Impact on air quality, both inside and outside the
may also be influenced by fuel price, the availability
dwelling: certain appliances or fuels (such as
of incentives (where available), the availability and
biomass) may not be allowed in certain areas, for
cost of infrastructure (see above), and service
example in air quality management areas or smoke
charges. Specifying high efficiency systems also
control areas; or additional measures to control
helps to minimise fuel costs. When comparing
pollutants may be required for plant such as chp,
products, care should be taken to report figures on a
large communal boilers or biomass boilers.
comparable basis (e.g. under the same test
Specialist input should be sought. Measures may
conditions and to the same standards). Design
require additional plant room space and flue heights
teams should consider the impact of projected fuel
may need to be increased. The Institute of Air
tariffs and carbon factors over the longer term, and
Quality Management provides guidance primarily
the ability of residents to change supplier.
aimed at local authorities but also of use to building
—— Availability of internal and external space for the system: services engineers (http://iaqm.co.uk).
this is likely to influence the choice of all com —— Relevant planning requirements or local opportunities:
ponents of the system. For example, if external for example for considering connection to a district
space is limited technologies such as ground source heat network.
heat pumps, which require space for boreholes and
underground pipework, and biomass, lpg or oil —— Costs: capital and life cycle costs of the system.
boilers, which require space for fuel storage and —— Hot water supply: hot water demand and delivery
delivery, may not be suitable. Space considerations preferences will influence the system choice. Space
are also likely to influence the choice between and hot water heating are often delivered using the
centralised and decentralised systems. For example, same system, but they can be separated. See section
centralised systems can save space within homes 6.3 for more guidance on hot water systems.
but require additional space for central plant rooms
and risers. Figure 12 provides an example of a —— Integration between space heating system components:
spacious centralised plant room. The length and for example, in addition to several of the factors
complexity of flue routes and their potential impact listed above, the choice of distribution system will
on the design of internal and communal areas be influenced by the type of heat generator chosen.
should be considered. CIBSE Guide B1 (CIBSE, 2016b) provides guidance
on distribution system selection. The choice of
—— Operation and maintenance: whether occupants or emitters will in turn additionally be influenced by
others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use the type of heat generator chosen, and the type and
and maintain the system as required for it to operate temperature of the distribution network.
effectively and efficiently.
Other interactions with other building services and the
—
—— Ease of installation and commissioning: see section 7 building fabric: these are discussed under section
for installation, commissioning and handover 6.2.4.
guidance.
—— Flexibility, considering potential future replacements or These considerations should not be viewed in isolation but
changes: as an example, a particular challenge for in relation to each other. The heating system designer
phased district heating systems is developing a should be involved in the design process as early as possible
design that will operate efficiently and achieve to maximise opportunities for integrated and optimised
regulatory and planning requirements for early design. Specialist input may be required for certain systems
and it may be helpful to engage with manufacturers and
suppliers to better understand their products.
For existing homes, suitable options may be more

constrained. For example, if the home is not well insulated
and is not to be upgraded, then low temperature systems
such as heat pumps or underfloor heating may not be able
to meet the heating demand. The Plumbing Engineering
Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002) provides more
information on factors to consider for existing buildings,
and recommends that decisions are informed by a detailed
building survey.
There are particular design considerations that apply to

high-rise buildings. The supply of gas to high-rise buildings
requires additional protective measures to meet gas safety
requirements and, where individual gas boilers are
specified, building services engineers should work with
architects to carefully consider routing of flues. This may
mean that communal heating systems are preferred, rather
Figure 12 An example of a spacious, tidy plant room featuring gas boiler than providing gas supply pipework to individual high-rise
pairs supplying local communal energy (image © AECOM) homes.
System design 29
6.2.2 System sizing

Additional sources of guidance
A range of other guides provide information. Various sources

6.2.2.1 General guidance including CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) and NHBC Standards
2017 (NHBC, 2017) give guidance on the design temperatures
for different rooms as well as on ventilation rate assumptions.
Space heating plant is generally sized to meet the maximum Clients may specify minimum and design temperatures. Higher
steady state design heat load, with additional capacity for temperatures may be needed for people with certain health
heating-up the home in a reasonable time. The life cycle conditions, for example. The standardised temperatures assumed
in SAP should not be assumed as design temperatures.
costs and performance of the system should be taken into
account when optimising plant size (see section 5.4). For CIBSE KS08: How to design a heating system (CIBSE, 2006b)
provides a step-by-step guide to the design process for heating
economic reasons, certain systems may not be sized to meet systems, including information on design procedures, sizing,
peak space heating demand in the coldest conditions (for data requirements and sources, and potential issues. CIBSE
example, primary heating sources in district heat networks) Guide B (CIBSE, 2016) and the Plumbing Engineering Services
or to meet peak water heating demand (for example, heat Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002) also provide guidance for heating
pumps). In this case, supplementary heating should be system sizing, and BS 12831 (BSI, 2003a) provides a standard
describing calculations of design heat loads. The Microgeneration
included. Calculations should be updated as the overall Certification Scheme (http://www.microgenerationcertification.
building design develops and when design changes are org) provides standards for renewable heating technologies.
made that will impact on heating demands. Rules of thumb Specialist input may be required for some systems, for example
are useful at early stages of design (up to concept design for sizing of ground source heat pump loops.
stage) and as sense-checks for calculations but should not The Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) gives guidance
be used in place of detailed design calculations. on sizing of different system components including distribution
system components. The sizing and design of the distribution
system will be influenced by chosen operating temperatures,
Steady-state spreadsheet/hand  calculation methods for heat output requirements, control strategies, and for water
estimating the space heating demand are commonly used. distribution systems, the effect of water velocity on noise and
corrosion and the pressure and flow required of the circulation
A more complicated dynamic thermal model may be used pump. Emitter compatibility and system balancing should be
for developments such as blocks of flats where such considered. CIBSE Guide B (CIBSE, 2016c) sets out the key design
modelling may already be required for other purposes (e.g. decisions involved and provides guidance on the characteristics
modelling of communal corridors for compliance purposes) of pipework and pumps. Chapter 4 of CIBSE Guide C (CIBSE,
or where it is particularly important to consider the 2007a) gives the basis for calculating pressure drops in pipework
and the Domestic Heating Design Guide includes a worksheet.
dynamic effects of internal heat gains, such as when
considering overheating risk from communal distribution
pipework. Calculations should take into account external (1) Determine room heat emitter sizes (based on design
design conditions, internal design conditions and conditions including flow and return temperatures,
requirements, and the building fabric design (including design heat loss, design temperatures, corrections
fabric heat loss, thermal mass, infiltration heat loss, and for local effects and intermittent operation).
ventilation heat loss (taking into account heat recovery if
present)). Solar gains and reliable internal heat gains may (2) Assess heat losses from the distribution system (see
be considered but are commonly ignored in domestic CIBSE Guide C, chapter 3 (CIBSE, 2007)), where
heating system sizing because of their variability. appropriate.
Calculations are carried out for each room or zone to allow (3) For communal systems, assess diversity factor for
loads to be assessed and individual heat emitters to be sized. central plant.
Calculations for pre-occupancy periods should only take
into account losses and gains occurring when homes are (4) Select plant size.
not occupied (for example, some ventilation losses may
only occur during occupied periods and, if they are being 6.2.2.2 Existing homes
considered, some internal heat gains may only be relevant
during occupied periods). For existing homes, the same process should be used as for
new homes, with a building survey undertaken to inform
Where space heating generation plant also provides assumptions (see section 6.2.2.1). It is not recommended to
instantaneous domestic hot water, it is generally sized to size replacement systems based on the existing system size
meet the simultaneous hot water demand (as this is typically as this may not have been correct and space and/or hot
greater than the peak space heating load, and systems water demands may have changed, for example due to the
usually prioritise domestic hot water). CIBSE Guide G installation of fabric efficiency measures.
(CIBSE, 2014), BS EN 806-2 (BSI, 2005a), BS 8558 (BSI,
2015a), BS EN 13480-3 (BSI, 2017a) and the Plumbing 6.2.2.3 Communal heating systems
Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002) should be
referred to for water heating system sizing. Water For communal heating systems, demand diversity should
temperatures and the duration of the hot water demand be considered when designing the system. For space
should be taken into account. heating, demand diversity will be limited except on very
large schemes with a mix of building types (in which case a
The Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) should be diversity factor should be applied). For hot water provided
followed. It provides worksheets to assist in the sizing by instantaneous heat exchangers it is necessary to apply a
process. Section 5.8 of CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) and diversity factor. As good practice it is recommended that
CIBSE Guide B1 (CIBSE, 2016b) provide further sources of the design approach described in Danish Standard DS 439:
guidance on the appropriate tools and approaches to use Code of Practice for domestic water supply installations (DSF,
and the factors that should be included. CIBSE Guide A 2009) is followed. When sizing the system building services
describes the required calculation sequence as follows: engineers should also consider the potential for expansion
to nearby existing or future buildings. Designs should take Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) and helping
into account the different heat demands of each individual to deliver this in practice. Void spaces including
dwelling — for example, they should not simply average main risers should be ventilated to help avoid
demands across blocks of flats. Guidance on communal overheating. Designing distribution systems so
heating system design is given in the CIBSE Code of that pipework is not kept hot unnecessarily (for
Practice CP1: Heat networks (CIBSE/ADE, 2015) and example through using thermostatic bypass at the
guidance on chp is given in CIBSE AM12 (CIBSE, 2013b). end of runs or top of risers) can also help reduce
overheating risks, though this should be balanced
against potential delays to water at design tem
6.2.3 System optimisation
peratures reaching points of use. More detailed
overheating guidance is provided in section 5.6 and
Good practice design will help to deliver systems that are
in CIBSE TM59: Design methodology for the assessment
simple to operate, achieve comfortable internal tempera
of overheating in homes (CIBSE, 2017).
tures, and have low energy and running costs. This means:
—— Factoring energy use and running costs into design
—— Working with the design team to prioritise demand
decisions and specifying high efficiency systems and
reduction measures such as passive building design
design to help ensure system components do not
and energy efficient fabric.
run when they are not required. The Domestic
—— Providing sufficient heating for the level of airtight Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a)
ness and fabric design realistically expected to be recommends minimum standards for new and
achieved in the home. The design of the heating replacement heating systems/components, including
system should take into account the time it takes to energy efficiency requirements, and ‘carbon
heat up dwellings (i.e. not simply be based on steady equivalent efficiency’ requirements for where the
state heat loss calculations). Under-heating homes replacement heating appliance proposed is of a
can lead to increased risks of cold-related illnesses, different fuel type from the original system. Where
and of condensation, which can damage the possible, these minimum requirements should be
building fabric. exceeded. Guidance on providing high efficiency
systems is given in CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE, 2012),
—— Avoiding over-sizing the system: over-sized generation
the Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) (for
plant will run less efficiently as it will not be
boilers, hot water storage cylinders and thermal
operating at its optimum design condition and will
stores), CIBSE KS14 (CIBSE, 2009a), Energy
tend to cycle on and off (note that for some
Saving Trust CE30: Domestic heating by gas: boiler
technologies, such as heat pumps, the optimum
systems — guidance for installers and specifiers (EST,
design efficiency may be when the system is
2008a) and CE51: Central heating system specifications
running at part-load). Over-sized distribution
(CHeSS) Year 2008 (EST, 2008b), and the Plumbing
systems and emitters also lead to increased heat
Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002).
losses and unnecessary costs, and are more difficult
Guidance for different components of heating
to control closely.
systems is given below. Provision of heat recovery
—— Assessing the safety and ease of operation, maintenance (e.g. mvhr, flue gas heat recovery, waste water heat
and installation and ensuring these are not compro recovery) should be considered.
mised. Careful consideration should be given to the
—— Selecting suitable flow and return temperatures that are
needs of more vulnerable occupants, including
safe (e.g. exposed emitters are not at risk of scalding
older adults, children, and people with disabilities
occupants); help to achieve the indoor temperatures
or health conditions. Some guidance is provided in
required; and help to improve the efficiency of the
The Plumbing Engineering Services Design Guide
system. Reducing return temperatures can reduce
(CIPHE, 2002), and where required research should
heat losses, improve combustion efficiency and lead
be carried out to identify specific guidance relevant
to lower costs. The choice of design temperatures
to particular needs.
for wet distribution systems is influenced by factors
—— Designing to avoid overheating: for example by including desired response times, efficiency
specifying well-insulated pipework beyond the considerations, the temperature of existing heat
minimum levels described in the Domestic Building networks (where these are being connected to) and
Figure 13 Shared vertical risers

(left) reduce length of communal
distribution pipework located in
corridors compared to horizontal
runs for typical flat layouts (right)
System design 31
Figure 14 Thermal image (left)

of a well insulated hiu (right),
limiting heat gains to the
surrounding space
(image © Willmott Dixon)
the impact on emitter sizing. It is considered good Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012), for both new
practice to specify low primary return water and existing homes, to help prevent wasted heat
temperatures (i.e. under 55 °C) for systems with and overheating. This includes insulating pipe
condensing boilers as this will allow the boiler to joints and support brackets, see Figure 15. CIBSE
operate in condensing mode for a greater proportion Code of Practice CP1: Heat networks (CIBSE/ADE,
of the time and so help to achieve operational 2015) should be followed for pipework in communal
performance closer to the quoted SEDBUK spaces. Sufficient ventilation should be provided
efficiency. (Note: the SEDBUK database has been for communal spaces containing heating pipework.
relocated to the Building Energy Performance Primary circulation pipes for space heating should
Assessment support website: www.ncm-pcdb.org. be insulated where they do not contribute to the
uk/sap). Larger temperature differences between useful heat requirement of the dwelling (for
flow and return temperatures lower the mean water example, where they are outside of the heated
temperature of emitters, reducing output and envelope, through voids which are ventilated from
leading to larger emitter surface areas being unheated spaces, or in voids between apartments
required. The associated space requirements should where losses would benefit another dwelling). The
be discussed with the design team. For communal Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS,
systems, the guidance given in the CIBSE Code of 2013a) gives maximum heat loss figures for different
Practice CP1: Heat networks (CIBSE/ADE, 2015) pipe sizes. The Domestic Heating Design Guide
should be followed. (DBSP, 2015) gives minimum insulation thicknesses
—— Locating components appropriately to optimise for pipework to meet these standards. Particular
performance and to allow access for maintenance care should be taken to design for continuity of
and replacement. This includes: insulation and to avoid thermal bridging at joints
and support brackets. BS 5422 (BSI, 2009) provides
• locating plant to minimise distribution a method for specifying insulation for pipes, tanks
system length and losses, and to allow and other equipment. Insulation should be able to
suitable flue and condensate drainage
provision where required, and
• locating emitters to help provide uniform
temperatures in rooms (such as positioning
radiators below windows or adjacent to full
height windows, and on external walls if the
walls are poorly insulated).
The impact of temperature stratification and direct

radiation on occupants’ thermal comfort should be
considered. Acoustic performance, ventilation
requirements and safety requirements must be
taken into account, as discussed in section 6.2.4.
See CIBSE Guide A, section 5.8.1.3 (CIBSE, 2015a),
CIBSE Guide B1 (CIBSE, 2016b), the Plumbing
Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002),
and manufacturers’ guidance for more information
on component location.
—— Insulating pipework to exceed the minimum requirements
of the Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide Figure 15 Insulated communal heating pipes and other piped services in
(NBS, 2013a) and Approved Document L1/L2 a services riser showing thermally insulated pipe supports (image ©
(NBS, 2016a/b) and equivalents (Scottish Hoare Lea)
withstand contact with high temperatures without —— Identifying opportunities for improving existing systems
performance being compromised over time, for in homes: the Domestic Building Services Compliance
example due to materials degrading. Fixings should Guide (NBS, 2013a) provides good practice recom
not restrict thermal expansion and should be mendations for additional upgrades to existing
sufficient to prevent sagging and secure the heating systems when components of existing
pipework. Best practice would be for all heating heating systems are being replaced (for example,
pipework to be insulated. For community heating installing trvs where boilers or radiators are being
systems, BS EN 253 (BSI, 2009/2015) provides replaced, installing boiler interlock and separate
standards and CIBSE Code of Practice CP1: Heat timing for space heating and hot water when
networks (CIBSE/ADE, 2015) provides guidance. cylinders are being replaced, upgrading gravity-fed
For heat pumps fitted externally, external pipework systems to fully pumped when boilers or cylinders
between the dwelling and the heat exchanger are being replaced). Good practice is to upgrade
should also be insulated following the requirements existing systems to meet the requirements for new
of CIBSE CP1 (whether or not the system is stand- systems. For community heating schemes,
alone or communal). requirements in the Non-Domestic Building Services
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013d) also apply to the
—— Circuits for water distribution systems must be
central heating source.
hydraulically balanced (for example in communal
heating solutions in flats), so as to achieve the —— Checking if existing pipe sizes need to be increased where
necessary flow rates throughout the system and existing systems are being extended and if heating
maintain appropriate pressures. CIBSE Guide B1 pumps and valves need to be recommissioned; for
(CIBSE, 2016b) provides guidance and notes that example, if radiators are being added at the end of a
pipework design should help to make balancing run.
easier, for example through pipe sizing and avoiding
—— Providing suitable controls that allow the system to be
connecting loads with very different pressure drops
operated effectively and efficiently. See Section 6.10
and heat emitting characteristics to the same sub-
for more information on controls.
circuit. Control valves should be sized and located
to take into account pressure drops and flows
around the circuit. 6.2.4 Integrated design
—— Appropriately segregating services: ensuring hot and
General guidance on integrated design is given in section
cold water pipes are located away from each other to
5.2. If heating system design is not integrated with other
avoid unwanted gains to the cold water pipes, which
services and with building fabric design, it can lead to many
wastes energy and can lead to Legionella risks.
of the potential problems outlined at the start of section 6.2.
Where hot and cold pipes should be adjacent they
The design of the space heating system is strongly
should be insulated to reduce heat transfer.
influenced by the fabric design, as is explained in sections
Guidance is given in the Water Regulations Guide
6.2.1 and 6.2.2. There are other specific integration issues
(WRAS, 2015), including recommended maximum
which are considered below.
temperatures for cold water pipes.
—— Specifying efficient ancillary devices: pumps and fans
6.2.4.1 Integration with building fabric
can have a significant impact on running costs, and
these should be assessed. For example, specifying
Building services engineers should work with design teams
pumps with automatic speed control can provide
and clients to predict and avoid downstream issues
efficiency savings. For communal distribution
associated with the integration of heating systems with the
systems to minimise operational pumping energy it
building fabric by:
is good practice to specify a variable volume system
(with differential pressure sensors at the far reach of —— Prioritising passive design: as discussed in section
the network) rather than a constant flow system. 6.2.3, taking into account the impact of relevant
Guidance on energy efficient pumping systems is factors, including layout, fabric design and window
given in BSRIA BG12/2011 (BSRIA, 2011a). design, on heating system design.
—— For underfloor heating: floor surfaces should be kept —— Providing sufficient space for heating systems: building
below 29 °C in most circumstances and below 35 °C services engineers should work with architects to
in peripheral areas to avoid floors being provide the necessary space and accessibility for the
uncomfortably hot. The spacing and size of pipes/ installation, maintenance and replacement of
electric heating elements, flow water/heating generation plant, pipework, and associated
element temperature, and floor construction and equipment in cupboards, floors etc. Figure 16 shows
finish all influence the design surface temperature. an example of the layout of multiple services in a
For new wet systems, supply temperatures of 30– heating and ventilation cupboard ensuring adequate
40 °C are commonly used, and underfloor heating is space for maintenance. Architects and clients
suited to heat generating technologies with lower should understand the impacts of their decisions
temperature outputs (such as heat pumps). on heating system efficiencies; for example, the
negative impact of locating water heating sources
—— Ensuring products with appropriate certifications are
away from hot water outlets.
used: appliances should also be approved by the
relevant authority, e.g. MCS or CEN Solar Keymark —— Consider specific fabric design issues for the heating
for microgeneration, HETAS for solid fuel system chosen: for example, wet underfloor heating
appliances, the BEAB for electrical appliances, see systems can be installed in concrete or timber
the Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) for floors. They are most responsive when pipes are
more information. installed in timber floors, less responsive when in
System design 33
Incoming communal MVHR supply/extract and

heating and cold water feed intake/exhaust ducts
Heat interface unit (HIU)
Electrical consumer unit
Master telephone outlet

and TV amp.
Mechanical ventilation heat

recovery (MVHR) unit
(requires front access to
filters and other parts)
Domestic heating circuit

(underfloor heating
manifold shown here)
Underfloor heating circuits

Figure 16 Example of a well designed multi-service utility space inside a dwelling showing incoming services for communal heating, water and
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (mvhr) installation (courtesy Hoare Lea)
screed above insulation, and least responsive in protected from damage and, for suspended floors,
concrete slabs. However, concrete floors can provide water pipework should be insulated where it passes
the most even temperature delivery. If underfloor through the ground and the ventilated space. The
heating systems are used under timber floors, continuity of the building fabric insulation must
engineered timber may be required to avoid the not be compromised by services, for example by
risk of deformation. Suitable floor finishes should services installed through the building insulation.
be used as insulating finishes will reduce useful Site practices should protect installed heating
output. Further guidance is given in CIBSE Guide system components from subsequent work, for
B1 (CIBSE, 2016b) and in the guidance referred to example through capping and sealing the first fix
in section 6.2.1.1. More generally, unwanted losses pipework. Services should also be able to move as
from emitters should be reduced through providing required to avoid damage. For example, gas
good levels of insulation beneath underfloor heating pipework installed in timber frame homes should
elements and insulating walls etc. For existing make allowance for differential movement and,
heating systems where walls are poorly insulated, where required, services should be sleeved, wrapped
durable and robustly fixed foil inserts behind or ducted to allow movement. Measures should also
radiators should be considered. Emitters should be taken to assisting in the future location of hidden
not be restricted by surface finishes, architectural services. Guidance on detailed service/fabric
features or fittings, furniture and furnishings. integration issues is given in NHBC Standards 2017
Inevitable reductions in the output of heating (NHBC, 2017) and in the Zero Carbon Hub’s
systems from such obstructions and from back Builders’ Book (ZCH, 2015). More detailed guidance
losses to surfaces to which emitters are fixed should on installation should be provided in manufacturers’
be considered when sizing emitters. CIBSE Guide installation instructions.
B1 (CIBSE, 2016b) and the Plumbing Engineering
Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002)provide more —— Considering upgrades to heating and fabric systems when
information. making other changes to existing homes: when work is
being done to existing homes the potential for
—— Designing the location of services within the fabric and upgrades to the fabric and to heating systems
coordinating installation work to avoid damage: should be considered. Building services engineers
pipework, flue installation and other works which should work with architects and clients to identify
involve services penetrating the building fabric and prioritise fabric improvements to reduce
must be well sealed and designed to minimise demand and to plan an integrated package of
damage to the air barrier and the risk of water measures. The Domestic Building Services Compliance
ingress. Incoming water services should be Guide (NBS, 2013a) gives suggestions of additional
heating system upgrades that are recommended Guide (DBSP, 2015). Guidance specifically for solid
when other parts of existing systems are being fuel systems is given in the Energy Saving Trust’s
replaced. As explained in section 5.5, it is important CE47: Domestic heating by solid fuel (EST 2005b).
that building fabric retrofit plans are factored into
—— mvhr summer bypass function: mvhr may be
heating system design.
considered as a means of reducing heat consumption
(see section 6.4 of this TM). Some mvhr systems
6.2.4.2 Integration with building services include summer bypass which allows the supply air
to bypass the heat exchanger if external temperatures
Potential integration issues with other building services are lower than internal temperatures. Manually
include: operated mvhr summer bypass can conflict with
the supply of heating if it is not turned off by
—— Interaction of heat generators with each other: where occupants after the summer.
systems include more than one generation source
there is the potential for conflict. Avoid providing —— Cooling: where cooling is provided, heating and
secondary heating when it is not needed as it makes cooling systems must be designed so that they do
systems more complex and can lead to inefficient not operate simultaneously in conflict with each
operation and higher bills. Systems should be set other; for example, through having different set
up so that the lead appliance is appropriately points with a dead band in between. There may be
prioritised and so that backup plant operates opportunities to integrate cooling with the heating
efficiently. For example, where chp engines and system; for example, with a wet underfloor heating
boilers are specified, they should be connected in system and a reversible heat pump. If the systems
parallel to allow the boilers to operate in condensing are separate the designer is likely to have less
mode, which they may not do otherwise where the control and the risk of occupants running both
chp is used as a pre-heat. The chp engine shown in systems in conflict with each other may be higher.
Figure 17 was designed to supply heat to a
residential communal energy network, with 6.2.4.3 Other integration issues
generated power contributing to the local demand
of the plant room and communal areas. Other integration issues may include:
—— Ensuring that system components are compatible with —— Fire risks: there are many potential fire risks
each other: for example, where controls are specified associated with heating systems. Any services
that these are compatible with the rest of the system. passing through fire-resisting elements must be
—— Water heating: a key design decision is whether the fire-stopped, for example using seals. Manufacturers’
space heating system will also provide domestic hot installation instructions must be followed. The
water. This is discussed above and below in section risks on site by poor on-site installation practices
6.3. (such as identified in performance gap work,
summarised in section 2.2) should be appraised and
—— The need to provide adequate ventilation for fuel-burning reported to the client to inform decision making.
appliances and to avoid flue gases being drawn into Where services pass through fire resisting elements
homes where open-flued appliances are installed: this is robust quality assurance processes must be
covered under Approved Document J (NBS, 2013e) implemented on site. Safety measures are required
and equivalents (Scottish Government, 2017; for flues and chimneys, and fuel stores. Measures
DFPNI, 2012), and the Domestic Heating Design may need to be retrofitted for existing homes.
Guidance is given in Approved Documents B (NBS,
2013f) and J (NBS, 2010e) and equivalents (Scottish
Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012), and BS 9991
(BSI, 2015b) provides a code of practice for fire
safety in the design, management and use of
residential buildings. For high-rise buildings, specific
requirements apply; for example, gas meters must not be
installed where they compromise means of escape in case
of fire. The Institution of Gas Engineers and
Managers standard IGEM/G/5 (IGEM, 2012) covers
gas supplies to and within buildings containing
multiple dwellings.
—— Fuel safety: fuels are subject to a range of health and
safety regulations. For example, gas services must
comply with the Gas Safety (Installation and Use)
Regulations 1998 (TSO, 1998), and the recommen
dations of relevant gas distributors, suppliers and
meter owners. Pipework and appliances should
meet relevant standards including the Gas Safety
(Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 (TSO,
1998) and the standards and codes published by the
Institution of Gas Engineers and Managers (http://
www.igem.org.uk). These include restrictions on
Figure 17 chp engine supplying a communal local energy system (image component locations and ventilation requirements.
© AECOM) CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) provides guidance
System design 35
on the design of gaseous piped services. BS 6891 —— Structural impacts: buildings should be capable of
(BSI, 2005b) covers the installation of low pressure integrating building services. The design of services
gas pipework in domestic premises. The BS 6400 should not negatively impact on the stability of the
series (BSI, 2006a, 2007a, 2016) covers specifications building. For example, the weight of storage
for the installation of domestic gas meters. The cylinders should be considered; there are limits on
Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) the notching and drilling of joists which are set out
provides guidance on health and safety issues in NHBC Standards 2017 (NHBC, 2017); and
associated with oil, lpg and biomass fuel storage. openings for meter boxes set in external walls
should be adequately supported and protected to
—— Acoustic impacts: heating systems can have a prevent water entering the dwelling. Meters should
significant impact on acoustics within and between not be installed where a gas escape, fire or explosion
dwellings, if they are not well designed and would impact on the structural integrity of the building.
installed. Distribution systems should be designed
to minimise noise; for example, sufficient space —— Chemical impacts: water service pipes and fittings
should be allowed for pipes to expand and contract should be resistant to corrosion. Guidance is given
to avoid noise and damage. Low velocity and in BS EN 806-2 (BSI, 2005a). More generally, the
pressure distribution system design will reduce local water supplier’s recommendations should be
noise, and designs should take into account the fact taken into account. When systems are drained for
that fittings which have high resistance to water maintenance, extension or refurbishment, the
flow can lead to noise. Pipework should not be run appropriate chemical dosing should be used when
from one dwelling to another. Plant which may be the system is refilled to avoid corrosion and
noisy (e.g. heating pumps, boilers, hius, underfloor increases in system pressure resistance.
heating manifolds) should be located away from —— Electric cables and insulation: cables in thermal
bedrooms. The noise impacts of fans in warm air insulation may need to be de-rated to avoid
systems should be taken into account in choosing overheating. pvc sheathed cables should not be in
their location. The extent to which potential direct contact with polystyrene insulation.
acoustic impacts are mitigated may depend on Guidance is given in BRE report BR 262 (BRE,
client requirements. The Domestic Heating Design 2002). More generally, the recommendations of
Guide (DBSP, 2015) provides guidance on several relevant electricity suppliers and network operators
potential acoustic issues. and electrical safety requirements should be
followed. Approved Document P in England and
—— Pollutant control and air quality: care should be taken Wales (NBS, 2013b) and its equivalent in Scotland
to minimise pollution risks associated with heating (Scottish Government, 2017) covers electrical
systems. As noted in section 6.2.1.2, air quality safety. (Currently there are no statutory building
requirements may influence fuel choice or regulations governing the installation of electricity
necessitate additional control measures, for example in Northern Ireland. However, in practice Approved
to control NOx emissions from biomass boilers. Document P is commonly used.) BS 7671+A3
Other considerations include locating flues away (BSI, 200/2015) covers requirements for electrical
from ventilation inlets. Oil storage tanks and pipes installations, and BS 6004 (BSI, 2012) covers
should be designed to reduce the risk of pollution electric cables. Manufacturers’ guidance must also
from leaks; guidance is given in Approved be followed.
Document J (NBS, 2010e) and equivalents (Scottish
Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012). The Gas Safety —— Security: security considerations include the storage
(Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 (TSO, of fuels such as oil, lpg and biomass. Security
1998) and IGEM standards (http://www.igem.org. should be considered when designing the location
uk) provide further information and should be of fuel storage, gas and electricity meters. For
complied with. On certain sites, precautions may be example, utility meters should be located in a
needed when designing services entries to provide visible location, outside the front of the building or
protection against the entry of gases such as radon as close as possible to the front of the building, and
or landfill gas; guidance is given in the BRE reports care should be taken to avoid inadvertently
BR 211 (BRE, 2015a) and BR 212 (BRE, 1991). providing a means of accessing windows.
Key messages — Section 6.2: Space heating

• T
he consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, ection 6.2.2 provides sizing guidance. The Domestic Heating
• S
commissioning and operation of heating systems can include Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) is a key source of information.
increased energy bills, impacts on occupant health, increased • Building services engineers should aim to provide low energy
risks of summer overheating and consequential impacts on air and carbon systems with low running costs. Relevant factors
tightness and fabric performance. include choice of fuel and system type, component efficiency,
component locations, flow and return temperatures and
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate passive design pipework insulation.
strategies that would help to reduce heating demands and
system sizes • Building services engineers should identify opportunities for
improving existing systems in homes and be aware of potential
• W
hen selecting and designing heating systems, building issues which may need to be addressed when existing systems
services engineers should consider whether occupants or are extended.
others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use and maintain • Building services engineers must work with the wider
the system as required for it to operate effectively and design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
efficiently. integration issues set out in section 6.2.4.
6.3 Water heating use within buildings, and BS EN 806-2 (BSI, 2005a) covers
specifications for installation of systems in buildings
As fabric standards are progressively improved domestic conveying water for human consumption.
hot water is becoming relatively more significant as an
energy demand in new homes. The consequences of poor 6.3.1.2 System selection criteria
practice in the design, installation, commissioning and
operation of domestic hot water systems can include When advising on which water heating system to select for
increased energy consumption and costs, increased delay a particular project, building services engineers should
between calling for and receiving hot water, risk of frozen work with the client and wider design team to consider:
pipes, contribution to internal gains increasing the risk of
summer overheating, increased risk of Legionella and —— Space heating and water heating: the factors for
consequential impacts on airtightness and fabric perfor system selection are listed under section 6.2.1.2;
mance. these will also apply for the water heating selection.
—— Provision of hot water: whether hot water will be
Water heating system design is closely linked to space provided by the space heating generation plant or
heating system design and this section of the TM should be separately. This decision will be influenced by
read alongside section 6.2, which includes information on factors including compatibility, efficiency,
heating sources, system selection, sizing, optimisation and convenience, cost, spatial constraints and the size of
integrated design. the hot water demand. If a wet space heating
distribution system is intended, it often makes
sense to use the same generation source for hot
6.3.1 System selection water.
—— Choice between instantaneous hot water or provision of
6.3.1.1 System types storage: whether to provide hot water storage or to
use an instantaneous hot water system such as a
A range of options are available for domestic hot water com bination boiler, electric instantaneous water
heating. This guide focuses on some of those most heaters, or an instantaneous plate heat exchanger in
commonly used in homes in the UK. The types included a communal system. This decision will be
are shown in Table 5 below. influenced by various factors including the size and
profile of the hot water demand (and flow rates
Requirements for water heating systems and references to required to meet it), limits on the available gas
supporting information are given in the Domestic Building supply (which can be offset through providing
Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a). Manufacturers’ storage), space availability, cost, and flexibility
guidance should also be followed. BS 8558 (BSI, 2015a) considerations including the ability to integrate
provides specifications for the design, installation, testing with heating sources (e.g. solar thermal). A common
and maintenance of services supplying water for domestic choice is between a regular boiler with hot water
Household energy use
The pie charts below show estimated splits of energy use in homes For newer homes, and particularly small new homes such as flats,
by end use, based on modelled data for the UK. For existing homes as space heating demands are reducing with more stringent
(a), this is based on an average across the total modelled existing regulatory requirements, water heating demand may be as
housing stock. For new-build homes, it is based on example significant as, or even exceed, the space heating demand. It should
modelled Part L 2013 compliant end-terrace (b) and mid-floor flat be noted that the overall energy demands for different house
(c) homes in England. types differ — the pie charts below are not sized to show the
different scales of overall demand.
Pumps Pumps Pumps
Cooking and fans and fans and fans
3% Cooking
Electrical 1% 2% 4%
8%
appliances Space heating Cooking Space heating
13% Space heating
33% 13% 16%
61%
Lighting
3%
Electrical
appliances
26%
Hot water Electrical

19% appliances
Lighting 26%
4% Hot water
37%
Hot water Lighting
27% 4%
(a) (b) (c)

Existing household energy use (18 500 kW·h New-build household energy use: 76 m² New-build household energy use: 43 m²
p.a.) split by end use (weighted average of end-terrace (8560 kW·h) split by end use mid-floor flat (4650 kW·h) split by end use
modelled data for 14 950 dwelling types) (AECOM sample new-build home) (AECOM sample new-build home)
(source: DECC, 2013) (source: SAP, 2012) (source: SAP, 2012)
System design 37
Table 5 Common types of domestic hot water systems
System type Schematic Comments
From individual Two key early decisions are (1) whether domestic hot water will be
space heating system produced by the space heating system or separately, and (2) whether
to provide hot water storage or use an instantaneous hot water system
such as a combination boiler. These choices should be made by RIBA
Stage 2. They are discussed in section 6.3.1.2.
Where storage is provided, options include unvented or vented
cylinders — definitions of and safety requirements for these are given
in Building Regulations Part G (NBS, 2015a) in England (and
equivalents). Unvented cylinders are most commonly used. They are
more complicated but can provide hot water at close to mains
pressure (adequate mains pressure and flow at times of peak demand
must be provided for unvented cylinders and for combination
Boiler boilers). Additional safety provisions are needed when using
HIU
unvented cylinders with solid fuel appliances. Vented cylinders
require a coldwater tank located at a higher level, for example in the
loft, and provide hot water at a lower pressure. The following British
Standards relate to hot water storage: BS 853-1 (BSI, 1990b) covers
calorifiers and storage vessels, BS 12897 (BSI, 2006d) covers unvented
HIU cylinders, BS 1566-1 (BSI, 2002a) covers vented cylinders, and BS
3198 (BSI, 1981) covers copper hot water storage combination units.
From communal Where a communal heating system is planned, a key choice is

space heating system whether to specify direct or indirect domestic hot water provision,
HIU and whether to store hot water centrally or within the dwelling.
Thermal
storage
Low-carbon centralised
plant (in building or
remote)
Solar thermal Solar thermal panels use solar energy to provide domestic hot water:
in the UK they can typically provide around half of the total annual
hot water demand of a home, saving a significant amount of energy
and carbon. They can also be used as space heating generators but
this is much less common.
Solar thermal systems require a storage cylinder — either a separate
pre-heat storage cylinder or a combined cylinder with two primary
coils, the lower linked to the solar thermal system and the higher to
another heating source such as a boiler or electric immersion heater.
It is possible to install solar thermal systems that include ‘combi’
boilers if the boilers will accept preheated water via a storage cylinder
(for example, this might be done in a retrofit situation) but the use of
Boiler regular boilers is simpler and much more common. Space for
ancillary components including pumps is required. Flat plate and
Cold
water evacuated tube panels are available.
mains The Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS, 2015) and BS 5918
(BSI, 2015a) provide standards covering design and installation,
including sizing, which needs to take into account climate,
orientation and collector performance. Standards are also provided in
BS EN 12975-1 (BSI, 2006e) and BS EN 12976-1 (BSI, 2006f).
Additional guidance is given in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014),
CIBSE KS15 (CIBSE, 2010), and the Solar Heating Design and
Installation Guide (DBSP, 2014a).
Table continues
Table 5 Common types of domestic hot water systems — (continued)
Electric immersion Electric immersion heating consists of an electric resistance heater
inside a hot water cylinder. It is generally usually used as a back-up
system for domestic hot water rather than the primary heat source, as
it is expensive to run. For electrically heated homes highly-insulated
cylinders with immersion heaters can be set to heat up during times
of low electricity tariffs and to keep the water hot until time of use.
Electric immersion systems should comply with BS EN 60335-2-73
(BSI, 2003c), which sets safety requirements.
Cold
water
mains
Electric Electric instantaneous water heating provides hot water as it is

instantaneous needed. Electric elements heat the water in a heater installed near to
the point of use. It works well for homes with low hot water demands
or homes where hot water demand points are a long distance from
the heat source. In such circumstances the higher cost and carbon
emissions associated with the use of electricity to heat water may be
balanced by the savings in distribution losses and standing losses
from the pipework between the main heating source (e.g. the boiler)
and the point of use.
Instantaneous electric heating is not commonly used as the sole water
heating source in UK homes, but is commonly used for showers (for
example, to provide higher flow rates for showers with a separate
combination boiler system providing space heating and other
domestic hot water needs) and in washing machines and dishwashers.
Cold Other types of instantaneous water heating (e.g. gas) are available but
water
mains
are not commonly used in the UK, partly due to flue requirements.
Decisions on whether to specify electric instantaneous water heating
will be influenced by overall power level provision in the home and
connection limits. Electric instantaneous water heaters should
comply with BS EN 60335-2-35 (BSI, 2003b), which sets safety
requirements.
storage and a combination boiler. Storage cylinders default settings. If programmers have a default on
are often used in larger homes with more wet rooms time this can result in a higher peak demand than if
as they can provide higher flow rates and so are hius are specified. Setting staggered ‘on’ times
more suited to dwellings with high simultaneous across the network during installation may mitigate
hot water demands. More guidance on the relative this risk.
benefits of regular and combination boilers is given
in the Energy Saving Trust’s Good Practice Guide
284 (EST, 2000). 6.3.2 System optimisation
—— Communal heating systems: considerations when Good practice design will help to deliver systems that are
deciding on the method of hot water provision simple to operate, deliver safe and comfortable temperatures
include: the impact on flow and return temperatures; and pressures, and have low energy and running costs. The
the impact on heat demand profiles and load guidance in sections 6.2.2 and 6.2.3 should be referred to
diversity; compatibility with the heat generation for system sizing and optimisation. Further guidance
source; standing losses; control provision; security specific to hot water systems is given below.
of supply; and costs. For example, indirect hot
water provision by plate exchangers typically has —— System sizing: this is covered in section 6.2.2. Where
higher capital costs but is commonly used for larger storage is provided, sizing of the storage capacity
schemes where it is difficult to deliver all of the hot needs to take into account hot water usage patterns,
water demand directly due to pumping and flow the available mains pressure, and standing losses.
requirements. Lower return temperatures can be CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) and BSRIA Rules of
achieved where storage cylinders are specified in Thumb (BSRIA, 2011b) provide storage figures for
dwellings connected to a separate plate heat homes based on a reheat period of two hours.
exchanger rather than an indirect heating coil Capacities can be reduced by using semi-
located within the cylinder. Where storage cylinders instantaneous hot water generators, and eliminated
are specified consideration should be given to the completely using instantaneous generators. NHBC
programmed timing of dhw heating, and any Standards 2017 (NHBC, 2017) also sets criteria for
System design 39
sizing, as well as supply temperatures and flow —— Hot water temperature: design systems to be capable
rates. of supplying domestic hot water at the required
temperature. This may require the use of
—— Efficiency of fittings: for all types of water heating
supplementary heating for some systems, for
systems, it is good practice to specify water efficient
example with heat pumps.
fittings. Low water consumption fittings help to
reduce wastage of water and energy, and should be —— Safety: design to achieve safe temperatures at outlets
balanced against achieving sufficient hot water and in storage cylinders. For example, thermostatic
flows. Higher-consumption fittings increase plant mixer valves or mixer taps may be required to
requirements. Efficient fittings include low-flow mitigate against the risk of scalding, and showers
shower and tap fittings, and efficient bath sizing, as must be designed so that the use of other water
well as low water consumption appliances such as fittings in the dwelling will not significantly affect
dishwashers and washing machines. Building the shower water temperature (for example through
Regulations Part G in England and Wales (TSO, providing a thermostatic mixing valve, through
2016) and equivalents (TSO, 2004, 2012b) set pipe size design or dedicated supply). Approved
requirements for water efficiency (relating to the Document G (NBS, 2016c) and equivalents
design of cold and hot water systems, including (Scottish Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012f)
sanitary appliances, dishwashers and relevant white provide guidance on scalding risks and set
goods), and guidance on how to meet these is given requirements for hot water safety. Hot water systems
in Approved Document G (NBS, 2016c) and should be designed to prevent the risk of Legionella.
equivalents (Scottish Government, 2017; DFPNI, See HSE’s Approved Code of Practice and guidance
2012f). Maximum consumption figures for fittings L8 (HSE, 2013) for more information. It states
should also be applied to replacement works in requirements for hot water temperatures including
existing homes; however, existing pipe sizes and that 50 °C should be achieved at all water outlets
lengths should be checked. Where pipes have been within 60 seconds, and that a minimum storage
sized for higher flow fittings the use of low water temperature of 60 °C needs to be achieved for the
consumption fittings will increase the delay in hot contents of the whole water storage vessel, with a
water reaching the outlet. Depending on the length minimum secondary return temperature of 50 °C
of the dead legs this can impact on occupant where this is provided. Water Regulations state a
satisfaction. Where there is a long dead leg between lower maximum limit of 30 seconds for the delivery
heat source and outlet it will be appropriate to make of hot water to outlets, which is a more applicable
upgrades to more of the system to reduce the pipe standard for dwellings. Hot water circulation
diameter and length. systems should be designed to meet this requirement
without the need for heat tracing of pipework, as
—— Water efficiency: more generally, water efficiency
the electricity used in heat tracing increases energy
should be factored into overall system design. It is
consumption.
good practice to balance hot and cold water system
pressures or provide additional thermostatic valves —— Water treatment: provide water treatment where
to help provide constant comfortable hot water needed. In areas with hard water, limescale will
temperatures and flows and reduce water wastage. build up, reducing system efficiency and component
Where work is being done to space or water heating lifetimes and potentially exacerbating existing
in existing properties, it may provide an opportunity eczema conditions. BS 7593 (BSI, 2006b) provides a
to recommend the retrofit of a water meter. Other code of practice for water treatment in domestic hot
measures that help to minimise the use of cold water central heating systems.
water supplies are covered in section 6.9.
—— Insulation of pipework: this is important to avoid
—— Energy efficient systems: provide energy efficient wasting energy and contributing to overheating
systems, referring to the guidance in section 6.2.2. (see section 5.6). The Domestic Heating Design Guide
It is good practice for the building services engineer (DBSP, 2015) gives minimum insulation thicknesses
to champion the design of distribution systems to for pipework. For new systems, all primary
avoid dead legs and long pipe runs to reduce losses, circulation pipes for domestic hot water should be
reduce response time and improve flow rates. insulated throughout their length (allowing for
Building services engineers and architects should constraints where they penetrate structural
work together from RIBA Plan of Work 2013 Stage elements). It is best practice for all pipes connected
2 (RIBA, 2013) to stack wet rooms and position the to hot water storage vessels, including vent pipes
hot water generation source and hot water storage and primary flow and return pipes, to be fully
(if applicable) near to the hot water outlets, insulated where possible. As a minimum, they
minimising pipework lengths through layout should meet the Domestic Building Services
design (including in multi-residential buildings). Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) requirement to be
Designers should minimise standing losses by: insulated for at least one metre from their points of
ensuring stored hot water is not overheated, connection with the cylinder or up to the point
avoiding over-sizing storage cylinders and hius where they become concealed. Figure 18 below
and insulating cylinders and hius well (the Building shows an example of well insulated pipework. If
Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) provides secondary circulation is present, all pipes kept hot
minimum insulation requirements, which should should be insulated. For existing systems where
be exceeded). The provision and efficacy of waste only the heating appliance or hot water storage
water heat recovery systems should be considered. vessel is being replaced, pipes that are accessible or
Good practice guidance on waste water heat become exposed as part of the work should meet the
recovery systems is provided in the Zero Carbon same requirements as new systems wherever
Hub’s Services Guide (ZCH, 2016b). possible. It is good practice to locate water pipes in
the long-term benefits of higher levels of insulation

to the client and architect to drive the adoption of
higher levels of cylinder insulation where possible.
—— Space requirements: space requirements and location
of plant is covered in section 6.2.3. The Plumbing
Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002)
and BSRIA Rules of Thumb (BSRIA, 2011b) provide
estimates of space requirements for hot water
storage; manufacturers’ guidance should also be
consulted.
—— Solar thermal systems: collectors should be unshaded,
pitched at 30° to 45°, and oriented between SE and
SW. If this is not possible, system efficiency will be
reduced and additional allowance will be needed
when sizing the collector area or at worst the system
specified may no longer be appropriate. The system
design, including controls, should maximise the
useful energy from the solar collectors and prioritise
its use in operation over hot water from back-up
sources. The guidance in the Domestic Building
Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) should be
followed. It includes advice on the ratio of dedicated
solar heated water storage volume to collector area
(solar thermal hot water storage is considered in
Table 5). Storage should be located near to the solar
thermal panels where possible. Electric showers
should not be installed in homes with solar thermal
systems as they do not make use of the solar thermal
Figure 18 Example of well insulated dhw pipework (courtesy Bertie
energy. Individual solar thermal systems are likely
Dixon/Max Fordham) to be inappropriate for high-rise flats due to the
large amount of space that would be required in
risers for associated pipework and due to the
heated spaces within homes. Where located in multiple roof penetrations required; communal
unheated spaces or communal areas pipes should be systems may be more appropriate. Section 6.8
fully insulated. Additional guidance on pipework provides guidance on solar photovoltaics (pvs),
insulation (including on avoiding gains from hot some of which also applies to solar thermal (for
water pipes to cold water pipes) is covered in section example, guidance on location of panels). The
6.2.3. More detailed overheating guidance is guidance in the Solar Heating Design and Installation
provided in section 5.6 and CIBSE TM59: Design Guide (DBSP, 2016) should also be followed.
methodology for the assessment of overheating in homes
(CIBSE, 2017).
—— Insulation of storage vessels: storage vessels including 6.3.3 Integrated design
cylinders and thermal stores should be well
insulated following the Domestic Building Services General guidance on integrated design is given in section
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) as a minimum. 5.2. Section 6.2.4 should be referred to for integrated design
Building services engineers should communicate issues associated with heating systems.
Key messages — Section 6.3: Water heating

• Water heating system design is closely linked to space heating convenience, cost, and the predicted size of the hot water
system design and this section of the TM should be read demand.
alongside section 6.2, ‘Space heating’.
• Another key decision is whether to provide hot water storage
or not. This decision will be influenced by the size and profile
• T
he consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, of the hot water demand (and flow rates required to meet it),
commissioning and operation of domestic hot water systems space, cost considerations and flexibility including ability to
can include increased energy consumptions and costs, impacts integrate with heating sources.
on airtightness and fabric performance (from poor installation),
delays between calling for and receiving hot water, increased • When selecting and designing water heating systems, building
risks of summer overheating, and increased risks of Legionella. services engineers should consider whether occupants or
others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use and maintain
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate design strategies the system as required for it to operate effectively and
that would help to reduce water heating demands and system efficiently.
sizes (see section 5.3 for more information on passive design),
• Building services engineers should aim to provide low energy
such as water efficient fittings and systems, and the use of
and carbon systems with low running costs. Guidance is
solar thermal energy.
provided in sections 6.2 and 6.3.2.
• An early key decision is whether hot water will be provided by • Building services engineers must work with the wider
the space heating generation plant, or separately. This decision design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
will be influenced by factors including compatibility, efficiency, integration issues set out in section 6.3.3.
System design 41
6.4 Ventilation Domestic in Scotland (Scottish Government, 2017) focus on

four types of ventilation system, see Table 6. This TM
Ventilation helps to provide good indoor air quality and covers the three types most commonly used in homes in the
healthy conditions through supplying fresh air and UK. Passive stack ventilation (System 2) is not considered
removing odours, pollutants and excess moisture. in detail in this guide.
Ventilation has an important role in helping to reduce
internal temperatures through removing excess heat from For all of the systems above, window opening has an
homes. important role in providing purge ventilation and secure
night-time ventilation to help prevent overheating in
Providing good ventilation has become increasingly summer, though it can be subject to external noise, air
important as new homes are being built to higher degrees quality and security constraints (see section 6.4.3.3). For all
of air tightness, and as existing homes are retrofitted with systems except passive stack ventilation, boost settings can
additional insulation reducing their heat loss and be used to temporarily increase fan speeds and ventilation
potentially improving their level of airtightness. The rates, for example to remove humid air caused by showering
consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, or cooking.
commissioning and operation of ventilation systems can
include impacts on occupant health and damage to the
Approved Document F (and the equivalent documents in
building fabric, with potential financial and reputational
Northern Ireland and Scotland) stipulates minimum
costs for those responsible. For example, poor ventilation
requirements for air flow rates and background ventilator
and resultant high humidity increases the risk of the
areas. These standards are designed to normally meet the
propagation of mould and dust mites, impacting on the
health based performance standards in Appendix A of the
health of occupants. High humidity can result in
Approved Document. CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a),
condensation and damage to the building fabric.
Table 1.5, provides suggested air supply rates (either 15 l·s–1
or 60 l·s–1 for living spaces). These relate to recommended
6.4.1 System selection minimum flow rates for intermittent extract fans (Approved
Document F System Type 1). Minimum flow rates for
Approved Document F in England and Wales (NBS, mechanical systems (Approved Document F System Types
2013c), Technical Booklet K in Northern Ireland (DFPNI, 3 and 4) are lower as it is assumed the extract fans are
2012b) and Section 3.14 of the Technical Handbook 2017 continuous (24/7) rather than intermittent.
Table 6 Types of ventilation system
System 1: Stale warm air is extracted by intermittent extract fans in kitchens

Background and wet rooms. Un-tempered outdoor fresh air is drawn in via trickle
ventilators and vents in windows in all rooms with external walls.
intermittent extract
fans (‘natural
ventilation’
System 2: Passive Stack ducts

Stack ducts located through or close to ceilings extract air from
stack ventilation kitchens and wet rooms. Un-tempered outdoor fresh air is drawn in
(psv) via trickle vents in windows in all rooms with external walls except
for those where a stack vent is located. The ability to use passive
stack ventilation may be limited by the presence of tall buildings in
close proximity to the home.
This system type is not commonly used in the UK and so is not a
central focus of this TM.
Table continues
Table 6 Types of ventilation system — (continued)
System 3: Continuous Low energy fans run continuously to extract stale warm air from
mechanical extract kitchens and wet rooms. Un-tempered outdoor fresh air is drawn in
ventilation (mev) via trickle vents in windows in all rooms except wet rooms, though
trickle vents may not be required for leakier dwellings. ‘Centralised’
Extract mev uses a single fan unit to extract air via ducting and grilles.
system ‘Decentralised’ mev uses individual continuously running extract
fans in kitchens and wet rooms.
Factors in choosing between centralised and decentralised systems
are likely to include relative overall efficiencies, space requirements
for ductwork, and ease of maintenance.
System 4: Continuous Low energy fans run continuously to both extract stale warm air from
mechanical supply kitchens and wet rooms and supply tempered outdoor fresh air to
and extract with heat living rooms and bedrooms. Extract or supply valves in these rooms
Supply and
recovery (mvhr) extract system
connect to ducting that in turn connects to a central fan unit, which
should be in an accessible location. A heat exchanger recovers heat
from the air being extracted from the home and uses it to warm up
the supplied air. Trickle vents are not included.
Some mvhr systems include summer bypass, which allows the supply
air to bypass the heat exchanger if external temperatures are lower
than internal temperatures.
mvhr systems include filters that protect the fan unit from damage
and prevent the build-up of dirt, which would decrease the efficiency
of the system. Higher grade filters are available that can also remove
pollen and NOx from the supplied air.
Typically, mvhr systems are centralised (‘whole house’); however,
single room heat recovery ventilators are also available. The choice
between whole house and single room ventilation will be influenced
by similar factors to those described above for mev. Typically, single
room systems are less effective in terms of ventilation and heat
recovery.
The NHBC Foundation’s Guide: Part F 2010 — where to —— Space requirements for the system: this is likely to be a
start: an introduction for house builders and designers (NHBC particular consideration for existing homes where
Foundation, 2011a) and CIBSE Guide B2 (CIBSE, 2016c) space for ductwork for centralised systems may be
give more detail on ventilation systems and provide limited, for example.
guidance on the selection and design process. The Domestic
—— Impact on heating energy requirements: ventilation
Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) in England,
heat loss can account for a significant proportion of
Northern Ireland and Wales, and the Domestic Ventilation
total heat loss from well-insulated homes. mvhr
Guide in Scotland (Scottish Government, 2015b) provide
systems can potentially save energy through
guidance on the installation, inspection, testing and
recovering heat from extracted air, with greater
commissioning of ventilation systems. Chapter 4 of CIBSE
potential in colder climates with longer heating
Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) provides a useful list of publications
seasons.
and regulations relating to ventilation.
—— Levels of noise: while acoustic considerations may
When advising on which ventilation system to select for a influence system choice, design solutions are
particular project, building services engineers should work available to attenuate external noise for all system
with the client and wider design team to consider: types. Good design will seek to minimise noise
—— Sufficiency of ventilation: whether the system will be from the ventilation system itself, which may be
able to provide sufficient ventilation to fulfil all of more noticeable in quieter areas and where triple
its functions, taking into account the fabric design glazing is specified.
and the level of airtightness of the home. For new
—— Operation and maintenance: whether occupants or
homes, the risk of over or under delivering on
others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use
targeted levels of airtightness should be considered.
and maintain the system as required for it to operate
—— External pollutants: the potential impact on indoor effectively and efficiently. Regular maintenance is
air quality due to sources of pollutants external to particularly important for mvhr systems where
the dwelling. clogged filters or motor failures will inhibit the
System design 43
Which systems are particularly suited to more or less airtight homes?
MVHR is most suited for airtight homes; as a guide, at airtightness Estimating airtightness in existing homes is difficult. Airtightness
levels of 3 m3·h–1/m2 @ 50 Pa or below (CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, is affected by a range of factors including build quality and how
2015a) describes when MVHR is most effective). In practice, well the building fabric has been maintained. Consequently,
MVHR is necessary for Passivhaus certification, which requires an there may not be a strong correlation between airtightness and
airtightness level of 0.6 air changes per hour @ 50 Pa (depending construction type or age. It is recommended that airtightness tests
on the volume to surface area ratio for the dwelling this is are undertaken before specifying MVHR in existing dwellings and
that retrofit measures to improve airtightness, with further testing
equivalent to between 0.5–1.5 m3·h–1/m2 @ 50 Pa). It is less likely
to confirm efficacy, are undertaken prior to the system installation.
to be suited to existing homes unless they are being thoroughly
Airtightness tests may also be useful for other purposes where a
retrofitted and their airtightness is being improved. The figure good understanding of existing build performance is required.
shows an air blower door driving air into a home as part of
pressure testing. When building a new home or retro-fitting an
existing home, regular air pressure tests at various stages through
the building process will help track the maintenance of the
airtightness barrier and target level, helping to ensure the MVHR
system performs as predicted.
In contrast, a background ventilator and intermittent extract fan
strategy may rely on higher rates of structural infiltration to reduce
reliance on trickle vents and window opening. Where used in more
airtight homes (e.g. at airtightness levels of less than 5 m3·h–1/m @
50 Pa) careful design and the provision of greater areas of trickle
vents is required, which may not always be practical. Good practice
when using this strategy for new homes would be to provide
greater areas of trickle vents for any level of targeted airtightness
to minimise the risk of under-ventilation if the constructed home is
more air tight than planned.
Mechanical exhaust ventilation (MEV) is suited to a wider range of
levels of airtightness and can help to mitigate the risk of under- or
over-delivering on airtightness for new homes should the client or
project team be unsure whether targeted levels will be delivered in Air blower door pressure test in progress
practice. (courtesy AECOM)
supply of fresh air and cause the system to operate units at different times, and the need to provide ongoing
inefficiently. maintenance. They are also not currently integrated into
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP).
—— Ease of installation and commissioning: see section 7
for installation, commissioning and handover
guidance. 6.4.2 System optimisation
—— Impact on electrical energy requirements: mechanical
systems consume energy through the operation of Good practice design should deliver systems that are simple
fans. to operate, maintain healthy indoor air quality, and have
low energy and running costs. This means:
—— Interactions with other building services and the building
fabric: these are discussed under section 6.4.3. —— Providing sufficient ventilation for the level of airtightness
—— Capital and life cycle costs of the system. realistically expected to be achieved in the home:
Approved Document F (NBS, 2013c) in England
and Wales and equivalent documents (Scottish
These considerations should not be taken in isolation but
Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012b) provide
in relation to each other. Additional considerations may
minimum requirements for ventilation and air flow
apply to existing homes, including impact on building
rates for rooms and whole dwellings. Chapter 4 of
character for listed buildings, buildings in conservation
CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) provides additional
areas, and buildings of traditional construction with
information on ventilation rates for good indoor air
permeable fabric. Guidance on these issues is given in
quality, including calculations and guidance for
Approved Document F (NBS, 2013c).
pollutant levels.
Specific considerations for high rise dwellings and for —— Following the guidance in Approved Document F (and
communal residential buildings are given in CIBSE Guide equivalent documents) on ventilation component
B2 (CIBSE, 2016c), e.g. wind pressure impacts on high-rise location and sizing.
dwellings. Centralised ventilation systems serving several
units may be considered. This is unlikely to be a preferred —— Taking into account the impact on moisture and pollutant
strategy for most domestic buildings. Centralised systems control and relative humidity levels: for example,
of this type can provide energy performance benefits as well ensuring extract ventilation is provided close to
as reduced maintenance requirements if they are carefully where moisture is released.
designed. However they have additional challenges
including noise transfer between dwellings, increased —— Taking into account the impact on thermal comfort
spatial requirements for ductwork, fire safety considerations, requirements: for example, the potential for creating
the need to provide different ventilation rates to different cold draughts.
Case study 3 — Ventilation: Forgebank, Lancaster Cohousing Company Ltd.
Forgebank, delivered as a self-build by members of the Lancaster all 41 homes as well as providing on-site training to the sub-
Cohousing company, is located on a brownfield site on the banks contractors fitting the MVHR systems to help them correctly
of the River Lune. Conceived as an exemplar in sustainable, low insulate intake ducts etc.
carbon design, and built by a local building contractor, the 41
houses and flats are all certified by the Passivhaus Institute and Airtightness: The local contractor sub-contracted experienced
—
achieved Level 6 of the Code for Sustainable Homes (DCLG, 2010) Passivhaus professionals in the form of an ‘airtightness
post-construction. The development includes a refurbished mill champion’ and through their choice of the air-testing
building converted to offices and workshops. company. Airtightness testing was undertaken at regular
intervals through the build process with the first full
Heat and power are provided from local renewable resources. preliminary air test undertaken when the first houses were
Electricity, connected via a local micro grid, is supplied from plastered. All terraces of homes achieved the required
a 95 kWp rooftop PV array, and from a micro hydro scheme, Passivhaus targets for airtightness. The majority of homes
comprising two 160 kWe Kaplan turbines. The site is a net exporter achieved a good safety margin beyond the target. The best
of power. Heat to homes and the mill building is from a 40 kW airtightness test result was 0.35 achieved air changes per hour
solar thermal array and a 150 kW boiler fuelled by local wood-chip @ 50 Pa, in compliance with Passive House procedures and
with gas back-up and a 5000 litre storage vessel supplied via a ATTMA TSL1 (ATTMA, 2016).
district heating system.
A number of design elements provide examples of good practice in District heating: A direct connection from the district heating
—
the design of homes: main feeds a heating coil in an unvented mains-pressure
domestic hot water cylinder located in a cupboard under the
— Ventilation: Early in the design process the architects worked stairs. The specification of distributed storage reduced the size
closely with the engineer to develop an M&E schematic for district heating main supplying the homes, reducing losses and
the project identifying ductwork runs to minimise run length pumping energy.
and the number of bends. MVHR units are discretely installed
in a built-in cupboard in the downstairs WC next to the front Building services engineer: Alan Clarke, Nick Grant
door. This location offers ease of access for maintenance and Building owner and occupier: Lancaster Cohousing
filter replacement. All distribution ductwork is rigid and cold Client: Lancaster Cohousing
air ductwork was insulated to avoid any cold bridging and Architect: Eco Arc Architects
associated condensation. Specialist advice was sought from the Structural Engineer: Ramboll
suppliers who provided design and commissioning services for Contractor: Whittle Construction
—— Assessing the ease of operation, maintenance and away from sources of noise or pollution, which may
installation: ensuring these are not compromised. compromise window opening). Where issues such
as external noise or pollution, or safety or security
—— Factoring energy use and running costs into design considerations mean that sufficient purge venti
decisions: designers should specify efficient systems, lation cannot be provided through window and
which are appropriately sized with low specific fan door openings, these issues should be addressed if
powers and, for mvhr, high efficiency heat recovery. possible, or alternative solutions will be required.
CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE, 2012) provides guidance These might include mechanical purge ventilation,
on efficient system design. The SAP Product but this has a significant impact on duct sizes (with
Characteristics Database (BRE, online) shows the associated consequential impacts), and building
performance of different mechanical exhaust services engineers should be aware that not all
ventilation (mev) and mvhr systems. products that claim to provide ‘purge ventilation’
will provide it at sufficient levels. More detailed
—— Helping to avoid overheating: for example, by working
overheating guidance is provided in section 5.6 and
with architects to provide occupants with the ability
CIBSE TM59: Design methodology for the assessment
to securely purge heat at night through opening
of overheating in homes (CIBSE, 2017).
windows to help control overheating in summer.
This might include helping to provide a sufficient —— Coordinating designs so they allow access for
free opening area, and contributing to early stage maintenance: including changing filters, components
design discussions of fabric to glazing ratios and and cleaning ductwork. Guidance on reasonable
dwelling layouts (for example, exploring whether provision is given in Approved Document F in
rooms such as bedrooms, where night-time purge England and Wales and equivalent documents
ventilation is particularly important, can be located (Scottish Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012b). To
System design 45
deliver good practice, services design must be —— Locate units to minimise overall ductwork lengths whilst
coordinated with architects early in the process. achieving effective ventilation: locate mvhr units
within the insulated envelope wherever possible.
—— Avoiding over-ventilating the home: over-ventilation mvhr units should be located so as to assist in
can cause unnecessary heat loss, increasing energy balancing the system and in avoiding cross-overs in
costs. In cold weather, it can also lead to dry air, ductwork (e.g. centrally between supply and extract
which can lead to discomfort. points), whilst also seeking to minimise lengths of
—— Ductwork routing: follow the guidance in the intake and exhaust ductwork. Locate decentralised
Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011) fans on or close to the external envelope.
and CIBSE Guide B2 (CIBSE, 2016c) on ductwork
routing. Good practice ductwork design includes:
avoiding long ductwork runs; avoiding bends in —— Specifying rigid or semi-rigid ductwork wherever
ductwork where possible; minimising crossing of possible: rigid and semi-rigid ductwork provides
ductwork; insulating ductwork that passes through less resistance to air flow, increasing the efficiency
unheated areas and voids (and providing a of the system, and is less susceptible to damage than
condensation drain, as appropriate); ensuring flexible ductwork. Good practice is to ensure all
horizontal ductwork slopes slightly downwards ducting is rigid apart from no more than the last
away from fans and vertical ductwork includes 300 mm of duct approaching a small number of
condensate traps to avoid condensation and connections. Best practice is to avoid the use of any
backflow of moisture into fans; and locating ducts flexible ductwork and design to minimise duct
where they are protected from damage. This will length and the number of bends. Suitable support
require early coordination with architects. For must be provided. The ease of sealing the ductwork
example, stacking wet rooms on different floors should be considered when setting the specification.
above each other will help to minimise ductwork Further guidance is provided in the Domestic
lengths. The fan power and associated noise from Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013) including
centralised mechanical ventilation systems is maximum limits on flexible ductwork length,
closely linked to the design of the ductwork. Long which should be improved upon wherever possible.
lengths and bends increase the resistance to airflow, Figure 19 illustrates examples of poor and good
increasing the fan power required and associated practice in the design and installation of extract
noise of the fans. ventilation ductwork.
Not tight and Figure 19 Design and

no sealant installation of ductwork; poor
Flexible duct squashed practice (top), good practice
by fastening band (bottom) (source: ZCH (2016),
Grille
(airbrick) courtesy of Pollard Thomas
Bend radius Edwards)
is too tight
Flow
restricted
Extract fan
Flexible duct sinks
Room between fixings
terminal
Mechanical fastening band
Smooth bend with

Grille
flexible ductwork Rigid duct for straight runs
Sealant
Bend radius as large

as possible to maintain
free duct width
Cavity insulation to
remain continuous
around duct
—— Insulating ductwork passing through unheated spaces Council (NHBC) suggests that to prevent cross-
with vapour-tight insulation: to avoid condensation contamination, intake ductwork terminals should
(which can lead to damage to the building fabric) at normally be separated from exhaust ductwork
least to the minimum requirements set out in the terminals and other potential sources of pollution
Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011) by a minimum of 1 m, measured on plan. Increased
(at least 25 mm of insulation with a thermal separation distances may be required between the
conductivity of 0.04 W/m·K). For mvhr systems, intake and soil/vent pipe terminals, boiler flue
this should include all ductwork between mvhr outlets, biomass or solid fuel chimney terminals
units and the outside. Condensation drainage may (NHBC, 2016). Location of intakes is covered in
be required; guidance is given in the Domestic CIBSE TM21 (CIBSE, 1999). BRE has also
Ventilation Compliance Guide. Insulation and published guidelines on avoiding the intake of
condensation drainage will also be required for external pollutants (BRE, 2014a).
ductwork in both heated and unheated areas where
—— Following manufacturer guidance on the suitability of
central heating is provided via the air.
connecting continuous fan systems to extract cooker
—— Designing for inherently balanced centralised mechanical hoods: recirculating cooker hoods can alternatively
systems: for example, duct sizing and, where be used to remove grease from the air before it is
necessary, provision of dampers should aim to even- extracted by the ventilation system. If cooker hoods
out air resistances. are not used, extract terminals in kitchens should
be located away from cooking hobs to reduce the
—— Designing systems to minimise noise levels: noise may
build-up of grease and oil in the system and should
lead to users switching off mev and mvhr systems,
be located appropriately for different sources of
compromising air quality and risking condensation
humidity (for example, equidistant between the
and mould. Motors, fans, air flowing through bends
sink and hob).
or restrictions in the ductwork (including due to
excessive inappropriate use of flexible ductwork), —— Providing automatic mvhr frost protection: to avoid
airflow at outlets and inlets, and transfer of noise problems during cold periods.
from room to room via the ductwork are all sources
of noise. Systems run more quietly at lower fan
used: proprietary system components should be
speeds, so specifying a unit at the upper limit of its
used where advised by the Domestic Ventilation
capacity can increase the risk of noise. Duct sizing
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011).
should aim to limit velocities that can cause
excessive noise and increase pressure loss and fan —— Providing suitable controls that allow the system to be
power. Attenuators can be used to reduce noise operated effectively and efficiently: see section 6.10 for
from fans and within the ductwork, and measures more information on controls.
should be taken to reduce vibration transfer from
the central fan unit, which should also be located Details on optimising designs are given in CIBSE Guide B2
away from bedrooms and living rooms. Attenuators (CIBSE, 2016c) and a summary is provided in chapter 4 of
will increase system pressure, and therefore energy CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a). The Domestic Ventilation
demand, so a balanced approach is needed. Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011) provides guidance on several
Specialist input on noise will be required. Approved of the points in this section, and manufacturers’ guidance
Document F (NBS, 2013c) provides recommended should also be referred to. Section 8.3, ‘Mechanical
noise limits for domestic mechanical ventilation, ventilation with heat recovery’, of the NHBC Standards
and CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a), Table 1.5, 2017 (NHBC, 2017) provides more guidance for mvhr
provides guidance on limits for building services systems. Lessons should be learnt from issues encountered
noise. CIBSE Guide B4 (CIBSE, 2016d) provides in previous projects, for example Zero Carbon Hub’s
further guidance on noise control. Ventilation in New Homes (Zero Carbon Hub, 2016c) presents
findings from site visits of mechanical ventilation systems.
—— Locating and directing mvhr supply terminals to avoid
draughts: for example, avoiding locations over beds
or adjacent to walls unless designed to discharge air 6.4.3 Integrated design
away from the wall, and to minimise ductwork
lengths whilst avoiding locating them too close to General guidance on integrated design is given in section
doors. 5.2. If ventilation system design is not integrated with other
services and with building fabric design, it can lead to many
—— Avoiding internal short-circuiting of air: by careful
of the potential problems outlined at the start of section 6.4.
location of mev and mvhr supply and extract
Some key potential integration issues are discussed below.
terminals. Where possible, locate extract terminals
far away from kitchen and wet-room doors and as
close to the ceiling as possible to enable the removal 6.4.3.1 Integration with building fabric
of warm moist air. Where possible, avoid locating
mvhr extract and supply terminals in the same Building services engineers should work with design teams
room but if this is unavoidable locate them away and clients to predict and avoid downstream issues
from each other to avoid short-circuiting. associated with the integration of ventilation with other
works to the building fabric by:
—— Avoiding external short-circuiting of air and avoiding
taking in warm or polluted air: by careful location of —— Providing sufficient and suitable space for ventilation
external mvhr intakes and extract louvres. They systems: building services engineers should work
should be located on the same side of the building with architects (and ventilation suppliers/sub
to help avoid significant wind pressure differentials. contractors as needed) to provide the necessary
As a rule of thumb the National House Building space and accessibility for the installation,
System design 47
maintenance and replacement of central fan units, (NBS, 2013c) and its equivalents (Scottish
ductwork and associated equipment in cupboards, Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012b).
ceilings etc., and that transfer air gaps are provided
under doors as required in the Domestic Ventilation —— Avoiding reliance on mechanical ventilation systems to
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011). Figure 20 illustrates tackle overheating: there are limitations on the ability
the impact of builders failing to undercut internal of ventilation to provide a cooling effect. A cooling
doors. For comparison Figure 21 shows the flow of effect will only apply when conditions are such that
air when doors are correctly undercut and trickle the air being supplied is cooler than the air being
vents sized and located correctly. extracted. Opening windows and cross-ventilation
can have a greater impact on reducing internal
—— Considering ventilation when making changes to existing
temperatures through removing excess accumulated
homes: when work is being done to existing homes
heat. The cooling effect of ventilation systems is
the impact on and need for changes to ventilation
also limited by the volume of air replaced. The air
provision should be considered. For example, when
change rate provided by ventilation systems to
buildings are being converted into flats the ability
maintain good indoor air quality is substantially
to cross-ventilate may be compromised and care
less than that required for purge ventilation for
should be taken to avoid overheating issues. As
passive cooling. Building services engineers should
another example, the installation of internal wall
work with architects and other design team
insulation will tend to improve airtightness,
members to communicate this information, and to
reducing uncontrolled ventilation. This may then
prioritise passive design. Relevant passive design
lead to an increased risk of condensation and mould
measures include optimising glazing and shading
and the need to provide additional controlled
design to limit excessive solar gains in summer
ventilation. The use of vapour-open insulation may
whilst benefiting from solar gain in winter,
help to prevent condensation.
providing sufficient window opening areas, and
—— Considering ventilation when windows and doors are minimising possible sources of unwanted internal
replaced: when windows or doors are replaced it is heat gains. Sections 5.3 and 5.6 provide more
important to retain the appropriate ventilation detailed guidance on passive design and overheating.
provision (window opening areas, trickle vent
areas) or provide if it did not already exist, and to —— Providing continuous insulation: atmosphere-side
avoid the provision of trickle vents in rooms or ductwork insulation should connect to the building
homes where they should not be included (see Table fabric insulation to provide an unbroken layer of
6 above (section 6.4.1) and Approved Document F insulation.
! Stuffy air
Figure 20 Failure to undercut
doors as required by regulations
prevents air circulation when
internal doors are closed, leading
to poor air quality and the
perception of stuffiness (source:
ZCH (2016), courtesy of Pollard
Thomas Edwards)
1
4
3
Figure 21 Flow of air when doors

2 are correctly trimmed; all internal
doors should be trimmed to
achieve a clear gap of 10 mm (at
least 25 mm without finishes
1 Background ventilation = trickle vents of correct size 3 Extract fan, duct and grille of correct sizes fitted) (source: ZCH (2016),
courtesy of Pollard Thomas
2 Transfer = door undercut at 10 mm 4 No trickle vents in wetrooms Edwards)
Case study 4 — Ventilation and overheating: Peabody Trust Housing Association, St Johns Hill, London Borough of Wandsworth
The St Johns Hill development, delivered for the Peabody Trust that maximum summer temperatures were reduced without
housing association, is located in South London next to the introducing mechanical cooling. Furthermore, heat interface units
busiest railway line in Europe with more than 2000 trains passing (HIUs) were located in the communal corridors, which are well
each day, causing very high levels of noise. Because of this, the ventilated naturally by openable windows thereby helping to
development paid particular attention to the issues of achieving avoid unwanted heat gains to dwellings from the HIUs and lateral
both acoustic and summertime comfort, ensuring that the pipework. Another key advantage of locating the HIUs outside
units can be free-cooled by natural ventilation without overly the flats is that it allows the landlord, Peabody, easy access for
compromising the acoustics. maintenance and replacement.
A number of aspects of the design contributed to the successful A centralised energy centre, incorporating a combined heat and
strategy: in the units facing the railway line, secure acoustic louvres power unit, generates heat for the entire 3-phase master plan.
were integrated into the façade in all living rooms and bedrooms. The district heating network has been designed to minimise
These can be left open by residents day and night and provide distribution losses with enhanced insulation levels. Phase 1’s
around 0.5 m2 of free area. The effect of the acoustic vents is performance will be reviewed throughout the design and
to approximately halve the perceived loudness of passing trains construction of the subsequent phases of development with a view
when compared with open windows. It is estimated that the to making additional energy savings through lowering of heating
acoustic vents included within a typical flat are capable providing a temperatures or modification of the strategy based on resident
ventilation rate of around 6 air changes per hour on a warm day. and client feedback.
Minimising overheating risk and improving comfort temperatures Building services engineer and mechanical/electrical engineer: Max
were key drivers in the design of the façade. Deep window reveals, Fordham
recesses and balconies provide some shading and protection Architect: Hawkins\Brown
from excess solar gain, together with low g-value glass, meant Building owner and occupier: Peabody Housing Trust
Images courtesy of (a) Ben Blossom (www.benblossom.com), (b/c/d) Max Fordham
—— Coordinating installation work and ductwork design to —— Conflict between manually operated mvhr summer
avoid damage to the building fabric: ductwork within bypass and the supply of heat: it is good practice to
floors, ceilings or roof spaces must be coordinated specify full summer bypass for mvhr systems.
with other works so ductwork routes are not Manually operated mvhr summer bypass can
compromised and so ductwork does not have to be conflict with the supply of heating if it is not turned
replaced later. Ductwork passing through the fabric off by occupants after the summer, so provision of
is installed at first fix and should be temporarily automatic control with a manual override is
sealed to prevent contamination. Other system recommended.
components including the ventilation unit should
—— Cooling: the use of passive design measures such as
be installed as late as possible at second fix to reduce
window shading and night time purge ventilation
the risk of damage. Services connections should be
should be prioritised before specifying a cooling
well sealed and designed to minimise damage to the
system. mvhr systems specified with cooling
air barrier and the risk of water ingress. More
systems should not have summer bypass activated
detailed guidance on installation is given in the
when the external air is hotter than the internal air.
Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011)
and in manufacturers’ installation instructions. —— Heat provided via the air: ventilation systems can
also be used to provide heated air via a heating coil,
which can cause conflicts between the higher air
6.4.3.2 Integration with building services
flow rates required for heating and the lower rates
required for ventilation. As discussed in section 6.2,
Potential integration issues with other building services
such systems may be used for homes with very low
include:
heating demands.
—— Interaction of extract fans with fuel-burning appliances
and the need to provide adequate fresh air to meet their
6.4.3.3 Other integration issues
requirements for combustion: covered under Approved
Document J (NBS, 2013e) in England and Wales,
Other integration issues may include:
and equivalent regulations in Northern Ireland
(DFPNI, 2012c) and Scotland (Scottish —— Fire risks: where parts of the ventilation system pass
Government, 2017). through fire-resisting walls, floors or fire compart
System design 49
ments additional fire protection will be required

Fire risk assessments
(covered in England by Approved Document B1
(NBS, 2013f) and Approved Document F (NBS, Building owners and managers should be aware that regular fire
2013c), and by equivalent documents in Northern risk assessments are necessary to protect the safety of occupants.
Failure to undertake a risk assessment can result in fines, or if
Ireland (DFPNI, 2012b/d), Scotland (Scottish
an offence is committed, imprisonment. In England and Wales,
Government, 2017) and Wales (Welsh Government, the duty to undertake a fire risk assessment is imposed on the
2017)). Fire safety requirements for under door Responsible Person who, in a workplace, is the employer and in
spaces at protected stairways would take precedence premises that are not a workplace, such as a multi-residential
building, is the person having control of the premises. The duty
over ventilation requirements. CIBSE Guide B2 can also be imposed on other persons having control of the
(CIBSE, 2016c) provides guidance on interactions premises, such as managing agents. Similarly, in Scotland and
with fire safety and further sources of information, Northern Ireland, the duty falls on the employer and/or other
and CIBSE Guide E (CIBSE, 2018) covers fire safety persons having control of the premises.
engineering. BS 9991 (BSI, 2015b) provides a code
of practice for fire safety in the design, management
and use of residential buildings. Specialist input
should be sought.
—— Acoustic impacts: measures may be required to help inlets. Internal pollutant concentrations should be
prevent acoustic issues. As explained above, in minimised and ventilation should not be seen as a
some cases acoustic risks may influence the choice replacement for source control. CIBSE Guide B2
of system. The impacts of external noise on window (CIBSE, 2016c) provides guidance on calculation
opening should also be taken into account when methods for pollutant controls.
designing systems. BS 8233 (BSI, 2014a) provides
standards for the control of noise in and around
new buildings, including limits for different types —— Security: the design of openings should take security
of residential space). In locations where the limits requirements into account, particularly on ground
for bedrooms would be exceeded at night-time with floors, balconies or terraces where security
windows opened, alternative means of secure night- considerations limit the ability to ventilate through
time ventilation will be required to help manage open windows and doors and secure ventilation will
internal temperatures. be required, for example through the use of opening
restrictors and grilles. The inability to open
—— Pollutant control: in some cases, external pollutant windows, whether due to security concerns or other
sources should be controlled to prevent poor indoor factors such as external noise or pollution, can be a
air quality. mvhr systems should include filtration source of overheating risk due to the inability to
of supply air but this will not remove gaseous adequately dissipate heat gains. A suitable
pollutants such as traffic fumes or combustion flue ventilation strategy should be designed that takes
gases from nearby dwellings, which can be these factors into account whilst providing
minimised through careful locating of ventilation sufficient ventilation.
Key messages — Section 6.4: Ventilation
• The consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use and maintain
commissioning and operation of ventilation systems can the system as required for it to operate effectively and
include impacts on occupant health and damage to the efficiently.
building fabric, with potential financial and reputational costs
for those responsible. • Approved Document F and the Domestic Ventilation
Compliance Guide (and equivalents) should be followed for
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate design strategies system sizing and minimum requirements.
that would help to reduce mechanical ventilation requirements
and system sizes. • Building services engineers should aim to provide low energy
and carbon systems with low running costs, which provide
• W
indow opening has an important role in providing purge sufficient ventilation and avoid other performance issues
ventilation and secure night-time ventilation to help prevent such as significant acoustic impacts. For example, specific
overheating in summer. Where issues such as external noise considerations include ductwork design and component
or pollution, or safety or security considerations limit window efficiency and location.
opening, alternative solutions will be required.
• B
uilding services engineers must work with the wider
• When selecting and designing ventilation systems, building design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
services engineers should consider whether occupants or integration issues set out in section 6.4.3.
6.5 Cooling and safe to operate; and as efficient as possible. The

consequences of poor practice in the design, installation,
Wherever possible, homes should be designed to avoid the commissioning and operation of cooling systems can
need for active cooling systems through the use of passive include increased energy bills, occupant dissatisfaction,
and impacts on occupant health.
design measures such as orientation, solar control, thermal
mass, and secure ventilation (see sections 5.3 and 5.6).
Cooling systems have significant electricity demands, will 6.5.1 System selection
increase operational costs, and can contribute to the urban
heat island effect through dumping heat into the external
environment and to climate change through their associated 6.5.1.1 System types
carbon emissions. To meet regulatory require ments,
additional measures may be required to offset carbon A range of options are available for cooling systems. Cooling
emissions associated with cooling. systems may be installed in individual dwellings or shared
between multiple dwellings.
In the UK, homes should not need cooling. Active cooling
systems should only be used as a last resort, where necessary This guide covers the fixed cooling systems shown in Table
to mitigate the risk of overheating in summer, e.g. where 7 below. It excludes portable cooling devices such as fans or
passive cooling strategies are constrained by site conditions air conditioning units, which occupiers may purchase
(e.g. air quality). Where clients include active cooling as a themselves, particularly if homes are not designed to
requirement (for example for marketing reasons), this minimise cooling demand effectively.
should be questioned. Section 5.6 and CIBSE TM59: Design
methodology for the assessment of overheating in homes (CIBSE, Refrigerant-based cooling systems are sometimes referred
2017), give guidance on the assessment of overheating and to by their refrigerant control type. There are two common
steps that should be taken before specifying a cooling types:
system. —— Variable refrigerant flow (vrf): which provides a
better level of control through the use of inverter
Where cooling systems are provided, it is important that compressors with variable frequency drives,
they are well designed, installed and commissioned; simple providing a more energy efficient solution.
Table 7 Common types of cooling systems
Heat pumps Ground or air source heat pumps can be used to provide cooling as
well as heating, and are most commonly used with an underfloor
heating and cooling distribution system, though other options such
as fan coil units are available. Heat pumps and underfloor
distribution systems are discussed in section 6.2.
Passive cooling can be provided where system water is pumped
without the need for chilling. Active cooling can be provided where
system water is chilled by the heat pump. Active cooling can provide
lower temperatures but when used with underfloor distribution
systems the temperatures are constrained by condensation risks. BS
EN 1264 (BSI, 2008b) provides relevant standards and BSRIA
BG4/2011 (BSRIA, 2011b) provides guidance.
Split and multi-split Split systems may have a single indoor air handling unit or multiple
systems (unducted or ones, depending on the area requiring cooling. Indoor units are
ducted connected to an outdoor condensing unit by pipes containing
refrigerant. The indoor units are usually wall- or ceiling-mounted
and contain cooling coils and integral fans (fan coil units).
Ducted split systems are available which use the same principles.
However instead of locating inside units directly in the room(s) being
cooled, they include concealed units connected to ductwork. They
can provide whole-home or single room cooling.
These systems are sometimes referred to by the type of control used:
variable refrigerant flow (vrf) or direct expansion valve (dx).
However, these controls can be used for other refrigerant-based
systems and may alternatively refer to them. Systems may be either
‘air-cooled’ or ‘water-cooled’ depending on whether air or water is
being used to discharge the heat collected in the refrigerant.
Table continues
System design 51
Table 7 Common types of cooling systems — (continued)
Single unit systems Other types of refrigerant-based system include single window units
or single external wall units which serve individual rooms (larger
versions of the latter are sometimes referred to as packaged terminal
air conditioning units).
Centralised/partially In multi-residential buildings centralised/partially centralised

centralised systems cooling can be provided. These include ducted or piped systems
linked to larger scale cooling plant such as packaged air-cooled
chillers, centralised water-cooled chillers, or multiple linked vrf
systems. Individual cooling systems are more commonly used in
homes in the UK than centralised systems, and so individual systems
are the focus of this guidance.
For fully centralised systems, cooled air is provided through supply
terminals in dwellings served by ductwork linked to central plant; for
partially centralised systems individual room units such as fan coils
are required which are connected to central plant by pipework
containing water or refrigerant (Figure 22). They may also provide
centralised ventilation. More guidance is given in BSRIA BG1/2010
(BSRIA, 2010a). Occupants should be able to have suitable levels of
control over such systems.
Limitations include space requirements and their relative complexity
in terms of design, installation, maintenance and operation.
Depending on the type of centralised system, benefits can include the
ability to use lower energy and carbon cooling sources and the ability
to use chilled water pipework eliminating the need for cooling
ductwork or refrigerant pipework in the building.
—— Direct expansion valve (dx): which provides less sufficient. Domestic cooling demands in the UK
control on refrigerant flow and therefore on system should usually be very low. Where loads are higher
turn down, impacting on efficiency and thermal in multi-residential buildings centralised plant
comfort. may be preferred; but where these loads are smaller
the long pipework runs required for centralised
There is currently limited guidance specifically for plant may not be justified.
domestic cooling systems in the UK, as they are not
commonly specified. BSRIA BG1/2010 (BSRIA, 2010a)
provides guidance and more detailed explanations of —— The impact on energy requirements, carbon emissions
different system types, though it is primarily focussed on and energy bills: including the negative impact on
centralised non-domestic scale systems. BS EN 14511 (BSI, the carbon targets for new dwellings in Building
2013a) provides standards for cooling systems. Regulations Part L in England and Wales (TSO,
2010) and equivalent regulations for Scotland and
6.5.1.2 System selection criteria Northern Ireland (TSO, 2008b/c). Evaporative
systems consume less energy than refrigerant-based
systems (but consume a significant amount of
If, after passive design measures have been implemented to
water). In general, active cooling systems are energy
minimise cooling demands, a cooling system is still
intensive and expensive to run. Variable speed/
required, building services engineers should work with the
inverter driven motors increase the efficiency of
client and wider design team to consider:
refrigerant systems at part-load. High temperature
—— Whether the system will be a suitable size: this should cooling delivery tem peratures can increase the
include assessment of the area of the home that efficiency of the system as they can be used with
needs cooling and of whether different cooling lower energy cooling solutions such as cooling
zones are required. Single room cooling may be towers. Use of heat pumps can increase efficiency.
Access panel 6.5.2 System optimisation

for maintenance
Good practice design should deliver systems that are simple
to operate, deliver comfortable internal temperatures, and
have low energy and running costs. This means:
—— Prioritise demand: working with the design team to
prioritise demand reduction measures such as
passive building design and energy efficient fabric
(see section 5.3 for more information on passive
Supply grille in design).
coffer ceiling Make-up air
grille in ceiling —— Avoiding over-sizing the system: over-sized systems
Figure 22 Room cooling: fan coil unit mounted in a ceiling void (image lead to energy and money being wasted, may require
© Hoare Lea) additional maintenance and can lead to shorter
product lifetimes. Refer to CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE,
2015a), section 5.9 for guidance on plant sizing.
Sizing should take into account factors including
external conditions and external gains, internal
—— Whether space is available for the system, including conditions and internal gains, system losses/gains,
access for maintenance: This may influence whether zoning, and peak simultaneous loads (where there
ducted systems are specified or not and whether is more than one zone or dwelling being served), i.e.
water- or air-cooled systems are used, for example. following a similar approach to that set out for
Installing ductwork may be particularly difficult in heating systems in section 6.2.2, but always using
existing homes. dynamic modelling. BSRIA BG4/2011 (BSRIA,
2011b) provides guidance on system sizing and
—— Operation and maintenance: whether occupants or design for underfloor cooling, though typically
others (e.g. landlords) are likely to be able to use such systems would be providing heating and be
and maintain the system as required for it to operate primarily designed for this purpose.
effectively and efficiently. Cooling systems can have
significant maintenance requirements; for example, —— Specifying high efficiency systems: minimum efficiency
fan coil unit filters need regular cleaning and requirements are given in the Domestic Building
replacement. Many systems require specialist Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) (and the
service technicians, and centralised systems may Non-domestic Building Services Compliance Guide
have additional inspection requirements. (NBS, 2013d) for centralised systems). Guidance is
provided under section 6.5.1.2 above.
—— Ease of installation and commissioning: this includes —— Energy use and running costs: factoring these into
considering safety requirements set by the European design decisions.
F-gas Regulations (EU, 2014) for refrigerant-based
systems. —— Operation, maintenance and installation: assessing the
safety and ease of operation, maintenance and
—— Flexibility: considering potential future replace installation, and ensuring these are not
ments or changes. compromised.
—— Minimising lengths of refrigerant pipework going through
—— Capital and life cycle costs of the system. occupied areas and lengths of ductwork: manufacturer
guidance should set limits on maximum run
—— Other environmental impacts: such as the global lengths. Long runs are inefficient and expensive
warming potential (gwp) of refrigerants, and water and have higher risks of leakage from refrigerant
consumption requirements. pipework. Run lengths may mean that chilled water
pipework is preferred for centralised systems in
—— Noise: systems including fans can be noisy, multi-residential buildings.
particularly when operating at high speeds. Systems —— Insulating and sealing of pipework and ductwork to
such as split systems, which locate compressor avoid condensation risks: condensate drainage will be
units outside dwellings tend to be quieter. required for some systems. Guidance is given in
TIMSA’s HVAC Compliance Guide (TIMSA, 2008).
—— The impact on indoor air quality (including humidity): Where underfloor cooling is provided, fittings can
filters may be required. also cause condensation and measures should be
taken to reduce risks, for example avoiding
—— Visual impact: some systems can be better concealed installing carpets.
than others, for example this might be a reason for
choosing a ducted system. —— Avoiding draughts: ensuring that where supply air is
provided through cooling systems it does not cause
comfort issues. For example, temperatures from fan
—— Integration with other services and the building fabric: coil units that are too low can cause discomfort, and
whether the cooling system may conflict with other terminal devices should be located carefully to
services, or whether it can be integrated with them avoid draughts.
efficiently, for example with heat pumps and/or
underfloor heating. Integration issues are discussed —— Locating outlets to reduce the risk of dumped heat:
in section 6.5.3. causing issues for others and for the environment.
System design 53
—— Locating units and inlets to avoid bringing in hot or 6.5.3.2 Integration with building services
polluted air and to avoid restricting air flow.
—— Considering other environmental impacts: where
include:
refrigerants are used, they should have low global
warming potential (gwp), and the F-gas Regulation —— Heating and cooling systems should be designed so that
(EU, 2014) must be complied with. Depending on they do not operate simultaneously in conflict with each
the amount of refrigerant used, additional checking other: for example through having different set
may be required. points with a dead band in between. As noted in
section 6.5.1 there may be opportunities to integrate
—— Providing suitable controls: that allow the system to
cooling with the heating system.
be operated effectively and efficiently, including
setting suitable thresholds for lowest temperatures. —— Ventilation: the interaction of the cooling system
See section 6.10 for more information on controls. with the ventilation system must be carefully
considered. Airflow requirements for cooling will
be higher than for ventilation, leading to over-
6.5.3 Integrated design
ventilation if a single centralised system is used to
provide both cooling and ventilation, and the
General guidance on integrated design is given in section exhaust and supply rooms for cooling and
5.2. If the cooling system design is not integrated with ventilation may not match well. mvhr systems
other services and with building fabric design, it can lead to specified with cooling systems should not have
performance issues. summer bypass activated when the external air is
hotter than the internal air. The impact of active
6.5.3.1 Integration with building fabric cooling systems on indoor air quality should be
carefully considered, for example where air is
As explained above, the priority is to design out the need recirculated. Users must be clearly informed of the
for active cooling systems, including through building impact of opening windows and doors on cooling
fabric design and retrofit measures. However, where cooling system performance.
systems are provided, building services engineers should
work with design teams and clients to predict and avoid 6.5.3.3 Other integration issues
downstream issues associated with their integration with
the building fabric by: Other integration issues may include:
—— Providing sufficient space for cooling systems: building —— Fire risks: see the guidance relating to services
services engineers should work with architects to passing through fire-resisting elements provided in
provide the necessary space and accessibility for the sections 6.2.4.3 and 6.4.3.3.
installation, maintenance and replacement of plant,
pipework, ductwork and other associated equipment. —— Acoustic impacts: distribution systems should be
designed to minimise noise. See the guidance for
—— Designing the location of services within the fabric and pipework, ductwork and fans given in sections
coordinating installation work to avoid damage: 6.2.4.3 and 6.4.3.3.
pipework, ductwork and other works which involve
services penetrating the building fabric should be —— Safety: for example safety considerations apply to
well sealed and designed to minimise damage to the the use of refrigerants, and systems including
air barrier and the risk of water ingress. The evaporative condensers and cooling towers should
continuity of the building fabric insulation should be designed to minimise the risk of Legionnaires’
not be compromised. This is a particular issue for disease. The F-gas Regulation (EU, 2014) must be
units located in walls or windows. See the guidance complied with and guidance in HSE’s Approved
in section 6.2.4.1 on pipework and section 6.4.3.1 Code of Practice and guidance L8 (HSE, 2013
on ductwork. should be followed).
Key messages — Section 6.5: Cooling
• C
ooling systems have significant electricity demands, will • When selecting and designing cooling systems, engineers
increase operational costs, and can contribute to the urban should seek to minimise the impact on energy requirements,
heat island effect through dumping heat into the external carbon emissions and energy bills. Factors include ensuring the
environment. system is not oversized (for example, serving a larger area than
needed); system efficiencies; layouts and component locations.
• Homes should be designed to avoid the need for active cooling
systems through the use of passive design measures such • It is important to consider whether occupants or others (e.g.
as orientation, solar control and thermal mass, and secure landlords) are likely to be able to use and maintain the system
ventilation. as required for it to operate effectively and efficiently. Cooling
systems can have significant maintenance requirements.
• Active cooling systems should only be used as a last resort,
where necessary to mitigate the risk of overheating in summer. • H
eating and cooling systems should be designed so that they
Where clients include cooling as a requirement (for example do not operate simultaneously in conflict with each other; for
for marketing purposes), this should be questioned. example through having different set points with a dead band
in between.
• Where provided, the consequences of poor practice in
the design, installation, commissioning and operation of • Building services engineers must work with the wider
cooling systems can include increased energy bills, occupant design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
dissatisfaction, and impacts on occupant health. integration issues described in section 6.5.3.
6.6 Electricity —— Security: providing a secure environment for

occupants.
The provision of well-designed electrical services is —— Impact on energy requirements, carbon emissions and
essential to provide safe, convenient and comfortable energy bills: this includes checking that energy
homes. There is a trend towards increasing amounts and
efficiency measures have been considered and
complexity of electricity-consuming devices in homes, incorporated where practicable. Examples of such
leading to increased electrical demands. It is vital that, measures include low energy appliances, low energy
whilst providing sufficient electrical load for occupants, the lighting and other electrical components, such as
design and installation meet high safety standards. Poor variable speed motors and energy efficient
design of electrical services can result in low energy transformers. The use of renewable electricity
efficiency, damage and disruption to systems, and risks to systems should also be considered, see section 6.8.
safety through electric shock or fire.
—— Integration with existing electrical systems: when
This section provides some general guidance on factors to extending or altering an existing electrical
consider when designing electrical services for homes. It installation, the guidance in Approved Document
focuses on general power services but also includes some P (NBS, 2013b) (and equivalent (Scottish
guidance on telecommunications and security systems. Government, 2017)) must be followed to maintain
Electrical space and water heating is covered separately in the safety of the new and existing installations.
sections 6.2 and 6.3 respectively, lighting is covered in
—— Integration with other services and building fabric:
section 6.7, and renewable electricity systems are covered
whether the electrical services system may conflict
in section 6.8. Incoming utilities services are not included
with other services, or impact negatively on the
in this guidance
building fabric. Integration issues are discussed in
section 6.6.3.
Other sources should be referred to for more detailed
electrical services design and installation guidance, and
relevant regulations, codes, standards and manufacturer 6.6.2 System optimisation
recommendations must be complied with. Sources include,
for example: Approved Document P (NBS, 2013b) in Implemented correctly, good practice design should deliver
England (and equivalent (Scottish Government, 2017)), BS systems that are safe, simple to operate, have low energy
7671+A3 (the IET Wiring Regulations) (BSI, 2008/2015), and running costs, and impact positively on occupants.
BS 6004 (BSI, 2012) and the various parts of BS EN 60335 This means:
(BSI, 2002–2016). Other key sources of guidance include
CIBSE Guide K (CIBSE, 2004), Modern Wiring Practice: —— Ensuring system safety: including through the means
Design and Installation (Steward and Beck, 2009), and identified in sections 6.6.1 and 6.6.3.3. Building
BSRIA BG3/2006: Design Checks for Electrical Services services engineers should be aware that due to the
(BSRIA, 2006). The requirements of relevant health and safety requirements set in the IET Wiring Regulations
safety legislation including the Electricity at Work (BS 7671+A3) (BSI, 2008/2015) domestic wiring
Regulations 1989 (TSO, 1989) must be met. circuits generally require residual current device
(rcd) protection. This is a mandatory requirement
on domestic socket circuits and on circuits that are
6.6.1 System selection buried within walls without earthed metallic cable
protection. BS 7671 requires the installation to be
Electrical services design should prioritise the provision of sub-divided to avoid hazards and minimise
safe systems that meet the requirements of occupiers and inconvenience in the event of a fault, and to reduce
are suitably controlled. When advising on electrical services the possibility of unwanted tripping of the rcd due
design and selection for a particular project, building to excessive protective conductor currents. To
services engineers should work with the client and wider comply with these requirements, the circuits of an
design team to consider: installation should not be connected to a single rcd
—— Meeting electricity supply requirements: for availability, as a fault on one circuit could lead to a loss of supply
reliability, quality, condition and capacity. to the entire installation. This therefore limits the
effective use of split load distribution boards.
—— Ensuring system safety, protection and resilience:
including through suitable selection and —— Choosing between ring main or radial main wiring
arrangements of cabling and other components, layouts for domestic socket outlets: ring circuits are
provision of fault protection and provision of commonly used and can provide the benefit of
earthing systems. Designs should meet the electrical reduced cable sizes, allowing increased ease of
supply fault levels and resilience requirements. termination, increased circuit lengths and increased
circuits loads when compared to radial circuits. In
—— Ease of access to controls. certain instances, ring circuits can cause electro
—— Ease of installation and commissioning. magnetic interference which, if parts of the circuit
are disconnected or broken, may lead to circuit
—— Ease of access for maintenance. cabling operating above its rated current and
overheating. Spur circuits served from a ring main
—— Costs: capital and life cycle costs of the system. This
can overheat if incorrectly sized and not adequately
includes considering lifecycle impacts such as
fused at the spur-point. Inadvertent cross-
component recyclability and environmental
connection between two ring circuits, for example,
impacts.
would negatively impact on fault disconnection
—— Flexibility: considering potential future replace times by resulting in a fault current protection
ments or changes. above the normal rating. It may be beneficial to
System design 55
install radial circuits instead of ring circuits in For example, a small under-stair cupboard may be
some instances, such as kitchen appliance circuits considered impractical due to height and width
served from multi-gang grid plates and dedicated restrictions and be classed as an unsuitable location
radial circuits to rooms instead of on a floor by floor for a consumer unit. Approved Document M should
or area by area basis. This would provide increased be followed (NBS, 2016d). It provides guidance on
resilience in the event of a circuit being isolated due the height of consumer unit switches above finished
to a fault or for maintenance purposes. floor level, restrictions on unauthorised access to
consumer units and locating units to protect against
—— Isolate fixed and portable kitchen appliances: for safety impacts which might cause damage. Access points
reasons, providing the ability to isolate fixed and should be included where required for electrical
portable kitchen appliances from an accessible services in ceiling voids, risers and raised floors.
location above or adjacent to worktops in the event Manufacturer guidance on access requirements
of a fault, or simply for a means of isolation. For should be followed.
example, this can be achieved by installing a switch-
fused connection unit, or a multi-gang grid switch —— Ensuring components are protected against physical and
containing a labelled grid-mounted appliance environmental impacts: including, but not limited to,
isolator. Isolation points and socket outlets should compression, impact, water, and corrosion. For
be 150 mm above the worktop and at least 300 mm example, suitable types, classifications and sizes of
away on the horizontal plane from cookers, grills, cable conduit, trunking, trays and ladders should
hobs, sinks and drainers, in line with NHBC be specified. Protection for cables and other
guidance. electrical equipment should take into account
potential hazards, including ground conditions
—— Positioning of cables: following guidance on the where cables run through the ground. Vertical cable
positioning of cables that do not have special runs to socket-outlets and switches should have
protection, such as earthed metal conduits. NHBC mechanical protective covering in line with BS
Standards 2017 (NHBC, 2017) are one source of 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015), and plastic conduits/
relevant guidance. mini trunking should be used to cover potentially
—— Providing sufficient outlets to meet likely occupant exposed cables in places such as garages rather than
requirements: NHBC Standards 2017 (NHBC, 2017) simply mounting cables directly on surfaces
provide guidance on the minimum number which without cover. BS EN 50085 (BSI, 2005–2010) sets
should be provided per room in new build homes. standards for cable trunking and ducting systems;
BS EN 61386 (BSI, 2004–2011) covers conduit
—— Factoring resource use, energy use and running costs into systems; and BS EN 61537 (BSI, 2007b) covers
design decisions: including checking that components cable tray and ladder systems.
are correctly sized and that load diversity has been
taken into account when sizing systems. —— Suitable labelling of components and provision of
information: in line with the requirements of BS
—— Specifying smart meters: providing real-time energy 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015) and Approved
monitoring to help raise occupants’ awareness of Document P (NBS, 2013b) (and equivalent (Scottish
their electricity use. Government, 2017)). When working on existing
—— Assessing the safety and ease of operation, maintenance systems, building services engineers should be
and installation: ensuring these are not compromised. aware of changes in cable colour-coding over time.
—— Providing suitable controls: such as switches and
—— Locating, securing and selecting components to help
isolators that allow the system to be operated
ensure safety: for example, locating socket outlets at
effectively, efficiently and safely. See section 6.10
least 3 m away from bath tubs and shower trays, as
for more information on controls.
required in Approved Document P (NBS, 2013b),
and installing enclosed ceiling lights with pull-cord —— Taking into account future requirements where relevant:
switches in bathrooms. In areas at risk of flooding, where systems may need to be expanded to allow
the upper limit heights for accessory mounting for future additional loads.
given in Approved Document M (NBS, 2016d)
should be considered. Where there is evidence that
6.6.3 Integrated design
flood lines are above this height, a higher mounting
height should be considered, taking accessibility
General guidance on integrated design is given in section
into account. Where flooding is possible, other
5.2. If the electrical services design is not integrated with
precautions should be considered, including the
other services and with building fabric design, it can lead to
use of cabling types that dry more quickly than
performance and safety issues.
standard pvc stranded cables, such as low-smoke
zero halogen cabling and solid cabling. Protective
sheathing should be provided at the ends of cables 6.6.3.1 Integration with building fabric
to prevent water ingress. More guidance on flood
risk protection is provided by Electrical Safety First Building services engineers should work with design teams
in their guidance document Electrical Installations in and clients to predict and avoid downstream issues
Flood Prone Areas (ESF, undated). Fire safety is associated with the integration of electrical services systems
discussed further in section 6.6.3.3. with the building fabric by:
—— Locating components appropriately to allow access —— Ensuring that building fabric properties and installation
where required: for example, consumer units should methods are understood and factored into the electrical
be located to provide ease of access and be mounted system design: in particular when sizing and derating
at a height to assist people who have reduced reach. cables. The impacts of thermal insulation, ambient
temperatures and grouping of multiple circuits requirements; and other factors described in BSRIA
should be taken into account, as well as other factors BG3/2006 (BSRIA, 2006). Different component
given in BS 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015). Otherwise options should be appraised including cabling type.
overheating can occur, leading to a risk of fire. pvc
covered cables should not be placed in contact with
polystyrene insulation. Cables should not be
positioned in direct sunlight.
—— Designing the location of electrical services within the
—— Fire risks: safety regulations should be followed to
fabric and coordinating installation work to avoid
prevent fire hazards. Fire regulations relating to
damage and provide adequate space and access where
building works are covered by Approved Document
needed: the continuity of the building fabric
B1 (NBS, 2013f) in England, and equivalents in
insulation and airtightness of the building envelope
Northern Ireland (DFPNI, 2012d), Scotland
should not be compromised, and where electrical
(Scottish Government, 2017) and Wales (Welsh
services pass through elements of the building
Government, 2017). BS 9991 (BSI, 2015b) provides
fabric careful design detailing and installation will
a code of practice for fire safety in the design,
be required. Designs should be carefully coordinated
management and use of residential buildings.
with architects and other members of the design
CIBSE Guide E (CIBSE, 2018) provides guidance,
team. Sufficient space should be provided for
and specialist input should be sought. Where
services, including for where electrical cables
services pass through fire barriers, measures must
change direction and where they cross other
be taken to maintain the integrity of barriers. After
services. Cable fixings and routing should be
completion and handover of a building, fire safety
designed taking any relevant limitations caused by
is currently governed by separate legislation.
building structure into account. Further useful
checks are detailed in BSRIA BG3/2006 (BSRIA, —— Locating and securing cables to help reduce fire risks: the
2006), including various checks for prefabricated building construction will influence the options
wiring systems. available for securing horizontal cable routes
throughout the dwelling, particularly within multi-
tenanted apartment buildings. Where solid
6.6.3.2 Integration with building services
structures such as concrete are used, particularly
careful consideration will be required to meet fire
safety regulations, i.e. that electrical items are
include:
secured sufficiently and that means of escape are
—— Taking into account the electrical loads associated with not blocked in the event of a fire. BS 7671+A3 (BSI
other services during the design process: where electrical 2008/2015), regulation 521.201, provides require
space heating, water heating or cooling is being ments for containment and wiring systems,
provided this will obviously significantly increase including helping to maintain safe escape routes. It
expected electrical loads. The requirements for requires containment and wiring systems to be
services in communal areas, such as lifts, should be supported by fire-resistant fastenings and fixings,
taken into account. and requires cabling to be supported so it cannot
prematurely collapse when exposed to extreme
—— Designing and locating electrical components to avoid
heat. Solutions include using steel fixings, cable
interference with other services: for example, where
containment and ties throughout. Steel fixings
low voltage circuits are routed in parallel with
would apply to all cabling including low voltage,
communications, data or tv cabling, suitable
communications and tv cables.
clearance between services should be maintained to
eliminate the risk of electromagnetic interference, —— Protecting consumer units from fire risks: the root cause
in line with the requirements of BS 7671+A3 (BSI, of fires within consumer units is often primarily
2008–2015). due to loose connections. This risk has been
addressed within BS 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015),
—— Taking into account telecommunications and ict
regulation 421.11.201, which provides an enhanced
requirements: telecommunications and ict infra
fire risk protection through the use of non-
structure should be designed and installed in line
combustible materials in the manufacture of
with Approved Document R (NBS, 2016e).
switchgear assemblies.
Telecommunication service providers’ and
manufacturers’ guidance and the guidance and —— Location of socket outlets and back boxes, and impact on
recommendations within PAS 2016: Next generation fire rating, acoustics, fabric and potential electrical issues:
access for new build homes — Guide (BSI/DBIS, 2011), it is good practice to avoid installing socket outlets
NHBC Foundation’s The connected home: designing and accessory back boxes back-to-back within
and building technology into today’s new homes (NF67) adjacent rooms. This helps to ensure the integrity
(NHBC Foundation, 2016) and BRE Information of the internal wall construction, and reduces the
Paper 11/13: Wireless communication systems in risk of wiring problems, both physically and from
dwellings (BRE, 2013) should be taken into account. the effects of electromagnetic interference (if routed
Relevant standards should be complied with, parallel with data cabling). It also helps to maintain
including BS EN 50173-4+A2 (BSI, 2007/2012) the fire rating of walls (where required) and to
and BS EN 50174-3 (BSI, 2013b). ict cabling design reduce acoustic penetration. Where the layout
should take into account the expected occupancy of dictates that a party wall between dwellings is
homes; requirements for bandwidth, interference shared for services, segregation should be provided,
protection, routing, labelling and containment; for example through installing either a conduit
electricity supply characteristics and power from each dwelling to the accessory plate or
System design 57
providing an additional layer of protection between miniature circuit breaker (mcb)/residual-

services such as a sheet of plasterboard. It is good current circuit breaker with overcurrent
practice to install putty pads to the rear of accessory protection (rcbo) fire alarm protection, or
boxes for acoustic performance, fire resistance and
• a dual rcd split load consumer unit, where
to reduce air leakage. Where accessory back boxes
the rcd protecting the fire or smoke alarm
are installed deeper than 16 mm from the face of
circuit is not shared with socket outlets or
the plasterboard, it is good practice to use dedicated
portable equipment.
extension boxes (extension rings) rather than extra-
long 3.5 mm accessory screws. This helps to ensure —— BSRIA BG3/2006 (BSRIA, 2006) provides guidance
encapsulation of single insulated cables and a secure on design checks for fire detection and alarm
square accessory plate, and assists with acoustic and systems, and section 8.11 of CIBSE Guide K
fire lining where required. (CIBSE, 2004) provides guidance on building
wiring for emergency and life safety systems.
—— Ensuring that the electrical supply requirements of fire
detection and alarm systems are met, where these are —— Ensuring that the electrical supply requirements of
specified: BS 5839-6 (BSI, 2013c) sets particular security and access controls are met (where such systems
supply requirements for fire detection and fire are provided): guidance and design checks for
alarm systems in new and existing dwellings, and intruder alarm, access control and cctv systems are
should be followed. Preferably the supply to such provided in BSRIA BG3/2006 (BSRIA, 2006).
systems should not be protected by a residual Designs should comply with BS EN 50131-1 (BSI,
current device (rcd), as this switches off the 2006c) and BS EN 60839-11-1 (BSI, 2013d) and
electricity when faults occur. This may be user requirements should be taken into account,
impractical if the circuit cabling is installed in walls including usability and maintenance considerations.
without an earthed metallic conduit for protection. The location and accessibility of controls should be
Where rcd protection is required for fire or smoke considered. The design and location of detectors
alarms, the rcd should serve only that circuit. As a should take into account and seek to avoid potential
consequence, in instances where residential negative impacts from other systems, for example
dwellings require mains powered auto matic fire electromagnetic interference or blocking of
protection, it is good practice to install either: detectors by pipe routes, as well as the possible
impacts of environmental conditions and occupant
• a high integrity consumer unit complete activities. Cables of different voltages should be
with dual rcd protection and independent segregated from each other.
Key messages — Section 6.6: Electrical services
• It is good practice for engineers to select and design electrical be beneficial to install radial circuits in some instances, such
services to ensure system safety, protection and resilience and as kitchen appliance circuits, in order to provide additional
to provide comfort and convenience to occupants. resilience.
• T
he consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, • The safety and ease of operation, maintenance and installation
commissioning and operation of electrical systems can include should be assessed and engineers should help to ensure these
defective installations and risks to safety. are not compromised.
• System safety must be ensured and relevant regulations,
• Occupant requirements should be taken into account, for
codes, standards and manufacturer recommendations must be
example when specifying and locating system components
complied with.
such as electrical sockets.
• Specific safety concerns include provision of fault protection
through appropriately rated fuses, circuit breakers and residual • This section should be read in conjunction with sections 5.7
circuit breakers, appropriate locating of components and de- and 5.8 on lighting and renewable electricity generation.
rating of cables.
• Building services engineers must work with the wider
• T
he relative benefits of ring and radial circuits should be design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
considered. Whilst ring circuits are commonly used it may integration issues described in section 6.7.3.
6.7 Lighting Electrical Services — A quality control framework for electrical

engineers (BSRIA, 2006) provides guidance on design checks
Lighting, at a suitable level, is essential for everyday for electrical services including lighting systems.
activities, helps to create a pleasant environment and has
positive impacts on health. The consequences of poor Other types of lighting may be suitable for particular
practice in the design, installation, commissioning and applications such as communal areas of multi-residential
operation of lighting systems can include increased energy buildings. Guidance for communal residential buildings is
bills and occupant dissatisfaction. given in SLL Lighting Guide 9: Lighting for communal
residential buildings (SLL, 2013).
6.7.1 System selection
6.7.1.2 System selection criteria
6.7.1.1 System types
Lighting design should prioritise the use of natural light
A range of options are available for lighting systems. The when available and practicable, using artificial light to
types most commonly used in homes in the UK are shown supplement this as required and to provide light at times
in Table 8 below. This guidance excludes non-fixed lighting when daylight is not available, with suitable controls for
devices such as floor or table lamps. both. When advising on lighting design and selection for a
particular project, building services engineers should work
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, with the client and wider design team to consider:
2013a) provides efficiency requirements for internal and —— Whether the lighting system will provide sufficient
external lighting, as well as guidance on the maximum total lighting at a suitable level and quality for different rooms
load and number of internal light fittings that should be and their different uses: this should include assessment
operated by a single switch, and control requirements for of general/ambient lighting requirements, and task
external lighting. BS EN 15193-1 (BSI, 2017b) should also lighting requirements. Providing a choice of
be referred to for energy requirements for lighting. The separately switched light sources and/or providing
SLL Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009) primarily focuses on lighting dimming controls can be beneficial for
non-domestic lighting design but the introductory chapters comfort and wellbeing. For example, occupants
provide useful information on the fundamentals of lighting, may find that reducing light levels in the evening
technology types and lighting design and daylighting. can be conducive to healthy sleeping patterns.
Guidance on appropriate external lighting types is given in
the Energy Saving Trust’s GIL20: Low energy domestic —— Impact on energy requirements, carbon emissions and
lighting (EST, 2006b). BSRIA’s BG3/2006: Design Checks for energy bills: use of daylight should be prioritised and
Table 8 Common types of lighting systems
System type Icon Comments

Natural lighting Natural lighting should be used when it is available. Building orientation, form, layouts, glazing levels
and window and rooflight design can be optimised to make the best use of daylight and reduce lighting
energy use. Other options such as light tubes/pipes can also be used to bring light into homes, however
their impact on heat loss (via thermal bridging) should be quantified. Any associated risk of
condensation should similarly be understood.
Light emitting diodes Light emitting diodes (leds) are solid state electronic devices that produce a small amount of light
(leds) very efficiently. led bulbs contain a large number of individual leds and are available in a variety of
forms. led lighting uses up to 90% less energy than the traditional incandescent bulbs, which are now
banned in the EU, and produce similar levels of brightness at a much lower wattage. They tend to have
higher capital costs than other types but prices are reducing, and they last significantly longer,
resulting in lower life cycle costs.
Fluorescent Fluorescent lamps contain gas through which an electric current is passed to produce light. They are
significantly more efficient and longer lasting than traditional incandescent bulbs, though they are not
as efficient as leds. They are available in compact (cfl) and tube forms, and in a range of shapes and
sizes. Some older types were slow to reach their full light levels but the technology has developed to
eliminate this issue.
Halogens Halogens use a tungsten filament (also used in traditional incandescent bulbs). They use slightly less
energy than incandescent bulbs but are still significantly less efficient than cfls and leds, have much
lower lifetimes and high operating temperatures, and so it is good practice to avoid specifying them.
Halogens were initially only commonly used for spotlights but, since the phasing out of tungsten
filament bulbs, are now more widely available as non-cfl equivalent replacements. The EU plans to
phase out their use by 2018.
External lighting External lighting may be installed for reasons of security and convenience. A variety of types are
available. The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013) defines minimum requirements
and states that less efficient lamps of up to 100 lamp watts per light fitting should only be used if they
are automatically controlled to switch off when the external area lit is unoccupied or when there is
sufficient daylight. Good practice would be to use more efficient fittings in all situations. cfls are
suited to providing the relatively low levels of outdoor light that are typically required for domestic
purposes.
System design 59
high efficacy, low energy lighting should be energy-efficiency/lighting). The Lighting Industry Liaison
provided, located in the right place, at suitable Group has provided guidance on leds, A Guide to the
levels and with appropriate levels of control. Specification of LED Lighting Products (LILG, 2012).
—— Lighting should be matched to its purpose: for example,
a significant number of downlights are needed if 6.7.2 System optimisation
they are used to provide general lighting, and this is
usually an expensive and inappropriate solution. Good practice in the design of daylighting will involve the
—— Whether occupants or others (e.g. landlords) are likely to building services engineer working collaboratively with the
be able to use and maintain the system as required for it client, architect and design team to realise an optimum
to operate efficiently: this includes considering the balance that maximises levels of daylight whilst minimising
ease and frequency of replacement. For example, solar gain in summer months and minimising heat loss and
ensuring light fittings are easy to access wherever radiant cold in winter months. Good practice design would
possible and specifying lights with long life deliver systems which provide suitable levels of light, are
expectancies in harder to reach locations. simple to operate, and have low energy and running costs
and positive impacts on occupants. This means:
—— Ease of installation and commissioning.
—— Working with the design team to prioritise natural light,
—— Flexibility: considering potential future replace thereby reducing artificial lighting demands: guidance
ments or changes. on daylighting is given in SLL Lighting Guide 10:
—— Costs: capital and life cycle costs of the system. This Daylighting — a guide for designers (SLL, 2015) and
includes considering lifecycle impacts such as BRE BR209: Site layout planning for daylight and
component recyclability and environmental sunlight (BRE, 2011). BS 8206-2 (BSI 2008a)
impacts. provides a code of practice for daylighting. Factors
include building siting, orientation and external
—— Security: whether lighting in external and common obstructions; window and rooflight sizes, locations,
areas helps to provide a secure environment, and head heights and types; floor to ceiling heights;
whether the lighting itself will be robust, resistant layouts; and the reflectance of interior surfaces. It is
to and secure from vandalism. important to consider where daylight will be most
—— Visual impact: lighting should be at a suitable and useful. Figure 23 shows the provision of a skylight
even illuminance, free from shadow, direct and to the internal kitchen of a top floor apartment
reflected glare, flicker and stroboscopic effects. providing useful daylight, reducing the demand for
Using electronic rather than magnetic control gear artificial lighting. The use of average daylight factor
for fluorescent lamps and avoiding leds with poor and view of sky calculations for individual rooms is
quality drivers can help to avoid flicker. External recommended at an early design stage (see Figure
lighting should be designed to avoid misdirection 24 below for an illustration of the no-sky line). If
into the sky. The SLL Lighting Handbook provides the average daylight factor exceeds 5% on the
guidance (SLL, 2009). horizontal plane, an interior will look cheerfully
daylit, even in the absence of sunlight. If the average
—— Health and safety: insufficient illumination can lead daylight factor is less than 2% the interior may not
to eyestrain. Fluctuating, flickering, or excessive be perceived as well daylit and electric lighting is
lighting can also cause health impacts. These issues
are unlikely in a domestic situation but building
services engineers should be aware of the risks,
particularly where occupants are particularly
vulnerable (e.g. those who are prone to migraines,
or have photo-epilepsy or autism). Section 8.5 of
CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a) provides more
information. Emergency lighting is needed for
common areas of multi-residential buildings;
guidance is given in SLL Lighting Guide 9 (SLL,
2013). Lighting systems must comply with relevant
safety requirements.
—— Impact on overheating risk: mitigating overheating
risks from solar gain where needed and using more
efficient lights as these generate less heat. More
detailed overheating guidance is provided in section
5.6 and CIBSE TM59: Design methodology for the
assessment of overheating in homes (CIBSE, 2017).
whether the lighting system may conflict with other
services, or impact negatively on the building
fabric. Integration issues are discussed in section
6.7.3.
The Energy Saving Trust’s website provides information on

different types of lighting and their advantages and Figure 23 Triple-glazed skylight providing daylight to an internal
disadvantages (http://www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/home- kitchen in a top floor apartment (image © AECOM)
solar gain in a sample of dwelling-types for each

new residential scheme. It is considered that this
e
would be appropriate for any scheme over 10
in
sk
yl dwellings in size, or in cases where there are
o-
particular concerns. Any sample should include
N
worse case units, which are generally ground floor

houses and flats and dwellings in close proximity to
existing buildings.
Working
plane
Vertical
Common rules of thumb for window sizing include
glazing providing a window area equivalent to 20% of the
total floor area, and providing head heights of at
least 2.1 m (but preferably higher, good practice
Figure 24 No-sky line — as a rule of thumb, daylight will penetrate to a would be at least 2.4 m). Window sizes should be
depth of twice the height of the window head above the window sill appropriate for the size, function and location of
assuming no external obstruction of the sky; where there is such an the room, e.g. ground floor rooms and living rooms
obstruction, the extent of daylight penetration is given by the no-sky line are likely to be suited to larger windows; smaller
windows may be suitable for bedrooms. Providing
the ability to shade windows without obstructing
more likely to be utilised. Figure 25 shows the effect window opening will generally be helpful.
of daylighting levels on the likelihood of occupants —— Balancing the prioritisation of daylight against impacts
switching on electric lighting at different times of on thermal comfort as increased glazing areas increase
day. winter heat losses and summer gains: more detailed
guidance on overheating is provided in section 5.6
—— Daylight factor: good practice for daylighting in
and in CIBSE TM59: Design methodology for the
residential buildings is to provide a minimum
assessment of overheating in homes (CIBSE, 2017).
average daylight factor of 2% in kitchens, living
rooms, dining rooms and studies, where practical —— Balancing the prioritisation of daylight against the
(see boxed text below). This guidance and the residents’ need for privacy: increased glazing in areas
associated calculation procedure is explained in directly overlooked may lead to daytime use of
CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE, 2015a), which also blinds or curtains, limiting the use of daylight and
provides guidance on sunlight criteria. Detailed useful solar gains.
designs and calculations should be carried out on
—— Providing sufficient lighting: under-provision of
individual projects, taking project-specific factors
lighting can limit occupants’ ability to undertake
and other considerations such as ventilation,
activities in their home, and over-provision can
overheating and privacy into account. The
lead to energy and money being wasted. Both can
provision of daylighting levels should be balanced
have negative impacts on health. The needs of
with these factors, which in some cases could mean
occupants should be considered where known; for
that the 2% factor is not part of an optimal design
example, the Domestic Building Services Compliance
balance. Where 2% cannot be met the Home Quality
Guide (NBS, 2013a) provides links to specific
Mark scheme (http://www.homequalitymark.com)
guidance for people with impaired vision. Each
suggests a reduced value of 1.8% as a lower target
room, and hallways, landings and staircases should
and 1.5% as a minimum (BRE, 2015b). Although it
have at least one fixed lighting fitting. Common
is not required by regulation, it is considered good
areas should have lighting fittings. As well as
practice to undertake modelling of daylight and
brightness (measured in lumens/m2 or lux, see
Figure 26) the appearance of the lighting in terms
of colour temperature (warmth, measured on the
100 Kelvin scale) and colour rendering (accuracy of
90 0.5 percent colour representation, measured on the colour
Probability of switching on (%)
80
1 percent rendering index (cri)); and the direction, diffusion
2 percent and location of light and the fitting design should
70
5 percent be considered. The frequency with which lights are
60 likely to be switched on and off should be considered
as some lighting types are more suited to frequent
50 switching. SLL Lighting Guide 9 (SLL, 2013)
40 provides recommended lighting levels for rooms
30
within communal residential buildings such as
student residences and care homes. However, these
20 levels would not necessarily apply within all
10 domestic contexts and lux levels should be
considered on a project by project basis, taking into
0 account various factors such as task requirements,
4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
room sizes and designs, uniformity between
Time of day different parts of the building, and preferred
Figure 25 Probability of electric lighting being switched on at different lighting styles. Flexibility should be provided (e.g.
times of day for locations with different orientation-weighted daylight a room should not be served with only a single
factors (source: SLL Lighting Handbook (SLL, 2009) from Crisp and pendant and switch) and the provision of task and
Henderson (1982)) ambient indirect lighting should be considered.
System design 61
Evaluation of daylight factor (glazing above working plane)
DF (%)
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
Measurement
plane 3
2
Light meter
1
0
Window DF
Wide 2.0%
Tall 1.3%
(source: Hoare Lea)
Daylight factors (DFs) are evaluated at a nominal ‘working plane’, left after these two or more reflections. This effectively means that
which is 850 mm above fitted floor level in residential spaces. Any glazing below the working plane does not contribute towards the
daylight passing through the window below this working plane levels of natural light within a space. An exercise on a very simple
has to undergo at least two reflections before it can contribute to room, as shown above, demonstrates how glazing that is placed
the working plane illumination. Considering that floors are usually entirely above the working plane can contribute significantly more
relatively dark only a small fraction of the light’s initial intensity is daylight whilst not worsening the thermal balance.
fixed internal and external lighting are given in the

Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS,
2013a), including a requirement for 75% of fittings
in main dwelling spaces to be low energy. It is
considered good practice for 100% of lighting in
main dwelling spaces to be low-energy. The
Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide requires
low energy luminaires to meet or exceed 45 lumens
per circuit watt. It is good practice to exceed this
standard as the performance of luminaires has
improved since its publication in 2013 and is
expected to continue to improve, at least in the
short term. At the time of publication, a minimum
of 70 lumens per circuit watt is considered good
practice for retrofit lamps, and 80 lumens per
circuit watt for new-build integrated led products.
100 lux 2500 lux 5000 lux 10 000 lux 100 000 lux
Best practice for retro-fit would be in excess of 80
lumens per circuit watt and for new build 90–
Figure 26 Typical illuminances on different surfaces under the noonday 100 lumens per circuit watt. Requirements for
sun in temperate climates; illuminance is the luminous flux falling on lighting of communal areas of domestic buildings
unit area of a surface, measured in lux (lumens/m²) and is the most and for communal multi-residential buildings such
widely used criterion for electric lighting design (source: SLL Lighting as student accommodation are given in the Non-
Handbook (SLL 2009)) domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS,
2013d). Whilst energy efficient lighting will bring
—— Factoring energy use and running costs into design benefits in most locations, the highest savings will
decisions and specifying high efficacy, low energy lighting be in rooms where artificial lighting is used for the
systems, including lamps, control equipment and power longest periods and/or where fittings are likely to be
factor correction equipment: minimum efficacy retained. Lighting with long life expectancies and
requirements (measured in lumens/circuit watt) for robust fittings should be specified.
Case study 5: Passive design, ventilation, daylighting and overheating: Gasholders London,
Kings Cross, London Borough of Camden
(a) Gasholders London (image courtesy of Kings Cross Central Limited (b)
Example of proposed window configuration (image courtesy of
Partnership) Hoare Lea)
Part of the redevelopment of Kings Cross Central, the Gasholders The apartments will be provided with an efficient MVHR system
London scheme is planned to consist of 145 dwellings within three with summer bypass, to help ensure adequate ventilation levels.
8- to 12-storey buildings located within the re-erected circular All apartments will benefit from openable windows and movable
Grade II listed guide frames. external shading for additional occupant control over ventilation
rates, solar gains and privacy.
The constrained overall shape of the buildings, dictated by the
listed frames they sit within, influenced the building design Space heating and hot water from a central district heating
and has led to a predominance of wedge shaped, single aspect scheme will be delivered to apartments via heat interface units
flats. Single aspect flats present a challenge to the designer in (HIUs). As good practice, the HIUs will include diverting valves to
optimising daylight and passive solar gain, whilst delivering help reduce distribution losses and minimise risk of overheating
sufficient ventilation, and minimising the risk of overheating. by stopping hot water from being circulated through individual
dwellings’ HIUs when there is no demand for heat.
This case study presents an example of good practice in design
within a constrained site. An overheating risk assessment was undertaken at the pre-
planning stage, using CIBSE comfort criteria. This analysis
Within the constraints of the built form, efforts were made to helped to optimise the façade design and ventilation rates. The
optimise the buildings’ articulation, with extruded balconies to the design optimised the proportions of glazed and opaque areas
North for views and improved daylight penetration, and enclosed to allow beneficial winter solar gains, avoid excessive summer
balconies to the South. This design helped to control summer solar solar gains, and maximise daylight levels. The building services
gain whilst enabling low level winter daylight to penetrate the engineer worked closely with the architect to optimise the glazing
homes, reducing space heating demands. specification and configuration, and increase the ventilation rates
to meet comfort criteria.
As good practice the intensity and distribution of daylighting was
modelled and assessed at an early stage, reporting daylight factors Client: Kings Cross Central General Partner Ltd.
across tested rooms. The building services engineers followed Architect: Wilkinson Eyre Architects
guidance in BRE BR209: Site Layout Planning for Daylight and
MEP Engineer: Hoare Lea
Sunlight (BRE, 2011).
—— Assessing the safety and ease of operation, maintenance existing homes, compatibility with electrical circuit
and installation: ensuring these are not compromised. and dimmer switches should be checked.
—— Appearance of lighting: see section 6.7.1.2. Care —— Working with architects and the wider design team: to
should be taken when specifying lights to consider coordinate the design with factors that affect the
colour temperature, appearance, and quality as lighting design such as layouts and finishings.
some products are of higher quality than others. —— Providing suitable controls that allow the system to be
Generally, unless a specific effect is desired, lights operated effectively and efficiently: see section 6.10 for
of different colour temperatures should not be used more information on controls.
in the same room; suitable colour temperatures are
likely to be within 2700–4000 K to give a warm
white to white appearance. Above this, lights may 6.7.3 Integrated design
appear too blue though they will also offer some
energy efficiencies. For colour rendering, a colour General guidance on integrated design is given in section
rendering index >80 is usually sufficient for 5.2. If lighting system design is not integrated with other
domestic applications. services and with building fabric design, it can lead to
performance issues. For existing homes, opportunities such
—— Ensuring that different parts of the lighting system are as rewiring of homes should be used to make
compatible: in particular, when replacing bulbs in recommendations for improvements to lighting systems.
System design 63
6.7.3.1 Integration with building fabric rated luminaire should be installed. Manufacturers’
guidance should be followed as should relevant
Building services engineers should work with design teams regulations and standards including Approved
and clients to predict and avoid downstream issues Document B1 (NBS, 2013f) in England and
associated with the integration of lighting systems with the equivalents in Northern Ireland (DFPNI, 2012d),
building fabric by: Scotland (Scottish Government, 2017) and Wales
(Welsh Government, 2017). BS 9991 (BSI, 2015b)
—— Prioritising daylight: whilst balancing this against provides a code of practice for fire safety in the
potential summer overheating risks, the need for design, management and use of residential
privacy, and other considerations, as discussed buildings. CIBSE Guide E (CIBSE, 2018) provides
above in section 6.7.2. guidance and specialist input should be sought.
—— Designing the location of lighting within the fabric and
coordinating installation work to avoid damage: the —— Electrical risks: relevant electrical standards and
continuity of the building fabric insulation and regulations should be followed, including Approved
airtightness of the building envelope should not be Document P (NBS, 2013b) for England and Wales
compromised, for example by recessed lights in and equivalent for Scotland (Scottish Government,
ceilings and lofts. The excessive use of recessed 2017), BS 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015) and BS 6004
lights should be avoided and where used they (BSI, 2012). (Currently there are no statutory
should be carefully designed and installed. building regulations governing the installation of
electricity in Northern Ireland. However, in
practice Approved Document P is commonly used.)
6.7.3.2 Integration with building services For example, the selection of luminaires and
lighting layouts in wet rooms requires careful
Potential integration issues with other building services consideration and BS 7671 should be followed. BS
include: 7671 defines different levels of protected zones in
wet rooms, and covers other requirements such as
—— Heating and cooling: specifying 100% low energy protection of all cabling within the proximity of a
lighting will help to avoid unwanted heat gains, protected zone and all low voltage circuits in a wet
which can contribute to overheating. Though the room to be protected by an rcd. External lighting
use of natural light should be prioritised, this needs circuits are also required to be protected by rcds.
to be balanced against glazing summer heat gains
and winter heat losses. —— Security: external lighting should help to provide
safe environments.
—— Visual impact on external environment: light pollution
Other integration issues may include: and lighting control should be considered in the
scheme design process, with the aim of reducing
—— Fire risks: safety regulations should be followed to the spill of light to neighbouring properties and to
prevent fire hazards. For example, lighting that avoid misdirecting light into the sky. Horizontal
reaches high temperatures such as halogen lighting flat glass or recessed soffit mounted luminaires
must have adequate fire protection, be adequately should provide no direct upward light and should
ventilated and located away from combustible be carefully designed to illuminate the intended
materials. Thermal insulation should not be area only. Ground mounted uplights and wall
installed over lights unless they are designed to mounted bulkhead luminaires may also impact
operate safely in this condition. Where luminaires adjacent properties, therefore use of hoods and/or
are installed through a fire compartmentation, baffles should be considered to prevent light
either a fire hood or a dedicated intumescent fire pollution.
Key messages — Section 6.7: Lighting
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate passive design living rooms, dining rooms and studies.
strategies to prioritise the use of natural light when available
and practicable, using artificial light to supplement this as • The prioritisation of daylight should be balanced against
required. occupant needs for privacy, particularly where homes are
overlooked such as for ground floor dwellings.
• The consequences of poor practice in the design, installation,
commissioning and operation of lighting systems can include • Low energy lighting should be provided, located in the right
increased energy bills and occupant dissatisfaction. place, at suitable levels for the room and purpose, and with
appropriate levels of control. It is good practice for 100% of
• The prioritisation of daylight should be balanced against lighting in main dwelling spaces to be low energy.
impacts on thermal comfort as increased glazing areas increase
winter heat losses and summer gains. • Care should be taken when specifying lights to ensure suitable
colour and quality and to avoid negative impacts on visual
• It is considered good practice to undertake modelling of appearance such as flicker, as some products are of higher
daylight and solar gain in a sample of dwelling types for each quality than others.
residential scheme.
• Building services engineers must work with the wider
• Good practice for daylighting in residential buildings is to design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
provide a minimum average daylight factor of 2% in kitchens, integration issues described in section 6.7.3.
6.8 Renewable power performance of systems based on in-use monitoring can

provide useful information on good practice design and on
Renewable power systems can save significant amounts of practices that may result in poorly performing systems.
energy and CO2, contributing to meeting energy and carbon Examples include the Energy Saving Trust’s wind field trial
reports, which are available on the EST website (http://
targets and reducing electricity costs. The consequences of
poor practice in the design, installation, commissioning www.energysavingtrust.org.uk).
and operation of renewable power systems can include
increased energy bills and occupant dissatisfaction. The
provision of renewable electricity generation in new homes 6.8.1.2 System selection criteria
needs to be considered pre-planning as it is likely to have
planning implications and should influence early decisions
on building design including form and orientation. Viable passive design and energy efficiency measures
should be prioritised for new and existing homes before
specifying renewable electricity generation systems (see
6.8.1 System selection section 5.3). Detailed feasibility studies may be required to
assess the suitability of particular systems. When advising
on whether to include renewable electricity systems, and
6.8.1.1 System types on which systems to select for a particular project, building
services engineers should work with the client and wider
A range of options are available for renewable energy. design team to consider:
Renewable heating systems are covered in sections 6.2 and
6.3, which also address other heating systems such as —— Site characteristics and constraints: assessed at an early
combined heat and power (chp). This section focuses on stage (i.e. RIBA Stages 0 to 2). Photovoltaic (pv)
photovoltaic (or solar electric) systems, as these are the panels require sufficient unshaded (typically roof)
renewable electricity system most commonly installed on space where they can be installed at a suitable pitch.
homes in the UK. Small scale, building integrated wind Wind turbines are highly dependent on available
systems are also covered. These systems are less commonly wind speeds, typically requiring an average of over
installed but may be viable in certain locations. 5–6 m/s to be viable. They are best suited to high
unobstructed locations and coastal locations.
Microgeneration Certification Scheme (http://www. Turbines are very unlikely to be effective in built-
microgenerationcertification.org) requirements and manu up urban areas where surrounding buildings will
facturer guidance should be followed. BSRIA’s Illustrated create local turbulence and shelter the site. To limit
Guide to Renewable Technologies (BSRIA, 2008) provides an cabling costs generation equipment should be
overview of system types, components and design located relatively close to the point of energy use
considerations, and links to other sources of standards and and/or electricity connection. Site suitability
guidance. BSRIA’s BG3/2006: Design Checks for Electrical should be assessed by a competent person; MCS
Services — A quality control framework for electrical engineers standards specify the information required in site
(BSRIA, 2006) provides guidance on electrical services surveys and provide standardised procedures for
including renewable electricity systems. Assessments of the estimating annual energy generation (MCS, 2018).
Table 9 Common types of renewable power
System type Icon Comments
Solar electricity: pv systems generate a direct current when solar radiation reaches cells of semiconductor material
photovoltaics (pv) (usually silicon) connected in series and arranged in layers in pv panels. Electrical production is
related to the intensity of incident sunlight and is greatest on sunny summer days, but electricity is
still generated on cloudy and winter days. At the domestic scale, systems are typically building-
mounted or building-integrated rather than stand-alone (ground-mounted), and vary in size from
small systems of around 1–4 kWp for individual houses to larger arrays (10–100 kWp) for multi-
residential buildings. Systems are typically connected to the electricity grid so that generated
electricity not used on site can be exported. Some systems include batteries to allow generated
electricity to be stored for a period.
The most common types of cells are monocrystalline, polycrystalline and thin-film amorphous.
Monocrystalline pv modules are the most efficient and require a smaller area per kWp but generally
have a higher cost. Thin film amorphous modules are less efficient and so require a higher area per
kWp but offer more options for integration into building elements such as roof tiles or standing seam
roofing systems.
CIBSE KS15 (CIBSE, 2009c) provides more information on solar energy. Relevant standards include
BS EN 61646 (BSI, 2008c), BS EN 61215 (BSI, 2005c) and BS EN 62446 (BSI, 2009d).
Wind turbines Wind turbines convert kinetic energy from the wind into mechanical energy and then into electricity.
Performance relies upon having sufficient wind speeds and the power generated is likely to be much
less than the rated output. Domestic scale wind systems are relatively uncommon in the UK and they
are significantly less effective than larger turbines. Where used, they may be building-mounted or
stand-alone, and they are typically connected to the electricity grid so that generated electricity that is
not used on site can be exported. The Energy Saving Trust’s CE72: Energy efficiency best practice in
housing. Installing small wind-powered electricity generating systems: Guidance for installers and specifiers
(EST 2004) provides guidance for installers and specifiers on small wind systems. Relevant standards
include BS EN 61400-1 (BSI, 2005d) and 61400-2 (BSI, 2014e).
System design 65
Case study 6 Rooftop photovoltaic panels: Prince Regent Lane, London Borough of Newham
(a) External view showing (b) Photovoltaic panels located (c) Glass laminate PV located as
projecting balcony boxes on green roof louvres to provide summer
to provide solar shading shading to roof terrace
Images courtesy of AECOM
Comprising four terraced houses, one maisonette and one flat considered daylighting, fabric performance and thermal
the urban infill site in the London Borough of Newham was the bridging and the routing of services, minimising dead legs. The
first council housing to be built by Newham in nearly thirty years. optimal orientation of homes on an east–west axis allowed
The project received match funding from the GLA to support for the installation of photovoltaic panels over a green roof.
the achievement of Level 5 of the Code for Sustainable Homes The installation of PV in combination with a green roof was
(DCLG, 2010). General Electric (GE), a sponsor of the 2012 London understood to offer multiple benefits, reducing surface water
Olympics, chose Prince Regent Lane Housing as one of their legacy run-off, reducing local surface temperature, potentially improving
projects and provided smart metering, LED lighting, low energy panel performance and providing partial shade conditions to
appliances and controls. sedum. At feasibility stage, it was determined that there was
insufficient roof area to meet the carbon target required for the
This case study presents an example of good practice in design development and so glass laminate PV louvres were installed over
of photovoltaic panels on an urban residential site and also the third floor roof terraces to both provide additional electricity
demonstrated the benefits of an integrated design team. generation whilst also providing shading to roof terraces in
summer months.
The homes feature high levels of fabric insulation, gas condensing
boilers, and mechanical ventilation with heat recovery. Large south Client: London Borough of Newham
facing windows were set back within projecting boxes to provide Architect: Bell Phillips Architects
summer shading. MEP Engineer: AECOM
From the project inception the client, architects and engineer
worked together to develop the scheme ensuring that designs
—— The scope for optimising wider design parameters to (different rules may apply to flats and houses and in
make renewable electricity systems viable: for existing different areas). For example, in conservation areas
homes, site constraints may clearly rule out wind or stricter requirements may mean that systems must
pv systems at an early stage; but scope to work not be visible from the highway or that planning
around them should be considered — for example consent is required if they are. In some cases this
if homes are being extended, it may be possible to might rule out certain systems. National and local
provide suitable roof-space for pv. For new homes government guidance should be referred to, for
the scope to influence site layouts and building example DCLG and Welsh Government (https://
designs to optimise the potential for renewable www.planningportal.co.uk), the Department of the
electricity systems may be greater, and should be Environment (Northern Ireland) (https://www.
explored with the design team at an early stage. For planningni.gov.uk) and the Scottish Government
wind, the opportunity will be limited, but for pv (https://www.edevelopment.scot).
there may be more scope to optimise site factors
(unless for example the site is very overshaded by —— Availability of sufficient, suitable, space for the systems:
existing surroundings). Where pv is not initially to this includes roof space for building-mounted
be installed on a new development, design teams systems, external space for stand-alone wind
should consider the design of suitably orientated turbines, and internal space for pv inverters. The
roof space for a system to be retrofitted at a later assessment of space availability should take into
date. account impact on performance (such as the need
for suitably oriented, pitched and unshaded roof
—— Planning policy restrictions, where relevant: whilst in space for pv); access requirements for maintenance
many cases domestic solar pv and wind installations (including access to inverters); safety (including
are permitted development, planning policy may the provision of space to allow the ventilation of
place some restrictions on their installation inverters); and impact on the surrounding
environment (such as any restrictions on instal G59 (ENA, 2015) should be used for larger systems
lations near boundaries). (i.e. systems over 16 A ac output per phase) or
multiple installations in close proximity. Utilities
—— Impact on energy requirements, carbon emissions and infrastructure experts should be involved for larger
energy bills, and potential to contribute to meeting energy schemes.
and carbon targets: greater energy cost benefits can
be realised where the electricity generated can be —— The size of electricity demands that can be met on site by
used on site. the system, and any benefits from subsidies where
applicable: this will affect the economics for
—— Whether occupants or others (e.g. landlords) are likely to occupants. Whilst battery systems are currently not
be able to use and maintain the system as required for it commonly used in homes, system performance is
to operate safely and efficiently: this includes consid improving and costs are reducing and so systems
ering the ease of access, which may be particularly are likely to become more common, as they allow
difficult for wind turbines. increased use of electricity on site and potentially
—— Ease of installation and commissioning. make larger renewable electricity systems more
economically viable. BRE has published guidance
—— Flexibility: considering potential future replace on the use of batteries with solar power (BRE, 2016).
ments or changes.
—— Costs: capital and life cycle costs of the system. whether the system may conflict with other services,
Lifetime of components and materials should be or impact negatively on the building fabric.
considered. For pv, component lifetime should Integration issues are discussed in section 6.8.3.
ideally be matched to the pv module lifetime
(although inverters will generally need to be
replaced earlier). It is important to use appropriate 6.8.2 System optimisation
up-to-date capital and operational cost data in cost
assessments, including data on any available As noted in section 6.8.1, Microgeneration Certification
incentives. Scheme (MCS) requirements and manufacturer guidance
should be followed when designing renewable electricity
—— Safety and security: whether systems can be installed systems. Suppliers are likely to be significantly involved in
safely and securely. For example, building-mounted the detailed design. In some cases the involvement of
wind turbines are not suitable for fixing to some building services engineers may be limited, for example on
building types and materials (such as lime mortar), small scale retrofit schemes. On larger scale schemes
and it is important to check whether the particular building services engineers should be appointed to help
product is suitable for building mounting. These ensure that the brief covers key performance issues, to
issues are discussed further in section 6.8.3.3. develop concept designs, and at least to check that detailed
Microgeneration Certification Scheme (MCS) designs follow good practice.
Standards require risk assessments for wind
turbines and insurance implications should be Good practice design will help to deliver systems that
considered. Input and sign-off from a competent operate effectively and efficiently, maximising energy
person such as a structural engineer should be generation and making best use of capital investment. This
sought on building mounting and fixing methods means:
so that the building is designed to accommodate
the additional loading for both wind and pv —— Factoring energy use and running costs into design
systems. Further guidance on safety issues is decisions: for example, the performance of pv
provided in the MCS Standards (MCS, 2018). systems will depend on annual incident solar
radiation for the location; pitch; orientation; panel
—— Whether the visual and acoustic impacts can be managed efficiencies; manufacturing tolerances; inverter
so that they are acceptable: building-mounted turbines efficiency; inverters being matched to arrays (e.g.
have a higher risk of noise impacts associated with where arrays in the same system have significantly
vibration. These issues are discussed further in different pitches or orientations, providing separate
section 6.8.3.3. inverters or inverters with a multiple maximum
power point tracking (mppt) function avoids
—— Infrastructure connections: system choice will be
significantly reducing performance); cable losses;
influenced by the availability of electricity
and other factors such as dirt on arrays and
infrastructure and the costs associated with
temperature effects. MCS Standards (MCS, 2018)
connecting renewable electricity generation sources
provide standardised procedures for estimating
to it. Requirements should be assessed at an
performance for pv and wind. Dedicated modelling
appropriate stage; for small single installations
tools are available that can be used to help design
distribution network operators (dnos) usually only
and optimise systems. When specifying systems, in
need to should be notified following commissioning,
addition to kWp array size, building services
but generally dnos should be contacted early in the
engineers should state the kW·h output required
design process to confirm client and designer
(using specified calculation procedures) to take into
requirements can be achieved. For larger systems
account the impact of significant factors such as the
and multiple installations in close proximity to
positioning of pv panels on performance.
each other, design teams and clients should liaise
with and make applications to the local dno as —— Locating pv systems to optimise performance: pv panels
early as possible to check grid connection should be oriented SE–SW, ideally at 30–40°,
requirements and costs. The current version of depending on the geographic location. Figure 27
Engineering Recommendations G83 (ENA, 2012) shows the percentage of maximum pv energy yield
should be used for small single installations, and according to inclination and orientation. Figure 28
System design 67
Figure 28 Photovoltaic panels arranged on an inclined roof (image ©
Andrew Hazard Photography)
reduced by sheltering effects, for example from

terrain features; existing or future buildings or
Figure 27 Photovoltaic energy yield relative to inclination and trees; or other parts of the current development or
orientation (courtesy of solarcentury.com) building including roof ridges, see Figure 29. The
power output from wind turbines is a function of
shows an example of pv panels arranged on an the swept area and a cube function of wind speed.
inclined roof. At angles over around 15° rainfall is Doubling the swept area doubles the power,
likely to provide sufficient cleaning for modules, doubling the wind speed increases the power output
reducing maintenance requirements. Arrays should by a factor of eight, so it is very important to site
be located away from sources of overshading, which turbines well to gain benefits from higher wind
may include nearby existing buildings or trees; speeds. Obstacles create turbulence, which reduces
future development or vegetation growth; and output and can potentially shorten the lifetime of
other parts of the current development or building systems through damage or causing fatigue.
including roof projections such as dormers or vent Increasing turbine height, where appropriate, can
pipes, chimneys or satellite dishes. pv panels consist significantly improve performance. Turbines
of individual photovoltaic cells connected in series, should be directed so they are exposed to prevailing
and the operating current of the whole series string winds of optimum strength and frequency, which
is determined by the cell receiving the lowest in the UK are generally from the south west. Wind
illuminance. Even a small amount of shading can speeds on site may differ significantly from available
have a very significant detrimental impact on wind data. MCS Standards (MCS, 2018) provide
output. As noted above, MCS Standards provide standardised procedures for estimating annual
guidance on site evaluation, and site visits will be energy generation. Wind turbine power output
needed. Other factors such as those discussed in relates to the rotor diameter size, which may be
section 6.8.3 will also impact on component constrained by the available space. Other factors
location. For example, pv arrays should be located such as those discussed in section 6.8.3 will also
around 400–500 mm away from roof perimeters impact on component location.
unless specially designed to be at a reduced distance;
MCS standards should be followed.
—— Sizing systems appropriately: sizing may be influenced
—— Locating wind systems to optimise performance: as with by various factors including energy/CO2 targets,
all systems, wind system location needs to balance available space (e.g. suitable roof area for pv),
various factors including performance, safety, visual available product sizes, and costs. Systems that are
impact and noise impact. Wind systems should not too small are unlikely to be cost effective. Sizing
be located in areas where wind speeds will be should be discussed with and communicated to the
Obstruction of the wind by a

building or tree of height (h)
Region of highly 2h
turbulent flow
h
Figure 29 The effect of

2h 20 h obstructions on turbulence
wider design team and updated when significant maintenance without compromising the integrity
design changes are made. It may be appropriate to of the roof covering. For pv systems, this includes
include safety factors in sizing estimates, which are space on suitably pitched, oriented and unshaded
reduced as the design progresses and certainty roofs away from obstructions such as roof parapets,
increases. This can help to avoid issues of and internal space for components such as inverters
insufficient space or infrastructure at a later stage if which should be located close to the pv array. It also
sizing is increased (for example, to offset includes providing sufficient ventilation for
downgraded performance of fabric or other services components where required (for example around
when energy/CO2 targets are a driver), and is likely inverters and behind pv modules, as a lack of
to be especially important when scheme targets are ventilation can cause safety issues and decreases
particularly challenging. pv inverter sizing is performance). Manufacturer guidance should be
typically done based on manufacturer guidance and referred to for maintenance access requirements:
sizing software, and is covered in the MCS for wind these will include providing space for the
Standards (MCS, 2018). On all schemes, the safe dismantling of turbines, and for pv these will
proportion of generated electricity that can be used include safe access to inverters as well as panels.
on site should be considered. Whilst for grid-
connected systems this does not commonly provide —— Designing the location of services and coordinating
a limit on maximum sizing in practice, designers installation work to avoid damage to the building fabric:
should be aware that excess electricity exported to cables, fixing systems and other works that involve
the grid typically has a lower value. The price paid penetrating the building fabric should be limited
for exported electricity will depend on local (whilst meeting safety requirements) and carefully
electricity suppliers and on government incentives. designed to minimise damage to the fabric
(including the air barrier and insulation) and to
—— Benefits for occupants: for individual dwellings, the avoid water ingress (for example through suitable
occupant receives the benefit of any electricity use of flashings). Information on mechanical design
generated through reduced electricity import and and installation issues for different pv system types
through a tariff paid for generation and export. On and roof types is given in BRE Digest 495 (BRE,
multi-residential schemes the question arises of 2005), NHBC Foundation’s NF30 (NHBC
who benefits from the electricity generation and Foundation, 2011b) and NHBC Standards 2017,
any incentives associated with it. This is likely to be Section 8, (NHBC, 2017). NF30 provides intro
determined by client requirements but should be ductory guidance on installing renewable energy
carefully considered. pv arrays may be connected to systems on roofs, and links to further information.
individual homes or into the landlord’s supply. The MCS-certified products should be used for pv
latter case is common in practice as (1) it is generally mounted on or integrated into roofs. Upgrades to
simpler in terms of technical and administrative existing roofs may be required.
arrangements, (2) it provides an income stream for
landlords, and (3) SAP 2012 sets out a methodology
that allows the carbon savings from arrays 6.8.3.2 Integration with building services
connected to the landlord’s supply to be attributed
to individual dwellings. However, landlord Potential integration issues with other building services
electricity demands tend to be relatively low, and include:
therefore a larger proportion of the generated —— Coordinating system design and location with other
electricity will be exported to the grid, and the services to avoid clashes: for example, overshading of
benefits of use on site (such as higher value of pv panels by vents and satellite dishes.
electricity, benefits and value to residents) will be
reduced. In any case residents may expect to benefit —— Ensuring systems do not have negative impacts on the
from the pv system, either directly (through ventilation strategy: including chimneys, flues, roof
receiving electricity and therefore saving money) or windows and ventilation outlets and inlets. For
indirectly (for example through reduced service example, analysis will be needed of the impact of
charges). The cost of connecting to the electricity building-mounted wind turbines where flues are
grid may be higher where systems are connected located above gutter level. Noise from wind turbines
into the landlord’s supply, particularly where might also impact on the ventilation strategy as it
current infrastructure is especially constrained. may be more noticeable with strategies that are
more reliant on natural ventilation.
used, including MCS certification: proprietary system
components should be used where advised by 6.8.3.3 Other integration issues
manufacturers. Generally, systems should be
supplied as packages from a single manufacturer. Other integration issues may include:
Component compatibility and suitability should be
checked followed manufacturers’ guidance. —— Structural impacts: the impact of system components
on the building structure needs to be considered,
following MCS Standards (MCS, 2018). This would
6.8.3 Integrated design include assessment of the impact of loads, for
example from pv modules and ballasting where
relevant; of the ability of components to withstand
6.8.3.1 Integration with building fabric
wind forces; and of the impact of vibration from
—— Coordinating designs with architects and other design building-mounted wind turbines. Vibration
team members: so they allow sufficient suitably impacts may require isolation measures, or may
designed space for installation, access and mean that mounting wind turbines on buildings is
System design 69
not appropriate. BRE Digest 489 (BRE, 2014b) Recommendations G83 and G59 (ENA, 2012, 2015),
provides guidance on wind loading impacts on which deal with electrical safety, as well as MCS
solar systems. Existing homes should be inspected Standards (MCS, 2018) and manufac turer
by a competent person and in cases of doubt requirements. Designers should liaise with the
structural building services engineers should be local distribution network operator (dno) to
consulted. confirm their requirements. Requirements will
include, for example, providing electrical cables
—— Visual impacts: pv arrays and wind turbines should
that are able to withstand their environmental
be carefully located, taking visual impacts into
conditions; ensuring that systems can be isolated
account. Planning restrictions (including permitted
and that they will automatically disconnect from
development rules) are likely to require the effect
the mains when power failures occur; and providing
on the external appearance of buildings and the
fire and lightning protection measures. Other safety
amenity of the local area to be minimised, and to set
concerns include potential impacts of moving parts
specific limits relating to visual impacts; for
of wind turbines; for example, it is essential to
example, on how far components can project from
ensure that exposed parts are kept at a safe height,
buildings. The impacts of reflection and shadow
that unauthorised access is prevented, and that
flicker (for wind turbines) should be considered.
suitable exclusion zones are provided for stand-
MCS Standards (MCS, 2018) provide further
alone wind turbines. Where dc cables are used the
information.
risks of dc electrocution should be made clear to
—— Acoustic impacts: wind turbines cause aerodynamic occupants and those involved in maintaining
noise from rotating blades and mechanical noise systems, including through labelling near inverters,
from generators. Vibration impacts from building- and the cables should be protected to minimise the
mounted turbines can also be experienced as risk of unintentional damage and kept as short as
audible noise. The perceived impacts will be practical. Measures will be needed to reduce the
influenced by levels of background noise. Careful risk of electrocution during servicing, including
location of turbines helps to minimise impacts and covering pv arrays with thick opaque materials,
additional measures may be required. MCS which would help to prevent the generation of
Standards (MCS, 2018) provide a procedure for electricity.
estimating acoustic performance.
—— Safety: systems should comply with relevant safety —— Security: systems should be located so as to minimise
standards, including BS 7671+A3 (BSI, 2008/2015) risks of accidental damage, vandalism or theft. This
and the current versions of Engineering includes considering the security of cabling.
Key messages — Section 6.8: Renewable power
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate passive design • The MCS provides standards and product certifications. MCS
strategies prior to specifying renewable electricity systems. Standards define the information required in site surveys, and
provide standardised procedures for estimating annual energy
• The consequences of poor practice in the design, installation, generation (MCS, 2015).
commissioning and operation of renewable energy systems can
include increased energy bills and occupant dissatisfaction. • The costs and requirements associated with connecting to the
electricity infrastructure should be assessed at an appropriate
• Site characteristics and constraints are a key factor in stage with the involvement of the local distribution network
determining system viability and should be assessed at an early operator (DNO). This is a particularly important issue for larger
stage. Space availability is another key factor. PV panels require scale systems.
sufficient unshaded southerly-facing roof space where they can
be installed at a suitable pitch. Wind turbines typically require • Building services engineers must work with the wider
average wind speeds over 5–6 m/s to be viable, and are very design team to avoid the potential fabric, services and other
unlikely to be effective in built-up urban areas and obstructed integration issues set out in section 6.8.3.
locations.
6.9 Water and wastewater increased water and energy bills; impacts on health; and
consequential impacts on airtightness and fabric perfor
Water systems consume energy, through the extraction, mance.
treatment, distribution/collection, and heating of water,
and systems should be designed to use energy efficiently. This section provides high level guidance focusing on
Water and wastewater systems in homes should be well delivering water and energy efficiency. It does not include
designed, installed and commissioned, and safe to operate. detailed guidance on issues such as the design of connections
They should help to deliver good quality potable water and to drainage and sewage systems, pipes and pumps, irrigation
to effectively discharge foul and surface water within homes systems, fire protection systems, flooding prevention, or
and in their immediate environs. An increasing population water and sewage treatment. Many of these issues are
combined, in some parts of the UK, with reducing rainfall covered in detail in CIBSE Guides G (CIBSE, 2014) and E
(associated with a changing climate, as discussed in section (CIBSE, 2010), which also provide further references.
2.3) is putting pressure on water resources. Systems should Building Regulations Part H in England and Wales (TSO,
be designed to use water efficiently. The consequences of 2010), and the equivalent regulations in Northern Ireland
poor practice in the design, installation, commissioning (TSO, 2012b) and Scotland (TSO, 2004) cover drainage and
and operation of water and wastewater systems can include: waste disposal.
The section covers the following areas: the Local Planning Authority has set a requirement
for an improved limit of 110 litres per person per
—— cold water supply and systems (hot water systems
day. A good practice water efficient target for homes
are covered in section 6.3)
is to meet the lower limit. Figure 30 compares the
—— water and sanitary fittings and appliances, focusing predicted water consumption of a dwelling meeting
on the provision of low water consumption fittings the 125 litres·person–1 per day limit to how the
and appliances improved 110 litres·person–1 per day target might
be met.
—— foul water reuse and disposal, including greywater
recycling systems —— Taking energy use and costs into consideration, including
—— surface water, including rainwater, recycling specifying energy efficient ancillary devices such as
systems. pumps, where these are used. Guidance on energy
efficient pumping systems is given in BSRIA
Designers must comply with relevant regulations, including BG12/2011 (BSRIA, 2011a). Guidance relating to
Building Regulations Part G in England and Wales (TSO, hot water systems is provided in section 6.3 of this
2010), and the equivalent regulations in Northern Ireland TM.
(TSO, 2012b) and Scotland (TSO, 2004), which stipulate —— Taking into account the capital and life cycle costs of the
minimum requirements for sanitation, hot water safety and system.
water efficiency, as set out in Approved Document G (NBS,
2016c) and the equivalents in Northern Ireland (DFPNI, —— Ensuring products with appropriate certifications are
2012f) and Scotland (TSO, 2014). Other relevant regulations used: the online WRAS Products and Materials
include the Water Supply (Water Fittings) Regulations Directory (WRAS, online) provides a useful resource,
1999 (TSO, 1999) and the Water Supply (Water Quality) listing items that meet relevant Water Regulations
Regulations 2016 in England and Wales (TSO, 2016), and requirements.
their equivalents in Northern Ireland (TSO, 2017) and
Scotland (TSO, 2014, 2017; Scottish Water, 2014). The —— Coordinating with architects at an early stage to consider
Water Regulations Advisory Scheme provides further pipework routing and optimising pipework lengths: for
guidance on the interpretation of these regulations (WRAS, example, stacking wet rooms on different floors
2015). above each other will help to minimise pipework
lengths and, where level entry showers are specified,
the allowance of space for pipework and the overall
Relevant standards should also be complied with. These
impact on floor screed depths should be considered.
include BS EN 806-2 (BSI, 2005a) and BS 8558 (BSI, 2015a),
which cover services supplying water for domestic use —— Providing suitable controls that allow the system to be
within buildings; BS 6465 (BSI, 2006–2017), which sets operated effectively and efficiently. See section 6.10
standards for sanitary appliances; BS 7291 (BSI, 2010) and for more information on controls.
BS EN 1057+A1 (BSI, 2006/2010), which cover
thermoplastics pipes and fittings and copper tubes —— Taking into account interactions with other building
respectively; BS EN 12056 (BSI, 2000a), which covers services and the building fabric: these are discussed
gravity drainage systems in buildings; and BS EN 752 (BSI, under section 6.9.2.
2008b), which covers drain and sewer systems outside
buildings. These issues should not be considered in isolation but in
relation to each other and to the additional factors discussed
in section 5. Manufacturers’ guidance should also be
6.9.1 System optimisation
referred to.
Building services engineers should work with public health
engineers and others in the design team to provide good 140
External water use
practice design, delivering systems that are simple and safe
to operate, and have low water and energy use and running
120 Dishwasher
costs. This means:
—— Ensuring that sufficient space is provided for installation, Washing machine
100
use and maintenance: this includes providing easy
Litre·person–1 per day
access to mains water supply isolation valves.

Kitchen sink taps
80
—— Considering whether occupants or others (e.g. landlords)
are likely to be able to use and maintain the system as Shower
required for it to operate effectively and efficiently. 60
Maintenance requirements for recycled water Bath
systems require particular consideration and 40
planning.
Taps (excluding
—— Considering the ease of installation and commissioning: 20
kitchen sink taps)
see section 7 for installation, commissioning and
handover guidance. WC
0
—— Factoring water use and running costs into design Typical Low water
decisions: in England, Approved Document G (NBS, specification specification
2016c) sets minimum standards for wholesome Figure 30 Water use calculation comparing a specification meeting
water consumption in new dwellings: consumption Approved Document G limit of 125 litre·person–1 per day with a lower
must not exceed 125 litres per person per day, unless water use target of 110 litre·person–1 per day
System design 71
6.9.1.1 Cold water supply and systems —— Ensuring drainage design is suited to the flow rates from
fittings and appliances: for example through ensuring
Specific good practice recommendations for water services each drain receives sufficient water discharge from
include: appliances/fittings, through minimising bends to
help the transport of solids, and through providing
—— Reducing water demands and meeting them efficiently: drain syphons if required. BRE Information Paper
in particular, reducing demand for mains water. IP 1/04 (BRE, 2004) provides guidance. Where low
Systems should be designed to avoid leaks from volume flush wcs are provided, the cistern must be
underground pipes, for example through the use of suited to the pan, in accordance with BS EN
flexible joints where required (e.g. where significant 997+A1 (BSI, 2012/2015). Approved Document H
ground movement could be expected). Water flows (NBS, 2015) states that BS EN 12056 (BSI, 2000a)
and pressures should be carefully matched to outlet should be followed for sanitary pipework design for
requirements. Providing water meters in existing wcs with a major flush volume below 5 litres, where
homes, as well as new homes (where they must be the risk of blockages is increased, so careful design
installed) can help to incentivise users to reduce is required.
their water consumption. Guidance relating to hot
water systems is provided in section 6.3. Guidance Minimum requirements for sanitary fittings are set out in
relating to fittings and appliances is provided in Approved Document G (NBS, 2016c) (and equivalents
section 6.9.1.2. (Scottish Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012f)) and relevant
standards including BS EN 806-2 (BSI, 2005a), which sets
—— Assessing the suitability of alternatives to mains water for design and minimum flow rates from outlets. Further
different uses: including identifying opportunities guidance is provided in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014).
for water re-use, for example through greywater
recycling (see section 6.9.1.3) and harvested
rainwater (see section 6.9.1.4), particularly in areas 6.9.1.3 Foul water
of water shortage. Other mains water alternatives
such as blackwater treatment, groundwater, Foul water describes both ‘greywater’ and ‘blackwater’.
desalination and river abstraction are not covered Greywater is wastewater from baths, showers, wash basin
in this TM as they are not commonly used in sinks and washing machines. Blackwater is wastewater
domestic developments; however they are discussed contaminated with human, animal or food waste from
further in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014a). Due to sources such as toilets, bidets, kitchen sinks, and
water quality and safety requirements such sources dishwashers. Foul water disposal systems connect to foul
are not usually suitable for potable uses (such as sewers, which transport the wastewater to the sewage works
consumption, cooking, bathing) but where systems for treatment. Specific good practice recommendations for
are well-designed they can be used for non-potable foul water include:
uses such as toilet flushing and irrigation. Water —— Ensuring that waste appliances are correctly connected to
treatment requirements should be carefully the foul water disposal system: not to the surface water
assessed; requirements vary for different uses. disposal system.
Guidance on the assessment of water quality
requirements and risks is provided in CIBSE Guide —— Assessing the suitability of greywater recycling: grey
G (CIBSE, 2014), WRAS Information and Guidance water is wastewater from baths and showers, wash
Note No. 9-02-04 (WRAS, 1999) and HSE Approved basin sinks and washing machines (listed in the
Code of Practice and guidance L8 (HSE, 2013). order in which collection should be prioritised). It
requires treatment before use and careful
Further guidance is provided in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE management to maintain water quality. It has
2014). Specific issues apply in high-rise buildings, which potential to be used for toilet flushing and other
require particular consideration of system pressures for non-potable uses, though in some cases it can be
example; section 6.5.9 of CIBSE Guide G provides guidance harmful to plants. It is good practice to consider
on cold water boosting design and on issues to avoid. greywater recycling in water stressed areas where
NHBC Standards 2017 (NHBC, 2017) also covers water the benefits of reduced mains water demand
services and supply. outweigh the increased energy and embodied
carbon associated with such systems. In non-water
stressed areas alternative water efficiency measures
6.9.1.2 Water and sanitary fittings and are likely to offer lower energy, lower cost, and
appliances lower embodied carbon design solutions but will
also realise a lower volume of water saved. BS 8525
Specific good practice recommendations for water and (BSI, 2011) should be followed for greywater
sanitary fittings and appliances include: recycling system design. CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE,
2014) provides information on calculating yields
—— Reducing water demands and meeting them efficiently and demands and designing systems.
through provision of low volume fittings and appliances:
—— Notifying the local water supplier and obtaining their
such as low volume/dual flush cisterns and delayed-
consent for the installation of water re-use systems: the
fill inlet valves on wcs; low-flow taps and showers
local regulatory departments should be contacted
(including through the use of aerated flow devices
for advice and approval (where applicable) when
to help minimise impacts on usage quality); and
installing underground storage tanks.
working with the client and the wider design team
to specify water efficient appliances (e.g. —— Factors to consider when choosing between centralised or
dishwashers, washing machines, tumble driers) decentralised water recycling systems (i.e. tanks serving
where these are included. multiple or individual dwellings): include client and
planning requirements, local water resource Qin Increased peak Volume of runoff Volume of runoff
availability, mains back-up arrangements, space rate of runoff post-development > pre-development
(red and blue) (green)
availability, treatment requirements (dependent on
the end-use), ongoing management and main Note: volume of runoff equates to
the area under the hydrograph
Discharge rate
tenance requirements/arrangements and costs, and
Post-development
capital and lifecycle costs. (without flow attenuation)
Further guidance is provided in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, Qout

Post-development
2014). (with flow attenuation)
Greenfield
6.9.1.4 Surface water (pre-development)
Time
Surface water is rainwater that runs off roofs and hard Reduced baseflow
surfaces such as driveways and roads. There are various Figure 31 Graph showing attenuation of water run-off (source: CIRIA
routes by which surface water will leave a given site. It will (2015); courtesy of CIRIA)
return to the atmosphere via evaporation from hard
surfaces, soil and vegetation and via transpiration from
vegetation, it will soak into the ground, and will discharge increase evapotranspiration from surface water and
into local water courses either directly or via surface water vegetation. To operate most efficiently and
sewers (though in some areas, existing surface water and effectively, suds should deal with run-off as near to
foul water sewers are combined and surface water will go its source as possible and should manage water on
through the same treatment process as foul water). Where the surface. Control methods include filter strips
the rate of surface water accumulation is greater than its and swales, permeable surfaces and filter drains,
removal by the above routes it can contribute to flooding. infiltration devices, basins and ponds, underground
Building services engineers should work with clients, storage, and rooftop attenuation (green/blue roofs,
architects, landscape architects and others in the design i.e. roofs with soil and plants designed to reduce
team to manage surface water. Specific good practice water discharge and peak run-off rates/with an
recommendations for surface water management include: engineered restriction device for temporary storm
—— Considering drainage and flood management strategies water storage). They can help to naturally treat
at an early stage: so that the design of the site can be surface water to different extents. Rainwater
influenced. harvesting may form part of the attenuation strategy
(see below). Information on suds is provided in
—— Reducing run-off from the site and ensuring that peak CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014), on CIRIA’s Susdrain
run-off rates are not increased by new development or website (susDrain, 2012), including links to
alterations: this includes working with others in the relevant publications such as CIRIA’s C753: The
design team to minimise the area of impermeable SuDS Manual (CIRIA, 2015) and C713: Retrofitting
hard surfaces, maximise the use of permeable for surface water management (CIRIA, 2012).
surfaces and soakaways and provide on-site storage
for the retention and slowing of peak flows. Where —— Assessing the suitability of rainwater harvesting:
impermeable surfaces are included they should be rainwater is commonly collected in water butts at a
directed to drain onto local unpaved storage and small scale for irrigation uses. It is good practice to
drainage areas (see the guidance on sustainable provide external rainwater collection in the form of
drainage systems below). simple water butts to reduce the use of potable
water for irrigation. This guide principally
—— Attenuating storm flows and designing to avoid flooding addresses the consideration of larger scale rainwater
risks on and off the site: including measures to support harvesting systems. Rainwater harvesting or
resilience where needed. The local authority should recycling involves collecting rainwater from roofs
be consulted, flood risks should be assessed, and and/or areas of hard standing, filtering it, potentially
specialist input should be sought e.g. for risk carrying out basic treatment, and storing it in a
assessment, surface water attenuation volume tank from which it is supplied to points of use.
calculation and/or design input. BS EN 13564 (BSI, Back-up supply is provided by mains water.
2002) sets standards for anti-flooding devices for Rainwater should not be supplied to dishwashers,
buildings and should be complied with, for example drinking water taps, kitchen sinks or outlets used
where backflow prevention products are used. for personal washing such as baths or showers. It is
CIRIA C635 (CIRIA, 2006) provides guidance on commonly used for irrigation and vehicle washing,
designing for exceedance (i.e. times when surface and when appropriately filtered, it can be used to
water runoff exceeds the capacity of the drainage supply toilets and washing machines. Rainwater
system). harvesting system design should take into account
—— Improving the quality of discharge water: through the potential volume for harvesting (dependant on
pollution prevention design and maintenance factors such as roof area and capture efficiency, local
measures. rainfall levels and mechanical losses across filters)
and the predicted end-user demand for non-potable
—— Implementing sustainable drainage systems (suds): to water (usually based on occupancy). The Rainwater
manage surface water in a natural and sustainable Harvesting: Design and Installation Guide (DBSP,
way, reducing flood risks and helping to protect and 2010) and CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) provide
enhance water quality. suds can be used to attenuate further information and guidance on the design
water run-off (see Figure 31), increase ground process (including on assessing yield, calculating
infiltration, provide areas to retain water, and demand, system sizing and filtration). BS 8515+A1
System design 73
(BSI, 2009/2013) should be followed. A schematic —— Meeting health and safety and water quality
of a typical system is shown in Figure 32. requirements: for example to avoid contamination,
see sections 6.9.2.2 and 6.9.2.3.
—— Sizing of storage tanks for rainwater harvesting: where —— Notifying the local water supplier and obtaining their
rainwater harvesting is provided, storage tanks consent for the installation of water re-use systems: local
should be sized in accordance with BS 8515+A1 regulatory authorities should be contacted for
(BSI, 2009/2013). As stated in the Rainwater advice and approval (where applicable) when
Harvesting: Design and Installation Guide (DBSP, installing underground storage tanks. In some cases
2010) storage capacities should be based on the it may be possible to obtain a reduction in the
lesser of 5% of the average annual rainfall for its surface water drainage charge paid to the water
location, or 5% of the annual consumption of non- authority where rainwater recycling systems are
potable water, based on the number of people in the installed.
dwelling. Example calculations are given in the
Guide. Input from manufacturers should be taken Further guidance is provided in CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE,
into account. Storage tanks may be individual or 2014).
comprise multiple connected tanks, installed
internally or externally, and may be buried, partially
buried or free standing. 6.9.2 Integrated design
General guidance on integrated design is given in section 5.

—— Location of storage tanks for rainwater harvesting:
If water and wastewater system design is not integrated
where rainwater harvesting is provided, storage
with other services and with building fabric design, it can
tanks should be appropriately located to optimise
lead to many of the potential problems outlined at the start
efficient operation and maintain water quality.
of section 6.9. Some key potential integration issues are
Rainwater collected in storage tanks can be either:
discussed below.
collected to an elevated tank and directly supplied
by gravity to the points of use; pumped directly to
the points of use; or pumped via a storage cistern 6.9.2.1 Integration with building fabric
for supply by gravity. Rainwater needs to be stored
in light-free and frost-free conditions and at a cool Building services engineers should work with public health
stable temperature; for these reasons underground engineers, the wider design team and clients to predict and
locations are generally preferred. Other relevant avoid downstream issues associated with the integration of
factors influencing tank location, including space water and wastewater systems with other works to the
availability and structural impacts, are discussed in building fabric by:
section 6.9.2.3.
—— Ensuring sufficient drainage and flood protection to
avoid damage to fabric: NHBC Standards 2017
—— Factors when choosing between centralised or (NHBC, 2017) sets out requirements for managing
decentralised water recycling systems: see section ground conditions on: foul, surface and ground
6.9.1.4. water drainage; below-ground drainage and
waterproofing of below-ground structures for new
—— Integrating rainwater harvesting systems (where homes. Areas within buildings that are below
provided) with the surface water management strategy ground level should be protected from flooding
when they overflow. damage in case of drains surcharging in heavy
Figure 32 Schematic of a

rainwater collection system
rainfall, for example through providing a separate —— Locating soil pipe terminals away from ventilation
pumped drainage system instead of discharging by intakes where present: see section 6.4.
gravity; Approved Document H (NBS, 2015) and
equivalents (DFPNI, 2012e; Scottish Government,
2017) should be followed and the sewerage under 6.9.2.3 Other integration issues
taker should be consulted.
—— Providing sufficient space for water and wastewater
systems: building services engineers should work —— Groundworks: for example, water recycling system
with architects and others early in the design designs should be commenced at an early stage so
process to provide the necessary space and that they can be integrated with any planned
accessibility for the installation, use and main underground works and space can be provided for
tenance of water and wastewater system components system components such as tanks and pipes.
such as risers, storage tanks and pipework.
Accessibility is very important, and a lack of —— Acoustic impacts: measures may be required to
accessibility (particularly to the foul water system) minimise or prevent acoustic issues. For example,
can be a particular risk in multi-residential soil pipes passing through dwellings should be
buildings. Stacking wet rooms and relevant service encased and insulated to limit noise transmission
cupboards allows offsets to be avoided, facilitating from rooms with toilets. Insulation should be
access to drainage systems. continued through any sound-insulating floors.
Walls between rooms with toilets and living rooms
—— Coordinating installation work and pipework design to should also be insulated.
avoid damage to the building fabric: pipework design
and installation must be coordinated with other —— Smells: systems must be designed to avoid smells
works so pipework routes are not compromised and and gases entering the home. For example, drainage
to minimise damage to the air barrier and fabric pipework systems should be adequately ventilated
insulation and avoid the risk of water ingress. and designed to include slopes so that water drains
Where green/blue roofs are provided, careful design without leaving debris behind, and appliance
detailing is required to deliver and maintain water- connections should include traps. Guidance for
tightness. rainwater harvesting systems is provided in chapter
5 of CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014).
6.9.2.2 Integration with building services —— Fire risks: where components such as pipes pass
through fire-resisting walls, floors or fire
Potential integration issues with building services include: compartments additional fire protection will be
—— Allowing adequate space around pipework for required (covered in England by Approved
installation and replacement: including taking into Document B1 (NBS, 2013f) and by equivalent
account the location of other services. documents in Northern Ireland (DFPNI, 2012d),
Scotland (Scottish Government, 2017) and Wales
—— Avoiding cross-contamination of potable and non- (Welsh Government, 2017)). Guidance is provided
potable systems: potable and non-potable pipework in CIBSE Guide E (CIBSE, 2018), and specialist
and other system components such as cisterns input should be sought. The perceived benefits/
should be labelled to reduce the risk of these being risks of green roofs in relation to fire spread should
incorrectly identified and cross-connected. It is be discussed with building insurers.
good practice for potable and non-potable pipework
to be coloured differently Where recycled water —— Fire safety measures/fire suppression systems: in some
systems are provided, the back-up mains water situations, such as in new domestic premises in
feeds must meet the requirements of BS EN 1717 Wales, regulations may require automatic fire
(BSI, 2000b) to prevent pollution of the potable or suppression systems (typically sprinkler systems)
public mains water supply by backflow. BS 1710 to be installed. Approved Document B1 (NBS,
(BSI, 2014b) and water supply company require 2013f) and equivalents (DFPNI, 2012d; Scottish
ments should be followed. WRAS guidance is Government, 2017; Welsh Government, 2017)
available but is currently under review (WRAS, should be referred to. Where supply pressures and
1999). The impact of accidental cross-connection flows are adequate, sprinkler systems may be
between reclaimed water and potable water supplies connected directly to the mains water supply.
should be reduced by maintaining reclaimed water Where cold water storage is provided, it may be
at lower pressure than the mains water. The use of appropriate to integrate the sprinkler system with
different materials for reclaimed water system cold water storage used for other purposes. Where
pipework can also help to differentiate systems. recycled water systems are provided, their
integration with fire sprinkler systems may provide
—— Segregation of cold and hot water pipes to avoid
cost reductions. Consideration may also be given to
unwanted gains and health and safety risks: this is
using the existing distribution pipework and water
covered in sections 6.2 and 6.3.
supply, particularly in high-rise buildings where
—— Ventilation: Approved Document F in England and firefighting facilities such as dry or wet rising mains
Wales (NBS, 2013c) and equivalents (Scottish are required by regulations. Sprinkler systems
Government, 2017; DFPNI, 2012b) provide should be in accordance with BS 9251 (BSI, 2014c).
guidance on the ventilation of sanitary accommo Guidance is provided in chapter 11 of CIBSE Guide
dation — see also section 6.4 of this TM. CIBSE E (CIBSE, 2018). Specialist input should be sought
Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) provides guidance on the and discussions should be held with the local water
ventilation of foul water drainage systems. supply company.
System design 75
—— Health and safety: key health and safety risks include that are durable and able to withstand loads that
water contamination, creating confined spaces, and will be applied to them; that the building structure
inappropriate positioning of equipment requiring is designed to take their load where they are
access. Water sources should only be used if the installed internally; and that external underground
water quality requirements for the particular use systems are suitable for the conditions they are
will be met; BS 8515+A1 (BSI, 2009/2013) provides installed in and will not undermine the foundations
guideline water quality properties for different of adjacent structures. Service pipes should not
applications. Existing systems may need to be impact detrimentally on structural stability.
upgraded; for example, where internal lead piping Specialist input should be sought.
is present. Section 8.6 of CIBSE Guide A (CIBSE,
—— Ecology and landscape design: surface water drainage
2015a) should be referred to for more detail on
systems can provide wider additional benefits, for
water quality issues, and relevant regulations and
example as habitats. Negative impacts on ecology
standards should be complied with.
should be avoided wherever possible, or otherwise
—— Health and safety for recycled water systems: in the case compensated for. Conversely, where plants have
of water recycling systems, risk assessments are high water demands this can impact significantly
generally needed except for small domestic on irrigation water usage; careful plant selection
rainwater butts or small pumped rainwater systems and landscape design can reduce water demand.
used for irrigation and/or car washing only. Building services engineers should work with
Guidance is provided in chapter 5 of CIBSE Guide ecologists and landscape architects to take these
G (CIBSE, 2014). Whilst rainwater should not issues into account in designs. Figure 33 provides
require treatment before use for most non-potable an example of habitat creation along the water’s
demands, it will require various health and safety edge of a wet swale.
measures. Greywater will require treatment prior to
—— Component protection: systems should be made of
use. For both greywater and rainwater recycling
durable materials and protected from damage,
systems, pipework should be designed to avoid
including from corrosion and the cold. See chapter
water remaining static for long periods, for example
12 of CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) for guidance
by minimising deadlegs, and flushing or
on corrosion protection and NHBC Standards 2017
recirculation to the treatment facility should be
Chapter 8 (NHBC, 2017). Reclaimed water may be
considered for greywater systems if a static period
corrosive (in particular greywater) and this should
of three days is exceeded. Storage tanks must be
be accounted for in materials selection.
protected from ingress of contaminants, dust or
organisms; and cross-contamination of potable
water supply must be avoided, as discussed in
section 6.9.2.2. All outlets supplied with recycled
water should be marked ‘not drinking water’ Figure 33 Habitat creation
and their permitted uses should be stated. Systems through planting along the
periphery of a swale (image ©
should be designed so their safety is not
AECOM)
compromised by power failures. Section 1.5 of
CIBSE Guide G (CIBSE, 2014) provides guidance
on health and safety issues and references to
relevant regulations and standards, and the
Rainwater Harvesting: Design and Installation Guide
(DBSP, 2010) provides information. Pollution
should be prevented or reduced at source where
possible, and otherwise treated and disposed of in
an environmentally safe way.
—— Structural impacts: green/blue roofs and water
storage in particular can have structural impacts.
For example, it is necessary to design storage tanks
Key messages —
Section 6.9: Water and wastewater
• This section should be read alongside section 6.3 on water efficient fittings and appliances, and water recycling. Designs
heating. should also be efficient in terms of other resources, including
energy and materials.
• Water resources should be conserved and protected,
particularly in areas of water shortages such as the south- • A good practice water efficient target for homes is a limit of
east of England. The consequences of poor practice in the 110 litres per person per day.
design, installation, commissioning and operation of water • The feasibility and benefits of water recycling systems should
and wastewater systems can include impacts on health and be assessed, particularly in water-stressed areas.
wasteful use of resources.
• It is important to consider drainage and flood management
• When selecting and designing water systems, building services strategies at an early stage, and to reduce site run-off and
engineers should consider whether occupants or others (e.g. flood risks through implementing sustainable drainage systems
landlords) are likely to be able to use and maintain the system (SuDS).
as required for it to operate effectively and efficiently.
• Engineers must work with the wider design team to avoid the
• It is good practice for engineers to evaluate design strategies potential fabric, services and other integration issues (including
that would help to reduce water demands, such as water health and safety issues) set out in section 6.9.2.
6.10 Controls lighting can be left on; and providing dimming

switches where appropriate. For cooling systems,
Good practice in the design and provision of controls is providing multiple sensors can be useful (for
essential to delivering systems that have a good chance of example, measuring both room temperatures and
being well operated in practice. Often this means providing return air temperatures, or in the case of underfloor
controls that are as simple to use as possible. Occupiers cooling measuring both room temperature and
should be given enough information to allow them to floor temperature or humidification). For rainwater
understand their systems and controls. The controls should harvesting systems, controls should automatically
be as intuitive as possible to allow for occupiers failing to activate and deactivate the pump and provide mains
receive or read the information. water top-up when required.
—— Choosing controls strategies that are well suited to the
Controls should operate to maintain comfortable likely needs of the occupiers: there may be a balance
conditions. For example, space heating and cooling controls between the client/end user’s expectation of control
should maintain internal temperatures required during and the risk of them using controls to operate the
times of occupation, and help to avoid systems operating system incorrectly or inadvertently making changes
when they are not required. Poor controls can lead to which cause the system to fail to deliver. These
occupant discomfort and inefficient operation of the risks will often be higher for systems that are more
system. Control design will depend upon the characteristics complex and/or less common in dwellings. In such
of the other system components. cases additional user education will be required. It
is important consider the potential impacts of the
Good practice in controls might be delivered through misuse of controls and to help occupants to
manual or automatic (including ‘smart’) controls, or a understand the functions of their controls and their
mixture of both. The choice for each specific function may limitations. For example, risks may be higher for
be influenced by complexity of operation and installation, mechanical ventilation systems where occupants
potential risks associated with incorrect operation, client can turn off systems that should run continuously,
and user preferences or characteristics, and cost. or adjust grilles and so unbalance the system.
Therefore continuous ventilation systems should
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, not allow occupants to turn off the fans other than
2013a) and the Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, at the local isolator, and where adjustable grilles are
2011) (and for communal systems, the Non-Domestic provided they should be lockable once they have
Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013d)) set out been commissioned. Similarly, turning off some
minimum recommended control requirements for different heating system components may cause issues (for
systems. Guidance on design of control systems is given in example, turning off hius can cause pumps to
CIBSE Guide H (CIBSE, 2009b), CIBSE KS4: Understanding seize).
controls (CIBSE, 2005b) and in the British Controls Industry
Association’s Controls for End Users —A guide for good design —— Considering the durability of controls and potential
and implementation (BCIA, 2007). The Domestic Heating future integration issues.
Design Guide (DBSP, 2015) provides information for heating
—— Locating controls in positions which aid the efficient and
systems. Manufacturers’ instructions should also be
correct operation and maintenance of the system: for
followed.
example, thermostats should be located out of
direct sunlight and away from other heat sources
Good practice in control design includes:
such as radiators, and in appropriate reference
—— Providing intuitive, clearly marked controls to make rooms that do not have other forms of system
their purpose obvious: it should be clear from control temperature control present. Where moving of
markings what the different settings do, and what controls by occupants could have a negative impact
changes have been made when users operate the on system performance, it may be appropriate to
controls. Explanatory information should be provide fixed controls. Controls should be located
provided, ideally on the control itself but if that is accessibly, particularly where they need to be used
not possible, in separate instructions. regularly for use or maintenance, and generally
should be near to the item being controlled unless
—— Choosing controls that help to improve the efficient there are reasons for not doing this (e.g. the need to
operation of the system: for example, for heating locate room thermostats away from heat emitters).
systems providing multiple space heating zones This includes considering the accessibility of
with independently controlled heating circuits, mechanical controls such as valves. The access
delayed/optimum start controls, weather requirements of Building Regulations Part M for
compensation or modulating or on-demand England and Wales (TSO, 2010) and equivalents for
controls for wet distribution systems. Control Scotland and Northern Ireland (TSO, 2004, 2012)
systems that can connect remotely to mobile devices should be met for the installation of switches,
are becoming more common and can potentially consumer units, sockets and other controls, and the
provide efficiency benefits depending on how they safety requirements of Part K (TSO, 2010) and
are used. Ventilation system controls should be set equivalents (TSO, 2004, 2012) should be met for the
up to provide minimum air change rates, which installation of windows. Guidance on ventilation
occupants can increase when necessary. For control location is given in the Domestic Ventilation
lighting, examples include providing two-way Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011).
switching for staircase lighting at each floor level;
providing automatic sensors where appropriate, —— Zone design: where more than one heating zone is
including for external and communal lighting; provided, careful consideration should be given to
providing enough switches so that only necessary the zoning design. Good zone design will group
Installation, commissioning and handover 77
together rooms that have similar heating —— Using energy metering, monitoring and energy display
requirements, thermal response times and devices to promote energy awareness, including an
occupancy patterns. The Domestic Building Services understanding of the costs and benefits of systems
Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) requires multiple and of when they may not be operating correctly.
heating zones to be provided for dwellings over CIBSE TM39 (CIBSE, 2009c) provides guidance.
150 m2. A good practice approach would be to also
provide multiple heating zones in some smaller
dwellings, for example in split level dwellings.
—— Helping to ensure systems operate safely: for example,
—— Considering integration and potential conflicts with other Approved Document G (NBS, 2016c) (and
systems: for example, where multiple heating sources equivalent requirements (Scottish Government,
are provided controls should help them to be 2017; DFPNI, 2012f), HSE’s Approved Code of
operated as intended (for example prioritising use Practice and guidance L8 (HSE, 2013), CIBSE
of solar thermal over other sources), and heating Guide G (CIBSE, 2014), and the Plumbing
and cooling system controls should be designed to Engineering Services Design Guide (CIPHE, 2002)
avoid conflicts. Controls must be compatible other should be referred to for guidance relating to
system components. controlling hot water safely.
Section 6.10: Control: Key messages
• Good practice in the design and provision of controls is • Poor controls can lead to occupant discomfort and inefficient
essential to delivering systems that have a good chance of operation of the system.
being well operated in practice.
• The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013)
• Controls should be intuitive, clearly marked, and well suited to and Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011)
the likely needs of the occupiers, (and for communal systems, the Non-Domestic Building
Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013)) set out minimum
• They should help to improve the efficient and correct operation recommended control requirements for different systems.
of the system. This includes locating controls appropriately
and considering integration and potential conflicts with other
systems.
7 Installation, 7.1 Installation and commissioning

commissioning and Building services engineers should follow the installation
handover and commissioning requirements in Approved Documents
F and L (NBS, 2013c, 2016a/b) and the Domestic Building
Well performed installation, commissioning and handover Services Compliance Guide (NBS, 2013a) and Domestic
are essential to provide high quality services and to help Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011) (and equivalents).
avoid performance gap issues, customer dissatisfaction and For communal systems, the non-domestic equivalent
post-completion repair costs. Designs should be developed guides may apply. Manufacturer instructions should also be
with ease of installation, commissioning and operation in followed. Section 5.5 includes information specific to the
mind. The installation of services should be carefully retrofit of existing homes, and section 6 includes guidance
planned to coordinate between trades and work should be relevant to the installation of building services.
sequenced to minimise the risk of damage or negative
impacts to fabric and services. Systems should be tested, Installers should be appropriately qualified and experienced
checked and commissioned to operate efficiently and (e.g. for ventilation systems BPEC qualified, and for heating
effectively by competent personnel. Performing the systems Microgeneration Certification Scheme accredited
necessary tasks should not be compromised by time and where relevant (http://www.microgenerationcertification.
commercial pressures. Simple and clear guidance should be org) or, for biomass boilers, installers registered with
provided to occupiers on how to use their systems well. HETAS (HETAS, 2015)). Installations should meet
Guidance should be available in a variety of methods suited relevant standards such as BS 8000-15 (BSI, 1990) and BS
to occupiers, including images and potentially online EN 14336 (BSI, 2004) for water-based heating systems, and
information and videos as well as text. MCS standards (MCS, 2015) (or suitable alternative) for
renewable systems. Testing and commissioning engineers
Lessons learnt from the overall design and delivery process should also be appropriately qualified.
should be recorded and fed back to the design team and
client, and procedures should be put in place so that this Design and specification information should indicate
knowledge is retained and used on subsequent projects. which manufacturer and/or installer is responsible for each
Examples might include design faults, ‘buildability’ issues system and interface, and details of each interface. A
or potential improvements identified during the installation specific person should take responsibility for the quality of
and commissioning process. Procedures should be put in installation and commissioning, and checks should be
place to help ensure that installed services match the design made during the installation process to help ensure good
and that performance gap issues such as product substitution practice. It is considered best practice for system designers
or poor installation and commissioning are avoided. to take a role in being present at the commissioning of the
first dwellings on a site, undertaking spot checks on the —— checking control wiring, software and operation to
commissioning of a sample of completed units, and training enable systems to be commissioned and balanced
a champion in the site staff who can make similar additional correctly, and automatic controls calibrated
checks of the installation and commissioning work (e.g. for
—— checking installed equipment including lighting
ventilation following a simple checklist based on the
and ventilation systems against design drawings
Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011). The
and specifications
benefits of such an approach should be discussed with
clients to overcome potential barriers such as time and cost. —— checking vapour seals at pipework supports
Particular time and care may be needed where systems or
—— testing and adjusting equipment to achieve
products are being used that are relatively unfamiliar to
optimized flow rates, temperatures, balancing etc.
those involved in the installation and commissioning
and performance
process.
—— recording and correcting any defects
Drawing upon content from CIBSE Guide F (CIBSE, —— undertaking and recording system settings and
2012), commissioning actions required include: performance tests and comparing against designs
—— providing as installed system diagrams where
—— air permeability tests for new dwellings, in relevant
compliance with Approved Document L (NBS,
2013a/b) and equivalents (Scottish Government, —— ensuring services operate correctly, safely and
2017; DFPNI, 2012a) efficiently
—— making sure that service components are
—— checking the continuity of insulation and air/ appropriately identified to help ensure safety
vapour barriers, and the building envelope’s overall
integrity —— providing guidance to occupiers, and training for
occupiers and maintenance teams
—— pressure testing ductwork and leak testing —— undertaking any post-completion repairs required
pipework, and cleaning as required promptly.
—— checking ventilation system filters if fans have been Distribution network operator (dno) commissioning
operational during construction, and changing as requirements should additionally be followed for
required distributed electricity generating installations. Poorly
Case study 7: Installation and commissioning: Crest Nicholson’s Quality Manual and Zero Carbon Hub’s Services Guide
Zero Carbon Hub investigated the causes of an energy materials, including a new Quality Manual addressing commonly
performance gap in new homes. Crest Nicholson was closely observed issues on site; training for site managers and other site
involved in the project, helping to coordinate and deliver site visits workers; and a clear and visual commissioning manual for site
to developments being built by a range of housing developers managers to help ensure that heating, hot water and ventilation
across England in 2013/14, covering 21 sites and around 200 plots. systems are set up in an optimal way. For the handover stage, they
The findings of these site visits are presented in detail in Zero developed simple user guidance for ventilation systems, which is
Carbon Hub reports (Zero Carbon Hub, 2014a/b). included in their home user guide and which explains how to use
the systems to deliver comfortable conditions in an efficient way.
Crest Nicholson was supportive of the project as they recognised
the potential impacts of performance issues — including
dissatisfied customers, increased running costs, and build defects Zero Carbon Hub also used the lessons learnt from its performance
with associated costs for rectifying these at a later stage. Its work gap project to develop simple and visual guidance for SMEs and
with the Zero Carbon Hub helped develop Crest’s and the wider others involved in the housing design process. These include a
industry’s understanding of the challenges involved in delivering Builders’ Book (Zero Carbon Hub, 2015a) and Thermal Bridging
high quality building services at the design, procurement, Guide (Zero Carbon Hub, 2016d) focusing on fabric and thermal
installation, commissioning and handover stages. detailing issues; a guide to SAP assessments (Zero Carbon Hub,
2016a) and a good practice Services Guide (Zero Carbon Hub,
As a result, demonstrating good practice in the provision 2016b) providing simple guidance and examples to address major
of training and suitable tools for effective installation and common issues encountered in the delivery of services. Example
commissioning, Crest developed improved training and guidance illustrations from the Services Guide are shown below.
WHAT TO DO? WHAT TO DO?

ACCESS AREA FOR SVP
MAINTENANCE
Install minimum
50 mm rigid insulation
underneath heating
loops
Consider tile or vinyl or

HIU timber instead of carpet HEAT TO FLAT
over UFH
MVHR Use a fully certified
system and pressure
test UFH loops SCREED
Specify and install
proprietary system UFH PIPES
Install pipe spacing

WM UFH around room to avoid MINIMUM
hot spots 50 mm RIGID PU
INSULATION
Use plastic sheet to
180 keep insulation dry
0
m
mm during screeding
m
0
70
Example illustrations from Zero Carbon Hub’s good practice Services Guide (Zero Carbon Hub, 2016b),
covering services cupboard design and underfloor heating design (images courtesy of Pollard Thomas Edwards)
installed and commissioned systems will operate less 7.2 Handover

efficiently, may not deliver design requirements, and will
require additional maintenance. For example, system Users should be informed about how and when to use the
balancing for domestic wet distribution systems is essential. different components of their building services, about
If it is not done properly, the system will operate inefficiently
factors that may influence their systems’ performance, the
and some rooms may not be sufficiently heated. An benefits of their systems and the implications of not using
incorrectly commissioned system cannot be resolved their systems correctly, and about the problems that may
through adjustment of trvs. arise and the action that should be taken. Advice and
information provided should be specific to the particular
The Domestic Building Services Compliance Guide (NBS, system and components installed. Examples of advice
2013a) gives information on checklists that can be used as a include:
record of satisfactory installation and commissioning for —— For heating and cooling systems: informing users that
some systems, including the Benchmark Commissioning adjusting thermostats or opening windows during
Checklist for gas boilers (HHIC, 2014) and the Oil the heating/cooling season can increase energy use
Controlled Document System for oil boilers (NBS, 2013a). and costs.
The Domestic Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011)
provides an inspection checklist and air flow measurement —— For ventilation systems: informing users when
test and commissioning sheet, which should be completed mechanical systems should be run continuously,
by installers and test and commissioning engineers. when functions such as boost settings should be
Records of commissioning should form part of the used, and when filters should be cleaned and
information given to occupiers and should also be provided changed to avoid risks of mould, condensation,
to Building Control. Figure 34 shows an example of air flow poor indoor air quality, increased energy use and
measurement being undertaken. noise.
—— For lighting: informing users to avoid replacing
CIBSE Commissioning Codes provide further information, lights with less efficient types.
including Code A: Air distribution systems (CIBSE, 2006b),
Code B: Boilers (CIBSE, 2002b), Code C: Automatic controls A lack of sufficient maintenance can significantly impair
(CIBSE, 2001), Code L: Lighting (CIBSE, 2003a), Code M: the performance of systems. Users should be informed of
Commissioning management (CIBSE, 2003b), Code R: maintenance requirements, including the recommended
Refrigerating systems (CIBSE, 2002c) and Code W: Water frequency of maintenance activities. It should be made
distribution systems (CIBSE, 2010). BSRIA also produces clear who is responsible for different activities. Building
useful commissioning guidance for various systems and services engineers should work with landlords who have
components, including BG2/2010: Commissioning water responsibility for maintenance of systems, and with
systems (BSRIA, 2010b), BG49/2015: Commissioning air operators of centralised systems to prepare servicing,
systems (BSRIA, 2015), and BG11/2010: Commissioning Job maintenance and replacement plans. For example, for
Book — A framework for managing the commissioning process ventilation systems, maintenance requirements may
(BSRIA, 2010c), which gives general guidance on managing include: watching out for error notices on control panels;
the commissioning process. cleaning and changing filters; cleaning grilles and vents;
avoiding impacting on ventilation provision when making
alterations to homes (such as installing new windows or
For rainwater harvesting systems, the Rainwater Harvesting:
carpets); or undertaking work that might damage
Design and Installation Guide (DBSP, 2010) provides
ventilation ducts.
guidance on good installation practice and typical
commissioning activities, and gives a specimen commission
ing sheet. Manufacturers’ guidance should also be followed. Approved Document L (NBS, 2016a/b) and the Domestic
Suppliers or qualified tradespeople should be used for the Ventilation Compliance Guide (NBS, 2011) (and equivalents)
installation. Users must be advised of maintenance describe the minimum handover information that should
requirements such as regular filter cleaning. be provided. The Domestic Heating Design Guide (DBSP,
2015) provides information for heating systems.
Guidance (e.g. written guidance or recorded demonstrations)

that can be referred to later by current or subsequent
occupiers should be provided. One source of examples of
guidance for residents is e the NHBC’s online Home User
Guides (NHBC, online).
For new homes, training sessions soon after residents have

moved into the home and early in their first heating season
will be helpful. It is ultimately the developer’s or
contractor’s responsibility to ensure that sufficient
information is provided to comply with regulations, though
in practice others including installers and building services
engineers are commonly involved. This provides an
Figure 34 Commissioning of
balanced ventilation system
opportunity for building services engineers to help deliver
including the measurement of good practice in handover. Building services engineers
installed air flow rates (image should work with clients to identify the best media and
courtesy of Pollard Thomas methods for communicating guidance to residents and to
Edwards) identify who is best placed to deliver this guidance.
Case study 8: Home user guidance
Prospect East, in Stratford, London, is the first phase of a larger This case study presents an example of good practice in the design
master plan of circa one thousand homes bordering the Queen and communication of home user guidance.
Elizabeth Olympic Park. The development comprises a dense mix
of 1-, 2- and 3-bed apartments and 4-bed town houses. Developer The development is connected to a local district heating network.
and landlord, East Thames Group, wanted to ensure that residents The home heating system uses heat interface units, pre-payment
understand the systems in their homes, to ensure a smoother hubs for metering and billing, and underfloor heating cast in
handover and minimise costly call-outs — particularly in the first screed, most of which would be unfamiliar to the new residents.
few months of residents moving in. They required concise user- The user guidance explains what these systems are, their purpose
guidance that was engaging and presented in a user-friendly way. and explains what the residents can do to use the systems
efficiently, cost-effectively and in a way that promotes their own
Research suggests that a commonly reported reason for individuals comfort, health and wellbeing.
choosing not to act in sustainable ways within a building is a lack
of procedural knowledge. Often residents do not understand how Clearly marked sections were created for different purposes,
to use a piece of technology efficiently or what course of action is e.g. ‘Ventilation’, ‘Heating and Hot Water’ and ‘Staying Cool in
the most sustainable. However, getting the balance right is crucial. Summer’; colour-coding and summary bullet points were used
Where too much information is provided, individuals may feel for quick-reference; and the language used was chosen to be
overwhelmed, or changing behaviour may appear too onerous. clear and concise. Phrases and words in emboldened type help to
pull-out important points and draw the reader in to learn more.
Working with East Thames, Max Fordham produced a booklet and Illustrations accompany instructions, as well as expected outcomes.
poster that provide guidance and recommendations to promote Smiley faces are used to identify preferred, more environmentally-
energy efficiency, comfort, health and wellbeing. friendly and healthy, practise. Example pages from the booklet are
shown below.
Heating Your new home is wrapped in a thick layer of insulation and so

w ill need very little heating even in w inter. The heat given off by
you, your appliances and the sun should be enough for you to
stay warm and cosy most of the time. The MVHR also helps to
ensure that VERY LITTLE HEAT IS LOST
UNDERFLOOR HEATING
When you need heat to keep you
warm, your home has underfloor
heating which is buried in the floor.
Because of this you may find that your
home takes a little while to heat up.
But please be patient. You might not
HEATING PROGRAMMER
be able to feel the heat on the floor,
This is located in the this is because the floor w ill only be a
service cupboard and bit above the room temperature. Your floor is only slightly warmer than the
allow s you to decide when air. You might not really feel it, but it is
your underfloor heating w orking.
comes on and off.
Orange light = heating ON
WHEN YOU GO AWAY
ROOM THERMOSTATS
In w inter it w ill be best to keep the heating on all You have a thermostat in each room which
the time. This is because the underfloor heating controls the temperature and controls whether
heats up a big bit of concrete in the floor which the underfloor heating is on or off.
takes a long time to heat up and cool down. TURN TO HERE
Leaving it on all the time ensures the home is Try setting the thermostats to the follow ing
always at the temperature you need. But just temperatures, but adjust these to suit your
make sure all the thermostats aren’t up too high. comfort and health requirements. But remember
This w ill be very different to how you used your the low er the temperature the more energy 21°C FOR LIVING
old radiators. (&money) you’ll be saving! ROOMS
For details on how to set up the programmer see 16°C FOR BEDROOMS
the more detailed guidance in your home user
pack.
Case study continues below

Case study 7: Home user guidance — continued
Heating & hot water
Q. Where does the heat come from?
ENERGY CENTRE 1. Your heat is generated at an energy centre (you may have 4. Your bills are then managed by
seen these, they look something like the sketch below)...Heat is a company called Insite Energy
generated in an efficient way that produces very little CO2. The
hot water is then distributed through a netw ork of underground
pipes to you.
GURU PAYMENT HUB
HIU
2. When the hot water gets to you, something called

a ‘Heat interface unit’ (HIU) is used. Think of this as
being similar to gas combination boiler but w ithout the
gas...It provides you w ith instant hot water and
heating. It’s located in the service cupboard next to
3. You then have something called a Guru
Payment Hub. This controls your bills and
your mechanical ventilation system.
allow s you to view how much heat that
you’re using, Use this to keep a track of
your energy use.
More on this later...
In the service cupboard, you’ll see this sw itch.
Ventilation Make sure the MVHR is sw itched ON all year.

This w ill make sure the moist stale air is
removed both in summer and w inter. The fans in
the MVHR are super efficient and the running
Your home is ventilated by a mechanical ventilation w ith heat costs per year are very low (about £30). Only
recovery (MVHR) system. This sounds complicated but its turn it off if you’re on holiday, but do
surprisingly simple and having it means that your home stays remember to turn it back on. Turning the Keep itKeep
on! it on
lovely and fresh, whilst saving you money on your heating bills. MVHR off w ill increase your heating bills unless
This is because the fresh air which comes in is given the heat the heating is turned off.
from the stale air that goes out. The MVHR is needed
because very little air enters your home through gaps in the
building. This is because its been built to very high standards. These are air grilles, which are
mounted in the ceiling of your living
room and bedrooms. They supply
fresh air
The air grilles mounted in the ceiling

of your kitchen and bathrooms
extract stale, moist air
You might have noticed this box in

your service cupboard? This is your
The fresh and stale air are MVHR system
brought in and out through grilles
on the outside of your home
In your old home you probably opened w indow s

to let in fresh air or had small vents above
your w indow s. Having the MVHR means that in
OX95
w inter when you have the heating on, there’s
MRXB no need to open the w indow s.
Case study sources: East Thames Group, Max Fordham Engineers

Booklet extracts courtesy of Max Fordham
Case study 9: Post-occupancy evaluation (POE) and commissioning
A post-occupancy evaluation (POE) assessment was undertaken at An example of good practice ductwork design and installation
a housing development in London. It identified that the original observed in the study is shown in the image below. Rigid ductwork
commissioning of the ventilation system (an MEV system) was is used, with straight duct runs using proprietary bends where
poor. This led to increased energy consumption and issues with required. Intake/exhaust ductwork is pre-insulated (grey ducting),
the ventilation provision. Because POE was undertaken, the and ducting is mechanically connected and fastened throughout.
client was able to rectify the problems and as a result introduced
stronger commissioning procedures and post occupancy review
requirements across all their developments.
The findings of this project coincide with similar observations in

other post occupancy assessments, and the issues observed are
not limited to MEV systems alone. The Zero Carbon Hub undertook
site visits to 33 dwellings across 6 sites in 2015 to specifically
investigate the design, installation, commissioning and handover
of mechanical ventilation systems (Zero Carbon Hub 2016e). They
undertook visual inspections of the ventilation systems, looked
at drawings and commissioning and test sheets, and interviewed
those involved in the delivery process, as well as testing supply/
extract air flow rates in normal and boost mode, and whole house
air exchange rates. The study found that often commissioning
had not been properly undertaken, with a lack of reliable/any air
flow rate measurements in several cases and with site teams being
unaware of commissioning requirements in some cases. The tests
undertaken showed that fans were underperforming significantly
The study demonstrated the value of simple checks being made

throughout and after the delivery process.
Case study sources: Pollard Thomas Edwards/Zero Carbon Hub
Image source: Zero Carbon Hub, Ventilation in New Homes:
A Report of Site Visit Findings (Zero Carbon Hub, 2016e)
Sufficient time and resources should be allowed to identify Extended handover and aftercare processes at RIBA stage 7
and train staff to support residents in the operation and can help to address performance gap issues for new or
maintenance of their homes, or the benefits of the building retrofitted buildings. The soft landings framework is an
services installed may not be fully realised and performance example of one approach that can be taken to provide
issues may occur. Additional time and resource is likely to additional value (BSRIA, 2014a). It involves actions
be needed where products or systems are used which are throughout the design process to manage and monitor
likely to be relatively unfamiliar to occupants — even if progress against performance expectations and improve
products or systems are now commonly used in new homes, delivery including through greater involvement of
occupants may be moving from existing homes and not be designers, builders and specialists at the installation and
familiar with them. commissioning stages, support during the settling-in
period and aftercare for a prolonged time after handover
along with monitoring and reviewing building performance.
The evaluation of operational performance after handover It is best practice to use soft landings on large scale and/or
should be considered to help identify and address issues complicated residential projects, where significant
that may not be evident at an earlier stage. Examples of handover and monitoring may be required in the first year
good practice in post-occupancy evaluations would include of use.
questionnaires, interviews and site visits. In addition, best
practice in post occupancy evaluation would be expected to
include testing and measurement. Such monitoring has
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(Newcastle upon Tyne: NBS) (available at https://www.planningportal.
co.uk/info/200135/approved_documents/80/part_m_-_access_to_and_ SLL (2015) Daylighting — a guide for designers SLL Lighting Guide 10
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Thompson M, Cooper I and Gething B (2015) The business case for
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Innovate UK/Technology Strategy Board) (available at https://www.gov.
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on roofs of residential buildings NHBC NF30 (Milton Keynes: NHBC Report_BusinessCaseForAdaptingBuildingstoClimateChange_webfinal.
Foundation (NHBC, 2016) (available at https://www.nhbcfoundation.org/ pdf) (accessed October 2017)
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TIMSA (2008) TIMSA guidance for achieving compliance with Part L of the
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Suppliers Association) (available at http://www.timsa.org.uk/
for house builders and designers NHBC NF37 (Milton Keynes: NHBC
TIMSAHVACGuidance.pdf) (accessed October 2017)
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part-f-2010-an-introduction-for-house-builders-and-designers) (accessed
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1989 No. 635 (London: The Stationery Office) (available at http://www.
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/1989/635) (accessed October 2017)
NHBC Foundation (2012) Understanding overheating — where to start: an
introduction for house builders and designers NHBC NF44 (Milton Keynes:
NHBC Foundation) (available at https://www.nhbcfoundation.org/ TSO (1998) Gas Safety (Installation and Use) Regulations 1998 Statutory
publication/understanding-overheating-where-to-start) (accessed Instrument 1998 No. 2451 (London: The Stationery Office) (available at
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(accessed October 2017) Government)(available at http://gov.wales/topics/planning/buildingregs/
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WRAS (online (b)) WRAS Products and Materials Directory [website]

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(Crumlin, Gwent: Water Regulations Advisory Scheme) (https://www.
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wras.co.uk/approvals/products_and_materials_directory) (accessed
(London: TSO) (available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2012/192)
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Zero Carbon Hub (2014a) Closing the Gap Between Design and As-Built
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Performance: End of Term Report (London: Zero Carbon Hub) (available at
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http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/resources/reports/closing-gap-between-
(available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2012/3118) (accessed
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October 2017)
2017)
TSO (2014) The Public Water Supplies (Scotland) Regulations 2014 Zero Carbon Hub (2014b) Closing the Gap Between Design and As-Built
Scottish Statutory Instruments 2014 No. 364 (as amended) (London: Performance: Evidence Review Report (London: Zero Carbon Hub)
TSO) (available at https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2014/364) (accessed (available at http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/resources/reports/appendices-
November 2017) closing-gap-between-design-and-built-performance-evidence-review-
report) (accessed October 2017)
TSO (2015) The Construction (Design and Management) Regulations
2015 Statutory Instrument 2015 No. 51 (London: TSO) (available at Zero Carbon Hub (2015) Builders’ Book (London: Zero Carbon Hub)
http://www.legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2015/51) (accessed October 2017) (available at http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/resources/reports/builders-
book) (accessed October 2017)
TSO (2016) Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations 2016 Statutory
Instruments 2016 No. 614 (London: TSO) (available at http://www. Zero Carbon Hub (2016a) Solutions to Overheating in Homes: Evidence
legislation.gov.uk/uksi/2016/614) (accessed October 2017) Review (London: Zero Carbon Hub) (available at http://www.
zerocarbonhub.org/resources/reports/solutions-overheating-homes-
TSO (2017) The Public Water Supply (Scotland) Amendment evidence-review) (accessed October 2017)
Regulations 2017 Scottish Statutory Instruments 2017 No. 281(London:
TSO) (available at https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ssi/2017/281/pdfs/ Zero Carbon Hub (2016b) Services Guide (London: Zero Carbon Hub)
ssi_20170281_en.pdf) (accessed November 2017) (available at http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/resources/reports/services-
guide) (accessed October 2017)
TSO (2017) Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations (Northern
Ireland) 2017 Statutory Rules of Northern Ireland 2017 No. 212 Zero Carbon Hub (2016c) Ventilation in New Homes (London: Zero
(London: TSO) (available at http://www.legislation.gov.uk/nisr/2017/212) Carbon Hub) (available at http://www.zerocarbonhub.org/sites/default/
(accessed November 2017) files/resources/reports/ZCH_Ventilation.pdf) (accessed October 2017)
Index 89
Index daylight factor 60, 61 flues 28, 33, 34, 35

daylighting 16, 58, 59–60, 61, 63 fluorescent lamps 58
design and build (d&b) 8 foul water disposal 71–72
Note: page numbers in italics refer to design considerations 14–20 see also greywater recycling
figures; page numbers in bold refer to design development 9–10, 10–11 fuel safety 34–35
tables.
design quality 10–11 fuel source 28
access controls 57 design strategies 14 fuel storage 28, 35
acoustic considerations direct expansion valve (dx) systems 51
cooling systems 52, 53 district heating 25, 44, 48, 62 gas meters 35
space heating systems 35 domestic hot water 28, 29, 34, 36–40, 81 gas pipework 33, 35
ventilation systems 42, 46, 48, 49 doors 47 gas safety 34–35
water and wastewater systems 74 drainage see foul water disposal; surface water glazing 16, 20–21
wind turbines 69 drainage government policies 2
air conditioning units 50–51 draught avoidance 46, 52 greywater recycling 71, 75
air inlets and outlets 46, 49, 52–53 ductwork grid connection 66, 68
air pollution control 35 cooling systems 52, 53 ground source heat pumps 23
air quality 28, 35 insulation 46, 52
see also external pollutants ventilation systems 45–46, 48 habitat creation 75
air source heat pumps 23, 28 dynamic simulation modelling (dsm) 13 halogen lamps 58
air supply rates 41, 43, 47 dynamic thermal modelling 29 handover 79, 82
airtightness 16, 43, 44 health and safety
appointments 8 ecological considerations 75 cooling systems 53
electric cables 35, 55, 56 electrical services 54, 55
batteries with solar electric 66 electric heating appliances 24, 26 hot water systems 39
biomass boilers 24, 35, 77 electric immersion heating 38 lighting systems 59
boilers 23, 24, 27, 79 electric instantaneous water heating 38 renewable energy systems 69
BREEAM 4 electric storage heaters 24 space heating systems 34–35
building fabric integration electrical isolation 55 water and wastewater systems 75
cooling systems 53 electrical safety 54, 55, 63, 69 heat distribution systems 25–26
electrical services 55–56 electrical services 54–57 commissioning 79
heating systems 32–33 electrical wiring 54–55, 63 communal 30, 32
lighting systems 63 see also electric cables fabric design issues 32–33
renewable energy 68 electromagnetic compatibility 56 see also warm air heating; wet (hydronic)
ventilation systems 46–48 EnergieSprong 4 heating systems
water systems 73–74 energy consumption heat emitters 26–27, 31, 33
building location 15, 20 breakdown of household usage 36 heat pumps 23, 50
building orientation 16, 20–21, 66–67 factors influencing 15 heat recovery
Building Regulations 2, 3 by sector 2 mechanical ventilation with heat recovery
building services engineers 7–8, 8 energy metering 77 (mvhr) 33, 34
building services integration energy performance from waste water 39
cooling systems 53 assessment 12 heat storage 27
electrical services 56–57 cooling systems 51 see also hot water storage
heating systems 34 design considerations 30 heating demand estimation 29, 42
lighting systems 63 electricity usage 54 heating systems see domestic hot water; space
renewable energy systems 68 hot water systems 39 heating
ventilation systems 48 lighting systems 59, 61 heating zones 76–77
water and wastewater systems 74 modelling 12–13 high-rise buildings
performance gap 4–5 gas supply 28, 34
carbon emissions 1, 27–28 space heating 27–28, 30 space heating 28
centralised heating systems see communal ventilation systems 44 sprinkler systems 74
heating systems; district heating water supply and disposal 70 ventilation systems 43
certification 32, 64 Energy Performance Certificates 2, 12 water supply 71
climate change adaptation 5–7 Energy Performance of Buildings Directive Home Quality Mark (BRE) 4
climate projections 6 (EPBD) 2, 12 home user guidance 79–80
cold water supply and systems 71 EnerPHit standard 4, 13 hot water safety 39, 77
combination boilers 27, 38 environmental assessment methodologies 4 hot water storage 36, 37, 38
combined heat and power (chp) 25, 34 EU Regulations 2 insulation 40
commissioning 77–78 external lighting 58 safety considerations 39
communal cooling systems 51 external pollutants 42, 49 space requirements 40
communal corridors 21, 29, 48 extract fans 41, 41, 48 system sizing 38
communal heating systems 25, 28, 29–30 hot water systems see domestic hot water
distribution systems 30, 32 fabric design see building fabric integration hot water temperature 39
hot water provision 37, 38 fan coil units 27, 52 hydronic heating systems see wet (hydronic)
space provision 28, 33 fans 32 heating systems
see also district heating fire detection and alarm systems 57
communal ventilation systems 43, 44 fire risks indoor air quality 43, 49
compact fluorescent lamps (cfls) 58 cooling systems 53 Innovate UK 5, 17
computational fluid dynamics (cfd) 13 electrical systems 56 installation 77–78
condensation control 45, 46, 47, 52 heating systems 34 instantaneous domestic hot water 27, 29, 36,
condensing boilers 31, 34 lighting systems 63 38
consumer units 55, 56 ventilation systems 48–49 insulation
contracts 8 see also service openings ductwork 46, 52
controls 34, 76–77 fitness for purpose 14 electric cables in 35
cooker hoods extracts 46 flood protection 72, 73–74 hot water storage 40
cooling systems 50–53, 76 flooding risks 55, 72 pipework 31–32, 39–40, 52
integrated design 14–15, 16 thermal storage 27

internal heat gains 21 radiators 26 see also hot water storage
internal layout 16 rainwater harvesting 72–73, 75, 76, 79
Reduced Data SAP (RdSAP) 12 UK policy and regulations 2–3
kitchen appliances 55 refrigerants 52, 53 underfloor cooling 52
refurbishment 4, 8 underfloor heating 26, 32, 32–33
landscape design 75 see also upgrades unregulated energy use 4
life cycle performance and costs 16–17 regulated energy use 4 upgrades 17–18
light emitting diodes (leds) 58 regulations 2–3 building fabric 33–34, 47
light pollution 63 renewable energy 64–69 heating systems 29, 32, 33–34
lighting 16, 58–63 urban heat island 20
retrofit 17–18, 29, 33–34
controls 76 user advice and information 79, 82
RIBA Plan of Work 2013 10–11, 14–15
integrated design 62–63 utility meters 35
sufficiency and quality 60, 62
safety considerations see health and safety
system types 58, 58 value engineering 10
see also daylighting sanitary fittings and appliances 71 variable refrigerant flow (vrf) systems 50
luminaires 58, 61 security considerations ventilation rates 41, 43, 47
fuel storage and meter locations 35 ventilation systems 16, 41–49
maintenance requirements 79 ventilation systems 49 commissioning 79
cooling systems 52 security lighting 58 controls 76
lighting systems 59 security systems 57 energy performance 44
ventilation systems 42–43, 44, 79 SEDBUK 31 foul water drainage systems 74
manufacturers’ data 12 service openings 74 for fuel-burning appliances 34
mechanical extract ventilation (mev) 42, 43 electrical services 56 home user guidance 81
mechanical ventilation with heat recovery heat distribution systems 35 integrated design 46–49, 53
(mvhr) 33, 34, 42, 43 lighting 63 maintenance requirements 42–43, 44, 79
location of terminals, intakes and extract renewable energy systems 68 post-occupancy evaluation (poe) 82
louvres 46, 49 water and wastewater systems 74 sanitary accommodation 74
summer bypass 34, 48, 53 shading devices 19 system optimisation 43–46
Microgeneration Certification Scheme site planning 15, 65, 67 system selection 41–43
(MCS) 3 socket outlets 55, 56 system types 41–42
modelling tools 12–13 solar electric 64, 64–69 visual impacts
multiple heat generators 34 solar gain 19, 60 lighting systems 59, 63
solar shading 7, 19, 67 renewable energy systems 69
natural light see daylighting
solar thermal 37, 40
noise see acoustic considerations warm air heating 26
space heating 22–35
waste water heat recovery 39
controls 76
occupancy densities 20–21 wastewater re-use 71–72, 75
design optimisation 30–32
occupant advice and information 79, 82 wastewater systems 69–75
occupant behaviour 76 energy performance 27–28, 30
water consumption 71
odour avoidance 74 heat distribution systems 25–26 efficiency of fittings 39
operational issues 21 heat emitters 26–27 minimum standards 70
overheating risk 12–13, 16, 18–20 heat generation systems 23–25 water efficiency 39, 70, 71
causes and mitigation measures 20–21 home user guidance 80 water efficient fittings 39
electrical cables 56 integrated design 32–35 water heating see domestic hot water
lighting systems impact 59 system selection criteria 27–28 water meters 71
pipework insulation 30 system sizing 27, 29–30 water quality 75
ventilation 44, 47 system types 23–27 water re-use 71–72
thermal storage 27 water storage
passive design 15 space requirements for rainwater harvesting 73
Passive House Planning Package (PHPP) 13 communal heating systems 28, 33 structural considerations 75
passive stack ventilation (psv) 41 cooling systems 52, 53 see also hot water storage
Passivhaus 4, 13, 43, 44 hot water systems 40 water supply 69–71
performance gap 4–5 renewable energy systems 65, 68 alternatives to mains supplies 71
performance specification 8 space heating systems 28, 32 cold water systems 71
photovoltaics (pv) see solar electric ventilation systems 46–47 sprinkler systems 74
pipework water and wastewater systems 74 water treatment 39, 71
cooling systems 52, 53 split (cooling) systems 50 wet (hydronic) heating systems 25
corrosion prevention 35 design temperatures 30–31
sprinkler systems 74
heating systems 33 hydraulically balancing 32
Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) 12
insulation 31–32, 39–40, 52 pipework insulation 31–32
standards 3–4
segregation 32 pipework segregation 32
structural considerations
water and wastewater systems 70, 74 whole life cycle considerations 16–17
renewable energy systems 68–69
plant rooms 28 wind turbines 64, 66, 67, 69
pollutant control 35 space heating systems 35 windows
post-occupancy evaluation (poe) 82 water and wastewater systems 75 opening 41, 44, 47, 49
procurement routes 8 surface water drainage 72–73 replacement 47
project briefs 8–9 sustainable drainage systems (suds) 72 security considerations 49
project types 7–8 shading devices 19
pumps 32, 70 telecommunications services 56 sizing 60
purge ventilation 41, 47 terms of appointment 8 wireless communication systems 56
thermal comfort see overheating risk
quasi-steady state models 12 thermal mass 15, 16 Zero Carbon Hub 5, 18
Good practice in the
design of homes
TM60: 2018
Good practice in the design of homes TM60
ISBN 978-1-912034-27-7

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Good practice in the

Good practice in the design of homes TM60

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

The Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or

Registered charity number 278104

ISBN 978-1-912034-27-7 (book)

Editing, layout and typesetting by CIBSE Publications

Printed in England by Page Bros. (Norwich) Ltd., Norfolk, NR6 6SA

Cover illustration: Schematic cross section of residential apartments with passive

Note from the publisher

Ashley Bateson, Chair, CIBSE Homes for the Future Group

AECOM Project Team

AECOM Content Contributors

Case Study Contributors

TM60 Steering Committee

CIBSE Project Manager

CIBSE Head of Knowledge

3 Appointment, project briefs and design development 7

4 Design and compliance tools 12

5 Key design considerations 14

7 Installation, commissioning and handover 77

Good practice in the design of homes

Non-residential efficiency, access, electrical and combustion systems,

Table 1 Summary of Building Regulations topics

Building Regulations and Standards reference Topic

England and Wales* Northern Ireland Scotland

Principal UK environmental assessment methodologies for homes

Avoiding the performance gap

To help avoid a performance gap, building services engineers

(i.e. reducing or preventing emissions of greenhouse gases)

Examples of climate projections

11 °C Very unlikely to be more than

8 °C 33% to 67% probability level)

Time period and emissions scenario

ProClips Example 1 Summer mean daily maximum temperature (London)

Very unlikely to be more than

2.6 33% to 67% probability level)

Base 2020s 2050s 2080s

Time period and emissions scenario

ProClips Example 2 Winter mean daily precipitation (Manchester)

change on the homes they are designing and should include

Figure 3 Modelling the local cooling benefit of street trees in urban

Key messages — Section 2: Context

3.1.1 Project type

—— Design checks should be made throughout the

Table 2 below provides an overview of the stages of design

Table 2 Stages of design development

• Business case • Strategic advice including on • Legislative and planning

• Strategic brief proposed strategic goals requirements

• Other core project requirements • Clients’ functional requirements

Review objectives and strategy, check proposals against design parameters

• Outline proposals • Analysis of broad environmental • Site constraints

• Final project brief

Table 2 Stages of design development — continued

• Business case • Strategic advice including on • Legislative and planning

• Other core project requirements • Clients’ functional requirements

• Outline proposals • Analysis of broad environmental • Site constraints

• Prepare coordinated working

The impact of temperature stratification and direct